Encyclopaedia Britannica [2, 13 ed.]

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THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA THIRTEENTH EDITION 1926

VOLUME II FABRE - OYAMA

THE

ENCYCLOPADIA

BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE & GENERAL INFORMATION The Three New Supplementary Volumes constitutin g with the Veolum es of the

Latest Standard Edition

THE THIRTEENTH EDITION. VOLUME FABRE

II

to OYAMA

LONDON,

THE

ENCYCLOPÆDIA

BRITANNICA

COMPANY,

NEW YORK THE

ENCYCLOPÆDIA

BRITANNICA,

INC.

LTD.

INITIALS

A. A.

A. A. St.

USED IN THIS VOLUME TO IDENTIFY CONTRIBUTORS, THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES TO WHICH THESE INITIALS ARE SIGNED

THE Ricut Hon. Viscount Astor (WALDORF ASTOR). M.P. for Plymouth 1910-8 and for the Sutton Division of Plymouth ror8-9. Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Food 1918-9 and to the Ministry of Health 1919-21. Ricur Hon. Seyyrp Amir Att, C.I.E., M.A. Formerly Chief Presidency Magistrate of Calcutta and later Judge of the Bengal Iligh Court. The first Indian to be sworn of the Privy Council and to serve on its Judicial Committee. Author of A Critical Examination of the Life and Teachings of Mohammed. AMOS ALONZO STAGG. Professor and Director of Physical Culture and Athletics, University of Chicago.

Liquor Control: Great Britain.

Mahommedanism.

Football: American.

Author of Treatise on Football (in part).

A. B.

A. B.C.

A. B. Da.

ALFRED

BIHLMANS.

Latvian historian and publicist. Author of La Letlonie d’aujourd hui. ALBERT Batrpo Cummins, LL.D. senator of the United States for Iowa and member of the Committee on the Judiciary. Formerly Governor of Iowa, and successor to Calvin Coolidge as President of the Senate.

A. D.*

Latvia: History. kA© 4

ARTHUR B. DARLING. Assistant Professor of Ilistory, Yale University. ALBERT CALMES. Professor at the University of Luxembourg. Member of the League of Nations Commission of Inquiry into Albanian Affairs. ALFRED C. DEWAR, R.N. (RET.), B.LITT. Gold Medallist, Royal United Service Institution. tion, Naval Staf, Admiralty, London.

A. Ch.*

WITH

Ku Klux Klan, Luxembourg.

Falkland Islands, Battle of €;; “Goeben” and “Breslau ”; Heligoland Bight, Battle of the. France, Anatole;

Late of the Historical Sec-

ANDRE CHAUMEIX.

Director of La Revue de Paris. Formerly Editor of Le Journal des Debats (Paris). COMMANDANT J. E. A. DOUMENC. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Director of the French Army Mechanical Transport Service during the World War. Author of Les transports automobiles sur le front français. '

French Literature.

Motor Transport, Military.

ARTHUR DENBY ALLEN, O.B.E. Organiser of the National Milk Publicity Council. Formerly Deputy Director of Milk Supplies at the Ministry of Food, London. ARUNDELL DEL RE, O.B.E., M.A. Taylorian Lecturer in Italian, University of Oxford. Lecturer in Italian, King’s College, University of London. Editor of The Oxford Magazine. Private Secretary to the Italian Military Attaché, London, 1916-8.

sir A. DANIEL HALL, K.C.B., F.R.S. à Chief Scientific Adviser and Director General of the Intelligence Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, London. Author of The Soil; Fertilisers and Afanures; A Pilgrimage of British Farming; Agriculture after the War; etc. A. D. Nock. Lecturer in Classics and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge.

Milk (in part).

Italian Literature.

Farmers’ Organisations (in part).

Greek Religion. emm

INITIALS AND A. E. A.

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

ALGERNON EDWARD ASPINALL, C.M.G., C.B.E. | Secretary to the West India Committee and to the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture.

Author of Tke British West Indies; The West Indies and Guiana;

etc.

ÀA. E. S.*

A. E.T.

A. F. Pr.

A.G. D.

l f | l l

Jamaica.

ADDISON ERWIN SHELDON, A.M., PH.D. Superintendent and Secretary of the Nebraska State Historical Society. Author of History and Stories of Nebraska; Poems and Sketches of Nebraska; Nebraska Constitutional Conventions. Editor of The Nebraska Blue Book. ALONZO ENGLEBERT TAYLOR, M.D., LL.D. Director of the Food Research Institute, Stanford University, California. D merly Professor of Pathology and of Physiological Chemistry, University o California. Author of Digestion and Metabolism, etc. ABRAHAM FLEXNER, A.M. Secretary of the General Education Board, New York. Author of Education in the United States and Canada. ANNA FOEHRINGER. Senior Physicist of the Central Geophysical Observatory, Leningrad. Formerly Lecturer in physics at the University of Leningrad, and Professor of the history of physics. ALFRED FRANCIS PRIBRAM, PH.D. Professor of Modern History in the University of Vienna. ARTHUR G. Doucuty, Keeper of Public Joint Librarian of of Canada, 1909.

Nebraska.

Food Supply.

“

Medical Education

(in part).

f

Golitzin, B. B.; Lebedev, Petr N.

i

Francis Joseph I.

|x

C.M.G., Litt.D. (Laval), F.R.Uisr.S., F.R.S.C. Records and Director of War Trophies, Canada. Formerly Legislature, Province of Quebec. Member Geographic Board Attached to Staff of Prince of Wales as historian of Canadian

King, W. L. Mackenzie; Meighen, Arthur.

Tour, rg19. Author of Quebec under Two Flags; The Cradle of New France; The Acadian Exiles; etc.

A. G. G.*

A. Gn.

A. H. Gi.

ALFRED G. GARDINER.

Formerly Editor of The Daily News, London. Kings; The Life of Sir William Harcourt; Lhe Benn and the Progressive Movement; and works the Plough.” AUGUSTE GAUVAIN. Member of the Institute of France. Foreign Author of L'Europe avant la guerre; Les origines au zour le jour.

Author of Prophets, Priests and Life of George Cadbury; Sir John under the pen name of $ Alpha of

| | |

editor of Le Journal des Débats. de la guerre européenne; L'Europe

France: History.

ARNOLD Hartiey Gipson, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mecu.E.

Professor of Engineering, University of Manchester; late Professor of Engineering, St. Andrew’s University, Scotland. Member Board of Trade Water Power Committee; Member of the Air Ministry Engine Research Committee.

A. Hi.

A. Hu.*

A. J.M.

A. J.T.

À. K.

|

Master of Downing Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge University, College, Southampton, 1912-9. Author of

AUSTIN HARRISON. Author of Life of Frederic Harrison.

Medical Education (7 part).

Harrison, Frederic.

Late editor of The English Review.

|

~|

ARCHIBALD Hurp. Member of the editorial staff of The Daily Telegraph, London. Author of Naval Efficiency; The British Fleet in the Great War; The Command of the Sea; The Merchant Navy; etc. Rt. Rev. ARTHUR JOHN Mac ean, D.D. Bishop of Moray, Ross and Caithness. Formerly Principal of the Scottish Episcopal Theological College, Edinburgh, and Pantonian Professor and Canon of Edinburgh Cathedral. Author of Dictionary of Vernacular Syriac; The Ancient Church Orders; etc. Joint author of The Catholicos of the East and Hiis People. ARNOLD JOSEPH TOYNBEE. Professor of International History, University of London. Member of Middle Eastern Section, British Delegation to the Peace Conference at Paris. Koraes Professor of Byzantine and Modern Greek Language, Literature and History at the University of London, rorg-24. Author of Nationality and the War; A Survey of International A fairs, 1920-24; etc.

Sik ARTHUR Krita, M.D., F.R.C.S., LL.D., F.R.S. Hunterian Professor and Conservator of the Museum, Royal College of Surgeons of England. Secretary and late Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution of Great Britain. President of the Royal Anthropological Institute, London, 1912-4. Author of Introduction to Study of Anthropoid Apes, Human Embryology and Morphology; Antiquity of Man; Religion of a Darwinist, etc.

A. L.*

Hydroelectric Engineering.

ALEXANDER Hitt, M.D., F.R.CS. Secretary of the Universities Bureau of the British Empire. College, Cambridge, 1888-1907. 1897-9. Principal of University The Body at Work, etc.

A. Hn.*

Oxford and Asquith. Earl of.

ARNOLD LUNN.

Author of The Englishman in the Alps; Cross Country Ski-ing; Alpine Ské-ing; etc.

Navy.

Orthodox Eastern Churches.

Genoa, Conference of;

Lausanne, Conference of; London, Conference of; Memel; Mustafa Kemal.

| | | |

Man, Evolution of.

Mountaineering.

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

vi

ARTHUR Lyon Bow ey, Sc.D., F.B.A. í Professor of Statistics at the London School of Economics. Formerly Professor of Mathematics and Economics, University College, Reading. Author of; Index Numbers. Elements of Statistics, Am Llementary Manual of Statistics; Measurement of | Social Phenomena; etc.

A. L. J. S.

ARTHUR L. J. SMITH. ( President and chief proprietor of The Spectator and of The Spectator Company, | New York and Chicago. Director, Dime Savings Bank of Brooklyn. Director, { Insurance (U7.S.1.). Manhattan Bridge Three Cent Line. Member of the Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York.

A. LoveDay.

{ Lithuania: Economic and

Member of the Economic and Financial Section, League of Nations, Geneva. A. Mav.

|

A. MAvROGORDATO.

Financial History.

f

Fellow in Industrial Hygiene, South African Institute for Medical Research, ; Miners’ Phthisis. Johannesburg. l A. MENDELSSOIN-BARTHOLDY. Professor of International Law in the University of Hamburg. Editor of Europaische Gesprache. Author of Irland: Ein Beispiel der Macht politik; part author of Die Grosse Politik der Europaischen Kabinette 1871-1914, ete.

A. M. C.-S.

ALEXANDER Morris CARR-SAUNDERS, M.A.

CIMAD Ye

Author;

ADOLF MEYER, M.D.

Great Britain: Population.

|

Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director of Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore. Formerly Di-) rector of Pathological Institute, New York State Hospitals.

A.N.J.W.

Ti ) CISION) (in par

í

Charles Booth Professor of Social Science in the University of Liverpool. of The Population Problem; etc. A. Mey.

G

I it “™S@™Y:

GusTaF ARTHUR MONTGOMERY. Professor of Economics and Finance at the Abo Akademi (Swedish University), Finland.

Fi a d: Fi i andl ae, inancial an Economic History.

A. NEVILLE J. WHyMant, Pu.D., Litr.D. Professor of Chinese and Oriental Philosophy in Hosei University, Tokyo. Member of Council of the Asiatic Society of Japan. Sometime Davis Chinese Scholar, University of Oxford. Author of The Oceanic Theory of the Origin of the Japanese Language and People; etc.

Ishii, Viscount; Japanese Literature.

ALEXANDER PAUL.

f

Journalist and author.

'

Leverhulme, Viscount.

—

COLONEL ARCHIBALD PERCIVAL WAVELL, C.M.G., M.C.

/ Lemberg, Battles of;

Late The Black Watch. General Staff Officer, War Office, London. British | Lodz-Cracow, Battles of; Military Attaché on the Caucasus Front, Nov. 1016- June 1917. General Staff{ Luck, Battles of; Officer with Egyptian Expeditionary Force, July 19017-March ror8. Brigadier | Narew, Battles of the; General, General Staff, with Egyptian Expeditionary Force, April 1918-20. Narocz, Battle of Lake.

A. R.*

A. Soe.

ATHELSTAN Rinpcway, LL.B.

í Fiji Islands;

Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Deputy Director of Information, War Ollice and(| Malay States, Federated; Colonial Office, London. |Malay States, Unfederated. f A. SAFRASTIAN. Formerly British vice-consul at Bitlis, Kurdistan. Kurdistan.

ALBERT SYDNEY GALTREY. “Hotspur” of The Daily Telegraph, London. Formerly Staff Captain to the Director of Remounts at the War Office. Author of The Horse and the War.

Horse-Racing (in part).

ALBERT SOERGEL, PH.D. Director of the Book-Lovers Dichtung der Zeit.

German Literature.

Association,

Chemnitz,

Germany.

Author

of :

Str James ARTHUR SALTER, K.C.B. Director of the Economic and Finance section of the League of Nations. General Secretary to the Reparation Commission, 1920-2. Secretary of the British Department of the Supreme Economic Council, to1g. Secretary of the Allied Maritime Transport Council and Chairman of the Allied Maritime Transport Executive, 1918. Author of Allied Shipping Control, an Experiment in International Administration. ANNA STANCIOFF.

Widow of late Dimitri Stancioff, formerly Bulgarian Minister in London.

A. Th.*

A. V. W.-H.

ALBERT THOMAS. Director of the International Labour Office, Geneva. Minister of Munitions in French Government, 1or6. Assistant Editor of L'Humanité, 1904. Author of Le Syndicalisme allemand Histoire, anecdotique du Travail. Major A. V. WHEELER-HOLOHAN. King’s Messenger. Formerly Sub-Editor of Debrett’s Peerage. Author of Divisional and Other Signs and publications on Medals, Decorations and Heraldry.

League of Nations (in part).

Ferdinand, King of Bulgaria. International Labour Offce.

Knighthood; Medals and Decorations. ON NTT ees’ eee een E

INITIALS AND

VIll A. W. F.K.

A. Wo.

OF ARTICLES

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR ALFRED WILLIAM FoRrTESCUE KNox, K.C.B., C.M.G. M.P. for the Wycombe Division of Buckinghamshire. Chief of British Military Mission to Siberia, r918-20. Formerly Military Attaché, British Embassy at

Petrograd.

A. W.K.

HEADINGS

Nicholas, Grand Duke.

Author of Wath the Russian Army, 1914-17.

ARTHUR WILLIAM KIDDY. City Editor of The Morning Post and of The Spectator, London. Financial Cor- | Money Markets. respondent in London of 7 he New York Evening Post. Editor of The Bankers’ Magazine, London. ABRAHAM Wotr, M.A., D.LItT. Professor of Logic ‘and Scientific Method in the University of London. Head of the Department of the History and Method of Science at University College, London, and of the Department of Logic and Philosophy at the London School of Economics, London University. Late Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

Logic.

Author of Studies in Logic; Exercises in Logic and Scientific Method; Essentials

of Scientific Method; etc. A. Wr.

Str ALMROTH Epwarp Wricit, K.B.E., M.D., F.R.S.

B. A. W.R.

Hon. BERTRAND ARTHUR WILLIAM RessELL, M.A., F.R.S. Late Lecturer and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Philosophical Essays; Mysticism and Logic; Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, The Analysis of Mind; etc.

Principal of the Institute of Pathology and Research, and Professor of Experimental Pathology, St. Mary’s Hospital, London. Originator of the system of Anti-Typhoid Inoculation, the system of Therapeutic Inoculation for Bacterial | Immunity. Infections (V accinotherapy), and of methods for measuring the protective substances in human blood. Author of System of Anti-Typhotd Inoculation; Principles of Microscopy; Studies in Immunisation; etc.

|| ( |i || |

B. B.

Bruce

B. C. S.

BERNARD CHRISTIAN STEINER, M.A., Pu.D., Lirtr.D. Librarian, Enoch Pratt Free Library, Baltimore: Dean and Professor of Law, Baltimore Law School, 1900-4. Author of Education in Maryland; Tinstilutions

BAIRNSFATIIER.

Author and Journalist.

Author of Fragments jrom France; The Better Ole; ctc.

and Civil Government of Maryland, etc.

BERNARD DARWIN. Golf Correspondent of The Times, London, and Country Life. Played golf for England v. Scotland and for Great Britain ». America. Author of Golf Courses of Great Britain; Golf, some Hints and Suggestions; Tce Shots and Others, etc. COUNT STEPHEN DE BETALEN, LL.D.

Prime Minister of Hungary since 1921.

B. H. L. H.

B. M. B.

Economic

Adviser to the American

Peace

Commission.

Author of The Making of Economic and Reparation Sections of Peace Treaty.

B. Z. C. A. Br.

BERNARD SERRICNY. General of Division of the French Army, Secretary of the Committee of National Defence, Paris. Formerly Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the French Army. Author of Reflexions sur Pari de la guerre, etc. BELA Zonal, Pu.D. Lecturer in Contemporary Literature, University of Budapest. CHARLES ALBERT BRowNE, Pu.D. Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Chemist in charge of the New York Sugar ‘Trade Laboratory, 1907-23. book of Sugar Analysis; Sugar Tables for Laboratory Use; etc.

C. A. M.

CARLILE AYLMER MACARTNEY, . H.B.M. Passport Control officer for Austria 1922-5.

Lieut.-Cot. Ceci, Brncuam Levitra, C.B.E., M.V.O., D.T.., J.P. Member of the Committee.

London

County

Council,

Maryland.

Gol

and

Chairman

of its Housing

HE:

Frontiers, Battles of the (in part).

7

|| | | |

srt

War Control of (in

part).

France: Defence.

Hungarian Literature.

7 "|

Author of Hand-

Author of The Soctal

Revolution in Austria.

C. B. L.

Iilustration (in part).

Hungary origa

BARTHELÉMY EDMOND PALAT. Formerly General of Brigade in the French Army. Commanded a Division r915-6. Author of La Grande Guerre sur le Front Occide ntal; Les Batailles d'Arras ct de Champagne; and, under the pseudonym “ Pierre Lebautcourt,” of Lu Défense Nationale, 1570-1. CAPTAIN RB. H. Lipper Hart, F.R.HIsT-.S. Military Correspondent of The Daily Telegraph (London). Inventor of the Battle Drill and various tactical methods adopted by the British Army. Joint Author of the official manual, Jnfantry Training, and editor of Small Arms Tr D Author of Science ef Infantr y Tactics (transl. for Bulgarian Army, 1925); Paris, oy the Future of War; ete. BERNHARD MaANNES Barucn, LL.D. Formerly member of the Supreme Economic Council and Chairman of its Raw Materials Division.

Knowledge, Theory of.

Food, Pure.

Galicia, East; Germany (in part); Habsburg; Kun, Bela (in part).

Housing: Great Britain.

INITIALS AND C. Bre.

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

CLOUDESLEY BRERETON, M.A., D.-Ès-L. Divisional Inspector (Modern Languages) to the London County Council. Corresponding Member of the National Educational Association (America). Author of he

C. C. B.

C. Ch. C. Ch.*

C. D. Wi.

C. E. C. C. E. Ch.

C. E. D. C. E. K. M.

C. F. CI.

C. F.G. M.

Orgauisaiton

Education; etc. CLARENCE CHARLES BURLINGAME,

of Modern

Language

M.D.

CECIL CHISHOLM. of Business Publications

Ltd.; Editorial Director of The Advertiser's

Weekly; Editor of Sysient. Author of Marketing and Merchandising. LIrEuT.-Cor. C. D. CROZIER, R.A. (RET.). Director of Inspection of High Explosives, Ministry of Munitions, 1915-9. CURTIS DWIGHT WILBUR, LL.D. Secretary of the United States Navy Department. Formerly Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of California. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR CHARLES EDWARD CALLWELL, K.C.B. Director of Military Operations at the War Office, London, 1914-6. Author of Smal Wars; The Dardanelles; ete. CHARLES EDWARD CHAPMAN, A.M., PH.D. Associate Professor of History, University of California. Author of Tke Founding of Spanish California; A Californian in South America; A History of Spain; Catalogue of Materials in the Archivo General de Indias for the History of the

Pacific Coast and the American Southwest; A History of California; History of ihe Cuban Republic. Cuartes Epwarp Dupuis, M.I.C.E., M.A. Formerly Adviser to the Egyptian Ministry of Public Works. CHARLES EDWARD KENNETH Mers, D.Sc. Director of the Research Laboratory, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, New York. Author of Photography of Colored Objects; The Atlas of Absorption Spectra; The Fundamentals of Photography; etc. COLONEL SIR CHARLES FREDERICK CLosr, K.B.E., C.M.G., F.R.S. Vice-President of the Royal Geographical Society, London. General Secretary of the International Geographical Union. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, r9t1—22. Author of Text Book of Topographical Surveying. Ricut Hon. CHARLES FREDERICK GURNEY MASTERMAN. Under-Secretary of State, Home Department, 1t909-12. Financial Secretary to Treasury 1912-4. Chancellor, Duchy of Lancaster, 1914-5. Sometime Literary Editor of The Daily News, London: and contributor to The Nation, The Evening Standard and other periodicals. Author of The New Liberalism; How England

Cc. G.* C. Ha.

C. H. B. C. H. Bu.

C. H. M.

C. J. M.*

Foreign Languages (in part).

Teaching; Studies in Foreign

Executive officer, Joint Administrative Board, Columbia University, Presbyterian Hospital, New York. Director of the medical and surgical section, military affairs dept., ror8; Directer of hospital administration; Director of the medical and surgical department of the American Red Cross in France, 1918-9. CHARLES CHREE, Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Formerly Assistant Director of the Meteorological Office and Superintendent of the Observatory at Kew, London. Chairman

C. D.C.

1X

is Governed; England after War; etc. CHARLES GIDE. Professor at the College of France. Editor of La Revue d Economie Politique. Author of Political Economy; etc. C. HAMBRO. Chairman of the Norwegian Committee on Foreign Relations, Oslo. Formerly editor of Morgenbladet. C. H. BEST. Attached to National Medical Research Institute, London. CHARLES H. BURKE. Second South Dakota District Commissioner of Indian Affairs.

Hospitals (in part); Medical Service, Naval part).

Magnetism, Terrestrial. Instalment Selling (in part). Q = © 5 D Caom a

Navy Department (U.S.A.). Mesopotamia, Operations in.

5z

Motion Pictures: Technology.

p

P

Liberal Party.

France: Economic and Indus-

trial History.

Norway: Political History. —

5 mn g E p

Formerly Member of Congress. Crcin HENry Descu, D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Metallurgy, University of Sheffield, England. Formerly Professor of Metallurgy, Roval Technical College, Glasgow. Author of JAfetallography,; Intermetallic Compounds; etc. CHARLES HUBBARD Jupp, PH.D., LL.D. Director of the School of Education, and Chairman of the Department of

Indians, North American.

Psychology, University of Chicago. Author of Psychology, General Litroduction; Psychology of High School Subjects; etc. Editor of The Supplementary School Journal; The School Rez yew; etc. CLIFFORD HpRSCHEr MOORE, PLD., Lart.D. Professor of Latin at Harvard University. Author of Religious Thought of the Greeks; Pagan Ideas of Immortality; etc. CHARLES JAMES Martin, C.M.G., D.Sc., E.R.S. Director, Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, London. Professor of Experimental Pathology, University of London. Late Consulting Pathologist,

Industrial Education.

Australian Infantry Force.

(2

Metallography.

Harvard University.

Filter-Passing Microbes.

7, ne oy nn 8 Men

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

X C. K. E.

CHARLES KEYSER EDMUNDS, PH.D.

:

Provost, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Christian College.

Formerly President of Canton

Hwang-ho.

C. La.

Litut.-Con. CLayTON LANE, M.D. Indian Medical Service (retired).

C.L. R.

CAPTAIN C. Lesrock REID.

C. Ma.

CUTHBERT MAUGHAN. Insurance and Shipping Editor, The Times, London. Contributor on Finance, OO NN Shipping and Insurance to The Annual Register, etc. Representative of Ad- Insurance (in part). miralty Section of the British Ministry of Information in North America, 1018. CHARLES MICHAEL Jacoss, A.B., D.D. Lutherans. Professor of Church History and Director of the Graduate School, Lutheran Theological Seminary, Philadelphia. Editor of Linther’s Correspondence. CIIARLES Mostyn Lioyp, M.A. Great Britain: Local GovernBarrister-at-Law. Lecturer and Head of the Department of Social Science and Administration in the London School of Economics, University of London. ment. Assistant Editor of The New Statesman. CHARLES Max Pace, D.S.O., F.R.C.S.

Hookworm.

Fox-Hunting.

=—

C. M. P.*

Hunterian

C. My. C. of C.

Professor, Royal College of Surgeons, England.

Senior Surgeon to

out-patients, St. Thomas’ Hospital, London. Author of The Treatment of Fractures in General Practice; etc. CHRISTOPHER MORLEY. Formerly editor of The New York Evening Post. Author of The Haunted Book: Shop; Chimney Smoke; Inward Ho; Thunder on the Left; etc. Ricut Hon. Viscount Ceci, or CHELWooD, K.C. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1915-8. and Assistant Secretary of State, 1918-9. Minister of Blockade, 1916-8. Lord Privy Seal, 1923-4. Representative of Great Britain on the League of Nations Commission at the Peace Conference, roro. Representative of South Africa at the Assembly of the League of Nations at Geneva, 1920;

Fractures

: Henry, O.

League of Nations (in part).

Vice-Chairman of the League of Nations Union.

C: 0. L:

C. O. LEE.

C.O.R.

C. O. REED.

C. P. C. C. Sey.

C. Si.

Honorary Secretary of the English Lacrosse Union.

i

Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Ohio State University. C. P. CURRAN, M.A. Irish Correspondent of The Nation and The Athenacum 1916-21; of The Nation and Athenacum, 1921-3. CHARLES Srymowr, M.A., Pu.D., Lirtr.D. Sterling Professor of History in Yale University. Technica! Delegate at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. Author of The Diplomatic Background of the Wear; Woodrow Welson and the World Wur; ete. CHARLES SINGER, D.M., D.Litt., F.R.C.P. Lecturer in the History of Medicine, University College, University of London. Author of Creek Biology and Greek Medicine; History of the Discovery of the

Lacrosse.

7

erences:

Irish Literature, English. Harding, W. G.; House, Edward M.;

Lodge, H. C. Medicine, Pre-Scientific.

Circulation of the Blood; etc. CHARLES STEWART ORWIN. Fellow of Balliol College and Director of the Institute for Research in Agricultural Economics, Oxford University. Agricultural Assessor on the Agricultural Tribunal of Investigation, 1922-4. Editor of The Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, London. Author of Farm Accounts; ete. CHARLES E. SPEARMAN, Pu.D., F.R.S. Grote Professor of Mind and Logic, University College, University of London. Author of An Economic Theory of Spatial Perception, Principles of Cognition; etc. CHARLES B. L. Tennyson, C.M.G. Deputy Director of the Federation of British Industries. Formerly Legal Adviser to the Colonial Office, London.

D. A. MacG.

D. Ca.

D.C. J.

Farm Organisation.

Intelligence, Human. Great Britain: Production and Industry; Communications.

C. T. ATKINSON, M.A. Loos, Battle of; Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Formerly of the Historical Section, CommitNeuve Chapelle, Battle of. tee of Imperial Defence. CLAUDE W. GUILLEBAUD. Industry, War Control of Lecturer in Economics at the University of Cambridge; formerly Fellow of St. (in part). John’s College, Cambridge. Served in the Supreme Economic Council in Paris, IQIQ-20. D. A. MacGinpon, Pu.D. Professor of Political Economy at the University of Alberta, Canada. Author of Manitoba; Northwest Territory. Railway Rates and the Canadian Railway Commission. DoNALD CARSWILL, M.A. Naturalisation (in part). Barrister-at-law of the Middle Temple, London. D. CARADOG JONES. Illegitimacy. Senior Lecturer in Social Statistics, University of Liverpool. Ne pct ee, pe tr Ta a EaTI Nn a

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

D. G. H.

f DonaLp Francis Tovey, Mus. Doc. | Music. ‘Reid Professor of Music, Edinburgh University. | Davıp GeorGE HocarTta, C.M.G., D.Lirr., F.B.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. President of the Royal Geographical ce, T. E. Society, London, 1925. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Author of 7 el Lawren

D. Hy.

Dovcras Hype, LL.D., D.Lrrr.

D. F.T.

Ancient East; al rabia: The Wandering Scholar; etc.

D. McC.

D. W.*

E. A.*

p

Professor of Modern Irish Language and Literature, University College, Dublin. | Trish Language; Irish Literature, Gane Founder of the Gaelic League and President thereof, 1893-1915. President of the | Irish Texts Society. Author of .1 Lite rary History of Ireland; The Love Songs of Connacht; The Religious Songs of Connacht; etc. CoLONEL Davin LyeLL, C.M.G., D.S.O., M.InsT.C.E. Director of Pauling & Co. Ltd., London. Chief Railway Construction Engineer ; Light Railways, Military. to the British Army in France during the World War. J Leather (in part). D. McCanpiisy, M.Sc. Professor of Leather Industries in the University of Leeds. \ Dros WILLIAMS. {Marines (U’.S.A.). Brigadier General, United States Marine Corps. CAPTAIN EDWARD ALTHAM, C.B., R.N. (RET.). Jellicoe, Earl; Editor of The Journal of the United Service Institution, London. Commanded Jutland, Battle of. H.M.S. “General Crawford” in operations at Zeebrugge and Ostend, April 1918. EDWARD ALGERNON BAUGHAN. Musical Comedy. Dramatic and Film Critic of The Daily News, London, and The Sunday Chronicle. Formerly editor of The Musical Standard. Author of Music and Musicians.

Ordnance (in part).

E. A. W.

CAPTAIN E. A. Woops, R.A.

E. Be.

EDUARD BENEŠ [ Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Czechoslovak Republic. Prime Minister of | Czechoslovakia, 1921-2. Professor of Sociology at the University of Prague, ; Little Entente. 1922. Author of Political Partisanship; Problems of New Europe and the Foreign Policy of Czechoslovakia; Difficulties of Democracy; etc. EARLE BERNARD PHELPS. Milk (71 part). Professor in the C ollege of Physicians and Surgeons, New York City. Formerly Professor of Chemistry in the Hygienic Laboratories, U.S. Public Health Service. EMILE CAMMAERTS. Professor of French Literature at Queen’s College, London. Author of Belgian Mercier, Cardinal. Poems; New Belgian Poems; The Treasure House of Belgium; Belgium (The Story of the Nations); etc. ERNEST CHARLES Snow, M.A., D.Sc.

E. B. Ph. E. Ca.*

E. C. Sn.

E. E. F. D’A.

E. E. MacM. E. Ev.

E. Fo.

E. F.S.

E. G.S.

E. J. B.

Manager, United Tanners’ Federation, London.

Author of Leather in “The;

Leather (in part).

Resources of the Empire” series. | ELMER D. GRAPER, Pu.D. Instructor in Government, Columbia University, New York. Author of -{mer-{ New York State. ican Police Administration. EDOUARD HERRIOT. Prime Minister of the French Republic, 1924 and 1926. Senator 1912-9. Min- | ister of Public Works, 1916-7. Formerly Professor of Rhetoric in the Lycée at Jaurés, Jean. Lyons. Author of Madame Recamier et ses amis; etc. EpmMuND Epwarp FourniER D’ALBE, D.Sc. Inventor of the Optophone. Vice-President of the Radio Association. Iormerly | Optophone. . Lecturer in Physics in the Punjab University. Author of The Electron Theory; Two New Worlds; Contemporary Chemisiry; ete. Emity FE. MACMANUS. Í Nursing: Science and Matron of the Royal Infirmary, Bristol. \ Technique. EDWIN EVANS. | Formerly musical critic of The Pall M all Gazette, London. Author of Tchaikovsky; < Orchestration. The Margin of Music; etc. i EVELYN Fox. ` Mental Deficiency. Hon. Secretary, Central Association for Mental Welfare, London. \ LIEUT.-COL. EDWARD

FAIRBROTHER

STRANGE, C.B.E.

Late Keeper of Woodwork, Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Author ¢of|Handicrafts, Artistic Alphabets, A Handbook of Lettering; Japanese Illustration; Phe Colour Prints of (in part). Japan; Flowers and Plants for Designers and Schools; etc. Ernest GRAHAM LittLe, M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. M.P. for the University of London. Physician in charge of the Skin DepartLondon, University of. ment of St. Mary’s Hospital; University of London Lecturer on Dermatology, St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School. EmMA GURNEY SALTER. f1 Morocco (ii part). Formerly of the Geographical section of the Naval Intelligence Department. EpwIN JcLrus BARTLETT, A.M., M.D., D.Sc. New Hampshire. Emeritus Professor of Chemistry, Dartmouth C ollege, Hanover, New A shire, U.S.A.

XI

xil E. J. B.*

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

ELBERT JAY Benton, Pu.D. Professor of History in Western Reserve University, Cleveland, U.S.A. Author of The Wabash Trade Route; Inicrnational Law and Diplomacy of the SpanishAmerican War, Joint author of Intr eductory .lmerican History; History of the Uniled States.

E. J. C.

Lieut.-Cor. E. J. Cummins, D.S.O., R.A. Instructor at the Artillery College, Woolwich.

E. J. Di.

EMILE Joseru DILLON. Foreign Correspondent of The Daily a ph (London). Author of Russian Characteristics; Maxim Gorky; From the Triple to the Quadruple Alliance; The Eclipse of Russia; ete.

E. L. B.*

Epcar Leicir Coizis, M.D., M.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. Talbot Professor of Preventive Medicine, Welsh National School of Medicine, Cardiff. Late Director of Health, Ministry of Munitions. H.M. Medical Inspector of Factories, 1008-17. EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE, A.M., PH.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Professor of Psychology, Teachers’ College, Columbia University, New York. Author of Educational Psychology; Mental and Social Measurements; Animal Intelligence; The Original Nature of Man, etc.

E. M.*

ELIE Moroy.

E. Mi.

EMILE MIREAUX. Director of the Society for Economic Studies and Information, Paris. Associate Professor at the University of Paris. Author of La France etles huit heures; Les nouvelles formules d'organisation economique, etc.

E. Ra.

E. R. B.*

E. Ru.

Isvolsky, A. P.

Legal Education (in part).

Industrial Welfare.

Hospitals (in part).

SIR EDWARD MORTIMER MOUNTAIN, BART. Managing Director of the Eagle,Star and British Dominions Insurance Company, London. EDWIN OAKES JORDAN, B.S., Pa.D. Professor of Bacteriology and Chairman of the Department of Hygiene and Bacteriology, University of Chicago. Joint editor of Te Journal of Infectious

E. R.

Ohio.

Ordnance, Military.

EDWARD LESLIE BurcGin, LL.D. Principal and Director of L egal Studies to the Law Society, London. Member of the General Council of the League of Nations Union. Author of Administration of Foreign Estates.

Diseases.

| | | || || | ” | | | | || | | | |

Author of General Bacteriology, Food Potsoning; etc.

France: Finance.

Fire Prevention (in part).

Food Poisoning.

Cotonert E. REQUIN. | Marne, Second Battle of the. Military Representative of France on the League of Nations. ELEANOR RATHBONE, M.A., J.P. Member of the Liverpool City Council. President, National Union of Societies Family Allowances. for Equal Citizenship. Author of Ve Disinher ited Ffamily; A Plea fer Family Endowment. Epwarp Ricuarps Bortron, F.I.C., F.C.S. Vice-President of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. Margarine (in part); President of the Society of Public Analysts. Managing Director, Technical Oils and Fats (iz pari). Research Works, Ltd., and Director of Loders and Nucoline, Ltd. Author of Oils, Fats, Waxes and Resins (with R. G. Pelly). Emory RIcwarD JouNsoN, M.L., Pu.D., Sc.D. , Professor of Transportation and Commerce, and Dean of the Wharton School Interstate Commerce. of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Principles of Railroad Transportation: Principles of Ocean Transportation; etc. Str Ernest Rutiererorp, O.M., D.Sc., F.R.S. Cavendish Professor of IE xperimental Physics and Director of the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University. Professor of Natural Philosophy, Roy:a] Matter. Institution, London. Nobel lrizeman for Chemistry, too8. President of ms British Association, 1923. Author of Radioactivity; Radtoactive Transformations Radioactive Substances and Their Radiations; ete.

ELIZABETH SANDERSON HALDANE, C.H., LL.D., J.P. Vice-chairman, Territorial Nursing Service. ‘Deputy President of the Perthshire Branch, British Red Cross Society. Author of The British Nurse in Peace and War; The Life ef Descurtes; etc.

Nursing (in part).

EDWARD STUART RcssELL, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Director of Fishery Investigations, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, ( Intelligence, Animal. London. Author of Form and Function: The Study of“Living Things. : r TUTHILL, M.A., Fo) > EDWARD Pr.D. Professor of History, University of Kentucky.

Í Kentucky. Author of Government of Kentucky. \

Sir Eustace Henry WILLIAM TeNNysoN-D'Evyncourt, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.I.C.E. Managing Director, Armstrong Whitworth and Co., Ltd. Director of Naval, Construction at the Admiralty, r912~-24.

Monitor.

INITIALS

AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

xiii

EVELYN UNDERHILL (MRS. STUART MOORE). Upton Lecturer on Religion, Manchester New College, Oxford, 1921-2. Hon. | Fellow of King’s College for Women, University of London. Author of Af ysti- ( Mysticism. cism, a Study in the Nature and Development of Mans Spiritual Consciousness; Practical Mysticism; The Essentials of Mysticisnz; etc.

F. A. CI.

FREDERICK ALBERT CLEVELAND, Pu.B., Pu.D., LL.D. Formerly Professor of United States Citizenship, Maxwell Foundation, Boston University. Author of Organised Democracy; First Lessons in Finance; etc.

Massachusetts.

F. B. M.

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERICK BARTON MAURICE, K.C.M.G., Director of Military Operations, Imperial General Staff, 1915-8. Author of 7 he Russo-Turkish War, 1877-8: Forty Days in 1914; The Last Four Months; etc. Contributor to Tke Cambridge Modern History.

Haig, Earl.

F. Bo.

F. D. L.

FERRUCCIO BONAVIA.

Governor-General

E. E. W.*

F. Fi.

F. Fo.

F.G. C. F. G. K.* F. G. Ke.

of Nigeria,

F. H. C.

1914-9.

Governor

of Hong

Author of The Buildings of the British Museum.

Editor of The American Machinist, New York. FRANKLIN Henry Hooper.

Formerly Assistant Editor

FRANK Hrywoop Hopper, Pu.M. Professor of American History in the University of Kansas.

F. J. D.

Mandates.

1907-12.

FREDERICK GEORGE YOUNG. Dean of the School of Sociology and Professor of Sociology in the University of Oregon. Editor of the Quarterly Journal of the Oregon Historical Society. Author of Financial History of Oregon. FrED H. COLVIN. American Editor of The Encyclopedia Britannica. of The Century Dictionary,

F. H. W.

Kong,

Author of Our East African Empire; The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa; etc. Frontiers, Battles of the (in LIEUT.-CoL. FREDERICK Ernest Watton, C.M.G. part); Formerly Secretary, Historical Section, Committee of Imperial Defence, London. German Offensive (in part); Editor of The Fighting Forces. Author of The Marne Campaign; The Decisive Marne, First Battle of the. Battles of Modern Times; etc. FRANZ FISCHER. Director of Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Coal Research, Mulheim-on-the-Ruhr. ee esi A De *A Professor at the Technical High School, Berlin. Member of the Reich Coal . Fuel Problems. Council. Author of The Conversion of Coal into Oils. FERDINAND Focn, O.M., G.C.B. Marshal of France and British Field-Marshal. Commander-in-Chief of the Morale in War. Allied Armies in France, 1918. Member of the Académie Frangatse and of the Académie des Sciences. Author of Les Principles de la Guerre. FREDERICK GARDNER COTTRELL, PH.D. | Director of the Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, U.S. Department of Fume Precipitation. Agriculture. Inventor of the Fume Precipitation Process. Rt. Hon. FREDERICK GEORGE KRELLAWAY. Marconi, Guglielmo. Managing Director, Marconi’s Wireless Telegraph Co., Ltd., and the Marconi International Marine Communication Co., London. Postmaster-General 1921-2. SIR FREDERICK GrorcE KeNyoNn, G.B.E., K.C.B., D.LITT. Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum. President of the Biblion graphical Society, London, 1924. Honorary Fellow of Magdalen College and of New College, Oxford.

F.G. Y.

O arm = ©

Assistant musical critic of The Daily Telegraph, London. Rr. Hon. Str FREDERICK Joun Drartry Lucarp, G.C.M.G., C.B., D.S.0O. British Member of Permanent Mandates Commission, League of Nations.

Author of Civil

Government of Kansas; Outlines of American History; etc. FRANKLIN HARCOURT WENTWORTH. Editor of the quarterly magazine of the American Fire Protection Association. Author of Factories and Their Fire Prevention; etc. ENGINEER-CaPTAIN F. J. DROVER, R.N. Author

of Marine

Engineering Practice, Coal

and

Oil Fired

Boilers; Marine

Engineering Repairs; ctc.

z9 gG 3® PE

ee ees eee OO eC ae eee ee eee ee y

Machine Tools. Liberty Loans.

Kansas.

Fire Prevention (in part). Flettner Rudder; Marine Engineering.

F. J. Se.

F. J. SELLICKS. Football Correspondent to Tke Ilustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, London. Joint Editor of The Blue Magazine, London.

Football, Rugby.

F. Kle.

Fritz

Luther, Hans.

F. L. L. F. P. R.

Kirin, Pu.D.

Member of the staff of the Denische Allgemeine Zeitung. Lapy Lucarp, D.B.E. (FLORA Suaw). | Formerly Head of the Colonial Department of The Times, London. A Tropical Dependency; etc. FRANK PLUMPTON RAMSEY. Fellow and Lecturer, King’s College, Cambridge.

Author of

Nigeria. Mathematics: eS i een ee ees ee ee a O a aa aa aa

Logic.

X1V

F. R. C.

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

FRANK RICHARDSON Cana, F.R.G:S. |Gambia; Kenya; Editorial staff of Te Times (London). Author of South Africa from the Great |)Liberia; Madagascar; Trek to the Union; etc. Member of the editorial staff of the Encyclopædia Bri- Mozambique; fannica, 11th edition. | Natal; Nyasaland. FRANCIS WILLIAM ASTON, Sc.D., F.R.S. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; Nobel Prizeman for Chemistry. Author Isotopes. of Isotopes.

|

F. W. A. F. W. Th.

G.

Ab.

G. A. Bu.

G. Ar.

FREDERICK WILLIAM THOMAS, M.A. Librarian to the India Ofiice, London. Lecturer in Comparative Philology and Reader in Tibetan, University College, University of London. Late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Hon. Secretary of Royal Asiatic Society and Director, 1921-2. Formerly Editor of Epigraphia India. GRACE ABBOTT, M.A. Chief of the Children’s Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor. Author of The Immigrant and the Community. GEORGE ARTHUR BuRLS, M.IxsTt.C.E. Author and joint author with Sir Dugald Clerk, of works on internal combustion engines.

SIR GEORGE COMPTON ARCHIBALD ARTIIUR, BART. Formerly Private Secretary to Earl Kitchener. Kitchener of Khartoum.

Founder and Superintendent, under the U.S. Government, of Lafayette National Park, Maine. Author of U.S. Government bulletins on the national parks.

GERTRUDE MARGARET LOWTHIAN BELL, C.B.E. Late Oriental Secretary to the British High Commissioner of ‘Iraq.

G. C. D.

| |

Maternity and Infant Welfare Ga ban): Internal Combustion Engine.

Author of The Life of Lords

Grorce Bucxnam Dorr, M.A

G. Bo.

Indian Literature.

Review of the Civil Administration of Mesopotamia. GEORGE BONCESCU. Rumanian correspondent of The Times (London). G. C. Drxon. Literary Editor, Tke Daily Mail (London). Author of From

Author of

Kitchener, Earl.

|National

|

Parks

and

Game

Preserves.

‘Iraq: Political History.

Ferdinand, Kingof Rumania.

Melbourne to!

Hughes, W. Morris.

Moscow.

Grey of Fallodon, Viscount; Henderson, A.; Lansdowne, Marquess of; Law, A. Bonar; Long, Viscount; Lyttelton, Alfred; McKenna, Reginald; Milner, Viscount, etc.

GEORGE EARLE Buckie, M.A., LL.D. Editor of The Times (London) 1884-1912. Formerly Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Author of Life of Disraeli (vol. II., IV., V. and VI).

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR GEORGE GREY AsTON, K.C.B. i Lecturer on Miltary History, University College, University of London. Formeriy Professor of Fortification at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Author of Sea, Land and Air Strategy; Memories of a Marine; etc.

G.G. A. M.

| |

Great Britain: Defence.

GEORGE GILBERT AIME Murray, D.Lirrt., LL.D., F.B.A. Regius Professor of Greek, Oxford University. President of the League of Nations Union. Author of History of Ancient Greek Literature; Rise of the |Greek Literature: Ancient. Greek Epic; Euripides and his Age; etc.

G. Gl.

GEORGE GLASGOW. Author and Publicist.

G. H. Ga.

GEORGE HENRY GATER, C.M.G., D.S.O. Education Oficer, London County Council. Lancashire County Council.

Author of The Aftnoans; Ronald Burrows: a Memoir; etc. !Masaryk, T. G.

Formerly Director of Bducation,d Industrial Schools.

Goprrey Harotp Harpy, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

|

Savilian Professor of Geometry, Oxford University; Fellow of New College, Oxford. President of the Mathematical Association, London, and Hon. Secretary, the Mathematical Society. Author of A Course of Pure Mathematics; etc.

G. L. B.

Guy LESLIE BucCKERIDGE, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. Surgeon Commander in the R.N.

G. M. G.-H.

GEOFFREY MALCOLM GATHORNE-HARDY, M.C. Barrister-at-Law. Hon. Secretary, British Institute of International Affairs.

G. O’B.

GEoRGE O’BRIEN. Author of Economic History in the 17th Century; Economic History a Ireland

G. R.*

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL GuIpDO ROMANELLI. Commandant of the Artillery Headquarters at Messina. Formerly Chief of the Italian Military Mission to Hungary for the Armistice. Commendatore of the Crown of Italy.

Mathematics

(in part).

f Medical Service, Naval (in

l J \

part). Faeroe Islands. Irish State: History. Financtal aid’ Free Economie

(1800-47); etc.

Kun, Bela (in part).

INITIALS AND G. S.*

GEORGE

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

SAMPSON, M.A.

Inspector of Schools, London County Council. Member of the Departmental Committee on English Studies. Author of English for the English. Editor of Nineteenth Century Essays; Cambridge Readings in Literature; The Cambridge Book of Verse and Prose; etc.

G. Se.

G. SI.

G. St.

G. St.*

GILBERT SELDES. Author of The Seven Lively Arts. GILBERT SLATER, M.A., D.Sc. Formerly Professor of Indian Economics in the University of Madras, and Publicity Officer for Madras, 1921-2. Author of The Davidian Element in I ndian Culture. GUSTAV STRESEMANN. Minister for Foreign Affairs, Germany. Formerly Chancellor of the Reich. Signed the Pact of Locarno on behalf of Germany, December 1925. Author of Macht und Freiheit, etc.

Kipling, Rudyard.

Motion Pictures: Art.

India (in part).

Locarno, Pact of.

SIR GERALD STRICKLAND, G.C.M.G., LL.B. M.P. for the Lancaster Division. Member of the Malta Legislative Assembly. Owner and Director of Progress Printing Co., and The Times of Malta. Gover-< nor of Western Australia 1909-13, and of New South Wales 1914-7. Author of Correspondence and Remarks on the Constitution of Malta, etc.

G. W. K.*

XV

GEORGE WASHINGTON

Malta.

Kircuwey, LL.D.

Head of the Department

of Criminology, New York School of Social Work.

Formerly Warden of Sing Sing Prison.

Author of Readings in the Law of Real

Habitual

alee

Offend

PAGES;

Property, etc.

G. W. T.B.

G. W. T. BRUINS.

H. A. G.*

Memorandum prepared for the International Financial Conference at Brussels, 1920. HAROLD ATHELING Grimsyaw, M.Sc. (Econ.).

Professor of Economics at the Rotterdam School of Commerce.

Author of the | Netherlands:

Lecturer in Public Administration at the London School of Economics, London

University.

H. B.* H. B. Br.

H. B. C. P.

H. Bi.* H. B. M. H. Br.*

H. Bra.

H. Ch. H. C. P.*

Member of the International Labour Section of the League of

Nations. Str HERBERT ATKINSON BARKER. Specialist in manipulative surgery.

Financial

Economic History.

and

Hours of Labour.

Manipulative Surgery.

HENRY BRITTEN BRACKENBURY, M.R.C.S.,L.R.C.P. Member of the Council of the British "Medical Association.

Chairman

of the

Insurance Acts Committee, London. HucH B. C. POLLARD.

Insect Bites and Stings; Insurance, Social (in part).

Í Microscopy. Late Editor of Discovery, London. Author of A History of Firearms, etc. Galliéni, General; Henri Bipov. Member of the staff of Le Journal des Débats (Paris). Chevalier of the Legion of Joffre, Marshal; Honour. Lanrezac, General. H. B. MEEK. Professor in charge of Hotel Courses at the New York State College of Home Economics, Cornell University. HENRI BRENIER. Director-General of the Chamber of Commerce, Marseilles. General Secretary to the National Colonial Exhibition at Marseilles, 1922, and to the Colonial Organisation Congress, 1922. HERBERT BRANDE. Advertising Manager, New York. Formerly editorial writer on The Chicago Tribune.

Food Service.

Indo China, French; Morocco (in part). Instalment Selling (in part).

HARRISON CLIFFORD DALE, A.M. Professor of Economics and Political Science, University of Idaho. Author of Idaho. The Ashley-Smith Exploration and the Discovery of a Central Route to the Pacific: 1822-1829, etc. Hucn CHISHOLM, M.A. E S a a E i a George V. (in part); \ Montessori System. Editor of the 11th and 12th editions of The Encyclopedia Britannica.

Rr. Hon. Sir Horace Curzon Piunkett, K.C.V.O., F.R.S. Vice-President of the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland, 1899-1907. 1894.

C ommissioner,

Founder of the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society, Congested Districts Board, Ireland,

man of the Irish Convention, 1917-8.

1891-1918.

Chair-

Ireland: Agriculture.

Author of Ireland in the New Centur vs

etc,

H. C. Wa.

H. C. WATTS.

H. D.K.

HARRY DEXTER Kitson, A.M., PH.D. Professor of Psy chology, University of Indiana. Author of Scientific Study of the College Student; Manual for the Study of the Psychology of Advertising and

Selling; The Mind of the Buyer; etc.

{Mauritius. Job Analysis.

xyi H. F. H. F. Ba.

H. F. O.

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

HENRY FORD. Organiser and President of the Ford Motor Co. Author (with Samue. Crowther) < Mass Production.

of My Life and Work (1922). HENRY FREDERICK BAKER, Sc.D., F.R.S. Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry, Cambridge University. Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. Senior Wrangler (equal), 1887, and first Smith’s Prizeman, 1889. HENRY FAIRFIELD OsBorN, D.Sc., LL.D., Pu.D. Honorary Curator of the Department of Vertebrate Palaeontology of the American Muscum of Natural History. Senior Geologist, United States Geological Survey. Research Professor of Zoology, Columbia Univ ersity, New Y ork. Author of Age of Mammals; Men of the Old Stone slgc; Origin and Evolution of Life; ete.

HvucH Gusy, M.A. Director of Education and Member of the Legislative Council, Orange River Colony, 1902-10. Editor of The British Empire.

H. H. L. B.

H. J.F.

H. J.G.

H. J. G.* H. J. Go.

Harry HANSEN, Literary Editor of The Daily News, Chicago. Book critic for Harper’s Magasine. Author of The Adventures of the Fourteen Points. Hucu Hate Leicu Be trot, H.A., D.C.L. Barrister-at-Law. Honorary secretary of the International Law Association.

H. J.R. HLC:

M. P.

Medical Superintendent, Lord Mayor Treloar Cripples’ Hospital and College, Alton and Hayling Island, Hants. Hon. Consulting Surgeon to the W elsh National Memorial Association for the treatment of Tuberculosis. Consultant in Surgical Tuberculosis to the London, Essex and Hampshire County Councils. HIPPOLYTE JERAN GIRAUDOUX. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of -[mica clmerica; La Priére sur la Tour Eifel; etc. HERMAN Joun Goucu.

Rr. Hon. Huc

Minister of Finance, Northern

Ireland.

H. R. À. H. Ro.

H. Sa.

Methodism (in part).

Š

Guatemala; Honduras; Mexico; Nicaragua.

|c

pee ;

uman

Geography.

>

France:

Colonies.

Fatigue of Metals. Microphone.

| |

Late Chair-

Heat. Sa

|

Ireland, Northern: Financial and Economic History.

Handicrafts, Artistic Secretary and Treasurer, Society of Arts and Crafts, Boston, Massachusetts. (in part). Hon. HERBERT R. ATKINSON. Instructor at the Artillery College, Woolwich. Formerly Experimental Officer; Machine Guns. at the Small Arms School, Hythe, Kent. sir Humpmry Davy Rotiestron, Bart., K.C.B., M.D., D.Sc., D.C.L. Regius Professor of Physic, Cambridge University. Phy:siclan in Ordinary to | Goitre; His Majesty King George V. o of the Royal College of Physicians of Medicine. London. Author of Diseases of the Liver; etc. Hrrost Sarro, M.A. Secretary of Embassy and Consul in the Japanese Diplomatic and Consular ormosa (77 part); Service. Member of the Japanese Delegation to the Peace Conference in Paris, Japan (ix part); 19190, and to other Inter-Allied and International Conferences in Europe, Korea (in pari). H. P. MACOMBER.

Igig-21.

H.S:G.

|

|

man, Beifast Chamber of Commerce.

H. P. M.

Palaeontologic

Discoveries in (in part).

Heliotherapy.

McDowELL POLLOCK.

M.P. for South Belfast.

Moone

Marriage Laws.

Sir Henry Gauvaty, M.D., M.Cn.

erties of Steam; Thermodynamic Theory of Turbines. H.

| | | | | |

Lawson, Victor.

HENRY HERMAN MEYER, A.M., D.D. Editor of Sunday School Publications of the Methodist Episcopal Church, U.S.A. Author of The Lesson Handbook (annual); Tke Graded Sunday School in Principle and Practice. HERBERT INGRAM PRIESTLEY, M.A., Pir.D. Professor of Mexican History and Librarian of the Bancroft Library, University of California. Author of The Mexican Natioi; etc. HERBERT Jorn FLEvuRE, D.Sc. Professor of Geography and Anthropology, University College of Wales Aberystwyth. Hon. Secretary, Geographical Association; and Hon. Editor of The Geographical Teacher. Author of Human Geography in Western Europe, etc.

Of the National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex. Capt. H. J. Rounp, M.C. Of the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Co., Ltd. Hucu LoNGBOURNE CALLENDAR, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of Physics at the Imperial College of Science, South Kensington, London. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Prop-

Cigmety.

Hertzog, General.

Formerly Acting Professor of Constitutional Law in the University of London. Author of The Law of Children and Young Persons. Editor of Pitt Cobbett's Leading Cases on International Law; etc.

H. I. P.

|

Henry Soron Graves, LL.D. Provost, Dean of the School of Forestry and Sterling Professor of Forestry, Yale University,

= i|

Natural Resources, vation of.

Conser-

INITIALS AND H. Sp.

H. St. J. B. P. H. T.* H. W.*

H. W. H. K. H. W. V.T.

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

XVII

E. HAROLD SPENDER, LL.D. Formerly on the staff of The Pall Mall Gazette, The Westminister Gazette, rie| Daily Chronicle, The Manchester Guardian, and The Daily News. Author of -t< George, David Lloyd. Briton in America; David Lloyd George; Herbert Henry Asquith, The Cauldron of Europe; ete. Harry Sr. JouN Bripcer Privy, C.L.E. Chief British Representative in Transjordan, 1921-4. Commander, British ( Hejaz. Political Mission to Central Arabia, 1917-8. Author of The Heart of Arabia. Harry Tayior, D.S.M. | Great Lakes and St. LawGeneral in United States Army. Chief of Engineers, United States War Departrence; ment. Mississippi (River). HarorD W. T. WAaceER, D.Sc., F.R.S. í H.M. Inspector of Schools, Secondary Branch, Board of Education, London. J Hon. Lecturer in Botany in the University of Leeds. Author of Physiology of Mycology. Plants; Teaching of Botany; etc. HENRY WILLIAM Howarp KNort. Burrister-at-Law. Formerly Lecturer at the Law School of the University of Hughes, Charles E. Manitoba, Winnipeg. Harotp WILLIAM VAZEILLE Temprreiry, M.A., Litr.D., O.B.E. University Reader in Modern History and Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. British Representative on the Albanian Frontiers Commission, r921. Military |Neuilly, Treaty of, etc. Adviser at the Peace Conference, Paris, roro. Eclitor of .t History of the Peace Conference of Paris. Contributor to The Cambr idge Modern History and The Cambridge History of Foreign Policy. HERBERT WRIGLEY WILSON, M.A. Chief Leader Writer on The Daily Mai, London. Author of Irouclads in Action. Northcliffe, Viscount. Contributor to The Cambridge Modern History. IMRE FERENCZI. Migration. Member of the Diplomatic Division of the International Labour Office, Gereva.

|

|

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I. Fi. I. G.

I. Max.

J. A. H.C. J. A. J. J. Al. J. A. Ro.

J. A. T.

J. A.W. J. B. S.

J. Ci. J. C.K.

SIR ISRAEL GoLLANcz, Lirr.D., F.B.A. Secretary of the British Academy. University Professor of English Language and Literature, King's College, London. Fellow of King’s College. President of the Philological Society, London, 1919-22. Sir Ivor MaxsE, K.C.B., D.S.O. General Officer Commanding roth Division ror4-7 and XVIII. Corps 1917-8. Inspector-General of Training to the British Armies in France, ror8-9. Com-; mander-in-Chief, Northern Command, England, 1919-23. Author of Seymour Vandeleur. James A. H. CATTON. Editor of The Athletic News, Manchester, 19gc0-24. Contributor on athletic subjects to The Observer (London) and The Evening Standard (London). JAMES ALTON JAmeEs, B.L., Pu.D. Professor of History and Dean of Graduate School, Northwestern Univ ersity, Illinois. Author of George Rogers Clark.

| |

Learned Societies.

Infantry.

Football, Association.

Illinois.

Sir JAMES ALLEN, G.C.M.G. New Zealand: Formerly High Commissioner in London for New Zealand; Minister of Finance, History. Minister of Education and Minister of Defence, New Zealand. JAMES ALEXANDER RosertTson, Pa.B., L.H.D. | Research Professor of American History, John B. Stetson University, Deland, Florida. Formerly Chief of the Near Eastern Division Bureau of F orcign and Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. Co-Editor of Blair and Robertson’s he Philippine Islands, 1493-1898. Joun ArtTHUR Tomson, M.A., LED. Regius Professor of Natural history in the University of Aberdeen. Gifford Lecturer, St. Andrew’s, 1915. Terry Lecturer, Yale University, ra24. Author of The Study of Animal Life: Outlines of Zoology: leredily; Darwinism and Human Life; What is Man? Concerning Evolution. Joint Author (with Professor Patrick Geddes) of Evolution, Sex; Biology. JAMES ALBERT WoopBURN, PH.D., LL.D. Professor of American History, Indiana University. Author of The dmerican Republic and its Government, ete. James Brown Scorr, A.M., J.U.D President of the American Institute of International Law. Editor-in-Chief of The American Journal of International Law. Trustee and Secretary of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Author of sly International Court of Justice: etc.

Guam.

Heredity.

|

Indiana.

( |

Naturalisation (in part).

Jarosrav Cisar, Pu.D. Secretary on Special Mission, Czechoslovakian Legation, London. Author of, The Csecho-Slovak Republic. J. C. KIELSTRA. Professor of Colonial Economics in the School of Agriculture, Wageningen, Holland.

Political

Jebavy, V.

Guiana, Dutch.

XVI111 J. C. McL.

INITIALS

AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

JouN CUNNINGHAM McLEenNAN, LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Physics and Director of the Physical Laboratory, University of

-

Toronto. Formerly President, Royal Canadian Institute and Royal Society of | Helium. Canada. Scientific Adviser to the British Admiralty, 1919. Author of numerous

papers on radioactivity, the production and liquefaction of helium, and spectroscopy.

JosepH L. COHEN, M.A.

J. de G. H. J. D. Ro.

Lecturer in Economics, Cambridge University. Member of the Advisory Committee on Social Insurance of the International Labour Office. Author of Insurance against U unemployment, Insurance by Industry Examined; Workmen's Compensation in Great Britain; Social Insurance Unified; etc. J. DE GRAAFF Hunter, M.A., Sc.D. Mathematical Adviser to the Survey of India. Author of Formulae for Atmospheric Refraction and their Application to Terrestrial Refraction and Geodesy; etc. Joun Davy Ro.teston, M.A., M.D. Medical Superintendent, Western Fever Hospital, Metropolitan Asylums

| | l | | || |i

Board, London. Formerly Senior Assistant Medical Officer, Grove Hospital, London. Editor The British Journal of Chitdren’s Diseases. MAJOR-GENERAL JonN Duncan, C.M.G., D.S.O. Commanded the 11th Division in Gallipoli, 19t5, and the 22nd Division in Macedonia. REV. JoHN ELswortt. Minister of the Weslevan Methodist Church.

Member of Committees for arranging the details of Methodist Reunion. JANET ELIZABETH COURTNEY, O.B.E. J.P. (Mrs. W. L. COURTNEY).

Author of Free Thinkers of the Ninetcenth Century, Recollected in Tranquillity. Joint-author of Pillars of Empire. Joint-author of Index to the 11th Edition of The Encyclopedia Britannica. James ErNEsT HeELMF Roperts, M.B., B.S., F.R.C.S. Surgeon with charge of out-patients, St. Bartholomew'sHospital, London. Senior Surgeon, Brompton Hospital for Consumption and Diseases of the Chest, London.

Joun Epwarp

Spencer

Geodesy.

Infectious Fevers.

Italy: Defence. Methodism (in part).

George V. (in part), etc.

Heart and Lung Surgery.

Brinp, C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O.

Deputy Director of Military Operations and Intelligence at the War Office, London, 1923. Temporary Colonel Commandant attached to the Aldershot Command Staff.

J. E. Se.

Insurance, Social (in part).

Deputy Warden of the Sada, Bonn of Trade, Deni and Superintendent of the Metrology Department, ‘National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex. Joun Ernest Troyte Harper, M.V.O., C.B. Rear Admiral R.N. Director of Nav igation at the Admiralty, 1919-21. Commanded His Majesty’s yacht “Victoria and Albert,” 19t1-4. Compiler of a special report on the Battle of Jutland. JEANNE ELIZABETH WIER. Professor of History and Political Science in the University of Nevada. Executive Secretary of the Nevada Historical Society.

German Offensive: Battle

of the Lys.

3 |

Measurements;

Measuring Instruments.

Navigation.

Nevada.

James Forp, Pu.D. Associate Professor of Social Ethics in Harvard University. Sometime Division Housing: United States. Manager, U.S. Housing Corporation. Editor of the Report of the U.S. Housing Corporation. Author of Co-operation in New England; and Social Problems and Social Policy, Jonn FREDERIC CHARLES FULLER, D.S.O. Military Assistant to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff. Chief General German Offensive: S. Staff Officer, Tank Corps, 1917-8. Formerly Chief Instructor, Staff College, Quentin. Camberley. Author of Tanks in the Great War; The Refor mation of War; Sir Jolin Moores System of Training; etc. REv. JOSEPH FORT NEWTON. Freemasonry (in pari). Formerly Pastor of the Church of the Divine Paternity, New York City. Editor of The Masicry Mason. SIR JOSEPH GUINNESS BROODBANK. Chairman of the Dock and Warehouse Committee of the Port of London London, Port of. Authority, 1909-20. President of the Institute of Transport, 1923-4. Author of History ‘of the Port of London.

J. G. C.*

| ||

Hon. Josep Gorpon Coates, M.C. Prime Minister of New Zealand. Formerly Postmaster-General and Minister of Public Works, Railways, Telegraphs, Roads and Public Buildings, and Native Affairs.

James G. DowucLas. Vice-Chairman of the Senate of the Irish Free State, 1925. Board of the National Land Bank, Ltd.

Chairman of the

|

New Zealand:

Economic and

Financial History.

|

Irish Free State: Constitution,

INITIALS AND J.G.deR.H.

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

JosrerpH GREGOIRE DE RoutHac Hamitton, Pu.D. Kenan Professor of History and Government in the University of North Carolina. Author of Reconstruction in Norih Carolina; North Carolina since 1850;

X1X

North Carolina.

etc.

J. G. Sm.

JOHN GEORGE SMITH, M.A., M.Com. Mitsui Professor of Finance, University of Birmingham. Member of the Warwickshire Agricultural Wages Committee. Author of Organised Produce Markets; etc.

J. H.* J. H. Go.

J. H. H.*

Jvrivs HiırscH, Ph.D. l if Germany: Finance. Formerly Minister of Public Works in the German Reich. Joun Henry Gorvin, C.B.E. General Secretary to the International Relief Credits Committee, Paris, 1921. Nansen, Fridtjof. Representative in Russia of the High Commissioner for Russian Relief, 1922-3, and of the Refugee Section of League of Nations, 1923-5. Very Rev. JosepH HERMAN Hertz, Pu.D., Lirr.D. Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the British Empire. Chairman of the Administrative Board, Institute of Jewish Studies, University of Judaism. Jerusalem. President of the Jews’ College, London. South Africa; A Book of Jewish Thoughis; cte.

J. H. Ho.

Marketing (i part).

Author

of The Jew in

Jacos H. Hortctanper, Pxr.D. Professor of Political Economy in Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Treasurer of Porto Rico, t9g00-1. Financial Adviser of the Dominican Republic, 1go8-10. Author of The Abolition of Poverty; War Borrowtitg; cte.

J. H. Hu.

Joun H. HuBBACK.

J. H. Mo.

Joun HarTMAN Morcan, K.C., M.A. Barrister-at-Law; Professor of Constitutional Law, University College, University of London. Deputy-Adjutant-General, Interallied Military Commis-

o $o F: pea

.

International Institute of Agriculture, Rome. pool Corn Trade Association.

Grain Trade (i part).

Formerly President of the Liver-

Great Britain:

Constitution.

sion of Control in Germany, tor9-23. Author of The Place of a Second Chamber in the Constitution, The New Irish Constitution; etc.

J.H.O.

JoseP HOULDSWORTH OLDHAM, M.A. Secretary, International Missionary Council, London. Editor, Zhe International Review of Missions. Author of The World and the Gospel; Christianity and the Race Problem; etc.

J. H. S. J.H.W.

J. J.

J. J. D. j. J.T.

J-K. J. La.

J. L. L.* J. Lu.

J. M. L. J. M. L.*

Missions.

|

J. H. Sutciirre, O.B.E. Secretary of the British Optical Association. J. H. WALKER. Superintendent of Central Heating, Detroit Edison Company. Joint Author of Heating and Ventilation (1918). Past President of the National District Heating ¿lssociation.

James JouNnstone, D.Sc. Professor of Oceanography, University of Liverpool. Life in the Sea; British Fisheries; etc. JAmrs JOHN DAvIs. United States Secretary of Labor.

Optical Glass.

Feating and Ventilation.

Author of Conditions of

Oceanography. Labor, Department of.

Str JosepH Joun THomson, O.M., C.M., Sc.D., F.R.S.

Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. Hon. Professor of Physics, Cambridge University and Royal Institution, London. President of the Royal Society London, 1916-20. Nobel Prizeman for Physics, 1906. Author of Conduction o eens Electricity through Gases; The Structure of Lrght; etc. Josep Kuireutn, F.S.S. London Manager of the Union Corporation, Ltd. JAMES LAVER. Department of Engraving, Illustration and Design, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London. Joun Livincston Lowes, Pr.D. Professor of English and formerly Dean of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Harvard University. Author of Convention and Revolt in Poetry. JULIEN LUCHAIRE. Director of the Bureau of Intellectual Co-operation, Paris. Honorary Professor, University of Grenoble; late Inspector-General of Public Instruction in France. JAMES MILLER LEAKE, Pu.D. Professor of History and Political Science in the University of Florida. Author of The Virginia Committee Sysiem aid the American Revolution; ete. James MeEtvin Lee, Litr.D. Director of the Department of Journalism, New York University. Literar editor of The Editor and Publisher. Author of A History of American Journalisn a } etc.

Gases, Electrical Properties f

Q © a. m

Illustration (in part).

Amy Lowell.

Intellectual Co-operation.

Florida.

Newspapers (in part).

ees See ee ee eee essa ae ees er eee eee re ees eee Ooo eee eee eee

XX J.M. M. J. N. M.*

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

Jous Marcom MITCHELL, M.C., "F.S.A. (Scot.). 5‘ Secretary, Carnegie United Kingdom Trust. Vice-President, Library Associa- | ; tion. Author of The Public Library System of Great Britain and Ireland. Editor |Libraries. of Zhe Rural Libraries Handbook (1922), ete. Joun Nicuoras MAVROGORDATO. !Greece (in part). Author of Cassandra tn Troy; Letters from Greece; The World in Chains; etc.

Jo. B.

Josiua Brocu.

J. P. V.-S.

Joun Patrick

f

VILLIERS-STUART, C.B., D.S.O.

Colonel, Indian Army (ret.). "Served N. W. Frontier, India, 1901-2; East Africa

J.R. M.

Literature.

i Hebrew

Chief of the Jewish Division, New York Public Library.

Mountain Warfare.

1903-4; European War 1014-8. Rr. Fon. JAMES RAMSAY MaAcDonatp, M.-P. Chairman of the Parhamentaryv Prime Minister of Great Britain, 1923-4. Labour Party and Leader of His Majesty's Opposition. Author of Socialism and < Labour Party. Society; Labour and the Empire; The Social Unrest; Parliament and Revolution;

etc.

J. S5. Fa.

J. S. G.* J. Sh.

| |

Joun Surerps FAIRBAIRN, M.B., B.C, F.R.C.S., F.R.C.P. Obstetric Physician and Lecturer on Midwifery and Diseases of Women, St. Thomas’s Hospital, and Physician, General Lying-in Hospital, London. Author

Obstetrics.

of A Textbook for Midwives; Gynaccology with Obstetrics; etc.

JOHN STANLEY GARDINER, Professor of Zoology Director of Scientific London. JouN SH APLEY. forse Professor of the

F.R.S., F.L. and Comparative Anatomy, Cambridge University. Investigations, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries,

Fisheries.

|

Literature of the Arts of Design, New York University. President of the College Art Association of America. Editor of The Art Bulletin. Associate Editor of The American Journal of Archacology.

J. S. M. W.

Mural Painting.

JouN SEBASTIAN MArRLow Warp, M.A., F.S.S.S. Head of the Intelligence Department of the Federation of British Industries. Author of Textile Fibres and Yarns of the British Empire, An Outline History of

J. T. H.

J. Vi. J. We.*

J.W. G. .J. W. Go.

J. Wi. J. Wi.* J. W. P. J. W.T. K. B. K.C. M.S.

K. No. K. P.

ae PAE reemasonry

(in part).

Freemasonry; etc. Joun Turopore Hewitt, M.A., D.Sc., Pu.D., F.R.S. Formerly Professor of C hemistry, Fast London C ollege, University of London. Nitrogen, Fixation of. Author of Synthetic Colouring Matters, etc. i Jonas VILES, PH.D. Professor of American History in the University of Missouri. Author of //isfory; Missouri. of Missourt; Outline of American History; etc. JOSEPH WELLS. Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University and Warden of Wadham College. ForOxf d. merly Fellow and Tutor of Wadham College. Author of Oxford and its Colleges; Ck Wadham College; The Charm of Oxford; etc. Joun WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Geology in the University of Glasgow. Author of The Great Rift; Valley; The Dead Heart of Australia; The Menace of Colour; etc. James WINDER Goop. Assistant Editor, The Irish Statesman. Irish Correspondent of The New Statesman and The M dicheder Guardian. Author of Ulster and Ireland; Irish Unionism. JAMES WILLIAMSON, M.I.C.E.

Member of the firm of Sir Alexander Gibb and Partners, Engineers, London. SIR JAMES GLENNY WILSON. Formerly President of the New Zealand Farmers’ Union. J. W. PEARSON. | Managing Director, British Oil and Cake Mills, Ltd., London.

Geology.

Irish Free State: Defence.

Engineering. lf Ferro-Concrete ; l

\ Grain Trade (in part). Ioni il Oils and Fats (i part).

JoHN Wirson Tavtor, A.M., PH.D. Assistant to the American Editor of The Encyclopedia Britannica. Forme Herbert C. Hoover. Professor of Greek, Ohio University. KARL BALLOD. f Latvia: Financial and Professor of Economics, University of Riga. \ nomic History. KENNETH CHARLES Morton Sits, M.A., LL.D. President of Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine. President of the Board of: Maine. Visitors to the Naval Academy at Annapolis, 1920-1. , | Formosa (in part); KENGO Mort. Financial Commissioner of Japan in London, Paris and New York. Japan (in part); Korea (in part). KARL NORDHOFF. Of the statistical section of the Reichsbank, Bezlin.

O l

Ye

Cur SUCHEJ:

KARL PRIBRAM. Director of the Investigation Department, International Labour Office, Geneva. < Housing (in pari). Professor of Political Economy and Statistics, University of Vienna.

Eco-

INITIALS AND K. S. L.

K. von O.

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

KENNETH Scorr LATOURETTE, M.A., PLD., D.D. | Professor of Missions, Yale University. Formerly Professor of History, Deni- | Manchuria; son University, Granville, Ohio. Author of The Development of China; History [eo eee of Early Relaiions Between the United States and China, 1784-1844; ete. KARLLUDWIG VON OERTZEN. Chief of the Intelligence branch of the personal staff of the Ministry of Defence,

:

Germany: Defence.

Berlin.

L. Ab.

LASCELLES ABERCROMBIE, Professor of English Poctry, University of Theory of Art; Theory

L. Coke Hri, M.E.I.C. Chief Engineer for John S. Metcalf Co. Ltd., Montreal.

L. D. W.

Litran D. Warp. President of the Henry Street Settlement and of the Social Halls Association, New York City. Vice-President of the New York Association for Parks and Playgrounds, etc. Author of The Mouse on Henry Street.

versity Luigi Bocconi of Milan.

Senator of the Kingdom of Italy.

|Nursing |

Author of Corso de Scienza della Finanza; La guerrae il

LEONARD ERSKINE HILL, F.R.S. Director of the Department of Applied Physiology, National Institute of Medical Research, Hampstead, London. Formerly Professor of Physiology, London Hospital. Author of Manual of Phystology; etc.

Italy: Financial nomic History.

| | |

L. F. Ricuarpson, F.R.S. Lecturer in Physics, Westminster Training College, London.

'

L. F. Sh.

L. F. SHEPPICK.

lFlour

LeG.*

LEON

t

L.G. R.

LEANDER GASPARD Roussin, C.M.G. British Delegate on the International Financial Commission, Athens. Financial Secretary to the Ministry of Finance, Cairo.

Assistant Editor of Milling, London. GASTER.

Formerly

LEONARD James SPENCER, Sc.D., F.R.S. Lours LOUCIHEUR. Minister of Finance in the French Cabinet, and Minister for the Liberated Regions of France in the Briand Cabinet, 1921-2. Minister of Munitions in the Clemenceau Cabinet, 1917-20.

EmitE Marie Lovuts Mapeuin,

D. BsL

Chairman of the French Alliance of the United States and of Canada, 1907-8. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of La bataille de France; Les Heures merveuleuses d Alsace et de Lorraine; L'expansion française; etc.

L. McC. N. L. M. F. Lo.

L. Pr.

L. R. B. L. Ri. L. Ro.

Lours

McCoy

Milling.

Hlumination Engineering.

Greece (in part).

|

Assistant Keeper, Mineral Department, Natural History Museum, London.{ Editor of The Mineralogical Magazine. Author of The World's M inerals.

L. M.

Eco-

Meteorology (in part).

Hon. Secretary of the Illuminating Engineering Society, London.

L. L.

and

Kata Thermometer.

L. F.R.

L. J. S.

(U.S.A.).

|

UniEditor of

systema tributario italiano; etc.

L. E. H.

Hardy, Thomas.

Grain Elevators.

Luicr EINAUDI. Professor of Finance in the University of Turin and in the Commercial La Reforma Sociale.

|

M.A. Literature, University of Leeds. Formerly Lecturer in Liverpool. Author of Thomas Hardy, A Critical Study; of Poetry; Idea of Great Poetry; cte.

L. C. H.

L. E.

XXI

NULTON.

Mineralogy.

France: Invaded Regions.

| |

Foch, Marshal.

J

Rear Admiral, U.S. Navy, and Superintendent, U.S. Naval Academy. Naval Academy (U.S.A.). LEONARD M. FANNING. Director of Publicity and Statistics, American Petroleum Institute. Editor of Gasolene, The Ou Trade Journal. Ricit Hon. THE Marquess oF LONDONDERRY, K.G. Ireland, Northern: Political Formerly Minister of Education, Northern Ireland. Chancellor of Queen's History. University, Belfast. LIONEL GEORGE PRESTON, C.B. Rear-Admiral R.N. Commanded the Patrol, Minesweeping, Training and Fishage and Minesweeping Protection Flotilla, 1919-20. Director of the Minesweeping Division Admiralty, London, 1917-0. i

|

Lyp1a Ray BAIDERSTON, B.S., M.A. Instructor in Household Arts, Teachers

College, Columbia University, New York. Author of Laundering; Housewifery. Lovis RIPAULT. Private Secretary to the President of the Chamber of Deputies, France. Author of Histoire du Canada; Histeire des Etats-Unis; etc. SIR LEONARD RocFfRs, C.LE., M.D., F.R.S., EF.R.C.P., F.R.C.S. Member of Medical Board, India Office, London. Physician and Lecturer, London School of Tropical Medicine. Late Professor of Pathology, Medical College, Calcutta.

| |

Laundry Work.

Herriot, Edouard.

f |

Kala-Azar; Leprosy.

XX11 L. St. Lt.

L.T.

INITIALS

AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES Í 1 Jews.

LEONARD STEIN. Of the Zionist Organisation, London. Ricut Hon. Lorp Lovat (Simon J. Fraser), K.T., K.C.M.G., K.C.V.0., D.S.0.

Formerly Director of Forestry, British Expeditionary Force in France. Chief < Forestry. Commissioner, Forestry Commission of Great Britain. Lev Davipovicu TROTSKY. Head of the Central Committee for Concessions, Union of Soviet Republics. Lenin, Nikolai. Formerly People’s Commissar for Foreign Affairs, and Commissar for War, Moscow.

L. V.*

LUIGI VILLARI. Member of the Staff of the League of Nations, 1920-3. Subsequently attached to the Emigration Department of the Italian Foreign Office. Commendatore of the Crown of Italy. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; The Awakening of Italy; etc.

Fascism; Italy: Political History; Mussolini, B.; Nitti, Francesco.

L. Wi.

Loris WILEY, LL.D. Business Manager of The New York Times.

Ochs, Adolf.

M. A. C.*

Maurice Avan Cassipy, M.D., F.R.C.P. Physician in charge of Out-Patients and of Electro-Cardiographic Department, St. Thomas’s Hospital. London. Physician to the Metropolitan Police and to the Lord Mayor Treloar Cripples’ Hospital, Alton.

Heart Diseases.

Mary AGNES HAMILTON. Member of the Balfour Committee on British Trade and Industry. Member of the staff of The Economist, London, etc. Under the pen name of “Iconoclast ”’

MacDonald, J. R.

wrote The Man of Tomorrow; J. Ramsay MacDonald; ete.

M.A. Van G. M. A. VAN GENNEP. Editor, Revue de Folklore. M. Bo.

Folklore.

Author of Totémisme, etc.

MARGARET GRACE BONDFIELD. M.P. for the Wallsend Division. Parliamentary Secretary to the British Ministry of Labour, 1924. Labour adviser to Labour Convention at Washington, 19t9. Hon. Secretary of the National Federation of Women man, General Council of the Trade Union Congress, 1923.

Workers.

M. Bo.*

Moritz Jutius Bonn. Professor of Economics at the School of Commerce, Berlin. englische Kolonisation in Irland; Amerika als Feind; etc.

M. C. M.

Max CORNILS MANGELS. Legal member of the department for administering the Kiel Canal. Rıīıcur Hon. Lord MeEsTON, K.C.S.L, LL.D. Secretary to Finance Department,

Lieut.-Governor,

Government

Chair-

Germany: Economic and Financial History.

Author of Dre

of India, 1906-12.

United Provinces of Agra and Oudh.

Maternity and Infant Welfare (in part).

Represented

Kiel Canal.

Formerly

Gandhi, M. K.; India (in part).

India on

the Imperial War Cabinet, and at the Imperial Conference, 1917. Finance Minister on Executive Council of the Governor-General of India, 1919. M. GUILLAUME. Managing director of Le Petit Journal, Paris. McKENDREE LLEWELLYN RANEY. Librarian of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. M. Mac.

| Johns Hopkins University.

er Ee eee eee SO eee a ios eee se errno eee OE Seo. ee

Str Mcurpocu Macponarp, K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E.

|

M P. for Inverness. Consulting Civil Engineer. Late Adviser and UnderSecretary of State for Public Works in Egypt. Civil Engineer, Assuan Dam Protective and Heightening operations, and Isna Barrage Construction. MURIEL MONTGOMERY. General Secretary, Girl Guides Association, London. Marion I. Newstcrin, D.Sc.

Editor of The Scottish Geographical Magazine. Author of A Geographical Study of the Peace Terms; Mediterranean Lands; etc. M. N. TCUERKINSKY. Chief Editor in the Bureau of Economic and Social Intelligence of the International Institute of Agriculture, Rome.

Ricur Hon. Lorp

Montacu

oF BEAUTIEU.

Adviser on Mechanical Transport Services to the Government of India, 1915-9. Vice-President of the Royal Automobile Club, London. Founder and former editor of The Car (London). May SMITH. M.A. Senior Investigator to the Industrial Fatigue Research Board, Medical Research Council, London.

N. M. Pe.

Norman

Mostry Penzrr, M.A., F.R.G.S., F.G.S.

Lyautey, General; Mangin, General; Nivelle, General.

i

Author of Cotton in British West Africa; The Tin Resources of the Pritish Emptre; The Mineral Resources of Burma; Non-Ferrous Metals and other Minerals; etc.

Irrigation Engineering.

\

Girl Guides. Mediterranean Sea.

Land Tenure. |

Motoring.

Industrial Psychology. Lead; Manganese; Mica; Nickel.

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

xxill

OrIN GRANT Lipsy, PH.D. [ Professor of American History, University of North Dakota. Secretary of the North Dakota. North Dakota State Historical Society. Editor of Collections of State Historical |

O. J. R. H.

Society of North Dakota (vol. i.-iv. and vi.). OSBERT JOHN RApcLIFFE Howartu, O.B.E., M.A. Secretary of the British Association. Member of the Geographical Section, Naval Intelligence Department, London, 1915-9.

O0. W.R.

Author of Commercial Geog-

P. Evans Lewin, M.B.E., F.R.Hıisrt.S. Librarian of the Royal Colonial Institute, London. Africa, A Geography of Africa. PIETER GEYL, Litt.D.

Author of The Germans in

Professor of Dutch History, University College, University of London. of Holland and Belgium; etc.

Author

Paut Henry Nystrom, PH.D. Director of the Retail Research Association, New York. Formerly Professor of Economics in the universities of Wisconsin and Minnesota. Author of Economics and Retailing; Retail Selling and Store Management; Textiles; etc.

P. J.

PAUL EMILE JAVARY.

P. L.

PAUL LAMBOTTE. Director of Fine Arts for Belgium. Government Commissioner for Fine Art Exhibitions. Author of two volumes in the Collection des artistes belges contemporains.

Chief Engineer for the development of the Chemin de fer du Nord, France.

P. La.

Purre Lake, M.A. University Reader in Geography, Cambridge.

P. Le.

PHILEAS LEBERGUE. Greek correspondent Asteriotis.

| | || | || | | |

Gold Coast.

Netherlands: History.

Political

Marketing (in part).

France: Communications. Laermans, Eugène.

Geology: New Theories.

of Le Mercure de France under the name of Demetrius

PERRY LONGHURST.

Greek Literature:

Modern.

Gymnastics.

Author of Wrestling.

P. M. H.

Manchester;

Oceania; etc. raphy of the World, etc. Joint- editor of The Oxford Survey of the British Empire OWEN WILLANS RicHuarpson, D.Sc., F.R.S. Yarrow Research Professor of the Royal Society, London. Director of Research in Physics, King’s College, University of London. Late Fellow of Trinity Col- |Magnetism. lege, Cambridge, and Professor of Physics, Princeton University, U.S.A. PIERRE FRANCIS BERNUS. Foreign editor of Le Journal des Débats, Paris correspondent of Le Journal de Millerand, A. Genéve; Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. PAUL CHRISLER PHILLIPS, M.A., PH.D. Professor of History in the ‘University of Montana. Joint author of The West Montana. in the Diplomacy of the American Revolution. Author of The Story of Columbus; etc.

P. Lo.

coo

PETER MARTIN HELDT. Engineering Editor of Antomotive Indusirics. bile; etc.

Author of The Gasoline Automo- { Motor Vehicles.

SIR PHILIP ARTHUR MANLEY Nasu, K.C.M.G., D.S.M., M.Inst.C.E. Chairman of Metropolitan- Vickers Electrical Co. Ltd. Director of National Filling Factories, Ministry of Munitions, 1915-6. Inspector-General of Transportation, W estern Front, 1918. Director-General of Trafic, Ministry of Transport, 1919-21. Sir Parrick THowas McGraru,

K.B.E., LL.D.

President, Legislative Council, Newfoundland. Managing Director and Editor of The Evening Herald. Newfoundland Correspondent of The Times, London. Author of Newfoundland in 1911; From Ocean to Occean; ete.

P. Vi.

Srr Paut Vinocraporr, F.B.A., D.C.L., LL.D. Formerly Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence, Oxford University. Fellow of the Russian Academy, Petrograd. Member of International Academy of Comparative Law, Geneva. Author of Villainage in England; The Growth of the Manor; Outlines of Historical Jurisprudence; Self-Government in Russia; etc.

P. W. L.

Percy W. LOvVELL.

R. B.F.

RAYMOND BLAINE Fospick, M.A. Formerly Commissioner of Accounts, City of New York.

Hon. Secretary of The London Society. Author of American Police Systems; European Police Systems; Keeping our Fighters Fit; etc.

R.C.A.

Roy CHAPMAN ANDREWS. Chief of Division of Asiatic Exploration, American Museum of NaturalI History, New York, Leader of Expeditions to Tibet, China, Mongolia, etc. Author of Camps and Trails in China; etc.

| hy

Factory Design.

Labrador; Newfoundland.

Nicholas II. (Tsar).

| |

London. New York City.

|

Mongolia, Paleontological Discoveries in (in part).

Sal

XXIV R. C.B.

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

ROBERT CLARKSON Brooks, Pu.D. Professor of Political Science, Swarthmore

College, Pennsylvania. Author of } Initiati Corruption in American Politics and Life; Political Parties and Electoral Prob- | itiative.

dems; etc.

R.C. F.

R. C. Farmer, O.B.E., D.Sc., Pu.D., F.I.C. Late Chief Chemist, Explosives Department, Ministry of Munitions. Author of The Manufaciure and Uses of Explosives; Industrial and Power Alcohol; various scientific papers on explosives and general chemical subjects.

Filtration.

Damr RACHEL ELEANOR Crowpy, D.B.E. Chief cf Social Questions and Opium Traffic Section, Secretariat League of Nations. Principal Commandant of V.A.D.’s in France and Belgium, 1914-9.

Opium, Traffic in.

Sır Rosert Donarp, G.B.E., LL.D. Late Chairman, Empire Press Union. Formerly Managing Director of United Newspapers, Ltd. Chairman, Publicity Committee, British Empire Exhibition, 1924.

RicHarp Dtxon Orpnnaw, F.R.S. Formerly President of the Geological Society, London. papers on Geology and kindred subjects.

Author

of various

RoBERT Foster Moorr, O.B.E., F.R.C.S. Ophthalmic Surgecn, St. Bartholomew’s

Hospital. Surgeon, Moorfields Eye Hospital. Consulting Ophthalmic Surgeon, Maudesley Jlospital, London. Secretary Ophthalmological Society of the United Kingdom. Author of Medical Ophthalmology; etc.

R. Gi.

Roy GItTINGER, PH.D. Dean of Undergraduates and Professor of English History in the University of Oklahoma. Author of The Formation of the State ef Oklahoma; ete.

R.G. H.

RALPH GEORGE HAWTREY.

R. G. H.*

Ropert G. HODGSON. Editor of the Fur Trade Journal of Canada. Trapping in Northern Canada; ete.

R. G. P.

Russecy G. Petry, F.I.C. Joint Author of Oils, Fats, Wares and Resins.

R. Hd.

Str Ropert Erskine Hottanp, K.C.LE., C.S.L, C.V.O. Member of the Council of India. Agent to the Governor-General in Rajputana, 1920-5. Str Ropert Jones, K.B.E., D.S.M., F.R.C.S. President, Association of Surgeons of Great Britain; Lecturer in Orthopaedic

R. Io.

Assistant Secretary to the Treasury, London.

Author of Currency and Credit; etc.

Author of Fur Farming in Canada;

R. J.T.

Ropert Joun Trompson, C.B., O.B.E. Assistant Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, London.

R.L. W.

Ray LyMAN WILBUR, A.M., M.D, LL.D.

R. Ma.*

RENÉ MARAN.

R. Mac.

R. M. H.

R.

P.

B.

of the Medical

Chairman

Ophthalmology.

Oklahoma.

Great Britain: Finance.

Fur Trade.

School,

Leland

Stanford

of Trade Boards of Northern Ireland.

India (in part).

Orthopaedic Surgery.

Great Britain: Agriculture. Jr.

Novelist. Awarded the Prix Goncourt in 1921 for his novel Batouala. Author of Le visage calme; etc. ROBERT MACHRAY. , À Contributor to magazines and journals especially on subjects connected with the Middle and Far East, the Baltic states; etc. ROBERT MITCHELL HENRY, M.A. Professor of Latin and secretary of the Academic Council, Queen’s University of Belfast, Ireland.

R. P.*

Dean

Isostasy.

Margarine (i part).

Surgery, University of Liverpool. Director of Orthopaedic Surgery, St. Thomas’s Hospital, London. English Editor of The International Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery. Author of Surgery of Joints; etc.

President and Formerly University, California.

Newspapers (ii part).

Author

of The Evolution of Sinn Fein; etc. Rogert Perie, E.M. Professor of Mining in the School of Mines, Columbia University, New York. Author of Compressed Air Plant. Editor-in-chief of Peele’s Mining Engineer’s Handbook; ete. Roprert PRESTON BROOKS, PH.D. Dean of the School of Commerce, University of Georgia; formerly Professor of History. Author of 4 History of Georgia; The Agrarian Revolution in Georgia;

Leland Stanford Jr. University. French African Literature.

Gdynia.

Ireland: Political History.

=§ Georgia (U.S.A.).

etc.

R. Po.*

Roscort Pounn, A.M., Pa.D., LL.D. Carter Professor of Jurisprudence and Dean of the Faculty of Law in Harvard University. Sometime Commissioner of Appeals of the Supreme Court of Nebraska. Author of Readings on Roman Law; The Spirit of the Common Law, Inter pretation of Legal History; ete.

Legal Education.

INITIALS AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

R. Rn.

R. ROMFIN. Member of Transit Section, League of Nations, Geneva.

R. Ro.

Sır Roxan Ross, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.S. (Œdin.). Director in Chief, Ross Institute and Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Putney Heath, London. Consultant in Malaria, British Ministry of Pensions. Tormerly Consultant in Malaria to the War Office, London. Nobel Prizeman for Medicine, roo2. Former Vice-President and Royal Medallist of the Royal Society, London. Author of The Prevention of Malaria. REINHARD SCHEER. Admiral and Commander-itn-Chief, German High Seas Fleet, tor6-8, and Chief of German Admiralty Staff till 1919. Author of Deutschlands H ochseeflotte im Weltkriege.

RS.

R. Sc.

R.S. C.

R. V. V.

XXV

{ Inland Water Transport; | Oder. aha Pos Malaria (in part).

Germany: Naval Policy.

Ropert Scott, M.B., Cu.B. l Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Major in the R.A.M.C. l Ropert SEYMourR Conway, Litt.D., F.B.A. Hulme Professor of Classics, Victoria University of Manchester. Author of The Restored Pronunciation of Greek and Latin; The talic Dialects; New Studies of a Great Inheritance; The Making of Latin; ete. RIcHARD STORRY-DEANS, LL.B. M.P. for the Park Division of Sheffield. Barrister-at-Law. Author of Parent and Child; Students’ Legal History; Notable Trials, Trials of Five Queens; etc. RICHARD VYNNE SOUTHWELL, M.A., F.R.S. Fellow and Lecturer in M athematics, Trinity College, Cambridge. In charge of Non-Rigid Airships Design at R.N. Air Station, Kingsnorth, rọr5-8, and of Aerodynamic and Structural Experiments at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough, 1918-9. Late Superintendent of the Aerodynamics Department, National Physical Laboratory, ‘Teddington.

ROLAND VENABLES VERNON, C.B. Financial Adviser to Government of ‘Iraq. Assistant Secretary, Ministry of Munitions, 1915-8. Deputy Accountant-Gencral, Board of Education, 1020-1.

Medical! Legislation. Latin Literature.

Hogg, Sir Douglas.

Materials, Strength of.

‘Iraq: Financial and Economic Ilistory.

Appointed on financial mission to ‘Iraq for Bri tish and ‘Iraq Governments, 1925.

R. We.* R. W. P.*

RAYMOND Weeks, A.M., Pu.D. Professor of Romance Languages, Columbia University, New York. of instruments for the study of phonetics. SIR

ROBERT

WILLIAM

Inventor

Foreign Languages (in part).

PERKS, BART.

Chairman of the Metropolitan District Railway, 1902-6. Treasurer, Wesleyan Methodism (in part). Methodist Twentieth Century Million Fund. M.P. for the Louth Division of |

Lincolnshire, 1802-1910.

R. W. S.-W.

Ropert Witttam Sreton-Watson, Litr. D. Masaryk Professor of Central European History at King’s College, London. Montenegro. Founder and joint editor, 1916-20, of The New Europe. Joint editor of al Slavonic Review. Author of The Rise of Nationality in the Balkans; etc.

S. A. K. W.

SAMUEL ALEXANDER

KINNIER WILSON, B.Sc., M.D., F.R.C.P.

Junior Neurologist, King’s College Hospital, London.

Consulting Neurologist,

Metropolitan Asylums Board. Croonian Lecturer, Royal College of Physicians, London. Editor of The Journal of Neurology and Psycho pathology.

S.C. H.

S. C. HAMMER, M.A. Oslo Correspondent of The Times, London.

S. Cr.

SAMUEL CROWTHER, B.S., LL.D. Author of Common Sense and Labour; Life of George W. Perkins; My Life and

Editor of The Norway Year Book.

Neuro-Muscular System. Norway: Financial and Economic History, Norwegian Literature. Henry Ford.

Work (with Henry Ford).

S.G.

STEPHEN Lucius GWYNN Irish Correspondent of The Observer (London). Member of the Irish Convention 1917-8. Author of Frish Books and Irish People; The Trish Situation; The History of Ireland; etc. S. H. SHOVELLER.

S.H. W.

S. J. B. S. L.

S. L. C.

Vice-President of the English Hockey Association. Captain of the English team, 1gog-14, and 1920-1. Author of Hockey. CAPTAIN STANLEY FI. Witton, R.N. (RET.). Late Assistant Director of Naval Ordnance, Admiralty, London. SOLON Justus BUCK. Superintendent of the Minnesota Historical Society. Professor of History in the University of Minnesota. Author of The Granger Movement; Ilinois in 1818; The Agrarian Crusade; etc. SUZANNE LENGLEN, Winner of the Ladies’ Singles, Ladies’ Doubles and Mixed Doubles Lawn Tennis Championships at Wimbledon, London, 1925 and earlier years. STEVENSON Lyrik Cummins, C.M.G., M.D., LL.D. Colonel, Army Medical Service (retired). David Davies Professor of Tuberculosis, University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff.

Griffith, Arthur; Irish Free State: Political History;

Healy, T. M. Hockey (in part).

f Gunnery, l Ordnance

Naval; (in part).

Minnesota.

Lawn Tennis.

Influenza.

INITIALS AND

XxXvl

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

S. Le.

STEPHEN BUTLER Leacock, Pu.D., Lirr. D., F.R.S. (Can.). | New Brunswick; William Dow Professor of Political Economy, McGill University, Montreal. Nova Scotia; Author of The Elements of Political Science; and of many literary satires including Nonsense Novels; The Hohenzollerns in America; The Garden of Folly; etc. |Ontario.

S. McC. L.

SAaĪmuEL McCuxe

Liınpsay, Pa.D., LL.D.

|

Professor of Social Legislation in i Columbia University, New York. President of New York Academy of Political Science, New York. Author of Railway Labor in ihe United States; Financial Administration of Great Britain; etc.

Liquor Laws, United States.

SAMUEL ROSENBAUM. Formerly Assistant U.S. Attorney and Assistant City Solicitor, Philadelphia. < Judicial Reform. Author of Commercial Arbitration in England and The English County Courts. SOPHY SANGER. | Chief of section in the International Labour Office of the League of Nations, Geneva, 1920-4; Secretary of British Section, International Association for Factory and Workshop Law. Labour Legislation, 1906-19, and Editor of the English Edition of the Bulletin of the International Labour office (Basle).

SIGMUND SPAETH, PH.D.

|

Formerly member of the Editorial Staff of The New York Times, and Musical LI Correspondent of The Boston Transcript. Author of Milton’s "Knowledge of |Musical Instruments. Music, The Common Sense of Music. di

SIR THEODORE

ANDREA

COOK.

i

Editor-in-chief of The Field (London). Author of 4 History of the English Turf; The Art and Science of the Oar; The Fencer’s Song; etc. T. E. Grecory, D.Sc. Cassel Reader in Banking and Currency, London School of Economics. of Tariffs: a Study in Method; etc. THomas EAst Lones, M.A., LL.D. Formerly Senior Examiner in H.M. Patent Office, London. Researches in Natural Science; Zinc and Its Alloys.

ae G Olympic Games.

Author

Great Britain: Banking.

Gas, Manufacture of; Gyroscope; Author of -Aristotle's | Inventions; Liquid Air; Meter.

LEUT.-CoL. T. G. G. Heywoop. General Staff Oificer, British Territorial Army Air Defence Formations. Tuomas A. Howarp. Of Messrs. A. G. eae & Bros., Sports Outfitters, London and New York. TH. RUYSSEN. Professor of the History of Philosophy, University of Bordeaux. tary, International League of Nations Union, Brussels.

f Intelligence, Naval and | Military. Soy k re | “O°*®Y (in part).

General Secre-

Minorities.

THomas Ntxon Carver, Px.D., LL.D. Professor of Political Economy, Harvard University.

Author of The Distribution of Wealth, Principles of Rural Economics; Principles of Political Economy;

Federal Farm Loan System.

etc.

TERRY RAMSAYE. : Editor of film productions and writer on motion picture subjects. Author of -i

T. S. A. T. W. Ho.

UrtricH BONNELL

W. B.-A.

W. B. H.

Motion Pictures: History.

History of the Motion Picture. THOMAS SEWALL ApamMs, Pa.D. Professor of Political Economy in Yale University. Adviser on Taxation, U.S. Treasury Department. Author of Taxation in Maryland; etc. Sır Tuomas WirsiamM HoLDERNESS, Bart., G.C.B., K.C.S.I. Late Permanent Under-Secretary of State for India. Author of Feoples and Problems of India; Narrative of the Indian Famine, 1896-97.

Income Tax (in part).

India (ix part).

PHILLIPS, PH.D.

Professor of American History in the University of Michigan. Author of The: Life of Robert Toombs; American Negro Slavery; etc. VALTYR GUDMUNDSSON, M.A., D.PuH. Professor of Fcelandic Language and Literature in the University of Copenhagen. < Member of the Icelandic Parliament, 1894-1914. Victor Louts EMILIEN CORDONNIER. General commanding the French Army in the East under General Sarrail. Author of The Japanese in Manchuria, WILLIAM ADAMS Brown, A.B., PH.D. Roosevelt Professor of Systematic Theology, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of The Essence of Christianity; The Church in America. W. Broucuron-Atcock, M.D. Director of the Central Laboratory, Ministry of Pensions, London. WALTER B. Harris, F.S.A. Moroccan Correspondent of The Times (London). Author of The Land of an African Sultan; Travels in Morocco t888-9; Morocco that Was; ete.

Michigan.

Iceland.

Frontiers, Battles of the (i part). Fundamentalism Modernism.

and

Malaria (i part). Morocco, Campaigns in.

eo ese eos eee, eo eee Oa ng

INITIALS AND W. Bn.

W. B. S.* W. D. L.

W. E. El.

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

XXVII

WittiAmM Bateson, M.A., F.R.S. Late Director of the John Innes Horticultural Institution, Merton Park, Surrey, |Genetics; and Professor of Biology, Cambridge University. Author of Mendel’s Prin-) Mendelism. ciples of Heredity; Problems of Genetics; etc. WILFRED B. SHAW. General Secretary, Alumni Association, University of Michigan. Author of Michigan, University of. History of University of Michigan. WILLIAM DRAPER LEwrts, Pu.D., LL.D. Director of the American Law Institute. Formerly Dean of the Law Department, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Restraint of Infringement of In- Judicial Reform. corporeal Rights; Life of Theodore Roosevelt; etc. WALTER ELLIOT ELLioT, M.C., D.Sc., M.B., Cu.B. Health, Ministry of. M.P. for the Kelvingrove Division of Glasgow. Parliamentary Under-Secretary of Health for Scotland. Major-GENERAL SIR WILLIAM Epuunn Iroxsipe, K.C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O. Masurian Lakes, Battles of Commandant, Staf College, Camberley, Surrey. Commander-in-Chicf, British Forces in Russia, 1918-9. Author of Tannenberg: the frst thirty days in East the. Prussia. LieEvtT.-Cot. Wonneie FOERSTER. Late General Staff, German Army. Keeper of Public Records, Potsdam. Formerly member of the Historical Section of the General Staff. Chief of the Hindenburg, Paul von; Ludendortt, Erich. General Staff of the XI. Corps, 1915. Author of Pring Friedrich Kart von Preussen; Graf Schlieffen und der Weltkrieg. WitiiAM F. T. BUTLER, M.A. Assistant Commissioner of Intermediate Education, Ireland. Formerly ProIrish Free State: Education. fessor of Modern Languages in Queen’s College, Cork. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. WALTER FRANCIS FREAR, LL.D. Formerly Chief Justice and late Governor of Hawaii. Chairman of the Hawaiian Code Commission, 1903-5. Author of The Evolution of the Hawaiian Judiciary. LiguT.-CoL. SiR WILLIAM FREDERICK TRAVERS O’Conwnor, C.S.I., C.LE. a2 a Formerly Resident in Nepal and British Envoy in Nepal. Signatory of Treaty between Great Britain and Nepal, 1925. Author of Folk Tales from Tibet; etc. WALTER FRANCIS WILLcox, Px.D., LL.D. Negro. Professor of Economics and Statistics, Cornell University. Author of The Divorce Problem—A Study tn Statistics; etc. SIR WILLIAM GRANT MACPHERSON, K.C.M.G., M.B., D.P.H. Major-General, Army Medical Service. Editor-in-Chief, Medical History of the War. Served at the War Office as Deputy Assistant and Deputy DirectorGeneral of the Army Medical Service, and as a Member of the Advisory Board for Medical Service, Army. Medical Services, and of the Army Sanitary Committee. Director of Medical Services, British Force in Macedonia, 1915-6. Sir WILLIAM A. M. Goope, K.B.E. Horthy, Admiral; Unofficial Adviser to the Hungarian Government. President of, and British Hungary (in part); Representative on, the Austrian Section of the Reparation Commission, Vienna, Karolyi, Count. 1920-1. Author of Economic Conditions in Central Europe; etc. WALTER GRAVELL, PH.D. Ober Regierungsrat in the Statistical Offices of the Reich, Berlin. Member of Germany: Area and Populathe German Statistical Society. Author of Absandlungen iiber Bevolkerungslion. Berufs- und Betriebsstatistik, etc. WILLIAM GEORGE STEWART ADAMS, M.A. Gladstone Professor of Political Theory and Institutions, Oxford University. { Government. Fellow of All Souls College. Member of the British Development Commission. W. H. Coates, LL.B. Income Tax (in part). Secretary of Nobel Industries, Ltd. (London). WILLIAM HENRY DInEs, F.R.S., F.R.MET.SOC. Author of Characteristics of Free Atmosphere and of numerous scientific articles Meteorology (in part). in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, The Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society; etc. Office Appliances; W. H. LEFFINGWELL. Office Management. Management Engineer. Author of Ofice Management; etc. WILLIAM KiīDsron McCLURreg, C.B.E. Correspondent of The Times (London) in Rome. War Correspondent of The Italian Campaigns; ` Times on the Italian Front, 1915-7. Author of Jtaly’s Part in the War; Italy in Italo-Turkish War. North Africa; etc. WILLIAM LEWIS BLENNERIASSET, D.S.O., O.B.E. Finlafd: Political History; Formerly acting British Vice- Counsul at Kovno, Lithuania. Member of theee ee a I a A a a a a Lithuania: Political History. London Stock Exchange. SiR WILLIAM James ASHLEY, PH.D., M.A., M.COM. Formerly Vice-Principal and Professor of Commerce of the Univ ersity of BirImperial Preference. mingham. Member of numerous British Committees on Economic Questions. Author of Fntroduction to English Economic History and Theory; The Rise in Prices; The Economic Organisation of England; etc. t

W.

E.

I.

W. F.B.

W. F.F.

W.

F.

0’C.

W. F. W. W. G. Ma.

W. Go.*

W. Gr.

W. G. S. A. W. H.C. W. H. Di.

W. H. L.* W.K. McC.

3¢

INITIALS

XXVIII W. Me.

W. Mi.

AND

HEADINGS

OF ARTICLES

WILFRED MEYNELL. Editor of the Collected Works of Francis Thompson. Author of Life of Benjamin: Disraeli; ete. WILLIAM MILLER. Correspondent of The Morning Post (London) in Athens and Rome. Author of The Latins in the Levant, The Otloman Empire and its Successors, d History of the Greek People (1821-1021); etc. WiLLIaM M. JARDINE, B.S., LL.D. United States Secretary of Agriculture. Formerly President of Experiment Station, Kansas State Agricultural College. WILLIAM NELSON Runyon, A.B., LL.B. Judge, U.S. District Court, District of New Jersev. Instructor in New Jersey Law School. Formerly Acting Governor of New Jersey. WILLIAM

Oscar

Scroces, A.M., Pu.D.

Financial Writer on The New Vor k Evening Post. Formerly Professor of Economics and Sociology. Louisiana State University. Author of Filibusters and Financlers.

W. P. P.*

Wotr

POCKLINGTON

W. Rn.

W. S. B. W. S. L.-B.

Watter Rosentaty,

York.

Correspondent

Hon. WILLIAM S, NOSWORTHY. Minister of Finance, Stamp Duties, Agriculture and Immigration; and Minister in charge of Land and Income Tax, State Allowances, V aluation, Tourist and Health Resorts and Legislative Department, New Z ealand. MACON.

Editor of The Iron Age, New York.

Y. H.

| |

Farmers’ Organisations (in part). New Jersey.

| a

Louisiana.

F.R.S., D.Sc.

WALTER SYDNEY Lazarus-Bartow, M.D., F.R.C.P. Member of Cancer Committee, Ministry of Health, London. Late Professor of Experimental Pathology and Director of Cancer Research Labor: tories, Middlesex Hospital, London. Author of -1 Manual of General Pathology.

WATTS

Fiume; Macedonia.

of The Sporting Chronicle, { Horse-Racing (in pariy:

Superintendent of the Department of Metallurgy in the National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex. Member of International Committee on Nomenclature of Iron and Steel. Author of Introduction to the Study of Physical Metallurgy; etc. AIR VICE-MARSHAL SIR WILLIAM SEFTON BRANCKER, K.C.B. Director of Civil Aviation at the Air Ministry, London. British Representative on the International Commission of Air Navigation.

WILLIAM

|y |

POND.

Editor of The Spur, New Manchester.

Meynell, Alice.

YrJo HIRN. Professor of Modern Literature, University of Helsingfors, Finland. Author of Det heliga skrinet, Studieri den Katolska K yrkans Poest ock Konst; ctc.

Metallurgy.

|

Flying.

| | |

Medical Rescarch:

New Zealand: Population and Settlement.

i

Iron and Steel.

|

Finnish Literature.

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA THE SECOND

OF THE THREE FABRE

TO

FABRE, JEAN HENRI (1823-1015), French entomologist, was born at St. Léons in Aveyron Dec. 21 1823. He received the clements of a classical education at Rodez, continuing it further at the école normale of Vaucluse. But his whole bent was for science, and after he had become a teacher at Carpentras, he worked in his spare hours at physics and mathematics, and became interested in insects, the study of whose habits was to form his life-work (see 3.626, 6.672, 14.180). His observations were published in Annales des sciences naturelles (1855-8), fol-

lowed

by Souvenirs entomologigues

(1879-1907).

He died at

Sérignan, Provence, Oct. 11 1915.

FACTORY AND WORKSHOP LAW (see 16.7).—Factory and workshop law forms part of the mass of modern legislation referred to as “ industrial law ” or “labour legislation ” (see 16.7). The limited term ‘ factory and workshop law ” arose from the way in which the British Parliament defined workplaces _for the purposes of regulation. The line of demarcation thus drawn between manufacturing and other occupations and the particular grouping of subjects regulated by the British Factory and Workshop Acts are more or less arbitrary and are not necessarily found in the laws of other countries. Nor is it possible, in a practical study of British legislation, to adhere strictly to Factory and Workshop Acts properly so-called. There are many statutes of recent years which affect the health, safety and welfare of workers in factories and workshops without

fitting in to the general scheme of the Factory and Workshop

Acts. A list of Acts since the beginning of 1911, amending those Acts or having an important bearing upon conditions of work in factories and workshops is appended. In addition, a large number of Orders have been issued both under the Act of rgor and under the later Acts, which have given important new powers of regulation to the Home Secretary. Indeed it is

largely by Orders that the factory and workshop law of Great Britain has been kept up to date. I. GREAT BRITAIN Taking the matters regulated by the Consolidating Factory _and Workshop Act of rgor, as a basis, we may consider recent developments under the following six headings:— r. Health and Safety—The formerly important provisions for protecting children from risk of accident or injury to health became obsolete, when “ children ” as defined by the Act of igor

were

excluded

from

work

of all kinds in factories and

workshops. On the other hand, certain general provisions of the Employment of Children Act, 1903, apply, in Scotland

NEW

VOLUMES

OYAMA only, to girls and boys of 14 years of age employed in factories and workshops, since the Scottish Education Act of 1918 raised

to 15 the age of children affected by them. The provisions of the Act of 1901 relating to humidity and ventilation in ccttonweaving sheds were modified by regulations substituted for them under powers given by the Cotton Cloth Factories Act of igtt. The conditions under which accidents must be notified have been changed both as regards the nature of the accidents notifiable and as regards procedure. Under sections included in the Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923, any accident occurring in a factory or workshop causing death or disabling a worker for three days must be notified, and notice is given to the inspectors of factories only, the former duties of certifying surgeons in this connection having been abolished by the Police, Factories, etc. Act, 1916. However, the duties of certifying surgeons in connection with health remain, and have been extended both by Orders making several further diseases compulsorily notifiable, and also by the Lead Processes Act of 1920, which prescribes the periodical medical examination of all women and young persons employed in lead processes (a rule which previously existed only in those lead trades for which it had been prescribed by regulations). This

Act contains, in addition, some general rules of hygiene to be observed whenever any woman or young person is employed in contact with Jead compounds. It is, however, chiefly important in having been adopted in order to give legal confirmation to a recommendation of the International Labour Organisation (1.L.0.), since nearly all the ground was already covered by regulations under section seventy-nine of the Act of roor. Great progress has been made with regulations under that section. Between 30 and 4o codes of regulations are in force, mostly very detailed and highly technical. By means of this system of regulations, the British law for the protection of workers in trades involving special risks is kept fully abreast of medical knowledge and scientific discovery. Many other countries have, especially in recent years, adopted a similar system. But none can show regulations more carefully and scientifically prepared or better observed in practice. The regulations are aimed at every kind of special industrial risk—risk of poisoning, risk of infection, risk from injurious fumes and from excessive and injurious dust, risk of accident, risk of overstrain. The regulations of 1925 restricting the lifting of weights in the woollen or worsted industry relate exclusively to the last-named risk. One of the most interesting sets of regulations, and quite the most elaborate, is the code for the pottery industry drawn

2

FACTORY

AND

up in 1913 after an exhaustive investigation by a departmental committee. Every process and branch of this complicated industry is dealt with in detail. Interesting examples of technical rules for the prevention of accidents are to be found in the regulations of 1922 for woodworking and in the revised regulations for dock work issued in

1925.

Occupations less ostensibly dangerous than those regu-

lated under section 79 of the Act of 1901 may be made the subject of so-called Welfare Orders under section 7 of the Police, Factories, etc. Act of 1916. Welfare orders may deal with facilities for preparing and taking meals, with the supplying of drinking water, protective clothing; ambulances and appliances for first-aid, seats in work-rooms, washing facilities and accommodation for clothing, with the supervision of workers and (a later addition, by Order) with the provision of restrooms. Many of the subjects thus relegated in the British system to Orders are to be found in the statutes of other countries and will no doubt be included in some future consolidating British Act. Meantime these Orders provide a practical, if gradual, means of bringing the British law of a quarter of a century ago up to date as far as the health and well-being of the workers is concerned. Arrangements for “ first-aid ? (or ambulance rooms) were later prescribed for all ‘ factories,” namely by section 29 of the Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923. This section also gave the Home Secretary wider powers in the matter of accident prevention. For instance, sub-section (3) gives powers so defined as to enable him to require employers to put into operation modern safety methods (inspired largely by American practice and adopted of recent years by many British firms on their own initiative), such as the appointment of safety engineers or representative safety committees, whose business it is to check the human as well as the mechanical element in accidents (see Sarery FırsT). The Anthrax Prevention Act, 1919, was adopted in order to enable practical use

to be made of a newly discovered method of disinfecting raw wool and hair likely to be infected with anthrax. 2. LHours of Work—The provisions of the Factory and Workshop Acts relating to hours of work have been only slightly altered during the period under review. Consequently they have grown out of date, and are in practice largely obsolete. The restrictions placed upon the night work of women and boys by the Act of 1901 were supplemented by the Employment of Women, Young Persons and Children Act, 1920, adopted so as to embody in law the provisions of the Conventions on that subject. As far as concerns women the Act made no practical difference. But as regards male young persons it allows fewer exceptions to the gencral prohibition of night work than the old law and never allows boys under 16 to work at night. It therefore overrules or modifies many of the special exceptions formerly allowed both as regards employment in night shifts and as regards encroachments on the rigidly prescribed period of 11 hours night’s rest. | The Act introduced another important change, permitting the employment of women and boys over 16 in two day-shifts of eight hours. This necessitated an extension of the strict outside limits for employment under the Act of rgor, since the two shifts could not be fitted in unless the second shift could con-

tinue at work up to 10 o’clock at night. The clause aroused considerable opposition and was eventually adopted in a guarded form. In the first place, it was of only temporary operation, and from 1925 needed to be annually extended. In the second place, the Home Secretary may only allow the two shifts in any undertaking on the joint application of the employer and a majority of the workers concerned, and the Act enables an organised trade as a whole to resist the introduction of the two-shift system by means of a kind of veto. The Home Secretary may attach conditions to the permission, such as the adoption of various “ welfare ” arrangements, including, for instance, the provision of special transport facilities for women and young persons having to travel to or from work at an unusually early or Jate hour. The indirect effect of the Trade Boards Acts on hours in factories and workshops may well be

WORKSHOP

LAW

noted. Although the trade boards cannot directly regulate hours of work, they influence actual hours by fixing a standard week (usually about 48 hours) beyond which higher rates of wages must be paid. 3. Exclusions from Industrial Work.—As regards the exclusion of persons from industrial work, the most important recent

change has been the raising to 14 of the age limit for young workers to enter upon such employment. This rule was applied by the Employment of Women, etc. Act of 1920 to “ industrial undertakings,” so defined as to cover all “ factories and work-

shops.” The same result had already been attained by the two Education Acts of 1918, which are still relied on for controlling the admission of children to domestic workshops. The Scottish Education Act of 1918 excludes children from factories and workshops up to the age of 15 unless they have procured exemption from school attendance. Both under the Education Act of 1921 and the Scottish Act of 1918, employers may be required to allow young persons over 14 time off from their work for attendance at continuation classes. The Lead Processes Act, 1920 (see 1 above) out of deference to a recommendation of the International Labour Organisation, excluded women and young persons by law from certain lead processes in which, in practice, they were not employed at all. 4. Home Work.—Home Work Orders were issued in 1911, 1912 and 109013, extending to a number of trades the provisions of the Act of 1901 relating to lists of outworkers and the prohibition of work in unwholesome or infected premises.

s. Particulars of Work and Wuges—Parst VIU. of the Act of roor, relating to particulars of work and wages, has been extended by Order to a large number of additional trades. 6. Enforcement of the Law—The factory inspectorate was entirely reorganised after the War. For this no legislation was necessary. One result of the reorganisation was the abolition of the special women’s branch and the admission of the women inspectors to all grades with the same duties as the men inspectors. The enforcement of the sections of the Act of roor relating to the employment of women after childbirth and to bakehouses have been transferred to the Ministry of Health and the Scottish Board of Health. II. THE

BRITISH

DOMINIONS

Both in Northern Ireland and in the Irish Free State the British factory and workshop law existing at the time when the recent constitutional changes were introduced remains in operation for the time being. The Parliament of Northern Ireland can now amend or develop the law, subject to the possible intervention of the British Parliament. The Irish Free State, like all other self-governing Dominions, is free to legislate on this matter quite independently of the British Parliament, but up to March 1926, had made no changes beyond issuing two sets of regulations under section 79 of the Act of 1901. The other British Dominions have steadily developed their industrial legislation. In Australia factory and workshop law of old standing and often amended has in many cases been consolidated more or less recently. It is important to note that industrial arbitration awards and the determinations of wages boards form an essential part of the law in Australia and New Zealand and represent a type of regulation not to be found in so fully developed a form in any other country, though South Africa has recently adopted a somewhat similar method suited to her industrial conditions. In Canada, the most interesting recent legislation from the point of view of factory and workshop law is that of British Columbia putting into operation the proposals of the I.L.O. on hours of work and the employment of women before and after confinement. In India, likewise, certain proposals of that body have been put into force by an Act which made many important amendments in the Factory Act.

III. EUROPEAN COUNTRIES Both in the years immediately preceding and during the War, nearly all the countries of Europe were gradually developing or consolidating their industrial law. France began the codification

FACTORY AND WORKSHOP LAW of her labour laws in rọrọ, and Book II. of the Code of Labour, which covers most of the subjects here considered, was issued in 1912. All existing Industrial Codes have been amended more or less since 1910 and new and improved Factory Acts, superseding older laws, were adopted in Sweden in 1912, Denmark in 1913, Switzerland in 1914 and Norway in 1915. Special laws protecting women and young workers only were newly adopted or amended in Austria, the Netherlands and Portugal in 1911, in Greece and Spain in 1912 and in Belgium in 1914, while developments in legislation concerned with industrial hygiene and safety may be noted in Finland (1914), Germany (the Home Work Law of 1911), Greece (to11, and a bakeries law of 1912) and the Netherlands (a special law for the protection of dock labourers, 1914; and an amendment of the Safety Act, 1915). Finland issued an ordinance in 1917 covering nearly all the ground of factory and workshop law. Since 1918 there has been a still more remarkable activity in labour legislation, due in large measure to the industrial ferment caused by the War. As the process of legislation goes on, we can continually trace the iniluence of the I.L.O., tending to make the laws approximate broadly in aim, but not preventing them from differing widely in form and detail. The newly created or enlarged countries have the task of adapting the laws already existing in newly acquired territory. Of these, only the Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom has as yet fully co-ordinated and codified her industrial law (by the Workers’ Protection Act of 1922). Poland has incorporated certain principles of industrial regulation in her Constitution. , The most striking part of post-War labour legislation is that which restricts the hours of labour of adult men (as well as of women and boys) to approximately cight a day (see Hours oF LABOUR). Many countries have, in addition, amended their law so as to conform to various proposals of the I.L.O. relating to the employment of women and boys at night and in lead processes, the protection of women workers before and after childbirth and the age limit for the employment of children. It should be noted that night-work for adult men is prohibited in general, subject to special exceptions, in several European countries (Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Netherlands, Norway, Poland and Switzerland) and may be restricted by order in Hungary and the Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom. Home-work laws, dealing with hygiene as well as wages, were adopted in rg18 in Austria and Norway, and in 1919 in Czechoslovakia. The tendency for compensation laws to deal also with accident prevention should not be overlooked. A new departure may be noticed in recent laws giving workers the right to a period of annual leave with pay. Laws have been adopted in a number of countries to establish or reorganise systems of inspection, and the influence which works councils (g.v.) may have upon the observance of factory and workshop law should be noted. Soviet Russia has produced a comprehensive labour code and a large number of detailed regulations for health and safety.

IV. THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH AMERICA In the United States, labour legislation has been checked to some extent by the lack of a uniform standard among the States, and by the rigid application by the courts of constitutional principles now out of harmony with public opinion. But, in spite of this, factory and workshop law has steadily developed in most of the States during the period under review, and some States have now advanced labour codes. The problem of child labour has been receiving much attention and a constitutional amendment is being considered to enable Congress to regulate the employment of children. In some States great improvement in accident prevention and hygiene have been brought about through the action of industrial commissions or boards, with wide powers of investigation into, and regulation of, trades. An original plan has been adopted to provide for the rehabilitation of workers permanently injured by their work, on the analogy of those injured by war (Vocational Rehabilitation Act, 1920). In the republics of Central and South America, a considerable amount of factory and workshop law is to be found, in some

4

cases embodied in elaborate codes. In Mexico, the Labour Codes of the various States are based on general principles laid down in an amendment to the federal Constitution of 1917.

V. ASIATIC

COUNTRIES

Factory and workshop law made a start in Japan with the Factory Act of r911, which was amended in 1923 and supplemented by an Act on the minimum age for industrial employment in order to put into operation certain of the standards specially recommended for Japan by the I.L.O. The only other Asiatic country where factory legislation is, as yet, at all advanced, is India, to which reference has already been made. But, in 1923, a Factories Act emerged in China, and Persia issued a decree for the protection of workers in carpet factories. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-(1) British Acts since toro. The Factory and Workshop (Cotton Cloth Factories} Act, 1911; and the Women and Young Persons (Employment in Lead Processes) Act, 1920 (these two Acts, with the earlier Factory and Workshop Acts, are termed collectively the Factory and Workshop Acts, 1901-20); The Police, Factories, etc. (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1916; The Employment of Women, Young Persons and Children Act, 1920; The Work-

men’s Compensation Act, 1923 (sections 28 and 29); The Education

Act, 1918 (Scotland)

(section 14); The Act, 1918; The

Education Act, 1921; The Education Ministry of Health Act, 1919; The

Scottish Board of Health Act, 1919; The Anthrax Prevention Act, 1919; The Checkweighing in Various [ndustries Act, I919; The Celluloid and Cinematograph Film Act, 1922; Trade Boards Provisional Orders Confirmation Act, 1913; Trade Boards Act, 1918. (2) Acts of British Dominions. Australia: The Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Acts, 1904-20 (see vol. 18, 1920, Acts of the Commonwealth of Australia); Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Act, 1921. New South Wales: Factories and Shops Act, 1912; Industrial Arbitration Acts, 1912-20 (Incorporated version: Statutes of New South Wales, 1921, vol. 2); Industrial Arbitration (Amendment) Act, 1922; Eight Hours Act, 1916; Eight Hours (Amendment) Act, 1922. Queensland: Factories and Shops Acts, 1900-22 (i.e., Acts of 1900, 1908, 1914, 1916, 1917, 1920 and 1922); Industrial Arbitration Acts, 1916-25 (7.e., Acts of 1916, 1923, 1924, 1925). South Australia: Industrial Code, 1920; Industrial Code Amendment Acts, 1921 and 1924. Tasmania: Factories Acts, 1910 and 1917; Wages Boards Acts, 1920 and 1924. Victoria: Factories

and Shops Acts, 1915-22 (2.e., Acts of 1915, I919, 1920 2nd session Itwo Acts], and

Act,

1922).

Western

Australia:

1920; Factories and Shops Amendment

1922); Factories and Shops Amendment Arbitration Acts, 1912 and 1920. Canada:

Factories

Act, 1921

and

Shops

(No. 4 of

Act, 1923; Industrial See Labour Legislation

in Canada as existing Dec. 31 19020, and subsequent annual supplements (Department of Labour, Ottawa). India: The Indian tories Act, 1911; The Indian Factories (Amendment) Acts,

and 1923. New Zealand: Factories Act, ation and Arbitration Act, 1925. South Mines and Works Act, 1911; Regulation trial Conciliation Act, 1924; Wages Act,

Fac1922

1921-2; Industrial ConciliAfrica: Factories Act, 1918; of Wages Act, 1918; Indus1925. (3) International Sources. (a) Most of the world’s factory and workshop law of recent years can be found in one or other of the following collections of translations of labour laws: I. The Bulletin of the International Labour Office (of Basle), which ceased with the year 1919 (vol. 14 of the English edition, corresponding to vol. 18 of the German and French editions; Bulletins des Internationalen Arbeitsamtes [Jena]; Bulletin de l'Office International du Travail, Berger Levrault). Il. The Legislative Series of the International Labour Office, Geneva (German edition: Gesefsrethe; French edition: Série Législative) appearing annually, the laws being issued first in a series of advance brochures, referred to by abbreviated names of countries and numbered under each country. The brochure edition began in English for the year [919 and covers the same ground as the Bulletin of Basle for that year. The annual volumes began with the year 1920. The volume for 1921 was issued in two parts. III. The Annuaire de la Législation du Travail (in French only, but giving the original texts also in some years) published annually by the Belgian Govt. up to the year 1913 and closing with a collection of labour laws in several volumes covering the War period. (b) Factory Inspection, historical development and present organisation in certain countries, LL.O., Geneva, 1923; International Labour Review (monthly), articles on the labour laws of various countries, and summaries of official reports of factory inspectors. (4) National Sources. France: Code du Travail et dela Prévoyance Sociale, editions by Berger Levrault or Dalloz. Great Britain: Redgrave’s Factory Acts, 13th edition by C. F. Lloyd (Butterworth, 1924); Factory and Workshop Orders, issued every few years by the Home Office (H. M. Stationery Office); Annual Reports of the Chief Inspector of Factories. United States of America: Labor laws of the United States with decisions of courts relating thereto, Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 370, 1925 (see also list of other Bulletins on labor legislation and court decisions, appended to No. 370). S

4

FACTORY DESIGN

FACTORY DESIGN.—The selection of the site and the design of factory buildings are most important economic factors in manufacture because they may contribute very seriously to the cost of production, not only on account of the initial outlay of capital required, but because of their influence on efficient production. The elimination of waste, whether of material, time or effort, is the chief feature of all manufacturing, and the design of factory buildings plays its part in this elimination. The haphazard methods of erecting factory buildings are passing, and more systematic consideration is being given to their

planning and erection, though even at the present time more effort is devoted to providing good machinery than good, suitable buildings. The factors most largely influencing the design of factory buildings are large scale and standardised production; factory legislation, both government and local; building by-laws; insurance conditions, and the welfare of the employees. Regarding the actual design and building of factories, the determining factor is naturally the character of the product, but certain general considerations apply whatever the product. The

architect of every new factory should make himself thoroughly familiar with the processes and products of the factory before attempting his design, which should be made with a view to meeting adequately the future needs of the industry which, under favourable conditions, will naturally expand, especially as the present-day tendency is towards amalgamations and the formation of large corporations. One of the best ways of providing for this contingency is to design all buildings on the principle ~ of suitable standardised units which can be increased as necessity arises. "These standardised units should represent a complete organisation, but should be so arranged as to make future extensions possible without interfering with the existing business. SELECTION

OF SITE

The effect of location is common to all factory design, and in selecting a site all the following should be taken into account:— Nearness to raw material supply is an important factor where raw materials are bulky and cheap, but as the bulk decreases and the value increases this factor becomes less im-

portant. It is necessary to study the convenience of existing railway lines, frcightage, etc. Proximity to a canal is not the important feature it was formerly. The contour of the land should be studied, not only in so far asit presents a suitably level site for building purposes, but also in relation to canals, railways and other means of transport. The supplies of electricity, gas and water are all important considerations, especially where, as in the case of some industries, enormous quantities of any one are needed, as, for example, in the pulp and paper industry, which requires a vast amount of water; or where the cost of power represents a large part of the ultimate cost of the product. The climate is an important factor in certain industries, as for example, in the textile industry where a humid atmosphere is necessary, though in this case it is becoming less important than formerly because the humidity can be controlled artificially. Suitable Labour Supply.—Where the necessary labour supply is of the unskilled type this is not an important factor, but where skilled labour is essential, it is necessary to locate the industry in a district where training and heredity have developed the required type. Skilled labour is not so migratory as unskilled on account of social and family attachments, etc. Room for Expansion.—It would, of course, be futile to place a factory ina crowded and congested area where there is no space for expansion. The present tendency is for factories to be built on the outskirts of existing industrial areas because here (providing transport facilities are satisfactory, which is not always the case) land is usually cheaper, taxation lower and working conditions better than in the towns. It is, however, difficult to induce labour that is accustomed to town life to migrate to country districts and this, coupled with the housing question (see Housinc) may be an important factor operating against an otherwise ideal site.

Further, some

industries may be dangerous or offensive,

and these must be located well away from congested areas.

Other Factors.—Capital available for investment, laws affecting the tenancy of land, sewage, floods, drinking water supply, etc., are all important points to consider in the selection of a site. TYPES OF FACTORY BUILDING

The type of building erected for a factory depends entirely on the product to be manufactured, and the architectural form is dominated by this factor, and, in the majority of cases, by the great need for economy, but an attractive looking plant has a marked effect on employees, and has an advertising value. Main Types.—There are, in general, three main types of factory building:— 1, The single story building of the weaving-shed type, having a

saw-toothed roof consisting of a series of unequally inclined ridges, glazed usually only on the north side which permits of uniform lighting without shadows. In the single story type when the site does not permit of north lighting, the ridges, which must be equally inclined, can be glazed on both sides. This type (see fig. 1 on plate) is not well adapted for overhead shafting, cranes, etc. 2. The one-story building with large truss spans, provided with accommodation for travelling cranes, etc. This is the foundry, forge and machine shop type and is suitable for medium and heavy work (see fig. 2 on plate).

3. Multi-story buildings for all kinds of manufacture and storage, except in the case of the heaviest industries (see fig. I on plate).

Naturally, each type has its advantages,and disadvantages and must be considered in relation to the product of the factory, but generally, when cost of land is not prohibitive, and the prod-

uct is bulky, the natural choice would be towards a one-story building. Each of these three types of building permits of a construction of any one of the following kinds:— (a) Timber and masonry, known as “ Mill construction.” (b) Steel framework. (c) Reinforced concrete. . : : Whatever type of construction Is employed, the predominating necessity is ‘* fireproofness.”’ In the event of a fire, although the actual amount of material damage is recoverable by insurance, the loss through disorganisation is not recoverable, and frequently is so overwhelming as to prevent ultimate reorganisation. Mill Construction Mill construction is of various types, but in the main, the outside walls are of masonry, the floors of wood, and the roofs, posts, joists and girders of wood or metal. Where much timber is involved the great disadvantage of this type, which for other than heavy work is in other respects satisfactory, is that for fire-resisting purposes it cannot be recommended. This type of building is seldom used for heights of more than six floors on account of its lack of lateral stability, which is chiefly dependent on the masonry of the walls, and which, if developed to any height, would require to be supported by excessive-sized pillars and increased thickness in the lower stories. The adoption of this type of building is getting less and less.

Steel Framework.—Buildings of this type were made possible by the introduction of the Bessemer process of steel manufacture. Here rolled steel structural members are used and filled in with walls, floor and roof, etc. The steel members are riveted, or bolted together. Where long spans without support are necessary, steel framework is essential, and it is also necessary in the case of high walls exposed to wind pressure and to the lateral forces of moving cranes. Steel framework buildings are

not fireproof because exposed steelwork twists and buckles when subject to intense heat, thus wrecking the building more quickly than the fire itself. If the structural steel framework is encased in fire-resisting material such as concrete, it is admirably suitable for the interior of a factory (see FERRO-CONCRETE). Reinforced Concrete —Buildings of this material have come to be recognised as one of the standard types for industry. The material is classed as “ fireproof ” and will stand the destructive effects of fire as well as any material. It is not usually damaged beyond repair by fire, and seldom, if ever, destroyed. It is a particularly durable material, and its durability improves with age. Itis particularly well suited for multi-story buildings containing vibrating machinery or machines with heavy reciprocating parts. “ Daylight factories ” giving the maximum of

natural lighting have come into vogue with reinforced concrete

FACTORY

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MODERN FACTORY DESIGN (AMERICAN) Shoe-factory, near Boston, Mass., designed for a maximum of daylight. Harry Field Kellogg, Architect. This L-shaped building, with combined clock and sprinkler-tank tower at its western angle, is built of reinforced concrete throughout. The piers are between 16 and 17 ft. apart, with glass in metal sashes extending from pier to pier. The brick curtain walls, of no structural function, lend a touch of colour to the building; being only the height of a work-bench, they do not decrease the effective lighting of the factory. The floors are of flat slab construction.

PLATE II.

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MODERN FACTORY DESIGN Single-storey weaving shed and multi-storey spinning mill of unit constr uction, Fic, 2. Interior of single-storey engineering shop.

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FAEROE ISLANDS because columns or pillars may be more slender and the steel framework windows used give an increased lighting area. In cases where the floor load 1s higher than 200 lb. per sq. ft., reinforced concrete buildings are cheaper than those of mill construction. Reinforced concrete buildings have developed almost entirely since 1910. The first line of development was along the form of beam and girder construction, but now the flat slab method of flooring is used, especially in cases where the live load is 150 lb. or more per square foot. For lighter loads, the development has been towards the long span joist construction with a filler of metal, tile, terra-cotta or gypsum block, which reduces dead load and Saves concrete.

l DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION

Foundations.—In choosing a site an important point is that of its levels, and a site poor in this respect purchased at a low figure may eventually prove a most costly one.

It is also important to

have full knowledge of any mineral workings going on, or likely to go on, as these might cause subsidence. The foundations of buildings which are to house heavy machinery must be ample enough to absorb vibration, and in the case of such implements as the steam and power hammer, or jarring machinery for foundries, the foundations should be entirely separate from all building structures or their foundations. It is important to choose a site where there exists a good subsoil of clay or rock, otherwise the expense of piling or rafting might make the cost of the buildings very high or even prohibitive. Floors.—These should be designed to provide facilities for future changes, especially if they are of reinforced concrete, and ducts should be arranged to accommodate pipes, etc. Conduits should be properly placed and openings provided for belts, shafting and other accessories, properly protected. Where apparatus must be taken through floors, ample openings and trap doors or removable floor slabs are essential. Floors formed of concrete and merely spade-finished are unsuitable, and their durability should be increased by some form of floor-hardener or by the application of paving. Pavings are of many kinds, metallic, granolithic, cemented, of fir boarding laid on battens, pitchpine boarding, bricking, maple boarding, rock asphalt, wood blocks, etc. Each of these types has its advantages and disadvantages, some being unsuitable on account of dust, others on account of the discomfort to workers, and every building requires separate consideration. Floor areas must be laid out so as to avoid the conflict of travel in opposite directions and to permit of easy transport. Lighting.— Windows, while no more expensive in initial outlay than walls, are an expensive item in upkeep, and with a large area of glazing the size of glass forming a unit should be of the order of 1 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. or even larger, if of the roughcast or “ Prismatic ” type. It is not usually essential that all parts should be made to open. Steel sashing, although difficult to clean and a source of lost heat, is preferable to wooden sashing as it provides increased lighting facilities, giving 80% to 90% light area as against 50% to 70% for wooden sashes and frames. One-story saw-toothed buildings should have roof windows facing north to avoid direct sunlight. Walls —The thickness of building walls is dictated by Building Acts and by-laws, and in most countries there is no possibility of erecting such walls of less thickness than 9 in. or r4 in., depending on the height and length of the wall and whether steel framework is used. As already stated in connection with the various types of building construction, various materials are used for walls such as brick, concrete, stone, etc. Where hoists and cranes are fitted these must be provided with ample support. Roofs.—Roofs are one of the large items in building construction. Their particular form is dependent upon the intended purpose of the building; a high pitched gabled roof is the best for forges, foundries and other shops engaged in hot processes in which large quantities of heat require to be dissipated, and in other cases where a level cciling is not required; the glazed sawtoothed form of roof provides the best condition of steady, uniform, natural lighting; the flat roof is the natural type for build-

5

ings with interior columns. Whatever the type the essential features are water- and fire-proofness. For general purposes the best material is mineral rock asphalt, which is unaffected by heat or cold and requires no yearly treatment, and is also capable of withstanding traffic without damage. Where sloping roofs are used, steel or reinforced concrete roof principals are employed, and this method of support is now as cheap as steel. Slates as a covering are high in first cost and heavy for long span roofs, but if of good quality are very durable. Bituminous felts and other compositions in sheet form are low in first cost, but require special treatment every few years.

Heating and Ventilation.—Of these two subjects the latter is the more important. In an ordinary factory the air should be changed three to five times per hour, while under some circumstances 1t should be changed as many as 20 times per hour. The temperature also varies with the nature of the work carried on, but a good average is 57° F., though for heavy manual labour a lower temperature should prevail, and for sedentary work, a higher. Various systems of ventilation and heating are employed, but the most suitable for the particular case must be selected, care being taken to economise space and avoid interference with cranes, conveyors, etc. (see PUBLIC HEALTH).

Stutrways, Lifts, Elevators, eic.—Stairways should be ample for emergencies, and give passengers the least inconvenience, a 63 in. rise being considered good practice. Lifts should be encased with brick walls to prevent the spread of fire, and the

openings should be fitted with doors of fire-resisting material made to close automatically in case of fire. Power Supplies Where power is generated on the site, the plant should be located at a point most convenient for the handling of fuel and ashes, and all boiler and engine-room equipment should be capable of extension. Where live steam is used in the manufacturing processes, the power plant should be situated centrally in order to avoid the necessity of long lengths of piping and excessive loss of heat. | Fire Protection.—The installation of apparatus to deal with outbreaks of fire is a necessity in all industrial buildings. The most usual form is by the sprinkler system in which pipes are fixed horizontally along the ceiling, and supplied with water which is not released until the temperature in the building is sufficiently high to melt the solder which holds the automatic valve of the sprinklers in position. When this is released the water is discharged over the affected area. Where sprinklers are not used, hydrants with lengths of hose should be fixed near stairs and in easily accessible positions and fire buckets and chemical fire extinguishers should be placed within the reach of anyone in the building. In the case of some tydes, buckets of sand are more useful than water. Lightning-conductors should be fixed to all buildings. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Charles Day, Industrial Plants (1911); G. M. Price, The Modern Factory; Safety, Sanitation and Welfare (1914); W. R. Jaggard and F. E. Drury, Architectural Building Construction (1923); H. Adams and E. R. Matthews, Reinforced Concrete Construction in Theory and Practice (1920); L. Willard Case, The Factory Buildings (1922); British Fire Prevention Committee, Building Materials and Fire Prevention, 31 books. (P. N.)

FAEROE ISLANDS (see 10.123).—A group of 21 islands belonging to Denmark, situated in the North Sea, 7° east, 62° north. The area is 511 sq. m. and the population (1921) 21,532. Since roro the development of an active movement in favour of selfgovernment has been the most prominent feature of politics in the Faeroes. Though the Sjálvstýrislokkur, or Home Rule party, was first organized as lately as 1906, it is true that some points in the nationalist programme have an earlier origin.

Rise of Nationalism.—The endeavour to secure for the national speech of the inhabitants a position of equality with the official Danish may be said, indeed, to date from the middle of last century, when V. U. Hammershaimb, by systematising the local language, adapted it to literary use. The encouragement of this language was a main plank in the programme of the Féroyingafelag, a society instituted in 1889. The addition, however, to such comparatively innocent expressions of nationalism, of claims for complete political autonomy and even independ-

6

FAGUET—FALKLAND

ISLANDS,

ence, is doubtless largely due to the stimulus of recent events. The success of a similar movement in Iceland (q.z.), which secured for that colony, in 1918, a status of sovereign independence, has no doubt played its part, and it is significant that it was in the same year—1oq18—that the Home Rule party of the Faeroes first obtained a majority in the local Lagting. To this stimulus was added, at about the same time, the prominence given to self-determination during and after the World War. But above all, the dispute between Denmark and Norway over the question of Greenland revived old complaints as to the methods whereby the Danish negotiators, at the Treaty of Kiel in 1814, managed to retain possession of the ancient Norwegian colonies, Iceland, Greenland and the Faeroes, while the separatist tendencies of the Home Rulers were encouraged by certain sections of the Norwegian press and by private individuals in Norway. Under these influences the nationalist leader in the Faeroes, Johannes Patursson, went so far, in 1923, as to suggest the possibility of complete separation from Denmark and an ultimate union with Norway. This, however, is no part of the official programme of his party, the political aims of which do not seem to go much further than an effort to secure autonomy by giving to the Lagting legislative instead of, as at present, merely advisory powers. With regard to the language question, some progress has been made, and since 1912 the use of the local as well as the Danish language in education and in the conduct of religious services has, to some extent, been authorized. The claims of extreme nationalists in this respect are, however, not yet satisfied. The complaints of Danish misrule made by Home Rulers seem, as is usual in such cases, based more on the events of the past than the present. The Danish Govt. has voted considerable sums towards the construction of roads and harbour works, as well as to the support of education. The large increase in the population, which has nearly doubled since the beginning of the century, indicates a considerable measure of prosperity. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-—C. Kuecchler, Die Faeréer. Studien und Wanderfahrten (1913); E. Lehmann, Auf den Faréern (1913); Hans Dju-huus, Foroya Sége (1924); Hans Reynolds, Feréyarne (1923).

(G. M. G.-H.) FAGUET, EMILE (1847~1916), French critic and man of letters (see 10.125), published in his later years Rousseau penseur (1910); Madame de Sévigné (1910); a study of Rostand (1911); Vie de Rousseau (1911); Les amtes de Rousseau (1912); Rousseau artiste, etc. (1912); En lisani Molière (1914) and Mgr. Dupanloup (1914). He died in Paris June 7 1916. FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN (1838-1912), British divine (see 10.129), digd in London Feb. 9 1912. FAIRBANKS, CHARLES WARREN (1852-1918), American politician, was born near Unionville, O., May rr 1852. Graduating from Ohio Wesleyan University in 1872, he was admitted to the bar in 1874,and began practice at Indianapolis, Ind., where ke became a railway financier. He was chairman of the Republican State Convention in 1892, 1898 and 1914, and in 1896 was elected to the U.S. Senate. He was chairman of the U.S. representatives on the British-American Joint High Commission for dealing with Canadian questions in 1898 and 1903, being reelected to the Senate in the latter year. In 1904 he was elected Vice-President as a Republican with Theodore Roosevelt. In 1916 he was again nominated for the vice-presidency, but was defeated. He died at Indianapolis June 4 1918. FAIRBANKS, DOUGLAS (1883— ), motion picture actor and producer, was born at Denver, Colo., May 23 1883. He studied at the Colorado School of Mines and later attended Harvard University, but left the university to enter a brokerage firm in Wall Street. In 1901 he abandoned finance and took up the stage as a career, eventually starring in several plays, among them The Man of the Hour and The Gentleman from Mississippi. Leaving the stage in 1915, he devoted himself to the screen and achieved success in The Lamb, his first picture. In 1917 he became head of his own producing company. His pictures have been distinguished by the wholesomeness of their themes and the extraordinary amount of action displayed.

BATTLE OF THE

His later productions, such as The Thief of Bagdad, exhibit great mechanical ingenuity and a genius for picturesque background. His other pictures include, The Mark of Zorro, The Three Musketeers, Robin Hood, Don Q and The Black Pirate. He married, March 28 1920, as his second wife, Mary Pickford. FAISAL AL HUSAIN (1885), King of ‘Iraq, was born at Taif, the third son of the Sharif Husain. Faisal traced his descent from Fatimah, only surviving child of the Prophet, through Hasan, her eldest son by marriage with ‘Ali Ibn Abi Talib, fourth Amir Al Muninin. After the custom of his house, Faisal was sent when only seven days old, to Rahab Palace, the country seat of the Al ‘Aun family, in the territory of his clan, Beni ‘Abadiyah and their confederates the ‘Ataibah. Here the boy was raised among the tribesmen, and remained until he was seven. In 1893, when Husain was ordered to Constantinople, Faisal accompanied him and was educated privately in that city. In 1905 he married his cousin, and returned to the Hejaz in 1909, when his father was appointed Sharif. In 1913 Faisal became deputy for Jiddah and proceeded to identify himself with the Arab National movement. He commanded his father’s forces in ‘Asir in 1914, and was at Mecca on the outbreak of the World War. He was posted with the Turkish Governor of Syria in 1915, but escaped to the Hejaz early in the following year, and there played a leading part in the Arab revolt, commanding the Arab forces with Gen. Allenby’s army until the capture of Aleppo in Oct. 1918. His influence with the tribes did much to keep Husain’s tribal levies in the field. As Commander-in-Chief of the Arab Army under the Allied Commander-in-Chief he then undertook the administration of the newly-constituted Syrian State, and after attending the Peace Conference in Paris returned to Syria in April 1919. In Sept. he again visited Europe and remained until Feb. 1920; in the following month he was proclaimed King of Syria, but being unable to come to terms with the French Mandatory power he left Damascus in July 1920. After spending the winter in England he proceeded to ‘Iraq as candidate for the throne in June 1921, and was elected king by a plebiscite in which he received 96 % of the votes cast (see ‘TRAQ). FALKENHAYN, ERICH VON (1861-1922), Prussian general, was born Sept. 11 1861 at Burg Belchau in the district of Thorn

(Torun).

He took part in the China expedition of 1900 and re-

mained in China with a brigade of occupation till 1903. In 1906 he was appointed chief-of-staff of the XVI. and afterwards of the IV. Army Corps; in 1913 he became general and was appointed Prussian minister of war. He succeeded Gen. von Moltke in Dec. 1914 as chief of the general staff of the army, was advanced to the rank of general of the infantry, and helped to plan the summer offensive of 1915 against Russia and the operations by which in the winter of 1915-6 Serbia was overrun. He was made responsible, however, for the il-success of the German attacks of 1916 at Verdun, and was replaced as chief of the general staff by Hindenburg in Aug. of that year. He was then assigned the leadership of the IX. Army against Rumania. In 1917 he took command of the so-called Asiatic Corps, for operations in the Caucasus, and in 1918 and 1919 was at the head of the X. Army. Falkenhayn wrote Die Oberste Heeresleitung 1914-6 in ihren wichtigsten Entschliessungen (1920) and Der Feldzug der ọ. Armee gegen die Rumänen und Russen 1916-7 (2 vol., 1921). He died April 8 1922 at the castle of Lindstet, near Wildpark. FALKLAND ISLANDS, BATTLE OF THE.—One of the principal naval actions of the World War was fought on Dec. 8 1914, to

the southeast of the Falkland Is. between a British battle-cruiser squadron under Vice-Adml. Sir Doveton Sturdee and the German squadron under Vice-Adml. Graf von Spee. The table on p. 7 shows the details of the respective forces Fleet at Port W illiam.—Adml. Sturdee arrived at Port William (adjoining Port Stanley) in the Falklands in the forenoon of Monday, Dec. 7. The “ Canopus,” an old battleship, was already there, moored in Port Stanley and waiting with the local volunteers to resist any attack. The squadron was ordered to keep steam for 12 knots at two hours’ notice; the ‘“‘ Macedonia ”

FALKLAND

ISLANDS,

took the guard, and coaling started. Adml. Sturdee’s own colliers had not arrived: there were only three in harbour and the coal in one had deteriorated. The ‘ Carnarvon ” finished coaling at 4 A.M. Dec. 8; the “ Invincible ” started at 6 A.m., and the “ Inflexible ” at 7:20 A.M. The“ Bristol” had drawn fires to remedy defects and the “ Cornwall ” had opened up one engine. This was the situation when at 8 a.m. the ‘‘ Glasgow ”’ fired a gun. BRITISH Type

Ships

Guns

Speed

BattleCruisers

“ Invincible ”’ “ Inflexible ”’

8 12-in, 8 12-in.

25 knots 25 knots

Armoured Cruisers

“ Carnarvon ” “ Cornwall ” “ Kent ”

4 7°5-in., 6 6-in, I4 G-in. I4 6-in.

22-5 knots 23 knots 23 knots

Light Cruisers

“ Glasgow ” “ Bristol ”

2 6-in., IO 4-in. 2 6-in., 10 4-in.

25 knots 24 knots

Armed Merchant Cruiser

|“ Macedonia ”

BATTLE

OF

THE

a

coming round to southeast by east. The “ Carnarvon’s ” efforts to get up were unavailing and Sturdee increased to full speed.. By 12:50 P.M. the battle-cruisers were going 25 knots, overhauling the Germans fast. The “ Leipzig ” soon felt the pace and began to drop behind.

At 12:55 p.m. her range had fallen to 16,000 yd. and the “ Inflexible ” opened fire on her. Von Spee, to save his light cruisers, ordered them to scatter at 1:20 P.M. and they broke away to the southward, but the British cruisers were ready, and without waiting for orders, the “ Glasgow,” ‘‘ Cornwall ” and “ Kent ” went off in hot pursuit (see fig. 1). Conflict of Batile-Cruisers——Von Spee, as his light cruisers left him, turned at 1:25 P.M. to the eastward to accept battle, and took station ahead of the “ Gneisenau,” while Sturdee’s battle-cruisers to the northward turned into line ahead on an easterly course. At 1:30 Von Spee opened fire at 14,000 yd. but the range was too great for the 8-2 in. guns and he led round to the northeast. The range fell to 12,500 yd. and about 1:45 P.M. the “ Invincible ” was hit, and Sturdee turned away to’open the range and take advantage of his heavier guns. The windward position was a severe handicap. Dense clouds of smoke

GERMAN Armoured Cruisers

BATTLE

“ Scharnhorst" | 8 8-2-in., 6 5-9-in. | 22:5 knots * Gneisenau 7 8 8-2-in., 6 5:g-in. | 22-5 knots

| Light { Cruisers

“ Leipzig ” “ Nürnberg ” * Dresden ”

|Supply -o Ships

“Seydlitz ” * Baden ”

|

“ Santa Isabel ”’

IO 4-1-in. 10 4-1-in. IO 4-I-in,

British German

22 knots 23 knots 24 knots

German Fleet Sighted.—A signal was flying at the look-out station on Sapper’s [ill above the harbour. It reported two strange ships in sight. A scene of bustle and commotion ensued. At 8:14 A.M. the signal was made to prepare to weigh and raise steam for full speed. Colliers were cast off, guns cleared away and great clouds of smoke began to pour from the funnels as the ships raised steam. The ships which had appeared so unexpectedly were the ‘“ Gneisenau ” and “‘ Nürnberg,” which Von Spee had sent in advance to effect a landing. They were not visible from the “ Canopus,” but with the help of a fire control station on the hill she opened fire on them with her 12-in. guns at ọ A.M. The range was over 14,000 yd. and the shots fell short, but they made the “ Gneisenau ” turn away. The “ Scharnhorst ” was still some r5 m. off but the clouds of smoke rising over the hills had made Von Spee uneasy. From the “ Gneisenau ” came a report of six warships in the harbour, and the German admiral, confirmed in his misgivings, ordered her to steer east and not to accept battle. By 10 a.m. the ‘ Invincible,” “ Inflexible ” and ‘“ Cornwall ” were under way and leaving harbour. Huge clouds of smoke hid them for a time, but they cleared away, revealing the tripod masts of battle-cruisers and Von Spee knew that his hour had come. Pursuit of German Fleet—By 10:30 A.M. Sturdee was clear of the harbour; the Germans were hull down to the southeast about rı m. off, and the admiral hoisted the “ general chase,” a signal for each ship to steam as hard as she could in pursuit. It wasa perfect day with a blue sky and calm sea. A light wind was blowing from the northwest. The day may be resolved into two phases —the pursuit from 10:20 A.M. to 1:20 P.M., and the action from 1:20 P.M. to 6 P.M. At 10:50 A.M. Sturdee ordered the ‘ Inflexible ” to take station on his port quarter, thereby annulling the

signal to chase. By 11 A.m. the Germans were showing above the horizon and the battle-cruisers eased to 24 knots. The ‘ Glasgow ’’ was on the “ Invincible’s ”’ port bow, the ‘‘ Kent ” on her portbeam. The “ Carnarvon” and “‘ Cornwall ’”’ were 5 m. astern. The crews were piped to dinner and, to give the “‘ Carnarvon ” a chance to get up, the admiral reduced to 19 knots. Meanwhile Von Spee’s colliers had been sighted to the westward off Port Pleasant (20 m. west of Port William) and the “ Bristol,” which was just leaving harbour, was sent after them with the “ Macedonia ” at 11:30 A.M. By this time the chase was gradually

OF

FALKLANDS

a

>

—— e

“3+ 3.30 u

Scharn horst unk) 4i v.

-l

Gneisenau (sunk) 6 02

TN VAP SIZE

Dresden

out of Sigt 5 0pm > a NV urnberg {sunk} Zer

E Leipzig/suns/ 923 Cornwall& Glasgow

@ were pouring from the battle-cruisers shrouding the ships and smothering the range. By 2 P.M. the range had increased to 16,000 yd. and the guns ceased fire. No serious damage had been done, the “ Gneisenau ” had received only two hits, and one of her 8-2 in. casemates had been temporarily disabled. At 2:05 P.M. Von Spee turned right away to the southward, bringing the battle-cruisers right astern, and some minutes elapsed before the movement was seen; then Sturdee turned after him to the southward, increasing speed, and the chase began again (see fig. 2). It continued for nearly 40 min., while Sturdee crept gradually up on von Spee’s port quarter. At 2:50 P.M. the range was down again to 14,000 yd., and turning two points to port, Sturdee opened fire again. Von Spee again accepted action and turning to the east opened fire at 2:55 P.M. (sce fig. 2). The action ran to the eastward till 3:15 p.m. with the range falling gradually to 11,000 yards. The British guns were now establishing a mastery. The “ Scharnhorst ” was burning, her fire had slowed down and she sheered to starboard for a time with a damaged rudder. But again the smother of smoke made spotting difficult, and at 3:15 P.M., to escape from it, Sturdee turned the battle-cruisers right round to port together, so that the “ Inflexible ” was now leading to the westward. Von Spee in reply at 3:27 p.m. led round to port,in succession bringing his starboard guns into action. The action now ran to the south-westward with the

8

FALKLAND

ISLANDS, BATTLE OF THE

British battle-cruisers circling round the Germans at a range of 11,000 to 12,000 yards. By 4 p.m. the “‘ Scharnhorst ”’ was blazing from stem to stern, her guns were silent, her superstructure was a mass of ruins; she was listing heavily to port and barely making 12 knots. Smoke was again obscuring the range and the “ Inflexible,” to get rid of it, circled round to starboard at 4:10 P.M. engaging the“ Gneisenau ” on a northeasterly course (see fig. 2). End of the “Scharnhorst.” —The “ Invincible ” ran on a little farther to the southward and then circled round to the northeast. The ‘‘ Scharnhorst’s ” end was now near. She turned to starboard a mass of smoke and flame, then at 4:17 P.M. heeled completely over to port and sank with her flag flying. Not a soul was saved. The “ Invincible ” and “ Inflexible ” were now engaging the “ Gneisenau ” on an opposite course; at 4:30 P.M. Sturdee, then on a northeasterly course, circled round to starboard, and ordering the “ Inflexible ” to form single line ahead BATTLE

OF

o5 | FALKLANDS

Invincible ,

BYtish German

inflexible 7

—_ wee»

Cornwall Kent

lasgow/ 47 tee

spite of the efforts of the “ Dresden ” to divert her by sheering oif to the southwest, opened fire on the “ Leipzig ” and obtained| a hit on her which reduced her speed. Light Cruiser Action —By 4:15 P.M. the “ Cornwall” was coming up and opened fire on the “ Leipzig ” at 12,000 yd., but the range in the failing light was too great, and it was not till 4:25 pM. that her ‘shots were falling close. The “ Glasgow ” had received one or two hits and, forsaking any attempt to overtake the “ Dresden,” circled to starboard at 4:27 p.m. and passed behind the ‘‘ Cornwall.” The chase continued to the south-

eastward till 4:55 p.M., when the “ Leipzig ” turned to the southwestward, and the ‘‘ Cornwall,” following suit, engaged her with the port guns (see fig. 1). The “ Glasgow ” came into action again, the ‘‘ Leipzig’s ”’ speed gradually sank and the British cruisers kept her under continuous fire at 9,000 to 10,000 yards.

By 6 p.m. a drizzling rain had begun to fall and the “‘ Glasgow ” signalled to close. The “ Cornwall” crept up and Capt. Ellerton began to fire lyddite with terrible effect.

The “Leipzig Sunk.—By 7 p.m. the “ Leipzig’s ” speed was reduced to 15 knots, but she was still firing fitfully. The whole of her stern was wrapped in flame and the main mast, melting in the heat, had collapsed. The British cruisers ceased fire and closed, but her flag was still flying defiantly and, at 7:50 P.M., they reopened fire for a quarter of an hour. Boats were lowered to rescue the crew. She was heeling heavily to port and at 9:23 P.M. turned over and sank (53°55’S.,55°55’ W.). Only five officers and 13 men were saved.

“Nürnberg” in Action—The “ Kent,” to the eastward all this Leipzigy Nürnberg

“Dresden

fay ee

TN.

ERR

g

VAR SAE

7h

MP

i

Zinvincible

“inflexible

ea

Ta a

ae

“ye $330 3 7?

ey os TTN

`

a

E

ankore

“4 (sunk) #17

Oy 'anflexibig G

Ke 3 we oe

“degGneisenau/su2k) 6 02

shaped course, to the westward. The “ Gneisenau ” was some 13,000 yd. to the southeast, struggling desperately along on a southwest course. The “Gneisenau” Sunk.—At 4:45 P.M. the “ Inflexible,” again hampered by the smoke, turned to port, and, leaving the flagship, ran to the eastward, opening on the “ Gneisenau ”’ with her starboard guns, and turning southwest again at 4:55 P.M. kept the “ Gneisenau ” at about 12,000 yards. By 5:15 p.m. the latter was in a sorry plight. Her foremost funnel had toppled over; she was listing heavily to starboard and barely making headway. The sunshine had gone and a drizzling rain had commenced to fall. Her fore turret still fired fitfully. At 5:45 p.m. she fired her last shot and at 6:02 p.m. heeled slowly over to starboard and sank. The British rescued 187 survivors from the icy water. Pursuit of Light Cruisers —Meanwhile the German light cruisers were heading to the southward with the ‘ Glasgow,” “ Kent” and “ Cornwall” at their heels. The actual speeds are doubtful. On the British side, the ‘“‘ Glasgow ” could probably go 25 knots, and the “ Cornwall ” and “Kent ” can be credited with at least 224 and 22 knots. The “ Dresden ” could probably go 25 knots, the “ Nürnberg ”? 22, while the “‘ Leipzig,” whose engines and boilers were in bad condition, could barely do 20 to 21. The German ships, which had been cruising continuously for four months, found it hard to maintain their speeds. When the chase began the British cruisers were some ro to rrm. behind. The “ Glasgow ” soon forged ahead and at 2:53 P.M., in

time, had been vigorously pursuing the ‘‘ Niirnberg ” and by feeding the fires with all the spare wood in the ship, from hen coops to capstan bars, had brought the range down to 12,000 yd. by 5 p.m. The “ Nürnberg ” opened fire and was sending her 4:1 rounds right over the “ Kent,” when the latter’s 6-in. guns were still falling 1,000 yd. short, but the weather was growing thick and it was becoming difficult to spot. Then came a change; the “ Niirnberg’s”’ boiler tubes gave out; her speed sank to 18 knots and the “‘ Kent ” overhauled her rapidly. At 5:45 p.m. the “ Kent ” was on her port quarter 7,000 yd. off, and the “‘ Niirnberg ” turned to northeast to engage her (sce fig. 1). The light was failing and Capt. Allen forced the pace and. closed to 3,000 yards. The “ Niirnberg ”’ could not stand the fire and turned away to the southward at 6:02 P.M., but the “ Kent ” followed her round. By 6:10 P.m., the “ Nürnberg ” was blazing with only two guns in action, and the ‘ Kent ” circling round raked her at 3,500 yards. By 6:25 p.m. she was merely a burning wreck, listing heavily, but with her flag still

flying, and the “ Kent ” opened fire again. Just before 7:30 P.M. the “ Nürnberg ” turned over and sank, but though the boats were searching up till ọ P.M., only seven survivors were found. The following table German forces:—

shows

Ship British

“ Invincible” “ Inflexible ”

“ Glasgow”

.

.

“ Carnarvon ” “ Scharnhorst "’ “ Gneisenau a

‘ Leipzig' a Nürnberg ” ‘ Dresden"’

k. = killed.

casualties

of the

British

and

Received

Hits

Casualties

Rounds Fired

2

I w. 2 W. 4w. O wW. 12 w. OmnO On NT, BR A ow. All 187 saved

573 12- in. 661 12-in.

.

“Cornwall”.

“Rent”

the

18

36 Q

Sunk Sunk Sunk Sunk

316

6-in.

1,000 646

6-in. 6-in.

18 saved 7 saved

Escaped

w. = wounded.

German Colliers Captured.—Meanwhile the German colliers ‘Santa Isabel’? (Hamburg-South America) and ‘ Baden ”

(Hamburg-America)

had been found by the “Bristol”

and

‘‘ Macedonia,” chased to the southeast and captured about 4 p.m. (see fig. r). Sturdee had given the order to sink all transports, and, though they were not transports, but colliers full of valuable coal, they were sunk. The “ Seydlitz”’ (Norddeutscher

FALL RIVER—FAMILY ALLOWANCES

9

Lloyd) escaped to the southward and found safety amongst the icebergs of the Antarctic. The “‘ Dresden ” had disappeared to the southwest about 5 p.m. and reached Magellan Straits on Dec. 10. Three long months elapsed before she was hunted down and sunk by the “ Glasgow ” and ‘Kent ” on March 14. Concluston.—This was the end of the engagement known as the Battle of the Falklands, the end of Von Spee’s squadron, of Von Spee and both his'sons. It marked the end, too, of a definite phase of the struggle at sea. The German cruiser warfare collapsed, and outside the North Sea and the Baltic, England held an unchallenged command of the sea. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. E. H. Spencer Cooper, The Battle of the Falk-

from 15 to 30%, according to his grade, married official. For a man with a large course considerably more than this. The tralia gives the children of its employees

lands (1919); R. H. C. Verner, The Battle-Crutsers at the Action of the Falkland Islands (1920); J. S. Corbett, History of the Great War, Naval Operations, vol, 1 (1921); Germany, Marine Archiv, Krieg zur See; Kreuzerkrieg, vol. 1 (1924). See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOG-

children receives by this aid about 16° more than a single man. In Germany and France the cost of the allowances to the employers is equivalent to about 6 or 7% of the wage bill. In most countries the married workers’ privileges include coal and in some a house free or at a low rate.

RAPHY.

(ACD)

FALL RIVER, Mass., U.S.A. (see 10.155), was outranked in 1919 by New Bedford (q.v.) in the value of cotton goods produced. In 1920 it ranked first in the proportion of children employed, 18-5 % of all ro-15 years of age; second in illiteracy, 11-9% of the population 10 years of age and over being unable to write; third in the proportion of women at work, 41-6% of all females ro years of age and over, and had a high intant mortality. The total value of its manufactured products was $64,146,000 in 1909; $163,246,000 in 1919; $133,407,969 in 1921; $1 72,395,700 In 1923. The average number of wage-earners in the factories was practically the same in 1909 and 1919 (37,139 and 37,015 respectively), and after a drop in 1921, rose to 37,018 in 1923. Fall River was seriously affected by the general depression of 1920-1 and by the growing competition of southern cotton-mills. At times, after the close of the World War, the number of unemployed was estimated at 20,000 or 30,000, or even more. In 1922 a fuel-oil refinery, with a monthly capacity of 1,000,000 barrels, was added to the industries of the city. The construction of an electric super-power plant on the Taunton river was begun in 1925. A city plan was adopted in 1923. FAMILY ALLOWANCES.—The custom of paying, in addition to wages, allowances for children and sometimes for wives, grew up out of the economic conditions during and after the World War, though before that vestiges of it existed here and there in a few occupations, notably in agriculture, where payments in kind varying with the size of the labourer’s family have long been general in most countries. During the War all the belligerent States paid allowances for the wives and children of .the men in the fighting services, and in the public services of most European countries, the war bonuses made necessary by the rise in prices were proportioned in some way to the size of the worker’s family, or at least differed for married and unmarried. Probably these two war customs prepared the way for the rapid development which has followed in some countries. In the services of the State and of local authorities the payment of allowances for children has become established in France, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Jugoslavia, Norway (municipal services only) Sweden, Finland and Poland. In several of these (¢.g., Switzerland and Italy), attempts have been made, so far unsuccessfully,

to drop the payment as conditions became more normal. In most countries, a distinction is made between the children of salaried officials and those of weekly wage-earners, the allowances for the former being at a higher rate and continuing during the years of university education, while those of the latter terminate at 13 or 14. Otherwise the allowances do not vary with the remuneration of the worker, except in Holland, where they are expressed as a percentage of his salary, with a minimum and a maximum. In Switzerland, allowances are confined to the lower paid officials. Everywhere the allowances represent only a small part of the cost of a child; being on a flat rate they are more important to the lower paid than to the higher paid officials. Thus in Germany, where the allowances in the public services are relatively more important than in most countries, and where they include an allowance for the wife, it is reckoned that the average income of a married official is raised by this means

week until the age of r4.

above that of an unfamily the value is of Federal Govt. of Ausan allowance of 5s. a A a

|

:

Next to the public services, mining is the occupation where the system is most widely established. It is practically universal in. the mining industry of Germany, France, Belgium, Austria and Yugoslavia and in some of the mining districts of Holland, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Sweden. Here, as elsewhere, the allowance represents only a contribution towards child maintenance.

It is reckoned that in the Ruhr a workman with three

THE SYSTEM AT WORK In other industries, the family allowance system is widely extended only in France, Belgium, Germany and Austria, though there are instances of it in other countries. The French Sysient.—In France its development has been greatly

helped by the device of the equalisation fund (Caisse de Compensation pour allocations familiales), which guards successfully against the danger that family allowances paid for by employers might prejudice men with families in obtaining employment. Such funds were first proposed in 1918 by M. Romanet, a benevolent Roman Catholic employer of the metallurgic industry of Grenoble. The idea spread rapidly, and by the end of 1925 there were in France 180 equalisation funds, covering over 10,000 firms. The method is simple:— The fund may be either " professional,” 7.e., confined to a single industry or kind of occupation, or “ regional and interprofessional ” i.e., open to all employers who desire to join within a given area. The scale of allowances (which varies considerably in different funds) having been fixed, the number of children covered is ascertained at fixed periods, and each adherent employer is assessed for his share of the cost, the assessment being based either on the amount of his wage-bill, the number of his workers or the number of hours worked. When the number of workers is the basis, some funds fix a lower scale for women and youths than for adult male workers. Some funds actually pay the allowances to the parents; in others the employer pays and subsequently claims from the fund the excess, or pays into the fund the deficiency of his payment over the sum due from him. The allowances are usually paid monthly and, in an increasing proportion of funds, not to the workman but to the children’s mother. It is found that this method is not only more certain to benefit the children, but less apt to arouse the jealousy of the single man, who is thus led to regard the allowances, not as an addition to wages, and thus an infraction of the principle of equal pay for equal work, but as a recognition of the separate service of parenthood. The desire for an increased population is shown by the grading of the allowances upwards, e.g., in May 1924 the average of the scale in all the funds was per month 19 fr. for one child, 46 for two children, 81 for three, 124 for four, At this date the average monthly wage of an adult labourer was 500 francs. Many funds also pay bonuses at childbirth (primes de naissance) and during the period of lactation (primes d'allaitement). Many maintain subsidiary health services, such as health visitors, day nurseries, convalescent homes, etc. The cost of the allowances to employers varies from I to 7% of the wage bill. Including the public services, mines, railways and other large enterprises, which pay allowances directly, the number of workers covered in 1925 was reckoned at 3,500,000 and the annual cost of allowances at over 1,000 million francs. The system is increasingly popular with employers, who find their reward in the increased well-being and contentment of their workers. The attitude of the trade unions has changed from one of suspicion to a definite and cordial acceptance of the principle, coupled with resentment of employers’ control and demand that it shall be made universal, compulsory and collectively controlled. . Other European Countries.—In Belgium, the methods adopted are modelled closely on those of France. Progress began several years later, but has been rapid; and the system appears equally destined to become a permanent part of industrial life, welcomed both by employer and employed. In his report for 1925, the British commercial! secretary attributed the freedom of the country from industrial strife partly to this cause and says:— It is almost generally admitted now that the family bonus system is of real economic value, and that by improving the present and future conditions of the working class it is capable of exerting a direct and beneficial influence on the prosperity and producing capacity of the country. a i In Germany, during the five years following the World War the payment of family allowances was probably as common as in France,

IO

FARINA, SALVA’TORE—FARMERS’

but much less generally popular. Employers tended to regard the allowances as a temporary addition to wages which could be dropped when conditions became more normal. Hence few equalisation funds were started, and the allowances being paid to the worker with his wage was apt to excite the single man’s jealousy, while the married man feared to be prejudiced in seeking work. In 1925 the number of collective agreements containing family allowances showed a falling off. It is not yet certain whether the tendency will be permanent.

In Austria, the payment of children’s allowances through equalisation funds was, in 1921, made compulsory on all employers, as a kind of compensation to the workers for the removal of the bread subsidy. The amounts, however, were exceedingly small, and at the end of the period stipulated by the law, the system, toa great extent, lapsed, except in the public services and inthe mining. industry. Austraiia.—In Australia, since 1907, wages have heen subject to a legal minimum, settled by the Courts and supposed to be roughly based on the needs of the ‘‘ normal ”’ family of five persons (four persons in New South Wales). In I919, owing to the discontent caused by rising prices, a Royal Commission on the basis wage, composed of equal numbers of representatives of employers and employed with an impartial chairman, was set up to determine what was the actual cost of maintenance of a five-member family at a standard of reasonable comfort. The sum fixed for each of the five States averaged £5 16s., the existing basic wage being then £4. The Commonwealth statistician promptly reported that the whole produced wealth of the country, if equally divided, would not yield the necessary

amount. The chairman of the commission, Mr. A. D. Piddington, then submitted the proposal that the basic wage should be based on the needs of man and wife and supplemented by an allowance of 12s. per week foreach child, paid out of a State fund to which each employer should contribute 10s. 9 p. per week per employee. He pointed out that the ordinary conception of the basic wage postulated 2,100,000 non-existent children, the total number of actual children (under 14) of employees being 900,000. The only actual fruit of this proposal, up to 1926, has been the aforesaid 5s. allowance paid for each child of a Commonwealth employee. But child endowment has figured largely in the programme of Australian politicians. A Bill embodying Mr. Piddington’s proposal passed the Lower House of New South Wales in 1920; a Bill for the State endowment of children was introduced by the succeeding Labour Govt. of New South Wales. The South Australian Labour Govt. in 1925 promised, but failed, to introduce a similar measure. The Federal Govt. has a!so played with the question.

Great Britain.—Although Great Britain possesses the earliest equalisation fund in existence (in fact though not in name) in that established about a century ago by the Wesleyan community for children of ministers, the family allowance system has so far not taken much root in the country, except in the fighting services. The subject, however, has been widely discussed since the development of the foreign schemes. It is significant of its growing hold on public opinion that during 1925 the London School of Economics introduced substantial educational allowances for the children of its professorial staff, the Independent Labour Party adopted as part of its programme a state scheme of children’s allowances, and the Coal Commission report recommended such allowances as “one of the most valuable measures that could be adopted for increasing the well-being and contentment of the mining population.”

Conclusions.—Advocates of the principle contend that as the national income or dividend is an uncomfortably tight fit, it will be impossible to satisfy the general demand for a reasonably high standard of life so long as the needs of the family during the years of its greatest dependency are only met through a wage

paid equally to the childless man.

They further argue that the

value of children to the community, as its future citizens and workers, is not adequately recognised by a system which assigns to the family unit an income no larger than that enjoyed by the single individual; that as a result the more thoughtful and ambitious workers are tending drastically to restrict their families, while the less thoughtful and less ambitious practise no such restriction. To this is added the plea that the maximum production of wealth will only be achieved when competition between men and women workers is at once free and fair; that this is impossible without “ equal pay for equal work,” and that this again is impracticable until family responsibilities are met by family allowances. | There is a division of opinion among advocates of family allowances in Great Britain between those who prefer the foreign system of equalisation funds paid for by employers, those who

ORGANISATIONS

would like to see family allowances provided through contributory insurance, and those who believe that the whole cost should be met by the State. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Family Allowance, International Labour Office Reports, Series D, No. 13 (1924); E. F. Rathbone, The Disinherited

Family; a Plea for the Endowment of the Family (1924); P.H. Douglas, Wages and the Family (1925); J. L. Cohen, Family Income Insurance (1926). (E. Ra.)

FARINA, SALVATORE (1846-1018), Italian novelist (see 10.179), died at Milan Dec. 15 1918. His best-known work is La piu bella fancuilla del? universo (1911). See V. Dendi, Un Romanzo dimenticato, S. Farina (1921). FARINACCI, ROBERTO (1892), Italian politician, was born Oct. 16 1892 at Isernia, in the province of Campobasso. Educated at Cremona, he entered the railway administration, becoming station-master at Cremona. While still a very young

man he took to politics, and on the outbreak of the World War conducted an active interventionist propaganda. As soon as Italy went to war he volunteered for active service, but 18 months later was ordered to resume his civilian duties. After the Armistice he was one of the first to join Mussolini’s Fasci di Combattimento and he organised the movement in Cremona. In1g21 he wasreturned to the Legislature as member for Mantova-

Cremona, but was unable to take his seat in the Chamber, being under age. He had now become the leading figure in Cremona, and through the daily paper founded by him, Cremona Nuova, acquired an increasing influence in the Fascist party. He also found time to complete his studies and secured a university degree in law. When Mussolini came into power, although not given office, Farinacci continued to be one of the Premier’s most trusted advisers. In 1924 he was again returned to the Legislature and in March 1925 he became, on Mussolini’s nomination, general secretary of the Fascist party. FARMERS’ ORGANISATIONS (see 10.181).—The wholesale intervention of various Governments in agricultural production and the regulation of prices which was necessary during the World War have provided great stimulus to the organisation of farmers into associations capable of negotiating with the Governments of their respective countries. The growth of the Federation of Farm Bureaus in the United States and of the National Farmers’ Union in Great Britain are but examples of associations not called into existence by the War but which have strengthened their position and learned to play a representative part during these critical years. It has become evident, however, that any national movement for the stabilisation of the prices of agricultural produce at a level that will be remunerative to the farmer must be severely limited by international competition in the world’s market. Consequently a widespread feeling has grown up that an international combination between producers is necessary in order to secure some common action among the farmers of all countries whereby their interests may be protected. The International Institute of Agriculture at Rome is, however, organised on an official basis. There is no direct representation of farmers, and the line of work taken up by the Institutehas been mainly confined to the collection and dissemination of information. The constitution of the Institute which is defined by treaty provides no machinery for enabling farmers’ associations to formulate an international expression of agricultural opinion, but the question is still under consideration. There exists an International Commission of Agriculture with its scat in Paris, which from time to time (1923 in Paris, 1925 in Warsaw) convenes an International Congress of Agriculture. It is under consideration whether this organisation cannot be given a character more directly representative of the associations of farmers in various countries. : | The same basic idea has been earnestly advocated by the writings and personal influence of Dr. E. Laur, the Director of the Swiss Farmers’ Union. In Sept. 1925, Dr. Laur summoned an international conference of representatives of agricultural associations which met at Berne and was largely attended by delegates of farmers’ organisations in Europe and the United States

FARMERS’

ORGANISATIONS

of America. The Conference affirmed the need for an international organisation that could promote common action amongst agricultural producers all the world over and decided to take steps to secure the support of the properly constituted bodies in the various countries. A meeting was convoked in Rome for April 1926 on the occasion of the meeting of the General Assembly of the International Institute of Agriculture. (A. D. H.) ORGANISATIONS

IN THE

UNITED

STATES

The following article deals with the development of Farmers’ Organisations in the United States, where the movement has grown more rapidly and attained greater dimensions than in any other part of the world. For similar organisations in other agricultural countries, the articles thereon should be consulted. (See also AGRICULTURE; CO-OPERATION, AGRICULTURAL; MARKETING.) The organisations in the United States fall into two general classes: (1) organisations interested in the general problems of agriculture, i.e., education, legislation, credit, transportation, etc.; and (2) co-operative organisations of farmers formed for the purpose of marketing farm products or purchasing farm supplies. This classification does not include the various state and Federal institutions engaged in agricultural teaching, research and service. Principal Organisations.—Prominent among the general farmers’ organisations are the Grange or Patrons of Husbandry, the American Farm Bureau Federation, the Farmers’ Educational and Co-operative Union, and the Equity. Other organisations that restrict their activities to a special industry or phase of agriculture are the National Co-operative Milk Producers’ Federation and the National Council of Farmers’ Co-operative Marketing Associations. A number of local or regional organisations serve the interests of farmers and shippers of farm products. The organisation of the Grange comprises subordinate (or local} county and state granges. The state organisations make up the National Grange. The work of the local granges is chiefly fraternal, educational, social and recreational, while the state organisations and the National Grange give attention to broad questions of agricultural policy, education and legislation. The local units of the American Farm Bureau Federation are county organisations, which were formed originally to employ and cooperate with an agricultural adviser for the county, who was also a state and Federal employee. In most states the county agricultural adviser was in 1926 paid wholly from public funds, though he might work in close co-operation with the county farm bureau or other farm organisation. County farm bureaus were first federated in state organisations, and in rg19 the national organisation, the American Farm Bureau Federation, was formed. This organisation obtained a membership of over 1,000,000 farmers the first year of its existence. Since 1920 it has taken an active part in the formation of large-scale, cooperative marketing agencies for grain, live stock and fruits and vegetables.

Some state farm bureaus have a close afilia-

tion with co-operative marketing associations which they have fostered. Marketing.—The organisation of farmers for business purposes has been mainly in the field of co-operative marketing. The most reliable estimates placed the total business of cooperative marketing associations at $2,500,000,000 for the year 1925. This business was conducted by approximately 12,000 associations, whose membership totalled over 2,700,000, more than one-third of the total number of farmers in the United States. The number of farmers who were members of co-operative associations was divided by commodities as follows: grain, 520,000; dairy products, 460,000; cotton, 300,000; tobacco, 300,000; live stock, 400,000; fruits and vegetables, 180,000; eggs and poultry, 50,000; wool, 50,000; nuts, 20,000; all other, 420,000. The first nation-wide survey of the extent of co-operation among farmers was begun in 1913. Data for the years 1912, 1913, 1914 and I915 were collected and tabulated. The most complete information was secured for the year r915. Reports were received from 5,424 co-operative associations with an estimated membership of 651,186 and an estimated volume of business amounting to $635,838,684.

II

The largest volume of business, $289,689,200, was credited to the farmers’ grain elevators. Fruit and vegetable associations with $201,542,600 were second, and associations marketing dairy products were third with $89,061,300. The second survey was made in connection with the taking of the 1919 census. Sales through farmers’ marketing organisations at this time were reported as $721,983,639 and 511,383 farms reported sales through such organisations, At the same time 329,449 farms reported purchases through farmers’ buying associations totalling $84,615,669. ‘The third survey was undertaken by the U.S, Dept. of Agriculture in 1921. Reports had been received

{rom 10,500 associations up to 1925, and it is on these reports that the estimate of total business, already given, is based. The interesting feature as regards these figures as compared with those given for 1915 is the increase in the amount of business done by cotton, tobacco and live-stock marketing associations. In fact, large-scale co-operation in the South has developed entirely since 1920. Local Assoctations.—In Jan. 1926 there were approximately 11,500 active local co-operative associations— independent organisations and units of federations—whose members were for the most part limited to farmers using the same shipping point. The local

association is the earliest form of co-operation among farmers in the

United States. It performs, as a rule, the services of a country dealer. Fruit and vegetables are assembled, packed and stored by local associations; milk is manufactured into butter and cheese: grain is bought; live stock is assembled and shipped and supplies are purchased and distributed by this type of organisation. Most of them handle only one commodity or a group of related commodities, such as several vegetables, or butter and eggs. Approximately 9,500 of the local associations operate independently. They sell their products to local dealers or through commission merchants in the terminal markets. In some cases they employ the services of private distributing firms, or more rarely sell direct to wholesalers. About 2,000 local organisations, however, are member units of federations formed for the purpose of performing the selling services which the small independent local associations cannot handle to the best advantage. The federation is an organisation in which the local units are the members and own the stock of the organisation, if it is incorporated with capital stock. Over 450 creameries in Minnesota, for example, have affiliated to form a federation to sell the butter manufactured by them. Two hundred local citrus packing associations in California sell their products through a co-operative central agency which they own and control. In this manner the group of local units are adequately represented in the markets at a reasonable cost. Approximately 50 federations were in operation in 1925. The annual sales aggregated $400,000,000, and over 220,000 farmers were members of the local units that affliated to form these federations. Regional Associations.—A third type of co-operative organisation is the centralised regional association. The first co-operative organisation of this type was formed in 1912. Since 1920, associations for the marketing of tobacco, cotton, fluid milk and dried fruit have been formed according to the centralised plan. A centralised regional association usually extends over a large area, frequently an entire state, or a producing region including portions of several states. It combines the functions of the tndependent local association and the federation. All members affiliate directly with the organisation, it owns the local warchouses and other necessary local facilities, and performs the local functions of assembling, storing, grading, or processing the product in addition to the marketing functions of distributing and selling. The number of members in associations of this kind exceed 60,000 in some instances, About 75 associations of this kind have been formed. They have approximately 900,000 members, and their total sales in 1925 were approximately

$600,000,000. It will be noted, therefore, that approximately onethird of the co-operative marketing business was carried on in 1925 by 125 centralised regional and federated regional organisations. Sales agencies for the co-operative handling of live stock have been established at 20 of the terminal markets. During 1925 these agencies received live stock which sold for more than $280,000,000. Co-operative terminal market agencies have also been formed in a few markets for the sale of grain.

Capper-Volstead Act.—The rapid growth of large-scale cooperative organisation, which began in 1920, created a demand for state laws providing for the incorporation of the co-operative associations. In 192s, 46 of the states had laws permitting cooperative organisations to incorporate, with or without capital stock, and to incorporate in their articles of incorporation and by-laws provisions that would ensure the co-operative nature of the enterprise. Many of these laws also define the status af co-operative associations with reference to state anti-trust laws. In 1922 Congress enacted the Capper-Volstcead Act which, in effect, sets forth the right of producers of agricultural products to act together in associations, and prescribes certain conditions which organisations of agriculture producers must meet in order to be considered co-operative for the purposes of the Act. The second section of the Capper-Volstead Act provides that the

FARM

I2

MACHINERY

Secretary of Agriculture may take steps to prevent the undue enhancement of prices of agricultural products by co-operative organisations. The steady growth of co-operative marketing among farmers in the United States indicates that it has become established as a permanent method of marketing farm products. Since 1924 the development of new co-operative enterprises has been comparatively slow. More effort is being directed toward strengthening existing organisations and introducing more efficient methods

of marketing farm products. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—S. J. Buck, The Granger Movement (1913); O. M. Kile, The Farm Bureau Movement (1921); R. B. Forrester, Report on Large-Scale Co--operative Murketing in the United States of America (British Ministry of Agriculture); also the following publications of

the Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C:

Dept. Bul. No. 1302,

Development and Present Status of Farmers’ Business Organizations: Dept. Bul. No. 1106, Legal Phases of Cooperation; Membership

Statistics for Large Scale Marketing Organizations.

(W. M.J.)

FARM MACHINERY.—The increased demand for food supplies is met in two ways, by increasing the yields and by increasing the acreage, both of which require more labour in agriculture. To increase or even to maintain the efficiency of farm labour, and to keep down production costs in countries where labour is scarce, farm machinery is a necessity. It is sure to be in the future, as in the past, a factor of increasing importance in the agricultural, social and industrial structure of all civilised countries. In the United States the value of farm acne manufactured yearly has increased approximately 250°% since 1g10,and the inventory value of machinery on farms has more than trebled. Progress may be classified under four headings: (1) new implements; (2) changes in design to adapt well-established implements to mechanical power; (3) changes in sizes of implements to meet changes in farm practice; and (4) refinements, standardisation, improved materials and research in farm machinery. Of the mechanical changes, those under items

(2) and (3) have been the most extensive and have had the most influence in countries which have long’ used farm machinery. SoME

NEw

IMPLEMENTS

Corn Picker.—The mechanical corn not a new idea, is being increasingly public. This machine snaps the ears then husks and elevates the ears to a

DESCRIBED

(maize) picker, although adopted by the farming from the standing stalks, wagon drawn at the side

illustrates this progressive tendency. It is only by recent investigations that the grain combine has been found to have possibilities outside of the semi-arid sections of the United States. Another example of “ combine ”? machinery is a machine that

will cut, dry and bale alfalfa hay in one trip over the field. ADAPTATION

TO REQUIREMENTS

OF SMALL

FARMS

Tractors.—The introduction of the tractor (q.v.) as a new form of power effected many changes in the older farm implements. About 1916 the light four-wheeled tractor appeared, soon to create somewhat of a revolution in the farm machinery field. The light tractor, costing less than its predecessors, has carried power farming to thousands of farms which perhaps could not have otherwise afforded it. This demanded an accompaniment of lighter and less costly implement units, leading to the introduction of the light, rigid hitch, two-wheeled tractor plough, and to the two-three-wheeled plough which uses three wheels while ploughing and only two while turning or being transported. The latter is equipped with a semi-floating hitch instead of the full floating hitch of its predecessors or the rigid hitch common in the typical two-wheeled tractor ploughs. These light ploughs, while not distinctly new implements, embody radical changes in plough design. They accompanied the light tractor into all countries into which the latter has penetrated, and have helped introduce power farming and have had a great influence in agriculture—they are one of the outstanding developments in farm machinery.

Implements

Adapted to Tractors—As

the economy

of the

tractor on the average farm depends to some extent upon the number of uses to which it can profitably be put, manufacturers have tried to adapt to the tractor as many existing types of implements as possible. Grain drills equipped with tractor

hitch and power-lift, so that the operator can control the lifting and dropping of the furrow openers from the tractor seat, have appeared during the last few years. If the farmer wishes to use his light, four-wheeled tractor for cultivating, he can secure a tractor hitch for a two-row cultivator; then by using an extension control, a comparatively new development, he can control and guide the tractor from the cultivator seat. |

A special tractor mower is on the market.

This machine is

like the standard mower, but is built heavier and carries the control levers and lifting mechanisms which can be operated

of the picker. It is fast becoming a necessity in economical pro-

from the tractor seat.

duction in the great maize areas where hand labour is scarce. Ensilage Cutter —The field ensilage cutter may also be classed as new since 1gro. As an attachment to a tractor this device cuts the maize into ensilage lengths directly from the standing stalk, and loads the finely cut material on a wagon hauled at the side. The material is then drawn to the silo and blown into it by a blower. Although this method may not always lessen the cost of ensiling maize, it eliminates much hard hand labour and

nished with either tractor or horse hitches. Some tractors now carry a ‘ power take-off,” through which power to propel the mechanism of the implement attached is taken directly from the tractor motor. This arrangement has caused some changes, especially in grain binders and corn pickers, and may prove revolutionary in general implement design. The grain binder so driven is lower and more compact, since the main wheel need not be used to develop power. General Purpose Tractor —Another tractor development that bids fair to influence farm machinery design widely is the idea of a general-purpose tractor. Attempts to make the tractor itself the base to which implement elements can be attached are

frees the farmer somewhat from the obligations of exchanging labour with his neighbours. Not long ago it was said that shocking grain and loading manure were the only big jobs left on the farm for hand labour. But-.since then the grain shocker and the manure loader have been developed sufficiently to be listed as distinctly new devices. Each of these, however, still presents some difficulties. Cotton Picker and Beet Topper .—Neither the mechanical cotton picker nor the sugar-beet topper has been perfected suficiently to go into general use. When the cotton picker is widely used it will undoubtedly revolutionise the agriculture of the more highly developed cotton areas; its influence socially and

industrially is hard to predict. Sugar-cane Harvester. —A new

machine displacing much hand labour in the sugar-cane industry is the mechanical harvester which cuts, strips and bunches the cane in one operation. The successful application of a large, expensive machine of this kind to a specialised industry suggests the future use in general agriculture of large machines which combine operations and save labour and cost. The attention which farmers in humid regions are giving to the combination grain harvester and thresher

Potato and beet machinery is now fur-

beginning to be successful.

A mower bar as an attachment toa

light tractor was developed about 1918, but in a more recent

tractor of special design four cultivator rigs can be attached to accomplish double-row cultivating. When the same power base is needed for mowing hay, the cultivator attachment is removed and a mowing attachment is set upon the tractor’s draw-bar. Undoubtedly the designers of such a general-purpose tractor contemplate for use with it a four-row planting attachment and perhaps a raking attachment. Thus the same power unit will perform the ploughing, harrowing, grain seeding and grain harvesting operations of its predecessors, and will be able to work in row crops and in the hay field where the conventional type of

tractor is somewhat handicapped. The essential part of the implement as an attachment for the tractor will be less expensive than the complete independent unit designed to be hauled. Hence, the tractor has greatly influenced existing design, and may influence future developments even more.

FARM =

ORGANISATION

Size of Implements.—Increased attention has been given to the size of implement units which would prove most economical as to capacity, power and labour requirement and investment. The two-row cultivator has recently increased in popularity, because with it one man can cultivate 90° more acreage a day than with the single-row machine, with an increase of only 50% in power. Within the past few years 1o-ft. grain binders have appeared for use with tractors. The tendency, however, is not toward larger sizes of all kinds of machines. The reduction of the combined harvester and thresher to a more economical size for the smaller grain farms is bringing this machine into quite general use in the principal wheat sections of the world. The advent of mechanical power on farms of medium size makes it possible for the farmer to accomplish independently some beltpower jobs which formerly he had to hire to have done. Asa result there is increasing demand for the small grain-thresher and for the small sizes of ensilage-cutters, huskers, shredders and shellers. In some countries the ‘‘ custom ’”’ thresherman seems doomed. This present tendency toward small sizes of some belt machines to accompany the small tractor is not as fundamental as, nor should it seem contradictory to, the previously mentioned tendency of farmers to think about larger, faster, cheaper ways of producing food. At present the popular sizes of implement units depend upon the popular sizes of farms; and the size of farm has been determined largely by other than the machinery factors. The implement size, therefore, has been a result rather than a cause. But one must not overlook the possibility of modern agricultural thought and vision leading to farm machinery changes in both type and size that may reverse the old status. Farm machinery development may point the way to rather pronounced changes in agricultural organisation, and competition may be the direct cause for the transition. There seems to be renewed interest in the possibilities of corporate farming. Rather pertinent claims are made concerning the possibility of carrying to the farm more of the manufacturing process, allowing the larger, industrialised farm to deliver its product in more fabricated form. If

the economics involved dictate such procedure, farm machinery will be of paramount importance.

Refinements in Design.—Refinement in farm machinery design and manufacture has continued during the past decade. Implements are now of neater design or are more trim; their parts are more accessible; fast-wearing parts can be replaced at minimum cost; weight has been reduced where possible; the operator’s efficiency has been increased by changes in design which consider his problems and convenience; greater efliciency in the implement itself is sought constantly; and closer inspection at the factory assures the purchaser of a more reliable product. The use of better materials has resulted in increased strength with less weight, in better soil-working surfaces and in greater durability. Improved types of ball and roller bearings have recently found a definite field in farm machinery. Simplification of implement types as well as standardisation of implement parts is in progress. Research —Studies of the trend and application of farm machinery, research in its design and behaviour, and investigations of the necessary requirements are approaching the fundamentals in the Americas as well as in England and in continental Europe. To illustrate with one of many examples, development in soil-working machinery is handicapped to some extent by absence of adequate information on some phases of soil dynamics. Highly scientific analyses have been made of the

mathematics and mechanics of some machine parts designed to till the soil, but the application of such information cannot be fully realised until more is known about the causes for certain behaviours in soils. There is not even a world accepted standard by which the efficiency of tillage machines can be measured or compared. The agricultural engineer comes face to face with crops and soils problems heretofore unsolved and sometimes unseen by the agronomist. The emergency is forcing co-operative effort in basic research. The field is not only a wide one, but also a promising one for the scientist. Agricultural, enginecring and other scientific societies are beginning to foster such

research, even on an international basis. (C. O. R-) FARM ORGANISATION AND EQUIPMENT.—The study of the organisation of the farm is a comparatively recent development of modern agricultural research. In its earlier stages the

AND

EQUIPMENT

13

investigation of the farmer’s problems was confined to matters arising out of the application of the physical sciences to the production of crops and the feeding and breeding of live stock. The basis of the organisation of agricultural research was that the practice of farming was, in its essentials, the application of the knowledge of the chemist, the botanist, the zoologist and so forth. More recently it has come to be recognised that important as this aspect of agricultural development undoubtedly is, farming is also a business, the successful conduct of which can be determined only by a study of its economic structure. The production of crops and stock is in many respects an art, but is an art by which the farmer has to live, and maximum productivity secured by the uncontrolled application of scientific knowledge concerning the properties of feeding stuffs and manures is not always synonymous with maximum profit. Law of Diminishing Returns—So long ago as 1879 Sir John Lawes drew the attention of farmers to this question. He showed that there was no connection between maximum production and economic production; on the contrary, over-stimulation of the crop might bring the scientific farmer to economic disaster. In other words, agricultural production conforms to the law of diminishing returns. The point at which increased production becomes unprofitable depends upon the price of the commodity, other things being equal; in a rising market this point will rise and the farmer will be justified in farming for a higher output; but in a falling market the man who has to live by the land must reduce his capital outlay notwithstanding the facilities for higher

production which science has placed at his disposal (see AGRICULTURE). An illustration of the importance of the study of organisation

is to be found in the comparisons which are often instituted between the intensity of farming in England and in certain Continental countries, notably Denmark. The case of Denmark is cited as an example of what can be done to develop production from the land without the artificial stimulus applied in certain other European countries. It is pointed out that, notwithstanding a fiscal policy which admits of free imports of agricultural produce, Danish agriculture has flourished during a period in which the industry in England has been stationary; the extent of arable land, and, with this, the agricultural population, has been maintained whilst the land of England has been going back to grass to the accompaniment of an exodus of the rural population; that the yield of the soil of Denmark has steadily increased until it has reached a point considerably in excess of that of this country (see DENMARK: AGRICULTURE).

In their crude form these statements appear to be justified, but a study of the organisation of farming in the two countries goes far to disprove the crude conclusions so often drawn to the detriment of the business acumen and technical capacity of the English farmer. The economic circumstances which give rise to the differences in agricultural progress in England and on the Continent may be classed under two heads: (a) the proportion of small farmers, and (b) the competition of urban industries. (See LAND TENURE; TARIFF.) Only by the study of farm organisation, both at home and abroad, can a proper interpretation be placed upon crude statistics of agricultural production, which are apt to prove dangerous weapons without it. Size and Efficiency as a Productive Unit.—The maintenance of a high standard of production is very generally associated in Continental agriculture with farming in small units, and the advo-

cates of the extension of the small-holding movement in this country base their case very largely on this fact. Figures collected in the course of investigations of farm organisation go to show that this extra production is apparent rather than real, and that it is purchased by the expenditure of capital and labour which would be more productively employed on larger areas Here is a table showing the manual labour and the horse labour requirements of farms in three agricultural districts, grouped by

‘Ts Higher Farming a Remedy for Lower Prices? J. B. Lawes.

A Lecture delivered before the East Berwickshire Agricultural Association, May 3 1879, Rothamsted Memotrs, vol. §.

14

FARM

ORGANISATION

size; it will be seen that in each of them the labour required in production, whether manual or horse, varies inversely with the size of the holding, or, alternatively, that the efficiency of labour varies directly with the size of the holding :— Persons Em-

Size Group

ployed per 100 Acres

Acres

| Draught Horses Employed per 100 Acres

No.

No.

NAN POOH

fa MOG Wm One

District I Under 50 50-100 100-150

Over 150

District 2

Under 50 50-100 100-150 150-250 Over 250 District3 Under 100 100-300 300-500 500-700 700-1I,000

ANT NwOw N+ |

100-300 300-500

Gy = ot

wo NdoO Www

| wa OeGS Oe LO ANI Cm

Under 50 50-100 100-150 150-250 Over 250

.

Sales per Acre

Sales per Person Employed

£ II

S. IQ

d. 9

£ 168

s. I9

d. O

9 7 7 8

IQ Ig 5 4

2 I 8 4

156 189 222 316

2 Oo I2 IQ

Oo oO Oo ©

To consider, now, the capitalisation of the farm, evidence of the influence of size is afforded by the table below, in which is shown the value of the implement equipment, per roo acres, on farms in three other districts. Here, again, it is apparent that the capital cost of the implements per unit of land falls as thesize of the holding increases. District A

District B

Equip-

District C

Group

ment

7O01-LOOO

Acres

Under 100 IOI—180

181-300

Over 300

0-49 50-99 100-149 150-199 200-299 300-499 Over 500

The question at once suggests itself—“ What is the economic unit of production? ” The answer will not be forthcoming until more work on the study of farm organisation and equipment has been carried out. In some of these tables it will be observed that the rate of variation slows down as the size of the holdings increases; in fact, if curves were plotted they would rise or fall steeply through the smaller size groups and then tend to flatten

out from about the 300-400 acre farm upwards. In other words there is evidence that the ‘‘ economic unit ” of farming, in the

Value of Production per Man Employed

. .

.

;

;

;

;

mE

..

>.

. .

500-700 .

Acres

50I- 700

districts used for the purposes of illustration, does not occur until this size group is reached, and that it continues for some considerable period above it. Evidence is not yet complete on the question of a top limit, but there are certain indications that one-man management does not continue its efficiency beyond a certain point. Thus, in a certain district, which contained a good many holdings extending to 1,000 acres and over, the efficiency curve rises sharply from the “ under 100 acres ” size group up to the ‘‘ 300 acres—5oo acres ”’ group, flattens out from this point up to the “‘ 500 acres—7oo acres ” group, and then shows a distinct tendency to fall. This is illustrated in the following table, showing the production per man employed (t.e., sales less cost of raw materials) according to size of holding:—

;

Over 700 .

District 2 Size Group

Acres Under 100 IOI- 300 301- 500

EQUIPMENT

Size Group Acres Under r00 .

It might be argued, however, that the higher labour requirements on the smaller farms are the measure of their greater productivity, and the following table, showing the extent to which the production per unit of land and per unit of labour is affected by the size of the holding, supplies some confirmation of this. The sales per acre in the group shown here (which corresponds to District No. 2 in the above table) show that the total production varies inversely with the size of the farm. The economic effect of this, however, is considerably discounted by the next column, showing the sales per person employed, when once more the greater advantage of the larger holdings is clearly indicated :—

Group

AND

2

;

oe

&

o

a

=»

i

£ IBDI 2116 254:2 283:2

245°1

This result is no more than an indication of what may be expected to emerge in future work, but the point is worth studying. For American conditions, see UNITED STATES: AGRICULTURE. However, the study of farm organisation according to the size of the holding gives other results besides evidence of efficiency. The next table shows the influence of size on the nature of the farmer’s business. In the district chosen it is clear to what an extent dairying is the concern of the small farmer, whereas sheep and corn growing become intensified as the size of the farm increases. It is interesting to note that as regards meat the size has very little influence on the quantity produced, but an examination of the data shows that it is mainly pork and veal in the case of the smaller groups, and beef and mutton in the case of the larger ones. Production per Acre

Per Acre Dairy Size Group | Meat | ProdGrain uce! | Wool | and Pulse Acres Under -100 100-300 300-500 500-700 700-1,000

Lb. | Lb. 56 638 46 340 42 128 50 148

Lb ; 0:9 1-0 I-2 2-0

Lb. 353 355 498 45I ;

Pot a a- |! Hay | Straw E Lb. 46 I5 3I 3587 |

Lb. 163 140 219 202

Lb. 7 49 166 78

l In terms of milk.

2 This high figure is due to the influence of one farm in the group which specialized entirely in potatoes.

Economic Research—On the continent of Europe investigation has been conducted mainly by the aid of book-keeping, directed towards the determination of the cost of the main products of the farm, the capitalisation of different farming systems, the rental value of the land, the labour income of the peasant and so forth. In particular, the work of Dr. Ernst Laur amongst

the Swiss peasant farmers and that of Dr. O. H. Larsen, in Denmark, may be cited. In America a great development of economic study of the agricultural industry has been witnessed during the present century. About the year 1905 “ farm management” became definitely a subject of study at the hands of the technical stafis of the agricultural colleges. As on the continent of Europe, book-keeping afforded the principal instrument of study, and cost investigations were conducted in most of the clearly defined crop areas. Following the formation of the American Farm Management Association, a few years later, by those engaged in this work, the attention of economists as well as of agriculturists was attracted to this subject. The number of workers in the field increased rapidly, methods of study were rapidly developed and the Association was reconstituted as the American Farm Economic Association with a membership which now runs into hundreds, and a quarterly Journal (see FARMERS’ ORGANISATIONS). The importance with which the

FARM

ORGANISATION

economic study of farm organisation is regarded in the States to-day was foreshadowed by the Secretary of Agriculture in his Foreword to the Year Book of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1921:— The Year Book for 1921 emphasises the economic side of our agriculture because help in their economic problems is now the most urgent need of our farmers. That is not to say that the Department is losing sight of production matters. The farmer needs all the help in his production problems that the Department of Agriculture, colleges and experimental stations can give him; but the need of the most importance now is the development of an entirely new realm

of organised knowledge bearing upon the economic factors of agriculture looking forward toward cheaper production, improved methods

of distribution and enlargement of markets, in order that prices the

farmer receives shall be more fairly related to his cost of production.

The agricultural work of the colleges and experimental stations is now largely directed to serving the ends indicated in the foregoing quotation, and a significant fact is the institution of the new Bureau of Agricultural Economics in the Department of Agriculture at Washington. In England, the study of farm organisation and equipment on a systematic basis dates from the establishment of the Agricultural Economics Research Institute in 1913, as a result of an

application by the University of Oxford to the Ministry of Agriculture for a grant in aid of economic research in agriculture. As in other countries the Institute started its work by the costing method, and allowing for the interruption caused by the War it has continued with it as one lineof investigation ever since. Costing is, of course, only the means, it is not the end itself and it may be useful to those who have not studied the process to give a few examples illustrating the kind of information got from this rather complicated exercise. First, there is the evidence it supplies on the efficiency of farm management in all its aspects. To take one of these for example, the use of manual labour. One object of any system of farming should be to give employment to a regular staff of men at all seasons of the year. Few systems do this better than the ordinary four-course rotation and some of the modifications of it, but many rotations make the farmer dependent to a large measure on casual seasonal labour. The results of costing show that dependence on casual seasonal labour has the effect of raising unit labour costs, and though systems of farming involving much seasonal labour are often justified on account of the usually profitable nature of the crops grown (asin the case of potatoes), it may well be that in certain cases the relative costliness of the labour involved may lead the farmer to consider whether after

all it gives him an adequate return for the extra working capital and trouble involved. The introduction of silage or of the sugar beet crop into the rotation can have a very upsetting effect on labour organisation, unless plentiful supplies of casual labour are available at the right seasons, and cost records are the only means by which to confirm or correct the farm-manager’s general ideas of the economic value of these and other new crops. To take, as a second example, the organisation of the horse labour on the farm. It costs so much to keep a horse for the year, and on the great majority of farms the figure does not vary very appreciably. But it does not follow that there is little variation in the cost of horse labour, for the cost of a day’s work depends not only on the cost of keeping the horse, but on the number of days during which it is effectively employed. Allowing for Sundays and Christmas Day and for Saturday half-days, the maximum number of working days is 286 in the year, and every day less than this number worked by horses adds proportionately to the cost of the labour performed. Figures collected recently from seven farms showed that the percentage of idle days varied from 13% up to 39%, and it will be realised how seriously the cost of horse labour mounts up in proportion as the number of idle days increase. This is a typical example of the way in which costing may direct the attention of the farmer to possible weaknesses in his management. It may be simply that he has too many horses, in which case results such as these will make him consider the possibility of their reduction. It may be that his system of cropping is such that he needs an abnormal equip-

AND

EQUIPMENT

I5

ment of horses at certain seasonsof the year, in which case he will be led to consider whether his system is so profitable as to make the idle horses at other seasons worth while, or whether he could not modify it in some way which would enable him to keep his horses more regularly employed. A third example of the use of costing is the compilation of comparative labour costs, to establish measures of individual efficiency in the use of manual labour. The figures in the following table, compiled by Mr. A. Bridges, represent the normal utilisation of labour for crops and live stock on a series of farms in the eastern counties of England; similar figures have been published by Dr. A. G. Ruston, of Leeds, and various tests of a like character can be devised which serve as standards of efficiency for other aspects of farm management. Average Labour Requirements of Farm Crops and Stock [rable Land Man days Cereal Crops per Acre Winter Wheat 6-85

Spring Wheat

6-58

Winter Oats . Spring Oats . Barley

7-58 6-21 7-13

Beans

6-50

Peas

10:23

Root Crops Turnips and Swedes (eaten off) Mangolds Potatoes Carrots . :

8-31 16°73 33-80 61-42

Mown Grazed

Seeds i

2-18 o-7I

. Grass

Meadow Hay Pasture . Cows . Other Cattle Pigs . ,

:

i

’

Live Stock s ' i

Sheep (Arable Breeds)

.

2-09 0-09 23-00 7-13 1:90

I-29

In the absence of data such as these nothing is more baffling than the attempt to trace leakages in farm management which cannot be located by any other means and which are often most surely responsible for the difference between profit and loss in farming. In a great number of cases the partial failure of the farmer is due to faulty organisation of labour or to some similar cause which defies detection by any process of inspection. As the

practice extends of recording daily the operations on the farm it will be possible to establish, district by district, certain efficlency standards by which to test individual farm management. A good example of what has been done already in this direction is afforded in the case of milk-recording where, by careful observation and record, the farmer is provided with the means of weeding out the unprofitable elements in his dairy herd. The case provides an illustration of that which will be possible in many other directions when full records of the various matters arising in farm management are available, and similar weaknesses in the organisation of production can be detected. Although the costing method was thus the first line of attack

on the problems of agricultural economics it was always realised that it would not be sufficient in itself, and it was suggested that valuable information could be collected by means of economic surveys of farming districts. The evidence to be got in this way is less complete than that furnished by the more intensive costing method; on the other hand, a much greater mass of it can be collected by the expenditure of an equal amount of time and energy. At the outset, these surveys were planned to deal with particular problems; thus, Mr. A. W. Ashby conducted a survey of allotments and small-holdings in Oxfordshire, as the basis for a study of the rural allotments and the small-holding problems, and similarly, Mr. J. Orr conducted surveys of the systems of farm management in the counties of Oxfordshire and Berkshire,

FARNELL— FASCISM

16

and considered the problems arising therefrom. But this method was found to be incomplete, for although it may happen that special problems will arise for investigation, the study of farm economics as a whole cannot best be pursued by the examination of particular questions. It was decided, therefore, to inaugurate general surveys, designed to collect all the information of any kind whatever which can be got by inquiry on the farm, for tabulation in a variety of ways, and then to study the tables in order to see what information they afforded. The method has been made familiar by the work of American farm economists. This work has formed a part of the activities of the Oxford Institute, and data have been collected from nearly 1,500 farms. A more recent investigation undertaken by the Institute, and one likely to be developed in the near future, is the study of the organisation of agricultural marketing. The economic weakness of the existing marketing methods has often been a subject of comment, and particular attention has been attracted to it recently by the Report of the Departmental Committce on Distribution and Prices of Agricultural Produce. It was felt that it should be possible to organise an advisory service for farmers in marketing problems, in fact, that such a thing should be an essential part of the general advisory services available to them (see AGRICULTURE: Economics and MARKETING). Since 1922 arrangements have been completed by the Ministry of Agriculture for the local study of farm organisation and equipment throughout England and Wales, to supplement the work carried on by the Agricultural Economics Research Institute at Oxford and with this body as a co-ordinating centre. For the purpose of advisory work among farmers the country was mapped out, some years ago, into provinces, each of which is equipped with an advisory staff of experts in the various branches of agricultural science. These staffs have now been strengthened by the inclusion in each of an advisory economist, who is occupied with the study of farm management problems arising within his particular province. Their function is mainly to assist the farmers of their districts to greater efhciency in the control of farm management, whilst, at the same time, the information and data accumulated by them in the course of their work is available for the use of the central institute at Oxford for co-ordination and

review upon a national basis. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E. Laur, Comptabilité agricole, 2nd ed. (1905); G. F. Warren, Farm Management (1913); J. Orr, Agriculture in Oxfordshire (1916); Agriculture in Berkshire (1918); A. W. Ashby, Allotments and Small Holdings (1919); C. S. Orwin, Farming Costs, and ed. (1921); J. Pryse Howell, Productivity of Hill Farming (1922); G. F. Warren, Farm Management (1923); A. Bridges and R. N. Dixey, Sugar Beet; Costs of Production, Yields and Reiurns, 1924 (1925); Agricultural Tribunal of Investigation, Final Report, H.M.S.O., Cmd. 2145 (1924); Departmental Committee on Distribution and Prices

of Agricultural Produce, Interim and Final Reports, H.M.S.O. (1924); ‘‘The Maintenance of Arable Cultivation in Scotland” J. *

P. Maxton and C. S. Orwin (Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture, Nov. 1924); C. S. Orwin and W. R, Peel, The Tenure of Agricultural Land, 2nd ed. (1925); F. J. Prewett, The Marketing of Farm Produce; J. Pryse Howell, Agricultural Atlas of England and Wales. (C. S. O.)

FARNELL, LEWIS RICHARD (1856), British scholar, was born in Salisbury Jan. rọ 1856. Educated at the City of London School and Exeter College, Oxford, in 1880 he won a fellowship at Exeter College. After studying classical archaeology in Berlin and Munich and travelling in Greece and Asia Minor, he became classical lecturer at Exeter College in 1883, and the following year sub-rector. Later he became university lecturer in classical archaeology. In 1893 he was appointed senior tutor of Exeter College and in 1894 proctor of the university. In 1909 he was elected first Wilde lecturer in comparative religion andin ro11 Hibbert lecturer. He was appointed rector of Exeter College in 1913 and from 1920 to 1923 was vice-chancellor of Oxford University. Among his written works are Culfs of the Greek States, 5 vol. (1806); The Evolution of Religion (1903); Greece and Babylon (1911); The Higher Aspects of Greek Religion (1912); and Outline History of Greek Religion (1920). FAROE ISLANDS: see FAEROE ISLANDS. FARRAND, LIVINGSTON (1867), American educational-

ist, was born at Newark, N.J., June 14 1867.

After graduating

from Princeton University in 1888, he studied medicine at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York (M.D., 1891). During the next two years he studied at Cambridge, England, and at Berlin. From 1893 to 1903 he was an instructor and, from 1901, adjunct professor in psychology at Columbia University; from 1903 to 1914 he was professor of anthropology. In 1897 he accompanied the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, which visited the Indians of British Columbia. From r912 to ror4 he was treasurer of the American Health Assn. and editor of The American Journal of Public Health, From 1914 to 1919 he was president of the University of Colorado, but in 1917 was granted leave of absence, following his appointment by the International Health Board of the Rockefeller Foundation to direct the work against tuberculosis in France. In rọrọ he was made chairman of the central committee of the American Red Cross. In 1g2r he was elected to succeed Jacob Gould Schurman as president of Cornell University. He wrote Te Basis of American History (1904) and various articles on psychology and anthropology. FASCISM.—The Italian Fascist movement dates officially from the foundation in March 1919 by Benito Mussolini (g.v.), then editor of Ii Popolo d'Italia, of the first Fascio di Combattimento at Milan, although many of its ideas had been inspired by the Nationalist movement dating from i1gro, and by Syndicalism, of which Mussolini himself had been a leader. This first Fascio was composed of some 15o of Mussolini’s friends who had supported his interventionist action at the beginning of the World War, mostly ex-socialists of the Syndicalist wing, and nearly all ex-combatants. The first Fascist programme was confused, demagogic and had a Republican trend, but the national patriotic note was conspicuous, and proper recognition was demanded for the men who had fought and won the War. The word Fascio means a bundle or bunch, and was taken to define the close union of the adherents of the movement; as an emblem, the fasces of the Roman lictors on a tricolor shield was adopted. At first the Milan Fascio only attracted a fraction of the people who opposed Bolshevik Socialism, and it still savoured too much of Mussolini’s revolutionary past to secure general support. Fascism was also inspired by a sense of exasperation at the foreign policy of the Government, which did not, the Fascists believed, defend Italian interests at the Peace Conference with sufficient firmness and dignity. This aspect of Fascism: was largely the outcome of nationalism, which had first given the Italian people a sense of the importance of foreign affairs and of the necessity for colonial expansion. After D’Annunzio’s evacuation of Fiume at the beginning of 1921 many of his fegionari joined Fascism, some of whose outward manifestations and the semi-mystical character, as well as the Roman reminiscences and ritual, they inspired. The Squadre.—At the elections of 1919 none of the Fascist candidates were returned. During the troubles of 1919 and most

of 1920 Fascism as an organisation played but a small part. But the Fascist idea was spreading all over Italy, and during the municipal elections held in many cities in the late autumn of

1920 the Fascists collaborated with the other anti-Socialist parties, and in several instances formed with them national blocs, which defeated the Reds. In the Bologna riots (Nov. 1920), which broke out on the occasion of the inauguration of the Socialist-Communist town council, it was the Fascists who, although only 200 strong, organised the reaction of the majority of the citizens and brought about the rapid collapse of the Red organisations, first in that city and subsequently throughout the Po valley. The first armed Fascist squadre were now formed

for the defence of the nation against what amounted in many places to revolutionary tyranny. These squadre consisted of young men, mostly ex-combatants, many of them decorated for valour and adorned with wound badges, of others too young to have served and of not a few older men, exasperated at the spectacle of their country, victorious in the War, but fallen into a slough of despond and browbeaten by a factious minority. There was as yet no real Fascist doctrine beyond this vague sense of outraged patriotism. The squadristi were mostly

FASCISM armed with cudgels, although many possessed revolvers and carbines, for at that time a large number of ex-service men had brought back arms of some sort from the War. Another weapon, a novelty in partisan conflicts, was castor oil, large doses of

which were administered to recalcitrant Socialists and Communists, and sometimes even to other opponents of Fascism. During r92t and 1922 encounters between Fascists and the Reds were of almost daily occurrence. In that period over 1,000 Fascists fell victims to their opponents, and in most cases were murdered by treachery for no other reason than that they were Fascists; but their comrades were not slow to avenge these outrages. When early in 1921 the Communists broke away from the Maximalist Socialist party and indulged in a series of murderous outbreaks in the hope of terrorising the masses into joining them, the Fascist reprisals were ruthless.

I7

to be tolerated. The state should restore to private enterprise all industrial undertakings which it has proved incapable of running. In foreign affairs Italy must “ reaffirm her right to complete historic and geographic unity, and fulfil her mission as the bulwark of Latin civilisation in the Mediterranean.” The

party is indissolubly bound up with its sqguadre—the volunteer militia at the service of the state.

It was this congress that

declared that Fascism would substitute itself for the State whenever the state should prove incapable of suppressing the elements of disorder and disintegration. The organs of the party are: the Directorate—the executive organ, composed of the general secretary and 10 other members elected by the national council, the central committee, composed of the various district delegates and the members of the Direc-

A Mass Movement—In its early days the movement was unconnected with any particular labour policy, although Syndicalists were among its founders; later, individual workmen, peasantproprietors and farm hands joined it individually; but, with the success of the Fascist campaign against the Red organisations in the Po valley at the end of rozo masses of workers became Fascists, and often whole unions came over in a body. This development changed the character of Fascism, and converted

torate, elected by the national council for a year and entrusted with the conduct of the political and administrative action of the Fasci and with disciplinary authority; the national council, composed of the members of the central committee and the provincial secretaries, and invested with controlling authority over the Fasci; the general secretariat, nominated by the national council; the Fasci, or local sections of the party, all the Fasci of a province constituting a provincial federation; the squadre di combattimento; entrusted with the duty of repelling the violence of adversaries, which should hold themselves in readiness to act at the bidding of the leaders of the party for the defence of the national interests; the parliamentary group, composed of the Fascist members of Parliament; the various auxiliary groups, such as the Women’s Fasci, the Avanguardic, the Balilla, etc.; the congress, composed of delegates of the provinces, which meets at irregular intervals to express the views of Fascism as a whole. Attitude to Monarchy.—Fascism had been gradually shedding its demagogic clements, and at Udine, on Sept. 29 1922, Mussolini expressed his adherence to the monarchy, thereby securing widespread support for Fascism) among many who had hesitated on account of its “implicit republican tendency.” Fascism has ended by becoming the strongest bulwark of the monarchy, because, unlike other monarchical parties, it had no need to conciliate the revolutionary elements. The whole conception of

it from a minority to a mass

Fascism is based on rigid hierarchy.

What attracted the sympathy of public opinion towards Fascism was the extraordinary bravery and devotion to an ideal of the squadristi. At a time when armed Communists were lying in wait at street corners or behind closed shutters to attack anyone wearing the Black Shirt or the Fascist badge, these youths marched on regardless of danger, ready to sacrifice their lives for the national cause. Even orthodox Liberals, Catholics and others supported Fascism, in which they saw the only hope for the salvation of the country from chaos. Many adhered to the movement for selfish reasons—landlords and manufacturers who simply regarded it as a form of protection for the rights of property which the Government allowed the seditious elements to violate with impunity, and others became Fascists out of a spirit of adventure, to secure positions for themselves or for other personal reasons.

movement.

At the elections of

May 1921, held under the auspices of Sig. Giolitti, 38 Fascists were returned, including Sig. Mussolini himself, and ro Nationalists. In the new Chamber the Fascists and Nationalists formed a fighting band of vigorous youths strenuously opposed to the Reds—a nucleus which gathered around its standard members of other patriotic parties. At the Fascist congress in Rome in Nov. 1921 a review of the Fascist forces was held, and Fascism was constituted as a regular political party, the Partito Nazionale Fascista, and its statutes were then drafted. THE

PROGRAMME

OF THE

FASCISTS

The programme of the Fascists differs from that of other parties, as it represents for its members not only a rule of political conduct, but also a moral code. The programme states that “the nation is not merely the sum total of living individuals, nor the instrument of parties for their own ends, but an organism com-

prising the unlimited series of generations of which individuals are merely transient elements; it is the synthesis of al) the material and non-material values of the race.”

The state must be reduced to its essential functions as a legal and political organ, the powers of parliament limited to questions concerning the individual as a citizen and the state as the organ for realising the interests of the nation, whereas the activities of individuals as producers should be dealt with by technical councils. Trade unions must be encouraged as a means of developing production, but they should not arbitrarily level all capacities. The prestige of the state must be restored at all costs. The national finances must be placed on a sound basis, free from all traces of demagogy. Fascism recognises the social functions of private property, proposes a system of State discipline over class conflicts, and demands that both employers’ and workmen’s organisations shall be legally recognised and invested with responsibility; no strikes in the public services are

ITALY

UNDER

THE

FASCISTS

When Fascism came into power (Oct. 28 1922), Sig. Mussolini, although rejecting alliances with other parties, accepted their collaboration, and admitted several of their members into

his first Cabinet.

Nationalism was absorbed by Fascism early in

1923, but as the Opposition became more violent in its attacks, especially after the Matteotti murder, the party tended to concentrate more and more on itself, satisfied with its own strength and the general approval of public opinion, not attached to any party; and it still has millions of supporters who are not Fascists. The party underwent certain changes in its constitution, among which the most important were the fusion with nationalism and the creation of the Fascist grand council. This body, which sums up, co-ordinates and directs all the activities of the party, is composed of the Prime Minister as chairman, all the Fascist members of the Government, the general secretary of the party and certain other party officers both central and local. At its meetings the opinion of Fascism in the direction of various legislative reforms is manifested, and the proposals voted are then submitted to the Cabinet. Although party and Government are separate, the connection between the two is very close, as Sig. Mussolini is at once the head of the Government and the leader of the party. Relations with the Vatican Fascism, since it has become the Government of Italy, has shown a marked sympathy for Catholicism, which as the religion of the vast mass of the Italian people is regarded to some extent as a national institution. Relations between Fascism and the Vatican have become very friendly, and the anti-Fascist tendencies of the Partito Popolare are by no means approved of in Vatican circles. Occasional minor disagreements with the Vatican in no way affect the general policy of the party.

FASCISM

18

Fascist Aims.—The Fascist tendency to isolate itself and reject alliances with other parties was steadily advocated by Roberto Farinacci (g.v.) after his appointment as general secre-

tary early in 1925. After the Matteotti trial in March 1926, he resigned his appointment, having accomplished the task of reorganising the party, and was succeeded by Auguste Turati. The party directorate was also changed. But the general character of Fascism remains unaltered. Its aim is to get its main principles generally accepted by the nation and embodied in a series of legislative reforms which shall make of Italy an essentially National State, as opposed to the pre-existing Liberal State, wherein the seditious elements were free to conspire against the general welfare in the interests of class or clique. These reforms comprise the restoration of national finance, the reorganisation of the bureaucracy in the interests of efficiency,

the reform of education, the peaceable regulation of labour conflicts, the re-establishment of discipline in every department of the state and every aspect of national life, the improvement of agriculture and the progress of industry. Many of these reforms have already been carried out, and others are in progress. Opponents accuse Fascism of crushing liberty; but the Fascists reply that if the freedom of the Press is limited, and parties, other than the Fascist, are reduced to inactivity, the essential liberty of the people has been secured as never before—

the freedom to work and produce for the common good—and that only a strong Government like that of Sig. Mussolini could achieve such a series of necessary and far-reaching reforms, which Liberal Governments may have desired, and even attempted, but had always failed to carry out owing to the tyranny of parliamentary obstruction. The people, he said in July 1924,

never asked him to free them from a tyranny which did not exist, but asked for railways, houses, roads, bridges, drains, water and light. Fascist

Doctrine.—VFascist

doctrine,

as it has been evolved

during the last years, was authoritatively set forth by Prof. Alfredo Rocco, Minister of Justice, in a speech at Perugia on Aug. 31 1925. After rejecting the liberal, socialist and democratic theories of the state, he declared that, according to Fascism, society does not exist for the individual, but the individual for society; although Fascism does not annul the individual as the individuals annulled society under certain older doctrines, but merely subordinates him to society, while securing his right to develop his personality. Economic progress is a social interest, but Fascism considers it best to leave the production and distribution of wealth to individual enterprise in order to secure the maximum results in the interests of the community. The social problem is not solved, however, by merely rejecting the socialist doctrine; Fascism wishes to secure justice between classes, but class warfare must be eliminated, as it is the state which must establish justice between classes just as it does between individuals. Sig. Mussolini in an article in Gerarchia (Oct. 1925) compares ‘‘ the incessant and fertile activity of the Government with the paralysis of all the opposition parties within the Chamber and without. Everyone, explicitly or otherwise, is convinced that in the Italy of 1925 Fascism alone towers like a giant.” The defects of Fascism are the general defects of the Italian character: the tendency to rhetoric, arritismo (excessive pushfulness of men on the make), which has been accentuated by the creation of the many party offices and appointments, often filled not by the worthiest but by the most pushful and ambitious. Of the deeds of violence occasionally committed by Fascists, usually reprisals for similar deeds committed by adversaries, Sig. Mussolini wrote in the above-quoted article: ‘ This violence does not facilitate the work of the Government, but compromises it.” Fascist Labour Organisation —Labour syndicalism has become one of the most important aspects of Fascism. The first statute of the party, drafted in Dec. 1921, defined the Fascist labour corporations. Labour is declared to be the basis of human welfare and progress, and all who devote themselves to productive work are regarded as workers. Fascist syndicalism, unlike the

Socialist unions, accepts the patriotic idea, recognises the im-

portance of capital, and considers the fate of the worker as bound up with that of the whole nation. There are now 21 corporations, each of them representing “the union of the various trades, arts or professions related to or dependent on the same kind of labour or industry,” and comprising separate unions of manual workers, engineers and experts, and managers and employees. It was not found possible to unite both employers and employed in the same corporations, but there are many joint committees for various purposes. All corporations and syndicates are united under the confederation of corporations, which is the supreme organ of Fascist syndicalism, entrusted with the task of reconciling the interests of the various

categories and classes, securing equitable labour contracts with the employers and promoting social legislation. The whole idea of class war is rejected, as classes cannot be allowed to take justice into their own hands any more than private individuals. Fascist syndicalism is gradually coming to monopolise labour, as the older Socialist and Popolare unions are losing all influence over the masses, and the Fascist corporations have become the sole representatives of the working classes in their dealings with the employers. Time will show whether the system will work out satisfactorily, but there is no doubt that the development of Fascist syndicalism has reduced strikes to negligible proportions, increased production and improved the conditions of the working classes by progressive social legislation and in other ways. In Dec. 1925 a law was enacted granting the syndicates legal recognition, and creating the labour tribunals to which all labour conflicts must be referred; strikes and lock-outs are therefore illegal. This is the most far-reaching reform of the Fascist Government. The president of the Fascist federation is the deputy Edmondo Rossoni, elected by the national council. The whole organisation is strictly centralised and hierarchical. The National Milizia—Before Fascism came into power its action was largely that of the armed squadre, and it was the 200,000 Black Shirts! who effected the ‘‘ March on Rome,” enabling Fascism to become the government of the country. But once this was achieved, the existence of irregular Fascist forces was incompatible with Sig. Mussolini’s intention of constitutionalising the Fascist movement. To have disbanded them would have savoured of ingratitude, while their constituent elements might still be useful to overawe the revolutionary and anti-national parties and to consolidate the Fascist régime. At a Cabinet Council on Dec. 28 1922 it was decided to disband all the sguadre—Fascist, Nationalist, Arditi and Legionari fiumani, and by royal decree of Jan. 14 1923 the Milizia volontaria per la sicurezza nazionale was created in their place. The force was voluntarily recruited from among the sguadristi, the men appointed by the Prime Minister or the authorities delegated by him, and the officers by royal decree on the proposal of the Ministers of War and of the Interior. Neither officers nor men are paid, except those on permanent duty at the gencral or territorial headquarters (700 in all), while those who are temporarily called out for service outside their place of residence receive a daily allowance, The total budget comes to 35,000,000 lire annually, although certain special detachments, such as the railway milizia, are paid for by other departments. The force, which comprises some 190,000 men, is “at the service of God and the Italian Fatherland, and takes orders from the head of the government.” Its duties are “ to assist, together with the armed forces for the public safety and the army, in the maintenance of internal order and to prepare citizens for the defence of [talian interests in the world.”’ It has relieved the army of many troublesome services, and although it has never been necessary to employ it to put down revolutionary outbreaks, its mere existence has sufficed to deter the seditious elements from such action. The organisation of the milizia was subsequently brought into closer harmony with existing institutions; the royal decree of Aug. 4 1924 provides that its members shall take the oath of allegiance to the King, and that the officers shall be recruited from among the reserve officers of the Army, Navy and Air Force. The force is also entrusted with the pre-military training of youths under 20; the object of this measure is to give a large part of the nation a military education without involving the country in too heavy expenditure. Three

legions of the milizia have served with distinction in Libya.

In 1926 the party comprised 9,000 Fasci, with about 742,978 registered members (April 21). The party directorate decided at this time not to accept any more members to the Fascist party, all new applications for admission being held on until 1927. There were also

1 Estimates of their number vary considerably, owing to the fact that while 200,000 or more men were mobilised not all of them actually entered Rome.

FASHION—FATIGUE 590 Women's Fasct with 25,000 members, 16 Legion: Avanguardisti (youths from 15 to 18 years old) and 18 Legion? Balilia composed of boys under 15. In addition the Fascist labour syndicates comprised about 2,150,000 members not counting the Fascist railwaymen’s syndicate (80,000 members), the maritime federation and certain

other special unions. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-Of the vast literature on Fascism the following works may be quoted:— (a) Italian works in favour of fascism: The speeches of Mussolini, collected in various volumes, including one in English edited by Baron Quaranta di San Severino; the speeches of Enrico Corradini

(Discorsi politici, Florence, 1923); the speeches of Carlo del Croix and of Edmondo Rossoni; Camillo Pellizzi, Problema e realtà del fascismo (Florence, 1924); Margherita Sarfatti, Life of Mussolini

(English trans. London, 1925); Carmelo Licitra, Dal itberalismo al

fascismo

(Rome,

1925); Pietro Gorgolini,

// Fasctsmo

nella

vita

italiana (Turin, 1922); also published in English: The Fascist Movement in Italian Life (London, 1924); Luigi Villari, The Awakening

of Italy (London, 1924), and The Fascist Experiment (London, 1925). (b) ftalzan Works Against the Movement: Carlo Avarna di Gualtieri,

Il Fascisma

(Turin,

1925);

Ivanoe

Bonomi,

Dal

(1924); Luigi Sturzo,

The main objects of these investigations and the

conclusions drawn from the results are briefly summarised below." Evidence of a Limiting Range of Stress.—The results of a series of endurance tests, where any one type of straining actiun and a constant value of the mean stress of the cycle are employed, show that the endurance (N) to fracture increases at an increasing rate as the range of stress (S) decreases. A curve connecting S and N tends to become parallel to the N axis. It is regarded as established that, in the case of ferrous metals, the S/N curve,

has become parallel to the N axis at values of N of 10’ or 2X 10% reversals, and remains so for the maximum

endurances investi-

gated (1o®to ro* cycles). This is also true for some of the pure metals and non-ferrous alloys. Tests on some non-ferrous metals and alloys, however, have shown fractures to occur after several hundred millions of reversals, although, at these endurances, the slope of the S/N curve is very small. In general, sound metals

appear to possess a definite limiting range of stress (R). Two relations have been suggested both of which can be expressed by the formula RL=Rir( = where R, is the

Pensiero antifascista

limiting range when M ts the corresponding value of the mean stress, Rir 1s the limiting range when M=o, fis the static ultimate strength of the metal, and x has the value of 1 or 2. Some experimental results agree with one of these relations, others conform to neither. For cycles of direct stresses, the linear relation

(c) Other Books: Jean Alazard, Communisme et fascisme en Italie (Paris, 1922); G. M. Godden, Mussolini and the Birth of the New Democracy (London, 1924); Homen Christo, Mussolint bâtisseur

d'avenir (Paris, 1923); Ludwig Bernhard, Das System Mussolini (Berlin, 1924); Robert Michels, Der Aufsteig des Fascismus (Tü-

bingen, 1924); Maurice Pernot, L'expérience italienne (Paris, 1924); Perceval Phillips, Red Dragon and Black Shirt (London, 1922); Odon Por, Fascism (London, 1924). See also the Almanacco enciclopedia del Popolo d'Italia (Milan, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1925, 1926). There isa bib-

liography (including articles in periodicals by C.Bracale and C. Urban in Guida bibliographica di cultura fascista (Rome, 1925). (L. V.*) FASHION: see COSTUME.

FATIGUE OF METALS.—This is a generic term denoting all phenomena associated with the behaviour of metals subjected to repetitions of a range of stress. The term, however, is more generally applied to the progressive deterioration, leading to ultimate fracture, caused by repetitions of a cycle of stress, the maximum stress of the cycle being numerically less than that stress which causes failure on a single application. Fracture by fatigue can be caused by repeated cycles of direct, bending, torsional or combined stresses, and is accelerated by the presence of shock conditions or surface defects, sudden discontinuities of section, etc., which create local concentrations of stress. Three Types of Stresses.—Cyclical variations of stress can be divided into three main types: Alfernating stresses (maximum and minimum stress of cycle differ in sign), pufsating stresses (stresses vary from zero to maximum value) and fluctuating stresses (vary in magnitude but not in sign). Any stress cycle

is defined numerically by the expression, M

researches.

19

socialismo al

fascismo (Rome, 1924), also published in England; From Socialism to Fascism (1924); G. Ferrero, Da Fiume a Roma (Milan, 1923), also published in English; Four Years of Fascism (1924); G. Matteotti, Un anno di domino fascista (Rome, 1923), English trans.;

The Fascisti Exposed (Turin, 1925}.

OF METALS

4R, where M is

the average stress, and R is the range of stress (algebraic difference of maximum and minimum stresses). [Fatigue range or limiting range (R ) is the greatest range of stress which can be applied for an indefinitely great number of repetitions without causing fracture, Endurance, under a given range of stress, is the number of repetitions necessary to cause fracture. In 1849 Jones and Galton investigated the behaviour of castiron bars subjected to pulsating bending strains. Fracture occurred in less than 100,000 strainings when the range of strain exceeded one-third of the static ultimate deflection. The endurance decreased at an increasing rate with increased ranges of strain. Bars which had been partially fatigued suffered no loss in static ultimate strength. Somewhat similar tests, on a wroughtiron built-up girder, were made by Fairbairn in 1860-1. The loading was applied with shock. Fairbairn’s conclusions confirmed those of the earlier workers and also pointed to the existence of a definite fatigue range for metals. These conclusions received further support from the experiments of Wohler (1871), in which, for the first time, strict attention was paid to the magnitude of the applied stresses. Wohler used iron and steel subjected to cycles of direct, bending and torsional stresses. Subsequent to these early classical investigations, the fatigue of metals has formed the subject of several hundreds of independent

is generally a safe rule between the limits of M=o and M= $R. Some experiments employing torsional stresses have shown that

the value of R, is not altered appreciably by wide variations in the value of M. Effect of Frequency of Cycle (F) on Limiting Range (R1).—It is now established that a constant value of R, is obtained at frequencies up to 5,000 cycles per minute. Tests made on copper,

iron and mild steel at frequencies of 3,000, 30,000 and 60,000 cycles per minute gave progressively greater values of Ry at the higher frequencies. Under repetitions of the limiting range, or a numerically inferior range, a state is ultimately reached when no further plastic strain occurs; approximate elasticity only results as strain hysteresis can be detected. These natural elastic limits are not related to the primitive, or original, elastic limits of the material. When the applied range of stress exceeds the limiting range, plastic deformation occurs until the cracking stage is reached. Effect on Limiting Range of Temperature of Test.—Available data relate only to reversed stresses (M[=o). The limiting range (R,,) is largely unaffected in value until temperatures of about

400°C. are reached. At higher temperatures R, decreases, the raie of decrease varying with different metals. The effect of elevated temperatures on R, is not, in general, as marked as on the static ultimate strength under prolonged loading; e.g.. the values of 4R, for 4 steels and x non-ferrous alloy, at v: rious

temperatures between 550°C. and 750°C., has been found to be equal to, or greater than, the static strength (under prolcnged loading) at the same temperatures. Effect of Repeated Stresses on Microstructure of Mctals.—Repeated stresses applied to crystalline aggregates cause slip bands to appear on the surfaces of favourably orientated crystals. If R, is not exceeded, this local action ceases after a certain number of repetitions and the metal becomes strain-hardened. Under repetitions of greater stress ranges, microscopic cracks are initiated in the regions of maximum slip, and fracture Is caused by propagation of these cracks throughout the metal.

Even in ductile materials, the process of initiation and propagation of these cracks may be so highly localised that the appearance of fracture is one usually associated with that of brittle

materials. Precisely similar surface phenomena are exhibited by single metallic crystals subjected to repeated stresses, suggesting that fatigue failure is essentially a process of deterioration of crystalline material and that the chief effect of the inter-crystal boundaries in aggregates is to inhibit slip due to the change in orientation of neighbouring crystals. 1Except where otherwise stated, the remarks apply only to tests conducted at air temperature.

FAURE—FEDERAL

20

FARM

A fundamental theory of fatigue has yet to be advanced. The attrition theory (Ewing and Humfrey) is not supported by the results of recent research. A number of theories have been based on the assumption (Beilby) that plastic strain in metals causes a change from the crystalline to the amorphous state on the surfaces of slip. The manner in which the fatigue crack is initiated has not been explained satisfactorily. The results of experiments on single crystals (Gough, Hanson and Wright) suggest that the effect of slip is to produce local distortions within the crystal, thus setting up internal stresses which, under repetitions of stress ranges, lead to the disruption of inter-atomic bonds and the initiation of cracks. The breaking-up, under strain, of a crystal grain into a number of crystallites of slightly varying orientations, is an alternative hypothesis which is consistent with observed facts. Little doubt exists that, in some manner, fatigue failure is the direct result of local plastic deformation, and it seems highly improbable that fatigue would occur in a material which js truly elastic. The importance of an understanding of fatigue phenomena in its relation to industry cannot be over-estimated. Those machine and structural components whose working conditions can be so

adjusted as to exclude the possibility of fatigue failure constitute a very small minority. The whole trend of development of modern engineering lies in the direction of the employment of higher working stresses, speeds and temperatures. These considerations, together with the necessities of eliminating unnecessary material —to reduce first cost—and the reduction of the weight power factor—which has become of prime importance since the advent of aircraft—tend to make the static strength properties of metals (except at elevated temperatures) of less relative importance than their fatigue properties. A conservative estimate of failures in modern engineering practice attributes 80° of such failures to fatigue. As fatigue failures are usually unaccompanied by any marked preliminary warnings, a deplorable loss of life has often resulted.

See

METALLOGRAPIIY;

METALLURGY;

MATERIALS,

STRENGTH OF. BipLioGRAPHY.—H. J. Gough, Fatigue of Metals (1924); also the Proceedings of the Roya) Society; Inst. of Civil Engineers; Inst. of Mechanical Engineers; American Society for Testing Materials (Philadelphia); and the Bulletins of the University of lnois

(Urbana).

(H. J. Go.)

FAURE, GABRIEL (1845-1024), French musical composer (see 10.209), died at Passy Nov. 4 1924. ! FAUVISM: see PAINTING. FAWCETT, MILLICENT GARRETT (1847), British writer and political worker, was born at Aldeburgh, Suffolk, June rz 1847. In 1867 she married the economist, Henry Fawcett (see 10.215). She herself produced various works on economics, including Poltitcal Economy for Beginners (1870), Tales in Political Economy (1874) and, with her husband, a volume of Essays and Lectures (1872). Mrs. Fawcett was one of the early workers for women’s suffrage, and in 1907 became President of the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies. She was strongly opposed to the tactics of the militant suffragists, and expressly dissociated the N.U.W.S.S. from any sympathy with such methods. The constitutional methods adopted by the body included an alliance formed with the Labour party (1012) by which the society agreed to support Labour candidates in preference to Liberal when the latter proved unsatisfactory on the suffrage question. Her later books include Life of Queen Victoria (1895); Life of Sir William Molesworth (1901); Five Famous French Women (1906); Women’s Suffrage (1912); and What I Remember (1924). She was created G.B.E. in 1925.

FAYOLLE, MARIE EMILE (1852), French soldier, was born at Puy (Haute-Loire) May 14 1852. He entered the Ecole

Polytechnique in 1873, and joined the 16th regiment of artillery

in 1875. Captain in 1882, he entered the Ecole de Guerre in 1880,

and returned there as professor (of the artillery course) in 1897; in 1900 he was made titular professor and remained there till 1907. In the face of the orthodox doctrine he urged the importance of concentration of fire and the obstacle it offered to an attacker; this view he expressed in an admirable brochure en-

LOAN

SYSTEM

titled Concentration des feux et concentration des moyens (1912). On Aug. 13 1914 Fayolle who had been made a general of brigade in 1910 was given the command of the 7oth reserve division. He distinguished himself at the battle of le grand Couronné and afterwards in Artois. The 7oth division together with the 77th formed under Gen. Pétain the III. Army Corps which played a brilliant part in the offensive of May g 1915. Gen. Fayolle succeeded Gen. Pétain on June 21r in command of the XXXIII. Corps, which he directed during the attack at Souchez and Vimy of Sept. rors. | On Feb. 26 1916 Gen. Fayolle was given the command of the VI. Army which took part in the battle of the Somme; in the beginning of May 1917 he succeeded Gen. Pétain at the head of the Centre Group of armies (holding the Champagne and Verdun fronts), On Nov. 18 1917 he was sent to Italy but was recalled on Feb. 8 of the following year in expectation of the German offensive, which came on March 21; two days later he took command of all the forces engaged between Péronne and Barisis— which formed the Reserve Army Group. By March 31 the German attempt to break through was definitely checked, as also a fresh effort between June 9 and 13. In July the Reserve Army Group comprised the I., III., X. and Vi. Armies which carried out the two great offensives of July 18 and Aug. 8 r918. After the armistice Fayolle’s Army Group was entrusted with the occupation of the Rhine provinces; he entered Mainz on Dec. 14 10918, making Kaiserslautern his headquarters. He was made a marshal of France on Feb. 21 1921.

FEBVRE, ALEXANDRE FRÉDÉRIC (1835-1916), French actor

(see 10.231), died in Paris Dec. 14 1916. FEDERAL FARM LOAN SYSTEM.— The Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916 was adopted in the United States at a time when the increasing use of costly equipment and the rising psice of farm land had combined to make the problem of financing the American farmer a difficult one. His need for short-time credit, generally, had been met in various ways; his chief difficulty was to find long-time or mortgage credit. When the farmer must make a heavy investment, he needs a long loan. The only satisfactory security he can offer is a mortgage, and the market for farm mortgages is limited. Local mortgage brokers or bankers having the necessary expertness could lend on a limited number of mortgages and, after

adding their own endorsements, discount the loans with eastern investors. In other cases, some of the large insurance companies sent their own experts into selected regions to place loans secured by mortgages. Again, a number of large corporations, commonly called mortgage banks, were organised to lend on mortgage security and to sell their own bonds to the investing public. Such a corporation, having bought a number of mortgage notes aggregating $100,000, would deposit them with a trustee as security for its own bonds to the same amount. These bonds were then sold to the general investing public, but sold on the general reputation of the corporation issuing them, and not on the buyer’s expert knowledge of the individual mortgages. The Act of 1916.—The Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916 was passed to extend this principle and enable it to meet the need for mortgage credit throughout the country. This Act created a Federal Farm Loan Board, consisting of the Secretary of the Treasury and four others to be appointed by the President, to have general administrative control. Under this board there were created 12 farm land banks, located in the 12 districts into which the country was divided; in each district there are organised, under its farm land bank, an indefinite number of farm loan associations, composed wholly of farmers desiring to borrow money on mortgage; and they borrow from the farm land bank of their district. . The 12 Federal farm land banks are located in the following cities:—Springfield, Mass.; Baltimore, Md.; Columbia, S.C.; Louisville, Ky.; New Orleans, La.; St. Louis, Mo.; St. Paul, Minn.; Omaha, Neb.; Wichita, Kan.; Houston, Tex.; Berkeley, Cal.; Spokane, Wash. The Act permits joint stock land banks to come in under the Federal Farm Loan system. Sixty-nine had done so before Feb. 28

1g25, with capital stock of $35,307,085, with bond issues aggregating

FEDERAL

RESERVE

BANKING

$454,540,200, and with loans to farmers aggregating $464,873,770. |

Every Federal farm land bank was required to have, before beginning business, a subscribed capital stock of not less than $750,000, from which to purchase the first batch of mortgages from the farm loan associations. Additional funds were to be raised through the sale of bonds to the investing public. Each issue of bonds was to be based upon a batch of mortgages previously purchased and deposited as security under the direction of the farm loan board. If the total $750,000 of capital stock of any Federal farm land bank was not subscribed within 30 days after the opening of the books, it became the duty of the Secretary of the Treasury ‘‘to subscribe the balance thereof on behalf of the United States,” and amendments were passed (Jan. 18 1918 and May 26 1920) authorising the Secretary of ae Treasury to purchase $200,000,000 of such bonds during 1918-21. On Feb. 28 1925 the U.S. Govt. held $1,513,045 of the capital stock of the farm land banks. The total bonds authorised and issued by them was $949,130,492. The total capital stock of the 12 farm banks amounted to $50,390, 330, held as follows:—

By the U.S. Govt. et . Í 1,513,045 By National Farm Loan Assns. 48,471,970 By borrowers through agents 403,730 By individual subscribers . 1,585 The total amounts loaned by the 12 Federal land banks, as recorded for 1920 and 1925, are as follows:— © | To Nov. 30 To Feb. 28 2 | : 1920. 1925. Springfield . . $13,550,345 $ 35,930,637 Baltimore s Id 325793 51,142,223 Columbia Louisville New Orleans St. Louis

20,406,515 27,691,200 25,311,705 30,951,675

57,481,504 92,287,466 93,063,031 66,280,807

St. Paul

49,554,700

113,430,039

Omaha Wichita Tfouston Berkeley

. .

Spokane Total

48,905,890 31,531,300 40,754,766 18,645,900

114,387,435 83,282,745 104,651,436 39,531,815

46,084,535 $368,621,314

93,520,832 $944,989,970

The course of the money is as follows: first, from the investor to the farm land bank in exchange for bonds; second, from the farm land bank to the farm loan association in exchange for a batch of mortgages; third, from the farm loan association to the individual farmer in exchange for an individual mortgage. The securities, however, proceed in the opposite direction; first, a mortgage is given by the individual to his local farm loan association in exchange for money; second, this and other similar mortgages are transferred from the farm loan association to the farm land bank in exchange for money; third, the farm land bank deposits these mortgages under the direction of the Federal Farm Loan Board and, on that security, issues its own bonds and sells them to investors.

Under the Farm Loan Act the bonds of the farm land banks

SYSTEM—FENCING

21

Powers.—If the commission has reason to believe that a “‘ person, partnership or corporation ’’ practises any unfair method to the prejudice of the public interest, it shall serve a notice upon such party, submit a statement of the charges and set a date for a hearing. The party complained of has the right to appear and show cause why the commission should not require the cessation of practices

alleged to be in violation of the law.

If the party refuses to obey the

orders of the commission, the commission may apply to the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals. Banks and common carriers are excented, they being under other Federal supervision. The commission is empowered to investigate from time to time “the organisation, business, conduct, practices and management ” of any commercial corporation excepting banks and common carriers, and its relation to any other corporation, and to make recommendations for a readjustment of its business alleged to be violating the anti-trust laws, including those relating to price discriminations, intercorporate stock-holdings and interlocking directorates. The purpose of the commission is to advise and regulate. It is also empowered to investigate trade conditions of foreign countries as affecting the foreign commerce of the United States, and to report to Congress with recommendations. The commission comprises three departments: administrative; economic, in charge of investigations; and legal, whose duty it is to conduct investigations in connection with applications for the issue of notices, gather evidence for use in trials, and furnish examiners and lawyers to represent the commission in proceedings before the commission and in court.

Methods.—The activities of the commission are (a) quasi judicial, (6) economic. Under the first heading comes the prevention of unfair methods of competition. On its economic side the commission investigates (i) on its own initiative any corporation engaged in interstate commerce; (ii) on the direction of the President or either House of Congress any corporation alleged to be violating the anti-trust Acts; (111) either on its own initiative or that of the Attorney-General the manner in which

a court decree dissolving a trust is being carried out.

It can

also, at the instance of the Attorney-General, recommend the readjustment of the business of any corporation alleged to be violating the anti-trust Acts so as to conform to the law.

Another Act of the U.S. Congress, approved Oct. 15 1914 (commonly called the Clayton Act), specifically declared certain practices illegal and gave the Federal Trade Commission jurisdiction to prevent them. (See also INTER-STATE COMMERCE; TRUSTS.) : FEDERZONI, LUIGI (1878\, Italian politician and journalist, was born at Bologna Sept. 17 1878. Educated at the university there, he took to journalism and literature, and for several years was on the staff of the Giornale d'Italia, Rome. In politics he was a Conservative, and became a warm supporter of the Nationalist movement. After the Florence Nationalist congress in Dec. 1910, he helped to found the Idea Nazionale, at first the weekly and subsequently the daily organ of the Nationalist movement.

At the eleċtions of 1913 Federzoni was

interest, and thus to enable the farmer to borrow at a lower rate than would otherwise be possible. Bonds issued prior to May 1 1920 paid 45%. Subsequent issues pay 5%. This provision was bitterly attacked on the ground that it was class legislation, discriminating in favour of farmers as against other classes. The matter was under litigation for many months, but finally in February 1921 the Supreme Court decided in favour of the constitutionality of the Act. (T. N.C.)

clected for one of the divisions of Rome. In the Chamber he never missed an opportunity to combat the Socialists, Republicans and Democrats. As soon as Italy intervened in the World War he joined the army as a lieutenant of artillery; he afterwards joined a trench mortar battery and was awarded a medal for valour. Federzoni supported Mussolini when the latter issued his manifesto of Oct. 26 1922 announcing the march on Rome. In the Cabinet formed by Mussolini five days later Federzoni was Minister for the Colonies. In this capacity he provided for the reconquest of all the Libyan territories evacu-

= FEDERAL

ated during the War, and proceeded

are exempt from taxation, in order to make such bonds so attractive to the general investor as to compensate for a low rate of

RESERVE

BANKING

SYSTEM:

see BANKING:

UNITED STATES. FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION.—This American còmmission was created by Act of the U.S. Congress, approved Sept. 26 1914, for the prevention of unfair methods of competition in commerce and for the collection of information respecting corporations engaged in interstate commerce and respecting export trade associations and conditions. It is composed of five members appointed by the President, and confirmed by the Senate; not more than three members may be of the same political party. The commission elects its own chairman. It entered upon its official duties March 16 1915. With it was merged the Bureau of Corporations, previously under the jurisdiction of the Department of Commerce.

to reorganise

the whole

colonial administration. After the Matteotti murder in June 1924 Mussolini selected Federzoni for the post of Minister of the Interior. FELIX, LIA (1830-1908), French actress (see 10.239), died in Paris Jan. 15 1908. FENCING (see 10.247).—The period from 1910 to 1926 was a very critical one for British fencing. Up till rg14 it was Increasing in popularity and rising in its general standard when, with the outbreak of the World War, its activities came to an abrupt end. When, in 1919, more normal conditions had returned, the outlook was not of the best. The experienced fencers were suffering from their long period of inaction and there were no young fencers ready to step into their places; for fencing, above all

22

FENG YU-HSIANG— FERDINAND

other sports, demands a Jong period of apprenticeship.

It is

a wonderful tribute to the fascination of the art, that in 1925 fencing had become more popular than ever, that its general

standard is considerably higher than in the years before the War and that its appeal is far more general. Fencing in the Services —A marked feature of this improvement is to be seen in the Royal Navy, the Army and the Royal Air Force. In the past the leading civilian fencers regarded the fencing of army and navy officers with scant respect, but in the six years from 1920 to 1925 inclusive, 5 out of the 18 amateur championships held with the three weapons, foil, épée and sabre, were gained by officers on the active list of the services. This improved standard is to be noted also at the universities and at the public schools, though naturally not to the same extent. Fencing Clubs.—The most hopeful development for the future, however, lies in the more general appeal of fencing. In addition to the established salles, the London Fencing Club with Prof. Mimiague, the Salle Bertrand, Salle Tassart, Salle Alibert, Salle Gravé, the Royal Automobile Club with Prof. Volland, other fencing clubs have been recently formed which extend the pleasures of fencing to a class which in pre-War days never thought of it. Such are the Grosvenor Club, the Lensbury Club and the Tom Hughes Club, among others, and the members of these clubs are rapidly attaining a marked proficiency with foil and épée. Outside London, in the provinces, at Birmingham especially, and in Scotland, the popularity of fencing is increasing. Two features of present-day fencing are to be regretted. In the first place the introduction of épée methods into foil play has become marked in recent years, and as long as the foil is regarded as a competitive weapon these methods will no doubt continue. In the two competitions for the Thompson trophy, between American and British representatives, the former easily defeated the more stylish British foil-fencers by using the weapon as a fighting rather than as a fencing implement, and their victories no doubt had an effect on the younger generation of foul-fencers. The second indictment refers to épée fencing. Assaults with that weapon are now decided in international events by two hits out of three instead of by a single hit. There appear to be three good and sufficient arguments against this practice: (a) Where the target is the whole body, so great concentration is required that a single hit is quite sufficient to determine the issue: (b) the knowledge that a single hit is not fatal tends to carelessness over the first hit; (c) a fencer who has won the frst hit can win the encounter equally with a good second hit or a coup double, and anything which tends to exploit the coup double is much to be deprecated. The Olympic Games.—In the Olympic Games of 1912, the British team did not make a great show, but in the International Fencing Tournament, held at Earl’s Court, London, Comm. E. W. H. Brookfield, R.N., tied for first place with the sabre. In 19t4 that fine fencer, R. Montgomerie, by his victory in the épée championship, brought up the number of his individual championship successes to eight, a record for a British fencer. In the Olympic Games of r920 Capt. R. Dalglish, R.N., was placed sixth in the final sabre pool and also awarded a special prize for

“ good sportsmanship.” Anglo-American Contests —This Olympiad, with its apparently inevitable squabbles and bickerings, resulted in a special rapprochement between the teams of the United States and Great Britain and started the compctition between the two nations for the Thompson trophy. The first meeting was held in America during Nov. 1921, and resulted ina victory for the United States by 25 points to 21, but Great Britain turned the tables in the summer of 1923. In 1923 E. Seligman won the sabre championship, a feat which he repeated in 1924, and so became the first British fencer to gain a championship with all three weapons, and he further distinguished himself by reaching the final pool of the foil championship in the Olympic Games of 1924 in Paris, when he had to retire owing to a strain, after beating the winner. He also qualified for the second round of the sabre championship and Capt. R. Dalglish, R.N., also did well; while C. H. Biscoe

reached the semi-final pool of the épée championship. In these same Olympic events, the United States were well represented by Bloomer, Boyce, Calnan, Jeter, Breed, Milner, Gignoux, Macpherson, Lyon and Costner. In 1923 two Grands Assauts d’Armes were held at the Hotel Cecil and the Grocers’ Hall, London, and one in 1924 at the Royal Automobile Club, London. In these many of the most distinguished continental fencers took part, both amateur and professional, including A. Massard, M.C., L. Gaudin, R. L. Heidé, C. Lafontan, A. Pope, Aldo Nadi, E. Tack, F. de Smedt, J. Rossignol and many others. Fencing among women has developed extraordinary popularity. Jn 1925 the three outstanding women fencers in Great Britain were Miss Gladys Davis, Miss Gladys Daniell and Mrs. Freeman. Winners of the Amateur Championships Foil 1910 R. Montgomerie 1911 E. M. Amphlett 1912 P., G. Doyne

1913 G. ae eee 1914 R Willoughby 1920 P. G. Doyne

1921 R. Sutton

|

Épte

R. Montgomerie | W. Hammond M. D. V. Holt Lieut. C. A. Kershaw, R.N. Capt. H. F. S. Huntington

1922 R. Sutton 1923 Maj. Stenson : Cooke 1924 Flight-Lieut. F. G.

G. M. Burt

1925 Flight-Lieut. F. G.

Maj. C. B. Notley

Sheriff

Sheriff

Sabre

E. M. Amphlett | A, Ridley-Martin J. P. Blake W. Hammond R. Montgomerie | Capt. C. F. Vande r Byl G. G. M. Vereker | A. Ridley- Martin

M. D. V. Holt C. H. Biscoe |

W. Hammond

A. H. Corbie i E. Seligman

E. Seligman

Lieut.-Comm. C. A. Kershaw, R.N.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. —E. Castle, Schools and Masters of Fence (1884); L.

Rondeile, Foil and Sabre (1892); C. A. Thimm, A Complete Bibliog-

raphy of Fencing and Duelling (1896); C. de Bazancourt, Secrets of the Sword (1908); H. A.C, Dunn, Fencing (1924). (T. Co.)

FENG YU-HSIANG, Chinese soldier, and the so-called ‘ Christian general” first came into prominence when, on Aug. 25 1921, he was appointed tuchun, or military governor, of Shansi.

In 1922 he was transferred to Peking and played a decisive part in the Chihli-Fengtien war of that year. During 1923 his troops were stationed at Nan-Yiian, near Peking, and it was inevitable, in view of the doubtful authority of the President and his Min-

istry, that he should play an important part in the political intrigues of the capital. These manoeuvres culminated in his resignation, the flight of President Li and the coup d’étut which resulted in the assumption of office by Tsao-Kun. Feng retired to the northwest frontier, where he became director of defence, but returned to aid Chang-Tso-lin against Wu Pei-fu in 1924. After Wu’s defeat, Feng turned against his ally and seized Peking, thus forcing Chang to retreat to Mukden. He dominated the capita) throughout 1925 and at the end of the year captured Tientsin. Chang’s victory at Mukden, however, led to Feng’s retirement to Mongolia. Feng earned his sobriquet by embracing Christianity after witnessing, it is said, the heroism displayed by missionaries during the Boxer outrages. FERDINAND (1861- _—+)«EX-KNGOFBULGARIA (See 10.269).— King Ferdinand in 1911 was the instigator of the Balkan League between Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro, which was formed in 1912 and enabled these four states to declare war against Turkey that same year. This pact provided for the future division of the Balkan Peninsula, reserving to the arbitration of the Emperor of Russia the solution of any doubtful claims. The war started in Oct. 1912, before the conclusion of the Treaty of Ouchy, which put an end to the Italo-Turkish War (Oct. 15). Under the command of King Ferdinand, the Bulgarian Army dealt the most rapid and decisive blows to the enemy; victorious on the battlefields of Kirk Kilisse and Lule Burgas, and having conquered most of Macedonia and Thrace, it started on the open road to Constantinople. Europe grew alarmed: the Great Powers brought about the armistice of Dec.

FERDINAND

I.—FERRO-CONCRETE

3 I912, and the London Conference, which started on Dec. 13. These discussions, however, ceased abruptly, and military operations were resumed on Feb. 3 1913. The Bulgarian armies attacked at Gallipoli and Chatalja, and after a gallant siege entered Adrianople on March 26 1913. However, the Treaty of London which followed did not sanction these victories, and its decisions instead of inaugurating peace, provoked a war between the Balkan States, which began on June 30 1913, by a simultaneous attack of the Serbs and Bulgarians. The former allies became bitter rivals, Rumania and Turkey joining Montenegro, Greece and Serbia against Bulgaria, who, finding herself closed in by four enemies at once, was forced, after a few weeks of brave but useless resistance, to submit unconditionally to the victors’ terms. The Treaty of Bucharest, signed on Aug. 10 1913, annihilated in one stroke the brilliant results obtained through the heroism of the Bulgarian armies in 1912-3. It deprived Bul-

garia of all her conquests including the town of Silistra and part of

the Dobruja and gave to the Serbians and Greeks the province of Macedonia for which Bulgaria had made all the sacrifices of the first Balkan War. This treaty was the principal cause of Bulgaria’s participation in the World War on the side of Germany. It explains the resentment of King Ferdinand and his Govt. against the other Balkan States. Had the Allicd Powers in 1914 guaranteed the revision of the Treaty of Bucharest, Bulgaria would have co-operated with them; but as they failed to do so, Germany was able, by illusory promises, to induce Bulgaria, who felt she had been unjustly treated, to fight for the German cause. These German manoeuvres did not succeed

at once, for King Ferdinand began by proclaiming the neutrality of Bulgaria in Nov. 1914. During May 1o15 the Bulgarian Govt. sounded the four Great Powers, with regard to the fulfilment of Bulgaria’s legitimate claims in Macedonia. As no concrete answer was returned, King Ferdinand turned to Germany, where his application was received with great cordiality. Berlin made lavish promises at once. German envoys hurried to Bulgaria, with a view to persuading the King and the Govt. to conclude a military alliance with Germany. The desire for revenge against Serbia, Greece and Rumania inspired Ferdinand to bind Bulgaria to the Central Powers. On Sept. 21 1915 he gave the order for general mobilisation, though his Govt. advised armed neutrality. In view of this equivocal situation Russia sent an ultimatum to Bulgaria on Oct. 4 1915, which was succeeded by formal declarations of war against Bulgaria on the part of Serbia, France, Great Britain and Italy. Bulgaria was definitely in the German camp: under Gen. Gekoff, commander-in-chief, her armies were victorious on most of the battlefields of Macedonia, Thrace and Rumania, in 1915, 1916 and 1917, against the Serbs, and against the Rumanians. The Kaiser, the King of Saxony and the King of Wiirtemberg all paid official visits to King Ferdinand at Sofia. However, in Sept. 1918, the Bulgarian Army, discouraged by innumerable hardships, was defeated at Dobropole, Macedonia, by the Allied troops. This was the sign for a general retreat. An armistice was signed at Salonika on Sept. 30 which ended the war between Bulgaria and the Allies. After this catastrophe King Ferdinand abdicated in favour of his son Boris on Oct. 4 r918 and left Sofia the same evening for Coburg where he has lived since in retirement. (A. St.) FERDINAND I. (1865), KING oF RUMANIA, was born Aug. 24 1865 at Sigmaringen, Prussia, the second son of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. As King Charles had no son it was decided that the succession should be continued in the family of Prince Leopold, and Prince Ferdinand, Charles’s nephew, became Crown Prince of Rumania and heir presumptive to the Rumanian throne in March 1889. Prince Ferdinand took a great interest in military questions and the organisation of the Rumanian Army on modern lines was in no small measure due to his energy and enlightened advice. He was commander-in-chief of the Rumanian armies during the Bulgarian campaign of 1913. On Jan. 10 1893 he married Princess Marie, eldest daughter of the Duke of Edinburgh, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Six children were born of the marriage.

ENGINEERING

23

When Ferdinand ascended the throne on Oct. 11 1914, Rumania was passing through one of the most critical periods of her history. At the Crown Council held under King Charles at Sinaia soon after the outbreak of the World War, the members of the Cabinet who were in favour of intervention on the side of the Central Powers were greatly outnumbered and in spite of Charles’s support of the minority, it was almost unanimously decided that Rumania should remain neutral. Later King Ferdinand, who had in the meantime succeeded to the throne, found himself in an extraordinarily painful situation when he realised that an armed intervention in the cause of Rumania’s national unity was unavoidable. He, however, conquered his feelings as a German and a Hohenzollern, and when the moment came, he did not hesitate to declare war on his native country. As a consequence he was disowned by the Hohenzollern family. When Bucharest was occupied by General Mackensen, King Ferdinand and the Royal family withdrew with the Government and the army into Moldavia. There he endured with the rest of the population a most appalling period of anxiety, sickness and want. The Bolshevist revolution and the collapse of the Russian armies came as a crowning misery. Fortunately however, the Rumanian Army, headed by King Ferdinand, repulsed the German attack at Mărăşeşti, thus saving the rest of the country from invasion. In 1918 the provinces of Bessarabia, Bucowina, Transylvania and the Banat had become united with Rumania, and on Oct. 15 1922 King Ferdinand was crowned at Alba Julia King of all Rumanians. Two most important reforms, the agrarian reform and the inauguration of universal suffrage, were enacted under Ferdinand’s reign. The expropriation of large estates and their conversion into small holdings did much to guarantee the peaceful development of an agricultural country such as Rumania. King Ferdinand was the first landlord to hand over his estates to his peasant-soldiers. It was also due to his initiative that the thorny Jewish question was solved by the grant of full civil and military rights to the Rumanian-born Jews. In Dec. 1925 Ferdinand’s eldest son, Charles, renounced his claims to the throne, and Charles’s son, Michael, became heir apparent. (G. Bo.) FERRERO, GUGLIELMO (1871), Italian journalist and author, was born at Portici, near Naples, July 31 1871. At an early age he joined the stafi of the Radical semi-republican Secolo of Milan. He travelled abroad considerably, and made a certain reputation by his books L’furopa giovane (1897) and Il Militarismo (1898); Engl. tr., 1902. Later he studied Roman History, and in 1902 pubhshed his Grandezza e decadenza di Roma,

which established his fame as historian among the general public rather than among scholars. He, in fact, applied the methods of journalism to history. In politics a Radical Democrat, on the outbreak of the World War he was an ardent supporter of the Allied cause, which he identified with that of democracy, and advocated Italian intervention. After the War he published numerous articles and several books in Italy and abroad, inspired by the most gloomy forebodings of imminent catastrophe for Italy, Europe and the world’s civilisation. Among these later works is Da Fiume a Roma (Milan, 1923), also published in English under the title Four Years of Fascism (1924). FERRIER, PAUL (1843-1020), French dramatist (see 10.288), died at Nouan-le-Fuzelier Sept. 11 1920. FERRO-CONCRETE ENGINEERING (see also BRIDGES; DAMS; Factory; Roab CONSTRUCTION).—Owing to a combination of circumstances,

technical,

economic

and manufacturing,

great

developments in reinforced concrete have taken place since 1910, and as a structural system it is now widely appreciated for many purposes on account of its adaptability, lightness and economy of first cost and maintenance. The scarcity of steel during the World War caused reinforced concrete to be used for many structural purposes for which steel had hitherto been considered the most suitable material. Another factor in the development has been the progressive improvement in the strength and reliability of Portland cement as evidenced by the latest revision of the British standard specification for Portland cement, 1925, which calls for a neat cement tensile strength at 7 days of 600

24

FERRO-CONCRETE

lb. per sq. in. as compared with 450 lb. for the previous specification, 1912. |

Rapid progress has also been made with a new type of aluminous cement (“‘ciment fondu ”’), originating in France, but now also made elsewhere, which, while setting initially no quicker than Portland cement, nevertheless attains or exceeds in 24 hours the strength of Portland cement at seven days, so that concrete made with such cement can be brought into service, if need

be, ina day or two. It is claimed also that the cement resists the action of sea water, and that owing to the heat generated in setting, it can be usediin frosty weather. Along with the improvements in cements auch progress has been made in the subject of proper grading, proportioning and mixing of aggregates, sands, cement and water in order to attain the densest, strongest and most watertight concrete. It is well recognised now that, with aggregate and sand of a given material, that mixture of graded material (large, medium and fine) which

has the smallest proportion of voids, and which consequently weighs most per unit volume, will be capable, when mixed without excess of water, of furnishing the strongest concrete. Technical Studies—On the technical side, much work has been done in the theoretical analysis of the moments and stresses in arches and continuous framed constructions of varied forms, and the results are available for use in the more accurate determination of stresses and sections. Considerable study has also been given to the elastic properties of concrete in relation to the secondary stresses arising from temperature variations and shrinkage of the concrete. Foundations.—Reinforced concrete construction is adapted

to varied uses in foundation work. Thus, retaining walls of ample strength can be readily constructed in places where there is no room for a gravity wall of mass concrete. Heavy columns can be supported on a relatively thin but widespread foundation of reinforced concrete with great saving in weight, volume and depth of construction, as compared with mass concrete. On weak

ground, a complete layer of light reinforced concrete in the shape of a plain or ribbed slab may be provided to distribute the entire load over the whole basement area of a structure in an economical and efficient manner unattainable with other methods of construction. Caissons and Floating Craft—An important development in subaqueous foundation work, such as dock walls, breakwaters and bridge piers (see PORT ENGINEERING) consists in the use of reinforced concrete caissons of rectangular, cylindrical or other form, which may be constructed in dry dock or on a staging on dry land, then launched or floated out, towed to the site, and deposited in position on a bed prepared by dredging or by divers. Such caissons form a permanent part of the construction and are generally used as a working base for further operations of sinking downwards and building upwards, the top being kept always above water. Sinking downwards through suitable materials may be effected by grabbing through open wells in the interior of the caisson, while for difficult cases the excavation may be carried on by men working under compressed air. Large concrete caissons have been applied in the construction of the upper portions of breakwaters as at Valparaiso! and elsewhere. In the Oswald Street Bridge at Glasgow,? cylindrical caissons

20 ft. diameter were used for the foundations of the piers. These caissons were constructed on a staging ashore, fitted with a false bottom, lowered into the water, floated out to position, deposited on the prepared bed, and after removal of the temporary bottom, sunk to the necessary depth by grabbing and excavation inside, the pier on top of a group of caissons being built up as the sinking proceeded. Concrete Ships.—The results of the construction of reinforced concrete cargo vessels were satisfactory and indeed surprising as regards watertightness, main longitudinal and transverse strength and lightness of construction. The hull weight in careful designs was less than that of a wooden vessel, though somewhat greater than that of a steel hull. The principal disadvan1 Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. 214. 2 Engineering News Record, Oct. 1925.

ENGINEERING

tage lay in the relative tenderness of the thin skin construction under the bumping and rubbing to which a vessel is often subject when in port and when touching the ground. The results were instructive as regards the possibilities of carrying out light watertight concrete constructions with rich concrete of small aggregate without the addition of any special waterproofing material and with very fine limits of cover of concrete and spacing of bars. In Great Britain, in addition to numerous barges and steam tugs, a few self-propelled cargo vessels were also constructed, the principal being the ‘ Armistice’’? of about 1,100 tons dead-weight capacity. Flat Floors ——There has been a continued tendency toward simplification of structure with a view to speeding up and cheapening construction, culminating in the extensive use in the United States of the flat slab floor. In this type main and subsidiary beams are dispensed with and a floor of constant thickness with a flat under surface is supported directly on the columns, which have enlarged heads of square or moulded shape. The floor reinforcement consists of several systems of rods mainly radiating from the columns and placed near the upper surface over the columns and near the lower surface in the interior of panels. The design of such floors is based on very approximate theory controlled by the results of stress measurements in tests of actual floors. The method has hitherto found but little application in Britain, where much more use had been made of light flat ceilinged floors having in their lower part rows of hollow tile blocks set so as to leave intermediate spaces for the formation of narrow reinforced beams, the floor being completed by a continuous concrete layer placed over the tiles and beams. Floors of this type are well adapted for filling in the panels between the main floor beams of structural steel-framed buildings, and have the advantages of lightness and good insulating qualities, while a plaster ceiling can be applied to the grooved soffits of the tiles. Rich Concrete-—Greater recognition is now being given to the value of the cement element in concrete as affecting the strength, watertightness and endurance of the material. Starting from 1:2:4 mixture, the one most commonly used in reinforced construction, which is seldom quite watertight and on that account may in certain circumstances fail to protect the rods sufficiently, it is found that up to a 2:2:4 mixture the addition of cement is accompanted by a roughly proportionate increase in the compressive strength as well as by enhanced reliability, watertightness and protecting properties, to the extent that porosity in a

2:2:4 mixture is quite exceptional. The richest mixtures are required for sea construction, such as jetties, especially for the parts above low water, also for tanks, conduits and floating craft which have to withstand water pressure, and for piles which have to undergo severe hammering. Pressure conduits have been constructed of 20 ft. diameter for 50 ft. head and in smaller sizes for a maximum pressure of 180 ft. head. (See AQUEDUCTS.)

Long Span Arch Constraction—Wherever abutment and headroom conditions are suitable and the span is not small, arch construction compels consideration, as thereby a single main truss member (the arch) serves to carry the load as compared with two main members and a web system in the case of a beam or truss. Further, the arch has the economical advantage that the thrust is principally taken by concrete, which is cheaper for this purpose than steel, and in large arches only a relatively small proportion of reinforcement is required to take care of such tensile stresses as may develop due to live-load variations

and the effects of shrinkage, temperature and rib-shortening in the concrete. The arch form, in addition, lends itself to the attainment of good appearance. The largest arch bridge completed in 1926 is the 432 fit. span road bridge across the Seine at St. Pierre du Vauvray, France. Whereas formerly 400 [t. waslooked on as being near the practicable limit for a concrete arch, recent developments have greatly extended the limits and completely worked-out projects are now in existence for more than one bridge with spans of about 600 ft., and spans of well over 1,000 ft. do not appear to be unattainable. ® Proceeds of Inst. of Naval Architects, 1918.

FERTILISERS—FIBRES Aesthetic Appearance.—Surfaces of concrete do not lend themselves very readily to satisfactory architectural treatment, so that in many fine buildings the supporting framework of reinforced concrete is entirely hidden behind facework of masonry or other material. Good effects in buildings can be attained when the visible concrete is well finished and confined to wellproportioned and suitably lined vertical and horizontal bands of the framework, the rest of the elevation being formed of panelling and facework of other materials. In bridges, principal reliance must be placed on satisfactory form and proportions combined with very careful work in constructing and setting the moulds which form the exposed surfaces. Parapets and pillars of good finish and appearance may be precast in small pieces in carefully finished moulds, preferably of metal. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—M. S. Ketchum, Wal/s, Bins and Grain Elevators (1907); Illustrations of reinforced concrete structures, designed and erected under the direction of Brussel and Viterbo (1910); C. H. Desch, The Chemistry and Testing of Cement (1911); O. Faber and P. C. Bowie, Reinforced Concrete Design, vol. I and 2 (1912); G. A. Hool, Reinforced Concrete Construction, vol. 1,2 and 3 (1912-6) F. W. Taylor, S. E. Thompson and E. Smulski, Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced (1916); J. Melan, Plain and Reinforced, Concrete Arches (1917); M. T. Cantell, Retnforced Concrete Consitruc-

tion, part

I (1918),

part

2

(1921);

Johnson, Concrete Engineers’ Handbook

G.

A.

Hool

and

N.

C.

(1918); H. Adams and ÈE. R.

Matthews, Reinforced Concrete Consiruction in Theory and Practice (1920); J. Williamson, Calculating Diagrams for the Design of Rein(J. WI)

forced Concrete Sections (1920).

FERTILISERS: see AGRICULTURE: SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENTS. FEZ, Morocco (see 10.306), has been since r1or2 under the French Protectorate. The population in 1921 was 70,540, including 2,218 Europeans. The city has still an active native industrial hfe and prosperous trade, while European industries, such as oil and soap manufacture, have been established. The town is

lit by electric light derived from the falls of Wadi Fez.

The

municipal services have been reorganised by the French under the native pasha and his council, and an office of native industries has been set up to conserve the ancient handicrafts. The erection of the new European town of Fez has been begun near Dar Debi Bagh. Fez is connected with Rabat and Ujda by narrowgauge lines, and the line to Tangier is finished as far as the Spanish frontier. There are some 30 native olive oil factories round the Bab-el-Ghisa, and the manufacture of silk textiles occupies about 30,000 people. There are good roads to Taza, Meknes and Qnitra. The new port at Qnitra is the nearest to Fez.

FIBRES (see 10.309).—-No fundamental changes have taken place in the technology of fibres since 1910, although there have been many minor developments, including an increased use of the lesser fibres for industrial purposes. It is rather in the employment of substitutes and in the evolution of processes which have preduced practically new substances such as “ artificial silk ” (g.z.) that the most striking changes have taken place. War Sudstitutes—During the World War period interesting technical experiments were made, particularly in Germany and Austria, with various substitutes. These were caused by the shortage of cotton and wool, due partly to the blockade and partly to the huge demand for these fibres for military purposes. Cotton was required for explosives and wool for uniforms and the like. Early in the War, German experts began to examine the possibilities of other fibres, hoping thereby to supplement their inadequate supplies of cotton and wool. From the standpoint of fibre technology, these experiments are undoubtedly important but so far have not been of much industrial use. Experiments were made with nettles and with twisted paper yarns. The substitution of wood cellulose for cotton cellulose proved of the greatest immediate value to Germany. To a large extent she was thereby enabled to eke out her supplies of cotton cellulose and produced considerable quantities of nitro-cellulose propellant explosives from wood pulp. The wood cellulose was prepared from the bisulphite pulps of the paper industry by hydrolytic treatments and the result was a cottonisation of the pulp. This material is usually known as ‘ Supersulfit ” and has proved of considerable value during the post-War period for

the making of paper. (q.v.).

25

Paper Yarn.—The “ paper yarn ” industry developed under the pressure of the War to an annual output of 200,000 tons. These yarns were used to quite a considerable extent for textiles, even complete suits being made from “ paper cloth,’ but were characterised by the defects of short fibre length and failed to establish themselves as serious competitors with the older fibres such as cotton and wool. Nettle Fibre —Valuable experiments were made with nettle fibre, resulting in indications that it is almost a total failure. The common nettle or Urticaceae contains a rough fibre, and since the plant belongs to the same order as Ramie or Rhea fibre, high but illusory hopes were entertained that from it might be obtained a fibre of similar or even better quality, which could be used in the textile industry. Nettle fibre has great length of bast, and great variability in dimensions and has to be prepared by chemical methods of separation. The crop-weight is low ana it is difficult to cultivate on a commercial basis. While stout plants can be gathered wild, when transferred to cultivated soil and planted in regular rows, they tend to deteriorate and become thin and weak. These difficulties may be surmounted, but so soon as the War ended fibre users quickly returned to the older and more satisfactory raw materials. Jute.—Long before the War it was known among fibre experts that by treating jute with caustic soda a “ woollenising ” effect is produced. The structure of the fibre is altered, has many resemblances to wool, can be “ carded,” and mixes well with wool. This process was revived in Germany and Austria during the War and mixtures containing as much as 60% of this vegetable fibre were worked up and spun into serviceable yarns. Sisal.—In the post-War period, so far as the old series of hard fibres are concerned, the most important developments have been in the direction of increasing their output by opening up new areas in which they are being grown on a commercial scale and in developing alternative plants, such as the expansion of the sisal industry in the British colony of Kenya. The sisal is an agave which is indigenous in Florida, the West Indies and Yucatan, and from its leaves sisal hemp is produced. The plant has, however, been transported to distant areas, and at Kenya it is now one of the chief exports of the country. In 1912 only 2,500 cwt. were exported; in rọrọ the quantity had risen to 126,937. In 1924 Kenya and Uganda together exported 218,740 cwt. of sisal fibre and 9,720 cwt. of sisal tow. The demand for sisal is due to the increasing demands for binder twine, needed by the mechanical reapers which are being employed in ever increased quantities by the great grain producing countries such as the United States, Canada, the Argentine and Australia, particularly for those machines which reap and at the same time bind into sheaves. Sisal hemp, a substitute for the original hemp, Cannabis sativa, is itself threatened by new competitors such as Mauritius hemp, Manila hemp and New Zealand hemp or Phormium tenax, which were well known and widely used before the War. Bowstring Hemp — This plant flourishes in the shade of old rubber and may therefore prove a valuable crop in old rubber clearings. It is propagated by seed, division or leaf cutting, the latter method being the most satisfactory. The distance of planting is two feet apart each way and the average yield is 14 tons per acre. The plant produces a fine, tough, white and elastic fibre, which is extracted from the leaf by methods similar to those employed in the preparation of sisal. It is usually shipped in bales of four to five hundred-weights. Although much valuable scientific information has been acquired concerning this plant—_ and it undoubtedly has considerable possibilities—its production is still in the experimental stage. | Roselle Fibre —This is obtained from an annual shrub whic belongs to the order of the hibiscus. The fibre is obtained from the branches and main stem, but the latter is of inferior quality. The fibre is suitable for making rope and good quality string, and it is claimed that it can be spun like jute but, so far, it is not certain that it can be produced on a commercial scale. The plant

grows toa height of roor 12 ft. and therefore must not be planted within a radius of 5 ft. of young rubber trees. It is prepared by

FIJI ISLANDS—FILDES

26

retting in stagnant or slow moving water for 8 or 9 days, and all the work can be done by native hand labour and requires no elaborate

machinery.

It must, however,

be bale-pressed

for

export.

Arghan.—This fibre stands half-way between the hard and soft fibres and appears to have some of the characteristics of each. It was originally discovered by Sir Henry Wickham in South America, but attempts are now being made to develop it on a commercial scale in Malaya. It was first considered as a material for twine and cordage but it possesses a tensile strength which gives a breaking strain of 50% above that of the finest Italian hemp or even the best flax. Moreover, it can be spun to a much finer lea than is required for twine. A firm cloth which bleaches and dyes well has been woven from it. Till recently it could only be spun on a flax machine but it now seems possible to use ordinary cotton machinery. It is a lance-leafed plant, similar to a pineapple, and the long leaves contain more than 20% of pure fibre. It is easily split up into long fibres, 7 feet or more in length, which are almost as delicate as silk, Specific leaves on each plant produce a softer and finer fibre than the others, and planters are concentrating attention on these. Arghan still is more of scientific than of commercial interest but possesses considerable possibilities. Kapok.—This soft fibre is obtained from the pods of the Kapok or cotton tree, indigenous to Malaya, Java and the Philippines. Considerable and increasing quantities are being exported chieily to Australia, America and Great Britain. The chief distributing centre in Europe is Amsterdam. It is non-absorbent and lighter than water. When stuffed into life-saving apparatus or into cushions, etc., it will sustain a heavy weight in water for many hours. In consequence it has largely replaced cork-lined appliances. The fibre is as buoyant as cork and can be compressed en masse. The peculiar property of the fibre is due to its structure. The fibre canal holds a large amount of air, and the smooth contour of the fibre and the resilience of the air-filled tube give a large air volume to the mass, even when compressed. The fibre is short, light and brittle, and despite much experiment so far, attempts to spin it on a large scale have not been successful. It has a fine lustre and great elasticity. Flax.—Special efforts have been made to develop the production of flax in various parts of the British Empire in order to replace Russia who, in pre-War days, produced annually 525,000 tons of flax and exported at least half of it to Europe. Flax from the new Baltic States and from Soviet Russia has again begun to appear on the markets. The Belfast linen industry, in conjunction with the government, have in recent years devoted special attention to increasing the supply of fibre. In particular, efforts are being made to develop flax growing in England. A special committee was set up in Oct. 1924 to consider anew the whole matter, and in the Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture (1925, 32, 310) it was stated that the government had adopted the recommendation of this committee and had acquired two factories and constituted a society, not trading for profit. This society is The Flax Industry Development Society and its primary object is the supply of seed of good quality. It is believed this society will be able to supply a far better type of seed than that at present obtainable by fiax growers and so lead to a great extension of flax growing of the finest quality within the British

Isles and throughout the Empire. BreLtioGRAPHy.—E.

(See CELLULOSE.)

Goulding, Cotton and Other Vegetable Fibres

(1911, etc.); J. M. Matthews, Textile Fibres (1913); H. R. Carter, The Flax, Hemp and Jute Year Book and Pocket Annual (Belfast, 1921, etc.); A. S. Moore, Linen (1922); J. S. M. Ward, Textile Fibres and Yarns (1924). See also Report of the Departmental Committee on the Irish Flax Growing Industry (Dublin, ed. 5502, 1911); Bulletins

of the Imperial Institute.

(J. S. M. W.)

FIJI ISLANDS (see 10.335) have an area of 7,425 sq. m. and

a population of 139,541 (1911). The dominant feature of Fijian

history during the years 1915-25 was the celebration at Levuka, on Oct. 10 1924, of the islands’ jubilee as a Crown Colony. After so years of British rule the same “ lali” or native drum was beaten at the same hour and place by the old chief who beat it at the cession of 1874, announcing the ceremonies arranged in

honour of the occasion. Peace was the object of the cession, and the Fijian fully appreciates the peace that for nearly 50 years has remained unbroken. A large tabua (whale’s tooth), presented on the occasion of the jubilee, was accepted by King George as a token of the loyalty and affection of his Fijian subjects. Population.—The census of 1911 shows that the population in that year was 139,541; in 1921 there were 88,464 males and 68,802 females, total, 157,266. Of this total, Europeans number

2:4%, Fijians 53%, Indians 38%; the rest are mainly half castes, Polynesians, Rotumans and Chinese. Consittution and Administration.—The present Constitution is regulated by Letters Patent of Jan. 31 1914 (amended in July 1916). It provides for an Executive Council to advise the Governor, and a Legislative Council; the former now consists of four official and two nominated unofficial members, and the latter consists of the Governor, not more than 12 nominated, 7 elected

and 2 native members. The natives, however, retain a large share of self-government, and in the remote districts, where little commercial development has taken place, there is but slight modification in the old communal methods of native society. Younger natives, who through a certain amount of education have come under the influence of a European social system, are disposed to secure release from communal obligations and to support themselves on their own land or become wage-earners for varying periods in industrial centres or on plantations. Many are now engaged in the sugar-mills, and a considerable number as clerks, sailors, carpenters, boat builders and domestic servants. The vast majority, however, remain agriculturists living in native villages and cultivating their tribal lands. Educational administration was completely changed in 1916, when a board of education replaced the school boards, an education department was formed and ordinances passed to allow grants to be made to primary and vernacular schools. European education in the colony has made considerable progress, in spite of the fact that the problem is rendered more complex by the numerous races now domiciled in the islands. Facilities for primary education are good, and those for vocational training constantly improving. Land Tenure.—The sale of native lands, except to the Government for specific purposes, was prohibited by an ordinance of 1912. The standard tenure is leasehold up to 99 years, with security to the tenant for permanent and unexhausted improvements. A native lands commission, comprising a European officer and three native chiefs, has been established to survey and register all native lands. Trade and Indusiry.—The total trade in 1924 was £2,565,528, as against £1,999,004 for I912, £2,329,908 for 1913 and £2,301,139 for 1914—a steady increase which has since been well maintained.

There is a preferential tariff in favour of the products and manufactures of the British Empire; and of the total trade of the colony over

60°% is with

British

Possessions,

and

about

11%

with

the

United Kingdom, the balance, about 25 %, being with Europe and the United States of America. The main agricultural industries have for long been the production of sugar, copra and bananas, The sugar industry has been hampered by inadequate labour and bya great increase in the world’s production; copra has suffered from a restricted market, the banana industry from plant disease and a protective customs tariff in Australia. Hence the Government continues to make efforts to develop the new rice industry, which is important to the Colony with its eee East Indian population. The cultivation of cotton, which had ceased in 1900, was resumed

in 1922 and is almost entirely in the hands of East Indians. Other developing industries are dairying, sawmilling and the growing and canning of pineapples. ts Comntunications.—There is regular monthly communication to and from Sydney via Auckland or directly, and also to and from Vancouver via Honolulu. The Colonial Sugar Refining Company has a narrow gauge railway extending from Tavua to Na Singatoka, a distance of 120 m. over which passengers are carried on specified days. The first section of the main trunk road, which ends at Sawan, was completed and opened to traffic in 1924, and, though the total length at metalled roads is less than 100 m., there is a good length of gravelled roads and of communally-maintained bridle tracks. Finance.—The revenue for 1924 amounted to £484,834 as against £283,947 in 1912. Notwithstanding fluctuations the revenue has been steadily expanding for years, and though expenditure in the last 10 years has frequently exceeded it, there was a surplus of £50,316 in 1923 and of £33,764 in 1924. A. R.*

FILDES, SIR LUKE (1844), British painter (see 8.339), was born at Liverpool and educated privately at Chester. He studied at the art schools of Warrington, South Kensington and

FILING SYSTEMS—FILTER-PASSING the Royal Academy, and exhibited his first Academy painting in 1872. Introduced to Dickens by Millais, Fildes was illustrating Edwin Drood at the time of the novelist’s death. ‘‘ The Casuals ” (1874) showed him as a genre painter of power, and a series of Venetian pictures were very popular. He was made A.R.A. in 1879, and R.A. in 1887. “ The Village Wedding ” (1883) and, more especially, “‘ The Doctor ” (1892) is probably the most widely famous of his works. In later years he painted many portraits, among them state portraits of Edward VII. (1902), Queen Alexandra (1905), and George V. (1912). Knighted in 1906, Sir Luke Fildes became K.C.V.O. in 1918. FILING SYSTEMS: see OFFICE APPLIANCES. FILM:

see MOTION PICTURES; PHOTOGRAPIIY.

FILON, PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTIN (1841-1916), French man of letters (see 10.345), died at Croydon, England, May 13 1916. In roto he published a short biography, Marie Stuart, and in tort

L’ Angleterre

d’Edouard

VII., and

a

dramatic

poem,

Shakespeare amoureux. His Souvenirs et documents, relating to his former pupil, the Prince Imperial, appeared in 1912. FILTER-PASSING MICROBES.—These organisms are those which are small enough to pass through a “ bacterial ” filter. Bacterial filters are made of unglazed porcelain or compressed infusorial earth. The grains of the china clay or infusorial earth used for their manufacture are sufficiently small and uniform to leave insterstices, the cross section of which is 0-2 to 0-8 p in diameter. If a liquid containing microbes whose smallest diameter exceeds 0.2 u be pressed through the filter, the microbes remain impacted in the smaller crevices. As 0-2 p is also the limit of size of a particle which can be resolved by the best microscopes (see Microscopy) when white light is used, filter-passing organisms are either invisible or on the margin of visibility. Hence, most of them have been classed as “‘ ultravisible viruses.” Discovery.—The first discovery, that an ultramicroscopic or filterable virus was the cause of an animal disease, was made by Loeffler in 1898 in the course of some experiments upon footand-mouth disease, in which a filter of infusorial earth was used to remove ordinary recognisable bacteria from the diluted contents of the superficial vesicles which are characteristic of this disease. The filtrate was free from any particles visible by the microscope and no bacteria developed in it on cultivation. Nevertheless, injection of this filtrate into animals caused disease. Material removed from the vesicles of the animal so infected and filtered again reproduced the disease in a fresh animal. Similar experiments were carried out through a number of generations of animals, so that there was no doubt that a virus capable of propagation in the animal body was contained in the filtrates. In the next few years the filterability of the virus was established in the case of infectious pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, South African horse-sickness and fowl plague. Yellow Fever.—The cause of yellow fever has been shown by Noguchi to be a spirochaete which, owing to its thinness and motility, can pass through a bacterial filter. Human Diseases.—Up to 1925 the virus of about 40 diseases of man and domestic animals had been found to pass through a bacterial filter by some reliable observer. The more important of these are the following: foot-and-mouth disease, contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia, African horse-sickness, fowl plague, yellow fever, cattle plague, sheep-pox, epithelioma contagiosum of birds, swine fever, rabies, cow-pox (vaccinia), molluscum contagiosum of man, equine infectious pernicious anaemia, canine distemper, ‘‘ blue tongue ’’ of sheep, dengue fever, papataci or sand-fly fever, smallpox, trachoma, poliomyelitis, measles, typhus fever, trench fever, mumps, Rocky Mountain spotted fever and herpes labialis. Influenza.—Recently, Olitzky has succeeded in propagating on special culture media seven varieties of small microbes from the filtrates through a “ bacteria proof” filter of washings of the throats of individuals suffering from catarrhal diseases. One of them is credited, on substantial grounds, with being the cause of pandemic influenza (q.v.), another is supposed by its discoverer to be responsible for our common colds. The others do not appear to be of pathological significance.

MICROBES

27

Cancer Research.—There is now reason to suppose that filterable viruses play some part in the origin of cancer (g.v.). Whena fragment of a malignant tumour is implanted in the tissues of an animal of the same species it generally grows and ultimately kills the animal. The animal cells of which the cancer is composed are endowed with a faculty for growth, uncontrolled by those factors which determine normal tissue equilibrium. The possibility that this property was due to infection of the cells by a microbe has, in the past, occupied the attention of investigators, but no experimental basis for this view was afforded till 1911,

when Peyton Rous described a sarcoma of the fowl which differed from mammalian tumours in that it was transmissible from chicken to chicken by means of a filtrate from a filter which kept back all of the malignant cells (much too large to traverse its pores) and also any bacteria of ordinary dimensions. This filtrate could be dried at a low temperature and the powder

retained its activity for years. It had ng effect when injected into animals other than chickens, and it always produced the same type of tumour. As the same result could not be obtained with a filtered extract of other malignant growths, this very important discovery was interpreted to mean that this fowl-sarcoma was a thing apart, although in structure and behaviour it closely resembled the mammalian sarcomata. Subsequently, its discoverer found that two other malignant tumours of fowls possessed similar properties, and quite recently Carrel has recorded the formation of malignant tumours in fowls following local irritation of the tissues with tar or arsenic, filtrates from which were also infective for chickens. Rous believed that the filterable agent which caused the tumours he studied was, probably, an extremely small microbe, but as he did not succeed in propagating it outside the body its nature remained undetermined. The nature of the infective agent in the filtrate of Rous’s tumour has recently been disclosed by Gye, who has succeeded in growing it in test tubes in a special medium. The culture has been carried on through several generations of transplantations. By this means the virus has been purified from the other constituents of the original im-

plant. The inoculation of this purified virus alone did not give rise to a tumour, but if mixed with an extract of the fresh tumour, in which the virus had been killed by chemical agents and which alone was innocuous, a tumour occurred. In other words, the conjunction of two factors, living virus and some non-living chemical substance or substances, is necessary to provoke the cells of the animal to that anarchical development which is characteristic of malignant growth. Gye’s Experiments —Gye has also succeeded in showing that chicken sarcoma is not peculiar, as hitherto believed, and that a particular mouse sarcoma will sometimes yield an infective filtrate. In this case, however, a special technique had to be

employed, the original method of Rous proving unsuccessful. This is a discovery of much significance and it seems probable that an extrinsic origin may be found in the case of other cancers in the near future. The virus of Rous sarcoma has been presumed to be particulate as it is held back by the finer grades of filter, and recently Barnard, using ultra-violet light, has obtained photographs of small globoid bodies about o-1 uw in diameter from cultures of the virus. These small bodies occurred in masses, suggesting colonies. They were not discovered in the medium before inoculation or when the cultivation of the virus proved unsuccessful. Whether they represent the microbes or aggregations of colloidal particles produced from the proteins of the medium by chemical changes associated with the growth of the virus

occurring therein, is not at present determined. Plant Diseases —Filterable organisms are also responsible for many diseases of plants (see PLANT PaTHOLocy). In fact, their existence was first brought to light by Iwanowski in 1892 in connection with the mosaic disease of the tobacco plant. Iwanowski’s discovery was lost sight of and the fact was rediscovered by Beijerinck in 1898. Many varieties of plants, including potatoes, tomatoes, beans, peaches, clover, peas, cucumbers, turnips, spinach, datura, hyoscyamus, capsicum, sugar-cane,

28

FILTRATION

maize, sorghum and various grasses suffer from mosaic diseases. In most mosaic diseases the only obvious lesion is bleaching of the leaves in patches of varying extent, but sometimes, as in “leaf roll” of potatoes, ‘curly top” of beet and “ spike ” disease of sandalwood trees, definite destruction of tissue leading to malformation occurs. The loss of chlorophyll interferes with the nutrition of the plant by limiting the leaf area capable of utilising the radiant energy of the sun for the building up of carbohydrate from carbonic acid and water. To this handicap

local necrosis of portions of the leaf and stalk is in some varieties superadded. The economic effect of these diseases may be, as in the case of the mosaic of sugar-cane, almost negligible or, as in the case of “ peach yellows”’ and the “ spike ” of sandalwood, serious, as it destroys these trees. Between these extreme instances, the infection resultsin more or less diminution of crop. Only the growing leaves are affected. Nevertheless the virus extends throughout the plant and sometimes to the seeds. Mosaic diseases are very infectious. Mere handling of a healthy plant after touching an infected one is, in some instances, sufficient to transmit infection.

The disease

is spread by leaf flies or beetles and by grafting (see ENTOMOLOGY, Economic). The virus is not capable of maintaining itself in the soil. There is a large number of different viruses which produce mosaic diseases. Some of them infect more than one species of plant. They can also inhabit resistant species of plants without these manifesting any symptoms, but the disease can be transferred from resistant plants to susceptible species by insects or grafting. Many attempts have been made to propagate these plant viruses in the laboratory upon plant-juices without suc-

cess, but the virus of one of the mosaic diseases of the potato appears to have been recently cultivated by Olitzky.. Properties of Micro-organisms.—Little is known about most of these filterable viruses. They appear to be of various natures, and the only property common to them is minuteness. The parasite responsible for yellow fever is a small spirochacte, those occasioning bovine pleuro-pneumonia and human poliomyelitis are globoid in shape and just on the margin of visibility with the best microscopes. It is not improbable that many of them flourish only inside the cells of animals and plants, which may explain the difficulty in cultivating them in artificial media. In some cases, small bodies of definite size, shape and staining characteristics are always to be seen in the cells at the seat of the lesion (trachoma, molluscum contagiosum, variola, vaccinia, bird-pox, typhus and Rocky Mountain spotted fevers). Whether these represent the microbe or granules in the cell contents produced under the influence of the virus is a matter of opinion. Until cultivation outside the body is achieved this controversy will not be settled. Definite Results ——At present only the viruses of pleuropneumonia, poliomyelitis, yellow fever, chicken sarcoma and the microbe probably responsible for influenza have been certainly cultivated, although many claims to have accomplished this with other viruses have been made. Some of these viruses occur in the blood of the patient during the acute stage of the illness and are transported to a fresh host by the bite of bloodsucking insects.

Transmission of I nfection. —The infections of yellow fever (g.v.) and dengue are conveyed by the mosquito (Stegomvia fasciata). That of papataci fever is transmitted by the sandfly (Phlebotomus papatasii) (see SANDFLY FEVER) and that of typhus and trench fevers by lice (see INFECTIOUS FEVERS). With these three fevers and also in the case of some of the mosaic diseases of plants which are transferred by leaf flies, some days elapse before the insect 1s capable.of handing on the infection, indicating that an interval for the multiplication of the parasite is necessary. It is possible that a stage in the life-history of the parasite can only occur in the body of the insect host. Some filterable viruses, such as smallpox, cow-pox, foot-and-mouth disease and molluscum contagiosum give rise to superficial lesions, and are spread by contact; others occasion catarrh of the respiratory passages and are distributed by coughing and intimate contact, as in distemper, measles and pleuro-pneumonia.

Conclusion.—Most filter-passing microbes which have been discovered hitherto cause disease of plants or animals. It would be strange if only parasitic forms existed, for the majority of the larger microbes are not pathogenic but are concerned with the multifarious putrefactive and fermentative changes in organic matter on the surface of the earth. Accordingly, it would be natural to suppose that sub-microscopic germs with similar activities would be ubiquitous. The indications, at present, are, however, against this supposition, and sub-microscopic dimensions seem to be an attribute, more especially, of germs which are parasitic upon animals and plants. (C. J. M.*) FILTRATION.—In many industrial processes it is necessary to separate finely divided solid materials from liquids. The process of filtration consists in passing the liquid through a porous medium, which retains the solid particles. In some cases this is done for the sake of purifying the liquid; in others the recovery of the solid is the main object. Many different types of filter are in use, and it is necessary to consider (1) the various porous materials which are available for filtration, and (2) the construction of the apparatus in which these are applied. Filter Materials.—The following are the main types of material which are in use: 1. Sheets of woven or felted material. These comprise porous filter paper, cotton, woollen or linen cloth, felt and woven metal. 2. Unwoven fibrous material, such as cotton wool, linen fibre, cellulose pulp, metal fibres, sponge.

3.

Granular or powdered materials, such as gravel, sand,

earth, coke, sawdust, cork.

4. Porous plates of stone, porcelain, carbon, silica, etc. The choice of material depends upon (a) the fineness of the substances to be filtered, (b) the chemical nature of the liquid, (c) convenience in collecting the solid material after filtration. Laboratory Filtration.—Porous paper is generally used as the filter medium, being resistant to most of the liquids which require filtration. The commonest method of filtration is to fold a circular filter paper twice at right angles, and open it out to a cone with three thicknesses of paper at one side and one at the other. This is placed in a conical glass funnel, and the liquid is poured into it. In some cases, the filter funnel is provided witha hot-water jacket to keep the liquid warm during filtration. Filter paper is also manufactured in the form of thimbles, for extractions with solvents, such as alcohol and ether, in special apparatus. The Buchner funnel is made of porcelain and has a flat, perforated bottom on which a circular filter paper is placed. This form of filter has the advantage that the filtration may be assisted by the application of suction below the filter. The Gooch crucible is a porcelain cup with a perforated bottom. A thin layer of asbestos serves as the filter, and the crucible

can be weighed, after drying, to ascertain the weight of solid material collected. A recent advance in laboratory filters consists in the use of discs made up of a fritted mass of hard glass, which has been ground and sieved to a definite degree of fineness. These are fused into various types of glass apparatus, and are resistant to almost all chemical reagents. Filtration of Drinking Water—Domestic filters are usually supplied in the form of earthenware vessels with a filter bed of charcoal; in some cases filters of paper, asbestos or stone are used.’ It was originally thought that charcoal filters would unfailingly remove micro-organisms, but the action was subsequently found to be less complete than had been believed. Indeed, if the filter material be not removed at intervals, it may become the seat of organic growths. Large-scale filtration of town supplies of water Is generally effected in sand filters. Industrial Filtration —When possible, it is advantageous to allow the solid precipitate to settle in the liquor for some time, and to run off as much as possible of the clear liquid. The sediment may then be stirred up with water, allowed to settle, and the liquid again decanted, so as to minimise the bulk of liquor to be filtered, and to facilitate the subsequent washing. The design of industrial filters varies according to the requirements. The chief considerations are that the filter shall present

FINANCE— FINLAND

29

a maximum available surface without occupving too much fac- boneblack, sawdust or other finely porous material, which retory space, that it shall withstand the required pressures, that tains the slime and prevents it from penetrating into the filter it shall not be easily clogged, but shall be readily cleaned and material. (R. C. F.) easily controlled at all points. In some cases, continuous workFINANCE: sce BANKING; CURRENCY; and the sections on ing is desirable. national finance in FRANCE; GERMANY; GREAT BRITAIN, UNITED Simplicity and economy of construction often outweigh all STATES, etc. other considerations, and for many purposes it is sufficient to FINLAND (see 10.383).—-A republic of ag tlie Europe and a filter through a bed of sand, or through a simple sheet of cloth member of the League of Nations, in Finnish it is Suomen Tasaresting on a flat, perforated support. Suspended bags of cloth volta. Its area is 132,550 Sq. m. and the population 3,435,249. are also frequently used, and have the advantage that the bag I. POLITICAL HISTORY can be squeezed or wrung out after filtration to remove as much liquor as possible from the solid material. In the closing decades of the 19th century there was a remarkVacuum Filters —As in laboratory filtration, suction is fre- able development of Finnish nationalism, primarily directed quently applied to accelerate the fow of liquid. A filter cloth against the Swedish language and Finno-Swedish cultural is spread on a perforated plate of carthenware or other material, domination. and the receiver into which the filtrate flows is connected with a vacuum pump. Conversely, pressure may be applied to the surface of the liquid in the filter. In place of cloth filters, porous Engish Miles: plates are sometimes used; these may be either flat plates or Kilometres cylindrical “‘ candles ” of porous material, presenting an increased 50 100 filter area. Department a) pundaries Leaf filters may be used either for suction or pressure. A Muraya mre typical form of leaf consists of a rectangular frame of perforated pipes to which is attached a stiff, corrugated surface of coco-nut matting or other material, and the whole enveloped by a cloth bag. The liquid passes from the exterior to the interior of the leaf, and is assisted either by external pressure or by internal suction. A filtering unit consists of a number of parallel leaves, and thus presents a large filtering surface. Filter presses are somewhat similar in principle. In one form, ABORG \Y a number of recessed plates are supported on a framework, so „Kuolajärvi f that they can be firmly pressed together by a screw press. Sheets eriifremi ikitha 2 of cloth are placed between the plates, and thus, when the filter bs pee press is assembled, it forms a series of narrow partitions separated by cloth filters. Channels are provided so that the sludge to RA efficiency has been reached and a standard of as much as 97% and 98% regularity in flying to a published time-table is alamd for certain air lines operating during summer weather. Three quarters of the failures to maintain perfect regularity are due to weather and failure of power-plant, 66°% being due to weather and 34% to mechanical defects throughout the year. This high standard of regularity and safety in British air transport was obtained very largely through the skill and determination of the pilots; and throughout Europe it may be said that good piloting has usually been the greatest factor in any success obtained. Thus it can be claimed that by the end of 1925 much valuable experience had been gained, and a very creditable standard of security and regularity had been attained; this standard was certainly as high as could be expected with the equipment available. Economy.—On the other hand, although some progress was made during these six years towards economical operation, air transport is still far from arriving at a point at which it can be counted on to operate commercially without artificial financial assistance.

Cost of Operating —There are two main reasons for the high cost of air transport as compared to other means of locomotion. First, an aeroplane expends a considerable proportion of its horse-power in climbing into the air and on maintaining itself at a safe height without regard to forward speed; in all other forms of transport the vehicle can remain at a fixed level on or in its particular element without expenditure of power. Secondly, in order to obtain as great a disposable load as possible for any given horse-power, the structure of both engine and aircraft must be extremely light. Consequently the air transport vehicle is costly to construct, and through its comparative fragility 1 At inaugural flight of Western Airways’ operations.

47

involves a high rate of maintenance. The cost of operation per hour depends to a great extent on the horse-power employed; thus every endeavour is being made, not only to increase the

total weight per horse-power carried, but also to ensure that the greatest possible proportion of this total load is devoted to disposable load at the expense of structural weight. Progress in this direction, howev er, has received certain setbacks by the proved necessity of carrying extra instruments, salety devices, heating and ventilating apparatus, etc. As indicated above, a considerable measure of reliability and safety has already been attained, and steady progress is being made towards increasing this standard to a basis of equality with other forms of transport.? The problem of reducing the operating cost to really commercial rates is more difficult, and represents the most important question before the designers of commercial aircraft to-day. Progress is being made on broadly two main lines, the reduction of maintenance costs, and the increase of paying load per horse-power. Air-cooled engines are just coming into use; all-metal construction is beginning to replace wood and fabric; and a robust engine burning crude oil is promised in the near future. Each and all these innovations will appreciably reduce the cost of operation.

Design, Cost and Carrying Capacity.—England leads the way in the development of air-cooled engines and Germany in metal construction. On the other line, various mechanical developments are being applied to increase the disposable load without adding to the weight and size of the aircraft itself. The greatest load which an aircraft can carry is that with which it can take off and land safely. Once at a safe height in the air, the normal aircraft has plenty of lifting power in hand. The planes are being fitted with adjustable slots and flaps which permit of a greater load being lifted from the ground in safety, and which lower the landing speed of heavily loaded aircraft which otherwise might be dangerous. Considerable increase in horse-power is being obtained without serious additional weight by means of various systems of supercharging and “ boosting ” aircraft engines. Variable-pitch propellers are Just emerging from the experimental stage, by the use of which much more efficient application of the horse-power available will be attained. The newly invented de la Cierva autogiro promises to be a very valuable factor in progress towards carrying greater Joads. Data regarding costs per ton-mile are not at present available from foreign nations, and in England, owing to constant changes of policy and administration, it is difficult to obtain reliable figures. It is claimed, however, that with existing aircraft it is possible to operate at a speed of 85 m. an hour at 5s. a ton-mile, of which 3s. a ton-mile represent operating costs and 2s. overhead charges, including maintenance and depreciation.

By means of various steps in technical progress, including those mentioned above, it should be possible to reduce these costs to less than 1s. a ton-mile for operating costs, and as safety and reliability are enhanced, “traffic will increase and overhead charges will drop to a rate which may also be estimated at 1s.

a ton-mile.

With a total cost of 2s. a ton-mile, air transport

should be able to pay its way on many lines of communication between the great centres of the world’s commercial activity. Summary of Conclusions-—To sum up it may be stated that by the end of 1925 air transport operated by means of acroplanes and seaplanes has proved to be safe, and under European summer conditions very reliable. This new means of communication cannot function, however, without artificial financial assistance. Great progress is being made towards evolving aircraft which will be able to earn their costs of operation. As the receipts for traffic approximate more and more to the expense of

flying, air transport activities will rapidly increase; and when air transport with aeroplanes and seaplanes eventually reaches a paying basis, it must inevitably become one of the most important means of communication between the various parts of the world. Airships.—Since the early Zeppelin enterprise in a 2 Lee, “ The Lessons of Six Years’ Experience in Air Transport” Jour. of the Royal Aeronautical Society, No, 179, vol. 29 (Nov. o

FLYING, COMMERCIAL

48

during 1912 and 1913, no regular commercial airship service has been put into operation, with the exception of the experimental service with the “ Bodensee ” run by the Zeppelin Company from Aug. to Dec. rọrọ. Germany, the chief user and most experienced designer of rigid airships, lost practically the whole of her airship organisation under the terms of the ‘Treaty of Versailles; the ships which were handed over by her to the Allies were not suited for commercial work; England and France had not the necessary faith in the future of airships to justify the expenditure necessary for their further development; and it was only in America that progress was continued. This general stagnation was further justified in the minds of unbelievers by the disasters which overtook the British ship R38 in Aug. 1921 and the French “ Dixmude” in Dec. 1923. The finest performance by an airship since 1918 was the flight of the Britishbuilt ship R34 from England to New York and back during the summer of rọrọ. (Left England July 2 rọrọ, arrived America July 6 1919: ro8 hours. Left America July ro rọ19, arrived England July 13 1919: 75 hours). Airship Service —Although America led the way by the construction of the “ Shenandoah ” and the demand that the ZRa, later the ‘“ Los Angeles,” should be built in Germany as part of her war reparation, it was England that made the first serious step towards establishing a genuine commercial airship service. This policy was initiated during 1923. After much discussion, towards the end of 1924 the construction of two large airships was put in hand, one to be built by Government and the other by private enterprise. In the design of these airships the orthodox type of Zeppelin girder has been departed from, and many improvements, the result of practical scientific research, will be incorporated in the structure. In connection with this scheme

the existing airship station at Cardington near Bedford is being enlarged and a terminal airship station is being erected in India

at Karachi.

A temporary refuelling station has been established

at Ismailia on the Suez Canal.

The contract for the privately

built ship includes a satisfactory flight to India along this route. The following data are given to indicate the progress in rigid airship construction attained during the last few years:—

Do

Description

orsc-

power

radius at this speed |

S Spee

m.p.h.

(with-

posa-

out

paying load)

|

‘R34 |

|

Old British ship built in England during

the War

'ZR3 | Zeppelin

| | |

IRro1 i |

©. | 1,250

ship built

in Germany U.S.A. . ;

for . | 2,000

Ship under construction by British 7ovt.

Max. 63-5=| Cruising

Miles | Tons

3,286] 26-55

45

=|

4,905

Max. 79

=|

5,490] 46

=|

7,937

=|

7,900] 85

Cruising 68

Max. 78 Cruising 65

=

Use of Helitm.—America has introduced helium gas to replace hydrogen as a lifting agent. Helium (q.v.) has the advantage over hydrogen that it Is totally non-inflammable, but its production is extremely costly, and its lifting power 15% less than that of hydrogen,

The possibilities of the airship as a means of communication over long distances and across the great oceans are therefore enormous. Co-operation wiih Aeroplanes.—It seems certain that in the future airships and aeroplanes will work in co-operation. As existing schemes develop, traflic for ‘Iraq will reach Egypt by airship and proceed thence by aeroplane to Baghdad; for India, to Colombo by airship and thence to various great cities by acroplane; for Australia, to Perth by airship and onwards to the northern and eastern cities by aeroplane. INTERNATIONAL

AGREEMENTS

Air transport is the most truly international of the transport industries; international laws and regulations are necessary for the operation of ships at sea and of trains across great continents. But the scope of these two activities is strictly limited, whereas aircraft can penetrate anywhere and fly over the territories of several different nations in a journey of a few hours’ duration (see AERIAL Law). It has always been evident, therefore, that international air navigation regulations were of vital importance, and during 1922, on ratification

of the International

Air Convention,

to which

reference has already been made, the International Commission for Air Navigation (known as the I.C.A.N, in England and as the C.I.N.A. on the continent of Europe) came into being. The following states are parties to the convention and send representatives to this Commission :— I. Belgium. 2. Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 3. Canada. 4. Australia, 5. Union of South Africa. 6. New Zealand. 7. Irish Free State. 8. India. g. Bulgaria. 1o. Chile. 11. France.

12. Greece. 13. Italy. I4. Japan. 15. Persia. 16. Poland. 17. Portugal. 18. Rumania. 19. Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. 20. Siam. 21. Czechoslovakia. 22. Uruguay.

The general principles laid down by the Convention follows :—

Extreme

i

although the initial capital cost involved is very much greater.

which facts will prove a very serious

handicap in the commercial development of the airship in America, if this policy is continued. In England, it is the intention to fit crude oil engines to the big ships and so eliminate the element of danger incurred by carrying petrol. No dependable data exist from which the cost of operating an airship can be estimated, but there is little doubt that if the constructional and handling difficulties which have been connected with airships up to date can be overcome, the operating cost per tonmile will be very much less than in heavier-than-air craft,

are as

1. Innocent passage of commercial aircraft of the members over the territories of all. 2. Designation of customs aerodromes at suitable points at which

aircraft must land. 3. Issue of licences to all members of the crew and airworthy certificates to all aircraft engaged in international commerce. The forms of these licences and certificates and the qualifications and tests to be demanded have been agreed by the Commission. 4. The establishment of a wireless and meteorological organisation and a lighting system along air routes authorised by the nation over whose territory they lie.

The full Commission now meets twice every year, the place of mecting being decided on the invitation of one of the Governments represented. Meetings have taken place, so far, during 1922 in Paris and London; during 1923 in Brussels, London and Rome; during 1924 two meetings in Paris, and during 1925 in

London and Brussels. The Commission has appointed standing subcommissions for the detailed study of operational, technical, medical and legal problems, and these meet as convenient at various dates between the meetings of the full Commission. Most European nations who are not members of the International Commission have drawn up regulations of their own, approximating to those of the International Commission, and many of them have entered Into agreements of various classes and duration with one another and with members of the International Commission in order to facilitate the operation of international air transport. Since its creation the Commission has taken steps to modify two articles of the Convention which were unacceptable to certain ex-neutral and ex-enemy countries. These modifications will come into force in the near future on the completion of ratification, when it is likely that several other European nations will join the Convention. As already stated, America,

FLYING, COMMERCIAL although a signatory to the Convention originally, has never deposited her ratification and is considering Federal legislation for the administration of inter-state air transport. Each country through its national legislature gives effect to the International Air Convention and to the decisions of the International Commission. In Great Britain this is done by the Air Navigation Act, 1920, and by the air navigation orders and air navigation directions issued by the authorities from time to time thereunder.

If. AERIAL

SURVEYS

Aerial survey came into existence during the World War. The necessity of photographing trench-lines and hostile positions became more and more vital as operations progressed, and by 1918, military aerial photography had reached a high pitch of efficiency. It was only in a few cases, however, that it was necessary to employ aerial photography as a means of measuring distances on the ground; as a rule, comparatively accurate maps were available, and the photographs were required for filling in details of natural features, buildings, roads, etc., and for disclosing the dispositions of the enemy.

At the end of the War, it was clear that acrial photography must provide a very valuable aid to ordinary survey, and from that date onwards aerial survey has been very successfully developed in various parts of the world. Aerial Survey Problems—The greatest problems of acrial survey activities are:— . 1. To correct for the errors which must obviously result from photographing tracts of country in which considerably different height levels exist. 2. To ensure that photographs are taken with the camera axis as near as possible vertical and to correct the results of deviations from this ideal. 3. Tofly straight and level and at a constant height so as toensure regular overlap of all negatives obtained, and as near as may be a constant scale. 4. To reduce operation costs to a standard at which aerial survey can compete financially with other forms of survey.

Canadian Progress —Canada has been the pioneer of this new industry. Her vast and comparatively flat northern regions offered an ideal field for the young enterprise to prove its commercial value. Operations have for the most part been carried out by flying boats working from the numerous lakes and waterways which intersect large expanses of unsurveyed and unexploited forest land. Two systems have been employed; vertical photography aided by certain points previously fixed by triangulation; and oblique photography along a line already traversed by means of ground survey.

-©

Combined with aerial survey, a system of forest fire patrol has

been established. During the forest fire seasons, constant air patrols are maintained over important areas, and all fires reported by wireless to fire-fighting stations; in some cases, the fire-fighting parties and apparatus are actually carried to the site of the fire in aircraft. Enormous tracts of timber have been saved by this means. In 1923, it was calculated that 2,120,000

acres of forest were destroyed in Ontario; in 1924

the total

destruction was reduced to 140,000 acres, and the saving in labour totalled 50,000 man-days. The United States has followed Canada in aerial survey progress. Her operations have included oil surveys, coast-line and river surveys, the alignment of new roads and railways, and municipal surveys and town planning. France and Germany.—In France, a new law demanding accurate plans of all fair-sized municipalities has led to much activity in the survey of towns. In Germany, forest survey has been carried out extensively and successfully, and great progress has been made in solving the scientific problems connected with stereoscopic plotting and the aerial photography of mountain tracts.

English Experience —In England, owing to the fact that very accurate surveys everywhere exist, operations have been confined to experimental work and research, together with a great deal of commercial photography of estates, factories, etc. British

acrial

survey

successful

49

expeditions

have,

however,

in British Guiana, Burma

work

carried

out most Ex-

and Borneo.

perience has enabled fairly reliable estimates of cost to be prepared, and it seems certain that complete and accurate aerial photographs of any normal area can be produced for from £3 to {10 a square mile, depending on the position and extent of the area to be surveyed. Triangulation on the ground is necessary for both air and ground surveys, but this price compares very favourably with any other method of filling in the topography of all except the most open type of country, while at the same time it gives considerably greater details with all necessary accuracy. It is likely that aerial survey operations will develop rapidly in the near future. One of the difficulties of the operator at present is that a single aeroplane can cover large areas so quickly that it is almost impossible to find employment for an aerial survey unit throughout the year, and so be able to distribute overhead charges over a really large area of operations.

Ill. GENERAL FLYING Immediately after the World War, a large number of very cheap aircraft were thrown on the market. In several countries, but particularly in Great Britain and America, demobilised pilots purchased one or two aeroplanes and set out to make their living by giving the general public short flights in the neighbourhood of their landing place. The following figures show the measure of this activity in Great Britain:— .

1919-20 1920- I

1921- 2

Flights

Passen-

37,067 23,513

66,785 36,694

21,767

‘

oe

36,048

|Flights

1922-3 1923-4

1924-5

13,578 22,842

Passen-

gers

25,253 39,227

23,519 | 43,766

This purely local flying was in some cases extended to the maintenance of aircraft plying for hire to carry passengers at a mileage rate to any required destination, The demand for this useful activity has proved small in England, but is likely to increase as operational costs are reduced. Joy-riding has served a useful purpose both in England and America in educating the public as to the possibilities of aviation. In England an original use for aviation was devised in the introduction of sky-writing. A British company was formed shortly after the War and proceeded to advertise various commodities by means of writing their titles with smoke at a height of about 12,000 [t.in the air. This British company also obtained a large contract for advertising in the United States during 1922 and 1923.

IV. CIVIL FLYING

SCHOOLS

Owing to the heavy cost involved, flying instruction to the general public has been very limited. In most of the greater countries,

however,

civil flying schools

exist which

depend

largely on government assistance for their existence. In England there are five civil flying schools which undertake the annual training of officers. At these schools a private individual can obtain a very good grounding in the art of flying for about £100. In France there are 11 civil flying training schools at Buc, Le Crotoy, Mourmelun, Orly, Angers, Nimes, Orléans, Bordeaux Lyon, Clermont-Ferrand, Chalon-sur-Seine. Pilots are trained for military purposes in these schools and it is from those who have had that military training that the civil aviation companies draw for their pilots.

In Germany there are three types of schools where the training of civil pilots is carried out:— (1) Schools conducted by aircraft constructors; (2) schools conducted as an independent enterprise; (3) schools conducted

by associations. In addition, there is an organisation known as the “ Sportsflug ’’ which has started six of its own schools. In England a movement has just been started which will also give the private individual an opportunity of learning to fly. Private flying clubs have been formed which charge entrance fees and annual subscriptions to all members; at these clubs tuition an small aeroplanes can be obtained at low rates. The Gov-

FLYING,

50

COMMERCIAL

ernment has guaranteed a certain measure of financial assistance to five of these clubs.

V. AIR RACING

The first form of air racing to come into being consisted of competitions between free balloons, the prize being given to the balloon which eventually landed at the greatest distance from the starting point. The first recorded race of this class was the Grand Prix which took placé in France in 1905. In 1906 the Gordon Bennett Challenge Cup was instituted and has been competed for ever since, with the following results:— | Gordon

BENNETT

BALLOON

CUP

(2,200 cm.),

Berlin—Bergest,

nr. Bud. Nor-

way. Distance, 1,212 km. Duration, 73 hours. ZURICH—1909. Oct. 3-4 1909.—America, E. W. Mix. Balloon, “ America H.” Zurich—Ostrolenka, Poland. Distance, 1,121-110 km. Duration, 35 hours. ST. Louis—r1g1o. Oct. 17-19 1910.—America, Alan R. Hawley. Balloon “ America II.” St. Louis—Peribonka River, nr. Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada. Distance, 1,884 km. Duration, 44 hr. 25 minutes, KANSAS City, U.S.A.—-I911. Oct. 9 1911.—Germany, Lieut. Hans Gericke. Balloon, “ Berlin II.” (2,200 cm.). Kansas City—Halcombe, Wis. Distance, 758 km. Duration, 12 hr. 28 minutes.

STUTTGART—1912.

Oct. 27-29 1912.— France, Maurice Bienaime.

Balloon, ‘ Picardie” (2,200 cm.). 2,191 km. Duration, 46 hours.

Stuttgart—Riga.

Balloon, “ Belgica ” (2,200 cm.). Brussels—Skollersta., Distance, 1,115 km. Duration, 21 hours.

June 15-17 1924.

Sweden.

Belgium, Ernest Demuyter.

Balloon, “‘ Belgica” (2,200 cm.). Brussels—St. Abbs Head, Berwickshire. Distance, 714 km. Duration, 43 hr. 16 minutes. Won outright by Belgium; replaced by second Gordon Bennett Balloon Cup.

SECOND GORDON BENNETT

BALLOON

CuP

BRUSSELS—I925. June 7-9 1925.—Belgium, A. Veenstra. Balloon, ‘‘ Prince Leopold.” Brussels—Cap Torrina, Spain. Distance,

1,345 km. (840 m.). Duration, 47 hr. 30 minutes.

In 1905, the French Aero Club founded the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale to control all international sporting aviation. This body has laid down and published a code of rules for air racing. The aero club of each country appoints delegates to the Fédération, which meets once a year, discusses modifications to the regulations, decides on conditions for current international competitions and investigates and ratifies claims for world’s records. The first aeroplane races ever held took place at an international meeting at Reims in Aug. 1909. At this meeting an international challenge cup for speed was presented by Mr. Gordon Bennett to be won outright by the country which was victorious three times running. Below are given the principal international competitions for aeroplanes and seaplanes with

the results up to date:— GORDON

tance, 300 km. (186-5 m.). Time, 1 hr. 6 min. 174 sec. biplane, 300 H.P. Hispano-Suiza engine.

BENNETT AVIATION Cup

(Speed Contest) REIMS—1909.—A merica (Representative, G. H. Curtiss). Distance 20 km. (12-4 m.). Time, 15 min. 503 sec. Curtiss biplane, 30 H.P. Curtiss engine. BELMONT PARK, NEW YorK—1910.—Uniied Kingdom (Representative, C. Grahame-White). Distance 100 km. (62-1 m.). Time, i hr. § min. 4:74 sec. Bleriot monoplane, 50 H.P. Gnome engine.

Nicuport

Won outright by France; replaced by Deutsch de la Meurthe Cup.

HENRY DEUTSCH DE LA MEURTHE CUP (To be won outright after two victories running) 1921—France.—Société Nieuport-Astra, Pilot: Georges Kirsch. Villesauvage, Oct. I Ig21. Nieuport-Delage, 300 H.P. HispanoSuiza engine. Distance, 300 km. Time, 1 hr. 11 min. 39} seconds.

1922—

France.—Sociéte Nieuport-Astra.

Pilot: Fernand Lasne.

Villesauvage. Sept. 30 1922. Nieuport-Delage, 300 H.P. HispanoSuiza engine. Distance, 300 km. Time, 1 hr. 2 min. 1146 seconds. Won outright by France; replaced by Beaumont Cup.

BEAUMONT CUP (To be won outright by two victories running) 1923—No contest.

1924—Zsives. June 22 1924.—Sadi Lacointe. Nieuport-Dclage monoplane, 450 H.P. Hispano-Suiza engine. Distance, 300 km. Time, 57 min, 50 sec.

Speed, 311 km. (193-2 m.) per hour.

1925—J sires. Oct. 18 1925.—Sadi Lacointe. Nieuport-Delage monoplane, 600 H.P. Hispano-Suiza engine. Distance, 300 km, Time, 57 min. 3626 sec. Speed, 312-5 km. (194 m.) per hour. Won outright by France. |

Distance,

PARIS—1I913. Oct. 12-14 1913.—A merica, Ralph H. Upson, Balloon, *‘ Goodyear ”’ (2,200 cm.). Paris—Bempton, nr. Bridlington. Distance, 618 km. Duration, 43 hr. 10 minutes. 1914 to 1919, inclusive—No contest. BIRMINGHAM, U.S.A.—1920. Oct. 23 1920.—Belgium, Ernest Demuyter. Balloon, “ Belgica ” (2,200 cm.), Birmingham—North Hero Island, Vermont, U.S.A. Distance, 1,760 km. Duration, 40 hr. 15 minutes. BRUSSELS—1921. Sept. 18-19 1921.—Switzerland, Capt. Paul Armbruster. Balloon, “ Zurich ” (2,200 cm.). Brussels—Lambay Island, Ireland. Distance, 766 km. Duration, 27 hr. 23 minutes. GENEVA—I922. Aug. 6-7 1922.—Belgium, Ernest Demuyter.

BRUSSELS—1924.

min. 36% sec. Nieuport monoplane, too H.P. Gnome engine. Cuicaco, U.S.A.—1912.—France (Representative, J. Vedrines). Distance, 200 kin. (124-8 m.). Time, 1 hr. 10 min. 56sec. Deperdussin monoplane, 140 H.P. Gnome engine. ReIMS—I9t3.—France (Representative M. Prevost). Distance, 200 km. (124-8 m.). Time, 59 min. 45 sec. Deperdussin monoplane, 160 H.P. Gnome engine. 1914 to 1919, inclusive—No contest. HiAMPES—1920.— France (Representative, Sadi Lecointe). Dis-

WINNERS

PARIS—Igo06. Sept. 30—Oct. 1 1906.—-America, Frank S. Lahm. Balloon, ‘ United States ’’ (2,080 cm.). Paris—Fylingdales, Yorkshire. Distance, 647-098 km, Duration, 22 hr. 5 minutes. St. Lours, U.S.A.—1907. Oct. 21-23 1907.—Germany, Oscar Erbsloh, Balloon, ‘‘ Pommern ” (2,200 cm.). St. Louis—Bradley Beach, New Jersey. Distance, 1,403:559 km. Duration, 40 hours. BERLIN—¥908. Oct. 11-14 1908.— Switzerland. Col, Schaeck. Balloon, “ Helvetia

EASTCHUURCH, SHEPPEY, ENGLAND—IQII.—A merica (Representative C. T. Weyman). Distance, 150 km. (94 m.). Time, I hr. II

PULITZER TROPHY (Speed Contest)

1920— Mineola, Long Island, U.S. Army.

Verville

machine,

Nov. 25 1920.—Lieut. C. C. Mosley, 600 H.P.

Packard

engine.

Course,

132 m. Time, 44 min. 29°57 seconds. 1921—Omaha. Nov. 3 1921.—N. Acosta, Curtiss Navy biplane, 400 H,P. Curtiss C.D. 12 engine. Speed, 176-7 m. per hour. 1922—Deiroit. Oct. 14 1922.—Lieut. R. L. Maugham, U.S. Army. Army Curtiss Racer, 375 H.P. Curtiss D. 12 engine. Triangular course of 160 m. Speed, 206 m. per hour. 1923—St. Louts. Oct. 6 1923.— Lieut. J. A. Williams, U.S. Navy. Curtiss R.2.C.1, 460 H.P. Curtiss D. 12 engine. Course, 124-28 m. ‘Time, 30 min. 36 sec. Speed, 243-67 m. per hour. 1924— Dayton, Ohio. Oct. 4 1924.—Lieut. H. H. Mills, U.S. Army. Verville-Sperry cantilever monoplane, 500 H.P. Curtiss D. 12 A. engine. Course, 124-7 m. Speed, 215-72 m. per hour. 1925— Mitchel Field, Long Island. Oct. 12 1925. Lieut. Cyrus Bettis, U.S. Army Air Service. Army Curtiss Racer, 619 II.P. Curtiss V. 1,400 engine. Course, 124-27 m. (200 km.). Time, 29 min. 56:9 sec. Speed, 248-99 m. per hour,

THE JACQUES SCHNEIDER MARITIME (List of Winners)

CUP

Monaco, 1913.—M. Prevost (France) on a Deperdussin float seaplane, 160 H.P. Gnome. 150 nautical m. in 3 hr. 48 min. 22 sec. (45-25 land m. per hour). Monaco, 1914.—Mr. Howard Pixton (Great Britain) on Sopwith float seaplane, 100 H.P. Monosoupape Gnome. 150 nautical m. in 2 hr. o min. 16 sec. (86 land m. per hour}. 1915 to 1918, inclusive.— No contest. Bournemouth, 1919.—Race annulled because, owing to fog, no competitor covered the correct course; but as the Italian aviator, Signor Janello, on a Savoia flying boat came nearest to covering the correct course, the competition was held the following year in Italy. Venice, 1920.—-Signor Luigi Bologna (Italy) on a Savoia S. I9 flying boat with 550 H.P. Ansaldo engine. 202 nautical m. in 2 hr, r0 min. 35 sec. (106-7 land m. per hour). No English machines competed. Fenice, 1921.—Signor Giovanni de Briganti (Italy) on a Macchi 7 flying boat with 260 H.P. Isotta-Fraschini engine. 200 nautical m. in 2 hr. 4 min. 29 sec. (110-9 land m. per hour). Naples, 1922.—Mr. HH. C. Biard (Great Britain) on Supermarine Sea Lion flying boat with 450 Napier Lion engine. 200-2 nautical m.in i hr. 34 min. 514§ sec. (145-7 land m. per hour). Cowes, 1923.—Lieut. David Rittenhouse (U.S. Navy) on Curtiss float seaplane C.R.3 with 465 H.P. Curtiss D.R.A. engine. 186 nautical m. in 1 hr. 12 min. 2446 sec. (177°38 land mi. per hour). 1924.—British and Italian machines entered for the competition which should have been held at Baltimore. Italian entry did not mature and British machine crashed just before it was due to leave for U.S.A. Thus, if the American competitor had simply flown over the course, he could have claimed a win. As it was, the Americans declared “‘ no competition,”

FLYING CORPS—FOCH

Hi

Baltimore, 1925.—Liecut. Doolittle (U.S. Army) on Curtiss R.3 C.2 with Curtiss V. 400 engine. 191-4 nautical m. in 56 min. 6-37 sec. (232-57 land m. per hour).

The general held his post as head of the École for four years, during which time he threw himself with untiring zeal into the work of this famous centre for military study, giving it a per-

Air racing has done much as an incentive towards attaining very high speeds, and although the actual racing machines are usually of small practical use, it has proved comparatively easy to develop from them aircraft of great military value.

manent stamp and forming a whole new generation of picked officers. When, in rorz, he was nominated to the command of the 13th Div. at Chaumont, Foch was one of the very few outstanding figures of the army and it was not surprising that, after a brief period in command of the VIII. Corps, the wish of everyone acquainted with the higher military personnel brought him to the head of the splendid XX. Corps, stationed about Nancy, which was accounted one of the best elements of the “‘ Couverture.” Thus, in 1913, he entered, to the sound of trumpets, the town where he had passed his examinations to the tune of the German army fifes and whence, before long, he was to march out for the War. General Foch, who had married Mademoiselle Julie Bienvenue, had at that time three children— two married daughters

BipLlioGRApiy.—Very little literature exists which deals seriously with commercial aviation, but the following publications touch on its various aspects and cover the details of most of its early history: André Beaumont, Aly Three Big Flights (1912); C. Grahame-White and H. Harper, Air Power (1917); L. Hirschauer, L’aviation de Transport (1920); H. B. Pratt, Commercial Airships (1920); G. Holt Thomas, Aerial Transport (1920); Sir Walter Raleigh, The War in the Air, vol. I (1922, etc.); Sir Ross Smith, 74,000 Afiles thro’ the Air (1922); C. G. Grey, Aircrafi Yearbook (1923, etc.); Aero Chamber of Commerce

of America,

Aircraft

Year Book

(1925); Fred T. Jane

(C. G. Grey), All the World's Atreraft (1925); E. H. Lewitt, Rigid Airship, a Treatise on Design and Performance (1925).

The

, (W.S. B.) FLYING CORPS: see AIR FORCES. FOCH, FERDINAND (1851), French marshal, was born at Tarbes Oct. 2 1851. His father’s family had long been settled in the south of France, leaving the district of Ariége in the 17th century to establish themselves as woollen manufacturers in the small town of Valentine where they took a prominent part in municipal affairs. On his mother’s side, Marshal Foch came of a race of soldiers, his maternal grandfather having been a gallant officer of the Grand Army. His father was a lawyer at Tarbes (Hautes-Pyrénées) who later became a revenue official; and he was frequently transferred from place to place, taking his son with him. The future marshal thus received his education successively at the Lycées at Tarbes and Rodez, the seminary at Polignan and the Jesuit college at St. Etienne. It was not long before his teachers were struck with his

“ geometrical mind” and it was decided that he should enter

the Ecole Polytechnique, to prepare for which he was sent to St. Clément’s College at Metz. After a few months there, however, the war of 1870 interrupted his studies. He enlisted in the infantry but the armistice came before he saw any fighting, and he returned to Metz to finish preparing for his examination.

One of his fellow-students has described how, in the midst of a lesson, they learned, on March 11 1871, by the booming of the German guns, that the treaty of peace had made Metz a city of the German empire. None could foresee that the young student was destined, as marshal, to restore the city to France. He sat for his examinations at Nancy, which was still occupied

by Manteuffel’s troops, and was admitted to the Ecole Poly-

technique, where he made his mark. In 1873 he was commissioned, and served successively at Fontainebleau, Tarbes and Rennes. He then passed into the Ecole Supérieure de Guerre where, after a tour of duty on the general staff, he was appointed a professor on Oct. 31 1894. His lectures soon made a sensation, both by the evident soundness of the matter and the originality of the form. Even thus soon his pupils bore witness to the excellent qualities of their professor, who presently became one of the leaders in military doctrine. The lessons given between 1894 and 1900, collected in volumes, constitute the chapters of Foch’s great works: De la conduite de la guerre and Des principes de la guerre, which appeared in 1897 and 1899. In teaching six batches of staff college students Foch fortified his own military science as well; his years of Paris were in fact of capital importance in the higher development of his intellect. When he vacated his post no one doubted that he would return ere long in another capacity. After holding two regimental commands of artillery and spending a year on the staff of the V. Corps, he was, so to say, imposed on the Government by the opinion of the whole army as the fittest selection for the command of the Ecole de Guerre that he had made famous. It was Clemenceau—at that time Prime Minister—who made the appointment, giving him the rank of general, and from that day began the cordial relations between the great statesman and the great soldier which were to be revived later under memorable conditions.

and a young son who was destined to be one of the first to fall in the War.

Although still attached to his Pyrenean home, the

general spent his holidays on a small estate that he had acquired at Trofeunteniou in Brittany. In the summer of 1914 France was so far removed from any idea of attacking Germany that Yoch had left Nancy to spend a month in far-away Brittany. A week later events led to his recall and he went into harness. The Outbreak of War.—He was then a man of 63, but his rare moral, intellectual and physical vigour kept him singularly young. Foch was a man of thought and also, above all, a man of action. Gifted with an intelligence which was never allowed to be idle, ever widening the scope of his knowledge, reflective

and delighting—to

use his own

striking phrase—to

“ phos-

phoresce,” the great soldier is even stronger in will than in intellect. “ Victory=Wiall .... Victory goes always to those who deserve it by the greater force of wi/l .... A battle won is a battle in which one wi not acknowledge oneself beaten ”’— these are but a few of the maxims found in his books, in which

the word we! occurs on every page. And in truth, although his grey eyes sparkle with intelligence, the forehead and, even more, the mouth reveal that will which he was able to communicate to all those who came in contact with him in the course of war. It is this will which gives such solidity to his character and protects it from all weaknesses. What is more, it stimulates both

conscience and intelligence. He speaks of “ these natures, hungry for responsibility, which alone turn out great men,” and his own is one of these natures, that no sentimental considerations can either divert or check. For the rest, his clarity of mind translates itself by a realist and somewhat ironic common sense. “ What is it about?” is a favourite phrase of his in all circum-

stances, for he believes in clear vision before direct action. The XX. Corps formed part of the II. Army and Foch was

therefore one of the commanders of Castelnau’s army, which, on Aug. 19 I914, was thrown into annexed Lorraine. It will be remembered that this army, after some successes, came up against a formidable resistance in the region of Morhange and failed

with heavy losses.

Foch had had no part in forming the plan,

which met with so cruel a check; he was but one of the execu-

tants.

He had thrown his army corps resolutely at Morhange

and, when repulsed, was still able to organise with perfect coolness its retreat on the solid positions of the Couronné de Nancy. Not content to await the enemy there, he resumed the offensive and, on Aug. 20, threw himself on the German regiments which were waiting to attack in the “ gap of Charmes,” and in overthrowing them prepared the victory in Lorraine. He was pre-

paring to take his part there when he was called to the Grand Quartier Général, where Joffre entrusted him with the command of an army.

At that time the French were retiring in good order from Belgium and the Ardennes towards the region of the Marne. As a gap tended to open between the IV. and V. Armies, Joffre

gave Foch the mission of forming a new army (the IX.) between them, co-ordinating his action with theirs. He was on the ground before the corps entrusted to him had arrived. In a few days he forged out of them a solid and supple little army which was

FOCH

52

already well in hand when the celebrated order of Sept. 4 arrested the retreat and prescribed the battle which was to lead to the victory of the Marne.

Foch, after passing the marshes of St. Gond, established himself on the heights which dominate the Petit Morin and of which Fére Champenoise marks the crest. It was thought that his rôle would be limited to supporting Franchet d’Esperey’s army on his left. But when the German armies, which, instead of turning the left of the French armies as they had expected, were themselves turned on the right, they tried to penetrate the allied centre precisely in this region of Fére Champenoise and Foch had therefore suddenly to support the main strain of the battle, and that with troops inferior in number. The heights were for a moment carried by the Germans from Mondemont to Fére Champenoise. It was then that, by a clever manoeuvre, Foch rapidly transferred the 42nd Div. from his left to his centre and thus was able to gain the upper hand and force the enemy back. The extreme fatigue of his troops prevented him from pushing his successes, but he hung on to the retreating Germans. and entered Chalons-sur-Marne behind them. His part in the victory of the Marne was capital and it was recognised by a glorious citation in general orders. His reputation was so increased after this great crisis that Jofire immediately entrusted him with a new mission—this time one without parallel. Scarcely had the operations of the Marne terminated when, the two armies mutually trying to outflank one another, the “ race to the sea ” set in from the Oise to the Flemish coast which was only to be closed by the arrival of the Belgian Army and the formation of a continuous front right to Nieuport. The British corps, for their part, had been moved into the region of Ypres, while Joffre detached from the now stable front between the Oise and the Vosges all the forces that he could spare to meet a great attack between the Oise and the sea. To co-ordinate the action of the heterogeneous troops hurriedly thrown into these regions, a leader of great authority was wanted at once to take the higher direction of the operations of the French armies and to co-operate harmoniously with the Allied

armies so as to assure the co-ordination necessary to victory. On Oct. 4 Foch was sent to the Nord to fulfil this mission with the title of “‘ deputy to the commander-in-chief.”’ He did not limit himself to giving the French armies, from Picardy to Flanders, the most energetic orders but put himself

in close and cordial relations with Field-Marshal Sir John French and King Albert IL., and established the essential liaison between the Allied armies. Ceaselessly finding the necessary reinforcements and dispatching them to the aid of the hard-pressed British and Belgian corps, he was able by his friendly and generous activity to impose his own resolute ideas and so make himself the soul of the battle of Flanders that, after the fierce fighting of the Yser and of Ypres, ended in mid-Nov. by the definitive check of the German invasion for the year 1914. In all this Foch had not merely confirmed his prestige as a strategist, but had won for himself the friendly admiration of his Allies so completely that, even then, it could be foreseen that if, one day, circumstances required unity of command there could be no better choice for it than Foch. Did not Mr. Lloyd George say: “He could not have done more for us had he been one of our own generals,” Foch was left therefore in contact with the British and Belgian corps in the capacity of general commanding the Group of Armies of the North. He held the post for two years and thus presided over the two Artois offensives of May and Sept. rors and the battle of the Somme in the summer of 1916 which the German attack on Verdun prevented from assuming the amplitude and decisive character that had been intended. After brilliant initial successes the Somme battle seemed to sink in the autumn mud. The disappointment that it caused led to a movement of dissatisfaction with the higher leaders who had presided over it. Joffre having been relieved of his command, Foch was deprived of his also and relegated to Senlis for a mission

of inspection.

The story was that he was fatigued.

This was

hardly the case, but he accepted this semi-disgrace with resignation and his valuable advice was always at the disposa! of General Lyautey, who had become Minister of War. When, in May 1917, Gen. Pétain was called to the chief command, he himself suggested to the Government that Foch could be usefully employed in the post of chief of the general staff. Having been sent into Italy on the morrow of Caporetto to establish a much-needed understanding with Gen. Cadorna’s headquarters, and having remained in constant and cordial relations with Field-Marshal Haig, there was little doubt that when the time came Foch would appear as the single commander that so many people desired by the end of 1917. When, in March ro18, the Germans launched their first grand offensive and the Allied Jine threatened to break, the necessity of this command became obvious to everybody. It was at Doullens that Foch, on March 29, received from the representatives of the French and British Govts. that mission of higher co-ordination that on April 14 became more precise in the form of the chief command of all the Allied armies fighting in France. Already he had grasped this command with a firm hand. Thanks to the close co-operation of the Allies he stopped the Germans at the gates of Amiens, and thereby brought about the final failure of their attempt to break the Anglo-French front and penetrate to the Channel. Henceforward his whole energies were directed towards assuring this fruitful co-operation. Thus he brought strong French reinforcements to help the British armies, attacked in March and April, and engaged British and American divisions in the battle of the Aisne in May, thus twice checking German offensives that, for a moment, were triumphant. And when the Germans came to a standstill in the pockets that they had driven into our front, he prepared the counter-offensives which, when the hour struck, were to shake and crumple the German front. The counter-offensive was on the point of being launched against the flanks of these pockets, from the Aisne to the Marne, when, on July 15, a new German offensive took place. This met with a partial check which, as we know, had the effect of deepening the pocket in which Foch intended to grip the enemy. The victorious attack of July 18 on the enemy’s flanks forced him to retire and gave the signal for the grand Allied offensives. Foch was now determined to halt no more. He realised that the German armies were beginning to be exhausted but that if they were to be overthrown, the blows must fall thick and fast. The great offensive of Aug. 8 in the region of the Somme which, as it gradually spread and became more violent, forced the Germans to retire on to the Hindenburg Line, was almost immediately followed by the new offensive against that strong position where French and English vied with each other in valour. Once the line had been forced, Foch launched his famous ‘““ directive ”’ of Sept. 3 which was in fact the programme of the general attack. The stages of this semi-concentric attack are well known. It stretched from the Meuse into Flanders and was designed to draw the enemy from all parts back on to the region of the Ardennes, where Foch hoped to pin them and

grasp them. The “directives,” which issued from the headquarters of Bombon (and later, Senlis) are clear, resolute and pitiless. At this point Pétain, Haig and Pershing worked in closest harmony with their French colleague. The directives of Oct. 190 and 1g were followed by successes—hard won and unequal, it is true, but which on Nov. 5 culminated in the general retreat of the beaten and exhausted German armies. Foch, following them closely, had already prepared an operation on a large scale to make an end of them. While the Germans were to be thrown back into the difficult Ardennes region, a huge grovp of armies under the orders of Castelnau with Mangin as principal executant, were to attack on the Moselle and the Sarre and, reaching the Rhine, were to bar the line of retreat from the encircled Germans. It was at this point that the Germans asked for the Armistice. On Nov. 8 Foch, who had been engaged in drawing up the conditions for three weeks past, received the German plenipotentiaries at Rethondes and, by his masterful

attitude, brought them to accept all conditions on Nov. 11,

FOERSTER— FOLKLORE obtaining with the occupation of the left bank of the Rhine the results which he had expected to gain from the supreme battle. The career of Foch was not at an end. Europe acclaimed him as the leader who had secured the victory. Marshal of France since Aug. 7, he now became a British field-marshal and later a marshal of Poland. He was elected a member of the Académie française, which body, emulating the Académie des sciences, gave him a wonderful reception, and at Paris, on July 14 rorg, he passed under the Arc de triomphe de PEtoile at the head of the victorious troops. From New York to London and from Brussels to Warsaw he passed from triumph to triumph. He was not, however, content with a parade rôle, and, as president of the Inter-Allied military commission, he was repeatedly called upon to take measures in support of the action of the Allied Governments. This presidency he still retains-—the last vestige of that single command of the armies led by him to the common triumph, the

triumph which was the outcome of that “ will ” always regarded by him as the great and essential mainspring of victory. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Marshal Foch’s own works are Des principes de la guerre (1903), with English translation by Hilaire Belloc (1918); De la conduite de la guerre, 3rd ed. (1915); Préceptes et jugements du Maréchal Foch extraits de ses oeuvres, précédés d'une étude sur la vie militaire du maréchal par A. Casset (Nancy, 1919); with English translation by Hilaire Belloc (1919). See also A. H. Atteridge, Marshal Ferdinand Foch (1919); A. L. Grasset, Le Maréchal Foch (1919); H. de Lacroix, Le Maréchal Foch (1921); P. Painlevé, Comment j’at nommé Foch (1923). See also the Marshal's article on MORALE in this Encyclopaedia. (L. M.

FOERSTER,

JOSEF

BOHUSLAV

(1859-

), Czech

com-

poser, was born Dec. 30 1859 in Prague, and studied under Fibich. He became an organist and a writer on musical subjects; later he was appointed professor at the Conservatoire in Hamburg and eventually, in 1918, professor at the Conservatoire in Prague. As a composer he developed from symphonic and chamber music to opera, which formed the most important part

of his work. Foerster was a type of cultured musician, deeply emotional in his resources, who replaced the vagueness of expression which marked his carly period by purity and technical perfection. His operas Deborah (1891), Eve (1897), Jessica (1904), The Unconquered (1906), The Heart (1922) are distinguished by psychological depth and by the subjectivity of

their artistic understanding.

Of his other compositions,

the

most Important are a symphony entitled From my Youth and a number of suites. FOGAZZARO, ANTONIO (1842-1011), Italian novelist and

poet (see 10.590), died at Vicenza March 7 1911. See Eugenio Donadoni, Antonio Fogazzaro (1913); L. Gennari, Fogazzaro (1918); and F. Crispolti, Antonio Fogazzaro; Discorso Commemorativo (1911).

FOKKER, ANTHONY HERMAN GERARD (18090), Dutch aeronaut and aeroplane constructor, was born April 6 1890 at Kediri, Java. He obtained his international pilot certificate in tg1t and in the following year he established an aeroplane factory at Johannesthal, near Berlin. In 1913 he founded another factory at Schwerin in Mecklenburg and during the World War supplied the German Army with flying material, notably the Fokker bi-

plane. After the War he returned to Holland and established the Fokker Aircraft Works in that country. In 1924 the Atlantic Aircraft Corporation was founded in the United States, Mr. Fokker being a director; and a factory was started at Hasbrouck Heights, New Jersey. Meanwhile he had set up a plant in Madrid, which was already producing machines for the Spanish Government. He devoted much of his time to researches in the field of commercial aircraft development, one of his latest designs

being the Fokker triplane. His early experiments with regard to gliding with motorless machines, of which he gave a demonstration in England in 1922, did not meet with very much success. FOLKESTONE, England (see 10.600b), with a population of 37,511, has been improved as a seaport. Before the World War the harbour pier was lengthened to 1,480 ft., so that it now has berths for eight steamers, a railway platform and raised promenade along the whole length, and a lighthouse at the end. The

59

area of the inner and outer harbours is a little over 12 acres. In ror5 there was a large landslip in the Warren; the railway line between Folkestone and Dover, which was buried or damaged for a distance of nearly two miles, was closed and was not reopened until Aug. 1919. In 1920 the Earl of Radnor presented the Warren and East Cliff to the town. A zigzag path has been built between the Undercliff and the Leas. In 1921 the foundation stone of an addition to the Royal Victoria Hospital was laid. In 1924 remains of a large Roman villa were excavated near the Fast Cliff, and the corporation undertook the roofing of a portion of the site, which contains a mosaic pavement. Folkestone was an important embarkation point during the World War and one of the ports permitted to civilians. Many Belgian refugees passed through in the early days; it was estimated that 64,500 destitute Belgians arrived between Sept. 1914 and March 1915, besides about 44,600 who had sufficient money to pay railway fares for themselves. There were later large numbers of Canadian troops at Shorncliffe Camp near the town and also camps for American troops and for Chinese and Zulu labourers. On May 25 1917, during an air raid, a bomb fell in a crowded street, killing 33 people. FOLKLORE (see 10.601).—Folklore, the science of popular beliefs, traditions and customs, has made great progress since roro, especially in countries which till then remained more or less outside general scientific movements. Unfortunately scholars in countries like the Balkan States, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, now publish the results of their work in their national language, thus adding to the difficulties of comparative study. This scientific decentralisation may perhaps culminate in concentration and standardisation, as has been effected in physical anthropology. The need for some such measures is evident. The scope of folklore needs to be defined. Its methods must be organised and, where necessary, renovated. Scope of the Science-—Early students of folklore limited their studies to beliefs, tales, legends, myths, songs and games—-that is to a great extent to “literary traditions.” Early in the 20th century folklore was only a section of comparative literary history and of comparative mythology. But in some countries, as those under Habsburg rule and Slavonic areas, investigations covered the details of dress and ornaments, of houses and villages, of arts and crafts, as well as literary material. In these countries folklore was thus inevitably associated directly with ethnography. While such conditions obtained, it was true that folklore was the ethnography of European peoples, and ethnography the folklore of the non-European peoples. Such indeed, but only as regards beliefs and popular literature, was the attitude of the Folklore Society of London, which in its publications has always granted equality of place to “ primitive or half-civilised ”’ savages, as to the peasants of Europe. Again, Sir James Frazer in his Golden Bough and in Folklore of the Old Testament has included all popular documents without geographical or chronological distinction. For him, as for the majority of folklorists of the older school, the term folklore referred only to intellectual, not to material, culture. Obviously the variations of dress, houses and implements have not, in Great Britain and the Central States of Europe, the same importance as in eastern and southern Europe, although certain areas, such as Scotland, the Alps, the Pyrenees and parts of Germany, have preserved vestiges of very ancient cultures. Riitimeyer has discovered in Switzerland many prehistoric survivals, instruments, decorations, even modes of life. The. Spanish Anthropological Society has started investigations in Spain into local fashions of dress, which have already yielded interesting results. In eastern and northern Europe the varieties of material culture and survivals of the Stone, Bronze and Iron ages are even more numerous and better preserved. In these countries, therefore, folklore has gathered in more such data than in those where it was first organised. The scope of folklore needs enlargement, so as to include the study of varieties of types of houses, villages, utensils of every sort, furniture, jewels, dress and every expression of popular art, Since the War, a movement

54

FOLKLORE

in this direction has been started in England and in France by the publication of numerous monographs on country houses, too often in a purely utilitarian, rather than in a scientifc spirit, because conditioned by the exodus of people in towns towards the country. But the investigations of Bancalari, Meringer and the school of students in Finland, Russia, Bulgaria, Rumania, Serbo-Croatia and Czechoslovakia into the material culture of those areas have been undertaken in strict accordance with the scientific rules of folklore. Methods of Investigation. —The ampler the scope of folklore and the wider its domain, the more rigorously must its rules be determined. No single method of approach is adequate. The historical method is necessary—so also is the comparative method necessary; for in distinction from the historical method it does not put chronology into the first place, but compares the data according to their intrinsic nature, according to their technique and their external forms, without note of conditions of time and place. Frazer, Lang, Hartland and Westermarck in England, de Basset, Sebillot, Cosquin, Gaidoz in France, Mannhardt and his followers in Germany used this method, which had the advantage of bringing to light the gaps in the historical method of which the older philological method was but a secondary variation. A new philological method was founded by Edmond and Gilliéron, who published the great linguistic Atlas of France. Their study of words such as Scier forced them and their fellow workers to investigate things as well, such as faux, faucille, segue, scie, etc. Thus came into being a new scientific department, in

which folklore and linguistics were united. So great was its success in Germany that Meringer and his pupils founded a review, W örter und Sachen, in order to exhibit the scientific advantages of this combination. And so useful is it that modern folklorists are obliged to give heed to this class of investigations. Human Geography.—Under the name of anthropo-geography or human geography (q.v.), the science of geography lends valuable aid to folklore. While the comparative method eliminated all conditions of place, geography regards them as essential. Fhe union of the two has produced a new method which, so long as it holds a just balance, will continue to produce valuable results. As in modern linguistics, distribution maps are now essential

in folklore studies. By this means the easy generalisations of the comparative school can be rectifed, as has been done by Van Gennep for the Savoy area, where more than 630 parishes were examined, with the result that the generalisations of Mannhardt and Frazer, etc., were found to be not valid in the areas studied. There are local variations, and even disappearances of customs, which the older, comparative method failed to explain. Not only must the data be strictly localised but they must also be related to all their concomitant conditions. In addition to the historical, linguistic and geographic qualities already mentioned, note has to be made of the psychological, economic and political conditions. In short, to make due progress, folklore must adapt the psychological method to its needs, as well as the sociological method, by which all elements in the social life are classified. Folklore is concerned with social and collective, not individual and isolated, phenomena—its very derivation proves this. A tale, a myth, a ritual act, a dance, a ballad, a mode of dress, a type of house, are collective expressions. The Individual in Invention.—This does not mean that these are collective inventions. Every study of the growth of an elcment of this nature reveals an individual act as the origin or moment of borrowing—never the act of a large group. A small and limited group behaves as an individual just as the admirers of a popular poet, the followers of a prophet or the pupils of a painter or a sculptor form a school. Thus a new end is given to folklore. The comparative method has disclosed to us the dominant and constant elements for all mankind. This was necessary to ascertain the conditions in which these dominant and constant elements came into existence, by whom, how and why, variations in them are effected in distribution of place and time. In short, it is its business to discover the action of individuals, or of small groups of individuals, as well as the mental and material evolution of collectivities.

Collection and Preservation of Data.—The wider the scope of folklore, the more delicate become its methods of interpretation and the more necessary is it to gather its data in a strictly scientific manner. At the outset, complicated questionnaires were used almost at random. They are now prepared on a less ambitious scale and with more precise terminology. Personal experience goes to show that questionnaires are useful only if used by an investigator who has an adequate general knowledge of manuals and comparative studies. Folklore Material —The data of folklore fall into two series, intellectual and material. No great dictionary or encyclopacdia as yet exists to cover the first group of topics, as has been accomplished for other sciences. The only attempt in this direction in Europe is the Folklore of France by Paul Sebillot, in four volumes, which, but for the untimely death of this great pioneer, would have been followed by four other volumes; and in America the two volumes of the Handbook of the American Indians by Hodge (Bureau of Ethnology). In most countries recourse must be had to collections of monographs, such as those published by the Folklore Society of London, by Pitre in Italy, and by Machado y Alvárez in Spain. The work that has to be done in this direction could, and should, be accomplished by international co-operation. The Finnish authority, Antti Aarne, has drawn up a list of catch-words which, with items supplied by his co-adjutators, contains more than 3,000 items concerning specially the themes of tales and legends. Museums. —The material data, implements, dress, etc., find their place in museums. But it is still rare to find a museum specially devoted to folklore, properly termed. Such are the Nordic Museum at Stockholm, the finest of all, then the Museum of Völkerkunde at Berlin; the folklore museums at Hamburg and Basel, the Museum of Popular Traditions at Paris (Trocadero), the national museums at Prague, at Bucharest, Cluj Klausenburg at Zakopane, at Warsaw and Cracow and at Budapest. In almost all big towns where there is an archaeological museum, there is a section set apart in it for folklore material, specially of historical and artistic nature. Of peculiar interest are sections of this kind at South Kensington, at the German Museum in Nuremberg, at the Landes Museum at Zurich, the Natural History Museum, Vienna, the Polytechnic Museum, Moscow, and the Alsatian Museum, Strasbourg. In most large provincial towns in England, France, Germany, Switzerland and Austria there are local museums which contain folklore objects, such as exhibits of ancient costumes, as ell as coins, pictures and historic objects of every kind. Nevertheless, the scientific organisation of folklore museums has not yet been founded. We are still at the simple stage of curiosity and rarity. The historical point of view in general overrules the special aspect of folklore interest according to which specimens should be collected and classified in technological and evolutionary series. The folklore material of non-European peoples is naturally much better represented, for it is ethnography pure and simple. The number of ethnographic museums has increased greatly in this period and their organisation improved, notably in the United States, Switzerland and The Netherlands. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NotrEs.—General: The Volkskundliche Bibliographie, ed. by E. Hoffmann-Krayer (Berlin, 1919, etc.), deals with all elements in folklore and, in some degree, with ethnography. The Gypsy Bibliography by George F. Black (1914) deserves mention.

Manuals and Method: Charlotte S. Burne, The Handbook of Folklore, London Folklore Society (1914); Paul Sebillot, Le Folklore. Littérature Orale et Ethnographie Traditionelle (Paris, 1914); A. Van Gennep, Le Folklore, Moeurs et Coutumes Populaires (Paris, 1924); Luis de Hoyos-Sainz, Etnografia, sus bases, sus metodos y aplicaciones á España (Madrid, 1917); Karl Reuschel, Deutsche Volkskunde, 2 vol. (Leipzig, 1920-1); E. Hoffmann-Krayer, Feste und Bräuche des Schwetzervolkes (Zurich, 1913); Jos. Schrijnen, Nederlandsche Volkskunde (Zutphen, 1916); Raffaele Corso, Folklore, Storia, Obbieto, Metodo, Bibliografia (Rome, 1923); F. W. Hodge, Jiandbook of American Indians, 2 vol. (Washington, Bureau of Ethnology, 1906 and 1910). “Comparative Works: (a) Beliefs and Customs. J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, 3rd ed., 12 vol (1907-15), abridged ed., 1 vol. (1922), Folklore tn the Old Testament, 3 vol. (1920),and The Belief in Immortality, 3 vol. (1924; to be continued); E. A. Westermarck,

Lhe Ifistory of IIuman Marriage, 3 vol. (1921); Sidney Hartland,

FOLKSONG—FOOCHOW Ritual and Belief (1914); Hutton Webster, Rest Days (New York, 1916); R. R. Marett, Psychology and Folklore (1920); W. Wundt, Wolkerpsychologie, 8 vol. (1910-24); L. Lévy-Bruhl, La Mentalité Primitive (1920). (6) Tales, Legends, etc. J. Bolte and G. Polivka, Anmerkungen zu den Kinder- und Hausmärchen der Briider Grinim, 3 vol, (1913-8); E. Cosquin, Les Contes Indiens et L'Occident (1922) and Etudes Folkloriques, Recherches sur les Migrations des Conies Populaires (1922); A. Van Gennep, La Formation des Légendes, 6th ed. (1923); Otto Rank, Psycho-analytische Beitraege zur Mythenforschung (1919); Alfons de Cock, Studien en Essays over Oude Volksvertelsels (1920); G. Huet, Les Contes Populaires (1921); Macleod Yearsley, The Folklore of Fairy Tales (1925); Von des Peyen, Märchen, Sagen, etc. (1910-5); Antti Aarne, Leitfaden der Vergleichenden Märchenforschung (Helsingfors, 1913); and Vergleichende Rätselforschungen (Helsingfors, 1918); Fr. Seiler, Das Deutsche Lehnsprichwort (1921-4). (c) Periodicals and Collections. Portugal.—Revisia Lustiana, the review of the Geographical Society of Lisbon and the Reports of Oporto University, edited by Mendes Correa. Spain.—Aects and Memoirs of the Spanish Society for Anthropology, Ethnography and Prehistory, with a bibliography of works in Spanish dealing with all humanistic science, including folklore. Basque Folklore.—Revue des Etudes Basques (Bayonne), the annual review and monthly bulletin of Notes and Queries by the Society of Euske-Folklore founded by José Miguel de Baran in 1921 at Vittoria:

also memoirs on the Basques by C. Schuchardt of Graz, N. Densusianu of Bucharest, and M. Haberlandt of Vienna.

France.—On the death of Paul Sebillot, in 1918, the Société des Traditions populaires was amalgamated with the Société francaise d’Ethnographie et des Traditions populaires which has published a review since 1919. The review Afelusine has not appeared regularly since the death of Eugène Rolland. Volume 13 appeared in 1912. Regional reviews and the publications of academies and local learned societies contain much material. In the Revue de folklore, to appear in 1926 under the direction of A. Van Gennep, provincial researches will be centralised. The folklore of Northern Africa is dealt with in the Revue tunisienne, and the Revue africaine; Western African folklore in the Bulle-

tins published at St. Louis and at Brazzaville.

In the Revue indo-

chinoise and the Bulletin de l'Ecole francaise d’Extréme-Orient will be

found material dealing with the folklore of India and China. The Bulletin de la Société des Etudes océaniennes has articles on folklore. British Empire.— Folklore, published by the Folklore Society of London, is both comparative and descriptive. The socicty also publishes a collection of monographs dealing with the folklore of England under various headings. There are no special folklore re-

views for Scotland or Ireland, or, for the most part, of the Dominions; Canadian

folklore finds a place in the Journal

of American

Folklore; Asiatic folklore, especially Indian, is dealt with in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal; and Chinese folklore is also recorded in the Journal of the North China Branch. The Chinese Society also deals with such matcrial from time to time. There are atso local reviews and publications in the African territories which are not, however, centralised. As regards Australia, the publications of the local geographic societies must be consulted. Belgtum.—The publication of la revue Volkskund, interrupted by the War, has now been resumed under the direction of A. de Cock,

Victor de Meijére and J. Vercoulic. In Walloon Belgium Folklore brabançon has now commenced to appear in both languages under the direction of A. Marinus. The Belgian Folklore Society proposes to publish a centralised bulletin dealing with folklore in both portions of Belgium. Swttzerland.—In spite of the War, La Société Suisse des Traditions populaires has continued the publication of archives and separate memoirs and monthly bulletins dealing with Swiss folklore. Much information has been collected and classifed in the Glossaire des Patois de la Suisse romande now appearing in instalments. The Dictionary of patois suisse-italien has commenced publication, and

includes a description of material, objects, customs, etc., and distribution maps covering northern Italy as well. Italy.—For central and southern Italy, and especially Sicily, sce the Archivio ttaliano Tradizioni popolari and the review, H Folklore ttaliano. The review Augusta Praetoria deals with the valley of Aosta and neighbouring regions, and, from time to time, local or general papers publish folklore material. Germany.—All German folklore societies are united in the Verband deutscher Vereine für Volkskunde which publishes Mitteilungen (reports). The Swiss society is a member, and the Scandinavian, Dutch and Czech-German societies also form part of this league. Its reports deal with the activities of various socicties under the various headings of folklore. The best folklore reviews are:— Berlin, Zettschrift fiir Volkskunde; Munich, two reviews, Bayerische Hefte and Bayerische Blätter für Volkskunde; Giessen, Hessische Blätter für Volkskunde; Leipzig, Mitteilungen des Ver. für sächische Volkskunde; Breslau, Mitteilungen der Schiesischen Gesellschaft

für Volkskunde. Further folklore articles, essays and bibliographies will be found in Anzeiger für deutsches Altertum; Archiv für das Studium

der neucren

Sprachen;

Archiv für Religionswissenschaft;

Wörter und Sachen; Zeitschrift für Ethnologie.

The German output

59

of folklore is by far the most important in the whole world because it is recognised to constitute an element in German nationality, and because the German country people are very conservative in their manners and customs. Scandinavian Countries.— Most periodicals in Scandinavian countrics publish folklore articles, such as, the Danske Studier a Copenhague, Ymer at Stockholm, ete. There are special reviews, such as, Norsk

Folkekultur

at

Christiania;

Folkiminnen

och

Folktankar

at

stockholm, and for Finnish Swedes Folkloristiska och etnografiska. Finland and the Baltic Countries—The Finnish-Ugrian Society publishes an excellent journal. The academy of Helsingfors publishes memoirs relating to the Ugrians, the Mongols, the Manchus, the Votiaks Voguls, the Tcheremisses and the Estonians. The Society of Folklore Fellows publishes at Helsingfors the well-known Communications comparatives, under the editorship of Antti Aarne. There are also folklore societies at Dorpat, in Latvia and in Lithuania. Russta.—Nearly all periodical publications came to an end during the War and the revolution. Among them were Zhiva 'ia Starina, published by the Geographical Society of St. Petersburg, and Etnografitcheskoye Obosriente, published by the Polytechnic Museum of Moscow. At Nielf, however, a laboratory of Anthropology and Ethnology has been founded by the Academy of Science of the Ukraine, which publishes a bulletin in Ukrainian, in which folklore is dealt with. In Manchuria a periodical appears, published by the local historical and archaeological society, and deals with Russian, Mongol, Manchu and Chinese folklore. Poland.—While the review, Wisla, has ceased to appear, the Academy of Science at Cracow continues the publication of much material. The principal centre of activity is, however, at Lemberg, the headquarters of the Polish Socicty for Ethnology and Folklore. Its publication, Lud, is in its 23rd year, and appears simultaneously at Warsaw, Cracow, Posen and Vilna under the editorship of A. Fischer. ‘sechoslovakia.—On the death of Zibert, the review, Cesky Lid, ceased to appear, but the Narodopisny Vestnik Cesko-Slovansky is still published under the editorship of G. Polivka. Other local reviews, notably in Slovakia, deal with folklore. Austrta.—On the break-up of the Habsburg Empire the scope of the Societies which publish journals of folklore has diminished; each element in the population prefers its own language as a means of publication so that there are local reviews in the Tirol, Styria, etc. Much folklore material is published by the Museum of Volkskunde and the Anthropological Institute in their publications. flungary.— Folklore material is centralised by the Academy of Science at Budapest, by the Revue Ethnographique, and in `the reports of the Ethnographic Museum. Bulgaria.—The Academy of Science publishes an important series of volumes on the popular manners and customs of Bulgaria. Rumanta.—The Bucharest Academy has already published some 50 vol. on Rumanian manners and customs. Then N. Densusianu has founded the review, Grai si Suflet, devoted to linguistics and to folklore. Local material is also published by the Universities of Jassy and Klausenburg. Yugoslavia.—There are three important centres for folklore work in the country; the first at Belgrade where the Academy of Science and the university publish important memoirs from time to time; secondly, at Zagreb, where the review Narodna Starina (National Antiquities) is published under the editorship of Josip Matasovic: and thirdly, at Lubljana, where Carniola and Mitteilungen des Museum- Vereines für Krain are published. It may be indeed that Yugoslavia is one of the countries richest in folklore materials. Greece.—The Hellenic Folklore Society founded by Politis at Athens, in 1910, publishes a review Laographia, to which also it has published as supplementary a collection of the complete works of Politis himself. America.—In North America a distinct division of labour is observable. Indian folklore is centralised with the Bureau of Ethnology and the Smithsonian Institution and the American Anthropologist. The folklore of peoples of European and African origin falls to the Journal of American Folklore on behalf of the American Folklore Society, which also publishes memoirs. This society deals only with popular literature, tales, legends, songs, and not with popular matenal culture. Mention must be made here of the important investigations of Marius Barbeau on French Canada, and of Elsie Clews Parsons on the Bahamas. Central -lmerica.—Gamio, in Mexico, deals with the folklore of the Indians in the publications of the Ministerio del Fomento. In Cuba, Fernando Ortiz has commenced publication of Archives del Folklore Cubano (San Ignacio del Habana). Venezuela, Brazil and Chile are commencing publication of their folklore material, both of Indian and European origin. An annual bibliography of a complete nature, dealing with the folklore of North, Central and South America, has been published since 1917 by G. Rivet, of the Society of Americanists of Paris. (M. A. VaN G.)

FOLKSONG: sce SINGING, FOOCHOW, China (see 11.271), a treaty port, had an estimated population, according to the Chinese maritime customs; of 320,900 in 1923. The streets have been widened and paved,

56

FOOD,

PURE

the steps leading to the Long Bridge have been removed, and fluorides and all other chemical preservatives except benzoic the road between it and the city planted with trees. Electric acid and sulphur dioxide, which are permitted in minimum amounts for preserving a limited number of foods and beverages. light has been installed, and also an ice-making plant to supply According to these regulations a food preservative is defined as:— the fishing boats. In 1921 the Fukien Christian University was established on a site of so ac. below Kushan Point. The trade _ any substance which is capable of inhibiting, retarding or arresting the process of fermentation, acidification, or other decomposition of Foochow has declined with the decline of the tea trade. The timber resources of the country are waning, and the trade in of food or of masking any of the evidences of any such process or of neutralising the acid gencrated by any such process; but does not camphor is small. The demand for and the output of lacquer include common salt (sodium chloride), saltpetre (sodium or potasware has increased. Ships discharge and load at the Pagoda . sium nitrate), sugars, acetic acid or vinegar, alcohol or potable Min spirits, spices, essentia! oils or any substance added to food by anchorage, 10 m. below Foochow, since above this the river, divided into a number of channels, is obstructed by shoals the process of curing known as smoking, and bars. A conservancy board was formed in rọrọ, and plans It was objected that the new rules would operate to the detriwere worked out for directing the river into one channel, and ment of both the trade and the general public on account of permitting navigation by vessels drawing 17 ft. up to Nantai, storage difficulties and of the increased price at which it would the harbour of Foochow. The work was almost completed in be necessary to sell food under the changed conditions. The the first and third sections in 1925, and the second section only new British Public Health (Preservatives, etc., in Food) Regurequired improvement by dredging. | lations of 1925 are to come into operation on Jan. 1 1927 with FOOD, PURE (see ADULTERATION, 1.218).—It is only within slight extensions of this date in the case of butter, cream and a recent years that the transfer of the manufacture of food from few other products. the home to the factory, and the transportation of food for greater Standardisation.—A basic requirement in pure food control is and greater distances, have made it necessary for governments the establishment of official standards of purity. The differences to promote systematically and scientifically the purity and of opinion which prevail with regard to what constitutes pure truthful labelling of food products. sausage, marmalade, chocolate, catsup, ice cream and numerous The purity of foods, drugs and other commodities was everyother foods would make the task of the analyst an impossible where adversely affected by the conditions prevailing during the one unless he had available certain recognised standards which World War. There was a great increase in the practice of adulare accepted as just by the trade and by regulatory officials. teration, and a marked falling off in the quality of manufactured In Germany, Great Britain and the British colonies much valufoods. The use of substitutes and inferior products in times of able pioneer work has been done by the public analysts toward shortage is a necessity; the subsequent restoration of higher establishing standards of composition for many articles of food. standards is slow. Borax, formaldehyde and other food preserv- In the United States a joint committee of nine experts selected atives were tolerated to an almost unlimited extent in some equally from the U.S. Bureau of Chemistry, the Association of OfEuropean countries during the troubled period attending the ficial Agricultural Chemists and the Association of Dairy, Food War, and the users of these substances, after a few years of and Drug Officials, by joint conferences with the trade, has estabunmolested privilege, have been unwilling to give way. lished definitions and standards for a large variety of foods. Scientific Developments—One phase of the movement for Foop LAWS IN THE UNITED STATES pure food was a proposal by the newly organised International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry to study the practice of In the United States the control of foods is exercised by the conserving foods by chemical means—a subject extensively Federal Govt. of the United States under the Federal Food and investigated in the United States between 1904 and 1912. A Drugs Act, the Meat Inspection Act, the Tea Inspection Act and report upon the laws governing the use of chemical preservacertain Acts relating to specific products such as filled cheese, tives in foods was presented at the fourth meeting of the Inter- filled milk, butter and mixed flour. Forty-seven of the 48 states national Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry at Cambridge, of the Union have some form of food control legislation. A numEngland, in June 1923 (Comptes-rendus de la quatrième Conber of states have laws which follow the general principles of the férence Internationale de la Chimie, p. 133-6). The trend of Federal Food and Drugs Act, but other states have laws differpublic and scientifc opinion at the present time is toward the ing very materially from that Act. In some states foods are complete elimination of chemical preservatives from foods. In controlled under the general provisions of one Act, in other addition to their own injurious action, food preservatives dis- states they are controlled under a number of Acts relating to guise the effects of putrefaction, and their use in many cases has specific food products. Each state has complete control of the put a premium upon the unsanitary handling of foods. Certain foods produced and consumed within that state. The Federal Govt. advocates, notably Prof. E. Paterno of the University of Rome, has control of foods shipped into interstate or foreign commerce. have defended the use of preservatives. It has been asserted Federal Food and Drugs Act, approved on June 30 1906 that the extensive consumption of meats, preserved by boric andTheamended in 1912, 1913 and 1919, provides in general that all injurno produced war, of exigency an as acid or formaldehyde, foods coming within its jurisdiction be prepared in a cleanly manner ious effects. The lack of cold-storage facilities, such as are everyfrom pure and wholesome materials; free from any added substances where provided in the United States, has been advanced in which might render them injurious to health; not labelled or sold under representations which are in any manner deceptive. Food many countries as an argument for the use of chemicals in prepackages must bear a plain and conspicuous statement of the quanserving perishable foods. Legislation to exclude completely all tity of the contents. inconsistent be to foreign chemicals from foods has been held The Meat Inspection Act, approved on June 30 1906, provides that every establishment in which cattle, sheep, swine or goats are so long as copper compounds, arsenates and other substances are permitted in agriculture as insecticides, fungicides and dis- slaughtered or their carcasses are wholly or in part canned, cured, salted, packed, rendered or otherwise prepared, for transinfectants, since traces of these nearly always occur in the fruits smoked, portation or sale as articles of interstate or foreign commerce, shall hygienamong opinion Nevertheless treated. so and vegetables be inspected under the Act. The inspection begins when live animals are received for slaughter, and includes a thorough anteists, manufacturers and the general public is decidedly adverse mortem and post-mortem examination, a rigid inspection of products to the use of chemical preservatives. It has been suggested that such as smoked or cured meats, lard and by-products, and a final an important factor in the increase of certain diseases is the inspection when meats and their products leave the inspected estabpresence of chemical preservatives and metallic poisons in foods. lishments. British Comunittee on Preservatives—In England the Minister The Tea Inspection Act of March 2 1897, amended on May 16 of Health appointed on July 7 1923 a Committee on the Use of 1908, provides that all shipments of tea offered for entry into the United States shall be inspected to sce that they comply with the Preservatives and Colouring Matters in Food. In accordance standards of quality and purity adopted each year by a board of tea with their recommendations the Minister of Health announced experts appointed by the Secretary of Agriculture. Every consignment of tea offered for entry into the United States is inspected, and on Feb. 17 1925 a Draft of Rules and Orders that completely only such tea admitted as complies with the standards. excludes from foods boric acid, salicylic acid, formaldehyde,

FOOD

POISONING

The Bureau of Chemistry in the enforcement of the Federal Food

and Drugs Act endeavours to see that out of the great volume and variety of foods coming from other countries only such as comply

with the Act are allowed to enter the United States. Shipments in violation of the Food and Drugs Act are denied entry into the United States, and if not exported within three months are destroyed. If the violation is a form of misbranding that can be entirely corrected by relabelling, the importer is permitted to relabel the shipment, after which it may be admitted to the country, if the relabelling is correct. Foods that are harmful to health, however, are not admitted to the United States and must be exported or destroyed. For the control of interstate commerce two forms of action are provided by the Federal Food and Drugs Act—criminal prosecution against the party responsible for the violation, and seizure of any shipments of adulterated or misbranded foods or drugs found in interstate or foreign commerce. Both actions may be invoked when necessary. Under the Federal Food and Drugs Act more than 14,000 cases, including both criminal prosecutions and seizures, have

been terminated in the Federal courts and the results published in the form of notices of judgment. This number represents only those instances of flagrant misbranding or adulteration in which court action was necessary to check the practice. Countless minor violations have been corrected by serving notices on the firms responsible without recourse to formal legal action.

Most of the grosser forms of adulteration and misbranding which prevailed at the time of the enactment of the Federal Food and Drugs Act and Meat Inspection Act in 1906 have been eliminated as general trade practices. Occasional sporadic instances on the part of widely scattered dealers to adulterate and misbrand in the old way are still detected at intervals, but such practices are no longer general. New and more subtle forms of adulteration, however, are being detected. Asa result of the effects of pure food legislation by the Federal and State Governments, and by the application of the principles of sanitary science in the food industries, very great improvement was made in the purity of food in the markets of the United States between

toto and 1925. No other classes of merchandise are to-day, on the whole, so free from adulteration and misbranding as foods. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Pure Foods. H. A. MacEwan, Food Inspection, (3rd ed., London, 1922); G. R. Leighton, Botulism and Food Preservation (London, 1923); W. G. Savage, Canned Foods in Relation to

TTealth (Milroy Lectures, 1923) (Cambridge, 1923); G. R. Leighton, Pocket Handbook of Meut Inspection. A Guide to the Public Heaith— Meat-Regulations—Scotland, 1924 (Edinburgh and London, 1924);

G. W. M. Williams, Chemistry in Relation to Food (London, 1924); A.

G. Woodman,

Food Analysis

(2nd ed., New

York,

1924); R.

Edelmann, Text-book of Heat Hygiene (5th ed., London- U.S.A., 1925). A. E. Leach and A. L. Winton, Food Inspection and Analysis

(4th ed., New York and London, 1920); H. W. Wiley, Foods and Their Adulteration (3rd ed., Philadelphia, 1917); H. C. Sherman, Food Products (2nd ed., New York, 1924); C. T. and A. C. Hunter, Hygienic Fundamentals of Food Handling (Baltimore, 1924). Sce also the following British government publications: Ministry of Health: Final Report of the Departmental Committee on the use of preservatives and colouring matter in food (London, 1924); Draft Rules and Orders,

1925, Public Health, England:

Draft of the Public Health

(preserva-

tives, etc., in food) Regulations (1925); Draft Rules and Orders, 1925,

Public Health, Scotland: Draft of Regulatrons with respect to Preservatives, efc., in Food, proposed by the Scottish Board of Health (1925). (C. A. BR.)

FOOD POISONING (see 18.29).—The term food poisoning as used by public-health workers and bacteriologists does not include the deliberate addition to food of poisonous substances with criminal intent, nor yet individual idiosyncrasy or sensitisation to certain proteins such as those contained in strawberries, eggs, milk or shellfish. Food idiosyncrasy depends primarily on a peculiar condition of the human body rather than on any dangerous quality in the food itself. The various “ deficiency cliseases,”’ such as beri-beri (see 3.7740), scurvy (see 24.517b) and perhaps pellagra (sce 21.69b) and gottre (see 12.191d), which are due to the lack of some essential element in the diet, are also not usually considered as types of food poisoning. | The manifestations ordinarily grouped as food poisoning at the present time are those due to:—(1) the presence of poisonous substances in healthy, untreated plant or animal tissues; (2) the introduction into food by accident, or design, of more or less familiar organic and inorganic poisons; (3) the presence in the food of living pathogenic bacteria or other parasites;(4) the

presence in the food of poisonous substances elaborated by the growth of various micro-organisms.

a7

Poisons in Plants and Animals—Certain normal plant and animal tissues contain substances poisonous to man, and when eaten may cause illness and death; such are poisonous mushrooms

and certain fish found in tropical waters. Fatal cases of oxalic poisoning from eating the leaves of the common rhubarb have occurred. Horses and cattle grazing free on the western ranges are frequently poisoned when forage is scanty and they resort to weeds and plants generally left untouched, such as the larkspur, the lupins, the water hemlock and the death Camas. Poisonous weeds eaten by cattle may indirectly produce poisoning in man. The disease known to the pioneer settlers in parts of the United States as milk sickness was early recognised to be connected with the occurrence of trembles in milch cows, but its origin long remained obscure. It is now believed that both fremzbles and milk sickness were due to a poisonous substance in the white snakeroot (Eupatorium) which was eaten by the cows when other pasturage failed. | Mineral Potsons.—Occasionally mineral poisons like arsenic and lead find their way by accident into food in the process of manufacture, as in the famous outbreak of peripheral neuritis (see 2.654) in several of the Midland countries in England in 1900, involving at least 6,000 persons and causing about 7o deaths. This was traced to the presence of considerable quantities of arsenic in the beer coming from certain breweries; it was found that the brewing sugars had been impregnated with arsenic by the sulphuric acid used in their preparation, the arsenic itself being derived from the iron pyrites used in making the sulphuric acid. More recently the cocoa sold by an English firm contained a small amount of arsenic derived from the potassium carbonate employed in its manufacture. Long-continued action of food on containers may dissolve harmful metals such as lead, copper or tin. Tin poisoning from canned foods, although theoretically possible, is so rare as to have little practical significance, doubtless partly because such tin as is dissolved is largely fixed in an insoluble form by the solid portions of the canned food and eliminated directly from the body. Copper, although not a violent irritant, may have a highly injurious effect when absorbed during many years, as in the constant use of distilled liquors containing copper derived from the copper worm of the condenser; cirrhosis of the liver (see 16.803) may be caused in this way. Lead, owing to its well-known cumulative effect on the human body, is an undesirable substance to come in contact with food or drink. As long ago as 1767 the local malady of Devonshire colic was shown by Baker to be due to the action of cider on lead vessels. Lead poisoning has also resulted from the frequent use of acid beverages in bottles with lead stoppers. When lead was generally used in glazes and enamels for cooking vessels, recognised poisoning from these sources sometimes occurred; the enamelled ware at present in common usein England and the United States is lead-free. Food Preservatives —The use of food preservatives constitutes a very difficult and important phase of the problem of the addition of poisonous substances to food. Numerous substances have been added to food intentionally for the purpose of preventing the growth of micro-organisms and consequent spoiling. Some food preservatives (see 10.612) once widely used are now known to be poisonous for man as well as antiseptic for microbes and have been generally discarded or prohibited. Such are formaldehyde and hydrotluoric acid and their derivatives. Regarding some other preservative substances there is great diversity of opinion among those who have given the matter most study. The use of boron and salicylic acid compounds is generally, but not universally, disapproved. Benzoic acid, sulphurous acid and sulphites are regarded by many hygienists as permissible in certain foods under controlled conditions. The differences of opinion emphasise the insufficiency of our knowledge. Until information commanding the respect of all competent experts is available, it is well to err on the side of caution and minimise the use of preservatives. The practice of adding poisonous substances to food merely for the sake of altering colour or appearance has nothing to recommend it. At the present time any danger of actual poisoning

58

FOOD

POISONING

from colouring matter added to candy, pastries and the like “the grip.” In point of fact ptomaine poisoning, if it occurs at all, is slight. In most countries the health authorities maintain a must be exceedingly rare. Ptomaines appear in food substances list of the substances, such as certain coal-tar dyes, which are in the later stages only of putrefaction—after about a week! permitted, and prohibitory regulation is strictly enforced. In Alleged instances of ‘‘ ptomaine poisoning ”’ when investigated by the United States no colours and no preservatives in foods are modern methods may almost always be traced with greater plausibility to some other form of food poisoning. ‘‘ Ptomaine poisonpermitted unless they are deemed harmless. (See Foon, Pure.) ing ’’ may be a convenient refuge from aetiological uncertainty; Bacterial Peisoning.—lood may serve as the vehicle for certain ; kinds of disease-producing bacteria and other parasites. In it is not a satisfactory diagnosis for illness or death. The products of paratyphoid bacilli that have grown in food some instances the bacteria are exclusively of human origin and may in some instances be the cause of food poisoning, even when occur in or upon the food as the result of contact with sewagethe bacteria themselves have been killed. The determination of contaminated water or through handling by a carrier of disease germs, e.g., the contamination of oysters with typhoid bacilli this question presents great technical difficulties and has not present in polluted water and the contamination of milk by a yet been settled. Botulism —The most conspicuous and definite example of typhoid carrier on a dairy farm. In other instances the bacteria present in the food are derived from an infection of the food poisoning from a microbic product formed in food is botulism (see 18.30). The chief symptoms of botulism are nervous rather animal. This second class of infections is especially important than gastro-intestinal. Disturbance of vision (double vision), in any survey of food poisoning since the gastro-intestinal sympgreat weakness and difficulty in swallowing, are common signs; toms produced are often sudden and violent; many of the most typical and best known mass outbreaks of food poisoning belong to there is little or no fever and the temperature may be subnormal; there is rarely any pain and the mentality remains clear; the this group. The nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea that characterise disease is always serious, over 60% of the cases resulting fatally. these attacks usually attract attention to some article of food From 1899 to 1924 in the United States 129 outbreaks occurred, eaten shortly before. An attack of this kind rarely terminates affecting 435 people and causing 290 deaths. In the only outfatally,and the symptoms pass off within 24 to 48 hours, having break known to have occurred in Great Britain (Loch Maree, little after effect. Often a history of illness in the slaughtered animal can be secured. Some of the most extensive outbreaks of 1922), eight persons were affected and all died. Botulism is due to a specific germ (Clostridium botulinum) which has great heat meat poisoning in European countries have been traced to the resistance and is also able to grow in the absence of oxygen. use of meat from an animal noticed to be ailing and promptly Under favourable conditions it elaborates a toxin which is one of killed by the thrifty peasant as an emergency measure. the most poisonous substances known. Although the germ is The bacteria that cause this typical form of food poisoning belong for the most part to the group of paratyphoid bacilli, widely distributed in soil in many parts of the world, the conditions necessary for its development in foodstuffs are so seldom organisms closely related biologically to the typhoid bacillus, but distinguishable by laboratory tests. Within the group of present that botulism is one of the rarest of human affections. paratyphoid bacilli there are several difierent species (e. g., The lack of a suitable temperature, a certain degree of acidity of the culture medium, an over-abundant supply of oxygen, the B. enteritidis, B. acrtrycke, B. suipestifer) that primarily cause presence of certain other micro-organisms are factors that may disease in various domestic animals, but secondarily and occainterfere with the growth of this organism and prevent toxin sionally give rise to food poisoning in man. Food poisoning from formation. Nevertheless scattered cases of botulism have paratyphoid bacilli would probably be much more common than it is if foods were not usually cooked. These bacteria are killed occurred at intervals in Europe and America for over 100 years. by boiling, and the history of many attacks shows that, while The first cases to be described were caused by sausage, hence the parts of an animal eaten raw or partly cooked have given rise to name botulism. Meat pickled in brine has also been known to ilness, other portions cooked before being eaten have been quite contain botulism toxin. In recent years canned foods of various kinds, vegetables as well as meats, have been implicated. innocuous. Sausages made from uncooked meat or internal The majority of the cells of Cl. botulinum: are killed by organs (liver sausage, blood sausage, etc.) have been the cause of temperatures slightly above boiling, but a very small number food poisoning in a disproportionately large number of cases. Unfortunately inspection of the meat before sale may fail to may survive prolonged exposure to 115° C. or even higher. The most obvious mode of protection against this form of reveal any evidence of infection, so that protection against this form of food poisoning depends chiefly on (a) the selection of food poisoning is to ensure cleanliness In all foods subjected to healthy animals for slaughter and (b) thorough cooking of all preservative processes and, in the case of heat-preserved foods, to use so far as practicable temperatures high enough to destroy foods of animal origin. The majority of Foods may be also contaminated with paratyphoid bacilli by the most resistant spores of Cl. botulinum. canned foods proved to contain botulism toxin give sensible the agency of rats and mice. These rodents suffer from natural evidence of spoilage. The botulism toxin, unlike the organism infections with these bacteria and can become carriers. Rodent that produces it, is readily destroyed by boiling. The immediate contamination must always be reckoned a possibility in invesrejection, without tasting,of any food showing signs of spoilage, tigating outbreaks of this type. Certain of the higher animal parasites occasionally enter the and the re-cooking of canned foods before serving, constitute a second line of defence. If these precautions are followed, botuhuman body in contaminated food. The small roundworm lism already rare should become practically unknown. (Trichinella) that causes trichinosis is one of the best known. Thorough cooking is an effective safeguard. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Genera! treatises on Food Poisoning: E. SacquéErgotism.—One of the earliest established instances of poison- pée, Les Empotsonnements Alimentaires (1909); A Study of 100 Recent Outbreaks of Food Poisoning, by W. G. Savage and P. B. White, ing due to the products formed by the growth of micro-organisms published by the Medical Research Council (1925); E. O. Jordan, in food substances is the disease of ergotism (St. Anthony’s Fire) Food Poisoning (Chicago, 1917); W. G. Savage, Food Poisoning and

(see 9.738) so prevalent in the Middle Ages. Ergot is the poison formed by a fungus that grows on rye; in times of famine the enforced use of rye that would not otherwise have been eaten led to much suffering and many thousands of deaths. Ptomaines.—It was long believed that many instances of gastro-intestinal disturbance—the typical food poisoning of the layman—were due to the products of various micro-organisms found in partly spoiled or decomposed food. Definite chemical substances—pfomaines (see 3.174)—were incriminated, and the expression plomaine poisoning (see 22.629) came for a time to play as large a part in popular self-diagnosis as “ influenza ” or

Food Infections (Cambridge, 1920); W. G. Savage, Canned Foods (Cambridge, 1923). On Food Preservatives: Otto K. Folin, Pre-

servatizves and Other Chemicals in Foods: Their Use and Abuse (Harvard,

1914); the British Ministry of Health’s report on Preservatives and Colouring Afatter in Food (1924). For the paratyphoid infections, see E. Hübener, Fleischvergiftungen und Paratyphusinfektionen (Jena, 1910); Gerald Leighton, Botulism: (1923). See also special articles in the Journal of Infectious Diseases, Chicago, the U.S,

1 Temperature and time of exposure must be considered and also the difference in heat penetration, the degree of acidity of the food substance, the extent to which the appearance, and consequent marketability, is affected by the treatment, and other factors

FOOD

PRESERVING—FOOD

Public Health Reports, Washington, and the American Journal of Public Health, New York; also the monograph Botulism, by Ernest

C. Dickson, Monographs of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research,

No. 8, New York (1918).

(E. O. J.)

FOOD PRESERVING: see CANNING. FOOD SERVICE.—In the United States there has been, since I9io, an increasing tendency on the part of Americans to take their meals outside of their homes, 7.e., the growth of the community kitchen and its corollary the community dining room. Community Kitchens and Dining Rooms.—Many reasons may be assigned for this movement. In the first place it was a natural step in view of the changes in the home itself: the urban home had become smaller, for every square inch of floor area, every cubic inch of space, cost money in rent, and consequently the functions of the home were limited so as to effect a reduction of space. The home kitchen shrank first to the kitchenette and is now in process of vanishing entirely. Even where the space for an elaborate kitchen is available, the problem of getting suitable servants is so troublesome as to induce many to get along with a minimum of domestic service, and, as the mistress of the house is herself less willing to be a kitchen drudge than formerly, many meals are taken outside the home, particularly those of an elaborate nature. Private hospitality is more and more offered in hired hotel space in preference to the home. Banquets and other special functions are easily handled in public dining rooms and involve little responsibility on the part of the host and hostess. The emancipation of women is another factor. Many women have succeeded in establishing themselves, professionally or commercially, before marriage. They prefer financial independence to keeping house. The small, compact, efficiently arranged apartment is the result, with meals away from the home. These factors are intensified by the constantly rising standards of living and by the greatly improved marketing technique which has stimulated a demand for many possessions previously non-existent or rare. Demands upon the family income have advanced, encroaching upon the former budget allotment for rent and servants. Small and servantless homes come as a natural sequence. If even then the income is too meagre, the modern woman has no hesitation in aiding her husband to double it by taking a position herself. Another blow to the home as the chief or sole source of prepared food has been dealt by the automobile and touring habit. It is estimated that in 1910 there were in the United States less than 350,000 automobiles; in 1925 Over 17,000,000 were registered. Such an increase in the use of a personal means of conveyance with a day’s travel radius of, say, 200 m. could not but have its effect on the food habits of the nation. “ Automobile ” business is considered a substantial part of the total business of hotels and restaurants. The hotel kitchen, like its domestic counterpart, has had its troubles with its personnel, and for similar reasons. Working, however, on a larger scale and increasingly on standardised products, it can make readier use of machines as a substitute for labour. The modern quantity kitchen is thinly staffed but splendidly equipped. Washing-machines for dishes, glassware and silver, each adapted to the task in hand, enable two men to do the work of ten and to do it better. There is less breakage, the silver bears an enhanced sheen, and the bacteria count is reduced go per cent. Dirt and filth, once the bugbears of any but the most expensive dining places, are now perhaps more rare in hotels than in the home. There are also the great mixers which, for example, beat up a bushel of mashed potatoes or a gallon of cream with equal facility, the steam-cookers, the potato-peelers and a host of smaller indispensables that save time, labour and space where food is cooked on a wholesale scale. Electricity has helped in cookery and is now applied to refrigeration. The Cafeteria Sysiem.—The service side of the problem has also advanced. The use of the steam-table has solved one of the problems of public service by keeping dishes hot and food tasty during the minutes or even hours that elapse between preparation and eating. The modern coffee-urn makes possible the preparation of five gallons at one time, a difficult feat under the old procedure. The newer methods of service bring the consumer

SUPPLY

99

and his food together without delay. The cafeteria system, under which all the dishes in the menu are displayed before the customer, who: helps himself, has made quick service possible and cheap. Whatever losses there may be aesthetically, and these need be few, are broadly balanced by the pleasure of being able to make a direct selection of food. Incidentally, the cafeteria system has placed a premium on attractive, neatly arranged dishes. Another development, exclusively metropolitan, for those who want only a little food quickly, is that of the sandwich shop, luncheonette or expanded soda-fountain counter, where light refreshments are dispensed under conditions that permit high speed. Frequently these places are operated in chains, so that large numbers of sandwiches, for instance, are prepared in a locality where rent is low and trucked to small luncheon counters crowded into nooks that tap main streams of city workers. Such places appeal to the clerical worker or office girl who has little to spend and who seeks only a light lunch. A closely related development is the delicatessen store, which sells prepared food but does not serve it. These, located in territories of concentrated population, present still another solution to the consumer’s problems of limited space and few and high-priced servants. They eliminate much of the work and annoyance of cooking food in small, ill-ventilated apartments, while permitting the enjoyment of family privacy in consuming it. Similarly, in the large apartment hotels recently erected in the big cities, provision is usually made for extensive “ room service.” The kitchens of the hotel make it a part of their business to prepare meals which will be served in the rooms of the apartment dwellers. Special elevators and floor pantries assist, and special dishes and equipment have been devised to help keep the food in its best condition. Such a combination of wholesale cookery with individual service is practicable only in large, high-grade apartment hotels, but it has distinct advantages where conditions permit its use. The conditions described are evident to all observers. Accurate statistics on the subject are lacking, however. Difficulties in the definitions of hotels, restaurants, boarding-houses and other eating places make current figures unreliable, and even less reliable the figures of toro. Two estimates may be mentioned. The Hotel Monthly calculates that nearly 5,000,000 persons in the United States take a majority of their meals in public eating places and that they spend therein over 1,250 million dollars a year for a total of 4,000 million meals. Hotel Management, on the other hand, estimates that about 8,000 million meals per year are served outside homes and, taking a somewhat higher average amount spent (so cents as compared with 35), reaches a figure of 4,000 million dollars of annual expenditure in public dining-rooms. This wide divergence between two competent authorities illustrates the difficulty of accurate estimate in hotel and restaurant statistics. It is evident, however, that the nation’s restaurant bill might conservatively be estimated at over 1,000 million dollars a year. If the value of the food eaten by the employees and managers themselves and that sold for immediate consumption is included, but the canned and packageprepared foods omitted, a figure of 2,000 millions was probably too low rather than too high in 1925. (H. B. M.) FOOD SUPPLY.— War influences thẹ food supply in belligerent countries directly, and in neutral countries indirectly, through deterioration or distortion of agriculture, disorganisation of shipping, disintegration of finance and changes in consumption. During post-war reconstruction the abnormalities persist in modified form, broadly proportional to the severity and duration of the struggle, often attended by new disturbances contingent on inherent developments or proceeding from misdirected efforts at restoration of the status quo ante bellum. Sooner or later, a new equilibrium is established between agriculture, industry, transportation and finance. During a war of large extent and long duration, agriculture suffers heavily in the belligerent countries and prospers seemingly in unadjacent neutral countries. After the war, agriculture recovers in the belligerent countries, but in the neutral countries undergoes liquidation. The governmental restraint of competi-

FOOD

60

tion, effectual during war, is likely to be followed by excessive competition. It is from this panoramic viewpoint that a scrutiny of the results of the World War on the food supply of the world is to be undertaken.

I. THE WAR AND AGRICULTURE Shortage of Men, Horses and Fertilisers -—No matter how categorically agriculture is classified as an essential industry in a country at war, the labouring forces of the land are drawn on by the military authorities. Landowners, tenants and hired workers are mobilised for military service. Horses are requisitioned. In the World War this recruiting of rural workers continued intermittently until the farm work was done largely by males past middle age and under 16, and by women. The working forces suffered in number, in skill and experience. Some replacement was effected by stationing prisoners of war on the land, but the agricultural result was everywhere inconsiderable. The requisi-

SUPPLY limited to the petty amounts

plants.

of potash produced in War-born

Phosphate the United States had in abundance, until

transportation became too congested to permit of normal movement. Saltpetre continued to be used on the soil in that country, though to a reduced extent. Sugar-producing areas, such as the West Indies, the Hawaiian Is. and Java, found their supplies of nitrate and ammonia greatly reduced. The neutral countries of Europe were little better off than the belligerents. Germany did, indeed, furnish potash to Holland and Scandinavia, as deliveries in blockade bargainings, but the amounts were small. Everywhere in Europe the prices of nitrate, ammonia, phosphate and potash became excessive for agriculture, when contrasted with the returned increments in crop yields. The cumulative results of withdrawal of men and horses, deterioration of farm implements and lack of fertilisers operated in belligerent countries, so far as field crops were concerned, in four

directions, mainly:

(1) Acreage was reduced.

(2) Yields per

1914

British India 57%

World Production

World Production excluding China

Fic. 1.—The total world production of rice in 1914 was estimated at 2,000,000,000 quintals.

World Production excluding China The total annual

production of countries

for which returns were obtained averaged 769,496,000 quintals for the period 1909-10 to 1913-4, and 849,415,000 quintals for 1924-5. (NoTE.—Percentages are necessarily approximate owing to The world’s total production in 1924-5 was estimated at 1,300,000,000 quintals. incomplete data. No data is available for China after 1914.)

tioning of horses madeit necessary to use cattle as work animals, to the direct injury of the milk supply. Only a partial picture of the effect of military recruiting is obtained by contrasting with the rural population the number of soldiers drawn from the land. The effect was more than the numerical ratio, and worsened progressively as the War continued. It was only by the redoubled and heroic efforts of old men, women and children that agriculture was kept going. Not alone human and animal forces were reduced, but material forces also. After the second year of the War there was practically no upkeep of implements. Deterioration of equipment rendered cultivation of the soil ineffective and imposed undue hardship on the workers, and agricultural practice became primitive and manual. | Pre-War European agriculture was heavily dependent on the use of chemical fertilisers, the supply of which declined rapidly. The United Kingdom drew saltpetre from Chile, phosphates from the United States and potash from Germany; under scarcity of tonnage and the munition demand for nitrogen, Chile saltpetre as a fertiliser became practically as scarce in the United Kingdom as was potash from Germany, and imports of phosphate declined. Despite huge domestic deposits of potash, Germany was unable to maintain the pre-War use of potash, though large amounts were applied to certain areas for particular crops in the vain hope of making good the lack of nitrate and phosphate. Since no imported phosphate rock was available to Germany, a grossly inadequate volume of Thomas slag remained her only source of phosphate. In France, the use of phosphate rock, saltpetre and potash declined to insignificant amounts. In all belligerent countries, the by-product ammonia, previously largely used as fertiliser, went into munitions. Deprived of German potash, the agriculture of the United States was

acre were lowered. (3) Weeds, pests and diseases had free run with corresponding deterioration of farm products. (4) The losses attending unfavourable weather were accentuated. In general, the same situation held to some extent in the neutral countries of Europe. Men left the farms to take advantage of higher wages in industries. Horses were taken from the farms to be used in urban work or sold to belligerents. Farm implements were allowed to deteriorate, because the factories found it more profitable to manufacture war tools than to make replacement parts. Fertilisers were unavailable or expensive. Finally, the agriculture of neutral countries suffered inordinately from disorganisation of natural markets through the operations of blockades. For the reduction in acreage and yield of the principal crops and the reduction in cattle, sheep and horses (see AGRICULTURE; GRAIN PRODUCTION AND TRADE). Preference to Primary Foodstuffs—It became a necessary War policy of agriculture in belligerent countries to use land for primary foodstuffs in place of raising feeding stuffs out of which meat and dairy products might be produced. According to common European practice, an acre of land devoted to bread grains would produce more than four times as many calories for human food in the form of flour as could be secured in the form of meat and dairy products if the land were devoted to animal husbandry. In the case of potatoes, the economy in Jand was still greater. Contrasting beef cattle, hogs and dairy cows, the greatest waste of land occurred in the production of beef, the ratio of return being much greater in the form of pork or milk. On the other hand, cattle subsisted largely on forage not suitable for human food, while hogs were raised to a considerable extent on cereals adapted to human use or on special fodders grown on land that could produce cereals, potatoes or sugar. In order to make the best use of the land in terms of human nutrients, belligerent countries were compelled to reduce heavily the herds of swine and beef cattle. The count of dairy cattle was somewhat reduced, though efforts were made to conserve the milk supply. Asa result of these operations, some performed voluntarily by the

FOOD SUPPLY peasants and others executed under governmental orders, the count

of cattle in Europe was reduced probably by 20-25°> and of swine

30-40%. Despite the fact that sheep stood somewhat apart from cattle and swine, the general result was much the same, though some countries like Germany increased the number of sheep and goats.

Sheep competed little with human beings for products of the soil or in the use of acreage, subsisting largely on feeding stuffs inappro-

priate to human use and grown on terrain unadapted to cultivation.

In addition, woo] was highly valuable; nevertheless, some countries

showed a heavy reduction in the count of sheep.

The yield of meat and fat per animal was reduced owing to scarcity of feeding stuffs and to an abnormally high percentage of slaughter of immature animals. On the other hand, peasants concealed animals from the authorities, reporting fewer animals than they had and delivering less of products that they produced. This duplicity on the part of the peasants was due partly to predilection for animal husbandry, partly to the greater profits of animal products as against cereals or other primary foodstuffs. The evasion thus described was least in evidence in Great Britain. in every country one found after the War widely contrasting arcas, some in which animal husbandry was most deplorably reduced, while in others the conditions

were practically normal.

ne a

It is difficult to compare estimates of acreage under cultivation and counts of domesticated animals with those of the pre-War period on account of the changes in the map of Europe. It seems probable, regarding Europe (excluding Russia) as a whole, that the

acreage under cultivation and the count of domesticated animals has been restored generally to the pre-War level. The restoration of cultivated acreage has not been accompanied by restoration of pre-

War yields, since there is still shortage of fertilisers. Also, the yield

of meat and dairy products per head of animals is below the pre-War level, due to shortage of imported feeding stuffs. It is difficult, to accomplish a restoration of animal husbandry in Europe until feeding stuffs from Russia are again freely available. Broadly considered, the recovery of European agriculture in the seven years after the World War was more rapid than was to have been expected, in consideration of the extent and duration of the struggle.

Adaptive Devices of Agriculture.—Efforts were quite generally made

in the belligerent countries, following agricultural policies that varied in accordance with the characteristics of the region, to raise the maximum volume of foodstuffs in terms of calories. The agrarian class everywhere had two motives: patriotism and price, though patriotism was perhaps less effective than price as a stimulant to production. In many countries peasants would give their sons without question, but not their crops, particularly not their animals. In order to stimulate production, farm prices were advanced, costs of distribution were reduced by establishing control of middlemen, and prices to consumers fixed at the lowest relative level possible; but the systems adopted worked out less well in some countries than in others. As the burdens and costs of agriculture rose, the price demands of peasants increased. In every country the rural population believed there was profiteering by urban industries, a belief which led to reprisals by agrarian classes in the form of pressing demands for higher prices for farm products. Governments everywhere were trying to satisfy the city with lower prices and the country with higher prices, usually failing in both directions. In some countries, farm prices of produce rose to four or five times pre-War figures. In the neutral countries of Europe the situation was much the same. These countries were exporting farm produce to the belligerents. Usually the warring groups were bidding against each other. Each belligerent group used the power of the blockade to coerce the neutral countries of northwestern Europe. The governments of

these neutral countries were concerned with keeping the urban cost of living down; but they had an interest in permitting the peasants to exploit the belligerents as much as possible. The peasants in neutra countries had valid grounds for high prices, since the costs of agriculture and of consumers’ goods had risen. They demanded coverage prices, then still more. Under these circumstances, in the neutral countries of Europe, as well as in belligerent countries, wherever transportation permitted movements of foodstuffs and feeding stuffs, there was a continuous trend towards higher prices for farm products, restrained or directed by governmental control, though

practically unrestrained by competition between producers. All growers of cane sugar were at the mercy of the Allies, and sugar prices were definitely restrained; nevertheless, War prices were substantially higher than those prevalent before the War. In bellig-

erent Canada

and Australasia, prices of essential foodstuffs rose

gradually throughout the War, particularly those destined for shipment to Europe.

The neutral countries of South America were able

to secure relatively higher prices for essential foodstuffs, though the prices of some unessentia! foodstuffs declined. Raising wheat in Argentina was a better business than raising coffee and chocolate in tropical America. The markets of the Central Powers were closed to neutral overseas countries by blockade; shipments from neutral overseas countries to the markets of neutral European countries were restricted by allocations by the Allies. Entrance to the markets of the Allies was restricted by governmental control over imports, attempting to separate essentials from non-essentials (see CONTROL), with the

6I

result that necessaries were able to command higher prices, while the prices of non-essentials declined heavily in the countries of origin,

IIL. EFFECT OF THE WAR ON CONSUMPTION The per-capita intake of food was relatively reduced all over Europe, and absolutely reduced in the belligerent countries. Nevertheless, the per-capita food needs were higher in war than in peace; Europeans worked harder, wore poorer clothing, and heated their houses sparingly, all of which meant increase in food requirements. In many belligerent countries it was impossible to secure a balanced diet with the requisite quantities of proteins and vitamins, and the situation became worse with each year of the War. With increased heat requirements, per-capita shortage of calories resulted in loss of body weight. Scarcity in the indispensable factors of the diet, together with a low intake of protein, resulted in retardation of growth of children, and in the development of marasmusanddyscrasias. Despite a quite general lowering of the birth-rate, in many countries morbidity and mortality were increased in children below the roth year. Stunted growth was fre. quently observed between the roth and 15th years; and the physical structure of many European children has been permanently injured by the nutritional disturbances of the War diet. The course of tuberculosis was intensified and the decline of the aged accelerated. Mere loss in body weight, quite generally observed in healthy adults in the countries of the Central Powers, was probably on the whole not an injury. The pre-War level of consumption

of food, in quality and in

quantity, was not restored with peace. Indeed, in many parts of |-urope, despite extensive relicf operations conducted by the Amcrican Relief Administration (extending practically through three years following the Armistice), malnutrition and subnutrition per-

sisted for years.

Even in Jan. 1926 the diet of Europe in the com-

parative pre-\War sense was, perhaps, normal only in Scandinavia, Spain, Portugal and Holland. The per-capita diet of the former belligerent countries is still probably somewhat subnormal in quantity and abnormal in respect of certain components, especially the relations of primary and secondary foodstuffs. Europe, as a continent, has to-day a notably heavier vegetarian dict than before the War, and this may be expected to persist for some time to come. The dict of Europe is still probably deficient in fats. The supply of animal fats was reduced by slaughter of animals. Furthermore, the animals were insufficiently fed, and gave less milk-fat and less carcass-fat. Before the War Europe imported large supplies of vegetable oils. Russian export of vegetable oils ceased in 1915, and the blockade prevented edible oils from reaching the Central Powers from overseas. Scarcity of tonnage and marine warfare reduced the importation of edible vegetable oils to the allied countries. Importations into the neutral countries of Europe were reduced by blockade rationing. The effect was to lower the ratio between the fat and starch components of the diet of each country. Shortage of fat was more severely felt than shortage of sugar, and intensified the effects of shortage of milk. The War induced modifications of the diet in many countries ın Europe as the result of peasant reactions to governmental control. Illicit trade in foodstuffs, inevitabie under any system of war control, became worse as the War continued and the technique of evasion Was developed. (National pyschologies differed; there was comparatively little illicit food trade in England; in Germany it was rampant.) Food smuggling became a profession. As the War proeeeded and the difference in price-returns between cereals and animal products became more extreme, the peasants concealed animals, delivered to market at the fixed price as little of animals and animal products as possible, sold as much as possible at high prices through illicit traffic, and increased the farm-household consumption. Milk, the most important single food for the urban population, suffered most because butter was the favourite article of illicit traffic. There was in most countries, therefore, a substantial

degree of justice in the contention of urban Socialists, that the country districts were treasonably enriching the rural diet at the expense

of the urban working classes. This situation did not terminate with the War. Even after seven years of peace in many countries of Europe, of which perhaps Russia is the most notable illustration, the diet of the rural classes is richer in animal products than it was before the War; the diet of the urban classes is poorer, With deterioration of the buying power of urban workers since the War, this has had the result of increasing rural consumption of animal products; the town diet has become more vegetarian.

HI. LIQUIDATION OF WAR CONDITIONS The abnormalities in the production, marketing and consumption of foodstuffs during the reconstruction period were due toa

62

FOOD

SUPPLY

variety of factors. Manufacturers who enlarged plants, making goods usable during peace as well as war, but subject to particular wastage during war, foresaw the dangers of such war expansion as would represent over-extension after the War, and in a variety of ways sought to evade the losses of post-War liquidations. The world still has unliquidated War expansions in flourmilling, sugar-refining, milk-condensing, food-canning, coppersmelting and leather-making, to mention only a few illustrations. Agriculture was generally urged to expand, with the result (naturally with exceptions in different countries and to different

Canada, Argentina and Australia will face liquidation with the development of a diversified agriculture, as has happened in the United States, or new markets for wheat must be acquired. The outcome will depend, among other things, upon development in the standard of living in the world, the penetration of industrialisation into Russia and Asia, and the competition between wheat, rice, millet and maize. Sugar.—A good illustration of the disturbance in a staple foodstuff as a result of war is to be observed in sugar. Before the

extents in different regions) that at the close of the War agriculture was over-extended by comparison with the pre-War position, and particularly with respect to the purchasing power of the world. Over Europe the emphasis on the extension of primary foodstuffs, the reduction in the herds of domesticated animals, the scarcity of fertilisers and the deterioration of farm implements, together with the pressure to produce food stuffs to the maximum extent, led to the ploughing up of grass lands, to be used for the raising of primary foodstuffs. Agricultural authorities foresaw Clearly the inevitable future repercussion of this movement. The policy of turning pasture to tillage reached its highest expression in the United Kingdom, and the deplorable post-War results are most clearly seen there, though observed to a lesser extent on the Continent. Since the War, the agriculture of the United Kingdom has experienced a crisis as severe as that which characterised the period of agitation over the Corn Laws. British farmers have found that the enlarged area of tillage cannot be remuneratively cultivated; operative costs have been high, and the country has been deluged by agricultural produce flowing from overseas countries also suffering from War-expansion of agriculture. Throughout Europe, one of the results of agrarian distress, proceeding more or less from War over-expansion in the different countries, has been the revival of agrarian protectionist movements. This is not to be interpreted to suggest that Europe contemplates de-industrialisation in favour of agriculture; it represents merely a grasping at what seems to be an instrument of first aid. In part, it is a beggar-your-neighbour movement. Cereals.—Europe may be expected slowly to recover her preWar output of primary and secondary foodstuffs. This has been practically attained for cereals, and will soon be accomplished for sugar. In Russia, the recovery of agriculture has been most delayed, and the period of reconstruction may be notably prolonged. The recovery of agriculture is more rapid in western Europe than in the central countries between the Baltic and the Adriatic seas, on account of the higher natural position of agriculture, better railways, sounder fiscal policies and superior governments. Since the World War, western Europe has been compelled to secure a larger proportion of her imports of cereals

from overseas, so that overseas countries have temporarily replaced Russia and the Danubian and Balkan States. Sooner or later (probably sooner for the Danubian and Balkan States and later for Russia), these States will return to their natural position as preferred primary sources of supply of cereals for western Europe—for the one main reason, in addition to others, that these exporting countries must pay for necessary manufactured goods from western Europe with exports of cereals. During this time of readjustment the over-extended surplusproducing countries of North America, South America and Australasia face a gradual reduction in the scale of this agriculture, in so far as they may not be able to find new markets in the expanding population of the world. The average acreage of the staple cereals in the United States during the years 1918, 1919 and 1920, was 230,000,000; the acreage in 1924 was 218,000,000. But for wheat the extent of liquidation represents a reduction of something near 20,000,000 acres. In the case of Canada, Argentina and Australia, there has been no such decline in wheat-growing. Indeed, the combined acreage In these three countries suggests continued expansion rather than contraction. When the definitive restoration of

wheat-growing

occurs in Eastern Europe, wheat-growers

in

Quintals Million

0 IBON

19142

ISI213

IS

MIS

191546

L567

191718

193B-19

1919-20 1920-24

1921-22 1922-23 1923-24 1924-25

Fic. 2.—Graphs showing the production of raw sugar in the chief sugar-producing countries, for each year from Ig!to-1 to 1924-5.

War, beet sugar and cane sugar competed internationally. Beet sugar was grown little outside Europe and Russia; cane sugar was grown In practically all tropical countries, and could readily be expanded. The production of beet sugar was greatly reduced during the War. The countries of western Europe replaced the beet sugar they had previously purchased from central and eastern Europe in part with cane sugar from overseas. A widespread expansion of sugar-cane growing followed. In some of the sugarcane countries the planting is annual; in others the cane is cut, without replanting, over a number of years. When a new stand of sugar cane has been set and provided with transportation and refinery, this culture tends to persist, since sugar-growing is a form of agriculture associated with large capital. In 1909-13 the world crop of bect sugar was about 8,000,000 short tons and of cane sugar about 10,000,000 short tons. In 1920-1 the world crop of cane sugar was over 13,000,000 short tons and of beet sugar only 5,000,000 short tons. Since then the production of cane sugar has continued to Increase; at the same time, the beet-sugar areas are being restored. The sugar crop of the present season is over 17,000,000 short tons of cane sugar and over 9,000,000 short tons of beet sugar. When beet-sugar cultivation in Europe and Russia has been fully restored, unless there is some diminution in the output of cane sugar, the whole crop will be something like 18,000,c00 short tons of cane sugar and 10,000,000 short tons of beet sugar. Can the world absorb this sugar? Certainly—at a price. Whether, with the restoration of the beet-sugar yields, the expanded cane-sugar acreage can be maintained or must be reduced, remains to be seen. In the meantime, the result for the world is a large supply of sugar at a beneficent price. Recent complicating developments are governmental restriction of cane-sugar production in Cuba and governmental bounty on beet-sugar production in Great Britain.

Other illustrations of agricultural expansions that became

FOOD transformed into problems of liquidation are cattle-raising in the United States and Argentina and sheep-raising in Australasia. The expansion in cattle-raising in the United States was relative rather than absolute; none the less, the difficulties of American cattlemen have been due in good part to an increase in export of beef products from something like 150,000,000 lb. per annum just before the War to over half a billion lb. in 1918-9, with subsequent recession to the pre-War level. This restriction of outlet, together with other factors, has necessitated a heavy liquidation. In the case of Argentina, the volume of the War market for chilled, frozen and packed meats resulted in overexpansion of the industry, followed by a post-War crisis so severe as to have prompted governmental action in price-fixing and subsidy. This also holds true of animal husbandry in Australasia, which, despite the distance, was led to over-expansion as a result of heavy demand for chilled and frozen meats during the War. In Australia also, the crisis of liquidation found expression in the use of public funds for the purpose of stabilising prices and minimising losses. There is scarcely a country in the world in which some particular form of agricultural production was not over-stimulated during the War. Hence, post-War problems of liquidation of varying extent and severity have everywhere arisen—writingoff of inventories and absorption of losses, liquidations imperative for the safe conduct of future business. Students of world agriculture may agree that producers exploited the belligerent countries during the War. They will also probably agree, a decade from now, that the gains of such profiteering have already been lost, or more than lost, to the agriculturists as a whole, if not to particular individuals. And high food prices imposed on consumers between 1915 and 1920 have since been requited by dumping foodstuffs at less than the cost of production. In particular countries, certain crops did not share in the World War expansion but have nevertheless suffered in the post-War liquidation. Of these, illustrations are wheat-growing in Australia and sugar-raising in Java. Australia was too far from Europe to have much call on ocean tonnage for shipment of wheat, and wheat accumulated in Australia during the War. These accumulations were exposed to heavy losses; grain is marketed in Australia in bags, storage capacity is limited, and large amounts of grain were exposed to vermin and the elements. Australia had no opportunity remuneratively to unload wheat on the world before the collapse of the wheat price in 1920. The situation thus created was one of unusual gravity for the small population of the Commonwealth, and has found expression in more or less continuous pooling and price regulation. In the case of Java, western European needs for sugar could be covered

with sugar purchased on money borrowed from the United States and with a much shorter ocean haul. Thus the sugar industry of Java was stagnant during the War, and although it enjoyed a short period of high prosperity just after the War, this was soon terminated by the collapse of sugar prices. The history of sugar prices during and since the War furnishes a good illustration of the contrast between correct statistics and incorrect opinions. Following decontrol of sugar, with the failure of purchase of the Cuban crop for the season 1919-20, the public, including sugar-producers, American importers, refiners, wholesalers, fruit-packers and candy-makers, assumed that the supplies available to the United States were short and inadequate to her needs, that demand for sugar in that country would prove to be quite inelastic, that sugar-hungry Europe would expand her importations, and that the rest of the world contained no visible or invisible stocks of moment. On the basis of these

assumptions,

a veritable trade hysteria resulted, culminating

finally in a sugar price of some 23 cents. These stated assumptions were all more or less unfounded, and as the facts became revealed the price of sugar declined precipitously. The Cuban supply proved larger than anticipated; consumers’ demand in the United States was found to be relatively elastic; sugarhungry Europe did not demand more sugar at high prices. Instead of a shortage of sugar stocks throughout the world, sugar poured in from every conceivable direction. Hoarding was re-

SUPPLY

63

placed by dumping. The huge gains in the spectacular rise of price (some realised, but mostly paper profits) were replaced by huge real losses that fell on producers, refiners and traders. Since sugar-beet growing in Europe is a long-view proposition, the recovery of this branch of agriculture was aided little by the price rise and has been retarded little by the price decline.

IV. CONSIDERATIONS BEARING ON MOVEMENT OF FOODSTUFFS Despite the fact that the food supply is classed as the prime necessity of society, demand for foodstuffs is somewhat elastic and there is considerable variability contingent on adaptations and substitutions provoked by price relations. To a considerable extent, also, the distribution of foodstuffs is contingent on fluidity of finance; abundance or scarcity of credits has exerted considerable influence on the distribution of staples since the War. Credits from the United States, as well as the foreign investments of American nationals, tourist expenditures and immigrant remittances, have directly and indirectly facilitated the export of surplus agricultural produce from the United States, to some extent to the detriment of corresponding exports from Canada, Australia and Argentina. Public money has been used in Argentina and Australia in furtherance of the marketing of agricultural produce, and this, we may infer, to the injury of exportable produce from the United States. If surplus-producing countries employ public funds in furtherance of exports, the international movement of foodstuffs will be different from what would be expected if purely competitive relations obtain. It is difficult in surplus-producing countries to resist the political influence of agrarian blocs in their insistence on some form of relief through the use of public funds. One post-War difhiculty of agriculture, more or less general the world over, that finds expression in the food supply, has been the increased cost of labour. Without entering into the reasons for this advance in wages, it is sufficient to state that in most countries, both importing and exporting, the level of wages has risen substantially above the pre-War plane. To a considerable extent also labour costs have risen, since in many directions the efficiency of labour has not increased proportionately to the increase in the wage scale. For many countries the position has been accentuated by the trend of movement of workers from country to city. Enlargement of wages of farm workers has resulted in increase in cost of

production of farm produce.

Since increase in wages of industrial

workers has, at least to some extent, and in many directions, resulted in notable elevation in prices of industrial goods, this has had the effect of lowering the purchasing power of agricultural products in terms of goods and services. The measure for

each year since the War in the different producing countries of the world of the purchasing power of staple foodstuffs—for example: wheat, corn, sugar, cattle, hogs, wool and coffee—

amply confirms the broad fact. Only under special circumstances has the purchasing power of agricultural produce been raised relatively above the pre-War level. There is considerable readjustment in this direction to be expected the world over, since if such readjustment does not occur, this would imply a lower standard of living on the farm than in the town. This readjustment may be expected to include, from the side of agriculture, _the elimination of submarginal areas and increase in efficiency of cultivation and management over the remainder; and, on the part of industry, increase in the efficiency of labour and improvement in mechanical operations, with resulting lowering of production costs. A survey of the total commerce of the world in successive years since the War shows a relative overproduction of agricultural produce and a relative underproduction of industrial goods, though the margin is being gradually reduced. This has had the effect of lowering the purchasing power of agricultural produce in terms of industrial goods, which was relatively low at the beginning of the century and notably higher just before the War. After the War this relationship again became com-

parable to that existing at the beginning of the century.

FOOD

64

SUPPLY

The food supply of the world is modified by conditions of

Ultimately, Europe must pay her international obligations

transportation, since both fluidity and cost of movement have influence on distribution and marketing. Transportation has been a limiting factor in the export of grains and oil seeds from Russia since the War. The railways of western Europe have been largely

with goods and services; but this is not to be expected during the next five or ro years, during which time we expect adjustments to occur largely through the invisible items in the international accounts. But the time approaches when Europe must raise a larger proportion of her food supply or pay fora larger proportion of it with goods and services. The necessary adjustments con-

restored to their pre-War efficiency, except in the Danubian and

Balkan States, whose crippled facilities still impose limitations on the movement of farm produce. The effective service of railways has been one of the outstanding features of the post-War situation in the United States and Canada. Ocean shipping rates have been low since the War, and this has facilitated movement to importing countries of surplus supplies from exporting countries the world over.

V. PROSPECTS

OF THE

NEAR

1810

1925

FUTURE

Changes in the food supply of the world will depend to some extent upon developments in industry as well as in agriculture. During the period 1915 to 1925 numerous backward countries of the world increased their manufacturing facilities and thus rendered themselves less dependent on European goods. If these new industries maintain themselves, the retardation of recovery of European industries (whose output as a whole is still considerably below normal) will be prolonged, unless new markets and a higher standard of living in the world result in a general expansion of demand for manufactured goods. A point of particular importance is Russia. If the present low standard of living is continued in Russia, this will have an indirect effect on the food supply and manufacturing activity of Europe. The degree to which goods from manufacturing industries in India, China and the British dominions are able to supplant the products of corresponding industries in the United Kingdom, is another point of importance. It is probable that the food supply of the world during the next Io years (1926-36) will be relatively below the pre-War level and more vegetarian. It would be an error to expect the world to direct the first energies solely toward the restoration of the pre-War food supply, leaving the restoration of the standard of living in the matter of other goods and services to be deferred. Various groups of demands will compete in their claims on income, and the demand for food will not be able to secure a proportion of the income so large as to insure in the near future the restoration of the pre-War diet. The best that can be hoped for, so far as Europe is concerned, is to secure a diet competent in the nutritional sense; but a cheaper diet, less diversified, and less luxurious than was the case before the War. The agriculture of the surplus-producing countries will necessarily have to adapt itself to these developments. We are accustomed in world trade to view manufactures from the standpoint of the international division of labour. If the food supply of the world is to be correctly appraised, it must be considered from the same standpoint. The world faces during the next decade the necessity of establishing a new equilibrium in the demand and supply of foodstuffs, representing a new equation between effective demand and remuneratively produced supply, a revised international distribution of labour in agriculture and manufacture, distorted, however, to an unforeseeable extent, by artificial controls, bounties and protective tariffs. Since the War, Europe has been financing the importation of foodstuffs largely with borrowed money, credits, tourist expenditures and immigrant remittances. Before the War, Russia was a borrowing country; but, with Russia excluded, Europe was a lending continent. Outside of the United Kingdom, which remains a lending country, Europe, as a result of the War, has become a borrowing continent. With each year since the War, European governments, industries and even agricultures contract new loans at relatively high interest rates. Disregarding entirely European payments of War debts to the United States, the service charges on post-War European borrowings will represent a growing burden on the continent, a burden certain to be reflected in international trade, since the difficulties of transfers of international payments find their ultimate expression in the commerce of goods and services.

Argentina 58%

Argentina 52%

Courtesy of Weddell & Co. Ltd.

Fic. 3.—World exports of refrigerated Beef, Mutton and Lamb. The increasing importance of South America in the supply of meat products is clearly seen by these diagrams, in which exports for Ig10 and 1925 from each country are shown as a percentage of total world exports. (See Table.) The chief importing country is Great Britain, which takes some 60 % of the world’s available supply.

tingent on these developments form part of the new equilibrium between

demand

and supply of foodstuffs toward

world is inevitably trending.

which

the

(A. E. T.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—International Labour Office, Enquête sur la Production (1923); International Institute of Agriculture, Jnternational Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics (Annual); United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Yearbook (Annual); see also Reports of Ministry of Agriculture of Great Britain, etc.

The accompanying diagrams and tables illustrate the principal sources of food supplies, except wheat, maize, oats, rye and barley, which are dealt with in the article on GRAIN PRODUCTION AND TRADE, during the period 1g10 to 1925. Sugar.—The production of both cane and beet sugar greatly increased after roro. The following table gives the exports of sugar in short tons from the chief exporting countries for the average of the

period 1909-13 and for 1922. Cane Sugar Average

Country Cuba . ; ; Dutch East Indies Mauritius Brazil . Peru . i Philippine Islands

1909-13

1922

2,009,899

5,581,376

1,412,555 226,255

38,284 146,736 179,432 92,351

Dominican Republic

1,582,691 322,692 277,993 302,447 399,112

189,195

Beet Sugar Germany . ; Austria-Hungary Czechoslovakia Netherlands Russia . Poland

873,161 848,830

13,915

293,514 a 154.476

. 65,344 177,594

a 350,366 200,490 | 219,477

.

Belgium

The production of sugar in the chief producing countries for each year from Iglo-I to 1924-5 is shown in the chart below, based on figures given in The International Year-book of Agricultural Statistics. The total world production in the pre-War period and in 1924-5 was:

Average 1909-10 to 1913-4 . 1924-5 .

i

a i

»

Beet Sugar quintals

Cane Sugar quintals

83,990,000 81,690,000

95,668,000 150,845,000

Meat Products,—The table below shows world exports of refrigerated beef, mutton and lamb for 1910, 1913, 1917 and for each year from 1920 to 1925. Of particular interest is the great increase in exports owing to war demands, the growing importance of Argentina,

FOOT AND

MOUTH

DISEASE-—-FOOTBALL, ASSOCIATION

ee ee eae lead den, ee Sede Wh ea At dl ald eaE 3 JA | | |Lt faa E CCE 2 800 ANARA-H re bid

mot

ea A E

ak

øen

ee ecaa aaae i aa aT aer arrr erra ara AAA AA ATAATA T AAAA AAAA AAFAA 910 191 1912 193 1914 1915 aes ae 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924

05

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE: sce VETERINARY SCIENCE. FOOTBALL, ASSOCIATION (see 10.621).—The Football Assn. of England, having helped materially in the development of the game in Europe, made a departure in roro when, at the invitation of the South African Assn., a team of amateurs and professionals was sent in May to that Dominion. A successful tour carried forward the work of the Corinthians, who visited South Africa in 1897, 1903 and 1907. In 1920 another mixed team was dispatched to Cape Town. After years of preparation the Commonwealth Football Assn. of Australia arranged with the English Football Assn. to send out in 1925 a party of players, who were mostly professionals. The results of these excursions may be tabulated thus:— 1910. 1920. 1925.

1925

Fic. 4.—Exports of Pork and Pork Products from the United

States. The United States is the source of over two-thirds of the world supply of pork products. This diagram shows the export of fresh, canned and pickled pork, cured hams and shoulders, bacon, lard and neutral lard for each year from 1909-10 to 1924-5. The chief importing countries are the United Kingdom and Germany.

Brazil and Uruguay, and the decline in exports from the United States. Exports from the chief exporting countries are shown in fig. 3 as a percentage of the total. The importance of the United States as a source of pork products is clearly shown in fig. 4.

South Africa . South Africa. Australia io

Matches 2 23 . 4 cao 325

Won 23 14 25

For 143 64 139

Goals

Against 16 10 13

Such enterprises were a continuation of the policy of the Football Assn. to popularise the game, the Dominion organisations paying the expenses and retaining all revenue. In 1917 the parent body in England presented a shield to Japan to foster the game in the schools of that country, and in the years immediately following the World War it gave challenge cups for competition to South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. To stimulate the game and to encourage English amateurism, the Assn. also entered teams for the Assn. football tournaments at the Olympic Games of 1908, 1912 and 1920, but withdrew from participation after the Antwerp Olympiad, as the definition of an amateur in

Exports, in Tons, of Refrigerated Beef, Mutton and Lamb, 1oro to 19025

Australia

New

Jealand

Canada

Atria

IQIO 1913

134,300 178,500

132,200 122,400

nil nil

nil nil

328,800 412,200

IQI7

116,500

120,100

55,000

21,100

1920 192] 1922 1923 1924 1925

109,400 95,200 134,800 114,200 95,900 148,800

228,200 212,200 172,600 149,200 156,300 165,300

6,100 4,300 4,200 4,000 3,200 4,700

5,600 1,000 300 400 3,800 9,700

Year

South

Dairy Produce. —The exportable surplus of butter, cheese and condensed milk for the average pre-War year and 1921 and 1924 is shown below:— Exports of Dairy Produce (In metric tons of 2,204 1b.) Butter

Country

Denmark New Zealand Netherlands Russia Australia Argentina . Hungary

Canada

Average 1909-13 88,692 17,582 34,080 68,172 35,175 3,145 3:472? 1,720

1921

1924

92,059 45,644 20,198 Na AI,921 25,812

123,193 64,491 34,732 22,436" 29,633 29,682

ei

23,232

4,142

10,135

Cheese New Zealand Netherlands Canada Switzerland

Italy

25,202 57,779 75,867 31,912

27,470

69,537 52,280 62,22. 4,806

81,003 77,271 61,707 19,856

77,225 131,416

113,549 93.446

7,559

33,616

Condensed Milk

Netherlands? United States Denmark! . Switzerland? Canada

iy 7:349

2,143 36,532 2,075

17,020 21,239 17,020

1Through European boundaries. 2Surplus mainly absorbed in former Austrian Empire. è Average 1910-3. 4Including sterilised milk.

2,696 26,411 20,448

Brazil

GSA

Other Counir ts

9,900 30,100

nil nil

23,900 100

nil 21,600

629,100 764,900

448,700

72,300

66,400

97,900

37,500

1,035,500

480,800 456,400 493,200 683,800 831,300 775,900

110,000 82,700 85,200 115,200 141,500 147,400

63,600 61,000 32,900 39,500 63,800 44,800

42,000 12,500 3,300 4,100 4,000 700

31,000 45,000 22,100 30,400 28,300 42,600

1,076,700 970,300 948,600 1,140,800 1,328,100 1,339,900

Argentine } Uruguay

Total

England and the practice in some other competing countries were not in unison. In roro the Football Assn. took another important step, as in April the rule regulating the maximum wages which could be paid to professionals by English clubs was removed. Such financial matters were deputed to the executives of the leagues, which thus became the controllers of all payments to professionals. The Football Assn. celebrated the jubilee of its existence in Oct. 1913 by a banquet, and to mark the occasion endowed a benevolent fund with £5,000. During the season of 1913-4 a schism which had afflicted the game was brought to an end. As amateurs declined to co-operate in the government of all football, including professional clubs,

a rupture had occurred in 1907-8. The Amateur Football Assn. was established and carried on a separate organisation until Feb. 2 1914, when representatives of the older universities and the Corinthians met the Football Assn. in conference and settled the dispute. The Amateur Football Assn. became affiliated to the Football Assn. under the same conditions as the Army Football Assn. and other auxiliary bodies. A momentous season was closed, King George V. attending the final match for the Assn. Cup at the Crystal Palace, London, on April 25 1914 and presenting the trophy to Burnley, who had beaten Liverpool. Efect of the War.—lIn spite of the outbreak of the World War, the season of 1914-5 was carried through by league clubs employing professionals and therefore having legal contracts and commitments, but all the national associations cancelled their international matches, and in the spring of rors the Football Assn. took powers to suspend professionalism and all its cup competitions, although local tournaments for amateurs, for munition workers and soldiers on leave, were arranged by the

66

FOOTBALL, ASSOCIATION

Football League. The Football Assn. imposed rigid conditions, and monetary inducements for men to play football were strictly forbidden. The Football Assn. and the league did much to assist the Red Cross Society, to provide comforts for the troops, and to help refugees in England. A football national war fund was founded in Dec. 1917 to relieve those connected with the game who had been stricken by the misfortunes of war, cither on active service or in munition work. Post-War Progress —In the spring of 1919 the work of reorganisation was commenced and victory international matches were played. The season was lengthened by the addition of the last Saturday in Aug. in one year and the first Saturday in May of the year following, and a boom in the game was experienced in 1919-20. King George V. attended a league match for the first time at the Manchester City ground on March 27 1920 and witnessed the final match for the Assn. Cup at Chelsea, on April 23 1921, presenting the trophy to Tottenham Hotspur. In the next month the Football Assn. entered into an agreement with the British Empire Exhibition to play the final tie for a term of years in the stadium at Wembley. The cup competition of 1922-3 is memorable for the first entry of the Corinthians and the first final played at Wembley. This match between Bolton Wanderers, who won the cup, and West Ham United attracted at least 150,000 people, the receipts being £27,776. The Football Assn. has also a cup which is restricted to amateur teams, and each year plays a charity shield match, which is quite apart from the £20,000 per annum that the clubs contribute to local charities. Receipts from the practice matches in Aug. are earmarked for this purpose by the Football Association. Changes in Laws.—The International Football Assn. Board, which was established in June 1886 by the Football Assn., the Scottish Football Assn., the Football Assn. of Wales and the Irish Football Assn., have continuously revised the laws of the game at their annual meeting in June of each year. Gradually, but surely, forwards have been given more scope. In 1907 the board decided that a player is not out of play “ when he himself is within his own half of the field of play at the moment the ball is played, or thrown in from touch by any player of the same side.” At the meeting in 1920 it was resolved that ‘‘ no one shall be offside when a throw-in is taken.” In 1925 the board relaxed the fundamental law relating to off-side so that a player would be on-side if only two opponents were nearer their own goal than himself when the ball was last played by one of his own side. The board determined, in 1924, that a goal may be scored from a corner kick, and a year later the player, throwing-in fram touch, was ordered to stand with both feet on the ground outside the touch line and facing the field of play, so as to throw the ball in over his head with both hands in any direction. Football Leagues —The Football League, founded by 12 clubs in 1888, expanded greatly after the World War. When the league considered the revival of the two competitions, on March 10 1919, the clubs in divisions I. and II. were increased to 22 in each section. On May 31 1920 the Southern League was, at its own request, absorbed by the Football League and became division III. in associate membership but without the right to vote at the annual general meetings of the league. On the same day a projected northern group, a part of division II., was sanctioned, but its formation was deferred until March 8 1921, so as to give clubs the opportunity to strengthen their playing power and secure financial stability. Thus the league had, for the season

1921-2, not only divisions I. and II., but both sections of division III., north and south each with 22 clubs. Thus the original membership of 12 clubs had increased to 88 clubs—a powerful ‘alliance with authority to devise rules for their domestic affairs, although these must be in conformity with the rules and bylaws of the Football Assn. and sanctioned by the supreme body. A Welsh National League, with northern and southern groups, was inaugurated in 1921-2. The Scottish League, which remained active during the War, had a moribund second division, but in 1923~4 this was galvanised into life by the adoption of the system of promotion and relegation. The first division was

therefore no longer a closed corporation. The invigorated second division was supplemented by a third division, so that the clubs of England, Scotland and Wales became classified into groups for the first time. The Irish Football Assn. had not the same opportunity, being limited to Northern Ireland. The Irish Free State founded a governing association body and created its own cup and league competitions. INTERNATIONAL

La Fédération

FOOTBALL

ASSOCIATIONS

Internationale de Football

Association, which

is composed solely of the governing body of each country playing the game, was formed at Paris on May 21 1004, with the object of developing and controlling association international football. It grew so rapidly that, in 1910, the members included Austria, Belgium, Denmark, England, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Luxemburg, Sweden and Switzerland. During 1911, Ireland, Wales and Scotland joined, and the secretary’s report stated that all European countries with a governing body were members except Rumania. In 1912, with the Argentine Football Assn., and the pan-Russian Football Assn. included, the Federation was recognised officially by the International Olympic Committee, although Spain, Portugal and the Balkan states were not properly organised. In this year, English became the official language for minutes and correspondence, and it was decided to adhere to the laws of the game as passed by the International Board of Great Britain. The Federation was admitted to this board with the right to send two delegates. During 1913, Canada and Chile were affliated, and when the World War broke out the Federation had 26 members, including the United States. : The Federation was dormant during hostilities, and when it was restored to activity the British nations withdrew from membership, as they declined to sit with the representatives of those countries which had been their enemies. In 1924 they rejoined on their own conditions, which were that the articles of the Federation should not affect the inter-relations of the various parts of the British Isles and their own autonomy. By Aug. 26 1925 the Federation had affliated the governing bodies of the following: Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dutch East Indies, Ecua-

dor, Egypt, England, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Irish Free State, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Norway, Paraguay, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Russia, Scotland, Siam, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Uruguay, United States, Wales and Yugo-

slavia, with headquarters at Amsterdam. At a congress held in Prague in May 1925 the following resolution was passed: “ The congress of the Fédération Internationale de Football Assn. declares that it considers the Fédération Internationale de Football Assn: the highest authority on all football matters, and that it cannot accept the interference or guidance of anybody else in such matters.” At a conference between representatives of the four associations of the British Isles at Liverpool on Sept. 5 1925 it was decided that the Fédération be informed that if this resolution were confirmed the conference would havenoalternative but to advise the associations of the United Kingdom to withdraw from the Fédération. In Nov. the president and secretary of the Fédération officially explained that by Article 34 of its Constitution the authority and competence of the International Board were recognised and that the resolution applied only to “some powers strangers to football.”

It is clear that association football has become a world game. In 1906 South Africa visited South America, and in 1923 and 1924 Chinese University students and a Canadian combination went to Australia. At the Olympiad of rg08 in London and of r912 in Stockholm, England won the international tournament. In 1920, at Antwerp, England was defeated and Belgium won, while in 1924, at Paris, the representatives of Uruguay were the victors. It has been difficult to organise comprehensive government in countries of large area, but South Africa founded an association in 1892, Canada in r912, the United States in 1913 and the Commonwealth of Australia in 1921.

FOOTBALL, RUGBY In the United States there has been much activity to make this code pre-eminent as the fall and winter game. During 1920 an American-born team from St. Louis visited Scandinavia, while a Scottish set of players, under the auspices of the Third Lanark Club of Glasgow, toured in Canada and the United States in 1920-1. The sequel in the United States was the formation of the American Soccer League with a higher standard of play than had previously obtained in that country. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—K. R. G. Hunt, Association Football F. D. Currie, The Science of Soccer (1919); A. J. Weddell, Record of League Football, 1888-1904 (1904); M. Shearman, (1904); J. L. Jones, Association Football (1904); C. D. Daly,

(1920); Unique Footbull A meri-

can Football (1921); A. Gibson and W. Pickford, Association Football and ihe Men Who Have Made It (1905); F. C. R. Robinson, History of

the Queen’s Park Football Club (1920).

FOOTBALL, RUGBY

Cle Ae E.G)

(see 10.618).—The history of the game

of Rugby since 1910, not only in Great Britain and Ireland, but in the British Dominions overseas and also in France, has been one of steady development. Rugby is the national game in New Zealand and in South Africa, and to a less extent in Australia, while in a somewhat different way it is played in America. In France it has obtained the official recognition of the government, so that it is now played over the entire country. France possesses more clubs and more players than any other nation. In England many public schools, which have for years been devoted to the Assn. game, now play Rugby. Since the World War there has been a marked increase in the number of Rugby clubs in England, and the game is now played in many districts where at one time its very name was almost unknown. In the northern counties, which suffered so severely from the inroads of professionalism, Rugby is rapidly regaining its old popularity and prestige, and for some years now they have been able to provide valuable members of the English team. ‘The number of old boy clubs, particularly in London, has been greatly increased.

I. THE

BRITISH

EMPIRE

AND

FRANCE

The year 1910 was an annus mirabilis for England, since it saw the opening of the national ground at Twickenham, Middlesex, with a brilliant victory over Wales. The revival of English Rugby may fairly be said to date from this year, for England won the championship for the first time since 1892, and from then till 1925 has won it outright on five occasions, besides dividing the honours twice. The visit of the All Blacks in 1905 had demonstrated the weakness of the game in England, and for some seasons players had been endeavouring to improve both their tactics and their physical condition. Much of the credit must go to A. D. Stoop, who persevered amid much discouragement in developing the open style of play, and who without doubt had his reward. He gathered round him a band of brilliant halves and three-quarters, and after a few years had the satisfaction of seeing his principles generally adopted and England gaining victory after victory. Next in importance to these tactics was the improvement in English forward play. For many years now the English selectors have aimed at discovering an all-round type of forward, clever with hands and feet and able to hold his own in the rough and tumble of international matches. Forwards are no longer content to be mere pushing machines, their duties do not nowadays finish with the breaking up of the scrummage, rather do they then begin. From ro1o to the end of 1925 England won 9 out of rr matches with Scotland; 9 out of rr with Ireland, the other 2 being drawn; 8 out of rr with Wales; and ro out of rı with France. That is to say, out of 44 matches England won 36, drew 3 and lost 5, a record probably without parallel. Scottish Rugby.—In Scotland Rugby continues to flourish, new clubs are springing up and old ones are showing a decided increase in power and in the standard of their play. The national side has achieved a very fair record since the World War, though it had to wait a long time for its first victory over England and for its first actual championship triumph since 1907. During

the last few seasons Scotland has had to come south, especially

67

to Oxford, for her three-quarters. Scottish forwards are as formidable as ever, the halves are sound, and, unlike England, Scotland has been fortunate in the possession of a succession of really first-class full-backs. The chief blots on the Scottish escutcheon since the World War are the three defeats by France, one of which was inflieted at Inverleith, where in 1921 France won by a try to nil. There are signs that Scottish Rugby is now at the beginning of a new era of prosperity. Trish Rugby.—Irish Rugby naturally suffered severely during the World War, and also after it, owing to the disturbed state of the country generally. Indeed the wonder is, not that Irish teams have been defeated, but that they have been able to exist at all. But now old-established clubs are regaining their normal strength, and new ones are making good. During the last few seasons several international matches have been won, and the prospects for the future are bright. A number of young and promising players have been discovered, and Irish back play is developing well. The forwards too are recovering their old dash and are again a force to be reckoned with. Welsh Rugby.—In toro Wales lost a sensational match to England, the first English victory since 1898, but they were still a formidable side, and in 1911 secured the international championship once more. Gradually Welsh Rugby began to lose its force, and triumph no longer automatically followed triumph. The World War dealt Welsh Rugby a very heavy blow, and although Wales gained a brilliant victory over England at Swansea in 1920, and carried off the championship in 1922, the Welsh game has not been up to its former standard. The curious point is that Welsh club football is practically as good as ever, or at any rate is still superior to English club Rugby, and Saxon victories over the great Welsh organisations are still few and far between. Yet the national side is no longer the force it once was, and the natural conclusion is that something is wrong with the principle of selection. Defections to the professional game now and again deprive Wales of potential international players, but not to an extent sufficient to explain the decadence of the Welsh fiftecn. French Rughy.—In France the game prospers amazingly. Reference has already been made to the three victories gained over Scotland. Ireland has also been beaten three times, but England and Wales have so far escaped defeat. England, it is true, had a very narrow escape in 1922, when the match at Twickenham ended in a draw, of which it is only fair to say that France had very much the better and were unlucky not to win. Tours in France are very popular nowadays with British clubs and they do an immerse amount of good in more ways than one. French Rugby has suffered a good deal from the indiscriminate praise lavished on it in the early days, when it really needed constructive criticism, but the French authorities themselves were never misled, and always recognised the necessity of inter-

changing visits with British clubs and also of strict and adequate refereeing. South African Rugby.—Since

1910 only two teams from the Colonies have visited this country. In rọr2 a South African side, under W. A. Millar’s captaincy, paid a visit which was remarkably successful. Of the 27 matches played, 24 were won and only three lost. A record was set up by their defeat of all the five countries, a feat no other touring side has rivalled. The matches lost were with Newport, London and Swansea. The strength of the team lay in the forwards, who were exceptionally powerful and fast, but the backs, if not as effective as those of the 1906 contingent, were by no means negligible. In 1910 Dr. T. Smith, an Irish international, captained a British side in South Africa. It met with moderate success, winning 13 matches out of 24, and losing eight. Of the three test matches one was won and two were lost. About 12 international players took part, but the team was, of course, very far from representative of the full strength of Great Britain and Ireland. R. Cove-Smith led the fifth British team to tour in South Africa, but with rather unsatisfactory results. Of the 21 matches played nine were won and nine lost. Three of the

four test matches

ended in defeat, the other being drawn.

FOOTBALL, RUGBY

68

Persistent ill-luck followed the team in the matter of casualties, and the side, none too powerful to start with, was hardly ever at full strength. Indeed, toward the end it was difficult to find filteen men sound enough to play. Most of the defeats were by comparatively moderate margins, but there is little doubt that the team was not strong enough for the task it undertook. New Zealand Rughy.—In Sept. 1924 the second New Zealand team, captained by C. G. Porter, began a wonderfully successful

tour. They actually won all their 28 matches in England, Ireland and Wales, no fixtures having been arranged in Scotland. Their triumphs were due to their splendid physical condition, and to their marvellous and intensive combination. Nothing finer has ever been seen in Rugby than the way in which the men supported one another, there was always somebody at hand to carry on and drive home an attack. They were naturally hardly at home in their first few matches, and they had a very narrow escape from defeat by Newport. But they steadily improved and in due course developed into a very fine side indeed, though in the opinion of many they were never quite the equals of Gallaher’s men.

Another important change adopted in roro required seven men of the offensive side to be on the line of scrimmage. The development of the forward pass brought about a change in the shorten-

ing of the field between the goal lines from 330 ft. to 300 ft., with end zones of 30 ft. beyond each goal line in which forward passes could be completed. With the shortening of the field, the kick-off was moved from the centre of the field to the 40-yd. line of the kicking side. The value of a touch-down has gone through a series of changes, in which it has counted four, five and finally six points.

In the same way, a goal from the field, whether from

a drop kick or a place kick, has had a similar variation, but downward from five to four and finally to three points. Four trials instead of three are now allowed to gain to yards. Development of the Game—The game itself has developed in a most interesting way. Previous to 1915, it was rare to see a team which did not play its quarter-back close up behind centre to receive the ball and pass it to the runner, or carry the ball himself. Nowadays, however, none of the men in the backfield need play in specified positions all the time. The quarter-back calls the signals, but arranges the backfield in one of a variety

BipLioGRAPHY.—J. E, Raphael, Modern Rugby Football (1918); E. Hi D. Sewell, Rugby Football Up-to-date (1921); G. D. Henderson, Football Book of Records, 1888-1923 (1923); R. Dansey, Special

of formations from which the center makes a direct pass to one of the backs. Probably the most common arrangement of the linemen is to have four on one side of the centre and two on the

Rev. F. Marshall and L. R. Tosswiil,

other, creating what is called the ‘ unbalanced” line with a strong and a weak side. Some coaches instruct their players to

Official Souventr All Blacks in England Ramblings of a Rabbit (1924);

(1924); H. Grierson,

The

Football, the Rugby Union Game (1923); L. R. Tosswill, Rugby Football (1925). (F. J. 5E.)

II. THE

GAME

IN THE

UNITED

STATES

The rules that govern American Rugby football were drastically changed in the winter of 1906 by a combined Rules Committee, six of whom represented the newly formed National Collegiate Athletic Assn., the other six being members of the ald Rules Committee. This amalgamated committee was the outgrowth of a conference of representatives of a large number of

colleges and universities which, because of the large and increasing number of deaths and serious injuries, was called for

the purpose of doing away with football, or of radically changing the rules. [his conference was a direct result of the football season of 1905 which had been marked by 21 deaths and by many serious Injuries. Changes in the Rules.—Vital changes in the rules were made at the meeting of this combined committee, these being on the following lines: (x) Doing away with heavy mass play, (a) by making it impossible for tackles and guards to be used as battering rams to precede the runner with the ball; (b) by doing away

with “chain interference ” and (c) by abolishing pushing and pulling of the runner with the ball. (2) Encouraging attempts to advance by throwing the ball forward, provided it was thrown across the line of scrimmage not nearer than five yards to the point where it was put in play. (This has since been changed to allow the ball to be thrown anywhere over the line of scrimmage.) (3) Stimulating kicking by making all players on the kicking side, except the centre, eligible to receive the ball as soon as it touched the ground. (This rule has since been rescinded.) (4) Encouraging the offensive team to take chances in free running, forward passing and on side kicking, by compelling the offensive team to make ro yards instead of five in three trials. (s) Shortening the playing period of each half from 35 min. to 30 min., thereby reducing the strain. In 1912, each

half was divided into two 15-min. periods, with a 2-min. interval to permit time to change goals. The above changes

proved to be effective in doing away with serious injuries; also in opening up the game. Since then, comparatively few changes of importance have been made in the rules. One of the most important changes occurred when the forward pass was allowed to be thrown anywhere over the line of scrimmage and at any time, provided the passer was at least five yards behind the line. This change, together with one allowing the man who first received the ball from centre to cross the lines of scrimmage at any point, permitted the doing away with the checker-board marking of the field, thereby reverting to the gridiron or cross marking that was in vogue preceding 1903.

assume these positions deliberately, the strong side being on the right or left according to the signal. Others have a preliminary arrangement of the guards or tackles lined up behind the centre and jump into position either to the right or left, thus forming a strong side. A favourite backfield formation is to line one back, known as the wing back, slightly outside and a yard behind the end man on the strong side, while the other three men form a diagonal tandem, the back man assuming a position four to five yards behind centre. Sometimes one of the other two men forms a wing back in a similar position on the short side. Some teams play a “ solid line ’’; others direct the end man on the long side to play out from one to two yards, while the end on the short side lines out from two to four feet, in which case the wing back on the strong side usually lines behind the opening. Another favourite formation is known as the punt formation, in which two backs usually arrange themselves in tandem from three to four yards back of the line of scrimmage on the right, while a single man stands about three yards back in a corresponding position on the left, and the fourth man from six to ten yards directly back of centre. | This formation lends itself peculiarly well to what is termed the “triple threat ” style of play, in which the man farthest back may run, make a forward pass or punt. Shift plays are being used by many coaches; in these usually four line men assume a preliminary position from one to two yards behind the line of scrimmage and then jump into balanced lines or into lines with one man over or two men over, while the four men in the backfield adjust themselves in various ways according to the

plan of the coach.

Owing to the tremendous noise attending

games, at some of which there are as many as 80,000, OF go,000

spectators, some of the teams use what is called the “ huddle system.”

Instead of the quarter-back calling out a string of

numbers with the players in their regular positions, he gathers the team around him and tells them the play. The team then quickly springs into position, and the play begins, either with or without a further signal. Offence and Defence —The offence in football has now reached a certain degree of standardisation after many years of ex-

perimentation of the widest divergence. Fortunately, offensive football will never be completely standardised, because the possibilities of manoeuvring the players are so many that coaches of inventive genius are constantly lured into the multifarious forms of strategy always possible to the clever tactician.

In defence, the general usage is to employ either a six or seven man line. If a six man line is used, the centre and four other men are arranged in what is called the 2-2-1 formation;

FORAKER—FORD that is, two men backing up the line two or three yards behind it and separated from each other by three or four yards, while two others line up about to yards back of the defensive ends, and the safety man plays from 15 to 30 yards back. Another favourite style is known as the “ box” defence, in which seven men play in the line with two men backing up the line from two to four yards back and three to five yards apart, while two other men play at points from 12 to 18 yards back and behind their

respective ends. Many coaches still favour the ‘‘ diamond ” defence, in which seven men play on the line of scrimmage, while one man plays from three to five yards behind centre and two backs line up ro to 12 yards behind the defensive ends, the safety man lining up 20 to 30 yards from the scrimmage. The above three defensive formations have become quite standardised. Some teams employ all three kinds, according to the part of the field they are in and according to the number of the “ down,” the number of yards to be gained, also the type of formation the opponents are using. Until 1926, the use of the forward pass has been encouraged

because it has made possible the playing of games between small and large institutions. In 1926a new rule came into effect that a penalty of five yards is to be inflicted for every uncompleted forward pass, after the first one. Formerly, all school and college teams were coached by graduates without salary. Later, paid seasonal coaches were employed. In 1925, most coaches were members of the athletic department. Since the World War, football in the United States has had an unprecedented public interest. An era of stadia building has swept over the country, most colleges and universities having built or planned to build one. Many high schools also have them, and several cities have erected stadia holding 100,000 people. (A. A. ST.)

FORAKER, JOSEPH BENSON (1846-1917), American politician (see 10.628), died in Cincinnati May 10 1917. In 1916 he published Notes of a Busy Life. FORCED

LABOUR:

see SLAVERY AND FORCED LABOUR.

FORD, HENRY (1863), American manufacturer, was born on a farm near Dearborn, Mich., nine miles west of Detroit, of William and Mary Litogot Ford. William Ford was of English descent but born near Cork, Ireland, whence the Ford family emigrated to America in 1847, settling near Dearborn. Mary Litogot was born in the United States of Dutch parents. Mrs. Ford died when her son was 12. Henry Ford went to school until he was about 15, but worked on the farm after school hours and during vacations. He began early to develop an intense interest in mechanics. He was attracted first to watches, and at 13 he took a watch apart and put it together again. In a little

while he was repairing watches and clocks throughout the surrounding country, not for pay but because he had a burning curiosity to see how watches and clocks were made. His only tools were a screwdriver made from a knitting needle and a pair of tweezers fashioned from an old watch spring. All this work was done at night; later it was done secretly, because William Ford objected to the son giving his services free. Also, he wanted the boy to be a farmer, while the boy wanted to be a mechanic. At 16 Henry could no longer tolerate farm work. He left home, walked to Detroit, and apprenticed himself in a machine shop at a weekly wage of $2.50, working 10 hours a day. His board and lodging cost him $3.50 a week. In order to make up the deficit he took employment with a jeweler from 7 to 11 in the evening, for which he received $2.00 a week. In about a year he turned from machine shop to an engine shop to learn something of the building of engines. There he stayed two years. A company manufacturing small steam engines for farm use needed a man to install them; Ford took the place and for two years more set up and repaired these engines. He had gone back to the farm to live; there he spent all of his spare time inalittle workshop trying to build a farm tractor—for his experience with the portable engines, as well as his own farm experience, had convinced him that power should be put to work on the farm and that it was a waste to keep horses.

69

Eventually he built a single-cylinder engine steam tractor, but he could not devise a boiler to provide pressure enough to keep the tractor at work ploughing and yet be light enough for his requirements. For the time being he gave up his tractor until he could discover a more suitable boiler. Large steam tractors were already in use, but Ford’s thought even then was in the direction of inexpensive, simple apparatus which could be bought by everyone. In 1884 Ford’s father offered him 4o ac. of land in order to draw himaway from his mechanics. The land was mostly wooded. Henry cut the timber, set up a sawmill and sold lumber. In the summer he repaired farm engines. In 1887 he married Clara Bryant, who lived in the neighbourhood. He sawed the lumber for his house, which he built himself on his plot of ground, and having done this he moved his workshop from his father’s farm to his new home. Securing a job with the Detroit Edison Co. as an engineer and machinist he moved from the farm to Detroit, where he set up his shop in a shed at the back of his house. After hours he worked on the building of a gasolene motor car. In 1892 he completed it—although it did not run properly until the following year. This, his first car, had two cylinders with a 2}-in. bore and a 6-in. stroke, set side by side over the rear axle, and developed about 4 H.P., which was transmitted from the motor to the countershaft by a belt and from the countershaft to the rear wheel by a chain. He ran this car about 1,000 m. and then sold it for $200, in order to start the building of another car which would be lighter and stronger. In 1899, feeling that he had the experience he needed, Ford left his job with the electric light company and went into the making of automobiles as a business, with a company, of which he was the chief engineer, known as the Detroit Automobile Company. He held only a small portion of the stock, and the company would not follow the lines of manufacturing to which he had committed himself. The directors wanted to make cars to order only; Ford had in his mind a universal car which could be made in quantities. In 1902 he resigned in order to go into business for himseli—when the opportunity arose. In the meantime he rented a one-story brick shed and continued his experiments. He built several cars, two of them solely for speed. One

he called the “999” and the other the “ Arrow.” Each had a four-

cylinder engine giving 80 horsepower. The “ 999’ won every race it entered, and in 1903, on the reputation of this speed car, Ford formed the Ford Motor Co., with a capitalisation of $100,oco. Actually only $28,000 in stock was ever subscribed, and of this only about one-half was in actual cash. The company in 1926 had assets of about $1,000,000,000. It is the largest motor car company in the world and the third largest industry in the United States, comprising in itself about so other industries and employing some 200,000 people directly and an equal number indirectly. It has been built up entirely by turning back profits

into construction. The company has never issued bonds or borrowed money; nor has it issued stock otherwise than to enlarge the original capitalisation so as to have it more nearly correspond with values. The company is entirely owned by Henry Ford and his son, Edsel B. Ford, they having bought out the minority stock-

holders in 1919 for $70,000,000.

|

During its first year the company built a two-cylinder, 8 H.P. car with a chain drive, and of these 1,708 were produced and sold. In the second year the company made three models and for five years the company made various models of four-and sixcylinder cars. The automobile at that time was considered a pleasure vehicle, but Ford had conceived of it as a universal method of individual transportation and he was working to produce a light car of great strength, which would require a minimum of care and cost in upkeep. What delayed him was finding a steel sufficiently strong for his purpose, and it was

quite by accident that he came upon a piece of vanadium steel, which was not then made in the United States. With that steel he designed Model T—which is what is known today as the “ Ford car.” In 1909 Mr. Ford announced that thereafter the

7O

FOREIGN

LANGUAGES,

company would build only one type of chassis, that it would be Model T, and that ‘‘ Any customer can have a car painted any colour that he wants, so long as it is black.” The principles upon which the Ford industries are founded, as Mr. Ford has stated them, are:— 1. An absence of fear of the future or veneration for the past. One who fears the future, who fears failure, limits his activities. Failure is only the opportunity more intelligently to begin again. There is no disgrace in honest failure; there is disgrace in fearing to fail. What is past is useful only as it suggests ways and means for progress. 2. A disregard of competition. Whoever does a thing best ought to be the one to do it. 1t is criminal to try to get business away from another man —criminal because one is then trying to lower for personal gain the condition of one’s fellowmen—to rule by force instead of by intelligence. 3. The putting of service before profit. Without a profit, business cannot extend. There is nothing inherently wrong about making a profit. Well-conducted business enterprise cannot fail to return a profit, but profit must and inevitably will come as a reward for good service. [t cannot be the basis—it must be the result of service. 4. Manufacturing is not buying low and selling high. It is the process of buying materials fairly and, with the smallest possible addition of cost, transforming those materials into a consumable product and giving it to the consumer. Gambling, speculating and sharp dealing tend only to clog this progression.

In the Ford practice the cycle of production starts with the consumer. Mr. Ford holds that a commodity must first of all be designed to fit the needs of the largest possible number of consumers both in quality and price, and that the number of con-

sumers will be continuously increased by constantly lowering the price of the article. At the same time, by paying the highest possible wages to those engaged in the production and distribution of the article, he creates a high buying power. In Jan. 1914 Mr. Fore raised all wages in his industries toa minimum of $5.00 for an eight-hour day. The average wage throughout his industries at that time was $2.40 for a nine-hour day. The minimum wage in 1926 was $6.00 a day, with an average of $8.00. Model T (the touring car), which in the beginning cost $850, in 1926, with the average wage about four times larger than then and with materials costing at least double, sold for $310, with a selfstarter and many improvements. From the introduction of Model T on Oct. 1 1908 it took the company until Dec. 10 1915 to produce 1,000,000 cars, but under the new wage programme and the constant lowering of prices the company was in 1926 producing at the rate of 2;000,000 cars a year. The general theory of production in the Ford plants is that everything must be kept moving and that the work must go to

the man instead of the man to the work. For example, the cylinder block is cast on a moving platform in a mould made on a moving platform. Thereafter it passes, without stopping, through a series of machines which perform all the necessary operations,

and then, still moving, it passes into assembly, where to it are added, one by one, the hundreds of parts to create a complete motor. Then it moves into the final assembly, where it is joined by other parts until eventually an automobile leaves the final assembly line under its own power. Every part of the motor car has a similar train of construction and assembly, all converging either into the final assembly or into boxes or freight cars for ' shipment. No man uses more than one tool, all the work comes waist high, a man never has to stoop or to move his feet to get anything, and the speed of the work is controlled not by the worker’s will but by the pace of the conveyer. The Ford industries have been steadily reaching back to sources in order to cut out intermediate profits. The industries have their own iron mines, coal mines and forests, their own railway, and an extensive fleet of lake- and ocean-going steamships, all of which are operated on the principle of high wages, high production and low cost. In the forests no tree is permitted to be cut under ro inches. The logs are taken directly to the sawmill and, instead of being first converted into lumber and the parts sawed from the lumber, the parts are sawed directly from the log. All the wood-working is done at the forest mill, the waste goes to a wood distillation plant, and there is no waste whatsoever in shipment. At the River Rouge plant, the iron from the

TEACHING

OF

furnace goes directly into the foundries and is poured without reheating. The slag from the furnaces goes to a cement plant. A combination of electric furnaces and a large rolling mill converts all of the steel scrap. In every direction the pressure is toward preventing the waste of time, men or material. As the business developed, it became apparent that it was a waste to assemble the cars at the factory and ship them complete. The manufacturing plants then ceased in effect to manufacture automobiles; instead, they make parts, and these are shipped to 35 branches in the United States, where they are assembled into complete motor cars. Similar branches or associated companies are located in nearly every part of the world, and these branches also manufacture if the costs permit. Foreign branches, under the theory of building consumption, employ only natives of the country in which they are located. All the branches use the same methods and pay the same wages as the home plants. The industry does not use a single warehouse— everything is in transit. The centre of the industry is at Detroit, Mich., and at River Rouge, Mich., on the outskirts of Detroit; but with the method of assembling cars at the point of-use, a decentralising of manufacturing is taking place and comparatively small plants are being located out in the country wherever proper water-power sites are available. Each of these plants makes only a single part; the thought behind their establishment is to strike a balance between industry and agriculture. None of these plants employs more than 500 men, and in most cases the men divide their time between agriculture and industry. This is one of the most important developments. | Mr. Ford is firmly against paternalism in any form. He believes charity greatly harms those who receive it. Carrying out this thought, he has a trade school for the education of boys with dependents, in which the boys make useful articles. They earn an average of about $15 a week while receiving their education. The Henry Ford hospital in Detroit, which is open to any one, is conceived on the theory that a hospital should be selfsupporting. All its rooms are precisely alike, all have baths attached, all the fees and services are at a scheduled rate, which is the same to everyone, and all the surgeons, physicians and nurses are on salary and have no financial relations with the patients. The Ford Motor Co. also builds a light farm tractor under the same methods and principles as the motor car, and

in 1926 was building experimentally all-metal airplanes and maintaining for experimental purposes a number of air routes with the eventual aim of putting the Ford principlesinto aeronautics. YWenry Ford has taken no active part in politics, although he was nominated in 1918 for United States Senator from Michigan; at the election he was defeated by a small margin. He took no part whatsoever in the campaign. In 1915 he was convinced by certain peace advocates of foreign extraction that it might be possible to end the World War if a sufficient gesture were made. He thereupon chartered a ship and proceeded to Christiania, Norway. Then, convinced that the mission was futile, he returned home. Mr. Ford does not believe in war, but he is not an active pacificist. For this Encyclopaedia he wrote the article Mass PRODUCTION. A full account of the origins, theories and practices of the Ford industries is contained in My Life and Work (1922), and Today and Tomarrow (1926), both by Henry Ford in collaboration with Samuel Crowther. (5. CR.)

FOREIGN LANGUAGES, TEACHING OF.—The revolution that has taken place in the methods of teaching modern languages may be said to date from Viëtors pamphlet Der Sprachunterricht muss umkehren (1886). Tis doctrines were largely adopted in the Frankfurter Reformschulen, but it was not till after 1900 that the movement became widespread in England and France. Broadly speaking, the idea of the reformers was to substitute direct comprehension and acquisition of the foreign language for mere knowledge attained through the medium of the mother tongue.

They insisted on oral study at the outset of the language, involving explanations in the foreign tongue itself, on inductive

FORESTRY methods of learning grammar and on the use of reading and of free composition in place of formal grammar and translation from or into the foreign language. Hence the introduction of the phonetic script and chart; the employment of gesture; the utilisation of pictures, postcards, coins and other Realien; and the stress laid on the teacher and not the text-book being the centre of the instruction—the whole idea being to render the classroom a sort of French or German enclave, and to make the pupil think as far as possible in the language. Some of these doctrines were pushed to excess. Certain teachers attempted to exclude the mother tongue entirely from the classroom; others devoted an inordinate time to phonetics or conversation on pictures, and exalted the oral side as the goal of all teaching. Others again neglected the grammar or interpreted their new-won liberty as a right to teach as they pleased, irrespective of their colleagues. To-day, while phonetics (q.2.) have been generally accepted in England (though not in France), it is seen that the extent of their use (apart from the chart) may be left to the choice of the teacher. Again, new grammar points should be learnt inductively, but the grammar must be systematised and codified. With most pupils grammatical points are more safely explained in English. Due co-ordination of method can usually be secured by the appointment of a head of department. Translation from or into the foreign language is often begun two years before the final examination and not often earlier. As regards the exclusion of the mother tongue, we may take it as an axiom that the cleverer the child the more direct the teaching. Hence with the duller child the aim should probably be to concentrate rather on reading and translation than on composition (free or otherwise). At the extreme end of the scale there are, in the opinion of some experts, a few nonlinguistic pupils who would be more profitably engaged in confining themselves to the mother tongue. It is probable that the earlier reformers laid insufficient stress on the rapid acquisition of vocabulary, possibly from their dread of rote-work. To-day there is a fruitful tendency to learn by heart, not merely poems but duly prepared prose passages, a practice that is at the back of much of the mastery attained by the French in their own language. Of course such passages need occasional revision. Again, the principle of private reading, which has made such strides in English, has been promoted by the formation of class and school libraries, and the practice has been further fostered by the introduction of free study periods in certain schools. Such are the main features of the teaching in English secondary schools, up to the first school examination. In the central schools, which often prepare their fifth-year pupils for similar examinations, the methods are largely the same, except that in the first year the classes, which are larger, are sometimes divided for conversation, with excellent results. In the advanced courses of the secondary schools, the methods of reading and lecture expliquée without translation are largely followed, and essays on literature are written in the foreign

71

to develop. In the universities and colleges, the professors laughed the method out of court. An anecdote is told about a professor of French in a certain university, who, when asked if he spoke French, answered: “ I don’t speak French, I teach it.” When we consider, however, that at present no teacher of French in the United States would answer in this way, we sce that the agitation over the direct method has borne fruit. Indeed, nearly all the text-books in modern languages bear an imprint, however faint, of the direct method, whose influence has been beneficial. It is true, furthermore, that the War gave a strong and perhaps lasting impulse to the study of the spoken language. It is said that when the United States entered the War, the accredited newspaper reporters sent to Europe were remarkable in only one regard: their inability to say the slightest thing in French. This would no longer be the case. | Much of the improvement in the teaching of the modern Janguages came from another source: the introduction of Phonetics. This study made its way under two forms: formal or theoretical Phonetics and experimental Phonetics. The first came from both France and Germany, as well as from the English school of Bell and Sweet; the latter came from France. The Trench influence was seen in the steady extension through the universities and high schools of the International Phonetic Alphabet, which is now the only one used in teaching the foreign spoken languages. This alphabet was contrived by Paul Passy (who took hints from Ellis, Bell, Sweet and others) and commenced to be known in the early ’nineties. Its use has become so general] that it forms the basis of instruction in diction, music and phonelics, as is seen in the brilliant work being done in New York by such teachers and authors as Adele Baldwin, Marguerite DeWitt, May Laird-Brown and William Tilly. Experimental Phonetics came from the indefatigable zeal of its founder, the Abbé Rousselot, whose laboratory at first was in the Institut Catholique, Paris, then in the Collége de France. Two or three Americans had begun experimental research at about the same time as Rousselot, but they did not have laboratories at their disposal. None the less, their example prepared the way for the introduction of Rousselot’s methods, which have left a permanent impress on the teaching of the modern languages in the United States. The War favoured the extension of French. Combined reports from about 76° of the elementary schools, public and private, and the high schools and academies and from about 89% of the colleges and universities indicate an enrolment during the year 1923-4 of 629,000 students of French, 392,000 of Spanish, and

65,000 of German.

(R. We.*)

FORESTRY (see 10.645).— No summary of the timber resources of the world can be described in any sense as accurate or reliable. The facts available are insufficient, the statistics on which estimates are based are often incomparable and even the sources of information are not always above suspicion; overstatements by government departments to attract capital or to justify increased

In the evening schools methods

exploitation are as common as understatements by foresters or traders to insure conservation of resources or enhanced prices. The British Empire contains not less than 1,100 million acres of woodlands, but has under 1,100 forest officers—that is to say, taking the Empire as a whole, less than an average of one forest

have been modernised, but the need of covering the ground more quickly necessarily limits the employment of the more leisurely

oflicer for every 1,000,000 acres. Brazil with 1,000 million acres of tropical and semi-tropical forests has in the European sense

language.

A burning point is that the universitics which con-

duct the higher certificate examinations appear to prefer answers in English in the literature papers. A possible solution would be the award of extra marks for one question to be an-

swered in the foreign tongue.

practices of the direct method.

(C. BRE.)

IN THE UNITED STATES

The attempt to make general the employment of the “ direct method ” in the teaching of the forcign modern languages in the United States had begun to subside before r909, when it became clear that the method was looked on askance in the best high schools and preparatory schools, and especially in the colleges and universities. Many teachers were well acquainted with foreign languages by ancestry and study abroad; but some could not speak such languages with ease. Also, the increasing desire for travel in Europe, now so manifest, was only beginning

no organised forest service at all. The information about the Russian forests, said to be 1,200 to 1,500 million acres in extent, even before the War, was unsatisfactory, especially as regards the virgin softwood forests in Asia and northern Europe. Since the War little authoritative information ts obtainable, and such information as there Is, ts, therefore, for the most part, too old to be of any real utility. THE

WoRLD’s

TIMBER

RESOURCES

For purposes of comparison the timber resources of the world may be divided into hardwoods and softwoods, the former being, generally speaking, broad-leaved and, in the temperate

FORESTRY

72

zone, deciduous trees; the latter coniferous and non-deciduous. The hardwoods themselves fall naturally into two classes— hardwoods of the temperate zone, some 1,200 million acres in extent, and tropical hardwoods, estimated at 3,600 million acres. The softwoods of the world cover a much smaller area, just over 2,500 million acres. These forests, with the exception of the Parana pine forests of Brazil, Chile, India and Australasia, are situated in the Northern Hemisphere, over 80% of the total being found between the 45th and 7oth parallel north. The more important commercial timbers of the world, the softwoods and temperate hardwoods (calculated on an acreage basis), are situated to the extent of 95% and 89% respectively in the Northern Hemisphere, where 75°% of the population exists. While, as a means of estimating timber resources, a calculation by acreage is unsatisfactory, the stand of timber to the acre varying with species, soil and climatic conditions, no unit of measurement can be given which more accurately gives a picture of forest wealth. Only about 10 to 15% of the world’s forests are worked under systematic management, and about these forests alone is reliable information available as to stocks, annual growth, fellings or losses by pests, etc. Of the other forests, 15 to 20% may be classed as commercial forests either in process of exploitation or about to be exploited. About these forests some general trade

information is usually available.

The balance 65 to 75%, is

virgin forest not utilised for commercial purposes, and about which information is non-existent or unreliable. The estimates of acreage have, in the main, been taken from the work of Messrs. Zon and Sparhawk entitled Forcst Resources of the World. These two distinguished members of the United States Iorest Service have succeeded in making a more or less coherent picture of the available data about the forests of the world, supplemented by personal investigations and inquiry where full information was not previously available. HARDWOOD

SUPPLIES

The hardwood timber supply of the world need give little real cause for anxiety. There will be in the future, as in the past, shortages of supplies of individual species. The hardwood forests, however, are so vast in extent, and include so many different types of timber, that the increase of information about recently developed countries, and the advance in the science of timber testing, seasoning and wood iechnology, should make the sub-

stitution of new species for old a more simple and certain proceeding than has formerly been the case. The solution of the hardwood supply question would therefore appear to lie not only in the conservation of existing resources, but also in the ordered investigation of new sources of supply, together with the initiation of such steps as are necessary to make such supplics available as and when they are found in quantities that make their exploitation commercially possible. United States —The United States has taken the lead in this matter. Owing to the wholesale clearances of their more accessible hardwood forests by uncontrolled felling, and the almost complete destruction of their valuable chestnut forests by the chestnut bark disease (Findothia parasitica), the Federal U.S. Department of Agriculture has for some time been inquiring through its Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. about the potential supplies of hardwood timber outside the States. Įm-

portant results have already been obtained in Central and South America.

British Empire.—Inside the British Empire equally good work has been and is being done; at Dehra Dūn in India, at Montreal in Canada and in England under the aegis of the Forest Products Research Board, at Kew, as well as at the Imperial Institute, timbers are being tested and new species identified. In this section of Imperial development it is necessary to insist on one point that has been passed over, viz., that it is not only necessary to educate and indeed to persuade the consumer by scientilic and practical tests of the possibilities of a given substitute species, it is also necessary to prove to the satisfaction of wood merchants that that substitute is available on a commercial scale and that the forests in which it is found are suitably

situated for exploitation.

An Imperial Forestry Bureau advo-

cated by two consecutive Imperial Forestry Conferences is a necessary link between the consumer and the merchant on the one hand, and the systematic botanist, the timber testing centre and the producing units of the Empire overseas on the other. SOFTWOOD

SUPPLIES

The future supply of softwood timber is disquieting, the most unsatisfactory feature being the rapidity with which the accessible virgin forests are being destroyed. In the more progressive and industrially developed countries timber, other than firewood, is used in the proportion of 80% of softwood to 20% of hardwood. Great Britain, the greatest importing country in the world, brings in softwood in the proportion of nine to one hardwood. According to the latest figure available, Finland and

Siberia are the only two “net” exporting countries in the world where the resources of softwood timber are not being reduced by annual felling at a greater rate than is made good by annual growth. United States —The United States, which consumes nearly one-half the converted timber of the world, is using up its softwood timber reserves at about four times their rate of growth. Only 137,000,000 ac. of virgin forest remain. These are being felled at the rate of 5,500,000 ac. per annum. The situation has caused such general anxiety that the President himself made the following statement in 1924: “‘ Expressed roughly we have left about 745 billion cu. ft. of timber. From this the annual drain is 25 billion cu. feet. This total drain is most significant when we reflect that towards offsetting it we have an annual growth of only six billion cu. ft., and even in our young forests where this growth is taking place cutting has already outstripped growth. We must face the situation that at this rate we are not far from timber exhaustion.”

The course of timber denudation in the United States is interesting. First the New England states, then the Lake states and now the South Atlantic states have been cut out in rapid succession. In the Southern states the departmental report of 1920 states that of the 5,400 mills owning or controlling practically the entire remaining virgin stand in the South, 4,419 mills will be cut out in five years or less, and that a further 800 mills will cut out their timber in the next ten years, z.c., by the end of 1930 or thereabouts. When this last forest reserve on the eastern freeboard is exhausted, the export trade of softwood timber will be concentrated almost entirely in the Pacific states, distant from the main commercial centres by 2,000 m. of railroad or 4,000 m. by sea. This fact is important from two points of view—(a) the price of timber must rise very considerably in the Eastern states, where four-fifths of the population are centred; (b) that, consequent on a rise in prices due to the lack of local supplies, sea freight and canal charges, America may come into the European market for construction timber, just as she does to-day into the Canadian and European markets for her pulp-wood. In a statement made by Col. W. B. Greeley, Chief of the United States Forest Service, at the British Empire Forestry Conference in 1923, the virgin softwood forests of the United States at the then rate of destruction would be cut out in 25 years, and after that date the industry would have to depend on “ cut-over ” woods and the less accessible of the Federal reserves. Cunada.—The position in Canada is but little more satisfactory. According to Mr, Craig, the Canadian statistical officer (report of 1923), the total amount of softwood in Canada amounts to 198,000 million cu. ft., one-half of which can be profitably operated under existing conditions. The amount of softwood used annually for all purposes is about 900,000,000 cu. ft., but owing to the method of exploitation this entails the destruction of 1,700,000,000 cu. ft. of standing timber. In five years the annual loss of merchantable timber from fire had amounted to “90,000,000 cu. ft., and in rọ years destruction by the spruce bud worm had averaged 1,300,000,000 cu. feet. Qther insects and forest diseases have also caused serious loss in the forest, so that the annual drain on the resources of the Dominion is probably

FORMOSA not less than 4,000,000,000 cu. feet. At this rate the accessible stands of virgin forest would last 25 years. Europe—In Europe the softwood position is by no means satisfactory. The demand of industrial life for an adequate timber supply increases in volume much more quickly than the growth of the population, yet there is no margin for increased

production outside Russia, and the estimates of Russian reserves are founded on quite insufficient data. Three of the principal softwood exporting Countries in Europe are Norway, Sweden and Finland. Norway has been living on her forest capital for many years, and her softwood timber consumption exceeds growth by about 51,000,000 cu. feet. Sweden until recently was supposed to be living well within her forest means. A recent survey has shown that the annual growth, especially in the north, is less than was previously calculated, and consumption exceeds growth by 100,000,000 cu. feet. Finland is reported to be using 140,000,000 cu, ft., less than the annual growth. Two facts must be borne in mind—(a) that her calcula-

tion of annual growth will probably have to be revised, (b) that the extension of her saw-milling industry is rapid. Russia.—To what extent the virgin forests of Russia can come to the aid of Europe and America is difficult to estimate. Apart from political questions there are certain limiting factors which are bound to affect continuous production. 1. The main group of softwood forests is situated north of the soth parallel. The rate of growth is necessarily slow; on the Finnish and Swedish analogy, probably not more than 20 cu. ft. per ac. per annum. In the extreme north the rate of growth is probably only half that rate, while owing to the infrequency of seed years restocking must necessarily be a slow process. 2. The extent of land over which Russian forests are spread is so great and the communications so poor that only a relatively small

portion is accessible under existing conditions and at present day Jumber prices.

Mr. Fraser Story in his review of the softwood resources of Europe estimates that 90,000,000 ac. of the Russian forests are

merchantable as opposed to 243,000,000 ac. unmerchantable. He includes as unmerchantable all woods in which the cost of extraction is prohibitive, or on which the land is so poorly stocked or the timber of such a character of growth as to be unsuitable for commercial use. The merchantable area includes the areas which before the War could have been exploited without undue commercial risk with the means of extraction and utilisation then available. 3. Russia has a population nearly as large as the United States. She is already an importer of timber in her southern states. Her consumption of hardwoods and softwoods before the War was calculated at only 66 cu. ft. per capita perannum,

It is not improbable

that with the relaxation of forest regulations her per capa consumption has materially increased and may approach that of Norway and Sweden,

130 cu. ft. per annum.

;

4. It is calculated that before the War Russia was living on her capital, t.e., that her consumption exceeded her annual growth by 1,851 million cu. ft. per annum.

Siberia.—The productive Russian forests in Asia probably amount to 500 to 600,000,000 acres. Only one-fifth of this area has ever been surveyed. The Pacific slopes and the forests tributary to the Amur and other small coastal rivers are the only

areas capable of exploitation under existing trade conditions, and may amount to 40,000,000 acres of softwood and hardwood forests, only one-tenth of which has been surveyed. The main supplies of Central Siberia will only be available when political conditions are such as to permit of the investment of capital, the creation of railways and the establishment of banks and credit institutions. Even in the more easily developed area an export trade will have to be built up from its very foundations. Before the War there were said to be only 74 producing sawmills in Siberia; since the War exports of timber to Japan and China have increased; but even to-day, considering the. size of the country, they are relatively unimportant. Other Areas.—The remaining virgin softwood forests of the world can be dismissed in a very few words. In Japan consumption is rapidly overtaking production. Japan has for long been

anxious about future supplies, and has embarked on the largest

73

planting programme of any country in the world. The recent survey by the United States Forest Service in Alaska has proved disappointing. While the hinterland contains important reserves of pulp wood, the milling timber is confined to a strip of land on the coast averaging, it is said, only a few miles in width. Australia and New Zealand, despite their softwood supplies, are importing countries. The Parana pine forests of Brazil, once considered as an important timber reserve for the southern hemisphere, are being rapidly cut out and no system of reforestation has yet been adopted. Conclusion.—It would appear that while information about the softwood forests of the world leaves much to be desired, there are sufficient data to warrant certain conclusions:— 1. That except in Russia—an unknown quantity —the main softwood virgin timber reserves will be exhausted before very long, and producers will have to depend more and more on * cut-over ” forests or woods raised or restocked by the agency of man.

2. That the United States shortage is likely to come more quickly than the European one. 3, That the more the American supply becomes centred in the Pacific Coast States the greater is the probability of the industrial

States of North-eastern America coming into the European market for saw-timber in the same way as they do now for pulp of wood. 4. That as the United States consumes 13,750 million cu. ft. of softwoods as opposed to a total European consumption of 9,120 million cu. ft., the United States advent into European markets wil] have an important bearing on European prices. BIBLIOGRAPHY. British Empire Forestry Conference, Proceedings (1920-3); A. L. Howard and S. Fitzgerald, Timbers of the World (1920); R. Zon and W. M. Sparhawk, Forest Resources of the World (1923); Capper, U.S. Forest Service Report. (LT.)

FORMOSA (see 10.669).—The island of Formosa (Taiwan) has an area of 13,839 sq. m, and on Oct. 1 1920 the population was 3,655,308, representing a density per sq. m. of 264 inhabitants. The population was estimated at 3,758,900 on Oct. 1 1923.

The

chief towns are Taihoku, Tainan, Kagi and Taichu. The Hokoto Is. (Pescadores) are included in Taiwan. Administration and Finance. —Taiwan was placed under a civil administration in April 1896, and legislative steps were taken in the following year to put the finances of the island on an independent footing. Meanwhile a grant was made from the Imperial Treasury, but the subvention was withdrawn in 1906 owing to the satisfactory financial condition of the island. Furthermore, with the development of its industry and the increase of various public establishments, finance was greatly expanded and the total revenue and expenditure in the Budget for 1924-5 are put at 91,553,193 yen (excluding the extraordinary budget). Government Monopolies —The Government monopoly undertakings on the island are opium, salt, camphor and tobacco, the importation of opium and the manufacture and smoking of the drug being strictly prohibited since 1896, except by licence in the case of confirmed smokers. The number of licensed smokers had decreased from 117,000 in 1900 to 38,673 at the end of 1923. In May 1899 the Government took steps to improve the quality and increase the quantity of salt produced, which had hitherto suffered from the fluctuations due to irregular and sporadic private enterprise. The total area of the salt-fields is now over 2,348 kō (about 4,500 ac.); the quality of the salt has decidedly improved, and the annual output has been steadily increasing, having risen to 404,000,000 kin (242,400 metric tons) in 1923, sufficient to satisfy local requirements and also for export to Japan, Chosen, Karafuto, etc. In 1899 the production of camphor was also controlled, and in 19035 the monopoly system was extended to Taiwan-cut tobacco, in both cases with beneficial results. Trade.—The chief commodities exported from Taiwan are tea, rice, sugar, camphor, turmeric, flax, hemp, jute and coal. Foreign trade, consisting of oversea trade and trade with the homeland (Japan proper), has grown year by year. The development of Taiwan trade with foreign countries was affected adversely by the duties which have been increased frequently since the revision of customs tariffs in 1899, but its trade with the homeland has made steady progress with the development of various industries,

FORREST—FOSDICK

74

stimulated by the growing perfection of banking and communication facilities in the island. In 1907 the volume of trade with Japan and overseas trade was 58,340,000 yen, while in Igo it was 108,880,000 yen (largely owing to the development of the sugar industry}. In 1923 the total trade reached 308,720,000 yen. Of this the exports to foreign countries were valued at 29,150,000 yen, and the exports to Japan proper at 169,440,000 yen, a total of 195,590,000 yen. The imports amounted to 39,110,000 yen from foreign countries, and 71,010,000 yen from the homeland, totalling 110,120,000 yen. ‘Thus the excess of total exports over total imports for 1923 amounted to 88,460,000 yen. ‘lericulinre and Industry.—Almost the whole of Taiwan is a ricegrowing country, yielding two crops a year. In 1923 the rice crops amounted to 4,866,087 koku (24,102,639 bu.), though in that year they suffered from the worst drought ever known. The oolong and souchong teas, produced in the north of the island, are important exports to foreign countries; the value of the oolong exported abroad in 1923 was 5,160,965 yen, The sugar industry enjoyed great prosperity in 1916 and 1917, the value of exports being 11,317,643 yen and 15,775,205 yen respectively. The area under sugar-cane cultivation in 1923 was 114,710 k6 (1 k6 =2-45 ac.) which, owing tothe satisfactory growth of the plant, vielded raw sugar amounting to 6,192,040,773 kin (1 kin = 1-323 lb.). There were operating 44 plants of the latest style with a capacity of 34,650 English tons, I1 improved-style factories with a capacity of 820 English tons and

together produced

521,501,144

of refined sugar and 592,240,001 kin,

ror old-style factories, which al-

kin of centrifugals,

59,878,831

kin

10,860,026 kin of brown sugar, aggregating

Gold, alluvial gold, silver, copper, coal, petroleum and sulphur are all found in the northern part of the island. The total value of mineral products in 1923 was 12,915,908 yen, being an increase of a little over 210% over the 1913 figure. The gold produced in 1923 was 411,649 grammes; placer gold, 8,306 grammes; silver, 569,576 grammes; coal, 1,445,000 metric tons; and petroleum, 25,289 hectolitres.

The fishing industry of Taiwan owes much of its present pros-

perity to Government encouragement, although owing to the favourable ocean currents, fishing can be carried on all around the island. Artificial rearing of oysters, prawns, carp, etc., is acconplished both in salt and brackish waters, and it is a characteristic of the Formosan fisheries that whilst the natural produce is valued at about 4,000,000 yen, the value of the products of fish culture is 2,000,000 yen. Banking.—The Bank of Taiwan (est. 1897) is the central bank of the island, and has an authorised capital of 45,000,000 yen and a paid-up capital of 39,375,000 yen. The bank is empowered to issue bank-notes, and to transact ordinary banking and foreign exchange business. There are several ordinary banks and many credit associations.

A great increase in the business of the Post-Office Savings Bank took place during rg1o~23, the number of depositors having risen from 90,893 in 1909-10 to 457,869 in 1922-3, the deposits increasing from 1,900,700 yen to 8,171,201 yen.

In 1899 the Government commenced planning out a trunk line from north to south of the island, connecting the ports of Keelung and Taku and passing through Taihoku, Taichu and Tainan. Branch lines, further opening up the rice, sugar, tea and mining districts, were gradually completed, so that at the end of the financial year 1922-3 there were 468-70 m. of railway open to traffic. In the same year over 13,000,000 passengers and more than 3,000,000 tons of goods were carried, the receipts being over 12,000,000 yen. In addition to the state railways, there were at the end of 1922 1,242 m. of railway belonging principally to sugar factories and 547 m. of track for hand-propelled cars, an important means of local transport peculiar to the island. (H. Sa.; K.M.) FORREST, JOHN FORREST, rsr BARON (1847-1018), Australian statesman and explorer (see 10.672), was acting premier of Australia in 1907 during the absence of Mr. Deakin in London. He took office again as treasurer in Mr. Hughes’s ‘National’ Cabinet of 1917, but resigned owing to ill-health early in 1918, when he was raised to the peerage, being the first Australian to be so honoured. He died at sea on his way to London to take his seat in the ITouse of Lords, Sept. 3 1918. FORSTER, EDWARD MORGAN (1879), British novelist, was educated at Tonbridge School and King’s College, Cambridge. His first novel, Where Angels Fear to Tread (1908) was followed by The Longest Journey (1907) and A Room with a View (1908). Wider attention was won by Howards End (r910),

but thereafter, except for some short stories, The Celestial Omnibus (1911), he published little until 1924, when A Passage to India appeared. This was a fruit of first hand observation of modern Indian life and with it Forster entered intoa fuller public recognition of his powers as a writer with a gift for keen analysis of social character and relationships. Wartime work in Egypt enabled him to write a useful book on Alexandria: A History and a Guide (1922), from which came the material for the short studies of Alexandrian history, ancient and modern, in Pharos and Pharillon (1923). FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR (1838-1921), British Nonconformist divine (see 10.677), died in London Novy. 11 10921. Among his later works were The Person and Place of Christ (1909); The Principle of Authority (1912) and This Life and the Next (19178). FORTIFICATION: see SIEGECRAFT. FORT WORTH, Tex., U.S.A. (see 10.728), entered on a period of rapid development after the establishment of Camp Bowie (1917) and three flying fields for the training of Canadian and American aviators, and the erection (1918) of the army and navy helium plant. With the discovery of the Ranger and Burkburnett and other important new oilfields, it became the geographical centre of the oil-producing region of the southwest, and by 1925 was the greatest petroleum pipe-line centre in the world. Its refineries had a daily crude capacity of 75,000 barrels. Natural gas was brought in from r5 fields. Beginning about 1920, the transition in western Texas from ranching to stockfarming and diversihed agricullure (especially cotton, wheat and feed crops) added a large and prosperous population to Fort Worth’s trading territory, supplied raw materials for new industries, stimulated meat-packing and flour-and-feed-mills and enlarged its grain and livestock markets. speech in

Congress, Feb. 11 1918, he declared:— 1. That each part of the final settlement must be based upon the

essential justice of that particular case and upon such adjustments as are most likely to bring a peace that will be permanent; 2. That peoples and provinces are not to be bartered about from sovereignty to sovereignty as if they were chattels or pawns in a gaine, even the great game, now forever discredited, of the balance of power; but that 3. Every territorial settlement involved in this War must be made in the interest and for the benefit of the populations concerned, and not as a part of any mere adjustment or compromise of claims amongst rival States; and

FOX-HUNTING— FRACTURES 4. That all well-defined national aspirations shall be accorded

the utmost satisfaction that can be accorded them without introducing new or perpetuating old elements of discord and antagonism that

would be likely in time to break the peace of Europe, and consequently of the world.

The Four Ends.—In the “ Four Ends ” speech of July 4 1918 occurs the following passage:— These are the ends for which the associated peoples of the world are fighting and which must be conceded them before there can be peace :— I. The destruction of every arbitrary power anywhere that can separately, secretly, and of its single choice disturb the peace of the world, or, if it cannot be presently destroyed, at the least its reduction to virtual impotence. 2. The settlement of every question, whether of territory or sovereizhty, of economic arrangement, or of political relationship, upon the basis of the free acceptance of that settlement by the people immediately concerned, and not upon the basis of the material interest or advantage of any other nation or people which may desire a different settlement for the sake of its own exterior influence or mastery.

3. The consent of all nations to be governed in their conduct towards each other by the same principles of honour and of respect for the common law of civilised society that govern the individual citizens of all modern

States, and in their relations with one another,

to the end that all promises and covenants may be sacredly observed,

no private plots or conspiracies hatched, no selfish injuries wrought with impunity, and a mutual trust established upon the handsome

foundation of a mutual respect for right. 4. The establishment of an organisation of peace which shall make it certain that the combined power of free nations will check every

invasion of right and serve to make peace and justice the more secure by affording a definite tribunal of opinion to which all must submit and by which every international readjustment that cannot be amicably agreed upon by the peoples directly concerned shall be sanctioned. These great objects can be put into a single sentence. What we seek is the reign of law, based upon the consent of the governed

and sustained by the organised opinion of mankind.

The Five Particulars —The “ Five Particulars’ Sept. 27 1918) were:—

(speech of

1. The impartial justice meted out must involve no discrimination between those to whom we wish to be just and those to whom we do not wish to be just. It must be a justice that plays no favourites and knows no standards but the equal rights of the several peoples concerned. 2. No special or separate interest of any single nation or any group of nations can be made the basis of any part of the settlement which is not consistent with the common interest of all. 3. There can be no leagues or alliances or special covenants and understandings within the general and common family of the League of Nations. 4. And, more specifically, there can be no special selfish economic combinations within the League and no employment of any form of economic boycott or exclusion, except as the power of economic penalty, by exclusion from the markets of the world, may be vested in the League of Nations itself as a means of discipline and control. 5. All international agreements and treaties of every kind must be made known in their entirety to the rest of the world. Special alliances and economic rivalries and hostilities have been the prolific source in the modern world of the plans and passions that produce war. It would be an insincere as well as an insecure peace that did not exclude them in definite and binding terms. (See also EUROPE.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.-—The text of the Fourteen Points will be found in C. Seymour, Woodrow Wilsen and The World War, vol. 3, pp. 42-5 (1921). See also R. S. Baker, Woodrow Wilson and World Settlement, 3 vol. (1923); H. W. V. Temperley, History of the Peace Conference

of Parts, vol. 1, pp. 431-5 (London, 1920).

FOX-HUNTING (see 13.947).—The years immediately preceding the World War were in many ways the Golden Age of this great English sport. Money was plentiful and it was noticeable that newcomers to the country-side were inclined to favour hunting rather than shooting. Increased facilities for transport enabled people to hunt from towns. Horse-breeding and houndbreeding had been placed on a sound basis, and hunting, generally, had been organised and stabilised under the supreme authority of the Masters of Foxhounds Association. War Dificultics —Then came the War. The drain on horses was tremendous; subscription lists dropped to practically noth-

ing; and, worst of all, at the height of the submarine menace, the feeding of hounds became an almost insoluble problem. The expense was enormous and there was a considerable outcry to the effect that hounds should be suppressed altogether as useless animals which consumed useful food. In 1917-8 hunting very

nearly ceased altogether, and had it once come to an end it is extremely improbable that it would ever have been revived. The Association of M. F. H., however, in collaboration with Sir William Buxton, tackled the problem. All over the country the number of hounds was reduced, the reduction being effected partly by killing off hounds, but mainly by drafting large numbers out of the country, notably to America, and by breeding fewer.

These drastic measures had their reward.

Not only was hunt-

ing saved, but it was far easier for the staffs, greatly depleted by the War, to deal efficiently with these reduced packs. Further, half a century of hound shows had given the general breeder a very sound idea at what to aim; so that, in spite of these reductions, not only was the total number of hounds in England in 1925 very nearly up to the pre-War strength, but the quality of English hounds was as high as ever. Not a single well-known hunt ceased to exist. In 1926 there were over 200 packs of fox-

hounds in the British Is. and 86 in the United States and the British Dominions. Post-War Developments—The end of the War by no means put an end to the difficulties which faced hunting. Judicious reductions, compensated for by breeding on sound lines, settled the hound difficulty. The question of horses largely answered itself by the release of an enormous number of animals from the army. After the War, too, whether as a direct result or not it is impossible to say, there was a decided improvement in the quality of the horses; this has been accentuated by the judgments given at horse shows. Before the War the showing animal and the hunter were two distinct types; the animal that won prizes was not likely to prove of much use across country and vice versa. But after the War the show animal was displaced by the real hunter, whois quite capable of winning a prize in the show ring in the summer and a point-to-point in the spring, the ideal at which toaim. The subscriber difficulty was also automatically solved by the return of the armies and, at any rate immediately after the Armistice, there were more people hunting than before the War. Speaking generally, then, fox-hunting recovered in a surprising way from the direct consequences of the War. But an indirect consequence still had a great and adverse effect on the sport, namely, the change in the social and territorial conditions of rural England. This began before rọr4, but was enormously accentuated by the War. In the old days rural England was largely in the hands of the great landowners, who were probably hunting men themselves, or at any rate supporters of hunting, and their tenant farmers, who took their cue from their landlord. Then came the extensive sales of landed property, due to the heavy taxation of the War period and after with its adverse effects on the sport. (Cob Rs) FRACTURES.—The treatment of fractures has received considerable attention during the 15 years I91to-25, with a corresponding improvement in the general level of results. The development of radiography (sce RADIOTHERAPY) and its more general application have produced a greater knowledge of the displacements which occur and may remain after a fracture,

and a more critical spirit toward the results of these injuries has developed.

Normal Form.-—The restoration of the normal form of the broken bone is an important factor if the best result is to be obtained.

After the fracture of a long bone of the lower extremity,

correctness of alignment is undoubtedly of the greatest importance; in the upper extremity, however, good functional results may be obtained when the position of the bone deviates considerably from the normal. The demand for accurate reposition of fragments has been met by wider use of open operations, whereby replacements of the fragments can be carried out under the eve of the surgeon, and fixation secured by the insertion of metal or bone plates, or suture material. With the precision of modern surgical technique, such intervention is possible without the risk of infection which held back the older surgeons from undertaking such procedures save in exceptional cases. Function. The restoration of function in the injured limb after a bone has been broken has received increasing notice. The

FRANCE, ANATOLE problem is recognised as a complicated one, each aspect of which must receive consideration. Restoration of the normal line of the bone is of the first importance, but the repair of the soft structures overlying the fracture has an equal influence on the final result. Moreover, stiffness in joints near the fracture may develop in cases immobilised for too long, and, if persistent, is a source of serious disability. These complications have been avoided or minimised by modified splint treatment, carly massage and controlled movements. Various forms of electrical treatment have also been found helpful. War Experience —The intensive experience in the treatment of fractures afforded by the World War came during the development of methods on the above lines, and yielded a store of 1mprovements in technique, while it tended to crystallise opinion on the relative value of various methods of treatment for the individual case. The general introduction of splints, which allow traction to be made on the injured limb, facilitated the control of bone alignment without open operation. Other mechanical improvements elaborated enable direct traction to be made on bone fragments. The transfixion of the bone with pins, and the use of metal calipers to grip the fragments, are examples of such procedures. Present Tendency.—In general at the present time the tendency to carry out open operations on all fractures of long hones is less in evidence. This is due partly to the advance tn methods of splintage, but also to the fact that operations of this character, coupled with rigid fixation by means of metal plates, delay the process of union, and may be the source of subsequent adhesions between bones and the subjacent soft structures. In America there has been a movement to employ slips of the patient’s own bone for the purpose of fixation at open operations. This procedure involves a more elaborate technique, but certainly overcomes some of the disadvantages of plating with metal. Compound or Open Fraciures—The introduction of infection into a fracture has always been a bugbear of surgeons, as, once suppuration is established in bones, it runs a slow course and is liable to lead to sequestration, or death, of some part of the bone, and slow union. War experience has shown clearly that antiseptics are of little value in the disinfection of a lacerated wound. The best method of eradicating infection in connection with wounds of this kind was found to be the excision of the track and the removal of all contaminated tissues. The application of this process of wound excision or débridement to the more severe types of compound fracture has greatly improved the results. Once the infection has been avoided or overcome, a compound fracture offers no more serious problem in treatment than does a simple one. Un-united Fractures —Though delay in the process of union is common enough for several reasons, failure of bones to unite firmly in healthy individuals is rare. It is, however, met with in those cases in which a large part of the bone substance has been destroyed or damaged by the primary injury or subsequent infection. These cases are now treated with a high measure of success by bone grafting. Fresh bone taken from the patient himself gives the most reliable results. In cases in which the original broken bone ends can actually be brought together, a beef bone and preserved human bone have been employed with some measure of success. As to the degree to which the grafted bone replaces normal bone, the consensus of opinion is that the graft acts as a scaffold along which new bone grows, rather than that it becomes a part of the host skeleton. At any rate it forms a firm bond about which, under suitable conditions, new

bone formation takes place.

(C. M. P.*)

FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844-1924), French man of letters (see 10.775).-—For 30 years French literature was dominated in the eyes of all the world by the fame of Anatole France. Although his influence declined in the last period of his life the value of his art was still widely recognised. His ideas were questioned, but not his style nor the services rendered by him to the language. In his old age he was revered as a genius and a patriarch. No reputation since Voltaire’s has been found comparable with his. The son of a bookseller called Thibault, this youth who was to

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make illustrious the pseudonym of Anatole France started his career quite humbly. He was fond of literature, he was studious and erudite, but negligently preferred reading to writing. He composed publishers’ puffs and contributed a weekly article signed “ Gérôme ” to the Univers Tilustré. For his own amusement he wrote verse, Les poèmes dorés (1875) and Les noces Corinthiennes (1876), which showed learning, charm and taste. In 1879 he published his first volume of stories, Jocaste et le chat maigre, andin 1881r his first novel, Le crime de Sylvestre Bonnard, which was acclaimed by the discriminating as delightful. In 1883 he first met Madame Arman de Caillavet, with results that profoundly influenced his career. Mme. de Caillavet became his life-long friend. She was clever and active; she had a host of acquaintances and her receptions were attended by the leading figures of literature and politics. She laboured for the fame of Anatole France, and she forced him out of his inertia into composition. The extracts from her correspondence with him prove the important share she took in his writings, and in the dedication of Crainguebille (1904) Anatole France could say: “To Madame de Caillavet, this book which I should not have written without her help, for without her help I should write no books.” For 40 years Anatole France poured out a series of lively, solid, graceful and profound works. There are the pungent and mischievous short stories, Bulihazar (1889), L’étut de nacre (1892), Le puits de Sainte-Claire (1895); the meditative and critical books, Les opinions de Jéréme Coignard (1893), La vie liltératre (4 vol. 1883-92); a philosophical novel, La rétisserie de la Reine Pédangue (1893); an historico-philosophic novel, Thats (1890), describing Alexandria at the beginning of our era and contrasting the ideals of dying paganism with those of nascent Christianity; an admirable novel on the French Revolution and the Terror, Les dieux ont soif (1912); a society novel, Le lys rouge (1894), a powerful study of jealousy set amid the artistic treasures and lovely vistas of Florence; then the series of political satires, the four volumes of L’htistoire contemporaine—L’orme du mail (1897), Le mannequin dosier (1897), L’anneau d’améthyste (1899), A. Bergeret à Paris (1901), where Anatole France creates the legendary figure of M. Bergeret and portrays society before and during the Dreyfus affair; novels of a revolutionary tendency, Sur la pierre blanche (1903), L'tle des Pingoutns (1908}, La révolte des anges (1914), a biography of Joan of Arc (1909-10); lastly the reminiscences, Le petit Pierre (1918), La vie en fleur (1922). Such is the sum of this work admirable in its wealth and variety. The philosophy of Anatole France developed during the course of his career. Until 1900 he was primarily a sceptic. As Voltaire’s spiritual son, he delighted in the play of ideas and observed without pity the stupidity and the silliness of men. He probed the past and the present and spared no example of human inconsistency, error or weakness. Les opinions de Jérôme Coignard gives the reader much pleasure, so witty and mischievous 1s the author, and gives him, too, a complete lesson in scepticism. The same remark may be passed on Les dieitx ont soif, where Anatole France considers almost exclusively the failures of the French Revolution. At this time the author seems to have kept respect for beauty alone, the beauty of natural or artistic forms or of such superior intelligence as was shown in the great Greek and Latin writers. Meanwhile he beamed indulgently upon an imperfect universe. As he believed in nothing, he did not believe in a better or a worse. In the writings prior to 1900 may even be found conservative and aristocratic maxims. A supreme indifference inclined him to accept what is rather than risk what might be. i On the outbreak of the political crisis of 1900, his temper changed. He was then seen to show a preference for the progressive parties, and little by little went on to the revolutionary

parties which became honoured by his support.

He was no ora-

tor; words came slowly, and neither his mind nor his phrases were of the kind likely to be popular. The part taken by him at public meetings was undistinguished, being limited to signing manifestos and applauding resolutions, especially those with an

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international objective. He was more powerful with his pen. An opponent of Church and State, he seemed to put his faith tn

Racine (1925); J. L. Dirick, Franciana, Opinions, anecdotes, pensées de M. Anatole France (1925); G. Girard, La Jeunesse d’ Anatole France (1925); R. Johannet, Anatole France est-il grand écrivain?

the people and to expect the world to be renewed by some kind (1925); H. de Noussanne, Anatole France, philosophe sceptique of revolution. On this point his ideas remained rather vague. (1925); N. Ségur, Conversations avec Anatole France, etc. (1925); J. Tharaud, Monsieur France, Bergeret et Frère Léon (1925). (A. Cu.*) In one of his books, Sur la pierre blanche, he ends the description FRANCE (see 10.775), a republic of Western Europe and memof future society with a dreadful cataclysm that destroys everyber of the League of Nations. The area of France, increased on thing, and here he is nearer to nihilism than to socialism. The World War changed the trend of his thoughts. As he was too old Nov. rr 1918 by the addition of Alsace-Lorraine, is now 212,737 sq. miles. Her domiciled population (1921) was 39,200,518. to serve in the field he wanted at least to show his good will and asked to be employed in a Tours office. This great upheaval left I. POLITICAL HISTORY him uncertain concerning the destinies of humanity. Perhaps The situation of France at the beginning of ro1r was difficult extreme scepticism is not for long tolerable, and Anatole France enough, though no acute trouble was manifest at any point to felt the need of escape into a revolutionary faith which he refused account for the general uneasiness everywhere apparent. In to define, leaving it a mere aspiration. What is indisputable is the quality of Anatole France's art. Nov. roro M. Briand, after breaking the great railway strike, reconstructed the Mintstry, over which he had presided since The younger generations, tried by war, and witnessing the consequent political difficulties, ill comprehend the detachment of the fall of M. Clemenceau in July 1909, to include a larger prodilettante M. Bergeret. They need more moral discipline, they portion of Moderate elements. As is usual in such cases, the believe more in virtue and action. But they do not deny the reconstruction had disintegrated the governmental majority instead of strengthening it. The Chamber elected in roro leaned master who charmed their elders with his graceful wit and magic further to the Left than the Prime Minister, and showed its disphrases. As a storyteller, in lucidity of thought and form, Anasatisfaction by reducing the majority to 16 on a vote of contole France is incomparable. In his style, too, there is a sweetfidence on the application of the Congregation Laws. M. ness, an almost voluptuous grace, which distinguishes his phrases Briand might stil! have remained in power had he really wished, from those of any other writer. He owed much to Voltaire, much to Renan, much to the old French romances, to memoirs and to but he preferred to resign (Feb. 20 1g11) with honour rather chronicles. He had read and remembered much; but what he than cling to office. Although himself sprung from the Socialist ranks, he felt the necessity of preserving public order against borrowed he made his own; all was changed, anc for the better, subversive elements, and saw that the deputies were more and by his style and interpretation. He translated into a pungent idiom all that could delight or stimulate the intelligence of his more inclined to force the issue, and moreover, he saw no way of extricating himself satisfactorily from the very delicate negotiacultured contemporaries. He was a deep admirer of classicism, tions with Germany. and to the end of his life, when he mentioned Molière, Racine or Stendhal his conversation or his writing attained their richest THe YEARS BEFORE THE WAR substance and most pleasant harmonies. The Conflict over Morocco.—Since the Algeciras Conference in He makes another strong claim on the attention of posterity. He was the finest flower of the Latin genius. His knowledge of rọoọ9 French diplomacy had alternated between two courses. antiquity was great, and his work contained the essentials of Confident in the Russian alliance and the Entente of April 8 Greek and Latin wisdom. He portrayed in Thais characters who -tgo4 with England, she had effectively resisted German presdistil the philosophy of the ancients. He put into the mouth of sure. But she saw on all sides evidence that Germany intended Jérôme Coignard maxims which likewise represent the sum of to obtain by indirect means what she had failed to win by intimthe meditations and arguments common to antiquity. If all the idation—a footing in Morocco and the disruption of the Triple Entente. The Berlin Cabinet took every opportunity of thwartworks of the Hellenic and Roman periods were lost their shadow ing the organisation of a French protectorate in the Shereefian and purpose might be found in the works of Anatole France. Empire; moreover, acting in conjunction with Vienna, they. He knew what he owed them, and paid them the most splendid persistently insinuated in political and journalistic circles in homage. Lastly, in all periods of his career, whatever his theories, he Paris that France would enjoy greater facilities in Morocco in return for complaisance towards German expansion in the was a deep student of human nature. He expressed in tuncful sentences most of the wisdom that may be acquired from the East. This alluring propaganda had its effect upon the Radicals observation of life and the reading of history. He created char- and Socialists, while the Russian Alliance and the Entente Cordiale found favour mainly among the Conservatives, Proacters who persist in the memory: Jéréme Coignard, Jacques gressives and Liberals. To the Left of these parties—whom the Catherine, Belléme, Madame}Martin Bergeret, M. Tournebroche, the lace worker, Paphmuce, Nicias, Evariste Gamelin. He de- pacifists accused of militarism—-hopes were entertained of an scribed what was comic and evil in mortals. He described, too, understanding with Germany which, by removing the risk of war, would permit of the normal development of democratic what was august in man, sacred in man’s labours and sufferings. Though he lacked enthusiasm and ardour, his critical intelligence institutions. M. Pichon, Foreign Minister in the Clemenceau did not prevent him from brooding over human misery, and in and Briand cabinets, did not share this view; but, inspired with a great desire for conciliation, he gave certain confidential the story of Crainquebille he showed his heart. While humbling assurances to Berlin, supplementing the Franco-German declarahimself before the invincible forces of fate and lust, he dedicated tion of Feb. 9 roog, under which nationals of both countries his work now to irony—which brought brightness into his life— and now to pity—which at other times reminded him that life were to be associated in Morocco in any transactions for which they could obtain contracts. But at the beginning of ror11 the deserves a serious, a solemn attention. And so he became twice fortunate, for he was at once a subtle artist acclaimed by the cabinets of Paris and Berlin were in fact in complete disagreecritics and a universally respected publicist who influenced the ment on the application of the 1909 declaration, and it was therefore without regret that Pichon left the Quai d’Crsay. simple-minded. Ife diced at Tours, Oct. 13 1924. Monis, a senator from La Gironde, formed (March 2) a The works of Anatole France have been translated and edited by Frederic Chapman and James Lewis May and published by Radical Ministry, giving Caillaux Finance, Berteaux War, Steeg Public Instruction, Delcassé the Navy, Messimy the The Bodley Head, London. Colonies and Paul-Boncour Labour. He immediately found France BIBLIOGRAPHY.—M. Gaffter, Les théories sociales d'Anatole himself in aifficulties of various kinds. Himself opposed to prole M. (1923); (1923); G. A. Masson, Anatole France; son oeuvre portional representation, he had to deal with a Chamber which Goff, Anatole France à la Béchellent (1924); C. Maurras, Anatole France, politique et poète (1924); J. L. May, Anatole France, etc., favoured this method; and although he yielded to Socialist (1924); J. Roujon, La vie et les opinions d'Anatole France (1924); G. pressure on social questions he was unable to calm the effervesl'artiste et le penseur (1924); J. J. Brousson, Truc, Anatole

France,

Anatole France en pantoufles (1925); G. des Hons, Anatole France et

cence of the extreme Left.

In the department of Aube he was

FRANCE threatened by a quasi-revolt of the vine-growers, whose right to sell their wine under the name of champagne had been disputed. The Moroccan question was again disquieting. The strongest personality in the Ministry was Caillaux, who, though he stood for better relations with Germany, cherished the ambition of “ giving ” Morocco to France—that is to say, releasing the protectorate in Morocco from the obligations of Algeciras by arrangement with Berlin. With the concurrence of Berteaux he pressed forward the Morocco campaign. His Foreign Minister, the lawyer Cruppi, failed to realise the risk of military initiative without diplomatic preparation. In April, when the French troops entered Fez, Germany formulated reservations, and Spain claimed her right to similar military occupations, notably at Larache. The question of calling a second conference at once arose; at the moment of this diplomatic crisis a tragic accident put an end to the Monis Ministry, for Berteaux was killed and Monis seriously wounded (May 20) by the fall of an aeroplane on the aerodrome at Issy-les-Moulineaux. For a month the Govt. struggled on. The Senate settled the Aube wine question by removing the strict definition of champagne. On June 23 the Govt. was defeated in the Chamber, and resigned. Invited to form a ministry, Caillaux took the Interior himself, assigned Finance to Klotz, left Steeg and Delcassé at Public Instruction and the Navy, gave Messimy War and entrusted Foreign Affairs to de Selves, a senator and a successful prefect of the Seine. Caillaux’s programme included a project for the “ reorganisation of Africa.” This scheme, previously worked out with Messimy, had formed the subject of secret negotiation with the German Govt. in the spring. At that time the proposals entailed the cession to Germany of the political administration of French Equatorial Africa under the form of railway exploitation. A document, which was to remain secret, stipulated that: “‘ if the construction of the railway is authorised, Germany may be practically assured that sooner or later Cameroon will be able to annex the Sanga, Ubangi and Shari basins. The economic preponderance of Germany in these countries will in effect inevitably entail her political ascendancy.’ This move, which meant disguised. annexation, failed; but the German Govt., disillusioned by the failure of the agreements made with the Briand Ministry, proceeded with a definite plan. Jules Cambon, French ambassador in Berlin, went to Kissingen during the ministerial crisis to talk over matters with Kiderlen-Waechter. The Agadir Incident—On July 1, the day after the reading of the ministerial declaration in Parliament, the reply came. Germany’s representatives abroad notified all the Powers signatory to the Act of Algeciras that in response to the appeal of German

commercial firms and of German protégés for the protection of Agadir, their Government had sent a warship, the“ Panther,” to the Moroccan port. This brusque announcement, which meant that France must either forego the military protectorate of Morocco or compensate Germany, was made two days before the date fixed for the embarkation of the President, M. Fallières, and the Foreign Minister, M. de Selves, on a visit to the Queen of Holland. For four months the new Ministry was absorbed in extremely delicate negotiations. Confronted with the uncompromising attitude of Great Britain and Russia, Germany, whose military and naval equipment was not yet complete, did not persist in her original claims on the Congo. To hasten the issue, Caillaux ventured, unknown to de Selves, to make to Berlin secret pro-

posals exceeding the limits conceived possible by the Foreign Minister.

Disagreeable complications ensued.

Finally, on Nov.

5, a treaty was signed ceding to Germany territory which gave access to the Ubangi and the Congo and organising an economic protectorate in Morocco. The bill for the ratification of the treaty provoked stormy debates in the Chamber. It was passed at the end of Dec.; but when, some days later, M. Caillaux’s secret offers were disclosed at the Commission on Foreign Affairs of the Senate, at which Léon Bourgeois presided, there was a dramatic scene which led to de Selves’s resignation. Caillaux offered the Foreign Office 1 Documents secrets, published by A.G. Journal des Débats Jan. 11 1912.

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to M. Delcassé, who hesitated; the Marine successively to Poincaré, Admiral Germinet and Pierre Baudin, who refused. Finding it impossible to complete his Cabinet, the Prime Minister resigned on Jan. Io. The replacement of a third of the Senate on the first Sunday in Jan. to12 produced no sensible modification in either the spirit or the composition of the Upper Chamber. At the request of Fallières, Raymond Poincaré now quickly formed a ministry. Taking the Foreign Office himself, he made Briand Minister of Justice, gave Léon Bourgeois Labour, Steeg the Interior and Delcassé the Navy. In his declaration on Jan. 16 he announced as his programme the prompt ratification of the treaty of Nov. 4, an entente loyale with Spain, courteous and frank relations with Germany, lovalty to alliances and friendships, the restoration of the principle of authority, rigid repression of crime and of offences against persons or property and electoral reform. Under the influence of the Prime Minister moderate ideas began to find favour. When Henri Brisson died, Paul Deschanel was elected to succeed him as president of the Chamber. The municipal elections in May were in favour of the Moderates. A rather complicated franchise Act embodying proportional representation was passed by the Chamber. But, as in the previous year, attention was riveted primarily upon foreign affairs. A treaty providing for the protectorate was signed by the Sultan of Morocco on March 30, and Gen. Lyautey was appointed Resident-General. There followed disturbances at Fez, negotiations with Spain and long discussions in Parliament. The Sultan Moulai-Hafid abdicated, and was replaced by Moulai-Youssef. The liquidation of the Moroccan affair was attended by a series of complications. The Balkan Crisis.—Italy had thought it necessary to undertake a parallel enterprise in Tripoli, thus involving herself in a war with Turkey. Certain questions of neutrality arising out of this led to unpleasant incidents, one of which—that of the “ Carthage ” and the “ Manouba ’’—caused acute tension between Paris and Rome. Here arbitration prevented actual conflict. But the annexation pure and simple of the whole of Libya by Italy, the closing of the Dardanelles and various other incidents aroused such excitement and such hopes in the Balkans that a Balkan League was formed for the purpose of liberating the Christian races on the peninsula. Poincaré was briefly informed of this by Izvolski on April 1, and of the details only in Aug. on the occasion of his visit to Nicholas II. at St. Petersburg. He attempted to intervene as a moderator, but the German and Austrian cabinets which had had warning from secret sources at the beginning of April, allowed events to take their course in the hope that Serbia might be crushed. During the Balkan wars Poincaré continued to urge the localisation of the conflict and the maintenance by the Great Powers of a disinterested attitude in respect of territory. At the London Conference, which opened in Dec., his thesis was: “ The Balkans for the Balkan States.” The diplomatic crisis had become serious over the question of Scutari and of Serbia’s access to the sea when, Fallières’s tenure of ofħce having expired, Poincaré was elected President of the

Republic (Jan. 17 1913) by 483 votes against Pams with 269. He carried the day in spite of Clemenceau and the preliminary nomination of Pams by a majority of the Left groups. In his presidential address to the Chambers he made clear his intention to take a more active part than his predecessors had done in the politics of his country. ‘“‘ Weakening of the executive power ” he said, ‘‘ is no part of the creed of Chamber or Country.” He insisted further on the necessity of maintaining the military power of France at its highest level, for “ it is not possible for a nation to have an eflectively pacific policy unless it be always prepared for war.” | Briand’s Cabinet of Jan. 1913 was formed in accordance with these ideas. Taking the Interior himself, he gave Foreign Affairs to Jonnart and Justice to Barthou, leaving most of the other ministers in their offices. He demanded extraondinary credits for material of war, and put forward a bill for the re-establishment of three years’ service, proposing thus to counterbalance

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FRANCE

the military measures of the German Govt., which had asked for a special grant of a milliard marks for the reorganisation of the army (see GERMANY). Meanwhile he was placed in a minority in the Senate on the question of proportional representation and, on March 18, gave in his resignation. Barthou, who now became Prime Minister, with Pichon as his Foreign Minister, set himself to secure the passing of the

Three Years’ Service bill, considered indispensable for national security by the French general staff. Meanwhile he decided to retain with the colours the class whose term of service would expire In October. It was only after a hard struggle and in the face of violent opposition from the Socialists throughout the country that the bill was passed by the Chamber, and then only with an amendment made by Painlevé which placed recruitment a year earlier, at 20 instead of 21, so that the ror2 and 1913 classes were called up together, allowing the roto class to be released at the appointed time. The Senate passed the bill almost unanimously. Barthou’s ultimate success was due to the ever-growing menace of a European war. In April a petty dispute between German travellers at Nancy and the inhabitants nearly led to a diplomatic quarrel. Even when the peace of Bucharest (Aug. 10 1913) ended the second Balkan War, the air was still charged with electricity, both in Europe and the East. In France anxiety increased with the rapid growth of pan-Germanism and the concentrated pressure exercised on the Quai d’Orsay by the cabinets of Vienna and Berlin with the object of raising loans to drain French savings invested in those countries which were under the influence of the two empires. In the beginning of Nov. Pichon learned through Jules Cambon, who had been confidentially charged by the King of the Belgians to convey the warning to the French Govt., that the Kaiser had said to King Albert at his official visit to Potsdam: “ War with France is inevitable and imminent. .... This time it must be decisive. Your Majesty can have no conception of the irresistible enthusiasm that will sweep over the entire German nation when that day comes.” Other remarks, of no less grave import, were made by von Moltke, chief of the German general staff, who was in attendance. Vigorously attacked by the Left, Barthou had to contend with strong opposition from the Radicals, led by Caillaux, and the Socialists. After the parliamentary vacation his majority collapsed on a question of finance. The floating debt, which had been increased by the expenses in Morocco, made it necessary to raise a loan. The loan proposed by Dumont, Minister of Finance, was defeated by 290 to 265. The objection to the extension of the guarantee of fiscal immunity enjoyed by the existing rentes to the new rente demanded by the minister was, however, only the nominal pretext; the real opposition of the Left was due to Dumont’s refusal to impose an income tax. Ribot and Jean Dupuy failed successively in their attempts to form a Moderate cabinet on account of Radical opposition of which Caillaux was the rallying point. Poincaré, mindful of Caillaux’s diplomatic activities in rg11, was unwilling to put him into power. He therefore instructed Doumergue to form a Radical ministry in which that statesman would take Foreign Affairs. Doumergue entrusted Caillaux with Finance, René Renoult with the Interior and Viviani with Public Instruction. He obtained a vote of confidence from the Chamber (302 votes against 141) for “ a policy of democratic reforms, based on republican opinion and supported by an exclusively republican majority.’ This new Govt. indicated a reversion to the sectarian

policy known as “ Combisme.” It was In favour of a tax on income, which was adopted by the Chamber. The reform of the franchise was definitely rejected by the Senate in March, and the approaching elections were therefore to be on the old basis of the scrutin d'arrondissement.

The Menace of “ Preventive” War—Although the Ministry had promised the loyal application of the Three Years’ Service law, it was known to dislike the system. But the external situation became more and more disquieting. German militarism entered upon a provocative phase. The Zabern incident (see ALSACE-LORRAINE) produced a deep impression throughout the

country. In March the Kölnische Zeitung stated that the “legend ” of historical Russo-German friendship had been finally exploded. The question of the “ preventive ” war was openly discussed in the principal Berlin papers. The Kreuzzeitung expressed regret that Germany, in 1905, had missed the opportunity of demanding a decisive explanation from France when the conditions were most favourable. The Berliner Tageblatt held the view that “ in certain cases, a state surrounded by toopowerful neighbours owed it to herself not to wait for the knockout blow to be delivered.” It and other papers declared that Germany must make haste to act before the Habsburg Empire fell to pieces. For several weeks the newspapers harped on this theme. The cordial sentiments exchanged at the Elysée on April 21, when the King and Queen of England visited Paris, reassured

the public for a time; but fresh signs of trouble soon disturbed its peace. A noisy campaign was organised in Germany against the Foreign Legion, and complications arose at various points in the East. The Assassination of Gaston Calmette, and the Elections.+—A sensation was caused on the eve of the elections by the assassination of Gaston Calmette, editor of the Figaro, by Madame Caillaux. On Caillaux’s resignation Renoult became Minister of Finance, and Malvy Minister of the Interior. The elections took place a month later (April 26 and May 10). The re-election of Deschanel by 401 votes as president of the Chamber made a majority for the Radicals and Socialists seem unlikely. All the vice-presidents too were chosen from among the partisans of the Three Years’ Service bill. Nevertheless the Unified Socialists carried 102 seats, and the Radicals were reinforced; their combined strength was such that no Cabinet could dispense with their support. Doumergue, deferring to custom, had resigned after the elections, and the President of the Republic appointed Viviani with instructions to maintain the Three Years’ Service law. But Viviani, confronted with the opposition of the RadicalSocialists, who demanded a return to two years’ service, resigned. Poincaré then called on Ribot, who completed on June 9 a Cabinet composed of Moderates and of friendly Radicals, such as Léon Bourgeois and Jean Dupuy. But this Cabinet fell at the first meeting of the Chamber on June r2, when a majority of 306 against 26 announced the resolve: “ to give a vote of confidence only to a government capable of bringing about the union of the Left groups.” Ribot had drawn the attention of the Chamber to the gravity of the general situation and the Increase in German armaments; but the Socialist deputies, absorbed in their own affairs, maintained that these armaments were not directed against France. Viviani, summoned once more by Poincaré, now found the Radicals more accommodating, and succeeded in his task. He took Foreign Affairs himself; gave Justice to Bienvenu-Martin, the Interior to Malvy, War to Messimy and the Navy to Augagneur. The ministerial declaration announced the Government’s intention of applying the Three Years’ law until further notice and of carrying into effect the income-tax proposals so long held up by the Senate. The Ministry secured a vote of confidence by 370 against 137 votes. THE

EUROPEAN

On June 28 the Archduke

CRISIS

Francis Ferdinand and his wife

were assassinated at Sarajevo by two Bosnians who were AustrcHungarian subjects. While diplomatic and military preparations for a war of aggression were being carried on in the greatest secrecy in Vienna and Berlin, President Poincaré and Viviani were embarking for Russia on a visit to the Tsar, while the French people were passionately absorbed in the proceedings against Madame Caillaux (July 20-8) at the Seine assizes. The verdict of acquittal produced a great sensation, but at this very moment

the designs of Austria and Germany were revealed in a flash. Poincaré had scarcely left Russia, on July 23, when—at a moment chosen by Vienna and Berlin to prevent the President and the Tsar from coming to any agreement—the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister sent Serbia an ultimatum couched in terms which were intended to make it unacceptable. In Paris, the Austrian and German ambassadors declared to Bienvenu-Martin,

FRANCE acting Premier and Foreign Minister, that the conflict was to be localised to Austria and Serbia. M. de Schoen added that “any intervention by another Power would, automatically, under the existing alliances, produce incalculable results.” A wireless message led Poincaré and Viviani to cut short their proposed stay in Stockholm and cancel their visits to Christiania and Copenhagen; they arrived at Dunkirk on July 29. On resuming the direction of affairs on the night of the 293oth, Viviani found the situation desperate On the night of the 25th Austria had broken off diplomatic relations with Serbia, and declared war on the 28th. At the Quai d’Orsay Schoen insistently demanded from Bienvenu-Martin and Philippe Berthelot a public declaration of the “ political solidarity of France and Germany ’’—that is to say, the abandonment of Russia by France. On the 31st Graf Lichtenfeld, Bavarian Charge d’Affaires in Berlin, informed Munich that “ the Prussian great general staff face war against France with the most complete confidence and count upon the complete defeat of France in four weeks.” During the presidential voyage anxious French Socialists had got in touch with German Socialists at Brussels. Jouhaux, general secretary of the Confédération générale du travail, inquired categorically of Legien, the Social-democrat representative, whether his party would allow themselves to be mobilised in case of aggression on the part of Germany. He received no reply. On the morning of the 31st the German Govt. declared a“ state of emergency’”’ (Kriegsgefahrzustand) preliminary to general mobilisation. On the same day the Austrian and Russian governments simultaneously ordered a general mobilisation. At 3:30 P.M., Bethmann Hollweg desired Schoen to inform Viviani that the German mobilisation inevitably meant war, and to ask him whether in a war between Russia and Germany France would remain neutral. His concluding instructions—marked “ secret ”—to Schoen were: If, as there is no reason to suppose, the French Govt. should declare that they will remain neutral, I beg your Excellency to inform the French Govt., that we should require, as pledges of their neutrality, the handing-over of the fortresses of Toul and Verdun; these we should occupy and return after the war. The reply to this question should be in our hands before 4 P.M. to-morrow.

At 7 o’clock Schoen fulfilled his mission to the Quai d’Orsay. A few minutes later, Jean Jaurès, leader of the French Socialist party, who had returned, greatly disheartened, from Brussels, was assassinated by a fanatic in a restaurant. During the day three councils were held at the Elysée. Poincaré sent King George an urgent letter, insisting on the importance of unity of diplomatic action on the part of the Triple Entente and on the moderating effect that could not fail to be produced in Vienna and Berlin by the certainty “ that the Entente Cordiale would be affirmed, in case of need, even to the extent of taking the field side by side.” In spite of the extreme gravity of the situation Viviani had not yet ordered general mobilisation, but only the completion of the second defence line. No moderating influence could now alter the course of events, determined by the two Central Powers. The French Govt. had concurred in all the British and Russian proposals for the prevention of a general con‘jagration, whether by the summoning of a conference, by arbitration by the Hague Court, or by mediation. In spite of some wavering between Vienna and Berlin at the cleventh hour the situation was so well defined that Schoen made his preparations for departure on the evening of the 31st, without waiting for the reply that Viviani was to give him the next day. With

the “‘ punishment ”’ of Serbia as the initial pretext, the conilict insensibly assumed the form desired by the German gencral staff. From Austro-Serbian and Austro-Russian it became German-I’rench, without a mistake or even the slightest imprudence having been committed at any point by the French Government. The Declarations of War-—On Aug. 1, without awaiting replies from France and Russia, William IT. approved the text of the declarations of war against these two Powers. The Federal Council assembled in Berlin took note of the two documents, and agreed to their dispatch in case the expected replies should

prove unsatisfactory.

SI At rr A.M. Viviani replied to Schoen that

France wouk! do what her interests demanded. There was no mention of Toul and Verdun by Schoen. At 3:40 P.M. France ordered a general mobilisation. At the same hour, and before the errival in Berlin of Schoen’s telegram relating his interview with Viviani, the order for general mobilisation was given in Berlin, the public announcement following at 5 o’clock. At 5:30 Schoen went again to the Quai d’Orsay, where Viviani expressed to him his hope that, in spite of the mobilisation, negotiations would be continued on the basis of the most recent proposal put forward by England, which had the warm support of the French Cabinet. At 7 p.m. Count Pourtalés delivered Germany’s declaration of war to Sazonov. At midnight Izvolski appeared at the Elysée, where a Cabinet meeting was in progress, to ask what France intended to do. The Cabinet decision was to fulfil all the obligations of the Alliance, but that France should not take the initiative in breaking off relations nor declare war. A state of siege was proclaimed, and the Chambers were convoked for the folowing Tuesday. During the night German detachments invaded French territory at four different points. On the morning of Aug. 2 a French corporal was killed on the Delle road by a German lieutenant who had entered France at the head of a patrol. In Berlin the expediency of an immediate invasion of France was being discussed. After consulting the war ministers and the general staff, the Chancellor decided in the negative. “ We hope,” he reported to the Kaiser, ‘‘ that the French will attack us.” But this hope was not realised, the French troops having orders not to respond to provocation. The German Cabinet then ordered the German Minister at Brussels to carry out the instructions contained in a sealed note that had been sent with a telegram on July 29; these instructions were that the Belgian Govt. be summoned to allow the passage of the German Army. At the same time the chief of the German Admiralty informed the commander of the fleet that hostilities against France would probably commence on Aug. 3. The Belgian Govt. rejected the German summons, as also the proposal of H. Klobukowski, the French Minister, to send five French army corps to defend Belgium’s neutrality. In London assurances were made to M. Cambon by Sir Edward Grey that if the German Flect came into the Channel or through the North Sea to undertake military operations against the French coast or shipping, the British Fleet would give all the protection in its

power, and that the British Govt. were considering whether thev would declare in Parliament the next day that the violation of Belgium should be regarded as a casus belli. On Aug. 3, France having nowhere furnished any pretext for aggression, the German authorities spread false reports of supposed invasions of German soil or German skies by French soldiers. Bethmann Hollweg telegraphed to all the Furopean capitals that “ France’s action was the most serious violation of neutrality imaginable.” Between r and 2 o’clock he ordered Schoen to deliver to the French Govt. at 6 p.m. the same day a declaration of war couched in these terms:— 7 The German administrative and military authorities have established a certain number of flagrantly hostile acts committed on German territory by French military aviators. Several of these have openly violated the neutrality of Belgium by flying over the territory of that country. One has attempted to destroy buildings near Wesel; others have been seen in the district of the Eifel, one has thrown bombs on the railway near Karlsruhe and Nürnberg. Iam instructed, and I have the honour to inform your Excellency that, in the presence of these acts of aggression, the German

Empire considers

itself in a state of war with France in consequence of the acts of this latter Power.

Viviani made vigorous protests both to Schoen and in a note sent to the representatives of the Powers in Paris. There was some brawling in the streets of the capital where German or Austro-Hungarian subjects owned shops and some of these wer’. pillaged. But order once being restored by Viviani, no further disturbance took place in the following days. That evening he reconstructed his Cabinet to suit the circumstances, himself remaining president of the council but relinquishing Foreign Affairs, which passed to Doumergue. Augagneur succeeded Gauthier for the Navy.

FRANCE

82

On Aug. 4, amid general excitement but without disturbance anywhere, Parliament reassembled to hear the Government’s communication. In his message the President of the Republic recalled the fact that for over 40 years France, resolutely putting aside her desire for legitimate reparation, had used her rejuvenated energy solely in the interest of progress and for the good of humanity; that she might be justly proud of having made supreme efforts to avert the war which had just broken out, the crushing responsibility of which would be laid upon the German Empire by history. The message, to which the two Assemblies, greatly moved, listened standing, proclaimed the “ union sacrée ” of all sons of France. Viviani then explained at length the events and negotiations that had taken place, concluding with these words: “ We are without fear, we shall be without reproach.” Thus invoked, the “ sacred union ”’ became a reality. Even as the army mobilisation proceeded throughout the country in perfect order, so the mobilisation of the spirit, which prepared the population to endure long and terrible trials, was effected with a quiet dignity. Parties ceased to exist. Bowing to the evidence of German aggression the Socialists stood loyally by the Government. They sought no vengeance for the murder of Jaurés, and the Viviani Cabinet, confident in their patriotism, refrained from using their discretionary powers of preventive arrest even on the most suspect in their ranks—those whose names were on “ List B.” The whole country, moved by one will, rose with the same enthusiasm against the invader. By a succession of laws, passed without debate, the country was organised for a state of war. The state of siege was to be maintained for the duration of the War; commercial settlements were postponed and credits prolonged; legal proceedings against citizens called up for service were suspended, and a moratorium was decreed for bank deposits. Allowances were voted for necessitous families whose breadwinners were in the army; the Govt. was authorised to open by decree credits for the requirements of national defence. Notes on the Banque de France became compulsory currency, and the limit of emission was raised to r2 millards. Measures were taken against alcoholism, in particular the sale of absinthe was forbidden. To avoid press indiscretions it was forbidden, under penalty of imprisonment, to publish any information regarding national defence apart from that given in official communications, or any military or any diplomatic article of a nature ‘“‘ favourable to the enemy or calculated to depress the minds of the army and the population.” No preventive censorship was established, but a Press bureau installed at the Ministry of War received the damp proof-sheets of the newspapers and marked such passages as were not to be printed. Any paper which failed to comply was liable to be warned, and, in case of a second offence, suspended. The passages suppressed were represented by blank spaces as it was Impossible to replace them at the last moment; these were known as “‘ caviare.”’ In a few days the conflagration had spread from one end of Europe to the other. Austria, however—the original instigator— affected a sort of ignorance of events in her relation to France. Her ambassador continued his functions in Paris. Under pressure of public opinion, infuriated by this cynical attitude, Doumergue sent Graf Szecsen his passports on Aug. ro and instructed Dumaine to ask for his. The British Cabinet followed the same course with regard to Count Mensdorff. THE

WAR

PERIOD

After the loss of the battle of the frontiers (Aug. 20-4) the Ministry realised the need of reconstruction or—as Viviani phrased it—of broadening its basis. On Aug. 26 the government of National Defence was constituted, containing representatives of the Republican parties, and including for the first time two Socialists, Guesde and Sembat. Viviani remained as Prime Minister without portfolio; with Briand, Delcass¢, Malvy, Millerand, Ribot, Sarraut and Doumergue. At the same time Jouhaux, together with the Archbishop of Paris, Cardinal Amette, was appointed to the National Aid committee (Comité de Poeuvre du secours national), created for the assistance of refugees from the invaded departments and presided over by the head of the Paris

Faculty of Science, M. Appel. No sooner was the new Govt. formed than it departed to Bordeaux (Sept. 3) unwilling to risk being shut up in Paris as in 1870. The capital was left in the hands of a military governor, Gen. Galliéni, whose short proclamation became famous: ‘ Inhabitants of Paris, the members of the Govt. of the Republic have left Paris in order to give a new impulse to National Defence. I have received a mandate to defend Paris against the invader; this mandate I shall carry out to the end” (Sept. 3). Nevertheless more than a third of the population left the citv. German aeroplanes flew over Paris daily. The installation at Bordeaux of the Govt., the foreign missions, the principal departments of state, the most important Paris newspapers, and a multitude of pusillanimous or curious persons was not effected without some disorder at first, and even some scandals. But life in the provisional capital rapidly attained the necessary dignity. On the side of the Govt. it showed great activity. On Sept. 5 M. Delcassé obtained through M. Cambon a declaration signed in London by which the British, French and Russian governments mutually agreed to conclucle no separate peace during the existing War, nor, when peace terms came to be discussed, to propose conditions without first coming to an agreement with each of the other Allies. The victory of the Marne (Sept. 6-10) brought relief, and, indeed, gave rise to exaggerated hopes; but disillusionment was to follow. On Aug. 2 a German-Turkish alliance had been concluded, unknown to the ambassadors of the Triple Entente duped by the triumvirate Talaat-Enver-Djemal; there followed the disaster of Tannenberg, the penetration of the “ Goeben ” and the “ Breslau ” into the Sea of Marmara, and Turkey’s entry into the War on the side of Germany at the end of October. Munitions became exhausted and the line of trenches now extended continuously from the Vosges to the sea. Paris was no longer in danger, but six departments had been invaded, and none could say when they would be liberated. The situation being thus stabilised, the Govt. was reinstalled in Paris in the latter half of December. The Chambers which had not sat at Bordeaux, although assembly rooms had been reserved for them, met again on Dec. 22. Thenceforward they were to be permanently in session with but few interruptions. The experience of the preceding months had shown that there were serious objections to the suppression of Parliament and of the Press. An outside stimulus was needed to correct the errors of judgment and fatal imprudences that had been committed. In the Chamber the criticisms were many and vigorous; notably these formulated with asperity by Clemenceau in his paper /’ Home Libre which, after being suppressed by the censor, reappeared as ? Homme Enchainé. But Viviani was able to curb excessive recriminations in the Chamber and to insist on the maintenance of the union sacrée. He consented to the formation of big parliamentary commissions, which were to prove discreet and very useful collaborators of the Government. Certain deputies and senators were sent on missions to the armies. Annual budgets were dispensed with. All credits were voted by douziémes described as provisional. As taxes were not coming in well and it was considered impolitic to raise them at a time when the nation’s whole resources were being strained to restrict invasion, resort was had to loans. The most successful financial resource was the issue of National Defence bonds, which had been Ribot’s idea. These were actually Treasury bonds in the form of coupons bearing a fixed rate of interest, payable in advance, which could be realised at three, six or 12 months and were negotiable at sight. The Ministry was vigorously attacked on the subject of the men—named embusgués—mobilised or liable to be mobilised, who shirked service at the front. In the hurry to produce munitions many factories had to be set working again and authority was given to their directors to recall such of their workpeople or staff as seemed to them indispensable. Similarly, members of the universities and specialists whose technical knowledge was indispensable to different services had to be allotted to noncombatant corps. As a result the trenches had been held, since the middle of 1915, mainly by peasants and employees. On the

FRANCHE initiative of Dalbiez, therefore, the Chamber passed a rigorous law (June 26), which did not however entirely remove the embusqués scandal. In July two under-secretaryships were created: Joseph Thierry for supply and Justin Godard for the medical services. The discussion aroused by all these complicated questions weakened Millerand’s position. In the Senate, Clemenceau,

as president of the Army Commission, carried on a ruthless campaign for the adaptation of the services to the needs revealed by the War. The Intervention of Italy—In the field of foreign politics the spring was a period of great promise followed by great disappointment. In the Dardanelles the naval expedition sent to force the Straits failed (March 18) with heavy losses. In May there was joy on hearing of Italy’s intervention on the side of the Allies. A treaty between the Triple Entente and Italy, of which the tenor remained a secret for the whole of the War, had been signed on April 26 in London. Although the clauses relating to the proposed cession to Italy of territory inhabited by Slavs were not divulged, they were known in substance to the Slav peoples and created great indignation, thus strengthening Austro-Hungarian resistance. Then, too, in defiance of a formal stipulation in the Treaty of London, Sonnino declared war on Austria only. It was not until Aug. of the following year that he declared war on Germany, who benefited meanwhile by Italy’s neutrality. Then again, England and France, who were already providing military material for Russia, had now to manufacture it for Italy also, although they had not enough for themselves. The crowning humiliation was Rumania’s failure to come in till over a year later instead of with Italy, as the Allies had expected. The Intervention of Bulgaria —Yet another intervention was to follow, disconcerting the Allied Ministers and precipitating the fall of Viviani’s Cabinet. When Bulgaria ordered a general mobilisation on Sept. 22, the Allies flattered themselves that it was directed against Turkey. For three days Delcassé and Millerand denied the evidence. When the truth came out, Delcassé, on being questioned in the Chamber, was subjected to such severe criticism that he had to retire. Viviani then took over the portfolio of Foreign Affairs (Oct. 13). He was still able to obtain a vote of confidence of 372 to 9; but, by the abstention of the Socialists and a large number of Radicals, the union sacrée was broken. Viviani was a victim of the general uneasiness caused by successive disappointments and by the non-success of the great offensive in Champagne (Sept. 15). Sensible of the disaffection of the majority, who were opposed to the secret committees instituted by the Chamber, Viviani handed in his resignation on Oct. 28. Briand rapidly formed a new Cabinet, keeping Foreign Affairs himself. The Ministry of Justice fell to Viviani, War to Gen. Gallićni, Navy to Adm. Lacaze, Public Instruction and Invention

to Painlevé; Ribot retained Finance and Malvy the Interior. Five seats in the Cabinet without portfolio were created for de Freycinet, Léon Bourgeois, Combes, Guesde and Denys Cachin, and an Under-Secretariat for Munitions for Albert Thomas, the young Socialist deputy. The Ministry, which embraced political veterans of all parties and some new men in addition, was unusually well received. Briand’s speech, taking as its motto: “ peace through victory,” was followed by a vote of confidence in the Chamber of 516 to 1. The union sacrée seemed to be restored in spite of the sympathy shown by a considerable and energetic Socialist minority with the pacifist resolutions passed at the International Socialist conference at Zimmerwakl early in September. This minority grew gradually bolder. At the second International Socialist Conference, held also in Switzerland at Kienthal in April 1916, three French deputies presented themselves. Restrictions and Finance In spite of goodwill the Briand Cabinet had some hard knocks at home and abroad. In the hope of preventing a rise in the price of essential foods and of slowing down the increase in the cost of living, the Govt. provided the bakers with flour (at a loss) and fixed maximum prices for certain commodities. They had eventually to proceed to stricter measures and to ration each family for bread, coal and sugar. Summer time, introduced in June for the sake of econo-

83

mising coal, was maintained in spite of the dislike of the rural population. The prolongation of the War made it more difficult to enforce extraordinary regulations which had been accepted originally as temporary. The restrictions on the consumption of alcohol, to which the trade raised strong objections, and the prohibitions laid down by the military authorities aroused complaints which reverberated unpleasantly in the Chamber. On Feb. r r916 Galliéni, having been rudely interrupted, left the tribune and even the hall. Although he was brought back it was only to complain, “ You force me to do work for which I am not fitted.” It was not for long. Galliéni, being exhausted and threatened with appendicitis, resigned on March 16. On May 26 he died as the result of an operation. His funeral was made a national event. He was succeeded by Gen. Roques, who was thus the fourth War Minister in 20 months. The necessity of providing the Treasury with other resources than those raised by loans compelled the Govt. to demand new sacrifices. À tax on Income, passed by the Chamber before the War, but laid aside by the Senate, had already been imposed; but owing to the respite granted to mobilised men only 133,000 were found to have an Income over 5,000 fr. (the minimum taxable figure), and as their total income was under three milliards, only half the expected sum was realised. Ribot hoped at least to cover the interest on new loans by the tax. He therefore proposed to double the tax on land, the tax on income, and to increase the duties on tobacco, sugar and alcohol; also to suppress the rights of vinevard proprietors to distil without paying duty on the vield of their vintage. On this latter point in particular Ribot met much opposition, and exemption on 10 litres of pure alcohol per family was conceded. The Senate accepted this condition, though objecting to the distillers’ privileges. The doubling of direct taxes was rejected in favour of a tax on war profits, which from this time onward often appeared excessive. The Socialists took advantage of the national unrest to promote their cause, and internationalism made some headway in the National Council of French Socialists. Late in Aug. a vote was passed protesting against the doctrine which denied that a country had the right to defend itself when attacked, and calling for a durable peace based upon reparation of the wrong done in 1871 and the restoration of independence to oppressed nations. But the minority continued to grow and, by Dec. 28, had 1,081 votes against 1,836. Only by 1,637 votes against 1,372 was Thomas authorised by the party to return to Munitions. Verdun and the Somme.—During the whole of 1916 military interest was concentrated on the siege of Verdun (¢.v.). By June the general anxiety had reached such a pitch that Viviani consented to let the Chamber sit in secret committee (June 1622). After animated discussion a resolution was passed, by 440 against 97, expressing at the same time confidence in the Govt. and the Chamber’s desire “‘ to exercise effective control of all services engaged in providing for the requirements of the army . while strictly abstaining from interference with the conception, direction or execution of military operations.” Actually this control was carried out without serious hitches, and the committee continued to sit in secret whenever the situation was felt by the deputies to be too serious to be discussed at a public sitting. On July 1a Franco-British massed attack was launched against the line of the Somme. It was a brilliant performance, with heavy losses on both sides, but the result was negative; for after wecks of struggle the Allied line had only advanced some kilometres to the East. On the second anniversary of the War efforts were made to sustain the morale of the army and the population by proclamations from the President of the Republic, the Prime Minister and the army chiefs. The Govt. urged private individuals to put their gold into the Banque de France and place their realisable foreign securities at the disposal of the state. In response to these appeals some three milliards were collected, making it possible to limit depreciation of the franc to 10 or 12%. The Eastern Campaitgns.—But events in the East took a disastrous turn. The second Dardanelles expedition—no more successful than the first—was abandoned in the autumn, and the

84

FRANCE

troops thus released were sent to Salonika and placed under Gen. Sarrail, who had instructions to go to the aid of Serbia. But Sarrail, lacking adequate means and thwarted by the opposition of King Constantine, was unable to get into touch with the Serbs, whose army retreated under terrible conditions across Albania to the Adriatic. In vain did the British and French governments urge Constantine to range himself on the side of the Allies; he dismissed Veniselos and the Chamber, and persisted in an unfriendly neutrality. Briand opened negotiations with the Greek Govt., which produced nothing but irritation and disappointment to France. On Aug. 17 1916 a treaty of alliance with Rumania brought the Allies renewed hopes of an early victory. But after some success there came a fresh disaster. Rumania was attacked by Bulgaria, on whose neutrality she had relied; the Russian contingents promised to her were delayed, the promised offensive by Sarrail’s army was not launched and her territory was finally invaded and occupied by the enemy as far as Moldavia. Encouraged by these events and urged on by Berlin, Constantine went so far as to attack some detachments of French marines on the outskirts of Athens and a number of Veniselists in the streets of the city. French residents had to take refuge with the fleet. Briand and Adm. Dartige du Fourmet, commanding in Greek waters, had been doubtfully advised in their later negotiations with the Cabinet in Athens. Thev had in fact speculated on Constantine’s goodwill. In France, where the Rumanian catastrophe had come as a surprise, these latest events made a painful impression. A secret committee of the Chamber (Nov. 28-Dec. 7) passed a resolution “ taking note of the Government’s declarations on the reorganisation of the command and approving its resolution to concentrate on the conduct of the War and its economic organisation.” Briand thereupon reconstituted his Cabinet. He suppressed the five ministers of state, made Gen. Lyautey War Minister (replacing him in Morocco by Gen. Gouraud), promoted Thomas to be Minister of Munitions, and gave Herriot Supplies. Loucheur was made Under-Secretary of Munitions. A war committee of five ministers was formed and, at the end of the month, the reform of the high command, so long desired by the manv who had lost confidence in Joffre’s methods, was timidly brought about. Joffre was attached to the War Committee as technical adviser, and was made a Marshal of France. His successor was neither Foch nor Pétain, but Gen.

Nivelle, who was appointed commander of the armies of the north and northeast. But Briand’s authority was now seriously impaired. In the Chamber he was subjected to wearisome criticism and recrimination, and the deputies refused him the necessary powers to deal by administrative order with questions affecting national defence. Even the Senate’s vote of confidence was only passed by 190 votes against 37. With each successive vote his majority decreased while the number of abstentions steadily increased. At last, during a session tn which certain deputies demanded a secret committee on military questions, Gen. Lyautey retorted bluntly that there were some things which could not be said even in secret committce. This suggestion of possible indiscretions—there had been leakages—was greeted with angry murmurs, and Lyautey decided to resign. As Painlevé refused to take his place, Briand tendered the resignation of the whole Cabinet on March 17 1917. Peace Offers —One of the last acts of the Cabinet had been the rejection of a disputable offer from the four enemy governments ‘ to enter upon peace negotiations.’ This proposition, couched in grandiloquent phrases and enhanced by sensational addresses from the heads of the governments in Berlin, Vienna and Sofia, lacked precision. As M. Briand said, speaking on Dec. 1 1916, it was a proposition to “ d'avoir a négocier la paix.” The Russian, Italian and British ministers denounced its insincerity. About the same time, too, a note from Mr. Lansing invited the belligerents in the name of President Wilson to

“ take soundings.” It was a profound shock to France to see all the belligerents—aggressors and victims-~put thus on the same footing. Two days later the Swiss Govt. made a similar move. On Dec. 23 the French Senate announced its determination

“to carry on the War which has been imposed upon us to a victorious conclusion.” The governments of the other Allies expressed their determination with equal force. On Dec. 30 they sent collective and identical notes to the neutral states charged with the protection of their interests in enemy countries, stating that the conclusion of peace was contingent upon the restoration of rights and liberties that had been violated and recognition of the complete independence of the small states. Wilson still pleaded for “ peace without victory ” at the Senate on Jan. 22; but, Germany having declared for unrestricted submarine warfare, (Feb. 1) he broke off diplomatic relations with that country on Feb. 3. . Paul Deschanel, the president of the Chamber, having declined to undertake to form the new Ministry, it fell to Ribot to accomplish this task in 24 hours. Taking Foreign Affairs himself, he gave War to Painlevé, Labour to Léon Bourgeois, and retained several of the former Ministers—notably Malvy as Minister of the Interior. Lyautey returned to Morocco. The ministerial declaration, of considerable substance and detail, was approved by 440 votes against 61 abstentions.

Ribot was confronted with

some extremely important problems. The Russian Revolution, the forced abdication of the Tsar, and the installation of the weak provisional Govt.—soon to be succeeded by the Bolsheviks—upset all the military combinations of the Allies on the eve of a great offensive for which minute preparations had been in progress for months. At the same moment (March 17-24) the Germans effected a strategic retreat on the Somme front, leaving a desert behind them. A formidable problem presented itself: should the offensive, prepared in conjunction with the British, be carried out in spite of the modification in the general conditions unfavourable to the Alles? To what extent should the Govt. interfere in the direction of military operations? Intimate discussions took place between the ministers and Gen. Nivelle. The declaration of war on Germany by the United States (April 6) served, it is true, to restore the equilibrium destroyed by the Russian Revolution, but it would be many months before it could have any effect on the military situation. As the Govt. still hesitated Nivelle offered his resignation, but withdrew it on receiving definite assurance that the offensive would take place as arranged. On April 16 the French troops, who had been magnificent in launching their attack, were brought up against insurmountable obstacles and came to a standstill after heavy losses. The depression felt by the army and the public led, among other changes, to the replacement of Nivelle by Pétain, with Foch as chief of the general staff. Side by side with military operations, secret negotiations were

proceeding between Paris and Vienna.

In Jan. and Feb. the

Emperor Charles I. commissioned his brother-in-law Prince Sixtus of Bourbon to communicate his desire for peace to President Poincaré. After several journeys Prince Sixtus of Bourbon presented Austria’s peace conditions (May 5) at the Elysée. They were the conditions of a conqueror, and the alliance with Germany, Bulgaria and Turkey was again affirmed. After another journey to Vienna, Prince Sixtus returned to the Elysée with a personal letter from the Emperor, who expressed his willingness “‘ to forward in every possible way the just claims of France to Alsace-Lorraine and to use his personal intluence with his Allies to that end.” Although these conditions were unacceptable to the Allies of France, Poincaré and Ribot did not reject them offhand. On April 19 Ribot went to St. Jean-deMaurienne with Lloyd George, who had been fully informed, to meet Sonnino. Lloyd George offered Sonnino Smyrna if he

would give up Trieste; but the Italian Minister insisted that the conditions of the Treaty of London had represented a minimum and that any concession would provoke risings in Italy which would place the Govt. in danger. Subsequent conversations only attested the impotent vacillation of the Austro-Hungarian Government. Other secret proposals were exchanged during the summer at Fribourg in Switzerland between Count Revertera, for Austria, and Count Armand for the French general staff. But these emphasized the inconsistency of proposals

which proved abortive.

FRANCE French Action in Athens.—It was thought that only by force of arms could the enemy be checkmated. Ribot therefore decided, after consulting the British Govt. in London, to settle the Greek question by expelling Constantine and freeing the Salonika Expeditionary Force from the risk of attack by the Germanophil Greek forces. He gave full powers to Senator Jonnart, appointed High Commissioner of the Allied Powers for the occasion. Jonnart left for Brindisi on June 2 and appeared before the Piraeus at the head of a tleet on the sth. In spite of strong protests from the British, Italian and Russian Ministers at Athens, all of whom were opposed to the expulsion of the King, Jonnart demanded and obtained Constantine’s capitulation, after having had Thessaly and the Isthmus of Corinth occupied by Allied troops. On June 13 King Constantine left Athens with his family. Jonnart then recalled Veniselos, who had constituted a provisional government at Salonika, and the King’s second son, Prince Alexander was called to the throne with the title of King Alexander I., his elder brother George being passed over because of his German sympathies. The Socialist Movement.—This success was warmly approved in Paris inside and outside Parliament. It helped to consolidate the Cabinet, which, however, was soon to be shaken by the Socialist manoeuvres. At a plenary session of the party held in May, the Socialists had decided to attend the International Congress at Stockholm which had been called with the object of stopping the War. The Govt. refused their passports, and the Chamber, after a secret session, passed a resolution of approval by 467 votes against 52, and with a further resolution on the conditions of peace that:— The Chamber, while countersigning the unanimous protest made to the National Assembly in 1871 by the representatives of AlsaceLorraine, forcibly torn from France, announces

that it expects, as

the result of the War imposed upon Europe by the aggression of Impcriatist Germany, not only the liberation of invaded territory, but the restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to the mother-country and just reparation for damages.

The Chamber further declared itself to be “ far from any idea of conquest or of the subjection of foreign populations,” and defined the goal towards which the armies of the republic were striving as “‘ the laying down of permanent guarantees of peace and independence for great and little nations by an organisation of which the basis is now being prepared by the League of Nations.” On June 7 a similar motion was passed unanimously in the Senate, which in addition requested the Govt. to take all necessary precautions at home and abroad for the safety of the nation, in view of the number of recent strikes of a suspicious nature in which undesirable foreigners had taken part. These transient troubles, which yielded to firm handling, coincided with a peace move staged in Berlin (see EUROPE), and rumours on the subject of a journey to Leningrad (Petrograd) undertaken by Doumergue and Castelnau under the late Ministry. As regards the latter, Ribot stated in the Chamber on July 31 that Doumergue had made a note of the Tsar’s promise to support the re-annexation of Alsace-Lorraine to France and * to leave France free to seek guarantees against renewed aggression, not by annexing the territories on the left bank of the Rhine, but by creating if necessary an autonomous state out of these territories, which would protect us, as well as Belgium, from invasion from beyond the Rhine.” Meanwhile disturbances stirred up by Teutonic influences with the aim of depressing French opinion and bringing into power in Paris men who would be willing to take the initiative in peace proposals, provoked a governmental crisis. In view of the anti-patriotic propaganda that was being carried on by means of pamphlets and the revolutionary paper Le Bonnet Rouge, the Senate held a secret committee (July 19-20). Clemenceau took Malvy, Minister of the Interior, vigorously to task on the matter of his relations with Almereyda, an adventurer who edited Le Bonnet Rouge. This episode marks an epoch in the internal history of France during the War, for it created the schism between the Socialists and the Government. The Senate and the Chamber successively passed votes of confidence, in spite of the resignation of Adm. Lacaze and Denys

85

Cochin. The Socialist group allowed Albert Thomas to remain in the Cabinet; but the rupture took place, following on the action brought against Le Bonnet Rouge. Almereyda, who had been arrested on Aug. 6, was found dead in his cell on the rgth. He had been strangled with one of his bootlaces. The official experts gave a verdict of suicide, but such a suicide was at lowest a singular reflection on the supervision exercised, and public opinion was up in arms, Malvy had been away a few days for his health, but he now resumed his functions. Mean-

while it was learnt that a cheque of suspicious origin which had been seized at the frontier from the director of Le Bonnet Rouge had been restored to him by the favour of Leymarie, Director of Public Safety, and at the same time director of the bureau of the minister. Leymarie declared he had acted without consulting the minister, and resigned. On Aug. 31 Malvy, accused of having relations with Almereyda, resigned. It was first thought that the Ministry might be simply reconstituted, but the attempt failed, and the Cabinet resigned on Sept. 7. Ribot, charged with the task of forming a new Ministry, failed, because the Socialists refused to collaborate with him, while Painlevé refused to remain in the Cabinet unless the Socialists came back. The Socialists could not forgive Ribot for refusing passports to Stockholm, and Painlevé was being pushed into power by friends who regarded him as the man of the hour. Thus it fell to Painlevé to form a Cabinet which, by a curious contradiction, did not include a single Socialist. He was his own War Minister; Ribot retained Foreign Affairs, and Loucheur became Minister of Munitions. On Sept. 18 Painlevé secured a vote of confidence, unanimous but for the abstention of the Socialists and some Radicals (among them Caillaux). The Ministerial Declaration contained nothing new in general policy, but promised that justice would take its course, unhesitatingly and without any respect of persons, in the judicial inquiries then proceeding or about to be opened. This promise the Ministry was almost immediately called upon to fulfil. On Oct. 7 Turmel, a deputy, was arrested for having received money of suspicious

origin. Then came the Bolo scandal. It was discovered that Bolo—known as Bolo Pasha, that title having been conferred on him by the former Khedive, now dethroned and an instrument of the Central Powers—had received 10,000,000 fr. in the United States from Von Bernstorff, the German ambassador. With this sum he had bought 1,100 shares in the Journal, the editor of which, Senator Charles Humbert, had made himself known by a noisy campaign demanding “ guns and munitions.” Bolo was arrested on Sept. 29. On Oct. 4 Malvy himself appeared in the dock. The former Minister of the Interior was accused of treason by Léon Daudet, editor of the Action Franguise, in a letter addressed to the President of the Republic, which was read out in the Chamber. After a judicial inquiry the Govt. announced, on Oct. 15, that there was no foundation for Daudet’s accusations. The Govt. obtained only 246 votes against 89 in the Chamber on an interpellation on the subject. It was shaken; an outside incident brought about its fall. Lhe Lancken- Briand Incident.— Mcanwhile the Berlin Cabinet, itself torn by internal dissensions, was trying to implicate certain Frenchmen in its défait7st negotiations. M.de Lancken, German civil commissioner in Brussels, conveyed proposals to Briand by means of Belgian intermediaries—notably Baron Coppée and his son. He told him that William II. was ready to make peace and to send a qualified personage to Switzerland to confer with the former Prime Minister. Briand wrote to inform Ribot, and suggested the conditions under which conversations might be initiated; but Ribot strongly opposed conversations which might be exploited by the Germans. Lancken therefore waited in vain for Briand at Ouchy, and the matter dropped. But a legend grew in the lobbies of the Chamber to the effect that Ribot had turned down peace feelers which held some promise of the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France. On Oct. 12, when Georges Leygues made an interpellation in the Chamber on the personnel and action of the diplomatic body, Ribot took the opportunity to denounce in veiled language Austria’s manoeuvre to separate France from Italy and the pitfalls laid by Germany,

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“who only the other day, caused perfidious suggestions to be whispered in the ear of a man of high standing.” The concluding words of this sentence caused a commotion at the Palais Bourbon, and were therefore suppressed in the official records. On the 16th, the Socialist deputy Mayeras moved to discuss the discrepancy between the words spoken in Parliament and the text as printed. The motion was discussed in a stormy secret committee which gave the Govt. a small majority. Briand’s friends, displeased with the allusion of Oct. 12, voted with the Socialists, who were still full of resentment over the refusal of the Stockholm passports. The Cabinet were so badly hit that Painlevé contemplated resignation.

Poincaré would not accept

his resignation, but Ribot and his other colleagues handed in theirs collectively so as to give the Prime Minister a free hand to reconstruct his Cabinet. On Oct. 28 the Ministry was reconstituted, Painlevé contenting himself with replacing Ribot by Barthou; but far from consolidating the Govt. the substitution only weakened it. The ministerial majority, which had stood at 362 on the 12th and 316 on the roth, fell to 288 after Painlevé’s and Barthou’s speeches on the 2sth. Nevertheless, Painlevé took the same attitude as Ribot towards Stockholm, and refused passports for the Congress then in progress. He hoped to appease the Socialists by an investigation of the Action Francaise affair, but the Court found no cause

to prosecute. Meanwhile Le Bonnet Rouge and the Journal scandals grew more serious, and Caillaux himself was attacked in 2’ Homme Lnchaitné sor his conduct when travelling in Italy. Then came the Italian disaster of Caporetto and the advent of the Bolsheviks in Russia, which made it necessary to hold an inter-Allied conference at Rapallo for the co-ordination of military effort. The Rapallo conference over, a troubled period set in for France. M. Paix-Séailles, who had formerly been attached to Painlevé’s bureau, was accused of divulging information from documents dealing with national defence. Caillaux was brought before the juge d’instruction to give an account of his relations with Bolo Pasha, and had an exchange of letters with Clemenceau which caused a sensation. On Nov. 13 Painlevé announced in the Chamber the results of the Rapallo conference. These were, an extension of the British front, ranco-British economic co-operation, the strengthening of the blockade and the creation

of an Inter-Allied Supreme War Council.

Only 250 votes were

recorded in approval against 192, a further diminution of the Government majority. This was speedily transformed into a minority when the Prime Minister demanded the postponement of motions relating to internal order until after the Inter-Allied Conference to be held at the Quai d’Orsay at the end of the month. The Chamber voted against the postponement by 277 against 186, and at the close of the sitting Painlevé handed his resignation to Poincaré: his authority in Parliament was at an end. | The Clemenceau. Ministry.—Public opinion indicated Clemenceau as Prime Minister, the Senate supported the choice, and the Chamber was prepared to acquiesce, little as it liked the remorseless controversialist who criticised ministers and even the President of the Republic so fiercely in ? Homme Enchatné, In spite of his 76 years, Clemenceau was universally regarded as the incarnation of the determination to ‘‘ fight to a finish,” to punish weakness or faltering, whatever their origin, and to subordinate everything to the pursuit of final victory. The great majority of Frenchmen felt that such a man was needed at the head of the Government. Ignoring all other considerations,

Poincaré therefore called upon Clemenceau (Nov. 15) to form the new Cabinet. Clemenceau accepted, and completed his mission the next day. He took War himself, confiding Foreign Affairs to Pichon, the Interior to Pams, Navy to Levgues, Munitions to Loucheur, Finance to Klotz; and divided the war services between five under-secretaries. The Ministerial Declaration announced the intention— to carry on the War, to punish crime and faltering: weakness would be complicity. Accused persons to be tried by court-martial. No more

pacifist

campaigns,

no

more

German

conspiracies;

neither

treason nor demi-treason; but the War and nothing but the War. Our armies shall not be caught between two fires. Law shall prevail. The country shali know that its defence is sure.

In the debate on the declaration Clemenceau spoke in the same tone. There were to be no more party men, himself not excepted. Who has been more of a party man than J? I have been only too much of one, as I see to-day... | shared—and perhaps still share— many of your prejudices, but where [ differ from you, deputies of the extreme Left, is that you want to introduce purely intellectual conceptions into the domain of realities—and that is impossible.

The vote of confidence

was

passed

by 418 against 65.

Clemenceau was as good as his word. Turmel, a deputy, was tried by court-martial on Nov. 22; parliamentary impunity was

suspended by the Senate in the case of Humbert; and Malvy asked the Chamber to appoint a commission to inquire into the grounds for his accusation. Although the accusation had no legal basis, and the rules of the Chamber did not prescribe the procedure in such a case, the Chamber, greatly embarrassed, sent him before the Senate, which, having reinstituted a procedure in disuse since 1875, constituted itself a high court and ordered a supplementary inquiry (Jan. 28). On Dec. 22, at the request of Gen. Dubail, military governor of Paris, the Chamber voted for the suspension of parliamentary immunity for Caillaux bv 396 against two votes and 100 abstentions. The accusation of intelligence with the enemy and of a criminal attempt against national security was founded on documents seized during the Bolo case, indicating a singular intimacy between Caillaux and Bolo and Almerevda. The official reports of the French naval and military attachés in Rome also drew attention to the attitude and the defeatist proposals of the former Prime Minister. On Jan. 14 Caillaux was arrested. Inquiry conducted in the United States had revealed relations with the German Legation at Buenos Aires, at the time of his mission in the Argentine; and from various telegrams sent by Von Bernstorff, German ambassador in Washington (deciphered by the State Cryptographic Dept.) it seemed that Caillaux had spoken contemptuously of the members of the Govi.— Briand excepted. When reporting Caillaux’s remarks to Berlin, Von Bernstorff asked his Govt. to instruct the German cruisers to take precautions with regard to the ship on which the French statesman was returning. Finally, in the safe of a Florentine bank rented by Caillaux there was found among the securities a packet labelled ‘‘ Rubicon,”’ which contained the outline of a scheme to be carried out when Caillaux should again become Prime Minister. This scheme resembles the constitution of the consulate. These events were discussed in the Chamber, together with the royalist escapades of the Action Françatse, and the resolution

passed stligmatised “ all proceedings, royalist or other, which tend to divide the country in the face of the enemy.” The Socialists and Caillautists voted against the words “ or other,” assuming that they referred to the “ Rubicon.” Bolo’s trial by court-martial

(Feb. 4-14)

ended

in sentence

of death

for the

ex-pasha for his dealings with the enemy, which included relations with the former

Khedive,

transactions

in America

with

Von Bernstorfi and the payment of German moneys intended for the purchase of French newspapers. [Ie was executed at Vincennes on April 17. To all attacks, direct or indirect, by the Socialists, Clemenceau presented an unmoved front, and claims of every kind—economic, financial and military—-were met witfi the same imperturbability. By a bill passed on Dec. 24 the election was postponed on account of the mobilisation of several million electors. A loan of to milliards was liberally supported. Very severe restrictions on the consumption of bread were imposed, and the rorg class was called up prematurely. The Russian Defection.—TVhis last measure was necessitated by the defection of the Russians and by Austrian arrogance. Count Czernin, in his elation over Caporetto, boasted that he was fighting as much for the defence of Germany as for the Austro-Hungarian frontiers—‘‘ We are fighting for Alsace-Lorraine just as Germany fought for Lemberg and Trieste. I make no distinction between Trieste and Strasbourg.” At BrestLitovsk the Bolsheviks concluded an armistice with Germany,

FRANCE in spite of Russia’s undertaking, on Sept. 4 tor4, not to negotiute or conclude a separate peace; they also intimated their intention not to honour the financial engagements of the Tsarist government. The French Govt. sent a note of protest, stating that “financial engagements entered into previously in the name of Russia were independent of the changes of government

which had occurred since and might occur again in that country, and that, consequently, they were and would continue to be binding upon those by whom Russia was represented.” The Socialists now asked for passports for Leningrad (Petrograd) to attempt to dissuade Russia from making a separate peace; but Clemenceau refused them, because he regarded such a step as useless, dangerous and even unseemly. The signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on March 3 definitely broke the Russian alliance. Irom the end of Jan. 1918 the bombing of Paris by aeroplanes (‘‘ Gothas,” as they were called) recommenced with fresh vigour after a long respite. The raid of Jan. 31 took a toll of 45 killed (31 in Paris and 14 in the suburbs) and 207 wounded; that on March o, carried out by a dozen squadrons, left 13 dead and 50 wounded. Life in Paris was seriously inconvenienced by the precautions imposed—as the reduction of street lighting, closed shutters and the warnings given by sirens. But it was quite another matter when, on March 23, shell, fired from colossal guns more than too km. distant, feil direct on Paris, without

there being at first any clue to their place of origin. Monuments situated in the danger zones had to be protected by sandbags. On March 29 (Good Friday) a shell fell on the church of St. Gervais, at 4 P.M., Just as a sacred concert was beginning, killing 75 people and wounding go others, of whom several afterward succumbed. Terrible bombardments at Dunkirk, Calais and Rheims simultaneously drove the inhabitants into the cellars. The motive behind these attacks was that of terrorising the country at the moment when the German general staff was launching (March 21) a mass offensive against the British front which was intended to be decisive. But the morale of the country was not shaken, any more than was the spirit of the high command. Although there were days of acute strain in March and April Clemenceau never faltered. At the end of March he obtained consent from the Allies for Foch’s nomination as generalissimo of the armies on the Western Front. He then proceeded to tighten food restrictions, ordered three meatless days a week, reduced the consumption of paper, etc. The Csernin Incident.—During these troubled times Teutonic intrigues followed fast upon each other. The most sensational of these was that launched by Czernin (April 2), when he boldly asserted in a speech delivered to the municipal representatives in Vienna that Clemenceau had asked him, shortly before the beginning of the Western offensive, if he were “ prepared to enter into negotiations and on what basis.” He went on to insist on Austria’s loyalty to Germany, and vowed “a terrible vengeance ” upon the enemies of the Central Powers. Clemenceau’s reply was simply, ‘‘ Count Czernin lied.” By way of retort Czernin recalled the pour parlers between Count Nicholas Revertera and Count Armand in Feb. 1918. On April 8 Clemenceau exposed Revertera’s ‘‘ attempt to decoy us into a German

peace,” and announced “ another attempt of the same sort by a person of much higher rank.” Czernin in reply accused Clemenceau of having wrecked this effort by refusing to enter into negotiations based on the renunciation of the re-annexation of AlsaceLorraine. Clemenceau thereupon disclosed the fact that the Austrian Emperor had with his own hand recorded his willingness to agree to “the just claims of France on Alsace-Lorraine.” At this point the Emperor Charles himself intervened with a telegram to Wiliam H., in which he declared Clemenceau’s statement to be untrue and proclaimed the “ perfect solidarity ”

between the two Central Empires. An official communiqué from Vienna followed, emphasising this denial. On April 12 Clemenceau published the Emperor Charles’ letter to Prince Sixtus. After some sharp dispute with the Emperor anc Empress, Czernin announced that the text of the letter, which had been entirely private and personal, had been published in Paris in a

87

garbled version. He maintained that the Emperor had written: “I would have used all my personal influence in favour of the French claims with respect to Alsace-Lorraine had they been just claims; but this they are not.” Clemenceau again stated the facts, and denounced “les consciences pourris.” An embarrassed note from the Ballhansplatz on the 15th then declared the incident closed. The Decisive Days —A fortnight later the Bonnet Rouge trial opened before the court-martial. Although Almereyda, the principal conspirator, was dead, the evidence revealed by the inquiry was sufficiently serious for sentence of death to be passed on Duval—who had received over 1,000,000 fr. from a Mannheim banker named Marx-—and for several of his associates to be sent to penal servitude. The Socialist party, of which the anti-war section had won a majority in the national council of the party, agitated in vain for a “‘ white peace”’; the threat to refuse military credits left Clemenceau unmoved. Only for an instant at the end of May, when a new offensive brought the Germans up to the Marne from Château-Thierry to Dormans, did he consider the idea of evacuating the Government and a portion of the population from Paris. He had become as military-minded as—if not more so than—the soldiers themselves. Paris was a city like any other, and it seemed to

him a wise precaution to abandon the capital as in 1914. But the circumstances were very different. After four years of fierce fighting the occupation of Paris by the enemy would have appeared as a German triumph in the eves of the world at large, and the consequences, both material and moral, would have been incalculable. The evacuation project, which had been kept secret, was therefore opposed by the President of the Republic and the presidents of both Chambers. In a special council at the Elysée, at which other persons besides ministers were present, it was finally decided that the Govt. should stay in Paris and that the decisive battles should take place in front of and not behind the capital. On June 11 a successful counter-attack by Mangin’s army threw back the Germans some kilometres, and, on July 18, Foch opened the great offensive which was to continue

until the Armistice. Czechoslovak and Polish legions, formed of deserters and volunteers, fought side by side with French troops. On July 16, before the Senate, sitting as a high court, Malvy

was accused of complicity “in treason which threatened

the

very existence of the country.” The Senate, however, rejected the charge of treason, on Aug. 6, unanimously but for two votes, and that of complicity in communicating with the enemy by 125 votes against 36. Senator Etienne Flandin then made the subsidiary charge: “Is Malvy guilty of having committed the crime of forfaiture while residing in the territory of the Republic and during the discharge of his ministerial functions within the last 10 years?” At the following session this accusation was definitely formulated. It was directed against the minister’s attitude towards Almereyda and certain other anarchists. On Aug. 6 the Senate declared Malvy guilty of ferfatture by ror votes against Sr, and condemned him to five years’ banishment, but without civic degradation. There remained the Caillaux affair—by far the most serious. Was Caillaux to come before a court-martial or the High Court? The Govt. decided that if the case were one of Intelligence with the enemy the court-martial should deal with it, but if it were that of crime against the securily of the state it should come before the High Court. The latter solution was adopted, and the Senate met for the purpose on Oct. 29 and found that there were grounds for instituting an “instruction,” the aflair being thereby indefinitely adjourned. The Armistices.—Beaten by the Govt., the Socialists confined themselves to protests. At their National Congress in Oct. the advanced group, headed by Longuet, carried the day by 1,528 votes against 1,212 and 181. Cachin was made editor of P H umanité in place of Renaudel. But the people remained indifferent, being concerned only with the retreat of the German armies, the crumbling of the Bulgarian front, the abdication and flight of the Tsar Ferdinand, the progressive reoccupation of the devastated departments and the entry of the Belgian Army into Bruges. Under these auspices was launched on Oct. 20 the

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fourth great loan, the Liberation Loan, which realised 22 milliards. On the night of Oct. 30-31 Turkish plenipotentiaries signed an armistice with Adm. Calthrop at Mudros; on Nov. 3 the Austro-Hungarian armies signed an armistice; the break-up of the old Dual Monarchy was already far advanced. A far-reaching problem now confronted the Allies. Was it wiser to conclude with Germany the Armistice which her desperate Govt. had asked from President Wilson, or to force the German armies to capitulate, and so enter Berlin? French ruling spirits were divided. Foch held that ‘ war is only waged for its results, and, if these results are obtained by the Armistice, no one has the right—the aim being achieved—to cause one more drop of blood to be shed.” The generalissimo knowing nothing of the developments of the revolution overshadowing Germany believed that it would still take several months to throw back the enemy across the Rhine. The conditions of the Armistice were therefore discussed, first at Senlis by the military delegates, then in Paris and Versailles among the heads of the

Govt. and the foreign ministers of the Allied and Associated Powers, the discussions being based exclusively on military con-

siderations. The statesmen agreed unreservedly to the proposals of the military council at Versailles. Many of them, at that moment, were so far from thinking the proposed conditions too mild that they feared the German plenipotentiaries would refuse certain exceptionally severe clauses, such as the surrender of the fleet and the fortresses of Alsace-Lorraine.

The Germans,

however, terrified by the prospect of invading enemy armies who would be tempted to avenge themselves for the abominations committed in Belgium and France, signed all the conditions on Nov. 11. The proclamation of the Armistice, accompanied by the ringing of bells, led to scenes of enthusiasm that day in the streets and in Parliament. The two Chambers proclaimed that “ Citizen Clemenceau and Marshal Foch have deserved well of their country.” On the following day Foch was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and on the 21st the Académie Francaise elected Foch and Clemenceau, having previously elected Joffre (Feb. 14). Clemenceau, a doctor of medicine, was elected a member of the Academy of Medicine on Dec. 3. Finally the Académie des Sciences Morales opened its doors to Marshal Pétain, and the Beaux Arts elected Gen. Castelnau. Only the Socialists; while joining in the general rejoicings, professed an interest in the Russian revolution which was hardly justified in view of Russia’s behaviour at the end of the War. The motion drawn up by the “ Permanent Administrative Commission ” of the party was disavowed by members of the minority, who announced their determination not to allow the methods even of revolutionary socialism to be confounded with Bolshevik practices, which did not allow universal suffrage to function. The French authorities now took possession of AlsaceLorraine. On Nov. 17, in front of the statue of Strasbourg on the Place de La Concorde, from which the emblems of mourning had at last been removed, a magnificent ceremony was staged. At Metz Pétain was presented with his marshal’s baton, and on Nov. 25 the victorious troops entered Strasbourg amid scenes of frenzied enthusiasm. The War was over; it remained to “‘ win the peace.” Tuer

PEACE

The Armistice of Nov. 11 contained no political clause. It was assumed that, as was customary, some of the essential political conditions would be settled in peace preliminaries before the final treaty was signed. Had preliminaries been so arranged as to coincide with one of the three renewals of the Armistice, it should have been possible to take immediate

measures for ensuring the position of those regions whose lot was to be changed—notably Poland, Upper Silesia and the Baltic States—where such measures were of the first importance. Certain opinion in France urged that this should be done. But for reasons that are still unexplained, no steps were taken to arrange such preliminaries, which, if arranged a few weeks after

the military capitulation—so it was agreed—would have enabled

the Allics to insist on all the points that seemed to them advisable. Lhe end of the year was spent in rejoicings. The King of the Belgians and the King of England paid official visits to Paris, and President Wilson, before settling in Paris for the conference, visited england and Italy. When the conference opened on Jan. 18, Germany was more or less reassured, and on vital points Clemenceau was no longer in position to impose his views. Tie had to consult with President Wilson and Lloyd George. Indeed, in consenting to the form of procedure—Councit of Ten, Council of Five, Council of Four, absolute secrecy, rigorous censorhsip of diplomatic indiscretions—he automatically forfeited the support which would have been gladly accorded to him by the representatives of the smaller powers, by Parliament and by influential publicists. Although both the President of the Republic and the presidents of the two Chambers disapproved of these “cellar negotiations,” the system was maintained till the end. The conference only met in full open session to register preconcerted decisions. Thus Clemenceau, although he made spasmodic attempts at resistance, saw himself forced to concur in certain solutions that were contrary to his intentions. This was particularly the case with the Rhine frontier. In common with the military authorities, many university men and several publicists, Clemenceau would have constituted the Rhine France’s military frontier and formed the German countries lying between that river and the political frontier into an autonomous state. He was not even able to obtain the restitution of Saarlouis and Landau which had been severed from France by the Allies of 1815, in spite of their formal engagement (signed on March 13 1815, after Napojeon’s return from Elba) to preserve intact France’s frontiers of May 30 1814. He committed the imprudence of offending President Wilson by scofling at the projected League of Nations, and prevented M. Bourgeois from bringing forward the plan of a league drawn up by French specialists. Surrounded by colleagues chosen from among his immediate circle, he was not amenable to any advice or suggestion and was neither wise enough to limit his original demands to what might be accepted nor to exact effective compensation for his successive concessions. To crown his misfortunes, he was wounded (Feb. 18) by three shots from a revolver by an anarchist named Cottin. When negotiations were resumed on March 14, after his recovery, decisions, contrary to his wishes, had been taken. France was only to have Alsace-Lorraine; the Inter-Allied military occupation of the left bank of the Rhine was fixed for 5, 10 or 15 years according to the zone; Germany was to renounce all rights in Morocco; power was taken to regulate the zones of Savoy; and Great Britain and the United States were to give a military guarantee against unprovoked German aggression, Britain’s guarantee being dependent upon the ratification of that of the United

States by the Senate in Washington. The amount to be exacted for reparations for the terrible damages caused by the enemy was not fixed; a Reparations Committee was sect up to settle it and to draw up the conditions of payment. Germany was to pay down on reparations account a sum of 20 milliard gold marks before May 1 1921. It was assumed in France—and Mr. Lloyd George’s speeches in England appeared to justify the assumption—that Germany would pay for everything. Clemenceau and Klotz were under that illusion, for they brought in a bill passed on April 17 1919 by which those who had suffered damages were enabled not only to claim the price of their possessions at a pre-War valuation, but also the cost of reinstalment or reconstruction, taking into account the rise in prices since 1914. This arrangement was

fated to bring about a financial catastrophe. Some hundred milliards had to be paid out on this score, and (in the event) Germany was to go bankrupt to evade payment. It was the same with similarly lavish promises of demobilisation premiums, pensions and allowances to the military victims of the War and their dependants; these had been made on the conviction that Germany would pay, but they made another deep hole in the budget. Other holes were made by the extravagant decision to

FRANCE buy in at the rate of 1-25 fr. all German marks left in AlsaceLorraine (quoted then at o-7o fr.) and buy back in dollars for a large sum the American war stores which, if sold direct by the American stores department, could have been usefully absorbed by the population without involving the Treasury. These rash measures were to react disastrously on the whole of the national life.

The Socialist Movement—The propaganda carried on by German Socialists infected their French comrades, who had been roused by the acquittal of the assassin of Jaurés on March 29 1919 at the assize court of the Seine, and were to be appeased neither by the passing of the Eight-hours’ Day bill by both Chambers at the end of April nor by the maintenance of the price of bread below cost price. On May 1 they proclaimed a strike, and proceeded to demonstrations which led to the dismissal of several Socialist leaders holding government posts. The disturbances lasted all through the spring. The confédération Générale du travail itself was powerless to maintain discipline among its adherents; it alternately curbed their turbulence and yielded to their demands. When the peace treaty was being discussed with the German plenipotentiaries and the Allied military intervention against the Bolsheviks was proceeding, labour troubles became more marked. But the public faced the situation with such firmness that the general strike arranged for

July 21 miscarried. Clemenceau was nevertheless awkwardly situated in the Chamber and had to replace the Food Controller Boret by Noulens. The Versailles Treaty—After several crises, particularly with respect to the question of the Adriatic and Danzig, the peace conditions, comprising 440 articles and numerous annexes, were ceremoniously presented to Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau, the German plenipotentiary. The counter-proposals made by the German delegation provoked lively discussion among the Allies, several important modifications being supported by the British Government. Towards the middle of June the Allies at last came to an agreement to maintain almost in its integrity the text of May 7, the only really significant modification being the substitution of a plebiscite in Upper Silesia for the annexation pure and simple of that province to Poland. On June 16 the final text was submitted to Brockdorff-Rantzau with the warning that it must be accepted without reservation within five days. He resigned, and an extension of two days was granted. On the 23rd a new German Cabinet with Gustav Bauer at its head declared itself willing to sign, and on the 28th—the anniversary of the Serajevo murders—MM. Hermann Miiller, Bell and von Haniel, the German plenipotentiaries, in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles in which the German Empire had been proclaimed in 1871, signed the treaty of peace which established the territorial integrity of France, celebrated the triumph of right over might and destroyed Germany’s supreme effort to achieve a world hegemony. The treaty by which England and the United States agreed to assist France in case of unprovoked attack was signed by Lloyd George and President Wilson the same day. The treaties, taken as a whole, certainly were imposing, and marked an epoch in history. All the same, the French nation experienced a shiver when the clauses became known in detail. It was realised, as Poincaré said, that the peace was to be une création continue. Many serious problems were left unsettled. Several plebiscites, which would normally have been taken between peace preliminarics and the conclusion of the treaty, were adjourned until a time when—the demobilisation of the Allied armies having been ecffected—there would be no means of ensuring a true ballot. No precise sanctions had been stipulated in the event of the non-execution of the treaty by Germany. The League of Nations Covenant, was held by French opinion to be vague as to the principal obligations of its members. The terms were drawn in language permitting the contracting Governments to interpret it in favour of evading liabilities. In short, it became plain to the French that the Versailles Treaty would be carried out to their advantage only if the Allies, especially Great Britain, wished it. Except for Alsace-Lorraine they had

89

received nothing but promises; their right to exact the fulfilment of Germany’s engagements without the assent of all the Allies,

was contested. The ratification of the treaty (Aug.-Sept.) therefore aroused violent opposition in the Chamber. Men like Louis Marin and Franklin-Bouillon called for its rejection. To reassure the deputies the Finance Minister announced, on Sept. 5, that Germany would put down a round sum of 450 milliards. In the end the ratification was agreed by only 372 votes against

52, with 73 abstentions. By the Senate, in Oct., it was approved without difficulty. But very soon it became known that the American Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Guarantee, and that, in consequence, the British guarantee disappeared. The most stupefying discovery was, however, that during the peace year of 1919 military expenditure exceeded that of ror8 with its fierce fighting, and that the National Debt had risen during the 12 months of peace from 170 to 218 millards. Under the shock of these affairs the country embarked on the election. The Elections —It was indeed time to return to normal constitutional life. All the elective assemblies had to be renewed, having outlived their legal term. The parliamentary elections took place on Nov. 16 according to the system adopted by the Act of July 12 roro: scrutin de liste according to department, with proportional representation in cases where none of the lists showed an absolute majority, together with the support of 25% of the electors on the roll. It was at first intended to maintain the political union sacrée by including Clemencistes, Liberal, Radical, Radical-Socialist and Moderate Socialist candidates on the same list; but the unified Socialists repudiated the union, and the Moderates—such as Herriot, Viviani, and Painlevé—separated from the Coalition after agreeing to it. Lists were accordingly framed as follows: the Bloc national including all moderate candidates—as, for instance, from Millerand to Maurice Barres in Paris; and lists for the Unified Socialists, Radical Socialists and Independents of different categories. The Bloc national had asits programme Millerand’s Paris speech of Nov. 7 at the Ba-ta-clan hall. This speech denounced the class struggles, indicated the need of strengthening the Executive, of adopting a broader basis for the nomination of the President of the Republic, and for the constitution of the Senate. Clemenceau for his part made a great anti-Bolshevist speech at Strasbourg. At that moment, when demobilisation was complete and the opinions of the soldiers an unknown quantity, Bolshevism was thought to be the chicf danger. In the beginning of Nov. a general strike was attempted. The newspapers were especially affected and, from Nov. 11, they ceased to appear; but they agreed between themselves to publish one organ in common, the Presse de Paris, in which space was reserved for a brief political article from each paper. This expedient was well received by the public. Soon the Presse de Paris appeared twice a day, corresponding to the morning and evening issues. The Bloc won the elections, and the new Chamber was made up

of 56 Unified Socialists, 5 dissenting Socialists, 28 Republican Socialists, 129 Radicals and Radical-Socialists, 11.4 Republicans of the Left, 138 Progressives, 15 Liberals, 74 Conservatives and 3 adherents of the Action Francaise. The Bolshevist candidates were swept away; even in a suburb of Paris the list containing the names of Longuct and Sadoul was lost. The municipal elections of Nov. 30 gave the same results. From the outset the Moderate elements carried all before them, not only in Paris but in many towns where they had formerly been in a minority as, for instance, at Toulouse. The check to the revolutionary parties was emphasized by the end of the newspaper strike on the same day. On Dec. 14 conseils généraux and conseils d'arrondissement were elected. Here the Left was more successful in holding its seats, based as it was on solid local organisations, and was able to recover lost ground on the senatorial elections (Jan 12), in which the prefects exercise considerable influence. Only 26 seats were lost by the Radicals, and Léon Bourgeois was elected president of the Senate by 147 votes against Antonin Dubost (with 125), the retiring president, of much the same political tendency.

FRANCE

gO

The Presidency of the Republic—Opening

on Dec. 8, the

Chamber had no important affairs to deal with before procceding to elect a successor to Poincaré, whose seven years’ tenure expired on Feb. 17 1920. The only outstanding event of its short session was the declaration of the Alsace-Lorraine deputies, whose entry into the Palais-Bourbon had been made an impressive ceremony. After recalling the protests of their ancestors against the Treaty of Frankfurt the representatives of the two reannexed provinces recorded the fact that no protest had been raised during the elections against the Treaty of Versailles. ‘‘ France,” they said, ‘“‘ has obtained a unanimous vote at the genuinely plebiscitary elections of Nov. 16.” On the choice of the future President of the Republic opinion was divided. Though he desired election, Clemenceau had not come forward openly. Deschanel stood as candidate. In spite of Clemenceau’s disturbing antecedents, his popularity as victor was so great that the choice would have fallen upon him out of gratitude rather than from confidence in his political wisdom, had he not wounded the sensibilities of a large number of the bloc national.

He had steadily refused

them

the satisfaction

of re-establishing diplomatic relations with the Vatican, although they had pledged themselves to their constituencies to demand it. Moreover, while declaring that he would in no case remain Prime Minister, he showed a marked preference for former ministers ousted by the bloc. He also retained among his most intimate colleagues certain men who inspired justifiable suspicion. Unmoved by the insistence of the deputies, who were bent on seeing him rewarded by the supreme magistrature of the state, he refused to make any concession. Indced, he openly announced his intention of reigning at the Elysée as the head of the Govt. and not as the Constitutional head of the state, and thus alienated many of the electors. On the eve of the Congress at a preliminary meeting, Clemenceau obtained only 389 votes against Deschanel’s 408. Consequently he refused to stand, and Deschanel was elected by 734 votes out of 888 (Jan. 17 1920). The Cabinet resigned next day. As leader of the bloc national Millerand was called upon to form the new Cabinet, which was constituted (Jan. 19) as follows: Millerand, Foreign Affairs; Interior, Steeg; Public Works, Le Trocquer; Francois-Marsal (a banker, not a member of Parliament), Finance. Poincaré was appointed President of the Reparations Commission.

On Jan. 22 the Chamber passed

a vote of confidence by only 272 votes against 23, half the members having abstained from voting in token of their resentment at having a Radical (Steeg) appointed to the Interior. But the majority rose to 481 against 70 on the 3oth, after explanations

by the Prime Minister. Strikes and the Catillaux Case —The internal situation did not realise the expectations inspired by the happy ending of the War. The confédération générale du travail, carried away by the masses it was supposed to control, instigated a strike of railwaymen in the spring, which was followed by miners’, dockers’

and seamen’s strikes. None of these were successful, but they served to aggravate the industrial crisis caused by the rise in prices. That comminist ideas were gaining ground in the Labour world was apparent at the Socialist Federal Congress of the Seine (Feb. 22), when the extremist motion put by Loriot, after an exchange of recriminations, was carried by an enormous majority. It looked as if the wave of revolution would sweep all before it. The disturbances coincided, not fortuitously, with the Caillaux case, which took its course before the Senate, constituted a high court, from Feb. 20 to April 23. Caillaux was condemned to three years’ imprisonment and ten years’ loss of civic rights; for five years his place of residence would be strictly that indicated by the Govt., and he was ordered to pay the costs of the trial. He was found guilty of corresponding with the subjects of an enemy country since the declaration of war, and notably in 1914, 1915, 1916 and 1917, both in France (especially in Paris) and abroad, the said correspondence having furnished the enemies of France with information detrimental to the military or political situation of France or her Allies—(Article 78 of the Penal Code). The high court admitted extenuating cir-

cumstances, and dismissed the charge of high treason. As Caillaux had already been detained in preventive arrest for two years and four months, he was released. Relations wtth the Vatican.Relations with the Vatican, which had been suspended since 1904, were now re-established in accordance with the wishes of the majority in the Chamber and in the country, by a bill granting the necessary credit for sctting up an embassy to the Holy See. Without waiting for

ithe passage of the bill Millerand sent a chargé d'affaires to the Vatican to prepare for the resumption of relations (March 23. 1920). The bill was not actually passed until Nov. 30 by the Chamber (379 votes against r09) and not until Dec. 16 1921r by the Senate (174 against 129). The Senate, with its Radical majority and anti-clerical traditions, bristled instinctively at any projects which looked like an infringement of laicisation, . and the situation was further complicated by the problem of voluntary parochial corporations (ci/tuelles), which dated from the Act of Separation between Church and State (1905). The Holy See, having refused to acknowledge the separation, had forbidden the creation of culiuelles. Even the simple mutual ecclesiastical associations which several of the bishops desired to found as retreats for aged priests came under the ban. ‘The position of the French Church was therefore ill-defined and precarious, and Benedict XV. was as anxious to put an end to it as was the French Government. Since 1905, however, all the bishops had been nominated in Rome from among candidates intransigent towards the civil power, and the Pope was surprised to find, on the occasion of the Joan of Arc canonisation festival (May 16 1920) when Hanotaux represented the French Govt., that they were strongly opposed to the bill. Those of them who had come to Rome delivered a collective letter to this effect to the Pope. But as Jonnart had been appointed ambassador to the Vatican on May 16 rg21, the papacy responded by the appointment of a Nuncio, Mgr. Cerretti, who arrived in Paris on Aug. 6. In spite of all efforts on both sides the question was still unsettled at the time of the Pope’s death (Jan. 23 1922). Two years later, Pius XL, his successor, promulgated the Encyclical of Jan. 18 1924, by which permission was given to organise, by way of an experiment, “ diocesan ’’ corporations—that being the name

chosen in place of cultuelle, as placing emphasis on

the absolute power of the bishop over the corporation. Execution of the Versailles Treaty.—The application of the treaty, both at home and abroad, was the chief concern of Millerand’s Cabinet. The reconstruction of the devastated regions swallowed up vast sums which Germany—contrary to public expectation-——failed to produce. Considerable sums also went in restocking the country with essential materials, above all, coal. The British Govt. exacted payment for British coal at a decidedly higher rate than the home prices. Since 1919, too, it had done away with common accounts. During 1920 France had to borrow nearly 38 milliard frances, thus raising the budget to close on 20 milliard (as against 5 milliards in 1913). These sacrifices were not compensated by other facilities from the Allies. In successive conferences—held in London in Feb., at San Remo in April, at Hythe in May and at Spain in July— Millerand obtained nothing but verbal expressions of sympathy although he gave way on some points of the treaty to the advantage of Germany. At San Remo, in return for the definite abandonment of Mosul, which came into the sphere of French influence as defined by the convention of May 16 1916 (SykesPicot Agreement, see EUROPE; INTER-ALLIED DIPLOMACY), France was presented with those shares in the Turkish Pe-

troleum Co. (25°%>),which had formerly belonged to the German Government. Lloyd George felt obliged to devote himself principally to the economic recovery of Germany, which he assumed to be a necessary condition for the development of English markets in that country, and for the maintenance of European peace. Millerand had to fight some hard diplomatic battles on this subject with the Cabinet in London. He found himself in collision with Lloyd George on the Polish question when the Bolsheviks invaded the young republic in August. Lloyd George wanted the Polish Govt. to abandon Warsaw;

FRANCE Millerand retaliated by recognising Gen. Wrangel’s government in South Russia, and by sending a group of French officers to Warsaw under Gen. Weygand’s orders. The friction thus caused was not dispelled by the retreat of the Bolshevik armies, for while London was pessimistic as to Poland’s future, Paris regarded Poland’s independence as the keystone of the new Europe. France complained that, in taking up her mandate over Syria according to agreement, she was thwarted by British agents. A deplorable accident occurred to complicate the situation. On the night of May 24, when making an official journey, the President of the Republic fell from his sleeping-car on to the railway line. Although not seriously injured he was so badly shaken that he was forced to rest from his work, and resigned on Sept. 16, bidding farewell to the Chamber in a moving speech. On Sept. 23 Millerand was elected President of the Republic by 695 out of 892 votes. In offering himself as a candidate he had announced his intention of making more effective use than his predecessors had done of the prerogative assigned to the head of the state by the constitution. After election he defined his views with greater emphasis, and, once installed at the Elysée, he acted in conformity with his programme. The Leygues Cabinet.—TFhe changes in the Ministry necessitated by Millerand’s election as First Magistrate were reduced to a minimum. Georges Leygues became president of the Council and Miħister of Foreign Affairs and the other Ministers retained their portfolios. This Cabinet had a brief and troubled life. The Bloc national adopted an even more exacting and defiant attitude towards it than towards the preceding one. André Lefévre, Minister of War, resigned on Dec. 6 because he was not allowed a free hand in securing German disarmament. On Jan. 12 1921, on the eve of a London conference and in consequence of an interpellation by Bonnevay, the Chamber overthrew Leygues by 447 votes against 116 on the pretext that it wanted no “ negotiations in the dark.” Nevertheless Leygues was in no way to blame; on the contrary, he had re-established the friendly relations with the states of the Little Entente which had been upset by the action of the Quai d'Orsay the year before. Briand’s Cabinet.—Briand now formed a Cabinet in which he held Foreign Affairs, giving Justice to Bonnevay, War to Barthou,

Finance

to

Doumer

and

the

Liberated

Provinces

to

Loucheur. He was well received by the Chamber on Jan. 20 and obtained a vote of confidence by 462 votes against 77. The inter-Allied conference for the settlement of reparations, which had been planned in London, was held in Paris on Jan. 24-8. It was with difficulty that an agreement was reached; Germany’s payments were spread over a period of 42 years, the sanctions to be applicd in case of non-payment being left vague. They were to be as those securing German disarmament—1.c., prolongation if necessary of the occupation of the Rhincland; the seizure of German customs; the occupation of new territory, including the Ruhr; the application in Rhineland of customs duties or others. In any case, as these sanctions were not to function automatically, negotiations would be necessary cach time they were to be applied. From Feb. 3 to 9 these questions

were discussed by the Chamber which finally approved the Government’s action by 363 against 114. Germany having by this time announced her inability to meet her immediate obligations, a conference was held in London on Feb. 20, as the result of which an ultimatum was sent to Germany (March 3) stipulating for: the occupation of Duisburg, Ruhrort and Diisseldorf, a levy on the sales of German goods in the Allied countries and the establishment of a customs frontier on the Rhine if Germany should persist in her opposition. These sanctions were to be applied automatically if Germany did not send a favourable reply by March 7. The reply was not forthcoming, and the Allied troops proceeded to a joint occupation of the three towns named. These events were discussed in the Chamber on March 15-7 and a vote of confidence was passed by 490 votes against 69. Meanwhile, the vote on the budget of 1921 had at last been taken, on April 30, after four douzièmes provisoires. This time the budget exceeded 21 milliard francs. On April 30 a new conference was called in London to study

QI

“ the situation created by the total failure of Germany to fulfil the dispositions of the Versailles Treaty as regards disarmament, the punishment of guilty persons and the reparations.” The Reparations Commission had fixed Germany’s total payment at 132 milliards of gold marks. A sum of r2 milliards was due and could be exacted on May 1. It was not paid. The conference agreed to warn Germany to meet the obligations named by the commission within 12 days, failing which the Ruhr would be occupied. There was nevertheless great opposition to this form of sanction in England; the French Govt., on the contrary, was acting under the pressure of public opinion. It was decided, on May 3, to mobilise the rọrọ class, recently authorised, and the Conseils généraux, then sitting, voted for the most part in approval of this attitude. On May 5 there appeared the oflicial text of the Allied declaration, which announced the occupation of the Ruhr on the r2th, failing the submission of Germany. But on the 1rth Germany capitulated. The Chamber, on its return from recess on May 109, held a debate on this whole affair, the upshot of which was a fresh vote of confidence (390 votes against 162). The governmental majority was even larger on June 3, when a debate was held on the advances made for damages in the liberated regions (457 votes against 67). When the Chambers rose on July 12 the Inter-Allied Conversations were resumed, taking place in Paris (Aug. 16) for the settlement of Belgian priority and the costs of occupation and at Wiesbaden (Aug. 27) on deliveries in kind. The Conversations coincided with important negotiations of another description. The Angora Conventionn—With respect to Turkey, Briand held views which were not shared by observers of the Eastern

question.

He believed

Turkey

to be

both

powerful

and

sympathetic to France, and instead of endeavouring to consolidate the Treaty of Sèvres (Aug. 10 1920), by which Eastern affairs had been settled with due regard to the just claims of the Christian populations affected, he listened to the Kemalists. Acting under the influence of the Hellenophobes and of the unfavourable impression he had formed of British agents, whether in Syria or the neighbouring provinces, he sent out Franklin Bouillon—a pro-Turk and anti-English deputy— to Angora with instructions to make a special convention designed to put an end to disputes on the Turco-Syrian frontier. On Oct. 20 Bouillon signed an agreement at Angora which made exorbitant territorial and political concessions to the Turks, and contained additional clauses which were even more questionable. The text was kept secret. It leaked out nevertheless that France stood committed by one of the annexed clauses “to endeavour to solve in a friendly spirit (esprit de cordiale enfente) all questions dealing with the independence and sovercignty of Turkey.” Yielding to his Turcophil obsession, Bouillon had concluded something in the nature of an alliance rather than agreement of liquidation. He had even promised ihe Turks war material, which he requested the high commissioner in Syria to deliver to them; but this called forth such vigorous protests from those who were an fait with Eastern affairs in Paris that the material was stopped. Briand hastened to have the Angora agreement ratified by the President of the Republic without submitting it to the Chambers, which had met again on Oct. 18. On Oct. 28 he left for the conference on

naval disarmament that was about to open in Washington. The Washington Conrference—In spite of repeated warnings from well-informed personages, Briand insisted on going himself to Washington as France’s representative, his idea being to act as arbitrator between Britain and the United States— assumed to be divided on the question of reducing naval armaments. He made one great public speech which for a moment gave him the illusion of success; but, as might have been foreseen, the British delegation came to an agreement with the American Govt. without considering French interests and even using arguments against them which were strongly challenged. By the Washington Convention the French Navy, reduced by the War to a position in the third rank, was condemned to be placed on a still lower level. Although the state of her shattered finances prevented France from resuming her former position

FRANCE

92

as a naval power, public opinion was hurt by an agreement which gave an official seal to the naval preponderance of friendly Powers which had profited by circumstances to assert their dominion over the seas. Briand’s authority was undermined, and it was not long before another negotiation compromised it still more. The Cannes Conference—Returning from Washington in Dec., Briand departed almost immediately for London, where he was to confer with Lloyd George on the subject of the payments due on Jan. 15 and Feb. 15 1922 which Germany declared herself unable to meet in full. But instead of insisting on the settlement of this particular matter he allowed himself to be persuaded into calling a meeting of the Supreme Council at Cannes for Jan. 6. In the interval he found himself placed in an awkward position in the Chamber with regard to the Industrial Bank of China, a concern which was in difficulties and had been guilty of irregular transactions. One of the administrators, Senator André Berthelot, was the brother of Philippe Berthelot, secretary-general of the Ministry for Ioreign Affairs. At first Briand tried to exonerate Philippe Berthelot, who was accused of having improperly used his inlluence to shield the bank; but he finally gave up the attempt and, on Dec. 27 1921, accepted his resignation. On the following day his majority in the Chamber was only 361 against 238. J{is fall was brought about by differences over the conference at Cannes. As Premier, Briand was aware that President Millerand, with a majority of the public behind him, was profoundly opposed to the recognition of the Sovict Republic and to the modification of the French claim on Russia for the repayment of loans. But at Cannes, Briand agreed to a European Conference at Genoa, with a wide programme, to which Russian represent-

atives were invited. Simultaneously, he was negotiating with Lloyd George the scheme for a pact designed to replace the stillborn convention of June 28 toro, which had been made void by nonratification in the United States. In Paris, the British guarantec, though almost identical with the former treaty, was regarded with suspicion because first, it contained

no military convention, and secondly, it was accompanicd by a memorandum which laid down a common policy for Britain and France, so limiting French liberty of action in Europe. Briand was bitterly accused of yielding to Lloyd George’s persuasions and his policy was denounced as “cinematographic.” The treaty made Great Britain responsible for resisting, with France, any violation by Germany of the military and naval safeguards of the treaty of Versailles but it was held that these guarantees were insufficient. Feeling ran high, in the Senate particularly. The Commission on Foreign Affairs, over which Poincaré presided, dispatched a telegram to Briand, reminding him of the indispensable conditions of an agreement, and the President of the Republic took the further step of requesting his urgent return to Paris. After a conversation at the Elysée and without

waiting for a motion by the Chamber, to which he offered vague explanations, he gave in his resignation on Jan. 12 1922, TuE

PorncaRÉ

MINISTRY

In response to an almost universal public demand President Millerand appealed to Mr. Raymond Poincaré to deal with the crisis. He formed a Ministry on the 15th. He took Foreign Affairs, giving Justice to Barthou, Finance to de Lasteyrie, War to Maginot and Public Works to Le Trocquer. The heads of the Radical party had refused to join the new Ministry. Warmly welcomed by the public, Poincaré gained a vote of 434 against 84 in the Chamber on his ministerial declaration which was unusually firm in tone. He had to take a firm stand at Genoa without delay. He might have stopped the meetings and dissociated himself from the policy agreed upon by his predecessor without the government’s consent. This would have meant a quarrel with Lloyd George. He preferred, however, to let the meetings fixed for the roth April proceed, and went over to Boulogne for a talk with Lloyd George on Feb. 25. The only result of this somewhat chilly interview was a banal communiqué affrming the Entente between the two Governments.

The Genoa Conference-—At Genoa, where Barthou was in charge of the French delegation the Entente was only preserved with difficulty. Lloyd George who had, at the time of the Peace Conference, talked of inviting the Bolshevik delegates to Prinkipo, now made marked advances to them on the pretext that Russia’s collaboration was necessary to the restoration of normal life in Europe. But the inopportune publication of a RussoGerman treaty, concluded at Rapallo under the very nose of the conference, made it plain to all that the Germans and the Bolsheviks were also concerned with their own interests, whatever the rest of the world might think about it. At the General Council of the Meuse, Poincaré, who was president, made a speech in which he reiterated his intention to allow no reduction or limitation of the claims and guarantees of France recognised by the Treaty of Versailles. The Genoa Conference, which had been marked by various tragic-comic incidents, ended its futile existence on May 19. The Chamber signified its approval of the Government by 436 votes against 96. During the Conference the President of the Republic had made an extended tour in Morocco and Algeria. Meanwhile the Chamber had been working at the reorganisation of military service to meet post-War conditions. After lengthy debates a bill was passed (June 29) by 365 votes against 205, reducing the period of active service to 18 months and prescribing the incorporation of the 20-year-old recruits ih two contingents so that there would always be at least two half-classes with the colours. This bill was not passed by the Senate until the following winter. It came into force on April 1 1923. The Eastern Conflict and Reparations —In Aug. a fresh con-

ference held in London failed to reconcile the English view that Germany should be allowed a moratorium without corresponding compensation, and the French view that this should only be granted in return for a share of 60°% in certain German

indus-

tries, the establishment of customs depédts at the exits from the Ruhr, the collection of taxes in the occupied territories and the exploitation of forests, and of the Ruhr mines. At this moment an Eastern tragedy broke in upon the situation. The reorganised Turkish Army, sect free on the Syrian side, broke the exhausted and badly led Greek Army on the Afiun Qarahisar front on Aug. 26, reconquered Asia Minor, took Smyrna on Sept. 8 and advanced on the Straits, occupied at Chanaq by Anglo-French contingents. Poincaré, unwilling to expose the French contingent to conflict with the Turks, gave orders for it to cross to the Huropean side—to the surprise and indignation of many Frenchmen. A sharp crisis with Lloyd George ensued; he had sympathized with the desire of Greece to achieve a national destiny in the near east. Lord Curzon went to Paris Sept. 19 to smooth the trouble. On Sept. 23 the lines of a new treaty of peace with Turkey were agreed, with the participation of Count Sforza, and after a second visit to Paris by Lord Curzon an armistice was signed at Mudanya (Oct. 11), when it was agreed that the plenipotentiaries authorised to settle the Eastern question should mect at the end of November. But the differences of opinion between the Cabinets of Paris and London, both on the measures to be adopted with regard to Turkey and on the subject of reparations, persisted in spite of the resignation of Lloyd George and the advent of the Bonar Law Cabinct at the end of October. French politics were at this time entirely dominated by the question of reparations, that is to say the execution of the “scale of payments ” fixed in London in May 1921. Opinion became more and more irritated at seeing Germany devote the sums which she was under obligation to pay to the Reparations Commission to the completion of her industrial equipment, the extension and improvement of her communications, and extravagaint domestic expenditure. Poincaré’s protests were formally approved by the Chamber (with nearly 500 votes) and by an almost unanimous Senate. In London, on the contrary, the first consideration was that Germany’s internal economy should not be disturbed. Bonar Law’s attitude towards France was more amicable than that of Lloyd George, but the solutions which he proposed were hardly more favourable. In short, he

FRANCE sought rather to pursuade Poincaré to renounce for an indefinite period his claim for payment than to force Germany to pay. Then again the old spirit of rivalry between the chancelleries persisted, diplomacy being untouched by the fraternity of arms. France’s efforts to secure the execution of the peace treaties were put down to imperialism. The London proposals were impregnated with distrust of France. Thus, at the Lausanne negotiations as in the Paris meetings, friction continued. The Ruhir—On Nov. 14 Wirth, the German Chancellor, announced Germany’s inability to pay for an indefinite period, a declaration repeated by his successor Dr. Cuno. Outrages were committed at Stettin, Passau and Ingolstadt against Allied officers. On Dec. ọ Bonar Law, Poincaré, Theunis and Mussolini met in London to discuss a new note from Cuno, while Lloyd George, at the same moment, made a violent attack on France in the United Press. Unable to reach agreement, the Conference broke up, and another meeting was arranged for Jan. 2 in Paris.

Poincaré secured the approval of the Chamber on Dec. 15 by 562 votes against 76, and of the Senate (carried unanimously) on Dec. 21. On the 27th the Reparations Commission! took note of two intentional defaults by Germany, and notified the Powers concerned. The Inter-Allied Conference opened at the Quai d’Orsay on Jan. 2 1923 when Bonar Law submitted the following scheme: a four years’ moratorium; the Reparations Commission to be replaced by a Foreign Council for German finance, a German Minister presiding; the reduction of deliveries in kind; reduction of the German debt to 30 milliard gold marks; compensation for Inter-Allied European debts by allotting to England the milliard of French gold and the Italian bonds held as a guarantee by Great Britain; the first series of German bonds to be allotted to France by priority. This somewhat complicated scheme deviated completely from those of France, Belgium and Italy. If it abolished Inter-Allied debts it did away with any serious expectation of payments except to Great Britain. On Jan. 3 after a ministerial council and consultation with Theunis and Della Torretta, Poincaré declared Bonar Law’s scheme to be quite unacceptable. The conference closed down on the 4th, in view of the impossibility of agreement. While refusing to subscribe to the French propositions, the British delegates declared that the friendly sentiments of the British Govt. and people remained unchanged. On the oth the Reparations Commission, having heard the German delegates, made a statement (Great Britian dissenting) that Germany had “deliberately failed ”’ to deliver coke and coal. Poincaré then informed the German Govt. (Jan. 10) of the sanctions which he was going to apply, viz.: control of industrial production in the Ruhr by French engineers under the protection of an adequate military force. President Ebert protested, and the industrial workers in the Ruhr refused to carry out the deliveries of coal by order of their Government. The Franco-Belgian occupation was accordingly established from Essen to Bochum and Dortmund. On the German side passive resistance was organised. Such were the facts, the consequences of which were to be felt throughout the year. In proportion as passive resistance became more stubborn French control became firmer and more extended. With Poincaré, everything else was subordinated to the success of the undertaking. Disturbing incidents followed in quick succession. On Jan. 18 for instance, the Chamber passed a resolution by 371 votes against 143 for the suspension of parliamentary immunity for Marcel Cachin who had been charged before the High Court with conspiring against the security of the state. But the Senate declined on May 24, and the Cabinet tendered its resignation to the President of the Republic, who refused to accept it. On this occasion (June 14) Poincaré furnished explanations on his internal policy long awaited by the Bloc national, who supported him consistently without having any share in the administration. ‘‘ Leave the extreme parties isolated,” he said; “republicans who wish to belong to the majority should not risk their alliances and their friendships among them.” His majority was only 376 against 207, neither Radical-Socialists nor Socialists being included in it. Poincaré t The British member dissenting (Ed. £.B.),

93

did not change his methods, however, but relied on the Right for his foreign and on the Left for his home policy. He kept the Chamber busy by devoting over 20 sittings to academical debates on teaching reforms, particularly on the reintroduction of compulsory Latin. Meanwhile the Lausanne negotiations were concluded. To the great regret of many of their compatriots the French plenipotentiaries missed the opportunity of joining hands with Lord

Curzon on the Eastern question. They showed considerable complaisance to the Turks, and sacrificed the interests of Christian populations and of Institutions under the traditional protection of France. A portion of the Paris Press expressed disapproval of the treaty, which was finally signed on July 24. In Aug. a change took place in Germany. In face of the slow but sure effect of the measures taken in the Rhineland, the Cuno Cabinet had to resign and was replaced by a Stresemann Govt. more inclined to submission. On Sept. 24 passive resistance came to an end, announced by President Ebert in a proclamation which called the people to submit, while indulging in violent recriminations against France. At this point Poincaré, under the influence of the more extreme Nationalists, took the serious step of acquiescing in, if not encouraging, a separatist movement in the Rhineland, whereas he had, up till then, proclaimed himself in favour of pure autonomy. German opinion was once more exasperated. Mr. Baldwin, who had been assured of Poincaré’s moderate views when visiting Paris on his way from Aix-les-Bains, was taken by surprise, and foreign opinion in general, at first favourably impressed by French success in the Ruhr move, now turned against France. The franc fell, and the cost of living rose. Poincaré then withdrew his support from a movement palpably artificial; but the harm was done. The opportunity of exploiting the Ruhr victory had been lost. The anger of the separatists, the disappointment of the public and the accusations of the extreme Left disturbed opinion. Poincaré now accepted the idea of having a new scale of payments drawn up by outside experts in accordance with Germany’s real capacity. On Nov. 30 the Reparations Commission decided to send two committees of experts to seek means of balancing the budget, to decide upon the measures to be taken for stabilising German currency and to “‘ seek means of evaluating and bringing back exported capital.” The execution of the Treaty of Versailles had taken a new turning. 4

THe

FINANCIAL

AND

INTERNAL

CRISIS

‘

In vain did Poincaré defend his policy in impassioned speeches on all occasions—and particularly on Sundays; public confidence was shaken, loans became impossible, the exploitation of the franc by speculators had to be countered by a mass manoeuvre in dollars, cost of living increased and the claims of wageearners and officials grew in proportion. On Jan. 6 1924 onethird of the Senate was replaced, but without any serious change in the composition of that Assembly. On the other hand, the elections in the Chamber, fixed for May 11, became the focus of a fierce struggle. The government scheme for straightening out the financial situation so as to avert the fall of the franc met with decisive opposition from the Left. The augmentation of taxes, particularly the double décime was passed with difficulty. The proposal to authorise the Government to proceed by decree with administrative reforms estimated to save a milliard was only adopted by 333 votes against 205 in the Chamber (Feb. 7) and came near being thrown out by the Senate which had approved the general financial scheme by only 151 votes (March 18). The parliamentary horizon was overcast. On March 26 the Cabinet was put in a minority in the Chamber (271 against 264) on the question of pensions, and resigned. Poincaré was charged to re-form the Ministry, which he did by giving Francois-Marsal Finance, de Selves the Interior, Loucheur Commerce and Henri

de Jouvenal Public Instruction. Thus many radical] Ministers were replaced by Moderates. The electoral law of rọrọ was slightly modified to do away with certain inconsistencies and to reduce the number of deputies to 584. On Jan. 25 Poincaré had signed a Franco-Czechoslovakian alliance with Dr. Beneš.

94

FRANCE

The election campaign was a heated one. Millerand’s sensational speech at Evreux on Oct. 14 had really been the startingpoint. The President of the Republic insisted on the necessity of confining legislative power to its proper function and of strengthening the prerogative of the head of the state. During April Poincaré made several important speeches in which he drew nearer to the Bloc national. The Radicals, Radical-Socialists and Socialists formed a Cartel, taking as their motto opposition to financial retrenchment and anti-Poincaréism. In several divisoins the Cartel included the Communists. When May rr came, more than 9,000,000 voted out of 11,000,000 electors— a proportion never before attained. The results gave 277 seats to the Cartel, 267 to the Bloc National, 290 to the Communists and rr to the candidates who belonged to no group. Of the Cartelist deputies 139 were Radicals and Radical-Socialists, 36 Republican-Socialists and 102 Unified Socialists. Taking the

number of votes over the whole country, about half had gone to the Bloc national; the Republican Entente group alone accounted for 3,200,000 voters while the whole Cartel had only 3,400,000

to its credit. Doumergue’s Election Poincaré handed in his resignation at once, but carried on with current affairs until the opening cf the new Chamber. On June 2 the Soctalist Congress came to the unanimous decision not to take part in the new government, though supporting the Radical Socialists. Painlevé was elected President by the Chamber on June 4 by 2096 votes against Maginot’s 209. On the 5th Millerand offered to put Herriot in power, but Herriot refused to form a Cabinet so long as Millerand remained President of the Republic. He and his partisans could not forgive Millerand for having opposed them under the last Legislature. After turning in vain to friends such as Steeg, Mille-

rand had at last to give in. He formed an interim Cabinet on June 8, under François-Marsal, for the purpose of laying before Parliament a memorandum in which he set forth his claim, to the effect that he had always respected the constitution and was still abiding by it in refusing to surrender his ofice without a definite vote from both Houses. The Senate refused to take action. The Chamber flatly refused to enter into relations with a government “ which by reason of its composition, is the negation of parliamentary rights.” resigned. The Cartel candidate but at a prejiminary meeting given to Doumergue, president was clected on June 13, by 515

On June rr Millerand therefore for the Presidency was Painlevé, of the Congress 149 votes were of the Senate, and 1t was he who votes against 309 for Painlevé. Herriot’s Afinisiry—Werriot now proceeded tc form the new Ministry, which was complete by June 14. Taking Foreign Affairs himself, he entrusted René Renoult with Justice, Clémente! with Finance and filled the remaining departments with other Radicals. The ministerial declaration marked a return to anticlericalism by announcing the suppression of the embassy to the Vatican and the intention of bringing Alsace and Lorraine within the scheme of French legislation as soon as possible, including secular education. The Chamber approved it by 313 votes against 234 (June 19); but on the same day the Senate elected de Selves as president, in place of Doumergue, by 151 votes against 134 for Bienvenu-Martin, the Cartel candidate. The two Assemblies, both Radical, were not of the same school. The new majority made a point of reversing the work of their predecessors in every point and expressed the intention to secure for their own party “all the appointments, and that at once,” as their principal organ the Quotidien phrased it. Some measures have therefore a symbolic importance. Gen. Sarrail was recalled for service without age-limit; the review of July 14 at Longchamps was cancelled; university reforms were dismissed with a stroke of the pen; the monopoly on matches was reinstituted; the economic and military evacuation of the Ruhr was brought under consideration; the Moscow Govt. was recognised de jure (Oct. 28) without any condition or guarantee for the Russian

debt; an amnesty was proposed to be applicable to fiscal offences, events connected with strikes, desertion, cases of intelligence with the enemy and cases of forfaiture—the last two named categories including the cases of Caillaux, Malvy and the Bonnet

Rouge.

Not until the end of the year (Dec. 16) did the Senate

pass this Act of Amnesty, voted by the Chamber as early as July. ‘The anti-clerical policy of the Government produced consider-

able agitation.

A letter was sent to the president of the council

from the French cardinals denouncing the lav laws as “ persecuting laws,” and a “ National Catholic Federation,” presided

over by Gen. Castelnau, was formed, which had a large following in the west and also in Alsace and Lorraine, where church schools are traditional, whereas French law recognises only lay and neutral schools. A National Republican League on parallel lines

was formed by Millerand on Nov. 7 to combat “ demagogy, revolution and anarchy.” The Dawes Plan—Herriot’s attitude with regard to Reparations was the reverse of Poincaré’s. Instead of merely changing methods of negotiation which were open to criticism, he abandoned without resistance the positions held by his predecessors. On a visit to Ramsay MacDonald at “‘ Chequers,” he associated together the three problems, reparations, inter-allied debts and security. Asa result, MacDonald felt authorised to issue a programme for the Inter-Allied Conference which allowed for concessions, hitherto regarded as inadmissible, on the part of Germany’s creditors, Feeling ran so high in France that Mr. MacDonald hurried over to Paris on July 8 in order to draw up a fresh programme. It was in fact a question of accepting and applying the Dawes Plan which had been put before the Reparations Commission on April 9. At the London Conference of July 16-Aug. 16, at which German delegates were present from Aug. 5 onward, conditions —very favourable to Germany—were adopted; attenuation of the debt; limitation of the Reparations Commissions powers; a loan of 800,000,000 gold marks; suppression of coercive measures and of Franco-Belgian régze in the Rhineland; a promise to evacuate the Ruhr before Aug. 15 1925; while Mr. Ramsay MacDonald undertook to seek a solution of the Inter-Allied debt problem, bearing in mind all these points. On his return to Paris Herriot was vigorously criticised in Parliament. In the Chamber, after six sittings devoted to debate, he obtained a vote of confidence by 336 votes against 204 (Aug. 23). In the Senate, on the 26th, he secured 181 votes. His task was not made easier by Ramsay MacDonald’s rejection of the Treaty of Mutual Assistance which had been elaborated in agreement with Lord Cecil by a commission appointed by the League of Nations. At the fifth meeting of the League Herriot succeeded, however, in regaining a portion of his prestige, by proposing the principles of ‘arbitration, security, disarmament,” which became the basis of the Geneva Protocol. A few weeks later, on Oct. 30, he was able to settle by arbitration the dispute over the free zones of Savoy with Switzerland (see SWITZERLAND). On the reopening of the Parliament the Radicals and Socialists continued their policy of supporting the Government, with the approval of their party Congresses. The Communists adopted a hostile attitude to the Socialists. On Nov. 23, when the ashes of Jaurès were transferred to the Panthéon, they gave the ceremony the appearance of a revue of Communist forces in the streets of Paris, entailing an accusation of weakness against the Government. Great difficulty attached also to the preparation and discussion of the budget in view of the promises made during

the election period and the demands of the Socialists. Clémentel, who represented the moderate element in the Cartel, had retained the taxes voted by his predecessors; but no sooner was the equilibrium within sight of accomplishment than it was upset by a new revision of the scale of ofħicials’ salaries. From the expected figure of 32,800 millions the budget rose to 36 milliards and the pound sterling, which stood at 7o francs during the elections, was now at or. The programme of the Socialist Conference at Grenoble in Feb. 1925, the Communist strike (accom-

panied by bloodshed) at Douarnenez, the fracas on Feb. 8 at Marseilles, which resulted in the death of three and wounding of 20 people at the close of a Catholic meeting— combined to bring discredit to the Government. No less grave and significant was the Quartier Latin affair in March. An immense majority of the students protested against the nomination of an ill-qualified

FRANCE candidate as lecturer in the faculty of law in Paris. The dean of the faculty was suspended by the Ministry for having refused to allow the police to enter the premises. The whole Press rang with the consequent disturbances. The suppression of the embassy to the Vatican and the threat of lay-teaching in Alsace and Lorraine threw those two provinces into a state of growing unrest. On April 2 Clémentel resigned on account of his bad reception by the Senate. He was replaced by Monzie, who demanded of Herriot the retention of the embassy to the Vatican; but this patching up could not save the Cabinet, and on April ro the Senate, exasperated by an inflation of four milliards concealed in the balance-shcet of the Banque de France in despite of solemn promises, threw the Government out. In February, following on a German note suggesting a pact of security in the West, confidential negotiations were opened between the Cabinets concerned. These were continued in semi-secrecy until autumn. The Painlevé Ministry —This particular crisis was difficult to solve, as the Socialists refused to accept portfolios, but Painlevé finally succeeded on April 17 1925. He took War and the presidency of the council, giving Foreign Affairs to Briand and Finance to Caillaux. This last appointment caused a great sensation, but as the public had, after all, faith in Caillaux’s technical ability and desired principally to see the financial problem settled, his war antecedents were overlooked. The ministerial declaration was manifestly designed to relieve the strained situation. It proclaimed the retention of the embassy at the Vatican in a new form, and reassured Alsace-Lorraine against any too precipitate assimilation, The Government had a majority of 304 against 217 votes. The agitation in the Latin

Quarter was allayed by the reinstallation of the dean in the faculty of law. Unfortunately, the Communist agitation ended in the shooting of four partisans of the Youthful Patriots (jeunesses patriotes) intherue Damrémont at the close ofa meeting. The Prime Minister and the Minister of the Interior attended their funeral at Notre-Dame.

To prevent the recurrence of like

incidents, May Day processions in the open street were forbidden and May 1 therefore passed in perfect calm. The Government likewise forbade all street processions on May 10, the fête of Joan of Arc, but the usual delegations made their pilgrimage to the statues of the saint, and the Prime Minister deposited a wreath in person. Herriot had been re-elected president of the Chamber by 266 votes only. On April 5 Millerand was elected Senator of the Scine by 520 out of 1,025 votes. The municipal elections (May 3 and 10) showed a slight progress towards the Left as compared with those of 1918, and at the same time a striking set-back for the Communists. Abroad the outlook was still uncertain. The Conference of Ambassadors had decided, in conformity with the Versailles Treaty, that the Cologne zone should be evacuated only after Germany had completed her disarmament. An Inter-Allied financial conference, that was held in Paris on Jan. 14, had settled the distribution of payments to be made under the Dawes scheme and that of the prolits accruing from the occupation of the Ruhr. The election of Hindenburg to the presidency of the Reich (April

26) on the sudden death of Ebert had aroused great uneasiness among the Allies. In May a considerable financial and military effort was entailed by ‘Abdel-Krim’s attack on the Moroccan front. Painlevé flew over to Morocco by aeroplane to review the situation. He then sent Malvy to Madrid to arrange a plan for collaborating with Spain, and Marshal Pétain to Morocco to direct the military operations. In October, after the Riffs had been thrown back on their old front, Marshal Lyautey was replaced as Résident-Général by Steeg. Monzie became Minister of Justice and Yvon Delbos took the Ministry of Public Instruc-

tion. This first reconstitution of the Ministry had no political significance, but this could not be said for the next. Dislocation of the Cartel.—July 12 saw a rift in the Cartel. For the first time, on the subject of the budget and the sales tax, the Socialists, Radical-Socialists and a certain number of Radicals voted against the Ministry, which was saved by the votes of the Opposition who were anxious above all to find a way out of

the financial

95 predicament.

The

Conseils

généraux

elections

(July 19 and 26) showed a slight leaning to the Left and the in-

transigeance of the Socialists became more marked. On Aug. 15 the Socialist Congress in Paris began by excluding Deputy Varenne from the party because of his acceptance of the post of Governor-General of Indo-China. A motion was then passed (by 2,210 against 559) against Blum’s proposal to censure any support of Painlevé’s Cabinet but permitted the support of a Ministry “ determined to bring about the referms demanded by the proletariat.” Inclusion in the Ministry remained forbidden in any case. The ever-increasing financial difficulties intensified the dissension. Caillaux failed to justify the hopes reposed in him. Instead of holding fast to a general financial scheme he became involved in party politics. To clear up the situation by the settlement of Inter-Allied debts he left for the United States in September, but only to return in October empty-handed. The consolidated 4°% gold loan, which he had launched during the summer and by which he hoped to realise some 20 milliards produced barely six. Confidence was gone. At the end of Oct. misunderstandings in the majority ranks found expression at the Radical Congress at Nice, the speeches of Herriot and Caillaux revealed a fundamental difference, and Painlevé’s long speech rather served to add to the confusion. Finally the Congress, unable to decide between the levy on capital and the more practicable taxes, adopted a vague formula recommending a “special contribution payable on all kinds of income and capital.” The Second Paintevé Ministry.—The brief credit enjoyed by the Government on the conclusion of the agreements signed on Oct. 16 at Locarno—for which Briand had paved the way during the 6th meeting of the League of Nations by agreement with Chamberlain, Benes and Skrzynski—did not help them for long. For one thing, French opinion was by no means unanimous in its approval of the agreements which were designed to replace both the Geneva Protocol (never ratifted), the Security Pact of June 28 rorg and certain guarantees of the Versailles Treaty. On returning from Nice, Caillaux was unable to secure his colJeagues’ approval of his financial projects. To get rid of him Painlevé handed in the resignation of the Cabinet collectively on the 28th, and formed a new Ministry in which he took Finance himself. But in the Chamber he obtained a majority of only 221 votes against 189, owing to the abstention of the Socialists. The Socialist National Council, for its part, voted against him by 1,431 against 1,228. At the same time Gen. Sarrail’s anticlerical sectarianism, Turkish sympathies, presumption and blunders in Syria brought about sanguinary encounters in the Jebel Druz and later in Damascus, which amounted to local disasters. Painlevé was at last obliged to recall him. When he

put his financial schemes—badly conceived and co-ordinated— before the Chamber, he was already discredited. On Nov. 22 he was thrown out by 277 votes against 249. The Treasury was so hard pressed that he had to pass an emergency vote for an

advance of 1,500 million francs from the Banque de France. Another Briand Muinisiry—Entrusted with the construction of a new Cabinet, Briand failed at first through the non-collaboration of the Socialists. Doumer, and after him Herriot, met with no greater success. Then, as the Socialists were meditating a coup de force, Briand yielded to the pressure of the President of the Republic and tried once more. He succeeded on Nov. 28, taking Foreign Affairs himself, sending Painlevé back to the War Office and, in spite of his objections, gave Finance to Loucheur who imagined he could straighten out the situation. The Ministry was still Cartellist, although Georges Leygues (Navy) and François Jourdain (Pensions) represented the Moderate elements. A change of policy was now perceptible, the developments of which appeared in December. Loucheur’s scheme, once published, proved so great a disappointment that the Finance Minister had to resign. After groping a while pursued by the clamour of the extreme Left, Briand replaced Loucheur by Doumer. Several Cartellist ministers talked of resigning, but Briand unmoved stood by Doumer and gained the approval of the entire Cabinet for his schemes. The pound sterling oscillated at about 130 and the dollar at about 26 to 27 francs.

FRANCE

90

As soon as his Ministry was formed Briand went to London to sign the Locarno agreements (Dec. 1). By the end of the year foreign affairs looked more promising. The Dawes scheme functioned accurately, and the Cologne area was evacuated without incidents. In Morocco the vanquished ‘Abdel-Krim saw himself abandoned by the tribes; in Syria Henry de Jouvenel, appointed high commissioner, began to restore order and confidence; in central Europe, Poland and the Little Entente (q.v.) were following a policy parallel to that of France. Relations with England were cordial. The one great remaining problem remained the settlement of Inter-Allied debts, the shadow of which darkened a financial horizon already heavy with clouds. (A. GN.) The Locarno treaties were ratified by the French Chamber on Nov. 2 1925. The chief preoccupation of ministers in the new year was the financial crisis, the solution of which

was rendered more

difficult by the lack of an absolute majority in the Chamber.

The

Govt. made the tax on payments, M. Doumer’s most important proposal, a matter of confidence. They were defeated by 274 votes to 221. Their resignation (March 6) took place two days before the opening of the special session of the Assembly called to arrange for the admission of Germany to the League.

The fall of M. Briand was a calamity at this moment, and, after a

fruitless invitation to M. Herriot to form a cabinet, M. Briand assembled a ministry, with M. Raoul Peret at the Finance Ministry. A Finance Bill, providing for new or increased taxation, was passed (April 29), but the franc still fell. At the end of April it stood at 147 to the pound. Money was required for Morocco, where the new offensive was begun early in May. On May 19, on M. Peret’s return from London without having settled the debt, the franc fell to 171. In June M. Peret resigned, and then the whole Government. After a delay of a week, during which M. Herriot had failed to form a ministry, M Briand again took office, with M. Caillaux at the Ministry of Finance, and the latter was faced at once with the

problem of protecting the franc. (Ep. E.B.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-E. Bourgeois, Afannel historique de la politique

étrangère (Paris 1892-1906); A. Gauvain, L'Europe avant la guerre (Paris, 1917); and L'Europe au jour le jour (Paris, 1917, ete.); A. Albert-Petit, La France de la guerre, 3 vol. (Paris, 1918-9); E. Lavisse, Histoire de France contemporaine, 10 vol. (Paris, 1920-2}; J. Aulneau, Le Rhin et la France (Paris, 1921); E. Bourgeois and G. Pagès, Les origines et les responsabilités de la Grande Guerre (Paris, 1921); J. Caillaux, Mes Prisons (Paris, 1921); A. Dumaine, La Dernière Ambassade de France en Autriche (Paris, 1921); G. H. Stuart, French Foreign Policy from Fashoda to Sarajevo 1898-1014 (New York, 1921); A. Tardieu, La Paix (1921); A. Breton, Les Commissions et la réforme de la procédure parlementatre, etc. (Paris, 1922); R. Poincaré, Les origines de la guerre (Paris, 1921); R. H. Sottau, French Parties and Politics (World of To-day Series, London,

1922); J. Cařrère and G. Bourgin, Manuel des partis politiques en France (Paris, 1924); P. Renouvier, Les origines tmmédiates de la Guerre (Paris, 1925). See also—Les Recueils diplomatiques; and the Yellow,

Blue,

Red, Orange,

Green

and

by the Governments concerned since 1914.

II. ECONOMIC

AND

White

SOCIAL

Books,

published

HISTORY

In the course of the negotiations for the payment of France s debts to her Allies it has been persistently said, in particular by Americans, that France is the richest country in Europe, or at least in continental Europe. This opinion, very flattering to the French, is in some respects well founded; for since the fall or the amputation of the great empires of central Europe, France is, after Russia, the most extensive European country. Her soil is fertile. She owns the richest iron deposits in Europe, and, if her coal does not suffice for home consumption, she has by way of compensation more water power than any other European country except Norway. In addition she has a colonial empire, the second in the world and 20 times the size of the mother country. It is true that her population places her fifth in order of countries, but it is by her own choice that its increase is limited. But the formidable damages inflicted by the War are not taken sufficiently into account. The world still remembers [rance’s rapid recovery after the war of 1870-1, and supposes that this

is a similar case. But the two situations are not in any real sense comparable. If the national wealth of France were evaluated in gold currency or, to be exact, in the currency of 1914 (which is not the same thing, for we know that gold has lost a great deal of its = value), we should arrive at a figure far below that of ro14. It is difficult to make a definite statement, but, speaking generally,

the accepted pre-War figure was 300 milliard gold fr. whereas the present figure would not, we believe, reach 200 milliards, in spite of the restoration of Alsace-Lorraine.! But leaving aside these general considerations let us examine, in two successive sections: (1) agriculture, mines, industry and commerce, with a comparison under each heading of the present situation with that of 1911-3; (2) the changes that have taken place in respect of workers’ legislation, the social movement and population. PRODUCTION A griculture-—French agriculture suffered cruelly in the War; (a) in consequence of the occupation and of the destruction of part of its area; for certain portions of the ground—the part since known as the Red Zone (about 30,000 hectares)—were laid waste by shell to such an extent that they could no longer be cultivated in any way; (b) in consequence of scarcity of labour, live stock and manure, which had the effect of bringing cultivation to a standstill or of greatly impoverishing the crops for a long time after the War; (c) by the destruction of forests (several hundred thousand hectares) which must take 20 to 50 years or even longer, to grow again. The area under cultivation is smaller to-day, whether we take the absolute or the relative figures, than it was before the War. From 1904 to 1913 its extent was 23,000,000 hectares (cereals, fodder, leguminous crops, vines, etc.), which represented in relation to France’s total area of 32,952,000 hectares 47%. In 1923 it was only 20,432,000 hectares, although the areaof France, aggrandised by Alsace-Lorraine, amounts to 54,400,000 hectares. The proportion is therefore now only 37:5%. This reduction of the cultivated areas is explained by the diminution and the high cost of agricultural labour, as the result of which landowners find it more profitable to convert their land into pasture. It may be argued that the decrease in the arcas matters little

if there is a compensating increase in yield. Unfortunately this is not the case. There is certainly a general improvement in the yield per hectare, but not enough to compensate for the decrease in area. The result is that production is decreasing in the case of almost all agricultural products. The following are the figures for certain products, taken from a paper by M. Augé Laribé in the Revue d’ Economie politigue, March-April 1925.

1904-13] 1923-4 Million quintals . ; i 88 76 Million quintals . ; f 127 Million quintals . ‘ ` ; 44 Million litres . ‘ 117 Million kilogrammes . . 20 Wool It is only in the case of vines and fodder that production shows a small increase. The live stock of the country, greatly reduced by the War, is still below pre-War numbers. It is evident from the following figures (Annuaire statistique de la France) that the deficit is still very considerable. Cereals Potatoes Beetroot Milk

1913 2,859,000 3,222,000 Horses, mules, donkeys 14,025,000 14,788,000 Oxen and cows . 10,172,000 16,131,000 Sheep and goats 5,802,000 7,036,000 Pigs Nevertheless, in some directions, progress has been made.

Manure is being more largely used, thanks to the work of the agricultural syndicates, but France is still far behind other countries in this respect, although she possesses very abundant supplies of phosphates in Northern Africa and, since the restoration of Alsace, a rich deposit of potash also. The employment of electric power, whether derived i Mr. Harvey E. Fisk of the Bankers Trust Co., New York, concludes his exhaustive analysis of French public finance (1922) in these terms: We believe that, notwithstanding the losses occasioned by the War, the wealth of France today, estimated on a specie basis, closely approximates or perhaps equals her pre-War wealth. This is partly due to the repatriation

of Alsace

and

Lorraine, but

it is also due to the fact that the War apparently served to intensify the normal saving habits of the people and thus enabled them to meet the burden which it brought without seriously tmpairing the pre-War national fortune.” (Ep, Æ. B.)

FRANCE from waterfalls or from coal, is beginning to spread in country districts owing to the formation of co-operative societies of consumers of power. The state has voted a credit of 600,000,000 fr, for this purpose. The shortage of labour is being compensated by the immigration of foreign workers who are mainly Italian and Spanish in the south, Polish and Belgian in the north. The southern region

which lies along the Garonne had become a deserted country in consequence of the decrease in the local population, but is now being restored by the Italians, who come not merely as labourers, farmers or métayers, but also to buy land and settle on it. Jt is undoubtedly an anomaly, this colonisation of so ancient a country as France, and the results may be dangerous from a national point of view. But

even if it be an evil, it is at the same time a remedy for that greater evil which has proved fatal to other countries, viz.: desertion of the land for lack of men to work it. The depreciation of the currency has been a blessing in so far as it has cnabled most small holders to pay off their mortgages and many farmers to buy their farms outright.

Mines and Water-power—The invaded regions were the very ones richest in mines. They produced half of France’s total output of coal and three-quarters of that of iron. The coal-mines were systematically destroyed by the Germans; during the War 112 shafts and 1,910 kilometres of galleries were demolished or burnt out, and have had to be not merely repaired, but entirely reconstructed. In 1925, by dint of immense efforts, production had been brought back to the pre-War figure, but the output of 12 whole years had been lost. It is true that, through the recovery of the Lorraine mines, France—already a large producer of iron ores—has come into the front rank among European nations in that capacity. Her production of coal, however, was always much below her consumption, and the restoration of Alsace-Lorraine has not altered this state of things. The figures of coal production and consumption are as follows :— Year

Production | Consumption

IQII 1913 1924

tons

tous

39,280,000 40,844,000 44,955,000

59,500,000 64,800,000 76,900,000

At first sight there would seem to have been a considerable increase both in production and consumption, but this is an illusion. As regards production, of the 45,000,000 tons produced in 1924, more than 5,000,000 are from the restored Lorraine region; deducting this amount, it will be seen that from the rest of France the output is slightly below the pre-War figure, so that there has been no progress at all in the 12 years. Similarly, as regards coal consumption, Alsace alone consumes 11,000,000 tons, so that in 1924 the consumption of France without that province was only 66,000,000, or about the same as in 1913. The deficit has in fact been augmented, for while in 1911 it amounted to 20,000,000 tons only, In 1924 it had risen to 32,000,000 tons. Tt is made up by the import of coal, which comes mainly from the Saar, Germany and England. If the Saar basin were to become permanently French, it would go far in redressing the insufficiency of coal; but this question is to be settled by a plebiscite in 1935, and it is probable that the decision will be in favour of Germany. In that case, however, Germany would have to pay France the value of the Saar mines, which has been fixed at 300,000,000 gold marks. There is, however, a real and considerable increase in the production of iron and its derivatives; production is in fact nearly doubled, as may be seen from the following figures :— Iron Ore

Pig Iron

tons

tons

tons

16,600,000 22,000,000 29,000,000

4,470,000

3,837,000

5,207,000

Steel

4,687,000

6,900,000 7,693,000 Consumption, however, lags far behind production; even before the recovery of Lorraine, France was unable to absorb all her production, and js less able to do so now. The reason is that she produces very little coke, and coke is indispensable in the production of pig-iron. She has, therefore, no alternative but to export her surplus of ore and of manufactured iron, and even this is a matter of difficulty as, since the War, the metallurgic

97

industry has been in a state of depression marked by underselling and falling prices. In the matter of her metallurgical wealth, therefore, France has less cause for satisfaction than is generally supposed. As to petroleum, France had formerly none at all, but with Alsace she has now acquired a few small wells. An oil-field has just been found in the Mediterranean region (department of Hérault) but it is not yet known what the yield will be. The insufficiency of coal-mines is to some extent counterbalanced by the abundance of waterfalls which can be used for motor power. With the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the mountains cf the centre, France

is at least as well equipped as Switzerland and Norway. Before the War the amount of power utilised was valued at no more than 480,000 kilowatts (640,000 H1.P.). In 1924 the figure was over 1,000,000 kilowatts.

Plans for the utilisation of 4,000,000 additional

kilowatts are in progress, and the total utilisable energy is calculated at 8,000,000 or 10,000,000. The increase, however, though extremely rapid after the War, is now tending to diminish owing to the great rise in the cost of installation, so that coal-power once more becomes the cheaper of the two. Neverthcless, France has already found in water-power a source of considerable wealth, for in addition to the amount employed for lighting and for running railways and tramways, a large number of industries, both metallurgical and chemical,

have arisen as a consequence of this new motor power. Indusiry.—French industry was hit even more directly than agriculture by the War. Those regions which were invaded, and in great part devastated, represented, it is true, only 5% of the total

area of France, but they accounted for more than 10% of the popu-

lation, 14% of the total number of industrial workers, 29°% of the textile and 53° of the metallurgical production. They were in short the focus of the nation’s industrial activity. Reparation of the

damage done has cost the state 84 milliard fr., and 20 milliards have still to be paid. From the financial standpoint the losses are irreparable.

We are not, however, concerned here with the financial

situation, but with the question of whether, from the industrial point of view, a complete recovery has been made. The answer is yes, and no. In certain respects undoubtedly, French industry gained through the terrible experience of war. Factories reconstructed in the devastated areas made good use of the enormous indemnities that thev received from the state. They are reported to have had the use of extravagant sums, but they.justify their case by saying that the money was spent on installing the latest improvements and that those installations would probably not have been made but for the War. Jn like manner factories have learnt to renew their stock of tools and to adapt themselves to new requirements by manufacturing at home articles for which France had formerly sent abroad, particularly to Germany;

these included,

for instance, chemical

prod-

ucts, dves, magnetos for motors, Dicscl engines, electrical apparatus for wireless telegraphy, optical and photographic lenses and all the industrial requirements of aviation. The motor industry has made immense strides; the pre-War figure of about 100,606 cars in use has been increased to over 450,000 in 1925. Even the eldest industries received a new impetus through the War. In the bakery trade, for instance, only half of the establishments used a mechanical kneader; and after the War it was used by 88". lIt must be said that the general acdloption of the eight-hour day hastened the introduction of mechanical contrivances but this itself was a result of the War.

But while admitting these points, it is none the less true that French industry, taken as a whole, has not yet recovered from the shock of war. Certainly, the losses among industrial workers (267,000 killed and about 130,000 disabled)—were less heavy than among agricultural labourers, because the greater number of skilled workmen were withdrawn from the front to work in munition factories. ‘The deficit was more than covered, too, by the immigration of foreign workers. Every year, since 1922 especially, there is a contingent of 200,000 to 300,000 of whom two-thirds are industrial and one-third agricultural workers. In the mines to-day, something like one-third of the personnel is made up of foreigners. But if there is no diminution in numbers, there is nevertheless diminution of output. Not only does the foreigner, who is often inexperienced in his particular branch of employment, produce less than the Frenchman of earlier days, but the Frenchman himself produces less than before the War. It is difficult to say whether this is the result of a limited working day or of discontent connected with Socialistic ideas; in either case, the facts are incontrovertible. To take one example only, the quantity of coal produced per head in rgt3 was about 660 kilogrammes; in 1925 it is 5r0 kilogrammes, The diminution is rather less if the calculation is based upon the underground workers who extract the coal, but even in their case the quantity extracted shows a

FRANCE

98

diminution of 5%, the present figure being 568 kilogrammes as against the earlier 595. Then again, although the technical advance in industry has just been demonstrated, the total of horse-power used in industry, excluding transport, has not risen to any great extent (1911, 3,141,000 H.P.; 1913, 3,539,000 H.P.; 1922, 4,800,000 H.P.). But Alsace-Lorraine accounts for a large share in the last of these figures and, if we deduct that share, the augmentation for pre-War France remains inconsiderable. It is a different matter with water-power, but that we have already discussed.

War (700,000 net tonnage), but Germany was made to hand over to her an equivalent fleet. Besides, the enormous rise in freights after the War (now a thing of the ‘past) was a great incentive to construction.

As regards international commerce, it is generally held that the position of France is excellent, better indeed than before the War. This is true, but only in part; the figures need more careful inspection. The following are the statistics of values and quantities:— Imports

Taking the principal industries, we shall see that production has diminished, notwithstanding assertions to the contrary. The following are the hgures for silk, which is pre-eminently a French industry :— .

Value in Millions of

Exports Weight in Millions of

Quintals

Value in Millions of Francs

Weight in Millions of Quintals

7 Weight of | Weight of | value of Cocoons

Silk Yarns

kilos

kilos

mille Piecc Goods francs

IQII 1922

5.109,000 | 411,000,000 | 414,000,000 2,585,000 | 209,000,000 |2,220,000,000

1923

4,180,000

2,812,000,000

It is evident that production has greatly diminished, the quantity produced being almost halved. The third column figures, taken alone, show on the contrary a septuple augmentation; but on what does it rest?) Merely on the fact that the price of raw silk has been multiplied by 8, mounting from 35 fr. a kilo in 1911 to 278 fr. in 1923. We have therefore only to divide this nominal figure of 2,812,000,000 by 8 and we have left 350,000,000 gold fr., that is, a figure smaller than that of I91I. In the case of sugar refineries the diminution amounts to onethird, as these figures show:— IQII-3. average 671,000,000 kilogrammes 1922-4 . ; average 446,000,000 kilogrammes Lastly, there is the building industry, that industry which supports so many others—as the French proverb has it: “‘ When building goes well, all goes well.” In the War years, it was practically nonexistent; in 1924 and 1925 it was coming to life again, but only slowly. In Paris in 1911 there were 1,792 applications for permits to build houses, in 1919 only 173—not even one-tenth! But in 1925 building was ‘resumed on a considerable scale in the capital.

Commerce —Internal commerce has suffered but little, even during the War; it recovered immediately after the War, gaining a fresh impetus from the rise in prices caused by the depreciation of the franc, and profiting also by the influx of foreigners attracted precisely by that depreciation, which set a premium on

their dollars, pounds or florins as the case might be. We have an indication of the fluctuation of the internal commerce in the special tax on sales. This tax brings in round figures 4 milliards of paper francs. As it is established at a fixed rate of 1-30%, it assumes an annual sales figure of 300 milliards—one might safely say, 400 to 500 milliards, ¢.e., about 120 milliards of gold fr. on the basis of the exchange in 1924, for the declarations are assuredly much below the real figures. But unfortunately this tax did not exist before the War and we have therefore no basis

of comparison. Progress on the railways is, however, easier to assess; there is considerable increase in passenger traffic (35%) but less in goods

(13°45) = IQII 1923

Goods .

i

;

184,000,000 tons 208,000,000 tons

Passengers 511,000,000 689,000,000

In spite of a large increase in gross receipts the railway companies are losing money at the rate of 1,000,000,000 fr. a year. This is because the French charges, though they have been frequently raised, are still (on a gold basis) lower than they are in other countries. The total length of the railway system has not been increased

since the War (40,615 km. in 1911; 41,853 km. in 1923; but of these 1,250 were for Alsace), because the cost of construction is so heavy that even the old tracks have to go unrepaired. The system is, however, practically large enough to meet requirements. In the mercantile marine, there has been a considerable increase: oe 1,413,000 tonnage 2,145,000 tonnage net.

net;

1913,

1,582,000

tonnage

net;

1923,

Sailing vessels account for only 386,000 of the total tonnage of 2,145,000. The increase since 1913 is therefore more than a third (35:-6%). France lost nearly half of her merchant fleet during the

It will be seen that a comparison of the mean of the years 1912 and 1913 with that of the years 1924 and 1925 shows an enormous increase in values, the imports being more than five times, the exports more than six times larger. At the mean rate of exchange in 1924 and 1925 the import figures would be 12 and 11 milliards of gold fr. respectively; the export figures 12-2 and 11-2 milliards respectively. The increase in quantities has been less: 24% on the imports, 40% on exports.

It is not to be denied, moreover, that this increase is due

to the depreciation of the franc to which we just now attributed the influx of foreign visitors, for this is why, despite the rise of prices in France, actual prices (gold prices), costs of production, and wages are lower in France than in foreign countries. But the greater increase in exports and the smaller increase in imports has in facet served to turn the trade balance in favour of France. For while in 19ft and 1913 the export figures remained lower by nearly 2 millards of fr. than the average import figures, in 1924 on the contrary they exceeded the import figures by more than I,300,000,000 (300,000,000 gold francs).

It would seem, therefore, that this favourable balance ought to improve the exchange and bring about a rise in the franc, all the more as the unknown, but considerable figure (probably more than r milliard gold fr.) of what are called invisible exports —that is, purchases made by passing visitors—may be added. On the other hand it must be remembered that France has almost entirely lost her credits held abroad in the shape of shares, debentures and state loans. Of this wealth, which amounted to 4o or so milliard gold fr., a large portion was diverted during the War. Another part, comprising Russian, Austrian and Turkish bonds, has practically melted away; and this magnificent holding of foreign credits cannot unfortunately be restored, or at least can only be restored by secret methods, because an uniniclligent fiscal policy prohibits or at least handicaps heavily all kinds of investments abroad. The figures of French commerce include those of the trade done between the mother country and her colonies and these can have no effect on the exchange,

the currency being the same on both sides. It is not our intention to discuss the immense question of protection. We will only say that the War, far from having shaken Protectionism, has fortified it, not only because fiscal necessities call for the imposition of duties, but because fear of blockade leads each nation to think that she ought to be self-sufficing; and if, in those countries which appeared to be converted for good to free trade, suchas England, Holland, Denmark and Switzerland, protection is gaining ground, with how much more justification will it become rooted in France? The only hope is that the breath of internationalism, which has created the League of Nations, may also bring into being economic unions between several countries. No serious progress has yet been made with those economic understandings between France and Ger-

many which have many times been proposed on both sides of the Rhine. SociaL Economy

Labour Legislation.—During the War, social questions naturally lost their interest for the public. Even the application of laws for the protection of men and women workers was set aside in the interests of national defence. Workers mobilised in muni-

FRANCE tion factories, worked day and night without protest, stimulated both by the incredibly enhanced rate of pay and by the fear of being sent to the front. Even when the War was over, the opinion of business men and economists held that this intensive labour should continue, at least until the day when the ravages of war should have been repaired on the ground that the work of restoring the devastated areas was no less urgent than that of national defence. But the workers were deaf to this appeal; indeed they clamoured for the adoption of the eight-hour day awaited for 20 years, and celebrated in anticipation on each May Day. Parliament dared not resist this pressure, and the Act of April 19 1919 established in principle the eight-hour day, leaving, however, the application of the law to be adapted to the special conditions of individual industries by technical commissions. This was a difficult task, not yet satisfactorily solved. So far the eight-hour day is only applied to some 5,000,000 workers distributed among 30 trades. The trades unions protest violently against these delays; but all business men and a fair number of economists persistently oppose the Act, in which they see one of the principal factors in the rise of prices. Its partisans argue that in the case of a number of industries productivity has been maintained and even augmented, notwithstanding the eight-hour day. Several other laws, on the same lines as this general law, have been promulgated to secure the weckly holiday for tradespeople by compulsory closing of the shops and to forbid night work in the bakeries. These Jaws meet with violent opposition on the part of small traders or small bakers who, as they employ

no paid labour, claim the right to work themselves when and

how they please. There is also a law of June ro 1915 ensuring a minimum wage to women working at home. This is in imitation of the similar law in England. The insurance benefits against accidents, which had only been granted to industrial workers, were extended to agricultural labourers by a law of Nov. 15 1922. Another law of 1916 concerns economic life; it prohibits “illicit speculation,” that is, the extravagant raising of prices. This law was, it is true, repealed in 1922, but there is an agitation for its renewal. The question leads to passionate arguments, for it opposes the idea of equitable prices to the classic law of supply and demand. There are numerous Jaws by which loans on state funds are granted to co-operative socicties, concerned with credits, consumption or production; also to societies of artisans employed in small industry and of agricultural workers for the acquisition of land, special advantage being given to disabled ex-soldiers. We may also mention the creation of a National Economic Council composed of members elected by all the great national organisations. It has no legislative powers but aims at enlightening the Government and preparing draft legislation. In addition there are numerous important measures under consideration, vigorously demanded by the Confédération Générale du Travail and by the Socialist party. The following are

the principal demands :— (a) The establishment

of a general social Insurance,

99

But these allowances are at present paid actually by the ‘employers, and the trades unions will not accept this, seeing in it a means of binding the worker on the pretext of assisting him. They claim family allowances, but on a compulsory basis.

The Social Movement—As long as the War lasted we had, if not social peace, at least a truce from social strife as from political

strife. The middle class and the working class had fraternised in the same trenches. But this truce did not last. The working classes returned from the War disappointed and irritated. They had been laden with laurels for saving their country, prom-

ised a new world, and when they life seemed harder and the wage ever. The rise in prices, due to a public remained ignorant, viz.:

had to go into harness again, system more intolerable than factor of which for years the depreciation of the currency, increased that irritation. Undoubtedly a rise in wages followed the rise in prices; in the first years of the War it anticipated it indeed, but after the War, the advance in wages fell behind the advance in prices, and adjustment was frequently obtained only through fighting and strikes. The index number of wages which had (almost) caught up with the index number of prices, again lagged behind on account of the fall in the value of the franc at the end of 1925.

The two columns below show the index numbers of retail

prices and those of wages at corresponding dates. The parallelism of the two ascending lines would be still clearer if shown in a graph. It should be remembered, however, that index numbers of wages are far more difhcult to determine than those of prices. Instead of taking more or less arbitrary averages, we have chosen to take wages in a single industry, that for which the most definite statistics are obtainable, namely the coal-mining industry (taking underground and surface workers together) as indicative of

the wage movement in general.

Retail Prices Wages

The same parallel movement is found in the salaries of minor employees and officials, but not at all in the case of higher officials whose salaries have often not even been doubled. It must be admitted that when the worker docs obtain wages

proportionate to the rise in prices, he is not satisfied, for he docs not see why, with his wages quadrupled, he cannot satisfy his requirements better than before the War. Ie feels that he is being duped and it irritates him. ‘Then, too, the worker’s requirements—particularly those of the agricultural worker—are much greater since the War. This is due to the lavish distribution of meat, coffce, tobacco and alcohol to the soldiers, the taste for which has survived and the desire for which is stimulated by the spectacle of the scandalous fortunes that are acquired through the rise in prices and through speculation. The people’s saving-banks have had their deposits greatly augmented, but not in proportion to the rise in prices, as the following figures show:—

covering all

the risks in life: iliness, old age, disablement, unemployment, maternity, etc. This project likewise arouses lively opposition, on account of the enormous charge entailed on industry and on the national budget at a time when the financial situation is in itself critical. Neither is it favourably regarded by the Mutual Insurance Societies, corresponding to English Friendly Societies, who depend

on the voluntary contributions of their members and see themselves in danger of being climinated by a compulsory insurance scheme. Nevertheless, it is certain that the bill will be passed, in a more or less modified form, for the Radical Socialist party has declared its intention to side with the Socialist party in supporting it. (b) The establishment of a contrôle ouvrier which would authorise the workers—or rather the trades unions—in every factory to intervene in all questions of labour organisation, such as the workshop

regulations, engagement, dismissals, discipline and so on. (c) The workers’ right to claim a certain number of days as

holidays: this would give legal sanction to a custom which is becoming general to-day. (d) The right to receive a minimum wage, increased by allowances po to the number of children. Here again it is a case of egal sanction for a custom of family allowances which, though of recent introduction, is already in use in many establishments.

National Savings

Bank

Fr. 1,818,000,000 1,90.},000,000 3,306,000,000

NM Savings

Banks

papa

Fr. 4,01 1,000,000 3,909,000,000 $8,814,000,000 | I

If we convert the actual total (12 milliards) to pre-War francs on the basis of the mean exchange in 1924 it becomes less than 3 milliard fr., that is, toa figure below that of 1911. The savings-bank deposits are influenced by the degree of confidence inspired by the national credit at any given time. This applies even to the municipal or private banks, for these also put nearly all their deposits into state funds. Among the lower classes confidence îs greatly shaken by the fall in value of state bonds. It might be supposed that, given the discontent prevailing amon the working class, trade unionism would show a great increase, cad

a study of the official statistics appears to confirm that supposition: IQII, 1,029,000 trade unionists; 1925, 1,846,000 trade unionists.

FRANCE

TOO

But these figures are of little value because most of the trade unionists figure only on paper, and also, since the Moscow lution, trade unionism has been disorganised. Actually it resented by three organisations more or less hostile to each I. The oldest of all (dating from 1895)--the Confédération

revois repother. Géné-

rale du Travail, the famous C.G.T., whose secretary Jouhaux is well known. Its effective membership rose from 1,000,000 before the War to nearly 2,000,000 in I920. As the result of an attempted general strike provoked by unemployment, of which the C.G.T. did not approve, although it dare not disavow it, and especially of the withdrawal of the Communists in r921 which was inspired from Moscow, the number of its members fell to 400,000.

It has recovered

since then, mainly through the adhesion of intellectual workers and officials (among

whom

are

I10,000

teachers)

and is said to have

700,000 members at the present time. Although it was declared illegal by a legal decision, never put into execution, its programme is reformist rather than revolutionary. 2. In consequence of the schism just mentioned, another Confédération Générale du Travail was formed which qualified its title by the additional word unitaire, a strange term for dissentients. Its programme is that of Moscow: the dictatorship of the proletariat. This organisation is known as the C.G.T.U. It has not succeeded in rallying more than 200,000 to 300,000 members and will probably return before long to the older organisation. 3. Finally there is the Fédération des syndicats catholiques which is not much in the public eye, but is said to be growing since the War.

The co-operative movement, more favourably situated, has grown steadily since the War in France, as indeed in all countries, particularly as regards consumers’ co-operation. The reason for this lics not only in the rise in prices, which has forced the middle class as well as the working class to seek means of reducing the cost of living; there is also a psychological reason— reaction against the existing economic organisation. The classic laws of political economy are no longer accepted, and there is therefore a sympathetic public for a new doctrine such as this, which claims to replace competition by co-operation, the law of supply and demand by fair prices, production for profit by production for service, thus abolishing the profitcer. The following figures show the progress that has been made:— Number of Societies

Number of Members

3,280 4.200

2,330,000

865,000

Sales Figures 317,000,000 1,7.47,000,000

It will be seen that the increase in the sales is much less than it appears, for in 1922 the frane had already fallen to 0-27; the 1,747,000,000 therefore represent only 576,000,000 of 1913 francs. But the progress of the movement is shown above all in the development of central organisations and in the growing part which cooperatives play in national and international economic life. The importance of the movement received official acknowledgment at

the end of the War in 1918 when the Conseil Supérieur de la Coopération was created and its advice asked on all questions of interest not only to co-operatives, but to consumers generally, just as the Conseil Supérieur du Travail is called in to advise on questions which concern workers. Agricultural co-operative societies for mutual credit, have also been greatly multiplied:— I9II . 3,946 societies 185,000 members 1923 ,212 societies 284,000 members but their development is to a large extent artificial, being due as it is principally to the loans granted by the state (about 600,000,000 (150,000,000 gold fr.) up to date in 1924). These funds are not taken from the budget, but from the immense profits which the state draws from its partnership in the Banque de France. As to the industrial producers’ societies, the oldest and most typical of all co-operation in France, they comprise within a small ring some 500 societies in all with 30,000 members. The most celebrated,

and one

which

has been

visited by co-operators

from all

countries isthe Familistére de Guise. The friendly societies, which in their day were the elementary schools of social solidarity, are now rather out of date. Their field of activity, hedged in on the one hand by employers’ institutions, on the other by the extension of compulsory state insurance, is becoming more and more limited.

POPULATION ~ The demographical position of France was already bad before the War, and was bound to be aggravated by a war which robbed the country of the flower of its population. In ro911 the population was 39,605,000; in 1921 it WaS 30,240,000.

Thus the population has diminished in the course of these 10

years, but the diminution is even greater than it scems; for Alsace and Lorraine, which did not figure in the ror1 returns, are included in the census of 1921. Now these previnces account for 1,719,000 inhabitants, and if we deduct these from the figure of 39,209,518 we are left with a population of 37,521,000 for France as it was before the War. There is therefore a diminution of more than 2,000,000 and this diminution is only too easily explained:—(1) by the number of men killed in the War (1,400,000) and (2) by the fall of the birth-rate during the War. The sudden rise in the number of births immediately after the War—a familiar phenomenon—was succeeded by a quick drop to the pre-War figure. Fortunately, the death-rate has sensibly diminished, with the result that the annual excess of births over deaths is greater than before the War:— a

1911-3 (3 years average) . 1922-4 (3 years average).

Births

Deaths

Excess of Births over Deaths

746,000 758,000

724,000 679,000

22,000 79,000

It is clear that even could this natural increase be maintained over a period, it would take 26 years to replace the 2,000,000 dead or the unborn of the War. The state endeavours to stimulate the birth-rate by grants to families in proportion to the number of children. But it is hard to believe that these premiums will cause many children to be born; they are only a means of giving material aid to the parents of large families. Happily foreign immigration goes far towards restoring the balance, for the number of immigrants is now far greater than the number of births in excess of deaths. The annual number of immigrants, taking the average over the three years 1922, 1923, 1924 1S 290,000, We may suppose then that the coming census of 1926 will give France a population of 40,600,000 inhabitants. This places her fifth among the great European powers. But she has also a population—black, yellow and white—of 50,000,000 to 60,000,000 in her colonies. BrpLroGRAPHy.— Annual official publications; especially, Statistique agricole annuelle; Tableau général du commerce de la France; Annuaire statistique dela France; also C. Gid, cd. Effects of the War upon French Economic Life; Collection of 5 monographs (Carnegie Endowment, Oxford, 1923); La Revne d Economie publique. (C. G.*)

IT. NATIONAL

FINANCE

On the eve of the World War the public finances of France were in a relatively poor condition, a circumstance which has influenced the whole evolution of French finance since Aug. 1o14, and was due solely to the indifferent way in which the finances had been handled. The Budgetary Deficit—For the three years 1908-10 the national budget showed a total deficit of 147,000,000 francs. In orr, it is true, there was a surplus of 141,000,000 fr., but in the following year the deficit reappeared. Although the accounts of the year 19t2 show an apparent surplus of 112,500,000 fr., this was only obtained by including 153,000,000 fr. which were extraordinary resources of the Treasury arising from the“ Compte provisionnel.”’ In reality this apparent surplus masked a deficit of 40,500,000 francs. For 1913 the budget showed the fol-

lowing results:— Receipts . Expenditure

; .

Surplus

.

.

3

. y

: ;

; :

; š

3

fr. 5,066,900,000 5,038, 100,000

28,800,000

But the receipts included 172,000,000 fr. again coming for the “ Compte Provisionnel,” so that the real deficit on the budget was 143,000,000 francs. When the budget for 1914 was under discussion the deficit was estimated at 800,000,000 francs. In reality these deficits were even larger, as a number of items of expenditure which should have been included were withdrawn from the budget by accounting devices. A bad example had been set by the law of Feb. 17 1898, which instituted the special Treasury account for the improvement of military equipment.

FRANCE On Jan. 1 1914 there were still 173,000,000 fr. of short-term bonds issued in virtue of this law, of which 11,000,000 fell due in IQI4, 124,000,000 In 1915 and 38,000,000 In 1916.

A subsequent

law of March 30 1912 created the account for the improvement of naval equipment and, although annual sums were allotted from the budget for this purpose, the expenditure over the five years r912~—6 exceeded the allocation by 139,293,000 francs. These extra-budget expenditures, which had become to some extent both regular and normal, were not the only ones. The diplomatic tension at the time of the Agadir incident in 1911 had drawn the attention of the French Govt. to the inadequacy of the military equipment of France, and caused it.to embark on very considerable expenditure without the formal authorisation of Parliament. In 1912, 22,000,000 fr. were spent in this way but in 1913, owing to the passing of the three-year military service law, the figures rose to 300,000,000 fr., and in 1914, 488,000,000 fr. extra-budget credits were estimated for the army and 128,000,000 for the navy. The “ Compte Provistonnel.”’—In order to hide, at least in part, the deficit, the “ Compte Provisionnel ”’ was created by the law of Feb. 20 1912. This was a treasury device which enabled any surplus to be carried over from one financial year to the next, thus violating the fundamental rule of an annual budget. During the first year, in 1912, a sum of 159,000,000 fr. was paid into the “ Compte Provisionnel,” arising from the anticipated repayment by the Compagnie des Chemins de Fer de l'Est of advances made to it by the state as a guarantee of interest. In the following year it was credited with 141,000,000 fr., the surplus of the financial year 1911 and with a further 31,000,000 fr. from nonrecurring sources. In rgr4 it received 112,500,000 Ír., the surplus of the financial year 1912. The Reform of the Tax System.—Treasury expedients of this type, besides being inadequate, did not provide a solution, which it is clear could only be found by voting the necessary taxes, as was demanded by M. Poincaré when Minister of Finance in 1906. There were two obstacles in the way of this solution: firstly, the usual unwillingness of all politicians to impose new burdens on their electors—~an unwillingness which from 1904 to 1914 prevented the French Parhament from voting more than 236,000,000 fr. of new taxes as against additional expenditure of 1,777,000,000 fr.; secondly, the political battle which raged round the question of reform of direct taxation. After prolonged controversy, which dated from the reform proposals of M. Caillaux in 1907, the law of March 29 1914 was passed, which provided for the reorganisation of the tax on property not built over and for the increase of the tax on income from securities. But this did not bring in any additional revenue, because at the same time the former tax was lowered by an amount equivalent to the yield of the new taxes on securities. On the eve of the declaration of War, however, a decisive step towards fiscal reform was taken by the creation of the general income tax. This was a slightly progressive supplementary tax on incomes levied on that part of the total income in excess of 5,000 francs. This new tax only came into force in 1915, and therefore could not help to meet the deficit at the moment it was voted. The Treasury and the Loan of July 1914.—The whole of the current and accumulated deficits were covered by an increase of the floating debt, which amounted to about 2,100,000,000 fr. on Dec. 31 1913. While the necessity of issuing a loan to fund part of the floating debt was realised as early as 1913, the measure was delayed by a controversy over the question whether or no the interest on the new rente should be exempt from taxation. Finally, in June 1914, a law was passed authorising the issue of a loan of 805,000,000 fr. of 33% redeemable rente subject to taxation and issued at 182 fr. for each 7 fr. of rente. The subscribers were only required to pay down 20 fr. on allotment of a nominal 200 fr. of loan, the balance being payable in three subsequent instalments. As a result of this mode of subscription the loan was chiefly subscribed by the banks, who hoped later to dispose of the shares at a profit to the public. To sum up, the following was the financial situation in July ro14, on the eve of the War: a considerable budget deficit; a relatively large

IOI

floating debt; a loan recently issued and taken up by the banks but not placed with the public and involving a heavy burden on all credit institutions on the declaration of War.

FRENCH

FINANCE

DURING

THE War

(1914-8)

The Declaration of War and the Credit Crisis——The outbreak of War brought with it a very grave credit crisis, of which the first manifestation was a panic on the Stock Exchange in the last days of July 191g. The settlement of future transactions was suspended for the time being, and on Sept. 3 the Bourse was closed. Hence the funds advanced to speculators to support their forward transactions were locked up, and ceased to be available for industry and commerce. The banks were forced to rediscount bills with the Bank of France, whose holdings of commercial bills rose from 1,554.000,000

fr. on July 25 to 4,000,000,000 fr. on Aug. 4. The Bank of France raised its discount rate from 3}°% to 6°, and its rate for advances from 43° to 7%. On July 31 the settlement of al} commercial liabilities was postponed, and on Aug. I a moratorium was proclaimed for the deposits of the banks except for small sums not exceeding 250 francs. The Bank of France never refused to rediscount bills; therefore it seems questionable whether the moratorium was really unavoidable for the other banks. The crisis, though very acute during the first weeks of the War, was not of long duration. The Bourse was reopened on Sept. 27 for spot transactions, and, with the aid of a loan of 200,000,000 fr. from the Bank of France, it

proved

possible by Sept. 30 I915

to

liquidate ail commitments

carried over during the moratorium, including the loan of 805,000,000 fr. of July 1914. The commercial moratorium was of longer duraticn. Most of the bills of exchange, etc., maturity of which had been pro-

longed were taken up by the Bank of France, whose holdings of these securities reached their maximum of 3,977,000,000 fr. on Dec. 24 1914. Many of these bills were relatively quickly absorbed, and their total fell to 1,938,000,000 fr. by the end of 1915. Owing to this credit crisis it was necessary to wait till the end of 1915 before the first big consolidated loan could be issued. War Expenditure.—The following table summarises the growth of French expenditure for the War:— Expenditure (Millions of Francs) Military Charges

Public Debt

Civil Services

Recoverable Special Expen- (Accounts diture

15,266 16,863 The item “recoverable expenditure "’$ covers that expenditure for which Germany was rendered liable by the Treaty of Versailles. The item “ special accounts '’ comprises the deficits of the special services of the Treasury which were created during the War, and which include extra-budget expenditure, advances to Allied Governments, cession of material to foreign Governments, feeding of the civilian population, ete. Taxation.— The budget revenue raised during the War amounted to 26,200 million fr., or about 15°% of the total expenditure.

When

France is reproached with not having made a more considerable fiscal effort it must be remembered that she was deprived by invasion of about one-fifth of her tax revenue. Mobilisation caused the greater part of her labour to be called up, and withdrew many of the financial officials. Further, it is untrue to say that fresh taxes were

nut voted during the War; the general income tax was increased on

three occasions, in 1916, 1917 and 1918, and carried from 2% to 20%; in 1917 the okl direct taxes were replaced by the new system of income-tax schedules; taxes on succession, stamp duties and taxes on insurance were increased; finally, in 1916, an extraordinary tax

on exceptional War profits was imposed. Additional taxation brought in about 2,800 million fr. during the War, and tax revenue rose from

4,100 million fr. in 1915 to 6,800 million fr. in 1918. Advances of the Bank of France-—The following table shows the total of advances authorised to be made by the Bank of France and of advances actually given :— Total Total Advances Advances Authorised Made (000,000 omitted) | (000,000 omitted) Dec. 31 I9I4 Dec. 31 1915 Dec. 31 1916

fr. 6,000 9,000 0,000 15,000 21,000

fr. 3,900 5,000 7,400 12,500 17,150

FRANCE

I02

To this total 3,750 million fr. must be added for loans granted by the French Govt. to foreign governments.

rise in prices.

The French Exchange and Foreign Loans.—Prior to Aug. 1915 the French exchange, in spite of a deficit in the balance of trade amounting for eight months to 1,600 million fr., was kept at or very near par, thanks to the falling due of foreign coupons, to the export of small quantities of gold, to the placing of {12,000,000 of Freasury bills on the London market, and to an American advance of $10,000,000. Between April 1915 and April 1917 the total deficit of the French balance of trade rose to 27,000 million francs. This deficit was covered partly by expenditure incurred by the British Expeditionary Force in France, partly by the sale of a portion of the French holdings of foreign securities, but chiefly by British and American credits. France sent gold to London to the value of 2,840 million fr. and obtained credits in exchange to the value of 9,000 million francs. At the same time she procured credits amount-

added the permanent

ing to $650,500,000

from

the United

States.

By these means

the

depreciation of the franc was kept within reasonable limits. On March 31 1917 the franc was t1 °, below par in relation to the dol-

lar, 13-5°%o in relation to the Swiss franc, and 21% in relation to the

peseta and the Swedish krone. In April 1917 the United States entered the War, and from then onwards its financial assistance was very great. Between April 1 1917 and Dec. 31 1918 the French balance of trade showed a deficit of 32,000 million fr. which was mainly covered by credit operations; £290,000,000 were placed at the disposal of France by the British Treasury, and $2,500 million by the American Treasury. Smaller loans were also contracted in other countries, ¢.g., 100,000,000

gold pesos in Argentina, 350,000,000 pesetas in Spain, 100,000,000 yen in Japan, etc. Asa result of this assistance the French exchange at its worst never fell more than 44-7 %o below par in relation to the Swedish kroner and 39-1°% in relation to the peseta, while on Dec. 31 Ig18 the depreciation was not more than 9-5°5 and 7% respectively. Internal Loans—The principal medium for the transfer of funds to the Govt. for War purposes was the National Defence Bills devised by M. Ribot and issued in virtue of the decree of Sept. 13 1914. These bills were Treasury securities with a currency of one year, six months, three months and even one month after April 1918. They were repayable at par, and could be discounted at the Bank of France within three months of maturity. They could be crassed like cheques. In fact, they acted as deposits with the Treasury which could very easily be mobilised. In view of their convenience and elasticity they quickly proved a great success, and the Treasury succeeded by this means in mobilising a considerable part of the available funds of the nation for its requirements. The National Defence Bills had, however, one danger—the abnormal expansion of the floating debt. To retard the increase of the floating debt the French Treasury made successive issues of National Defence Bonds with a currency of 10, 6 and § years. Finally, when the credit crisis referred to above had been overcome, the state decided to issue a scries of irredeemable loans—the

5° loan of 1915 (real rate 5-73°%); the 5° loan of 1916 (real rate

5°71 %); the 4° loan of 1947 (real rate 5-83 %); and the 4°% loan of 118 (real rate 5-68 %)).

Table Showing Loans Raised by France (in millions of francs) I9I4 Irredeemable

yield)

Loans

Bonds

Total

;

at

Ig16

1917

I918

6,265) e

5,425] i

5,174) pa

7:246 aS

(net

Short Term Loans . : National Defence Bills and

Funds deposited Treasury

1915

.

the

465

1,858 | 10,487] 12,955| 13,054] 16,611

18,588} 24,293

FRENCH FINANCES FROM I9IQ TO 1926 At the end of the War France was faced with three very grave financial problems—the liquidation of the War; the reconstruction of the devastated regions; and the reorganisation of her fiscal system on an entirely new basis. The liquidation of the War involved heavy outgoings in respect of unexpired contracts, extraordinary civil expenditure, the progressive liquidation of the special accounts of the Treasury, etc., which were not completed till the end of 1921, and may be estimated at about 36 or 37,000 million francs. The

reconstruction of the devastated regions was regulated by the law of April 17 1919. This law, which was voted at a time when everyone believed that Germany would make good the whole of the damage in accordance with the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, was conceived in a very liberal spirit. It laid down that all those who had suffered loss were entitled to an indemnity fixed by a special ad hoc body, and equivalent to the pre-War value of the property. If, further, the victim undertook to reconstruct his destroyed property

he had a right to the refund of additional expenses caused by the

The total cost of reparation thus calculated is esti-

mated at 82,000 million francs.

In addition to this there must be

increase in expenditure resulting from high

prices and salaries and the service of the debt. The story of the French financial effort since 1918 falls naturally into four periods: (1) the year 1919; (2) 1920-1; (3) 1922-June 1924; (4) June 1924-Jan. 1926. rg19 and the Period of Inflation.—The events of the year 1919 weigh heavily on the financial destiny of France. At the end of Dec. 1918 the English pound stood at 29-97 fr. and the dollar at 5-45 francs. At the end of Dec. rg1g the pound sterling was valued at 41-48 fr. and the dollar at 11 francs. This fall was due to the persistent deficit in the balance of trade (24,000 million fr. in 1919). The deficit was again met in part, as in previous years, by forcign credits. But on Jan. 3 1919 the British Treasury announced that it would make no further advances to the French Treasury, and in Dec. the American Treasury followed suit. Nevertheless, the external debt of France increased in 1919 by about 11,000 million francs. ‘The expenditure of the state, swollen by the accompanying inflaticn, amounted to 54,200 million fr. scarcely less than in the last year of the War. This total included 15,500 million fr. of ‘‘ recoverable expenditure,” comprising costs of reconstruction and War pensions. Budget revenue, on the other hand only amounted to 11,600 million francs. The Chamber of Deputies elected in 1914 could not make up its mind to impose new and heavy taxes on the eve of a new election. Asa result the floating debt increased in 12 months by 27,653 million francs. The Crédit National, created specially for the finance of the devastated regions, raised a Joan at the end of 1919 which brought in 3,960 million francs. Finally the Treasury borrowed 8,370 million fr. from the Bank of France—a larger sum than in any year of the War. It was this wholesale inflation which put the scal on the depreciation of the franc. During the year 1919, which could and should have been the first year of financial reconstruction, the financial methods of the War were mercly perpetuated, under the direction of the Finance Minister, M. Klotz. Financially the War did not finish till the end of 1919. Jn six years the Treasury had spent 224,000 million fr., which were raised in the following way:— fr. Taxation Internal Loans

Foreign Loans

4 -

es.

&

38,000,000,000 112,000,000,000 44,000,000,000 20,000,000,000

A

Advances from the Bank of France Total . i . :

224,000,000,000 Deflation (1920-1).— During 1920 and 1921, when MM. Francois Marsal and Doumer were at the Ministry of Finance, there was an

effective reaction against the methods of the preceding years. On Jan. 13 1920 the estimates for the current year were laid before the newly elected Chamber. The estimates provided for 17,861 million fr. of ordinary and 7,568 million fr. of extraordinary expenditure; the former was only covered by normal revenue to the extent of 9,368 million fr. and the latter to the extent of 3,000 million fr. yielded by the sale of War stocks. To this budget deficit of 13,000 million fr. must be added the final deficits of the special accounts of the Treasury (which in 1920 amounted to 5,092 million fr.) and a further 22,000 million fr. of credits for ‘‘ recoverable expenditure,” which after July 1920 appeared under the heading “ Special Budget of Recoverable Expenditure,” and continued till 1925. In actual fact the expenditure was greater than had been anticipated, and amounted to 58,100 million francs. In June 1920 additional taxes to bring in 7,752 million fr. were voted to balance the ordinary

budget, the normal revenue being thereby increased to 20,100 million francs. There still remained, however, a deficit of 38,000 million fr. which was covered by loans. A 5% long-term loan was issued in Felb.-March 1920, and a6°% loan in Oct.-November. The total subscriptions

to these two

loans were

43,000

million

fr., of

which more than 18,000 million fr. were new money, the rest consisting of conversions of former loans or of floating debt. In rg2r the financial situation was further improved. The tota! expenditure was reduced from 58,100 million fr. in 1920 to 51,000 million fr., and revenue rose to 23,100 million francs. The deficit fell to 28,000 million francs. The following table summarises the Treasury operations during these two years:— I. Expenditure (In millions of francs) N

o oy) H g iS

G

Ph ba 3

A

Expenditure

I

Recoverable Service Civil Refunds to Accounts Special Bank

A

11,700 II,I0O

11,400 | 22,300 9,900 | 21,400

5,100 re 2,700 | 2,100 | 53,200

FRANCE Il. Receipts (In millions of francs) Advances from the Bank of France

Budget | Internal Revenue Loans

20,100

23,100 | 29,700 In the years 1920and 1921, despite the very large deficit, the financial situation was easier. It proved possible not merely to stop inflation, but to inaugurate a systematic policy of deflation. The chief author of this courageous policy was M. Francois Marsal, who was Minister of Finance in 1920, and who in June 1920 carried through the imposition of 8,000 million fr. of new taxation; in addition he consolidated more than 12,000 million fr. of floating debt, and in Dec. made the agreement with the Bank of France by which the state undertook to repay 2,000 million fr. annually. The exchange also benefited by this policy. The dollar, which had risen to 17 francs in 1920, fell to 12-50 francs in June 1921, and even as low as II francs in April 1922. Wholesale prices fell more than 40% as compared with the spring of 1920. The Budget Deficit and the Exchange Crisis of 1924 (Jan, 1922May 1924).—Throughout 1922 and 1923 the franc depreciated in value, and at the end of 1923 the dollar was worth more than 19 francs. This was due to several causes, and undoubtedly questions of foreign policy—the discords amongst the Allies on the subject of reparations and the Franco-Belgian occupation of the Ruhr—played their part. But the basic reason is to be sought above all in the financial situation of France herself. State expenditure, which, though slowly decreasing, remained very large, was divided into three big groups—the general budget, to be met out of taxation; the special budget of ‘‘ recoverable expenditure ”’ (pensions and interest on reparations debt), which in theory should be met by Germany; and the costs of reconstruction, which quite properly were covered by loans. The results are shown by the tollowing figures:— General Budget (in millions of francs)

Expenditure Revenue

Balance

23,382

.

— 1,306

24,163 24,202

+39

Special Budget (in millions of francs)

103

Defence Bills, the amount of which reached 9,000 million francs. To meet these liabilities the Treasury issued, in Nov.-Dec. 1924, 5% Treasury bills at 150 repayable in ro years (effective rate 9-20 °4), and in July-Oct. 1925 an irredeemable 4°% loan with an exchange guarantee, These two loans brought into the Treasury a nominal sum of £1,000 million fr., but in fact very much less, because the greater part of the subscriptions only represented the consolidation of the floating debt. It was under these conditions that France returned in 1925 to the régime of inflation, for the first time since 1919. In April 1925 the state asked the Bank of France for 4,000 million fr. of new advances, in June for a further 6,000 million fr., in Nov. for 1,500 million fr., and

in Dec.

francs.

All these credits

amalgamated in 1925), shows a deficit of 4,500 million francs. of this deficit was covered

Part

by 3,000 million fr. of new exceptional

revenue voted on Dec. 4.1925. All parties were agreed as to the necessity of creating a sinking fund to consolidate the floating debt. Successive Ministers of Finance, M. Doumer and M. Raoul Péret, proposed new taxes amounting to nearly 5,000 million francs.1 The French Debt and the Work of Reconstruction.—To have a sound understanding of the financial situation and its handling since 1918 it is desirable to relate the debt to the effort made for the reconstruction of the devastated regions. The two following tables show— (1) the situation of the French internal debt on April 30 1925; (2) the expenses devoted to the reparation of War damage to Dec. 31 1924. I. French Internal Debt

Annual Charge]

Perpetual and Long-term Debt Short-term Debt we Floating Debt . . Total

r

:

7+451,232,802

Capital Debt | 155,252,268,681

2,692,869,140 2,762,584,000

44,274,769,000

86,646,656, 500

12,906,685,942 | 286,173,694,181

Expenses Resulting from Reparation of War Damage (In millions of francs)

i

Ta 10,273

fr.in War pensions, by the increase of the salaries of officials, and by expenditure in Morocco and Syria. The situation was aggravated by the falling due of quantities of bills and short-term bonds, of which about 8,000 million fr. had to be paid off in 1925. To this figure must be added the deficit in the subscriptions to the National

million

Nevertheless, at the beginning of 1926

continued to fall, and the pound sterling, which was worth 88 fr. in Dec. 1924, exceeded 130 fr. in Dec. 1925. At the beginning of 1926 the position was as follows. The budget, with a total expenditure of 37,200 million fr. (the general budget and the special budget were

160

Hence the total budget deficit amounted in 1922 to 11,051 million fr. and in 1923 to 10,234 million francs. These deficits were covered by loan operations, and the state was even able to reduce the total of the advances from the Bank of France from 24,150 million fr. to 23,100 millionfrancs. It was, however, becoming increasingly difficult to raise long-term loans. The Crédit National was alone in being able to place a loan with the public of 5,000 million francs. The rest of the expenditure was covered by an increase in the floating and short term debt, This situation was soon reflected in the movement of the foreign exchanges. There was a violent crisis at the beginning of 1924, and the pound sterling rose from 85 fr. to 117 fr. and the dollar from 19-60 fr. to 27:20 fr.on March 11. This crisis was the result of intensive speculative selling which developed in continental centres such as Vienna, Berlin, Milan, Basle and Amsterdam, and was ina large measure artificial. None the Jess it revealed how precarious was the financial situation of France. Under the energetic direction of M. Poincaré, the Prime Minister, a great effort was made to retrieve the position. The Govt. asked Parliament to vote 6,000 million fr, of taxes in order to cover the expenditure of the special as well as of the general budget, and it asked for powers to cut down expenditure by 1,000 million fr. by administrative decree. These measures were voted by the end of March 1924. At the same time exchange credits were raised in London and New York, and on April 20 the pound had fallen to 65 fr. and the dollar to 14-80 francs. The Elections of May 1r 1924 and the Return of Inflation.—The new elections resulted in the victory of the parties of the Left, which had refused to vote the last fiscal measures proposed by M. Poincaré. The Socialist party had a good deal of influence in the new Govt., and its revolutionary programme disquieted the propertied classes of the country. The budgetary equilibrium which had only just been restored was again destroyed, for the new Chamber voted 1,700 million fr. of supplementary credits, and suspended the realisation of the 1,000 million fr. of economies adopted by the preceding Chamber., There was thus a deficit of 3,000 million fr. on the budget of 1924. This deficit was enhanced in 1925 by the increase of 1,405 million

for 6,000

the advances from the bank to the state had risen from 22,000 to 36,000 million fr., and the total of notes in circulation from 40,500 to 52,000 million francs. Parallel with this the French exchange

H.

9,905

1925

were not in fact exhausted.

Railways, ,

Damage to | Private

Persons | Property

p

and ‘Coa

Interest | Interest

of

Indemni-{

paid on

|on Loans

Admins: tration

ties

tracted

36,436

Con-

Total

19,000 | 130,073

In conclusion, 45% of the internal debt of France comes from’ expenditure for the reparation of War damage, and one-sixth of the French budget was devoted in 1926 to the service of this debt. BIBLIOGRAPHY.~-Reports of the Rapporteurs of the Finance Comunittees of the Chambre des Députés and of the Sénat, published

as supplements to the Journal Industral Conditions in France Efect of the War upon French Endowment for International

Offictel; Reports on the Economic and (annual, Stationery Office, London). Economic Life, ed. C. Gidé, (Carnegie Peace, 1923). (E. ML)

1 The crisis in the franc was due to a loss of confidence, which showed itself in a reluctance on the part of the public to invest in the floating debt. M. Loucheur, while Minister of Finance in Dec. 1925, obtained a measure imposing a special additional income tax (nonrecurrent), and steps were taken to hasten the collection of the ordinary income tax. The “ heavy revenue collections ” thus obtained were sufficient to meet all needsin the opening months of 1926. The At last, M. Raoul Péret, procured the passage of a budget which balanced at 373 milliards, with a surplus of 250 millions, additional taxation to the amount of 4} milliards being imposed. But meanwhile the exceptional revenue receipts of Dec. and Jan. could not continue, and a further block of three milliards of maturing bonds had to be met early in May. The exchange began to give way and rose above 140. Phe outbreak of the general strike in England at the beginning of May was the sigrial for something like an exchange panic, and after wild fluctuations, in the course of which the exchange reached 176, the French Govt. intervened with support,

and brought it back for the moment almost to 140.

At the begin-

ning of June M. Péret appointed a committee ot French financial experts to make recommendations for the future. (Ed. E.B.)

FRANCE

104 IV. DEFENCE

National defence in France underwent some material modifications after the World War. The reforms were based on the somewhat conflicting demands of national economy and of national security against aggression. In practice they resolved themselves as follows:— (1) army and navy, in time of peace, to be limited strictly to the scale necessary for covering national mobilisation in case of aggression and allowing that mobilisation to be carried out at a speed compatible with that of the said aggression; the colonies and the communications with overseas possessions to be safeguarded; and (2) the general organisation of the nation in war time to be minutely worked out. Conscription.—Compulsory personal service was therefore maintained, but the duration was reduced to 18 months (Act of

April 1 1923). The following tables show the effectives and the budgets of 1925 compared with those of the preceding years:— Aug. I5 Aug. I 1914 Pre-War

I9I4 after Mobilisa-

Nov.

1918 Armi-

the calling-up of recruits, all young men who have reached the age of 20 being obliged to serve for 18 months; half of the contingent is called up in May, half in November; voluntary enlistment (engagements, re-engagements, commissions) by which lower professional cadres, necessary both in peace and in war, are formed; and auxiliary or reserve cadres.

(2) a first reinforcement (disponibilité) in which the citizen is reckoned for a period of two years following his term of active service; in case of need he is liable to be recalled; (3) a first reserve, for use also on active service in which the citizen serves 164 years, and a second reserve to which he is posted for 8 years; this reserve is designed for local services and work in industrial mobilisation. The duration of service is reduced to one year for eldest sons of large families (minimum of 5 children). Special advantages are accorded to prospective reserve officers who have followed the military training course with success. The 695,000 men of the fighting troops (France, countries of occupation, colonies) which constitute the army are thus distributed:— French (13 contingents of conscripts and professional soldiers)

Effectives

Foreign Legion

(French

and Colonial)

Inf. Divs . Cav. Divs Field Guns

Heavy Guns.

; ; .

947,000 | 3,850,000 | 4,200,000 | 695,000 . ; :

44 I0 2,800

87 10 4,044

250

112 6 9,000

308

32 5 1,350

5,100

Out of this total of 695,000 men, only 395,000 are serving in

Number of Aeroplanes Navy Effectives .

: Battleships Cruisers . $ Aeroplane-carriers Destroyers : Torpedo-boats i

5

:

: ;

120 69,000 26 31 af xi 83 2

120 100,000| 26 3I es es 83 72

4,700

1,850

174,000! 10 I5 foa 2 51 ag

56,000 9 18 I 8 63 66

National Defence budgets (including gendarmerie; military, naval and colonial aviation, and certain expenses connected with public works undertaken in the interests of the army) :— In Millions of Gold Francs

Year I9I4 1925

. .

Navy : :

14,000

97,000 82,000 16,000 29,000 695,000

1,000

Air Force

Submarines

North-African natives Native colonials ; 3 Irregulars and auxiliaries . i : Gendarmerie and Republican Guard

457,000

: :

1,720 955

513 308

| Colonies 2 50

Total 2,325 1,313

General Organisation of National Defence —The lessons of the War showed the necessity of a general organisation of the nation in readiness for war-time, the object of which should be to prepare in advance the mobilisation of civil and military forces alike to organise the nation’s entire economic and industrial resources, etc. A bill to this effect was laid before Parliament on July 7 1925. The general direction of a war devolves upon the Government. To assist the Govt. in their task, consultative and research bodies are placed at their disposal in war-time and also, for the purpose of advising upon the necessary precautions to be taken in peacetime. These are: the Conseil Supéricur de la Défense Nationale, composed of the appropriate ministers; the Commission d Etudes of that council (composed of the highest functionaries of the various ministries), and the General Permanent Secretariat. The actual conduct of operations remains the exclusive province of the commanders-in-chief of the military and naval forces. THE

ARMY

The army proper is formed by calling up the reserves. The permanent army is but the nucleus; its functions are: to train contingents as they are called up; to protect overseas possessions; to prepare for mobilisation and, in case of aggression, to protect the frontier while mobilisation is proceeding. The recruiting Act of April 1 1923 provides for:— (1) an active army, formed by:—

France; the remainder—some 300,000 men—are engaged on the Rhine, in Algeria, Morocco, the Levant and the various colonies. Organisation of the Army.—The Act dealing with the constitu-

tion of cadres and strengths which had passed the Chamber of Deputies but has not, at the end of r925, been discussed by the Senate, distributed these effectives between the various arms and services. Pending the final passing of the Act, the Minister of War was authorised to proceed with re-groupings by which the army was reconstituted as follows:— Large Units, 32 divisions of infantry of which 5 are on the Rhine; 5 divisions of cavalry of which 1 is on the Rhine. Redistribution of Troops.—The following table gives the proportionate distribution between the various arms on mobilisation in ror4, at the Armistice, and in the army of today :-— Arms and Services

Infantry. Tanks . : Cavalry Artillery Engineers Air Force Transport Administrative ices . Gendarmerie

Aug. I 1914 | Nov. 1918 of

oO;

65:6 © 9-0 16-1 3:0 0:3 1:3

43-7 0-6 3°5 27°4 8-0 3:3 7-7

53:8 1-8 8-0 16-6 5:2 4I 3°4

5:2

3:0

O

z

;

i

;

1925

OF

O

Serv-

06

fo

41

This table shows the extent to which those arms employing principally mechanical weapons (tanks, artillery) have developed. In accordance with the experience gained from the War, the army is being organised and trained on the basis of an increase in all arms of fire-power. THE

During

the

War—While

NAVY

hostilities

were

proceeding,

the

French Navy underwent a considerable reduction, both on account of War lossesand of the obligation under which it stood to devote the greater number of its arsenals and private workshops to satisfving the needs of the army. The tonnage of rorg4 and that of rorg are as follows: 1914, 816,000; T010, 500,000.

The falling-off is therefore considerable and it becomes more striking if the heavy wear of the ships still in service—particularly the small vessels—be taken into account.

FRANCE Since the War.—From the end of the War up to 1921 the French Navy has had to pay for a great many special expenses of its own, inevitably arising out of War-time necessities. Thus burdened, its budget rose to 1,962,000,c00 gold francs in rgig as against 515,000,000 in 1914 and a yearly average of 813,000,000 during the War. As it was impossible to put any further strain on the exchequer, the reconstruction of the fleet, which continued

to decline in tonnage (falling, in 1924, to 394,000), had to be delayed. At Washington, in 1922, France consented to the proposed reductions, according to which the total tonnage of her capital ships might not exceed 175,000 tons. The building of battleships was postponed. With a view to protecting the country’s vital communications, particularly in the Mediterranean and the North Atlantic, the French Navy turned its attention to the use of submarines, aeroplanes and light vessels with protected bases. Light cruisers and submarines were laid down as follows: in 1922, 3 cruisers of 8,oco tons, 6 destroyers, 12 torpedo-boats, 12 submarines, 1 aeroplane-carrier (these units are nearly ready); in 1923, 9 submarines; in 1924, 2 cruisers of 10,000 tons, 6 torpedo-boats, 2 submarines; 1 cruiser of 10,000 tons, 3 destroyers, 4 torpedo-boats, o submarines (of which two are mine-layers), t surface mine-layer and 1 aircraft transport are to be proceeded with at once. This represents an extremely modest effort; the naval budget has not exceeded a total of 330,000,000 gold francs on an average, from 1921 to 1925.

The F'uture—The schemes for the future of the French Navy have been dealt with in three bills which are still (1926) under consideration. The high-seas fleet, exclusive of special vessels, would consist of: battleships up to 175,000 tonnage, acroplanc-

carrying vessels up to 60,oc00 tonnage, in conformity with the Washington

Treaty; inaddition, 360,000 tons of light vessels

(cruisers, destroyers and torpedo-boats) and go,oc0 tons of submarines. Age-limit: battleships and acroplane-carricrs 20 years; cruisers 17 years; destroyers and torpedo-boats 15 years; submarines 12 years. The naval air force would be composed of 50 flights of aeroplanes, of which 35 are fully equipped and aircraft of various kinds (dirigibles, captive balloons, etc.) varying in number. Tor coast defence there would be coast flotillas of submarines, coast patrols, mine-sweepers, minc-layers, etc.; artillery, obstacles, detection systems, aeroplane service and, finally, troops and other means, controlled by the War Office, which will be placed at the disposal of the navy. Although no term has been fixed for the execution of this programme, the Dept. of Marine intends

to have it completed within 20 years. THE

AIR

FORCE

There is in France no organisation analogous to the British Air Ministry.

A certain

amount

of centralisation

has

been

achieved however as regards technical research, which is under the authority of the Under-Secretary of State, who is also responsible for preparing the mobilisation of aircraft industries. A comparison of the numbers in 1914 and in 1918 shows the Evolution of the Air Force, 1914-25

Acronautic Section Aviation No. of flights No. of

Aug. I 1914

; Nov. 1918 2 |

1925 a 3

Army|Navy Army Navsjrms Navy re |

23|

o

322]

©

130|

machines | 120 | 8 | 3,430] 1,264] 1,500]

II

12

O

771

190

igibles . 8| o o 1200 are for training purposes.

3al

18|

..

3

389 | 30 | zoo!

Balloon Service No. of captive balloons . No. of clir-

T

o:

21

13

105

effort that was made in the War.

During the 4 years 40,000 new

aeroplanes and 92,000 engines were constructed. The increase in the total of the four budgets (military, naval. colonial and civil), which rises from 367,000,000 fr. in 1920 tc 791,000,000 fr. in 1925, may be put down to the necessity for replacing matériel (some of which dates back to the War) and above all to the expenses connected with building and preparation of the aerodromes and landing grounds. This budget would, if expressed in pounds (at 120 francs) amount to £6,600,c00. Organisation of Military Air Force-——The 130 squadrons of the military air force are distributed in 14 regiments and five autonomous groups. Two regiments of the balloon service deal with captive balloons. Nine of those regiments are formed in division and constitute the two air divisions. Organisation of the Naval Air Force-—The naval air force, a War creation, is undergoing reorganisation. Its final status is defined by a bill which was still under consideration at the end of 1925. The 1r squadrons of the naval air force were at that time distributed between different centres (Cherbourg, Brest, Saint-Raphaël, etc.). France was spending, in 1925, 44%! less on national defence than in ror4. Vhe national defence budget, in which certain expenses figure, which in many countries fal] upon budgets other than those of the army and navy, represented in 1914 44% of the general budget; in 1925 it represented only 17% of it. In her deep desire for peace France reduced her military expenses to the utmost extent and only hopes to effect still greater ri ductions. In that spirit she has made every effort to assure safety by putting into practice the pact of the League of Nations and furthering the, development of arbitration and ideas of international solidarity. See Armaments Year Book (League of Nations, 1926) where the references to decrees on national defence are given. (B. S.)

V. INVADED REGIONS In 1917 and 1918 when Freneh ministers visited the Front they often wondered if it would ever prove possible to repair the dreadful ruin accumulated under their eyes. At Lens, for instance, the magnitude of the disaster was overwhelming. Not a house standing, r01 great pithead super-structures overthrown,

their iron carcasses lying twisted on the ground, everywhere a terrible confusion of bricks, tiles, remnants of furniture—in one word, chaos. In the coal-mines, all the galleries flooded, the

apparatus removed, the efforts of three generations completely annihilated. To-day there is hardly a trace of ruin, Lens is a city of wide streets and comfortable houses, the new arrangements of its mines are excellent; and the production of coal is equal to and even greater than that before the War. How could all this be brought about? Extent of the Losses.—First, a few figures. When the damage was catalogued at the time of the Armistice, it was discovered that 289,000 houses had been completely destroyed and over 400,000 more or less damaged. Nearly 2,000,000 hectares of land had to be restored for cultivation. More than 6,000 factories had been destroyed or emptied of their machinery. The monetary value of these losses was about £r} milliard; to reconstruct them (assuming the work to cost 3 times as much as before the War) ro milliard gold francs would be required. Immediately after hostilities had ceased, M. Clemenceau abolished the Ministry of Munitions, replacing it by the Ministry of Reconstruction, of which the present writer was in charge. The

new ministry first dealt as quickly as possible with those factories where the buildings and part of the machinery still remained and hastened to equip them to employ the industrial population. There were 500,000 unemployed; a year later unemployment had practically disappeared; the workmen had restored the factories, which had been hurriedly got going and were clearing

away ruins and beginning reconstruction. The industrial districts thus received the first attention. This is one of the matters for which the Government has been most severely criticised; but it was the logical course, and as events showed, the right one. 1 This figure is based on the changed value of the franc.

FRANCE

106

In restoring the soil itself, in rebuilding the farms and enabling those fertile lands to resume the production of the wheat urgently required by the rest of France, the inhabitants themselves assisted in an amazing degree. The French peasant is deeply attached to the soil; he returned to it as soon as he could. He found it covered with shells, with strands of barbed wire, with block-houses. He found his home and farm buildings in ruins. Not for a moment did he lose heart. He set to work at once, surrounded by difliculties which would have daunted many a brave heart, even by grave dangers; so many unexploded shells remained that between 1919-24 more than one person a day, on an average, was killed in unearthing them. Nothing could stop the French peasant. The state helped by granting him little by little, as needed, financial assistance—the sums necessary to rebuild his dwelling and his farm buildings—and found him labour to clear his fields. A year later, some 90°, of the Département du Nord had been restored to cultivation, and in 1925 France’s production of wheat had reached its pre-War figures, and of sugar very nearly so. The industrialists too, faced with empty or ruined factories, went bravely to work; but the farmers whose efforts saved France were even more admirable.

To-day at least 900° of the

farms have been reconstructed. Everywhere, thanks to the good harvests of recent years, prosperity has returned, and the zones where the havoc has so far defied restoration are growing daily smaller, and we may hope that, with rare exceptions, they will disappear altogether. Some reservation is necessary: the surroundings of Verdun are a frightful example of what is meant. As Minister of the Liberated Regions the present writer had to sign the act recording the final disappearance off the map of France of 11 villages of which nothing, hardly a heap of stones, remained. On every square metre there were so many fragments of shells that the whole of this territory might really have been exploited as an iron-mine, but it was useless to think of putting it under the plough. The signature of the act consecrated to death beyond repeal these villages where so many generations had lived, in whose defence so many good men had died. Building Reconstruction —The rebuilding of dwellings was a much longer task. Dr. Rathenau, with whom the reparations question was discussed at Wiesbaden, was surprised that the Ministry had not decided to rebuild the towns, not on the old sites, but near by, on virgin fields, constructing regular rows of houses and laying out the plans in the American style. Dr. Rathenau displayed ignorance of the French spirit in supposing that Frenchmen, with their profound individualism, could have adapted themselves to such a system. Each man has chosen the site of his house, he wishes to keep it, to rebuild it in its old place, different in size and shape from that of his neighbours, on his own plan, in his own style. To-day the city of Rheims, which was so completely ruined, is almost entirely restored. It has retained the mark of its old architecture, the houses are on the same spots as before. Some districts, however, of the devastated regions wanted to follow the ideas explained by Dr..Rathenau. The experiment was unsuccessful. Thus there are some large villages with roads which are too straight and too broad, which have not re-assumed their pre-War life. It 1s a grievous error to attempt to do violence to the psychology of a nation. The reconstruction of landed property is far advanced. In each village so-called ‘reconstruction co-operative societies”? have been established, through which a few devoted men have set themselves to restore the homes of their fellow-citizens.

They have

lacked means, the parsimony of the last three annual budgets has complicated their task, but little by little, assisted by local loans, their efforts have made headway. Finance of Reconstructiot.—How has all this been paid for? From

1919-22

by loans from the state; but after 1922, finan-

cial difficulties grew more pressing and the sufferers from the devastation have been paid to a large extent by state loans redeemable in 10 years, which they have had to get taken up as they could; this has resulted in a serious fall of these bonds. To-day, since the Dawes plan has come into force, it has been possible to spread out the effort over three or four years, and

should be about completed by the end of 1928. In 1926 a sum equal to about £100,000,000 still remained to be spent. The sum was not large In comparison with what had been spent up to date, but it represented a great effort. Such are the broad outlines of the work of reconstruction of the liberated districts. It was successful, thanks above all to the united cffort of French citizens and thanks to the fact that for several years the whole of France consented to burden herself in order to pay unassisted for the restoration of her ruins, for it must be admitted with regret—except in a few individual instances, France and France alone has had to shoulder her expenditure. The writer does not forget the assistance granted by various British municipalities. In many French villages and towns one may see public rooms or fountains paid for by the

generosity of British towns.

(L. L.)

Binriocrapriny.—R, Gouge, Les Etats Généranx des régions dévastées (1920); E. Michel, “Ta reconstitution des régions libéries et les dommages de guerre,” Journal de la Société de Statistique de Paris (Dec. 1921); W. Macdonald, Reconstruction in France (1922).

VI. THE

COLONIAL

EMPIRE

Description.—The French colonial domain appears at first sight extremely various and scattered, since there is no continent in which France cannot count her colonies. In fact, it consists of two very different parts. First the remains of the old colonies, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, on the Canadian coast; Martinique and Gaudeloupe in the West Indies, near New Orleans; Guiana in South America; five enclaves in British East India, Pondicherry being the most important; Réunion I. in the Indian Ocean near Mauritius, a relic of the match between Bougainville and Cook; a series of islands, of which the most important are New Caledonia, Tahiti and the New Hebrides, held in common with Great Britain. These are, if one likes to call them so, the aristocratic colonies. The American and Indian colonies and Réunion have their deputies and senators in the French l'arliament.

They are united with France by old bonds of affection. They have given her scholars, administrators and great men of letters. In certain cases they derive special importance from their situation on the great international routes, or their great resources. But, above all, their value for France is sentimental and historic; they are the outline of the first empire lost in the 18th century. The colonies of the 19th century on the other hand, form a homogeneous system. They are divided into two groups, African and Asiatic, both closely concentrated—with the exception in Africa of Jibuti and Madagascar. The following table shows the respective importance of the three groups:— s Colony

I. America and Australasia (group of old colonics). . IT. African group

III. Asiatic group

France (for comparison)

Population

Area w

sq.

km.

census

1920-1

129,491 II Se 879,355

652,300 35,919,405 22,250,333

12,525,070

58,822,038

550,985 | 40,000,000

The African group consists of Northern Africa (Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco); French West Africa (Senegal, Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Niger); French Central Africa, which stretches from the Congo to Lake Chad and the Nile Basin; Madagascar, the third largest island in the world; and the French Somali Coast, at the mouth of the Red Sea. In addition, France has mandates in Togo and Cameroons. This group, by its proximity, seems specially destined to act as an extension of the mother-country. It is naturally commanded by Northern Africa, which is only 750 km. distant from France, 20 hours’ journey by sea, or six hours by air. From Northern Africa the railroads and aerial routes spread out towards the tropical and equatorial territories; it links the mother-country and the other African colonies. Algeria, lying as it does between Morocco and

Tunisia, is the pivot of this system, and is rightly considered

FRANCE the key position, whether judged by the number of French which inhabit it {600,000 out of 800,000 Europeans, against 5,000,000 natives) or by the loyalty of its population and their ready acceptance of French culture. Owing to its Mediterranean situation, Syria, administered by France under mandate, may also be included in this group, although lying in Asia. The Governor of Algeria and the Residents-General in Morocco and Tunisia meet every year in conference in one of the three capitals in Northern Africa alternately. In 1926, for the first time, the Governor of French West Africa attended this meeting. The Asiatic group consists of French Indo-China, or the IndoChinese Union, including six colonies or protectorates—CochinChina, Cambodia, Annam, Tongking, Laos and the territory of Kwangchow. This union was organised in 1887. A scrics of treaties with Siam (the most recent dated 1926) and with China have now regularised its relations with all its neighbours. IndoChina has become the base of French policy tn the Far East. Administration.—The administrative ties which unite these French colonies with the mother-country are very various. There is no central colonial body in Paris. The Conscil Supérieur des Colonies, which consists of a number of persons distinguished in politics, commerce and the arts who are competent to speak on colonial affairs, is merely an advisory body. Plans for uniting under the control of a single body all the different colonies of North Africa, or of Indo-China and the Australasian

possessions, have not been realised. Algeria is administered by the Ministry of the Interior; it is divided into departments administered by prefects and sub-prefects appointed by this Ministry and belonging to the home civil service. The protectorates of Tunisia and Morocco and the mandated territory of Syria are under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which appoints to them sub-agents from the diplomatic or consular lists, or from a service special to these three countries. The Colonial Ministry is in charge of the other colonies, and the Ecole Coloniale in Paris furnishes their administrators and colonial governors. In fact, even the countries directly subordinate to the Colonial Ministry enjoy a degree of autonomy, and the governors have very full discretionary powers. The reason for this liberal system of administration lies as much in the conditions under which the French colonial empire grew up asin the French temperament. At the moment when explorers or soldiers conquered these domains for France, France did not need them. She had no surplus population requiring an outlet. Agriculturally, she was self-sufficing; industrially, her commerce, which was principally one of luxury articles, found its market in the more highly developed countries. The colonies were therefore subjected to no exploitation, and were often administered by soldiers—that is to say, by the class of ruler who is least interested In economic production. The relations between the administration and the natives were consequently marked by a particularly liberal character. Moreover, the colonies were granted financial autonomy as early as possible. The French colonial estimates have always been meagre—in 1925 only 270,000,000 francs. The financial administration of the colonics did not, therefore, concern French political life, which is essentially parliamentary. Nor was there any rivalry between the careers of the Frenchman—as soldier, official or great landowner or merchant—and the native. Things were different, for example, in Tunis, where the Italian and the native compete with one another. The colonial governors, apt, like all Frenchmen, to apply parliamentary formulae to life, and often themselves parliamentarians, were anxious to develop local councils and local assemblies, even with the power of voting taxes, in the countries which they were charged to administer. Finally, the Frenchman has little race or colour prejudice. All this contributes to give French colonisation the aspect of a friendly collaboration not dissimilar from the method of mandates. French emigration is not due to the need for economic expansion or to divert a surplus population, but to the need of moral expansion. Missionaries, professors and soldiers form the largest contingent of emigrants. The colonies replace for them fields

107

of action closed to them in Europe or America. Whether in India, China, Madagascar, Tunisia or Morocco, even in the Sudan, the effort of the French administrator has awakened national sentiment in these countries, after putting an end to the civil wars with which they were all torn. Certain races— for example, those of Cambodia—have been saved from a fatal torpor. Archaeologists, painters, and men of letters constitute a relatively high proportion of the French element, and in IndoChina and Morocco, for example, the artistic and intellectual regeneration of the colonised people cannot but strengthen their vitality. The colonial exhibition at Marseilles in 1922 illustrated this method. These considerations explain why France has sometimes been reproached with not having thoroughly

exploited her colonial possessions. Resources in Men and Wealth.—The War led French statesmen to take account of colonial resources in men and material wealth. First, it supported the theories of those who considered that France’s military expenses might be reduced by enlisting native troops. The colonies contributed 545,000 combatant soldiers to the French Army. The strength (about 180,000) of the colonial army in 1925 rested mainly on native recruiting. The colonics are also a reservoir for the manual labour in which France is deficient. Many of the 183,928 colonial workmen brought to France during the War remained, and this immigration continues. The various plans for exploiting colonial resources, the most com-

plete being that put forward in the Chamber of Deputies by M. Albert Sarraut in 1921, have been inspired by a desire to lessen the dependence by France on foreign countries for raw materials. The French colonies are especially rich in minerals (phosphates, iron, coal). The production of phosphates in North Africa reached 2,600,000 tons in 1922; that of iron ore 1,800,000; Indo-China supplied Southern China with coal (900,000 tons); New Caledonia is the

greatest producer of nickel after Canada, and her deposits of chrome are second only to those of Rhodesia. As regards agriculture, the production of cereals in Northern Africa in 1922 was 19,400,000 quintals of wheat, 19,200,000 quintals of barley; the production of wine was 10,900,000 hectolitres. There are 28,000,000 olive trees in Algeria and Tunisia alone; the exportation of fruits exceeded 300,000 quintals in 1922; that of carly vegetables, 400,000 quintals. The live stock includes 17,650,000 sheep and 475,000 horses. French West Africa exported 153,000,000 fr. worth of ground nuts in 1922, Indo-China is the second exporting country in the world in rice—

1,440,000 tons in 1922. The live stock comprises 4,000,000 oxen and buffaloes. The total area of colonial forests is 600,000,000 hectares, that is, about twice the total surface of France.

The private capital invested by France in colonial enterprises, exclusive of banks and railways, and of the milliards of francs spent by the state to pacify, organise and protect the colonies, exceeded 2,000 million fr. in 1924. The trade which France did with hercolonies was 9,366 million fr. out of a total trade of 81,600 million francs. The public debt of the colonies is only three milliards. The colonies contribute a share to the central budget; in 1925 they paid 33,000,000 fr. as a contribution to military expenses, upkeep of the Ecole

Coloniale,

the Institute of Colonial Agriculture, the gencral

agency of the colonies and the colonial air service.

This share is very

small, but shows the assistance which they can render France. Such are the general characteristics of this colonial domain, the possession of which has had its effect on the traditional aspect of French policy. The French colonies have 15,086 km. of railways, 49,968 km. of roads, which are excellent in Northern Africa and Indo-China; and, although the Empire has not yet found its Kipling, French imagination has succumbed to that rosary of names, so exotically appealing to the tourists, Tunis, Algeria, Fez, Marrakesh, Damas, Angkor or Timgad, which envelop with a magnetic circle the central core of France. The French mercantile marine has found its true base in the colonies. The quickest routes between South America and Europe, will eventually lie across French Africa. This is mainly due to the railway between Algeria and Dakar, which has already been traced, and the air routes or motor roads already in use. French statesmen, thanks to this fact and also to the fact that many of them have already occupied high posts as governors in Africa or Asia, are gradually recovering the habit of thinking not merely nationally but geographically, and while the first place in their watchful eye is always the security of France, they have been led to play a practical part in world problems, where their predecessors confined themselves to theory. BIBLIOGRAPITY.—R. Doucet, Notre Domaine Colonial (1921, etc.); R. Delacourt, Les Relations économiques de la France avec ses colonies au lendemain de la Guerre (1922); W. M. Sloane, Greater France in

Africa (1924).

(H. J. G.*) VII. RAILWAYS In 1911 the French railways consisted of five great private-owned and one state-owned line, with a combined mileage open to public trafhe of 40,615 km. and a capital value of about 17 milliard francs. After the War acquisition of the Alsace-Lorraine lines, with mileage

FRANCHET

108

D’ESPEREY—FRANCIS

of 2,255 km., brought the total mileage up to 42,870 km., while owing to this increase and the large amount of reconstruction effected after the War on the Nord and Est lines, their total capital value rose to about 39 milliard francs. In 1911 the French railways carried 511,000,000 passengers, in 1924, 776,000,000; the mean annual increase has risen from 3° to 6°%. In r911 184,000,000 tons were carried by goods train; in 1924, 265,000,000, an increase of 37° in three years. The commercial development of the railways was arrested by the War; not so their technical activity. Between 1914-8 they bore 41 % more traffic than in peace time —the lines near the front, 200 °%5.

15,400 trains were used during the period of mobilisation and concentration; between Sept. 1914. and Nov. 1918 about 100,000 troop trains carried some 6,000,000 men; besides returning empties, rations trains, munitions trains, leave trains, ambulances and a daily average of 200 trains carrying engineering material. Between March 21 and Nov. 11 1918, when traffic was densest, 50,000 military trains of all sorts were moved; counting returning empties, the traffic on the Nord system reached about 900 trains in 24 hours.

Most of this traffic fell on those parts of the Nord and Est lines not in enemy occupation; here important works had to be carried out during the campaigns. In Sept. 1914 bridges, etc., destroyed during the retreat from Belgium were reconstructed and lines and stations adapted to permit the extension of the Allied front to the Belgian coast, an operation which required 2,169 trains for the movement of troops alone. During the subsequent period of stationary wartare, single lines were doubled, railheads constructed, engineers and munitions dumps formed, whole new lines built; 13,500 km. of line were built, nearly 6,000 being behind the British front, and 23,000,000

cu.

m.

of embankment

erected.

These works, serving

purely military purposes, were generally dismantled after the War. The German Army in its retreat destroyed 2,047 km. of line (about half being double line), 600 stations, 1,100 bridges, 24 tunnels and all workshops and watering stations in its area. When these lines were reconstructed, the opportunity was seized to enlarge and improve the stations, lay the permanent way more rationally and introduce the latest electric, pneumatic or hydraulic points and signals. Especial attention was paid to the great goods yards in view of their importance for the reconstruction of the devastated areas. Lille-Deélivrance station, for example, which dominates the goods traffic of Northern France, was constructed to clear 4,500 trucks daily. Its tracks are so arranged that it functions by the force of gravity, and requires only a small staff; it acts like a filter, all traffic, being passed in the same direction. Locomotives and rolling-stock have increased in numbers and power, especially on the Nord and Est systems. There were 20,383 locomotives in 1924, compared with 13,434 in 1911; the load of the fastest passenger trains rose from 400 tons to 550 tons. Between 1920-4 the number of passenger carriages increased by 11%, of goods trucks by 20°; they are also much stronger and of increased capacity. The new all-steel one-piece carriages on the Nord line deserve especial mention. Examples of the carriages used on other “Jines were shown at the Exhibition of Modern Decorative Arts in 1925. Most goods trucks before the War carried a maximum load of 19 tons, few of over 20 tons. In 1925, of 525,000 goods trucks, 251,500 carried

10-20

tons;

227,000,

20-30

tons; 41,000,

30-40

tons;

2,500,

40 tons or over. The average carrying capacity of trains, especially on the main lines, has greatly increased. Many take 80 trucks, and 1,500 tons.

In the devastated areas, the railways were reconstructed earlier than the dwellings; so that the companies had to provide accommodation for their workmen on a large scale. The Nord built 11,141 houses of modern types, sometimes constructing regular towns, besides providing their employees with 6,300 other dwellings. The problem of electrification only became urgent after the War when the altered economic conditions compelled Trance to utilise all her natural resources. A scheme was drawn up involving an expenditure of five milliard francs on the construction of power stations and the electrification of about 9,000 km., including 3,350 km., or nearly half, of the Paris-Orléans line; 2,300 km., or a quarter, of the P.L.M. line, and 3,200, or over three-quarters, of the Midi line. An agreement between the state and the railway companies, made on June 28 1921, established a close financial and technical conneetion between the state lincs of the Etat and Alsace-Lorraine and the group of the five great private companies. After satisfaction of the claims of shareholders and personnel, all proceeds are pooled; a deficit on one line is thus compensated by a surplus on another, the tariffs are fixed high enough to avoid a general deficit. Tariffs are uniform and common throughout France; rolling-stock is pooled; important purchases, as those of rails, sleepers, etc., are made in common; common are all arrangements regarding pay, promotion, employment, etc., of the 500,000 employees. All important questions of management are discussed in a committee composed of the Presidents and Directors of the seven lines; all matters affecting the employees or national interests are discussed in the Conseil Supérieur des Chemins de Fer, tn which the above committee is reinforced by elected representatives of all grades of the personnel, the presidents of Chambers of Commerce and representatives of the principal national industries and of the state. The workings of this innovation

FERDINAND

have proved most satisfactory. See Statistiques des Chemins de fer francais (annuel), P

FRANCHET D’ESPEREY, LOUIS (1856was born at Mostaganem in Algeria May

), French soldier, 25 1856. Commis-

sioned to the infantry in 1876, he early saw active service in Tunisia, Tongking and N. China. In 1908 he became general of brigade, and the same year a tour of the Balkans and his published studies thereon worked the beginning of an interest in that region which was to have important results. In 1913, as general of division, he carried out a vigorous campaign in Morocco, after which he was appointed to the I. Arry Corps at Lille. This corps he commanded during the battle of the Frontiers, Aug. ror4, and on the eve of the battle of the . arne he succeeded Gen. Lanrezac as commander of the V. Anry. In March 1916 he was advanced to command the eastern group of armies, and later the northern group. Cn the recall of Cuillaumat in June 1918, Franchet d’Esperey was sert cut to replace hin as Commander-in-chief at Salonika. Accptirg and ceveloping his predecessor’s plan for an offensive in the Eallans, Franchet d’Esperey ensured the success of his Lreak-through by the skill with which he denuded the rest of the frert to concentrate an overwhelming preponderence on the narrow SokolDobropolye sector, west of the Vardar. Success Leyond antici-

pation crowne:l the stroke; with their reserves pinned down by vizorous pressure elsewhere the Bulgarians were unable to repair the breach, and as the Serbian spearhead drove in ceerer, the whole Bulgarian front collapsed, and on Sept. 29 Bulgaria capitulated —the first defection among the Central Towers. If he owed much to his predecessor, to Franchet d’Psperey was the glory of execution and realisation. Exploiting this victory, he cleared Serbia of the Austrian troops and later, on Jan. 5 1919 took prisoner the German Marshal von Mackensen, in I ungary. Ife afterwards commanded the Allied forces in Turkey until Nov. 1920 and was created a marshal of France on Feb. 21 1921. FRANCIS FERDINAND (1863-1914), Archduke of Austria, was born at Graz Dec. 18 1863. The eldest son of the Archduke Charles Louis and a nephew of the Emperor Francis Joseph, he became, after the death of the Crown Prince Rudolph, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. In 1875 he took the title of Archduke of Austria-Este, as heir to his uncle the Duke of Modena, with whose death the male line of this branch of the house became extinct, and to his possessions in Austria-Hungary and Italy. Until the death on Jan. 30 1889 of the Crown Prince Rudolph, Francis Ferdinand was only known in limited circles and even then he was not invited by the Emperor Francis Joseph to take part in state affairs, although the Emperor frequently commissioned him to represent him abroad. On July 1 1900 he married Countess Sophie Chotek (1868-1914), after having overcome, by tenacious persistence, the obstacle due to the fact that the lady was not of royal family, and renounced a few days kefore the ceremony the succession rights of any children of the union. This

renunciation was not only inscribed in the records of the imperial family, but ratified in the Austrian and Hungarian Parliaments and sanctioned by a law of Dec. 4 1900. After that time the Emperor gradually allotted to him responsibilities of his own, not only in military matters but occasionally in questions of domestic politics. The difference of outlook of the two men, however, became more and more marked; for with advancing age Francis Joseph was less and less willing to consider far-reaching reforms, was anxious to avoid any conflict with the nationalities, and preferred advisers who knew how to untie a knot gently instead of hacking through it. Francis Ferdinand was convinced that the Magyar preponderance in the affairs of the dual monarchy must be broken in the interests of the monarchy and the dynasty. For some time he held that Federalism was the best solution. At another period he inclined to “ Trialism.” Later, influenced by the IIungarian minister kristoffy, he inclined to strengthen unity by changing the Delegations into a Central Parliament and attaching the annexed provinces Bosnia and Hercegovina, with a state organisation of their own, to the Empire. The opposition which he met on all sides from the ruling

FRANCIS JOSEPH I. party in Hungary strengthened his conviction that here lay the essential obstacle to the healthy recovery of the monarchy. In the severe contlicts between the Magyars and the Crown from the beginning of the zoth century onwards he, therefore, maintained the opinion that no concession must be made, and that there should be no shrinking even from the use of armed force for the defence of the rights of the monarchy and the dynasty. The zeal with which he sought the solution of domestic political problems by strengthening the central power is explained by his firm conviction that this was the indispensable condition of the monarchy as a Great Power, which he desired to maintain and to increase. Francis Ferdinand was not an unconditional adherent of the group which thought his aim would only be attained by force of arms. But he was firmly determined to tread this path if it was the only one by which the goal could be reached. He considered that friendly relations with Great Britain were desirable, but towards France, and still more towards Italy, his attitude was cool and negative. He was convinced that there must Inevitably be a day of reckoning between the monarchy and Italy. He never adopted an anti-Slav policy. He wished to avoid conflicts with the principal representatives of the Slav nationalities, and recognised in the Tsar of Russia the strongest support against revolutionary movements in monarchical states. At the same time he expressed the decided opinion that the encroachments of the Greater Serbia movement of Austro-Hungarian soil should be resisted with all the forces of the monarchy. He stood by Germany, yet was determined that the monarchy should not fall into dependence on her powerful ally. Francis Ferdinand was a man of more than average ability. He would immediately recognise the essential point in any business in which he was engaged. What he lacked was knowledge of men and calmness and constancy in his relations with the men who had been placed in high offices of state by his influence. He asked from the citizens of the monarchy not affection, but submission to the will of the ruler. To him the state was identified with the divinely appointed person of the monarch. He was shot June 28 1914, with his wife, by Bosnians of Serbian nationality at

Serajevo.

(See EUROPE.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-Some account of Francis Ferdinand’s life is contained in his Tagebuch meiner Reise um de Erde (Vienna, 1895); Theodor von Sosnosky, “ Franz Ferdinand,” in Deutsches Biographisches Jahrbuch (1916); Franz Conrad von Hoetzendorf, Aus Meiner Dienstzeit (Vienna, 1921); M. Auffenberg-Komárow, A us Österreichs Höhe und Niedergang (Nlunich, 1921); S. Stanojević, Die Ermordung des Erzherzogs Franz Ferdinand (1923); E. Glaise von Horstenau, Neue Osterreichiste Biographie, vol. 3 (1926); P. Nikisch-Boulles, Vor dem Sturm. Erinnerungen an Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand (1925).

FRANCIS JOSEPH I. (1830-1916), Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary (see 10.942)—In the last years of his reign Francis Joseph continued to strive to preserve peace for his realm, while maintaining the prestige of Austria-Hungary and her position as a Great Power. Perceiving that this aim was threatened by the confusion reigning in the Balkans, he agreed to the

plan of his Foreign Minister, Aehrenthal, to take advantage of the Young Turk movement to annex the territories of Bosnia and Hercegovina occupied in 1878, and to embody them permanently in the monarchy. During the serious crisis following on the annexation Francis Joseph backed Achrenthal with the

whole weight of his influence, and subsequently supported him in his endeavours to restore friendly relations with the Great Powers which had been signally disturbed by the annexation, and to put an end to the risk of international conflicts. By his personal intervention he in fact repeatedly succeeded during the years 1908 to 1914 in averting dangers threatening the peace of Europe. When in 1912 the Balkan wars, which he had untiringly but unsuccessfully striven to avert, began, he thought they were the gale before the hurricane, and when, in Aug. 10913, the Peace of Bucharest provided a provisional settlement he expressed the opinion that this peace was only the breathing space before a fresh war. The behaviour of the Serbs filled him with the greatest anxiety. When the murder of the heir to the throne, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand (June 28 1914), led the Vienna Govt. to

109

take energetic measures against Serbia, Francis Joseph hesitated to follow, and it was with a heavy heart that he gave his consent to the dispatch of the severe ultimatum to Serbia, and, after its rejection, to the declaration of war. He did not believe that the war could be localised, as he would have wished it to be, and was pessimistic about the chances of a world war. Even then he was of the opinion that ‘f war is beyond our strength,” and said he would be glad if the monarchy escaped ‘‘ with a black eye.” The attitude of the rulers of Italy and Rumania offended him deeply, and strengthened his doubt of a favourable outcome of a war against an ever-increasing number of adversaries. Francis Joseph stood immovably by the alliance with Germany, to whose ruler he was bound by a friendship based on reciprocal liking; it never occurred to him to separate from his ally. He would never have agreed to a separate peace; yet he favoured and supported every endeavour to put an end to the War by a peace which should safeguard the interests of all his allies and

the position of Austria-Hungary as a Great Power. In all questions affecting the constitution of the monarchy, and in particular the relations between Austria and Hungary, Francis Joseph continued in the later years of his reign to stand by the principles of the Ausgleich of 1867. He would not consider the federalisation of the Empire, but stood unmoved on the basis of dualism. He went a long way to meet the efforts of the Hungarian Govt. for independence, but refused energetically during this period demands tending towards the severing of the remaining bonds between the two halves of the monarchy, especially that of the united army. In the increasingly violent conflicts between the different nationalities inhabiting the CisLeithan territories Francis Joseph stood above party. This was all the easier for him on account of his indifference towards all the nationalities of his vast realm, even towards the Germans, although to the end of his life he felt himself to be a German prince. As in the earlier part of his reign, so in the last decade, the separate nationalities were favoured or neglected, but always played off one against the other. The meaning of viribus unitis for Francis Joseph was to use all in the interests of the dynasty. But national consciousness had grown so strong that this policy had no success. The concessions which he granted in the years just before the War to the Slav peoples increased their selfconfidence, and led them to make ever greater demands, the non-fulfilment of which caused a weakening of their sentiment for the dynasty. As the differences between the national parties represented in the Austrian Parliament became in the course of years so great that there was no prospect of effective co-operation, Francis Joseph ignored parliamentary activity from 1914 onwards. Experience of the World War led the old Emperor to recognise that he had done the Austrian-Germans an injustice; but isolated attempts to alter the trend of affairs had no lasting effect, and in the end he let things take their course. When he died, severe inroads had been made on the affection of the Austrian peoples; what remained was only just sufficient to disguise the disappearance of loyalty to the dynasty. As years went on the Emperor became more and more lonely. His son had committed suicide in 1889, his wife had been murdered in 1898; of his brothers only the youngest was still alive, and he resided at a distance and in the strictest seclusion. There had never been any cordial relationship with the heir to the throne, Francis Ferdinand; and with the years, especially after

Francis Ferdinand had married Countess Sophie Chotek, the estrangement between the two men increased, so that personal intercourse became rare. Among the remaining members of the Imperial House Francis Joseph only cared to frequent the circles of his two daughters, Gisela and Marie Valerie, and their children. He was bound by ties of true friendship to Katharina Schratt, formerly an actress at the Burgtheater, and in her society he spent his sparingly measured hours of recreation. The summer he usually spent at the watering place of Ischl, and there he devoted himself to the chase, the only pleasure fer which he cared passionately to the end of his life. The Emperor had long enjoyed excellent health.

It was not

until he had passed his 75th year that disease of the respiratory

FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN—FREEMASONRY

IIO

organs began. In 1ọrr this became so serious that a catastrophe was feared. All the preparations for Francis Ferdinand’s accession were made. But the old Emperor recovered; and his physical as well as his mental energy improved from year to year, so that he was able in the first two years of the World War to transact fully all the business of government. It was only in the year 1916 that his faculties began to fail. He died peacefully of a fresh attack of his old malady on Nov. 21 1916. Francis Joseph was not one of those of whom contemporarics, especially those at a distance, form any definite impression. The reserve which he observed even towards the great majority of his advisers made it more difficult to penetrate his real nature. He had a deep sense of his exalted position as a ruler. To the end of his days he remained profoundly convinced that the Empire over which he ruled was Xis empire, and the peoples Xis peoples. This conception of the majesty of the office bestowed on him by God found expression in his bearing. He always maintained a regal attitude. He showed kindliness and winning courtesy to everyone. Nothing was farther from him than posing, and no one ever heard him utter sonorous phrases; but he avoided any kind of intimacy even in his intercourse with members of the Imperial House, and, even with them, knew how to maintain his distance. His intellectual gifts were not remarkable, but he possessed sound common sense and wit. He had a strikingly good memory for persons and events. As a ruler he was a model

Considering the difficulties of the process, the famous banking houses weathered the period of intlation well, and have led the way to the restoration of Germany’s economic position In the world. The metal, chemical and electrical industries of the district are improving, and the old trade fair was revived in 1919. In 1914 a university was founded, and in connection with it is an academy of labour, designed to provide a new class of leaders for the labour movement. During the World War Frankfort was several times bombed, and it was occupied for a short time by the French in 1920 during the invasion of the Ruhr area by German militarists. . FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1819-1914), British philosopher (see 11.38), died at Edinburgh, Dec. 2 1914. FRASER, CLAUD LOVAT (1890-1921), British artist and designer, was born in London, May 15 1890, and was educated at Brighton and Charterhouse. He began to follow his father’s profession as a solicitor in 1908, but abandoned this three years later for art. After working with Walter Sickert for a time, he exhibited in 1913, being responsible in the same year for the decoration of the Flying Fame chapbooks and broadsheets. He served in France with the Durham Light Infantry during 1915-6, but was gassed and invalided home. His gift for spirited design and lively colour, based to a great extent on 18th century conventions, developed rapidly, and he not only illustrated successfully many books, but exercised a rejuvenating influence on Eng-

of the sense of duty. From early morning to evening he attended

lish As was See

to business with clocklike regularity, and dealt with all the documents laid before him with the greatest punctuality. This industry and his exact memory made him one of the best authorities in all Government affairs. He sometimes startled his ministers by his intimate knowledge of the details of the business in hand, and occasionally embarrassed them. But he went no further than details, and lacked the power of surveying the whole. The Emperor also lacked, especially in his later years, the abil-

ity to take the initiative in important questions, to form independent resolutions and to carry them to their logical conclusions. In an ever-increasing degree he left the decision to his responsible

ministers. He was not without skill in the choice of his advisers, but had an instinctive dislike for men whom he felt to be his intellectual superiors. He also disliked people of proud and upright character, and even within the family circle he preferred those who were more subservient. He was essentially cold in

temperament,

with

great self-control

increased

by practice.

Among the European rulers he enjoyed, during the last decades of his reign, great respect, which he owed to his age, experience, personal amiability, blameless conduct, and above all the fact that his word could always be relied upon. He was a faithful son of the Catholic Church, and looked up with reverence to the Holy Father; but, quite in the spirit of the traditions of his House, he guarded the rights of the dynasty and of the State with the utmost tenacity, even against the Pope. He took no interest in the arts and sciences, being in this respect more of a Lorrainer than a Habsburg; but whenever he expressed an opinion on these subjects, he showed a decided aversion from the modern tendencies. (A. F. Pr.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Bretholz, “Kaiser Franz Joseph,” Zeitschrift des deutschen Vereins fiir Geschichte Miihrens und Schlestens (1917); H. Friedjung, ‘Kaiser Franz Josef 1," Historische Aufsdize, p. 493 ff. (1919); Schneider, Kaiser Franz Josef und sein Iof (1921); K A. V. Margutti, Vom alten Kaiser (1921) new edition (1925); Neue Oesterreichische Oswald Redlich, ‘Kaiser Franz Josef,” Biographie, Band I, (1923).

FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN, GERMANY (see 11.17), has changed little outwardly since rọro, though the area of the city is now 33,277 ac., and the population according to the census of 1919 is 433,002. The life of the place still centres in the ancient and picturesque city, though in recent years blocks of old buildings round the cathedral have been swept away, and garden cities have arisen on the outskirts. Frankfort is now an important inland port; heavy barges can navigate the Main as far as Aschaffenburg, and canalisation is being carried as far as Wirzburg. The Rhine-Main-Danube

canal is under construction, and a scheme has been prepared for a waterway to the Weser, which will link Frankfort with Bremen.

stage designs by his production of The Beggar’s Opera (1920), You Like It (1920) and If (1921). A career of great promise cut short by his death, June 18 rgz1, at Sandgate, Kent. John Drinkwater and Albert Rutherston, Claud Lovat Fraser (1923). : FRAZER, SIR JAMES GEORGE (1854), British anthropologist, was born at Glasgow, Jan. 1 1854. Educated at Helensburgh, Glasgow University and Trinity College, Cambridge, he was elected a fellow of the latter college in 1879 and called to the Bar in the same year. He was knighted in 1914, received the O.M. in 1925 and became Commander of the Legion of Honour in 1926. A prolific writer, he is famous as the author of The Golden Bough, first published in 1890 and re-issued in 12 volumes under seven titles between 1907 and 1915. In 1922 appeared an abridged edition under the original title. This work is an elaborate study of ancient cults and folk lore and covers a vast field of anthropological research. In 1926 he issued vol. 1 of The Worship of Nature, dealing with the worship of the sky and of the earth. Among his many other publications are: Totemism (1887); Adonis, Allis, Osiris, Studies in the History of Oriental Religion (1906, 2nd ed. 1907, 3rd ed. 1914); Totemism and Exogamy (1910). FREDERICK VIII. (1843-1912), king of Denmark (see 11.52), died at Hamburg May 14 1912. FREEMASONRY (see 11.78).—The total membership has at least doubled since 1910 and, according to the Masonic Year Book, Chicago, is (1926) about 3,922,318. In addition there are at least 1,000,000 “ unrecognised ’? masons, the most important group being the ‘ Negro”? masons of the United States of America. Of the “regular” masons, all save 208,388 belong to the various Grand Lodges of the U.S.A. and of the British Empire, which indicates that freemasonry Is essentially an Anglo-Saxon institution. Social Work.—In the U.S.A. and Holland the most noticeable change has been a tendency to take an active part in the social betterment of the nation. While avoiding controversial political questions, the aim is to increase the interest of members in the

well-being of their fellow citizens outside the door of the lodge. This tendency is less marked in the British Grand Lodges, owing to their anxiety to avoid any appearance of interfering as Masons in politics, although in the field of charity they are particularly active. Anthropological School of Research—Among British masons one of the most notable changes has been the rise of a new school of masonic research, which aims at tracing the history of Freemasonry anterior to 1717. Faced by the paucity of documentary evidence, due to the nature of the obligations taken by medieval masons, this school has adopted the principles used in the study of anthropology

and of comparative religions,

It has discovered that figures carved,

FREMIET—FRENCH

AFRICAN

or painted, by medieval masons, are often depicted making certain signs still known to Freemasons, and that in the scenes represented these clearly convey the same inner meaning as to-day. Examples of such secret messages have been found in medieval and Comacine work and also in that done by members of the Roman Collegia. There also exists documentary evidence connecting these three groups of builders. A similar use of signs in Ancient Egypt, in the Hung Society of China and among savage races when initiating a boy into manhood, has also been demonstrated. On the basis of these facts, which are unquestionable, the theory is being developed that Speculative Freemasonry is descended via the Comacines,

the

Roman Collegia and the Mysteries from primitive rites, once universal in the dawn of history, survivals of which are to be found to this day in Central Africa and Australia. Concurrent with this work has been the careful study of the modern rituals, and the comparison of certain peculiar features in them with similar incidents in the ancient mysteries and in savage rites, The facts so far disclosed suggest that in modern freemasonry we may have an intellectualised survival of the cult of the Dying God and of the Fertility rites. Although this schoo! has produced much interesting data, its conclusions are not yet universally accepted by the older or ‘‘ documentary ” school, the members of which consider that coincidence may explain the similarities to which their attention has been directed. If, however, the views of the Anthropological School are ultimately accepted, the result will be that the origin of freemasonry will be pushed back thousands of years. The Mystical School.—Quite as important has been the rise of a distinctly spiritual school of thought, which endeavours to interpret the meaning of the ceremonies, and considers that in the rituals of the various degrees we have an allegory of the quest of the soul after

mystic union with the Supreme Being. While often differing in detail, since they approach the subject from different angles, all the exponents of this school agree in the main principles, although in historical research they are often sharply divided, some belonging to the documentary school and others to the anthropological. Perhaps, however, the most important fact is the ever increasing interest among the rank and file in a subject which, even a few years ago, would have been treated with complete indifference,

Masonic Relations —Since toro events have proved that the breach between Latin and Anglo-Saxon masonry was based on a fundamental divergence of opinion as to the basic principles on which the order rests, and this breach tends to grow wider year by year. The disastrous results of interfering in politics has been shown by the fact that the Italian and Hungarian Govts. have declared Freemasonry to be a danger to the State, and have suppressed it within their jurisdictions. In France opposition to the political activities of the Grand Orient culminated in 1914 in the formation of a new body, ‘‘ Grande Loge Nationale Indépendante et Reguliére pour la France,” which avoids politics, and insists on belief in God. This body, which has increased rapidly in numbers, is recognised by the Grand Lodge of England. At the same time, one by one, most of the American Grand Lodges which were still in fraternal relations with the Grand Orient have felt compelled tosever relations. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Anthropological: Dr. A. Churchward, Signs and Symbols of Primordial Man (1910); J.S. M. Ward, Freemasonry and

the Ancient Gods (1921); Major G. M. Sanderson, An Examination of the Masonic Ritual (1923); J. S. M. Ward, Who Was Hiram Abiff

1925).

|

tical: A. E. Waite, The Secret Tradition in Freemasonry (1911); W. L. Wilmshurst, The Meaning of Masonry (1922); J.S. M. Ward, The E. A's and the F, C.’s Handbooks and the M. M.'s Books (1923); Freemasonry: fis Aims and Ideals (1923); An Interpretation of Our Masonic Symbols (1924); W. L. Wilmshurst, The Masonic Initiation (1924); A. E. Waite, Emblematic Freemasonry (1925); J.S. M. Ward, An Explanation of the Royal Arch Degree (1925).

| (J. S. M. W.) United States.—Since 1920 freemasonry in the United States has grown with amazing rapidity, and in 1926 had a membership of nearly 4,000,000 men, organised in 50 grand lodges. While in many ways gratifying, the influx of new members raised many problems, to meet which two movements were started. First, the National Masonic Research Society was organised in 1914, under the sanction of the Grand Lodge of Iowa, to encourage the education of Freemasons in the history, symbolism and philosophy of freemasonry. Its headquarters are in St. Louis, where its journal, The Builder, is edited. Second, the Masonic Service Assn. of the United States organised in 1919 more than 30 grand lodges—the first great co-operative movement in American freemasonry. It grew out of the service of the fraternity in the War, and had two objects, as stated in its con-

LITERATURE

III

stitution; firstly relief in time of nation-wide calamity, whether it be war, pestilence or other disaster; secondly education—the teaching of freemasonry as it has to do with the daily lives of citizens and the problems of the nation. The educational programme of the association is based upon the doctrines of the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man, under five heads: religious liberty, equality before the law, equality of opportunity, the dignity of labour and charity. Its work is carried on by means of short talk bulletins read in the lodges of member jurisdictions, speaker’s bulletins, lectures illustrated by films and moving pictures, books, and its journal The Master Mason, edited from its headquarters in Washington. The association is managed by ar executive commission, composed of one member from each group of states into which the country is divided. As a result of these movements a better kind of masonic literature has been created, at once more accurate and more popular—a national masonic library of nine volumes, and a little masonic library of 20 volumes. The whole intent of the movement is to know more about freemasonry and to do more with freemasonry for the service of mankind. Recent years have witnessed the building of great temples of freemasonry in many of the chief cities of the country, and also a remarkable growth of philanthropic activity—the building of homes for the aged and indigent, orphanages and hospitals and the organisation of the national masonic tubercular sanitoria association. Since the World War there have been tentative attempts to form an International Masonic Assn. but they have been largely abortive, so far as American freemasons are concerned, owing to the refusal of freemasons in the United States to affiliate with foreign bodies which remove the Bible from the lodge and do not require faith in a supreme being as a requisite of membership. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J. Fort Newton, The Builders; Oliver D. Street, Symbolism of the Three Degrees; H. L. Haywood, Symbolical Masonry; H. M. Johnson, The Beginnings of Freemasonry in America; A. S. MacBride, Speculative Masonry; Ray V. Denslow, Territorial Masonry; D. D. Darrah, The Story of Freemasonry. J.F.N

FREMIET, EMMANUEL

(1824-1910), French sculptor (see

11.96), died Sept. 11 1910.

FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (18s50), American sculptor (see 11.98), numbers among his more notable recent works the four groups representing Europe, America, Asia and Africa for the New York Custom House; the Melvin Memorial at Concord, Mass. (1916); the 1st Division War Memorial, Washington, D.C. (1924), and the statue “ Memory ” (1911), which was purchased by Henry Walters and given to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. His statue of Abraham Lincoln, executed for the Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D.C. (1920), portraying Lincoln seated and in a meditative mood, occupies a superb though simple setting and is considered the crowning work of French’s life. FRENCH AFRICAN LITERATURE.—The enormous continent, of Africa on account of its geographical configuration, is apt to appear as a single unit. But this could only be if all negroes were of the same race; whereas, ethnically speaking, owing to the intermingling of blood and the differences of latitude and longitude, there are as many races of negroes as there are African tribes. An Englishman differs less from a Russian than an Ourlaf from a Haoussa, and a Haoussa from a Kaffir. The outbreak of the World War brought home to France her need for man power, and she then began to turn her attention towards a race which sent her its men by thousands. In the midst of the madness and destruction that overwhelmed Europe, she realised that she had to do with men who were like children and whose virgin minds required cultivation. She was forced to recognise that, in spite of solid, imposing and well-documented volumes, the theories with regard to the natural superiority of the Aryan races, set forth by Count Gobineau in his Essai sur Pinégalité des races humaines (1853-5), had received an un-

pleasant

shock.

Moreover, the ideas which Dr. Cureau, a

former Governor of French Equatorial Africa, and a follower of Gobineau, expressed in his learned and interesting Sociétés

primitives de l Afrique equatoriale (1912) have, after much dis-

FRENCH

II2

LITERATURE

cussion, been strongly attacked, first by Jean Finot, whose work Le préjugé des races (1905) has attained world circulation, and later by Doctor Huot, in “ L'âme noire.”! The soul of the negro, as compared with that of the white man, is emotional, unstable, variable and incomprehensible. It cannot be'fathomed either in the tales of the old navigators— they dealt too much in fable and fantasy—or in the journals of contemporary explorers. Those who have lived long enough with the negro have learned to hold him in affection, which, according to Stendhal, is nothing but the crystallisation of feelings and inclinations. We cannot number among the initiated either Pierre Loti, impassioned admirer of the exotic—the poet and magician who was inclined to bewitch himself with his own incantations—or even Fromentin, whose Un éfé dans le Sahara (1874) and Une année dans le Sahel (1859) conjure up before us burning sand and blinding light; but we must include Isabelle Eberhardt, the bonne nomade, whose whole work is a glorification of Islam; and a group of other writers of whom the most outstanding are Robert Randau, whose novels Les Colons (1907), Les Alg‘rianistes (1912) and Cassard le Berbère are powerful and vivid; F. Ducheie with Aw pas lent des caravanes (1922), Thamil’la (1923) and Le roman du Medduh (19024); Maximilienne Heller with La mer rouge (1923) and mary others. These works, however, have been in-

spired less by the influence of Africa than by that of the Mediterranean. In spite of such works as Terres de soleil et de sommeil (1916) and Le voyage du centurion (1916) by Lucien Psichari, Visions congolaises by Louis de Raulin and Les explorateurs

(1909) and Le commandant et les Foulbé (1910) by Robert Randau the true African influence has only prevailed since roto. Since that time there has been a harvest of such literature, including the remarkable Visage de la Brousse by Pierre Bonardi (1920) and Fisolement by Domizique Combatte, which exude

The peculiar characteristic of French literature in ro11 lay in the fact that the great movement of reaction against the excesses of naturalism which had started 20 years before had reached its culmination, and with entire success. About 1889 the doctrine of naturalism was still triumphant, and had imposed a general conception of things which was affirmed by the scientific spirit. It was material, subject to reason, in no way sentimental. It had invaded the novel with Zola, the theatre, and even made its way into philosophy. It claimed te make use of the discoveries of savants, of Berthelot in chemistry and Darwin in biology. It was fatalistic, pessimistic, setting itself against religious beliefs and even against the tradition of the things of the spirit. It claimed to reduce all life, even the life of the soul itself, to a mechanism of causes and effects, to a purely physiological basis. It was about the year 1889 that new tendencies were manifested simultaneously in poetry, in philosophy, in criticism and in the novel. While keeping as a fundamental principle the recognition of the fact, that is to say the method of observation, the newcomers insisted upon their observation being complete, upon its taking into account the whole of reality, not merely facts, but also all the stuff of feeling, aspiration, of the impulses of the soul, of spiritual energy. As a result of all this, thought became re-invigorated, took a new lease of life. Such was the accomplishment of men very different in their inspiration and their convictions. Paul Bourget and Barrés among the novelists, Henri de Régnier among the poets, Rémy de Gourmont, Charles Maurras and André Gide among the critics, played a great part in this change. Groups like those of the Mercure de France, the Nouvelle Revue Française, the Cahiers de la Quinzaine, under the

knowledge of humanity. (R. Ma.*) FRENCH LITERATURE (see 11.110)—The 15 years between rotr and 1925 were overshadowed historically by the events which preceded the War of ro14, by the War itself and by post-

leadership of Charles Péguy, did their capable share. It may be said that in ror1 the distinction had been clearly mide between science, which establishes laws and fundamental causes and sets them forth in abstract terms, and art, which minifests these causes sympathetically by appealing at one and the same time to the reason, the heart and the senses. The works of a mathematician of genius, like Jules Henri Poincaré, had made for the development of a more exact conception of science and the scientific method. The books of Henri Bergson, especially the one which appeared in 1907 (L'évolution créatrice), hal created a new spiritual awakening. Everything thus contributed’ towards liberating the spirit from the narrow boundaries of naturalism. A literary outburst was the result, the miin characteristic of which is that each work reflects the temperament and the tastes of the author, without dependence on any school. Certain writers remain faithful to their conception of the novel (Gustave Geffroy, Cécile Pommier, 1922), and the Académie Goncourt continue the tradition of objectivity and naturalism. But the brilliant group of psychological writers that followed Paul Bourget and Maurice Barrés goes back to Benjamin Constant and Stendhal, indeed even invokes Balzac, and attempts to make of the novel a complete representation of life, of the spiritual life as well as the social and material. During the 15 years (1910-25) there appeared a brilliant series

War preoccupations and difficulties.

of psychological

the stifling atmosphere of a tropical forest. Des inconnus chez moi (1920), by Lucie Cousturicr, is a work profoundly true, profoundly human as well as infinitely pathetic. Batowuala by René Maran (1921), La randonnée de Samba Diouf (1922) by the brothers Tharaud, Aoffi (1922) by Gaston Joseph, Drato, a mine of Mandingo folk-lore, by André Demaison (1923), Afctempsycose by Madeleine de Valcombe (1923), Pellobellé, gentilhom-ne soudanais, by Oswald Durand, Ulyse, cafre (1924) by the brothers Marius-Ary Lebland, Les Chansons de Kou-Singa by Jean Marville have also contributed to the researches of such mea as Delafosse, Bruel and missionaries of all ‘classes, lay, military, commercial and religious. These works may not perhaps have

the lyric character which

runs

through

A

travers LPAfrique

(1o10) by Captain Baratier, nor the humour of that caustic adventurer to whom Pierre Mille, the French Kipling, has given the name Barnavaux. They are, however, a valuable contribution to the study of the negro mind, and as such increase our

If the course of literature

was not entirely determined by this concurrence of great events, it at least responded to them, and bears deep traces of their influence. These marks can be found in the writings of prac-

tically all those who were at work during this period. Two literary generations occupied these 15 years; one, the older, that of the writers who belonged to the preceding period, already famous or recognised in rgtr, who were only continuing their work; the other, a younger generation, that of the writers who made their first appearance in 1914 or after 1918.

I. THE

PRE-WAR

GENERATION

The most important writers of rgtr and succeeding years have already been accounted for in the preceding period. It will suffice here then merely to recall their names and the books which they published after rorz. It will be more interesting to note the general tendency of literature at this point. 1 Mercure de France (Sept. 1921).

studies.

Writers

already famous

continued

their work. Paul Bourget produced Le Démon de Midi (10914), Némésis (1918). Maurice Barrès wrote Greco, ou Le secret de Tolède (1912), La colline inspirée (1913), and just before his death published that Enquête aux pays du Levant (1923), which unites in itself all his peculiar qualities of thought and expression and which remains one of his finest books. René Bazin (Les nouveaux Oberlé, 1919); Henry Bordeaux (La maison, 1913, and La résurrection de la chair, 1920); René Boylesve (Tu mes plus rien, 1914, Elise, 1921); Louis Bertrand (Jean Serbal, 1924); Edouard Estaunié (Les choses voient, 1913, L'ascension de M. Baslèvre, 1920), attest the vitality of a genre which was tried with success also by Emile Clermont (1878-1915), author of Laure (1913); Louis Codet (1877-1918), author of La petite Chiquette (1911), César Capéran (1918), La fortune de Bécot

(1919); and Roger Martin du Gard, of a more philosophical turn (Jean Barots, 1914, and Les Thibault, 1922).

The analytic and descriptive novel of manners continued with

FRENCH

LITERATURE

Henri Lavedan, Iréne Olette, Le chemin du salut, 1920-3); Abel Hermant Les Renards (1912), L'aube ardente (1919), La journée brève (1920); with Gaston Chérau (La prison de verre, 1912, Le monstre, 1913). Jérôme and Jean Tharaud (L'ombre de la croix, 1917, and Un royaume de Dieu, 1920); Gilbert de Voisins (L'enfant qui prit peur, 1912); the tales of Henri Duvernois (Le veau gras, 1912, Edgar, 1912); Edmond Jaloux, Marcel Boulenger, Eugène Montfort, Claude Anet, Charles Géniaux. An offshoot of the symbolist movement, the poetic novel of fantasy has its most illustrious exponents in the poet Henri de Régnier (La pêcheresse, 1920, Le divertissement provincial, 1923); in the poet Francis Jammes (M. le Curé d'Ozeron, 1918, Le poète rustigue, 1920); and in the young Alain Fournier (1886-1014), snatched away too soon from letters by the War, whose book Le grand Meaulnes (1914) remains a charming and impressive work. Finally, exotic literature, dominated by the great name of Pierre Loti, finds brilliant expression in Claude Farrére (La Bataille, 1911, Dix-sept histotres de Marins, 1914); Jérôme and Jean Tharaud (La fête Arabe, 1912); Pierre Mille, MariusAry Leblond, and in the posthumous book of Lauis Hémon on Canada, Maria Chapdelaine (1916), which had a prodigious success. Women have always excelled in the literature of imagination. Three writers occupy the first rank in this respect—Colette, who has added to her already famous list of works La vagabonde (1910), L’entrave (1914), Chéri (1920), La maison de Claudine (1922) and La fin de Chéri (1920); Gérard d'Houville, daughter of the great poet J. M. de Heredia, wife of Henri de Régnier,

who has a rare poetic gift and who tells in the most fluid style prose stories of charming and often profound imagination, (Le séducteur, 1914, Jeune fille, 1916, Tant pis pour toi, 1920), and who has written in D'enfant (1926) a little masterpiece; and Comtesse de Noailles, a poet of passionate and inspired quality as well, who in 1923 under the title of Les innocentes published a serics of novelettes and meditations in which tyricism is made

the vehicle of a daring frankness. Mme. Marcelle Tinayre published in 1920 Perséphone and in 1922 Priscille Séverac. Mme. Lucie Delarue-Mardrus, a very gifted story-teller, observant and poetic, wrote L'âme aux trois visages in rọrọ and Graine au vent in 1925. Mme. Andrée Corthés received in 1920 the novel prize of the Académie francaise for her book entitled Pour moi seule, At the theatre that most personal of writers, Francois de Curel, produced Terre inhumatne (1923), La viveuse and Le moribond (1925). G. de Porto-Riche pursued his vigourous studies of passion with Le veil homme (1911) and Le marchand d Estampes (1918). Maurice Donnay, so charming, and, at the same time, so melancholy and whimsical, has continued his social studies in Les éclaireuses (1913) and La chasse à l homme (1020). Alfred Capus, a lucid realist, ironical and with a gift for natural dialogue, produced Hélène Ardouin in ror3 and L'institut de beauté in ror4. Henry Bataille (1872-1922), hypersensitive, slightly involved and exotic, brought out Le Phaléne in to14 and L'homme à la rose in 1922. Henry Bernstein after a series of dramatic and violent plays (L’assaui, 1922), brought out Le secret {1917), in which his effects are drawn from psychology and character. Comedy has owed its greatest successes to Robert de Flers (L’habit verf, 1913, Af. Brotannean, 1914, Les nouveaux messieurs, 1025); to Tristan Bernard (Les petites curieuses, 1920); to Francis de Croisset (Le cocur dispose, 1912); and to Sacha Guitry. whose vivacity and wit fnd triumphant expression in Le veilleur de nuit (1911), L'illusionniste (1921) and L'amour masqué (1924). The most interesting attempts in the way of original work have been made by Francois Porché, who in Les butors et la Finette (1918) and Le Cherafier de Colomb (1922} combines In a curious way the relics of ancient traditions with an entirely modern feeling for symbolism; and by P. Claudel, author of L’etage (1911), L’ annonce faite à Marie (1912), Le père humilié (1920) and Le pain dur (1918), works sometimes obscure, but freighted with purpose of an incontestable quality, and with austere emotion. In the domain of poetry all the squabbles of the schools had

113

already been silenced by 1911. Symbolism had done its work. Its most illustrious representative, Henri de Régnicr, had returned to traditional forms. Master of rhythm and of rhyme, connoisseur of language, sumptuous and self-contained, he has amplitude and richness. Cultured, a great reader of history and old books, he knows the past. He has at his command all the images supplicd by legend, history, nature and art. The outcome of this is a magnificent and lordly poetry which is the mirror of the passions, the adventures, the glories and all the multiple forms of human destiny (Poéstes, 1907, Vestigia Flammac, 1921). Much nearer symbolism, Francis Vielé-Griflin has studied the ancient myths and has attempted to interpret their eternal significance (Voix d’Ionic, 1914). Francis Jammes is the poet of nature and divinity. He knows the country well, and he speaks of it with a charming simplicity and freshness (Les Géorgigues chrélicnnes, 1911-2). He shows the same ingenuousness, the same healthy realism, the same humility in his poetry of religious inspirations; he has in him something at once bucolic and Christian (La Vierge et les sonnets, 1919). Comtesse de Noailles is on the contrary pantheistic and pagan. Impetuous and consciously unrestrained, heavy with doom like a priestess of old time, she has sung in eloquent and remarkably rhythmical verse of youth, love, the beauty of the universe, and also cf human unhappiness, implacable destiny and death (Les vivants et les morts, 1013, Les forces éternelles, 1920). In her last verses (Poème de Vamour, 1924) she has adopted a deliberately simy le and bare style, in which is traceable a growing mclancholy, a strange lassitude in her ardent work, and, by way of substitute for resignation, a courage full of serenity. Paul Claudel, a vigorous personality, penetrated by a faith which, unlike the tenderness of Francis Jammes, is austere and sometimes sombre, and has written poems (La cantate à trois votx, 1914, Trots poèmes de guerre, 1915, La messe là-bas, 1919), which present a mixture of rather obscure metaphysics, rather sclf-conscious simplicity, and vivid and powerful imagery. Charles Péguy, ardent, sophisticated and simple, Socialist and patriot, has shown in his poems Le wivstére de la Charité de Jeanne d’Are (1910), Le mystère des Saints Innocents (1912), “ee (1914) a fluency which is slightly wearing because of his repetition of the same themes, but at the same time a real power due 1. sincerity, tenderness and the human need for faith and piety. Finally, Paul Valéry, who had made his appearance between 1889 and 1898 in reviews of poetry and letters, La Conque and Le Centaure, after having kept silence for a long while, published in 1917 Le jeune Pargue, and in 1922 Charmes. These two extremely slender collections contained much substance under an unpretentious form, and established his reputation. Mathematician and philosopher, a subtle and experienced artist, a disciple of Mallarmé, to whom he owes much, he gives expression to an abstract and intellectual life which though slightly arid is still passionate, and his work has a deep full note. The tendency to return to simple, pure and classical sources is found also with Paul Fort, whose Ballades françaises are full of colour and imagination; with J. P. Toulet, Fernand Gregh, Abel Bonnard, Franc-Nohain, whose Fat/les (1921) are delightfully humorous; with Alfred Droin and Pierre Camo; while symbolistic description is the more natural vehicle for Jean Royére. lf one were obliged, in spite of this diversity of temperaments, to characterise the period between 1r911 and 1914, one might

make two observations.

One is that in matters of form pre-War

writers went back almost without exception to classical tradi-

tions, to proportion, simplicity, clearness. The other is, that as far as guiding principles went they were for the most part occupied with furnishing a moral discipline to their contemporaries, and that in the wake of dilettantism and naturalistic pessimism they laboured to restore notions of order, of decorum, of hierarchy, which to them seemed useful to the national life. Whatever may have been the glory of Anatole France, it was not he who was then a leader, and who exercised an influence over men’s souls; it was Paul Bourget and Maurice Barrès. There appeared at the approach of that danger constituted by

FRENCH

114

LITERATURE

the War a phenomenon worthy of remark by historians of the future. The grandson of Renan, Ernest Psichari, wrote in 1913 L'appel des armes, and shortly afterwards Le voyage du centurion (1916). Political crises and intellectual visionings had brought about a state of uncertainty that might prove a cause of weak-

ness. Under the pressure of national exigencies that were apparent to all thoughtful minds, French literature in 1911 was mainly inspired by the attempt, which has been justified by the facts, to assure the future of the threatened country, to make readers acquainted with the strenuous life and the fundamental principles of the social and moral worlds. Il. THE

POST-WAR

GENERATION

This preoccupation with analysis is found in a series of works

The War abruptly ended the literary careers of many young men, who were killed on the field of battle, men who in all branches of literary activity gave high promise—novelists like Alain Fournier and Emile Clermont, poets like Paul Drouot and J. M. Bernard, essayists hike Dufresnoy and Pierre Gilbert. But with those who survived it and had passed through its fires it only stimulated the desire for expression. During the course of the War there appeared aseries of brilliant books of diverse character, but sincere and passionate, retracing the heroic

years.

It is impossible to mention all, but we must at least set

down here Le senge (1922), by Henry de Montherlant; Les croix de bois (1919), by Roland Dorgelés; Le feu (1916), by Henri Barbusse; La flamme au poing (1917), by H. Malherbe; Gaspard (1916), by René Benjamin; Civilisation (1918) and La vie des martyrs (1917), by Georges Duhamel; Sous Verdun (1916), by Maurice Genevoix; La guerre à vingt ans (1924), by Philippe Barrès; Fond de Cantine (1920), by Pierre Drieu la Rochelle, and Les récits de guerre dits à une femme, by Camille Mayran. None of these books pretends to give a summary or to describe the whole of the War. It will be a long time before these great events will find their poet to synthesise and express them; Bonaparte had to wait for Victor Hugo. But all these works powerfully represent direct impressions and strong emotions; they have a meaning, and our grandchildren will find in them one day a sincerely moving record of a period that was shaken by a terrible storm. This interesting and noble outburst necessarily faded as the events moved further away. The current of life which had been interrupted for four years took up its course again. All countries had to repair the consequences of the conflict. New problems arose. Difficulties mounted. The combined effect of all these causes was that there was no longer a collective effort. Everyone returned to his own preoccupations, to the world of his own

imagination and fancy. More or less indifferent to the heritage of their elders, the young writers appeared to be under the impression of existing in a new world where they had to recreate everything. But nevertheless they remained under the influence

of the past, sometimes without suspecting it themselves.

They

discovered, by the very fact that they lived in a predetermined

epoch, the result of the labours of their elders. Tendencies, varieties of talent and aspirations are very diverse. There is little unity in the literature of the younger gencration. Everyone follows the inclinations of his own temperament. The situation viewed as a whole gives the impression of a melting pot in which everything is in a state of fusion but out of which one day something new and unforeseen will spring. Let us try, in so far as we can to-day, to discern what this may be.

The dominating form in modern literature is always the novel, and it will serve as a type. It is not distinctively, in spite of the definition, a narrative representing life, but often consists of recollections like a book of memoirs or of reflections like a book of essays. The strongest influence to appear has been that of Marcel Proust (1873-1923). According to the date of his birth he belongs to the pre-War generation; but one finds that his work appeared almost entirely during or since the War.

Only the first volume of his great novel A la recherche du temps perdu, namely Du cété de Chez Swann, had appeared by the end of the year 1913. All the others appeared in sequence down

to 1925.

of his analysis. Gifted with an acute, morbid sensitivity, he probed deeply into the motives of the heart and soul. With an extraordinary delicacy and detail, he succeeded in expressing new and original nuances of thought in sinuous and often interminable sentences. The bold analysis of the emotions in French literature had begun some years before Marcel Proust; by Anatole France but with discretion, and later with more freedom by the female writers; but Marcel Proust has gone much further. He has carried the taste and feeling for introspection to the extreme limits. By this one can say he has enlarged the scope of the novel, and that is the reason for his great prestige and influence among post-War writers.

Marcel Proust is remarkable for the depth and daring

the most characteristic of which are: Jacques Riviére’s Aimée (1921), Jacques de Lacretelle’s Silbcrmann (1922) and La Bonifas (1925), and Drieu la Rochelle’s Etat civil (1921). In reality a gift as personal and exceptional as that of Marcel Proust encourages tendencies more than it provokes imitation. Psychological introspection is part of our period. It appeared in the course of the War more acutely and frequently than ever. Carried to the extreme, it has resulted in the formation of the super-realist (sur-réaliste) school, which in essentials existed already before the War, but which has been revivified by younger enthusiasts. The object of literature in the opinion of this school is to seize upon the pure thought itself, in its barely conscious stage. The outcome of this is a series of jottings, often obscure, or at least unintelligible according to the ordinary processes of the understanding, and a series of images which has certain associations with the art of the cinema and which neglects traditional logic. At this extreme point the work of analysis is entirely occupied with the subjective, and hardly takes into account at all the exterior world. Although there have been young men of talent like Aragon among the followers of this school, it has as yet produced no work which has touched the world outside the literary cliques. Those who appear to have the most individual temperaments have detached themselves from the group, like J. Cocteau (Thomas Vimposteur, 1923) and Drieu la Rochelle (Plainte contre inconnu, 1924), and they are little by little returning to the classical forms. This attempt has had, however, up to the time of writing one result :— it has rid literature of all trace of rhetoric. In spite of a marked tendency towards simplicity and brevity for many years, there still remained traces of a declamation whose origin went very far back. The prestige of the sublimities of Hugo and of de Michelet was very great, and it nourished a love of the phrase. With all its excesses, the development in the direction of sketchy notations, suppression of logical associations and extravagant simplification has been made at the cost of a classic and sober art. The writers who have been most successful in these last years escape any attempt at classification. Each follows his own temperament and inclination. Recourse to the past is necessary to distinguish influences, forerunners, schools. In contemporary literature the only thing that can be distinguished is the individual. The choir of voung poets protest their personal freedom (Tristan Deréme, Charles Derennes, Géraldy, Roger Allard, Chabaneix). The novelists do the same; M. Pierre Benoit is a master of the novel of adventure; he knows how to construct; he knows how to tell a story; and addressing himself to a public which, as after every period of upheaval, is in need of distraction, he has been able to captivate the attention in a series of well-made novels (/Coenigsmark, 1918; L’ Atlantide, 1919; Mile. de la Ferté, 1923; Le putts de Jacob, 1924)—in which he shows a remarkable facility in employing imaginary or historical events and in keeping the reader breathless with suspense over the turns of his stories. It is only necessary to recall Le kilométre 83, by Henry Daguerches (1913), to show that since before the War the taste for the novel of adventure had been revived. The influence of Anglo-Saxon literature, and particularly that of Kipling, had been a powerful stimulant in this development. The War naturally only accentuated this tendency. A proof of this is

FRENCH LITERATURE

115

found in the books of Pierre MacOrlan (La cavalière Elsa, 1921), (1924). He is less a novelist than an essayist. He has a peneof Louis Chadourne (Terre de Chanaan, 1921) of Jean d’ Esme trating, highly cultivated mind and loves the play of ideas; he (Les Barbères, 1925), of Roland Dorgelès (Le reveil des morts, excels in delicate analyses, in the nuances of the emotions and 1923), of René Bizet (La sirène hurle, 1921) and of J. Kessil in psychological insight. (La Steppe rouge, 1922, L’ Equipage, 1924). All of these appeared Valéry Larbaud is interested in the manifestations of the between 1918 and 1925. Actually, however, it does not seem international mind, and has written fascinating novels. Fermina that this form of literature is capable of much further develop- Marques is an original study of the life of young peoplerin South ment, except in the case of the exotic, historical or colonial American schools. Le journal d’? A.O. Barnabeoth, which folnovel. French literature is traditionally psychological. It is lowed, is a novel in which satire is mingled with poetic fancy. In characteristic that the best book of Pierre Benoit, the most it he amuses himself with drawing the life of a millionaire who = popular writer of novels of adventure, is a novel of manners, can see everything, buy everything, and almost do what he pleases, and yet is stifled with boredom and doubt, finding Mile. de la Ferté (1923). Francis Carco is a painter of the lower depths of society, of pleasure only in doing everything that runs counter to the conthe world of the apaches and of the outer boulevards. He deals, ventions of his social position. This story of the weariness of as did Francois Villon in his day, with the world of thieves. one of the inheritors of the earth is written with a vivacity He has handled this dificult subject with a great deal of tact which is one of the most curious characteristics of modern art. (Les innocents, 1916, L’homme traqué, 1g22, Perversiiés). Francis Paul Morand represents the impressionist school at its acme Carco is a true artist with a quick sensitivity. He has made a of success. His short stories Ouvert la nuit (1922), and his novel Lewis et Irène (1924) are certainly among the most entertaining study of those who take no count of laws nor of social conventions; he has caught human beings with all their passions and studies of the present time. Paul Morand has a keen feeling for all their energies. He has shown how they live beyond the law the feverishness and instability of contemporary life. He is also and current morality; how they have made their own laws, keenly aware of the international aspect of post-War cities—the created their own code of honour and conventions. There are mingling in all countries in the same places, restaurants and in his work many amusing, picturesque and curious scenes, but hotels of people belonging to every race and nation. He has there is more. He has analysed, often with profound sympathy, caught finally the clementary flashes which these cosmopolitans have in common by way of certain instincts and manifestations. these creatures of an outcast world and their imagination, His pictures are alive and chaotic. The author contents himdreams and miseries. self with incisive characterisations and brief formulas. He is Jean Giraudoux is also a subtle analyst. He has a capricious full of verbal coinages. He reduces the recital to the bare imagination and a very individual, if somewhat complicated, poetic manner, which makes him difficult reading; but he is pro- essential. There is something acrobatic and artificial in this art, but the feat is always successful and entertaining. vocative. There is in him much humour, often of an unexpected A great number of other writers and books should be added to kind, difficult to understand. The world of images has no secrets from him. Unusual comparisons and strange associations of this summary. There is much diversity of literary activity. ideas abound in his books. The most successful of these is Works like Les métiers blessés (1919), by Pierre Hamp, and Les entretiens dans le tumulte (1919) and La confession de minuit Suzanne et le Pacifique (1921), the story of a shipwrecked young (1920), by G. Duhamel, are a combination of social study and girl who lives alone on a desert island. She has to reorganise her meditation; others, like those of Jean Rostand (De la Vanité), life, and by a series of chances and deductions she discovers that revive the tradition of the writers of maxims and of the moralists; the War, of which she knew nothing when she left, is going on. Psychology in this book takes precedence over adventure, for others, like those of Alexandre Arnoux (La nuit de Saint Barthe author primarily wished to portray the reactions of an iso- nab), constitute in the form of a narrative an interesting attempt to represent material civilisation and to give a picture lated human being in face of the vast world. Henry de Montherlant is one of the most gifted among the of the modern industrial and mechanical world. The attempts at a revival of the theatre, undertaken by the young writers. He has a sense of style, and is capable of vigorous “ Théâtre du Vieux Colombier,” are continued chiefly by the mental activity. After Le Songe (1922) he wrote about Verdun, “ Atelier.” While plays with Deval and Natanson were rather and about sports (Les onze devant la porte dorée, 1924), books which disclose his national and moral preoccupations. He is psychological, with Zimmer rather sombre, with Marcel Achard rather fantastic, with Géraldy rather sentimental, the modern interested in the disciplines which make a human being master play is sketchy, containing little action, and above all else of himself, permit him to live under the best conditions, and designed to portray character. So it at least appears among give the greatest possible value to his acts. He is very modern, the last comers, J. J. Bernard, Obey, Amiel, Steve Passeur. and at the same time deeply attached to tradition; his works The construction is loose, without complications. The young are filled with youthful ardour, strength of will, and an impetudramatic authors seem to desire chiefly directness; they have no osity which express themselves in vivid and poetic language. ambition to uphold theses, and wish only to amuse and to proFrancois Mauriac is a harsh and powerful novelist. His books voke reflection. (Le baiser au lépreux, 1922, Genitrix, 1923, Le désert de lamour, This article does not pretend to give a complete survey of 1925) have placed him among the most notable writers of his present-day literature. It is being made, and there is no history generation. Brought up in the Catholic tradition and attached at present. All that is possible is to indicate general characto his faith, François Mauriac is aware both of the demands teristics; the appearance of men of talent may change everyimposed by a Christian life and of the weaknesses of most thing to-morrow; the appearance of a genius may accentuate human beings. All his work, which incidentally is open-minded, seems dominated by the idea of sin, by the necessary artifices in current tendencies or transform them. If one wished to sumwhich egotism and passion entangle human beings, by the marise the various comments which have been made, one might sav that literature in 1926 is still dominated by pre-War writers nothingness of their desires and the need for discipline. He After the activity which showed itself in the years 1918-20, it combines realism, austerity and even daring. Just as in cathedrals, where bold sculpture representing vice and demoniac in- seems there should have been a sort of fruition. Many talents spirations are adjacent to sacred arthitectural motives, so he with a certain ingenuity have been revealed, many young has put into his work scenes that are sordid enough, side by side writers with distinctive personal qualities have published their books: But no single work dominates recent years or seems with aspirations towards purity. André Maurois, who during the War was interpreter with the capable of exercising a determining influence. It is then towards the masters of yesterday, who are ‘still British Army, made his début with an impressionistic book, entitled Les silences du Colonel Bramble (1918), which had a living to-day (except Barrès and Marcel Proust) and who are great success.

He published in 1923 Ariel, ou la vie de Shelley,

which had great charm, and Des dialogues sur le Commandement

still exercising their influence, that little by little the younger men are turning their attention. The names of Paul Bourget,

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FREUD—FROHMAN

Maurice Barrés and Henri de Régnier, and those of Colette, Marcel Proust and Charles Maurras are dominating our period. Even when they know them only slightly or when they try to free themselves from them, the newcomers live in a society the ideas of which have in some way been fashioned by their elders. They breathe in air which is that of their time. One notices that the psychological analysis of Marcel Proust has strongly influenced some, that the impressionistic realism of Colette has attracted others, while the disciplines formulated by Bourget and Barrés form the mainstay of a great number. It is significant that a young writer like Drieu la Rochelle should leave his particular set and return to the Barrés tradition, and that after years of charming unconformity Jean Cocteau should entitle a book of essays, Rappel à ordre. Thus after a detour of ro years, violently disturbed by the War and its aftermaths, one can say that in 1925 French literature again took up the road which was foreshadowed in 1914. All the schools, after their trials and struggles, have achieved their work and have transmitted the best that was in them. The quarrels between romanticism and naturalism, betiveen the Parnassians and the Symbolists have come to an end. The opposition between scientific rationalism and the world of the spirit has become less acute. It was a long struggle, bearing witness to the vitality of literature; of all the doctrines nothing is left but the trace of whatever in them was useful and true. Present-day French literature seems to be going in the direction of a classic revival in which certain other elements are mingled. BrpirioGrapny.—G. Le Cardonnel and C. Vellay, La Littérature

contemporaine (1905); F. Strowski, Tableau de la Littérature francrise au XIX. stècle (1912); C. H. Le Goffic, La Littératiure frangatse au XIX. siècle, 2 vol. (1919, 1923); R. Canat, La Littérature française au XIX. siècle, 2 vol. (1921); R. Lalou, LWistotre de la Littérature contemporaine (1922, Eng. tr. 1925); C. M. J. Bédier and P. Hazard, [Tistotre de la littérature francaise tlustrée (the end of this history from page 281 onwards ts devoted to the literature of the present day), 2 vol. (1923-4); G. Lanson, /Zistotre tliustrée de la littérature francaise (the last chapter is devoted to the literature of the present day) (1923-4). Bernard Fay, Panorama de la littérature conlem poraine (1924). (A. CH.*)

FREUD, SIGMUND (1856}, Austrian physician and psychoanalyst, was born on May 6 1856, at Freiburg in Moravia, and studied medicine and psychology at Vienna, being strongly influenced by Briicke in the latter subject. After working in Paris under Charcot from 1885-6, he devoted himself, in co-operation with the Viennese physician, Josef Breuer, to the study of nerve cases. The results of their joint investigations were published in 1895 as Studien iiber Hysterie, expounding a new treatment, the

so-called catharsis. This consistéd in putting the patient in a hypnotic state, and the examination by the physician, while under this condition, of the forgotten original circumstances under which the symptoms first appeared. Subsequently Freud pursued a path of his own, and developed a special technique (see PsycHo ANALYSIS). The technique and the results of this research work are explained in Freud’s most important works: Die Traumdeutung, 6th ed. (1921); Zur Psychopathologte des Alltagslebens, 7th ed. (1920); Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie, 4th ed. (1920). Freud’s shorter works were collected in four volumes under the title, Kleinere Beiträge zur Neurosenlehre. Freud also published two general sketches of his theory: a shorter one, Fünf Vorlesungen iiber Psychoanalyse (delivered at Worcester, Mass., in r9g09) and a comprehensive one in Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse (1917). These medical-psychological studies yiclded surprising results in relation to other subjects, and in the possibilities of their adaptation in other branches of knowledge, e.g., mythology and the history of religion, civilisation and literature. The principal works in this connection are Totem und Tabu, 2nd ed. {1920}; Der Witz, 3rd ed. (1921); Eine Kindheitserinnerung: Leonardo da Vinci (1916); Jenseits des Lustprinzips (1920), Massenpsychologie und Ichanalyse (1921). Freud’s works have been translated into English. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—S. Freud, Collected Papers, authorised trans. under the supervision of Joan Riviére (1924, etc.); Fritz Wittels, Sigmund Freud, etc. Teeny S. A. Tannenbaum, The Psychology of Accidents, a critical analysis of Freud’s theories (1924); J. Laumonier, Le Freudisme (1925).

FREYCINET, CHARLES LOUIS DE SAULCES DE (1828-1923), French statesman (see 11.211) died in Paris May 14 1923. FRICK, HENRY CLAY (1849-1919), American manufacturer and philanthropist, was bornat West Overton, Pa., June17 1849. As a boy he was clerk for his grandfather, who was a distiller and flour merchant; but he early became interested in the coke business. In 1871 he organised the firm of Frick & Co., which ultimately acquired large coal deposits and ran 12,000 coke ovens.

He was chairman of the board of Carnegie Bros., from 1889 to 1892, and in the latter year, during the Homestead strike, was shot and stabbed by Alexander Berkman, an anarchist. He wasa director of the Pennsylvania, the Santa Fé and other railways, and of the U.S. Steel Corporation. He died in New York Dec. 2 1910. Besides large sums left to his family and friends, he left to the city of Pittsburgh land for a park, together with an endowment of $2,000,000. His New York mansion, with its collection of paintings, bronzes and enamels, he bequeathed to the city on the death of his wife, with an endowment of $15,000,000. He divided his residuary estate, estimated at $50,000,000, between various hospitals and educational and charitable institutions. The value of his New York mansion and its art collection was estimated in 1920, to be $50,000,000. Among the chief treasures are the Fragonard panels, Bellini’s “‘ St. Francis in the Desert,” Velasquez’ “ Philip IV.,”) Van Dyck’s ‘ Paola Adorno,” Rembrandt’s ‘‘ Portrait of Himself,’ Gainsborough’s ‘‘ The Mall,” and “The Hon. Anna Duncan.” It includes also fine examples of Titian, Vermeer, Frans Hals, Ruysdael, Cuyp, Rubens, El Greco, Goya, Sir Thomas Lawrence, Millet, Raeburn, Reynolds, Romney and Turner. FRIEDJUNG, HEINRICH (1851-10920), Austrian historian, was born at RoStin, Moravia, Jan. 18 1851 of Jewish parents. FriedJung spent much of his career in political journalism; he was a pronounced German nationalist, and the chief author of the nationalist Unser Programme of 1885. At the same time he devoted himself to historical research, especially over the period 1848-66, which he covered brilliantly and exhaustively in the three works Oesterreich von 1849-60 (1908-12); Der Krimkrieg und die oesterreichische Politik (1907); and Der Kampf um die Vorherrschaft in Deutschland, toth ed. (1917). His other chief works are the volume Historische Aufsätze (19190) and the monumental review of modern times Das Zeitalter des Imperiatismus (1919-22), which was finished by Professor A. F. Ptibram after Friedjung’s death in 1920. Friedjung was a conscientious and an attractive historian, whose works cover all aspects of life during the period with which they deal. The point of view expressed in them is, however, pronouncedly liberal, patriotic and anti-Catholic, and shows little sympathy for the Slav and Magyar nattonalist movements in the Dual Monarchy. His last excursion into politics was most unlucky, and undeservedly clouded his name; on March 24 1909 when the conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia over the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina was at its

height, he published an article in the Neue Freie Presse, accusing the Serbo-Croat politicians in the Monarchy of treasonable practices with the Government of Serbia, and violently attacking conditions in Serbia. Fifty-two deputies of the Croato-Serb coalition and their leader Supilo separately, sued Friedjung for libel. It was disclosed that Friedjung had received the documents on which his article was based from the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Office, that he had accepted them in good faith but after most insufficient scrutiny and that some at least were blatant forgeries. The affair ended at last in a compromise, but not until it had assumed the proportions of a European cause célébre. Friedjung died in Vienna July 14 1920. See Dr. R. W. Seton-Watson, The Southern Slav Question and the Habsburg Monarchy (London, 1911).

FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836-1917), German theologian (see 11.216), died in Munich, Aug. 19 1917. FROHMAN, CHARLES (1860-1915), American theatrical manager, was born at Sandusky, O., June 17 1860. At the age of 12 he started to work at night in the office of The New York

FRONTIERS,

BATTLES

Tribune, attending school by day. In 1874 he began work for The Daily Graphic. In 1877 he entered the theatrical business, being for a time associated with his brother Daniel in managing the Madison Square Theatre, New York. In 1890 he organised the Charles Frohman Stock Company. On Jan. 25 1893 he opened his Empire Theatre, New York. Other New York theatres with which he was at various times connected were the Criterion, Garrick, Knickerbocker, Lyceum and Savoy. He was an adept in developing talent. Among his successful players were Maude Adams, Ethel Barrymore, Blanche Bates, Billie Burke, William Gillette and Otis Skinner. During 1905-6 he presented E. H. Sothern and Julia Marlowe in Shakespearean plays. He was one of the organisers of the syndicate which for several years controlled the American theatres. Beginning in 1897 he presented many plays in London, leasing at different times such houses as the Duke of York’s, Globe, Comedy, Vaude-

ville and Adelphi.

He perished when the “ Lusitania” was sunk

by a German submarine May 7 1915. FRONTIERS, BATTLES OF THE.—The generic name of “ battles of the frontiers ” covers the whole of the actions fought at the opening of the World Warin Aug. 1914, on or near the French frontiers. For convenience these are here divided into six sections, each of which deals with a more or less distinct part of the series of operations. ‘These are: I. Early operations in Upper Alsace; II. First battles in Lorraine; IIL. Battle of the Ardennes; IV. Charleroi and Mons; V. Le Cateau; and VI. Guise.

I. EARLY OPERATIONS IN UPPER ALSACE At the beginning of the World War the French higher command was governed by two ideas. One was to avoid posing as the aggressors, and consequently the covering troops were withdrawn ro km. behind the frontier. The other idea was to plant the flag in the lost provinces as quickly as possible. Not only, therefore, were strategy and politics not in harmony, but politics contained a double element, the one pacific, the other aggressive. First French Advance.—Immediately on the order for mobilisation, an advance on Mulhouse was ordered. The offensive began on the morning of Aug. 7. Its start was promising. Mulhouse was reached and occupied in the evening of the 8th. The news of the approach of large German forces then became known. The French commander feared being caught in a trap, and after an eight-hour occupation the town was evacuated, a position in rear being occupied. During the evening of Aug. 9, the Germans attacked with superior force and drove back the French. The success was not followed up, since German supreme headquarters had prepared for a massed attack on Luxembourg and Belgium, which postulated a strict defensive in the south. The retreat from Mulhouse was likely to have a prejudicial effect upon the French. To counteract it Joffre formed a special Army of Alsace. Early on Aug. rọ the Germans in front of Mulhouse were attacked and defeated, and at 4 P.M., for the second time in a fortnight, the victorious French entered the town. But though fortune seemed here for the moment to smile upon the French, reverses elsewhere extended their influence to Alsace. Orders were issued for the break-up of the Army of Alsace and the dispersion of its units. Mulhouse was again evacuated on Aug. 25. The fortress of Belfort was thus exposed and open to hostile attack. Belfort and Dannemarie.—Belfort had two réles to play, the one permanent and foreseen, the other thrust upon it very early in the War. In the first place, the fortress was designed to close the gap existing between the Vosges and the Jura. It was a vitally important rôle, for if the Germans secured the gap they might penetrate into the heart of France. The other rôle was to form a pivot for the bending back of the whole French line, from the Swiss frontier to Belgium. A vast amount of work had been done during the preceding 40 years to convert the small fortress of 1870 into the immense stronghold of 1914. Much, however, remained to be completed. The completion of the task was necessarily impeded by the fighting in which part of the garrison was engaged during August. Nevertheless, by the time that the Army of Alsace was broken up the enormous undertaking was

achieved.

OF THE

117

The armament of the forts had been completed; nu-

merous batteries had been constructed and armed; centres of resistance had been organised; and inundations in front had strengthened the zone of defence. On the other hand, the German heavy artillery had introduced a new factor into war. The crushing of the resistance of Liége and Namur was disconcerting. By Aug. 25 there could be no

possible doubt that if the Germans were allowed to plant their guns § km. from the forts the heart of the place would be bombarded and the forts themselves smashed before the artillery of the defence could fire a shot. Furthermore, by Aug. 25 the Allies were withdrawing all along the line. Clearly the Germans might make a special effort to seize the pivot on which this withdrawal hinged. In these circumstances, and knowing that he had only his own resources to count upon, Gen. Thévenet, Governor of Belfort, decided not to await the enemy’s attack, but at once to assume the offensive. The plan was quickly put into operation. The offensive reconnaissances in front of the fortress began on Aug. 28, and from that date were pursued without interruption. So successful was the operation that by Sept. ro the advanced

guards were over the frontier and 11 m. from the fortress. Eight days later the headquarters of the 57th Div., whose daily reconnaissances had been carried on uninterruptedly in advance of its front, was transferred from TIoussemagne to Dannemarie. This transfer made a great impression in France, as also in Alsace, and had all the importance of a victory. It was indeed a considerable success, for the occupation of Dannemarie had been carried out with such precision and solidity that it had now to become definite. From Sept. 18 ror4 onward, the French flag

never ceased to fly over the little Alsatian town thus reconquered. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— French Ofħeial Reports, Review of the First Six Months (1915); Marshal Jolfre, rorg-15: Préparation et conduite (1920). (See also WorLD War: BIBLIOGRAPHY.) (F. E. W.*)

Il. FIRST

BATTLES

IN LORRAINE

The first French plan (General Instructions No. 1 of Aug. 8 1914) was purely offensive. It proposed to seek action with all forces united with the right on the Rhine. The two armies of Lorraine (I. and II.) were to lead, the I. in the direction of Saarburg, after having thrown back the German VII. Army towards Strasbourg and lower Alsace, while an isolated corps, the VH., would make a diversion to the east of the Vosges. The II. Army, covering itself from Metz, was to attack in the direction of Saarbriick, pivoting on the I. in the neighbourhood of Etangs. The two left corps were situated to the west of the Moselle, with a view to their eventual employment in the north.

Disposition of Forces.—In front of the J. and IT. Armies the Germans had approximately equal strength (VI. and VII. Armies). They would at first keep 1o the defensive, acting as a pivot to the huge wheel being made by their centre and right. The rapidity of the invasion of Belgium determined the French to hasten the operations in the cast in order to make a diversion. On Aug. 13, the I. Army had two corps on the Meurthe (VIII. and XIII.). Gen. Dubail, commanding the I. army, counted besides on the co-operation of the two right corps of the II. Army and on that of the XXI. Corps descending from the Vosges on his right. On Aug. 16 the II. Cavalry Corps was placed under his orders. The final concentration of the complete fighting force, however, could not be complete until the 18th. Nevertheless, the XII. and VIII. Corps moved on the 14th, and on the 15th entered Cirey and Blamont, pushing back the I. Bavarian Corps, which retired toward Saarburg. By the evening of the 17th the two French corps had reached the line Vasperveiller-Aspach-St. Georges, and the XAI. extended the line toward the Vosges. The I. Cavalry Corps had orders to go ahead on the 18th towards Saarburg, which was entered after a skirmish. The XXI. Corps pushed to the northcast as far as Walscheid; the XIII. held the heights north and east of Saarburg; the VIIL, marching on Heming, seized the passage of the Marne-Rhine Canal and entered Saarburg. The II. Cavalry Corps bivouacked toward Diane-Capelle, in liaison with

118

FRONTIERS, BATTLES OF THE

the II. Army, which had reached the line Bisping-Chateau Salins. The Germans held entrenched positions on a front of 40 m., from the neighbourhood of Dobbenheim to Biberkirch.

French Offensives—It was decided that the 1. Army should attack with its left northwest of Saarburg, its centre and right standing fast to repulse an eventual counter-attack in the Vosges. The II. Cavalry Corps was to move on Saar-Union in order to operate south of the Saar. On Aug. 19 the VIIL. Corps commenced the attack before dawn, gained the terrain northwest of Saarburg and repulsed a counter-attack. On the 2oth it resumed the offensive, but during the morning it became evident that it was incapable of opening a passage for the Cavalry Corps; indeed it was necessary to bring back a division on the canal with heavy losses. In the centre and on the right the French were more fortunate. The XXI. Corps met no resistance on the 19th, and the XIII. had not yet been engaged. On Aug. 20, the XXI. Corps, attacked by the German XIV. Corps, inflicted on it a serious check near Walscheid; the XIII. Corps, coming into line, attacked to the northeast of Saarburg, disengaging the right of the VIII. Corps, which held the town till nightfall. Dubail’s intention was to entrench on the front Kerprich-Soldatenkopf, and to undertake afterwards a methodical advance; but the check to the II. Army led Joffre to direct a retreat in Lorraine. On the morning of Aug. 21 the I. Army retired slowly towards Blamont. Afterwards it was necessary to accelerate the movement on account of the rapidity of the retreat of the II. Army. On the evening of the 23rd, the I. Army extended from Dames-aux-Bois to the Col du Bonhomme. It had suffered heavy losses, the casualties in the VIII. Corps amounting to more than 50 per cent. The offensive of the II. Army (de Castelnau) had been still less fortunate. On Aug. 14 the XVI. and XV. Corps moved in the direction of Avricourt, with the bulk of the XX., the remainder covering the front to the north. In the evening, it faced to the northeast on the high ground at Gondrexon, the XV. Corps alone having been stopped by the enemy at Moncourt. On the 1sth the advance was still checked by the condition of the XY. Corps, which had suffered heavily; the XVI. Corps reached Igney-Avricourt, the XX. Bezauge-la-Petite and Xanrey. The IX. Corps remained on the Grande Couronne east of Nancy and sent out detachments toward the northeast. On Aug. 16 the Germans continued their retreat and the French followed rapidly as far as Morhange, northwest of Donnelay. On the 17th the army was to swing round to the northwest toward Delme-Chateau Salins-Dieuze. The XVI. Corps progressed without difficulty; the XV. occupied Marsal, but could not bring its main body beyond the Seille; the XX. Corps, in

possession of Château Salins, reconnoitred toward the north. Rearguard fights only were expected, but on the 18th the XVI. Corps from the early morning met the enemy in strength. The German artillery held the XV. Corps in the valley of the Seille and prevented it from occupying Dieuze. The XVI. Corps had to fall back on Angviller, and only the XX. advanced to the north of Morville-les-Vic and Chateau Salins. In spite of the loss of the IX. Corps, sent to the IV. Army on Aug. 18, de Castelnau ordered for the roth the continuation of the offensive in the direction of Loudrefing, Bensdorf and Morhange. French Retreat: Aug. 19-20.—From the morning of Aug. 19 the XVI. Corps was stopped on the Salines canal; the XV. could not pass Zommange and Vergaville; and only the XX. could make a real advance, pushing a brigade as far as Morhange. The 68th Res. Div., which had relieved the [X. Corps, insufficiently covered the left of the XX. Corps. De Castelnau ordered for Aug. 20 a combined attack by the two other corps on the line CuttingDommon-Bassing; the XX. was to consolidate its positions, ready to march to the north or northeast. On the zoth the corps on the right, instead of progressing, was attacked and even thrown back. The XX. having attacked and not having improved its positions was stopped by de Castelnau, but the Germans, taking the offensive, threw the left back on Chateau Salins. The right followed this movement on Lidrequin and the 68th Div. resumed its position of the previous day. At 4 P.M. the gen-

eral ordered a retirement, which began during the night and continued through Aug. 21 under the protection of the XX. Corps and the 68th Division. In spite of the arrival of two new reserve divisions and the LI. Cavalry Corps, the I]. Army had to retire to the west of the Meurthe, the left toSt. Nicholas. To the north, three divisions held the Grande Couronne. French I. Army :Actton.—On Aug. 23, the I. Army commenced

a three weeks’ battle destined to stop the enemy and support the strongly attacked Il. Army. To effect this, it took the offensive on the 24th and 25th, while the II. Army threw back the Germans to the northeast. From the 28th to the arst the Germans stopped the advance of the I. Army, and their VI. and VII. Armies even aimed at forcing “ the gap of Charmes,” in such a manner as to carry out an enveloping movement to the west of the Vosges. This action was helped by ordering the X XI. Corps to take part in the battle of the Marne. From these circumstances there resulted a series of very confused fights extending over a large front between the Grande Couronne and the Vosges. On Sept. 6, the German VII. Army, facing Dubail, was broken up, divided between the VI. Army and the German right then engaged on the Ourcq against Gen. Maunoury. But Dubail's army was also enfeebled by the removal of the XIII. Corps to the west of the Oise; and at the same time the II. Army lost to the west the 18th Div. and the XV. Corps. Evidently both sides had given up the idea of striking seriously in Lorraine. After having gloriously held its positions to the east of Nancy and on the Meurthe, the II. Army was itself to be broken up, to be reconstituted on the left of the French Armies in the “ race to the sea.” œ Thus, after checks resulting from an inopportune offensive, the I. and II. Armies had been first able to stop the German progress; then to throw the enemy back to the frontier. Moreover, their merit was all the greater since they had been constantly weakened by the withdrawal of their best units. During the battle of the Marne they provided the unshakable pivot of the vast movement undertaken by the Allics. It was thanks to their efforts that that movement succeeded. But they had paid the price. A single reserve division between Aug. 24 and Sept. 12 lost 140 officers and more than 5,000 men. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Carnet d’un officier de dragons, La Victotre de Lorraine (1915); R. Christian-Frogé, Morhange et les Marsonins en Lorraine (1917). (See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY.) (B. E. P.)

HI. BATTLE OF THE ARDENNES On the outbreak of the World War, the III., IV. and V. French Armies concentrated towards the frontier, west of the Meuse, covered by the VI. Corps in front of Verdun, and the II. Corps in front of Stenay. On hearing of the German attack on Liége, Gen. Joffre decided to post the V. Army (Gen. Lanrezac) toward the Sambre and to direct the IV. Army, which he had grouped between Vitry-le-Francais and Sainte-Menehould, in the region of Stenay. The concentration, which had scarcely begun on Aug. 8, was nearly finished on the 14th. Until the commander-in-chief had all his forces at hand, no one was allowed to be drawn into an important action. The German high command had made a similar decision, hence the battle of the Ardennes was the “ battle of the two blind men.” However, on Aug. 10, a German mixed brigade arrived near Mangiennes and was launched into a mad frontal attack against the advanced posts of the IV. Corps (III. Army). While all its attention was taken up with the attack in front, a

brigade of the II. Corps (under Gen. Cordonnier, IV. Army) took it in the rear, and the German brigade was destroyed. After

this adventure, no German force made any further attempt against the French covering troops. French Plan of Attack.—The German plan of operations placed the V. Army between Thionville and Tintigny, the IV. between Tintigny and the Meuse de Dinant,! the III. Army between Dinant and the Sambre, the II. on the Sambre and the I. in the neighbourhood of Mons. The ITI. Army was still in the l Name given to the Meuse between Mezié¢res and Namur.

FRONTIERS, BATTLES OF THE Ardennes behind the IV. and the I. Army was hastening towards Brussels and Antwerp, when on Aug. 22 Joffre decided to attack. It was certainly a strategic success to bring about a battle with all his forces in the Ardennes, while the German III. Army was unable to take part in it. Joffre had disposed his IIT. and IV. Armies in échelon, the left in front, so that he could face the north or east as he wished. On Aug. 16 he decided to attack towards the north with these two armies forming a rigid block, while the 7th Cavalry Div. reconnoitred towards Thionville, and the 4th and oth Cavalry Divs. to the north towards the Meuse. The result was that in front, and almost everywhere, the Army Corps had only weak and insufficient cavalry for reconnoitring purposes. The liaison between the two armies was to be kept on the axis Marville-Virton-Etalle. During the night of Aug. 20-1 the whole block moved forward. The only instructions given by G.H.Q. were “ to attack the enemy wherever met.” G.H.Q. estimated that the IV. Army would have almost nothing in front of it, and yet it was precisely there that the Germans had their IV. and III. Armies, the II. being behind the IV. The Lorraine Army, which consisted of the reserve divisions, groups under Gens. Pol Durand and de Lamaze, was placed under the command of Gen. Maunoury with orders to defend the Hauts de Meuse, or eventually, in the event of the advance of the IIT. Army, to besiege Metz and Thionville. These reserve divisions were mobilised after the active forces, the men were elderly, they had few officers, and their staffs were inexperienced, so that the ITI. Army could get little help from them. On the evening of Aug. 21, after a long period, during which only patrols had been encountered, the block arrived on the line Conz-Lagranville (VI. Corps), Tellancourt (V. Corps), Virton (IV. Corps). At Virton the IV. Corps tried to get in touch with the II., which formed the right of the IV. Army. The line of battle continued by Villers-la-Loue (II. Corps), Geronville (Colonial Corps), Florenville (XII. Corps) and the Semoy (XVII. and XI. Corps). The IX Corps had just arrived from the neigh-

bourhood of Nancy with the 17th Div. (Dumas); the Moroccan Div. (Humbert) was not yet in Hne. The IV. Army (de Langle de Cary) was to push on towards the north, while the IIT. Army was to cover from the divisions, entire on

the right of the IV. Army against any attack coming north or east. Everywhere the advance was made in except in the case of the II. Corps, which marched a single road. On Aug. 22, all the columns started in a fog at a very early hour for a long march with the idea of “ attacking the enemy wherever met.” Tomarch quickly rather than to take precautions was the order of the day and almost everywhere the presence of the Germans was only discovered by receiving shell fire. In the III. Army, the V. Corps sent its infantry to the attack without the support of artillery, and it suffered such terrible losses that the leaders became completely unnerved, and Gen. Grossetti, chief of the stafi, had to intervene to prevent a precipitate retreat. In the lV. Army the Colonial Corps exposed a division in column-of-route to the German guns. The XVII. Corps also suffered from a sanguinary surprise. But the most serious danger arose on the right wing of the IV. Army, uncovered by the premature check of the IV. Corps at Virton; and on the right wing of the III. Army, which was not covered either by the 7th Cavalry Div. or the Pol Durand group of divisions. Fortunately the II. Corps was in a single column so that the rear division was able to make up for the absence of the IV. Corps. On the right of the III. Army there was a leader, Gen. Hache, who with his heroic division gained the necessary time for the other divisions to fall back. The Germans did not exploit their tactical success, but remained practically stationary in their positions. This battle of the Ardennes taught the French the necessity for co-operation of all arms in the field of battle. Battle of the Meuse —On Aug. 23, 24 and 25 the III. and IV. Armies retired slowly without being disturbed. On the evening

of Aug. 23 the front of the [¥V. Army was the line Montherme (Meuse)-Montmédy; and that of the HI. Army MontmédySpincourt. On Aug. 24 they were a little farther to the rear, but

IIQ

not pushed by the Germans. A German staf commander, killed in his motor in front of Avioth, was found to have on him the orders given to the German IV. Army for the forcing of the Chiers and Meuse crossings on Aug. 26 and 27. The III. Army had obtained in a similar way information to the effect that the German 33rd Div. was to leave Metz and attack at Etain. A trap was set, but the Lorraine Army (reserve troops) was not equal to the task and the Germans escaped. Lorraine Aymy Dissolved—On the morning of Aug. 25, the right of the [V. Army retired between the Chiers and the Meuse; the III. Army also approached the Meuse facing eastwards. Thus the two armies practically became one, and it is regrettable that from this time they were not placed under one leader. On the same day, the IV. Corps (III. Army) suffered a severe check at Marville and they feared they would lose their corps artillery, but the II. Corps came to their assistance and convoyed this artillery to Stenay, where they crossed the Meuse. This shows how intimate was the co-operation between the two armies. It was on Aug. 25 also that Joffre gave the first orders which contained the real beginnings of the battle of the Marne. He decided to reinforce the left of the Allied Armies and to lose ground in order to gain the necessary time for his strategic plans. The Lorraine Army was dissolved; the Pol Durand group was to defend the Hauts-de-Meuse; Verdun and Toul were to have their respective mobile forces returned to them; the 55th and 56th Divs. were entrained for Montdidier. Gen. Maunoury had in these two divisions the nucleus of that VI. Army which appeared on the Ourcq and determined the victory of the Marne. On the morning of Aug. 26 the entire 1V. Army was on the left bank of the Meuse, protected on its left flank by the IX. Corps and the 4th and gth Cavalry Divs. between MeziéresRocroi and Signy-l Abbaye, and forming the connection between the IV. and V. Armies. On its right flank it was in immediate contact with the IH. Army, which was concentrated on

the left bank of the Meuse with the exception of the 42nd Division. So much feared was the envelopment of the II]. Army’s right, that the 7th Cavalry Div. was sent to the rear to Dombasle, between Verdun and Clermont, as if an extensive enemy movement was expected to take place south of Verdun. The III. Army took no part in the battle of the Meuse; its 7th Div. was summoned to Beauclair in order to help the II. Corps on Aug. 27, but it was not engaged. On the same day the 42nd Div. was taken from the III. Army, reached Varennes, and then served as part of Foch’s Army. Defence of the Mfeuse-—On Aug. 26, the orders for the IV. Army ran: “‘ From to-morrow the IV. Army will fight a decisive battle on the Meuse. . . . The corps will make every effort to prevent any attempt of the enemy to cross the river.” Generally speaking, the IV. Army was some distance from the left bank. Its object was to carry out vigorous counter-attacks against German infantry who had passed the river before its artillery could come to its support. The Colonial Corps was somewhat driven back by the Germans, who had crossed the Meuse at Inor and Pouilly, but the arrival of reinforcements from the II. Corps soon checked this. The struggle was severe on the whole front. On the right wing the II. Corps had decided successes, three times throwing the Germans back into the river at Cesse and Luzy. On the left wing, the success was still more matked. There the XI. Corps, reinforced by the 52nd and 6oth Res. Divs., gained the battle of la Marfée. The German 16th Div., making the same mistake as did the French at the battle of the Ardennes, advanced in massed formation without artillery support and were crushed, leaving in French hands the flag of the 68th Prussian Regiment. On the evening of Aug, 27 Gen. de Langle de Cary gave the following order: “‘ At all costs the Germans must be thrown back into the river Meuse. The successes gained by the offensive today make us hopeful that to-morrow will be equally successful.” However, Aug. 28 was not so active as the previous day; the Germans scarcely attacked at all, and the orders given by Joffre for the coming retirement to the Aisne kept the IV. Army to its ground. On Aug. 28 Gen. de Langle de Cary, in a general order,

120

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said: ‘‘ The army inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, yesterday and to-day. It returns to the Aisne line, in accordance with orders received, to prepare for the offensive in a new direction.” On the 29th the movements towards the Aisne commenced—the battle of the Meuse was ended. The French IV. Army had beaten the German IV. Army—a victory without a to-morrow, but certainly a victory. Battle of Signy-l Abbaye-—The French V. Army, having been beaten by the German II. Army on Aug. 22 and 23, had to retreat, leaving a gap 25 m. wide between the IV. and V. Armies. The Germans poured into this open space. The only known units were the advanced troops of the XII. Corps—it was really the III. Army commanded by Von Hausen. Gen. Dubois was ordered to fill up this gap and to cover the left of the IV. Army, and was given command of the IX. Corps, composed of the 17th Div. (Dumas), the Moroccan Div. (Humbert), and the oth Cavalry Div. (de l’Espée). The 4th Cavalry Div. had been given up to the V. Army. Two roads led to the region occupied by the Germansat Rethel. Theroad Meziéres-Rethel was barred by the 17th Div.and the 9th Cavalry Div. at Guignicourt, the road from Rocroi to Rethel by the Moroccan Div. at Signy l'Abbaye Launois. On Aug. 28, the 17th Div., hearing the guns from la Marfée, had its attention drawn in that direction. On the same day, at 3 A.M., the advanced posts of the Moroccan Div. were attacked by the XII. (Saxon) Corps. At 11 a.M. the Moroccan Div. was turned in the west by the enemy, who seized Signy PAbbaye and so opened up the way to Rethel. But the Germans did not exploit their success and allowed themselves to be checked at Novion-Porcien. The battle manoeuvres lasted through Aug. 29 and 30. Dubois, by clever movements, brought his forces to the north of Rethel, having thus accomplished his difficult mission. Again German strategy had not made the best use of its superior strength. BIBLIOGRAPIIY.—Belgian Army, Official Reports, La Guerre de 1914 (1915); A. von Kluck, Der Marsch auf Paris und die MarneSchlacht (1914): G. Hanotaux, Histoire illustrée de la Guerre de 1914 (1923). See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY. (V. L. E. C.)

IV. CHARLEROI AND MONS Charleroi and Mons are the names given to the battles fought by the French V. Army and the British Army respectively in the latter part of Aug. 1914, against the right and right centre of the Germans. The French Position.—Inasmuch as the British did not come up intoline until Aug. 22, it will be necessary to deal with the purely French situation first. Germany had declared war on France on Aug. 2 and the right wing had crossed the Belgian frontier on the sth. By Aug. 20 1914 the forward movement of the German right-wing armies into Belgium, and the failure of the oifensive of the French I. and lII. Armies, had caused a modification in Gen. Joffre’s original plan of campaign. Broadly speaking the intention now was to attack through Luxembourg and Belgian Luxembourg with the object of threatening the communications of such German forces as had crossed the Meuse between Namur and the Dutch frontier. This duty devolved primarily on the JIT. and IV.—i.e., the centre—Armies of the [rench. In the south the I. and II. Armies were to make a secondary offensive between Metz and the Vosges to hold the enemy, who might otherwise be able to take in flank the French advancing through Luxembourg; and the French V. Army and the British Army were to act upon the offensive, though this offensive would depend almost entirely on success by the III. and IV. Armies to their right. On the evening of Aug. 20 the French V. Army was either actually within, or entering, the area bounded by the river Sambre on the north and the river Meuse on the east. The junction of these two rivers formed a very marked salient; but so far from being a point of weakness this locality was at the moment of great strength. It was sealed by the strong Belgian fortress of Namur which was to be the pivot of an Allied right wheel in the projected offensive. On the zoth there arrived from

OF THE

G.H.Q. the orders for Gen. Joffre’s new offensive.

The orders

were to the effect that all information pointed to the intention of the Germans to carry out an outflanking movement in the north. The French III. and IV. Armies had been ordered to march against the line Neufchaéteau-Arlon. As for the V. Army,

its task was to pivot on Namur and the Meuse, and to seek out the main enemy mass in the north. On the left of the V. Army the British Army would advance towards Soignies in the direction of Nivelles. British Expeditionary Force.—-When England declared war on Germany during the night of Aug. 4-5 her forces available to take the field consisted of a cavalry division, six infantry divisions and some battalions of line-of-communication troops, the whole forming the Expeditionary Force for service overseas. The Govt. decided to retain two divisions temporarily in the United Kingdom and to transport the rest of the Expeditionary Force to France. The first ships sailed on Aug. g and, thanks to the perfection of the arrangements for mobilisation and transportation, the operation was completed without a hitch by Aug. 18. Sir John French, the British commander-in-chief, had reached his headquarters at Le Cateau on the previous day; and his army consisted of the I. Corps (ist and 2nd Divs.), Lt.-Gen. Sir Douglas Haig; II. Corps (3rd and sth Divs.), Lt.-Gen. Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien; and the cavalry division under Maj.-Gen. Allenby, as well as line-of-communication troops. Concentration was completed by the zoth, south of Maubeuge; and the post assigned to the British was on the left of the French V. Army, preparatory to the advance north of the Sambre towards Soignies referred to above. While his army was concentrating, Sir John French visited Gen. Joffre at Vitry-lc-Francois on the 16th and discussed possible allernatives of action depending on information of the enemy’s plans and dispositions. The main intention was, however, to attack. Next day, French visited Gen. Lanrezac at Rethel and there conferred with the commander of the V. Army. Lanrezac considered that it was not possible to carry out at once the order to attack, so far as it affected his V. Army. The whole of his troops had not yet come to hand. Then it had to be borne in mind that the British had not yet come up on the left, and that the action of the V. Army would also depend upon the success of the French JV. Army on the right. Lanrezac therefore confined himself for the moment to Issuing orders for the occu-

pation of a defensive position by the X. and III. Corps, south of the Sambre. German Offensive Plan.—On this same day (Aug. 20), on the side of the Germans, a combined attack had been arranged in which the II. and III. Armies were simultaneously to attack the French V. Army, from the north and east respectively. The German I. and II. Armies were to close up to the line reached on that day, and an offensive against the enemy west of Namur was to be carried out in co-operation with an attack by the III. Army against the line of the Meuse between Meuse and Givet, details being left for decision by the Army headquarters concerned. As regards the British, the German Intelligence Dept. was woelully at fault, for it was stated that a “ disembarkation of the British forces at Boulogre and the neighbourhood must be taken into account. It is the opinion here, however, that a landing on a large scale has not yet taken place.” At the time, two-thirds of the British force was within 30 m. of Gen. von Biilow. During the day the Germans attacked the French detachments on the Sambre. The events of the day had resulted in dislocating Lanrezac’s preparations for the offensive, and at 12:30 P.M. he wrote to Joffre as follows: ‘‘ I consider it dan gerous to let the V. Army cross the Sambre during the 22nd, minus, on the one hand, the I. Corps, which must hold the Meuse until the IV. Army has made sufficient progress north of Semoy, and minus, on the other hand, the English who on the 22nd will not be able to get farther than Mons.” During the evening a reply came from Joffre to say that Lanrezac could choose his own time for the offensive, and he accordingly decided that it would be launched on the twenty-third.

FRONTIERS,

BATTLES

Early on the 22nd, fighting was resumed all along the French front on the Sambre. The X. Corps was forced back, and during the afternoon the road from Fosse to St. Gerard was crowded with artillery, infantry and transport moving southward. Fosse was occupied by the Germans about 8 p.m. Farther west the III. Corps had likewise to give ground. Severe fighting took place early in the afternoon round Chatelet, and both divisions had to retire, the 5th toward Tarcienne and the 6th to Nalinnes.

By r r. the IIL. Corps had definitely to renounce its grip on the southern outskirts of Charleroi. As for the XVIII. Corps, it came upon the field, but was south of the Sambre between Thuin and Malines instead of being, as Lanrezac had hoped, on the Mons-Charleroi road in touch with the British. The Cavalry Corps of Gen. Sordet had fallen back during the night to Solre, and in the afternoon was

sent to guard the crossings from Jeumont to Thuin, and also to hold the cross-roads at Merbes Ste. Marie on the far side of the river. The night march following on long and arduous work in Belgium had been fatiguing to the horses, and the cavalry corps was in need of rest. Joffre had prescribed that it was to move to the British left, but Lanrezac considered that it was not in a fit state to move until the twenty-third. It was not, however, until the evening of Aug. 25 that it arrived behind the left flank of the British. To Lanrezac on the evening of the 22nd, the situation of the V. Army seemed grave, but by no means desperate. Only two of his corps, the X. and HI., had been engaged, and if these had

suffered heavily they had also made the enemy pay the price. Withdrawn to more open terrain, where their artillery could render better support, they could re-form and, so he hoped, in their turn take the offensive. Further, the I. Corps was intact and now becoming available on the right, as was also the XVIII. Corps on the other flank; and the reserve divisions of Gen. Valabregue were coming up to support it. The British were now arriving in position on the left, round Mons. In one way Lanrezac was much more fortunate than he knew. Von Biilow had attacked prematurely by forcing the Sambre on the 22nd instead of waiting for the attack of the III. Army against the Namur-

OF THE

I2I

which the battle of Mons was fought—the general situation of French and British was as follows: The French V. Army faced in two directions, east and north. The I. Corps was on or behind

the Meuse, where all bridges had been destroyed except those at Dinant and Hastiére. The X. Corps had its right on the high ground south of Fosse and Vitrivel, its left at Scry. The III. Corps (reinforced by a brigade from the XVIII. Corps) was deployed on the line Gerpinnes-Nalinnes-Claquedent. The XVIIL Corps was oun the line Ham-Thuin, with detachments on the Sambre as far as Merbes-le-Château. The French Cavalry Corps was holding the passages of the Sambre from the left of the XVIII. Corps to Maubeuge. The 53rd and 60th Reserve Divs. (Gen. Valabregue) were about Solre le Château, and were to relieve the Cavalry Corps, which was to make for Maubeuge with the object of emerging eventually on the left flank of the British Army. The British right flank was north of the Sambre between Erquelinne and Peissant. From here was the I. Corps—looking northeast—with its left near Mons. In front of the line, about Binche, was the 5th Cavalry Bde., which was subsequently withdrawn. The II. Corps carried on this line, from and including Mons, west of which there was a French division of territorials. The main body of the cavalry was in rear of the British left. In this position of the theatre of war the I., II and ITI. German Armies were concerned. The German plan had been that the II. Army was to attack south across the Sambre, while the ILI. Army was to co-operate by attacking west across the Meuse, sending a strong force across the Meuse towards Rocroi to bar the French line of retreat. During Aug. 23, the ]. Army (von Kluck) was to conform to this offensive movement. Gen.

von Bülow had, however, made the mistake of attacking prematurely with his II. Army; the combined movement with the III. Army was unsuccessful, and consequently the trend of the fighting drifted westwards to where the advanced guards of

the I. Army were coming into contact with the British on the Mons-Condé canal. Battle ef Charlerot.—In his published account of the battle of Charleroi, Lanrezac divides it into two distinct phases, the first Givet section of the Meuse to take effect, and the retirement of from daybreak until 4 P.M., and the second from that hour until the V. Army during the 22nd had seriously discounted the German nightfall. In the first phase the course of the battle was as folchances of enveloping it. lows: The right wing of the X. Corps was driven back, and it reThe British Army in Position —The British Army had pracformed between Scry and St. Gerard; the I. Corps deployed on tically completed its concentration on Aug. 21 and on the the high ground round St. Gerard with its right about Sartfollowing day took up a position from Condé to Mons and St. Laurent. This operation was completed about midday, and thence southwest of that town, so as to be able to co-operate the I. Corps was then well placed to act against the flank of the in the forward movement, pivoting on Namur, as ordered by German Guard Corps, which was then attacking the X. Corps Jolfre. As a matter of fact Namur had been attacked by the sharply. Gen. Franchet d’Espérey, commanding the I. Corps, Germans and during this day was in extremis. This fact was, instantly resolved to seize the opportunity and to attack «i however, unknown to French, who motored early in the morning fond. Ilis artillery prepared the way by an intense fire, and the from his headquarters at Le Cateau to visit Lanrezac at Phil- Germans, apparently taken by surprise, suspended their attack ippeville. To his dismay French, on entering the arca of the to deal with this new danger. French V. Army, witnessed columns of infantry and artillery It was now about r P.M. and Franchet d’Espérey was about moving south. A British haison officer reported that the Germans to launch his infantry when disquieting news reached him from had forced the passage of the Sambre and were also making a his right rear. The 51st Reserve Div., which had relieved the wide turning movement through Belgium. | I. Corps on the Meuse, had failed in its task, and had allowed French at once decided to give up the attempt to find Lantroops of the German III. Army to cross the river. The report rezac and returned to Le Cateau. From there he despatched a went on to say that the reserve battalions had fallen back in message to Lanrezac to say that he was waiting for the French disorder and that a detachment of the enemy had occupied Cavalry Corps to be posted on his left, as had been promised, and Onhaye behind the V. Army. Franchet d’Espérey had no althat he was prepared to fill the rôle allotted to him when the ternative but to suspend his attack and to send a division and a V. Army advanced to the attack. He also pointed out that his brigade to deal with the peril behind. Emboldened by the enposition was much in advance of the line now held by that army forced inaction of the French, the Guard Corps again pressed on, and hinted that although prepared to carry out his rôle he could its artillery maintaining a very severe fire. The French X. Corps not begin to do so until the French V. Army should recover and the fraction left of the I. Corps resisted energetically, with some of the ground already lost. Late at night a French staff the result that in this portion of the field but little ground was officer from Lanrezac’s headquarters confirmed the news of the lost, and connection was still maintained with the fortress of fighting which French had heard of during the day and asked if Namur. French, by striking at the right flank of the German columns, While such was the state of affairs on the right wing, little could thus relieve the pressure on the V. Army. The British was, in this first phase, taking place on the left wing. But after commander-in-chief considered that this was quite impracticable 4 P.M. a change for the worse set in, in that portion of the field. but agreed to hold on to his position for 24 hours. The left wing of the ITT. Corps was taken by surprise and driven Situation on Aug. 23.—On the morning of Aug. 23—the day on back by a sharp attack, with the result that the whole III. Corps

[22

FRONTIERS,

BATTLES

OF THE

Peissant. The cavalry division was in rear of the British left, except the sth Cavalry Bde., which was posted in advance of the right flank, but later withdrawn. The British position was thus in shape somewhat like a broad arrow, with the two army corps practically at right angles to one another and facing, generally speaking, north and northeast respectively. As matters turned out, the German attack was directed almost entirely against the II. Corps, and here on the left the situation was not unfavourable to the British, for the canal made a valuable defensive line, while the terrain on the farther side held numerous difficulties for the attackers. Muddy ditches and barbed-wire fences impeded their movement, although, on the other hand, groups of trees and bushes gave cover from view and were of service for the enemy’s machine-guns. South of the canal the crests of the high ground afforded the British useful sites for artillery, but the slag heaps of the numerous mines limited observation to some extent. The line of the canal, however, had one very disadvantageous feature: after running from Condé to Mons in a mathematically straight line, it forms a loop round Mons, thus constituting a marked salient. Such a position might easily be found to be untenable, and Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien had prepared another and more defensible line in rear running through Frameries-Paturages-WasmesBoussu. When day broke on Aug. 23 Von Kluck had three active corps and Von Biilow one, or about 150,000 men and 600 guns, within striking distance of the British force of some 75,000 men and 300 guns. The German I. Army was to march in a southeasterly direction. The British II. Corps on the Mons canal was facing north. Consequently the left of Von Kluck’s army must collide with the II. Corps in the neighbourhood of Mons. As a matter of fact the German commander was in ignorance of the position of the British force. The march of the German I. Army, on the 23rd, was therefore shrouded in the fog of war, and, quite early in the day, delay was caused by a report that Tournai was held by British troops. These were actually two French territorial battalions, but, under the impression that they were British, orders were sent to the IV., IHI. and IX. Corps to halt on the Leuze-Mons-Binche road, in view of the possibility that it might be necessary to make a wheel to the right so as to envelop Tournai. Later reports showed that the British were in strength on the canal, and that the troops at Tournai, now known to be French, had retired toward Lille. The advance of the German J. Army was therefore resumed. But the orders for this resump-

fell back in confusion, while the XVIII. Corps, with its right now uncovered by the retirement of the III. Corps, was forced to withdraw to the stream which runs from Thuilles to Thuin. The reserve divisions of Gen. Valabregue, however, had come up to Bousignies and Thirlemont. On the right wing, in this second phase of the battle, the X. Corps had been forced to admit a loss of ground, but it was only slight. As for the I. Corps, the portion left at St. Gerard was holding its ground. During Aug. 23 Gen. Franchet d'Espérey had been called upon to deal with the presence of a detachment of the German III. Army which had forced its way over the river. Some sharp fighting took place, and about ro P.M. the French infantry carried Onhaye with the bayonet. This attack by the French came upon the Germans somewhat by surprise, and the units of the III. Army on the right bank of the Meuse were in consequence retained there for the moment. At the end of Aug. 23 Lanrezac came to the conclusion that immediate retreat was called for on the part of the V. Army. The chief causes of his decision are given by himself as follows: In the first place he had learnt definitely that the offensive of the IV. Army had failed and that the beaten troops were falling back to the Meuse with the left of the army on Mézicres. The line of the river between that place and Givet was guarded by but a few battalions of reserve troops. The rear of the V. Army was thus threatened once again. In the second place Namur had fallen; in addition the roads on the right flank of the V. Army, already encumbered with thousands of civilian refugees, would be further blocked by the retreating Belgian troops from the fortress. Thirdly, the British Army was checked, and would in all probability be compelled to retire. Lanrezac, therefore, issued orders for the V. Army to retire on Aug. 24 to the line GivetPhilippeville-Beaumont-Maubeuge. Lanrezac’s statement that his action was in part due to the conviction that the British would be forced to retire is a variant upon a previously held French opinion that such retirement actually preceded the retreat from Charleroi. How far both these statements are from the truth will now be seen. The Battle of Mons.—The British position in detail was as follows: On the extreme left, about Condé, was the British roth Bde., made up of battalions of line-of-communication troops in touch with a French division of territorials. Then came the 5th Div., while next on the right was the 3rd Div., holding a salient round Mons as far southeast as Villers St. Ghislain. The line was continued by the British I. Corps farther southeastwards to

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FRONTIERS, BATTLES tion of the march were late in reaching with results that reacted on the German The left column of Von Kluck’s army IX. Corps, and its march was directed and Villers St. Ghislain. On the British

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and IV. Corps, in the battle. 17th Div. of the St. Symphorien I. Corps was on

the line, generally, Harmignies-Peissant, and as it faced a gap

between the German I. and II. Armies its share in the battle of Mons was destined to be very small. It was shelled by German artillery, covered in its advance by the 16th Dragoons, but the British casualties were slight. Of active fighting there was none save for some spirited minor actions between the British divisional cavalry and cyclists on the one hand and German patrols on the other. The bulk of the day’s fighting fell upon the salient formed by the canal loop round Mons. So soon as Von Kluck had grasped the real state of affairs his plan appears to have been to envelop both the British flanks while bombarding the front heavily with his guns. The envelopment of the British left did not succeed, owing chiefly to the delay referred to above. The battle opened in earnest about 10:30 A.M. with a bombardment by some batteries of the German IX. Corps which came into action on a ridge to the north of Orbourg, and from that time onward the guns were gradually extended westwards as battery after battery, first of the IX. and then of the III. Corps, came into action. At I P.M. the Germans had established a great superiority of artillery against the front of the British II. Corps. The actual loop of the canal was held by the 4th Royal Fusiliers and the 4th Middlesex Regt., the former being responsible for the bridge at Nimy while the right of the latter regiment held the crossing at Orbourg. At both these places the fighting was very severe, but the British musketry proved a terrible surprise to the Germans, who came on in masses which it was impossible to miss, and the British guns, though outnumbered by the German artillery, gave most effective support. Finally, however, the Germans were able through their superiority in numbers to make a converging attack against the salient from the north and east, and the British were gradually forced back east and southeast of Mons. But the Germans were cautious about pushing into the town, and it was not until after 7 P.M. that the 84th Regt. of the 18th Div. of the IX. Corps entered Mons, where it was thrown for a time into confusion by heavy fire. The British ard Div. fell back to a lne running east and west through Nouvelles. | West of Mons the left division of the German III. Corps attacked the left of the British 3rd Div.; and still farther west along the canal the right division of the III. Corps, and later towards evening, the advanced guards of the IV. Corps, attacked the 5th Div. of the British. The retirement of the 3rd Div. from the salient round Mons inevitably led to a slight withdrawal of the 5th Div., and by nightfall the II. Corps was on a line which showed an average retirement of some three miles from the canal. The Retreat Begins.—During the late afternoon and evening French had been receiving disquieting news as to the situation of the French V. Army on his right. At 11:30 P.M. a telegram arrived confirming the reports, to the following effect: Namur had fallen during the day; the French V. Army had been heavily attacked, and was falling back to the line Givet-PhilippevilleMaubeuge; Hastière had been captured by the Germans; the Meuse was falling rapidly and had added to the difficulty of defence. In these circumstances not only was the original offensive out of the question, but the British line was now untenable. French, therefore, decided to retreat to a previously reconnoitred line from Jerlain eastwards to Maubeuge, and orders were issued accordingly in the early hours of Aug. 24. The withdrawal was effected without serious loss, and for a moment French thought of taking advantage of the fortifications of Maubeuge; but recollections of the fatal attraction of Metz for Bazaine induced him to pass the fortress, and orders were issued at 3 P.M. on the 24th for the retreat to be continued to the line Le Cateau-Cambrai. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A. Corbett-Smith, The Retreat from Mons (1916); G. Hanotaux, L’Enigme de Charleroi (1917); R. von GleichenRusswurm and E. Zurborn, Schlacht bei Mons (1919). (See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY.)

OF THE

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V. BATTLE OF LE CATEAU The battle of Le Cateau was fought by the left wing of the British Army on Aug. 26 1914, during the retreat from Mons. After Bavai the retreat was handicapped by the Forét de Mormal, which compelled the British Army during the 25th to march in two separated portions, the I. Corps east of the forest and the II. on the west. During the previous night the detrainment of the 4th Div. from England was almost completed, and it moved to its position towards Solesmes. Meanwhile reports showed that the French were retiring all along the line, and Sir John French had now to decide whether to stand and fight on the line Le Cateau-Cambrai, or to continue the retreat at daybreak on the 26th. He decided that the retreat should be continued, and orders to that effect were accordingly issued. The order was complied with by the I. Corps, and after some delay caused by a violent attack by the Germans on Landrecies, the retirement was continued on the 25th in the direction of Guise. In the II. Corps, however, shortly after midnight Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien came to the conclusion that, in view of the fact that many of his troops had just completed over 20 hours of heavy and continuous work, and that the enemy were close along his front, it was out of the question to continue his retirement at dawn. He therefore issued orders to fight on the ridge just south of the Le Cateau-Cambrai road. Disposition of the Forces -——The force at Smith-Dorrien’s disposal was as follows, from right to left: The greater part of the cavalry was between Le Cateau and the Sambre; later it moved to the left flank to get in touch with the French I. Cavalry Corps, which was in the neighbourhood of Malincourt. Then came the sth Division. The grd Div. held the centre as far as Caudry, and on the left lay the 4th Division. Thence to Cambrai was a gap filled by the 4th Cavalry Bde., and later by the French I. Cavalry Corps. The French 84th Territorial Div. was retiring slowly through Cambrai. Each British division had a front of approximately three miles. The 4th Div. was incomplete, lacking divisional cavalry, signal company, ambulances, ammunition columns and heavy artillery. The roth Bde. was the general reserve. The German force on the heels of the British was the I. Army whose commander, Gen. von Kluck, was the victim of faulty conclusions before, during and after the battle. He believed that the whole of the B.E.F. was opposite him; he thought that it was holding a position running north and south, whereas the line of the II. Corps was almost due east and west, and he was sure that it was either retreating or about to retreat in a westerly direction. His plan was similar to that which had been tried at Mons, a frontal attack mainly with artillery followed by enveloping movements against both flanks. The cavalry was to pin the British left until the German infantry should arrive. The German Attack.—Soon after daybreak the British were engaged upon both flanks. On the right some German troops entered Le Cateau and confused fighting ensued, while on the left the 4th Div. became engaged with the enemy. Here the 4th Div., after defending an advanced position for some time, fell back slowly to a second line and brought the enemy advance to a standstill. These events were but preliminaries, and the battle of Le Cateau proper opened with a heavy bombardment, which grew in intensity as the artillery of four German corps came into action. The British artillery made a spirited reply, though heavily outmatched in numbers and weight of metal, and dealt severely with attempts of the German infantry to push forward. These attempts were, however, practically limited to the ground near Le Cateau on the British right, and to the village of Caudry, which now formed a salient in the centre of the line. Throughout the forenoon constant infantry attacks, varied by bouts of heavy shelling, were made against the latter village, from which about noon the defenders were forced out by artillery fire; but a counter-attack at once regained part of it and the German infantry advance was held up. Until 1 p.m. the line of the II. Corps was everywhere intact in spite of the superior numbers arrayed against it. But on the right the situation was becoming grave, for the 5th Div., with its right

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FROST—FRY,

flank uncovered by the retirement of the I. Corps, was being threatened by more and more German columns converging upon the field. Smith-Dorrien realised that at all costs the fight must be broken off if his force was to be saved. Orders were sent to break off the fight and to continue the retirement of the previous days. Before the orders for retreat had reached all concerned the British right had given way before overwhelming numerical superiority. But the Germans failed to exploit this success, and the withdrawal of the II. Corps, thanks largely to the devotion of the British artillery and to the arrival of the French I. Cavalry Corps on the left, was effected with less difficulty than had been expected. Smith-Dorrien successfully withdrew his columns and marched them swiftly to the Somme at and near Ham. By Aug. 28 the II. Corps was safely across the river. The losses of the British had been severe, 38 guns had been lost, and the casualties were over 7,800, the 4th Div. suffering particularly. The retreat was practically unmolested, for Von Kluck hurried southwest instead of south, and thus missed a chance not likely often to occur in war. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A, F. Becke, The Royal Regiment of Artillery at Le Cateau (1919).

See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY.

VI. BATTLE OF GUISE By Aug. 25 the succession of victories achieved in Lorraine, the Ardennes and on the Sambre had produced an atmosphere of optimism at German general headquarters. It was thought that forces might be safely diverted to East Prussia to deal with the Russian invasion. Accordingly, on the 26th, two corps and a cavalry division received orders to proceed to the Eastern Front. On the side of the Allies, on the other hand, it was imperative to take immediate steps to check the onrush of the German right wing. During the night of Aug. 25-6 Joffre issued a new directive concerning a “ new mass of manoeuvre ” to be formed on the left flank to carry out an offensive and to consist of the French LY. and V. Armies, plus the British as well as a new French army— the VI.—to be made up of units moved by rail from other sections, chiefly from the right. On Aug. 26 Joffre and French had a conference on this proposed offensive at St. Quentin, at which the commander of the French V. Army, Gen. Lanrezac, was also present. British cooperation was, however, impossible, for on this day half of French’s army was engaged at Le Cateau, where it was very roughly handled. On the following day Joffre promised that the French V. Army would be immediately directed to take the pressure off the British. Accordingly at 1 P.M. on this day an officer arrived at Lanrezac’s headquarters with verbal instructions to attack at once and with vigour toward St. Quentin. The French V. Army was at this time retiring over the Oise above Guise, and the attack it was called upon to carry out was with the object of following on the leit flank of the German I. Army in order to delay the German onrush. French Support for the British Army-—Nightfall on Aug. 27 found the French V. Army behind the Oise with its left below Guise and its right about Rumigny, the whole facing generally northeast. Lanrezac’s task was a difficult one. He had to suspend a retirement toward the south and convert it into an attack toward the west. At noon on Aug. 28 Joffre came to see Lanrezac at the latter’s headquarters at Marle. Lanrezac pointed out his difficulties and explained that his right flank would be considerably exposed in the operation enjoined upon him; but Joffre peremptorily ordered Lanrezac to proceed with the offensive and even threatened to relieve him of his command. The German Advance Delayed —At daybreak on Aug. 29 the main body of the V. Army began to cross the Oise above and below Origny, but the plan had to be modified owing to an attack made upon the right east of Guise by two corps of the German II. Army. Accordingly Lanrezac decided to postpone the attack toward St. Quentin and to deal with the threat against his right flank first. It was, however, impossible to carry out this new plan and it was now decided merely to mask St. Quentin and to devote every effort to dealing with the German attack east of Guise. The main body of the V. Army, assisted by a cavalry

SIR EDWARD division, carried out its task with vigour and about 5 P.M. a general offensive took place along the 18 m. front from OrignyVervins towards Guise. During the night the two German corps fell back across the Oise. This success was somewhat neutralised by events between the Oise and St. Quentin, where the situation took an unfavourable turn for the French. Having carried out its task of delaying the Germans, the French V. army fell back during the evening of Aug. 30. The operation had been skilfully carried out, but Lanrezac was not in favour with French general headquarters and within a few days he was relieved of his command. BIBLIOGRAPHY.——Viscount French, zorg (1919), and Despatches, April 1914-July 1916 (1917); Marshal Joffre, 7974-15: preparation et conduite (1920). See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY.

(F. E. W.*)

FROST, ROBERT (1875), American writer, was born in San Francisco, March 26 1875. His father was a New Englander and his mother was born in Edinburgh. In 1885 he moved with his parents to Lawrence, Mass., studied in the public schools, and entered Dartmouth College in 1892, remaining there one year. From 1897-9 he was a student at Harvard, and from 1905rı taught English in the Pinkerton Academy, Derry, N. H., and then for a year taught psychology at the N. H. Normal School at Plymouth. In ror2 he went to England, where he remained

three years and published his first two volumes of verse. On his return to America he retired to a farm at Derry and gave much time to active farming. During 1916-20 he was professor of English at Amherst College, Mass., a position which he resumed in 1923. His poems portray in realistic fashion everyday country life in New England. Some of the work of his first volume had been denied publication for 20 years, and some of the second for ro years. He is the author of A Bows Wall (1915); North of Boston (1915); Mountain Interval (1916); A Way Out, a play (1917); New Hampshire (1923). FRUNZE, MIKHAILVASSILIEVICH (1885-1925), Russian soldier, was the son of a peasant who had settled in Turkistan and become a surgeon. While at school he came in contact with socialists, and on entering the Polytechnical Institute at St. Petersburg (Leningrad) he joined the Bolshevik group in the social democratic organisation. In 1905 he worked in the industrial district of Ivanovo-Voznesensk and helped to organise the big textile strike of that year. He was frequently arrested and in 1907 was sentenced to four years penal servitude, and to a subsequent six years on the grounds that he had offered armed resistance to the police. At the end of tory his penal servitude was exchanged for banishment to Siberia, where he was arrested for revolutionary activities in the following year, but soon afterwards escaped from prison and the March revolution of 1917 found him in Minsk at the head of an illegal organisation in the army. He became president of a Front Committee, and later president of Soviet in the provinces, and at the time of the Nov. Revolution came to Moscow with a detachment of 2,000 men, with which he took part in the fighting in that city. After the revolt in Jarostaw he became military commissar of that district, and in Dec. 1918, commander of an army on the Eastern Front. He later became commander in chief of four armies and directed the operations against Admiral Kolchak. When the Eastern Front was divided, Frunze became commander on the Turkistan section of it, where he surrounded and destroyed Kolchak’s southern army. He afterwards took part in minor operations in Central Asia, returning to Russia in Sept. r920 when he took command of the troops that eventually drove General Wrangel out of the Crimea. For this he was rewarded with a sword of honour and a portrait of Karl Marx. He then commanded the military forces in the Ukraine. In 1924 he became vice-president of the Revolutionary Military Council, and, in the absence of Trotsky, the actual head of the Red Army. He became president of this council and People’s Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs in Jan. 1925, but died before the end of the year. FRY, SIR EDWARD (1827-1918), English judge (see 11.270), died at Failand, near Bristol, Oct. 19 1918.

FRY—FUEL FRY, ROGER

ELLIOT (1866-

PROBLEMS

125

), British painter and art

But the natural fuels, solid, liquid and gaseous, are by no

critic, son of Sir Edward Fry, was born in London, and educated at Clifton and King’s College, Cambridge. He studied painting under Francis Bate and then in Paris, and exhibited at the Carfax Gallery, London, in 1903. His work, notably in his landscapes, is marked by deep feeling for form and a scholarly sense of design and technical means. An active member and exhibitor of the London Group, he gave an exhibition of his own paintings in r920. As a critic, with his wide knowledge and acute sensibility, Fry became recognised in England and abroad as a leading expert. He published a study of Bellini (1899) and edited Reynold’s Discourses (1905), but is best known by his championship through much opposition and prejudice, of Cézanne and the post-impressionists. Among other publications are Vision and Design (1920); Architectural Heresies of a Painter (1921), anda book of travel impressions, A Sampler of Castile (1923). He was also joint editor of The Burlington Magazine. FRYATT, CHARLES (1872-1916), British seaman, was born at Parkeston, Essex, Dec. 2 1872. He entered the service of the Great Eastern Railway Co., and in 1904 became chief officer in their service of vessels plying between Harwich and Rotterdam. In 1913 he was promoted captain. At the end of July 1916, it was announced that his ship, “ Brussels ? had been captured and the captain himself arrested and tried by court martial, on a charge of having attempted, on March 28 ro16, to ram a German submarine. The German authorities stated that Captain Fryatt had confessed that he had acted under orders from the British Admiralty; but the trial was hurried and secret, no intervention on the part of neutrals being allowed. ‘The captain was condemned to death and shot at Bruges, July 27 1916. The body was, on July 7 1919, brought from Belgium to England and was buried at Dovercourt, near Harwich. FUAD I. (1868), King of Egypt, was born at the palace of Gizeh, March 26 1868, the youngest son of the Khedive Ismail Pasha. After his father’s débâcle Prince Ahmed Fuad, as he then was, went to Italy where his youth was spent. Ie returned to Egypt in the ’nineties and was appointed aide-de-camp to the Khedive Abbas Hilmi. He found outlet for his energies by presiding over charitable and educational institutions and was largely responsible for the foundation of the Egyptian University, of which he became president. In 1917 his elder brother, the Sultan Hussein Kiamil died, and as the latter’s son, Prince Kemal ed Din, renounced the rights of succession, Prince Fuad became Sultan. After the termination of the British protectorate on Feb. 28 1922, he was proclaimed King of Egypt (March 46). He had married on May 23 rg19 the Princess Nazi, daughter of Abdel Rehim Sabri Pasha, a former governor of Cairo, and his heir, Prince Faruk, was born on Feb. Ir 1920. FUEL PROBLEMS (see 11.274).—The wood of our forests is our natural fuel. If we were restricted to that material, the enormous fuel demands of our industrial age would long since have razed our forests. As the dearth of wood made itself felt in industrial districts, recourse was had to the fossil fuels which Nature has stored up, coal and peat, and natural oil and natural gas. Bituminous coal was the most important of these fuels, and the iron industry required in particular those coals which gave a metallurgical coke suitable for replacing the wood charcoal in the blast furnace. In some countries, for instance in Germany, brown coal has of late almost broken the predominance of bituminous coal; brown coal is more easily mined and offers advantages as household fuel when briquetted. Further, modern industry and transport, established on the coal-fuel basis, have recognised the advantages of liquid fuels and their necessity for certain purposes. Oceanic navigation makes an increasing use of crude oils; automobile and aerial motors are no longer to be thought of without gasoline fuel. Again, the cleanliness and precision attainable with gaseous fuels in furnaces and in the preparation of valuable products,

means evenly distributed over our globe. Consequently we are forced to produce the required fuel from other sources, to meet local conditions, unless we are satisfied to depend upon imported fuel. The chemist and engineer are hence confronted with the problem of converting fuels of locally lesser value into fucks for which there isa greater demand. Thus arise mar y problems, the most important of which is the conversion of coalinto oils.

have secured to these fuels a preferential position in the production of steel and in the manufacture of glass and of ceramic objects. Extensive systems of gas-pipes distribute gas through towns and industrial centres, even across states.

I. GASEOUS FUELS AND THEIR PRODUCTION From Solid Fuels—The constitution of the gaseous fossil fuels is easily determined; for the molecules of gaseous substances are generally the smallest and the least complex. The combustible constituents of natural gases, exhaled as natural gas or fire-damp, are almost exclusively represented by methane, CH, The methane may have originated from residues of a fossil flora or fauna. The biological processes which resulted in the formation of petroleum took place under scission of methane, which was also produced during the formation of coal and during its natural ageing. Natural gas is therefore found in association with oil-fields and coal seams. As, however, natural gas is not replenished at the rate at which it is consumed in some industrial districts (¢.g., Pennsylvania), many works which originally relied upon natural gas have been obliged to adopt producer gas as their fuel. The chemical constitution of gaseous fuels is easily ascertained, and also the production of gaseous fuels from liquid and solid fuels offers no particular difficulties. Dry Distillation —For the preparation of gaseous from solid fuels two chicf methods are now available. The so-called dry or destructive distillation of coal is historically the first. The gas formed by the thermal decomposition of the coal consists, when the temperature is kept as low as possible, essentially of methane and other hydrocarbons. When the coal is discharged into glowing retorts, as in gas and coke-oven works, the gas liberated will be the richer in hydrogen the higher the temperature. This method of coal distillation furnishes a gas of relatively high calorific value. With low temperature carbonisation, the calorific value may rise to 9,000 calories per cu. metre; at higher temperatures, the figure will lie between 4,oco0 and 5,000 calories. But the volumes of gas are comparatively limited; only a small portion of the coal substance is gasified, the bulk being transformed into coke. The yield is about 60 to 7o cu. metres of low temperature

gas per ton of gas coal, and

some

200 or 300 cu.

metres of coke per ton. The complete gasification of coal cannot be effected by heat alone. The coke produced by the distillation must be gasified by chemical reactions. This can be done in three ways. Chemical Reactions.—The reaction of air with white-hot coke yields a gas, theoretically consisting of two parts of carbon monoxide and four parts of nitrogen; this gas is of low calorific value. The reaction 2C-+O2.=2CO proceeding under considerable liberation of heat, the manufacture of such a gas—airgas—can be easily carried out continuously in shaft furnaces. The best material is coke; coal may be used provided it does not cake; brown coal briquettes are also suitable. From the standpoint of gas production, the ordinary pig-iron blast furnace may be regarded as a huge air-gas producer, with the difference that the oxygen required for the production of carbon monoxide is taken not only from the blast, but also from the iron ores. This process of coal gasification, the air-gas process, is associated with a pronounced liberation of heat. IWater-Gas Process—In the water-gas process, however, the reaction C+H.O=H»+CO, heat is consumed and has to be replenished to sustain the process. The water-gas process can therefore not be carried out continuously in a shaft furnace unless external heat be supplied. The process is hence worked discontinuously. During the first hot run the coke charge is raised by the air blast to a temperature of about 1,000°C.;

steam is then admitted, heat is absorbed and water-gas is produced, while the temperature of the layer of glowing coke sinks gradually. When the temperature has fallen a few hundred degrees, the hot-air blast is again turned on.

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PROBLEMS

Mixed Gas Process.—Since the air-gas process liberates heat whilst the water-gas process absorbs heat, technical practice

began to combine the two processes before the theory of the reactions was understood.

Gas generators were worked with

air and steam. Numerous advances have been made during the last decade in the domain of fuel gasification, particularly with regard to the difficulties caused by the use of coal instead of coke in the generation of both mixed gas and water-gas. | By the use of considerable additions of steam we have, in the mixed gas process, further learnt to recover the bulk of the nitrogen contained in the coal, in the form of ammonia (see AMMONIA). Success has also been achieved in the perfection of gas producers as economical apparatus for the manufacture of primary tar. The total gasification of the coal and coke has so far laboured under the disadvantage that, as the daily throughputs of gas producers were relatively small, a good many furnacemen and a good deal of stoking were required. Recently gas generators have been built for daily throughputs of 100 tons. This working in large units is one of the most important problems of coal gasification. From Liquid Fuels.—Further substitutes for natural gaseous fuel can be obtained by the thermal decomposition of liquid fuels, such as crude oils or certain fractions of these oils, gas oil, tars or tar-fractions. The carburation of water-gas is a case in point. Water-gas does not burn with a luminous flame and its calorific power is low; it is therefore carburated by the injection of crude oil or tar oil into incandescent chambers. At temperatures above red glow the oils are decomposed, to a large extent, into gases, some tar and coke. The gases consist of very diverse hydrocarbons of higher calorific values than the watergas. By mixing the two kinds of gases the water-gas 1s therefore enriched. In the early days the gas was carburated also for the purpose of rendering it luminous. With the invention of the Welsbach incandescent burners this application has lost its importance; but carburation for the sake of increasing the calorific value still remains important. The thermal decomposition of oils is practised for the general purpose of obtaining gases of high calorific power. Thus tar or oil gas is manufactured by the decomposition of so-called gas oil. It served chiefly for lighting railway carriages, but is being replaced by electric illumination. The gasification of liquid, relatively inferior fuels, by the aid of steam might become valuable under certain conditions for the preparation of a water-gas rich in hydrogen, by a kind of water-gas process. Thus, petroleum vapours mixed with steam and heated to 1,000° in the presence of bauxite as catalyst can be converted into a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which high-pressure catalysis further transforms into synthol and similar products. From Other Gaseous Fuels —It may happen that natural gas is available, but that hydrogen is needed. The conversion of methane into hydrogen may be effected catalytically by passing methane through tubes or kilns at the high temperature of 1,000°, when methane is decomposed into hydrogen and carbon. At lower temperatures the decomposition is incomplete. When shaft furnaces are used the carbon deposited can subsequently be burnt out again by blowing hot air into the furnace; the heat liberated is re-utilised to raise the furnace again to the high temperature and to decompose more methane. Like the vapours of liquid fuels (though less easily, owing to its high stability) methane can also be converted, by means of water vapour in the presence of bauxite as catalyst at about 1,000°, into a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The reversed process should finally be mentioned. If desired, the carbon monoxide contained in some available fuel gas mixture can be removed by transforming the carbon monoxide catalytically, at low temperature, into methane, with the aid of the hydrogen in the mixture. This was done experimentally about 1915. The process has not been adopted, however, although the elimination of the monoxide from illuminating gas seemed hygienically advantageous. The catalytic preparation

of pure methane from water-gas, tried on an industrial scale some years ago, still remains in the preliminary stage, because

the purification of the gas (of sulphur) and the partial removal of the carbon monoxide proved too expensive. Such a process, moreover, involves a loss of about 25% in calorific value, because the proportion of methane, represented by the theoretical mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, possesses only threequarters of the heat value of the four times larger volume of (CO+3H,) which it replaces. The reason is that this methane formation is a strongly endothermic process. Purification of Gaseous Fuels —For many purposes the artificial gaseous fuels require careful purification. Thus, the gas escaping in large volumes from the mouth of a blast furnace has to be freed of all the dust it carries before it can be fed into internal combustion engines. The object is attained by mechanical cleaning and dust separation, by means of filters, centnfugal machinery or sprinkling with water. The electric dust precipitation by the Cottrell process should especially be mentioned (see FUME PRECIPITATION). The removal from the gases of the sulphur compounds Is frequently a difficult problem. It is chiefly required in the case of illuminating gas, and the sulphur can be recovered in a utilisable condition. The old-established method purifies the gas by means of iron ore (bog ore). Activated carbon has recently been experimented with for the same purpose. The gas is mixed with a sufficient amount of air to oxidise the sulphuretted hydrogen in the gas into sulphur; the sulphur is retained by the carbon, and the process is accelerated if ammonia is present in the gas. The activated carbon impregnated with sulphur is then extracted with ammonium sulphide; the evaporated solution leaves the sulphur as a marketable residue. For most of the catalytic processes removal of hydrogen sulphide alone from the gas is, however, insufficient. The other sulphur compounds, notably carbon disulphide, must also be eliminated. II. LIQUID FUELS AND THEIR PRODUCTION The natural liquid fuels, natural oils or petroleums, occur in widely-diverging compositions, and are partly aliphatic, partly naphthenic in character; aromatic compounds are found in some kinds of petroleum. The natural oils are also classified according to the nature, asphaltic or paraffinic, of their high-boiling residues. As regards the origin of petroleum, the biological hypothesis of Engler has found general support. According to this, petroleum was formed in the course of time by the decomposition of the fatty constituents of small and large organisms. ‘The optical activity of certain petroleum fractions is regarded as affording a strong argument in favour of this view. That, however, liquid hydrocarbons, with which we are essentially concerned, may be prepared artificially in other ways and might naturally have been produced in such ways under certain conditions, has been established within this century, by chemical research in various cases. There are, e.g., carbides, such as uranium carbide, which liberate liquid hydrocarbons when decomposed. It is further known that acetylene and hydrogen may catalytically be combined to form petroleum-like products; and within the last few years it has been shown that the high-pressure synthesis of

water-gas leads to the formation first of synthol and further, when this synthol is heated under pressure, of an artificial petroleum. Whether or not petroleum has been formed in some localities by inorganic reactions of cognate nature, cannot be proved, but the possibility cannot be excluded. From Solid Fuels —Ueating of geologically recent coals under exclusion of air seems to be the simplest method for the production of liquid fuels from solid fuels. Destructive distillation yields, in addition to the gases mentioned and to the residual coke, a tar which, when formed at low temperature, contains constituents of petroleum character. The proportions of such tar obtainable are considerable. Gas coals of more recent geological periods (ordinary coal) yield up to 12% of the tar, cannel coals still more. Certain lignites and oil shales are likewise suitable materials for the manufacture of the tar by distillation. The Scottish shale-oil industry and the brown coal carbonisation works of central Germany operate on these lines. The large bulk of the tar which comes from our coal gas and

FUEL

PROBLEMS

coke works is of a different composition. Owing to the high temperatures which are used in gas-works and especially in cokeovens, in order to secure high yields of both gas and a firm coke, the tars are essentially aromatic in character and rich in benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, etc. By weight the chief product is in either case semi-coke or coke. The tar yield referred to the weight of coal, lies in general between 12 and 3% (see CoaL TAR PRopucts). Bergius Process.—Since coal contains only 5% of hydrogen on average, whilst petroleum contains more than twice as much, an increase in the oil yield from coal seems dependent upon a supply of hydrogen. In the Bergius process for the liquefaction of coal, hydrogen is made to react with coal at a pressure of more than 100 atmospheres and at temperatures of about 450°. The coal is ground and kneaded with 30% of tar into a paste; this paste is continuously pressed into the high-pressure autoclave. We may imagine that the coal is first carbonised, the temperature being sufficiently high for this purpose; the products are primary tar and semi-coke. The semi-coke is further hydrogenated and half of it, by weight, is converted into oil. That the reaction may proceed in this way has quite recently been established by experiments in which the carbonisation was effected at ordinary pressure, and only the hydrogenation of the semi-coke was carried out at high pressure. This “ bergiannisation ”? is not equally applicable to all types of coal. Suitable materials are particularly coal of comparatively recent periods, rich in volatile constituents, but not inclined to cake. Such coals which are popular as fuel for gas generators, but in general unsuitable for coking, yield about 50°% of oil by the Bergius treatment, whilst low-temperature carbonisation would at the best give 10 to 12%¢ of oil. The oil of the Bergius process is not equal in value to natural oil. It contains, it is true, ample proportions of gasolene, but it also contains about 20% of phenolic constituents, and is hence more closely related in constitution to the primary tars than to petroleum. The Bergius process, which is expensive owing to the high-pressure apparatus required, offers advantages in localities in which there is no market for semi-coke, neither as domestic fuel nor for gasification or the manufacture of powdered fuel. Under other conditions, improved methods of low-temperature carbonisation will be scrious competitors. From Other Liquid Fuels —Natural, as well as artificial liquid fuels contain in general fractions of almost all boiling points, ranging from ordinary temperature up to 400°. Not all these fractions are, however, in equal demand. In the roth century lamp and illuminating oils, boiling between 150 and 250°, were the most valuable petroleum constituents. Since then electric and incandescent lighting on the one hand, and the development of automobiles, flying machines and industry generally on the other, have increased the values of the low-boiling benzenes and of the lubricating oils in petroleum, so that the evaluation of the various petroleum fractions has altogether changed. At present the supply of benzene from petroleum is not sufficient to satisfy the demand. Fortunately the high-boiling constituents of petroleum can be converted by cracking processes into low-boiling motor spirits. One-third of the gasolene wanted in America for automobiles is said to be now produced by cracking. Like the oil-gas production mentioned above, cracking involves heating of high-boiling oil fractions up to incipient decomposition. The cracking process is, however, conducted at lower temperatures, in the neighbourhood of 500°, and under pressure, because less gas and more vapours of gasolene type are formed when the pressure is raised. This heating up to partial thermal decomposition of oils of high boiling points is important in other respects. In the Diesel motor (see INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE), it is believed, the air is first heated by the compression stroke to cracking temperatures; the oil injected into this hot air is then thermally decomposed and burns in the compressed air; separate ignition of the fuel can be dispensed with. The dearth of low-boiling gasolene has induced designers of automobile internal combustion engines to use fuels containing high-boiling constituents. These constituents, how-

127

ever, are apt to ignite by the heat due to compression toward the end of the compression stroke and before the dead point is passed. The piston is then forced back and “ knocking ”’ occurs. This pre-ignition of gasolene-air mixtures seems to be favoured, if not caused, by the fact that the carbon deposited on the engine cylinder always carries some iron. The tendency to knocking is suppressed by adding to the motor spirit substances such as lead tetra-ethyl which, it is assumed, act by being adsorbed by the ferriferous carbon in the cylinder; the carbon is thus catalytically poisoned and cannot produce knocking. The antiknocking reagents are, however, dangerous to the human system, and not likely to find favour. The best way of stopping the knocking trouble would be to return exclusively to motor fuels of low boiling points. The world’s production of benzene is insufficient for the demand. Synthetic preparation of benzenes may bring the desired solution of this problem. Some artificial liquid fuels can or should be improved or modified, wholly or partly, before utilisation. Half of the oil fraction of primary coal-tar consists of phenols for which there is little demand. By means of hydrogen at 700 to 800° they can be reduced to the more valuable benzene and toluene. Certain hydrocarbon fractions of primary tars are highly unsaturated; they can be hydrogenated and rendered more valuable in similar ways. The naphthalene of coke-oven tar can be converted into a liquid fuel, tetrahydronaphthalene, commercial tetralin. For this purpose the solid naphthalene is fused, purified by crystallisation and freed of the last traces of sulphur by treatment with metallic sodium. The naphthalene thus purified is then submitted to hydrogenation by means of hydrogen under pressure in the presence of nickel as catalyst, somewhat as in oil hardening; but the product, tetralin, is liquid. Attempts have also been made to convert high-boiling liquid fuels and also tar and pitch into low-boiling motor spirit by the Bergius process, analogous to cracking but combined with hydrogenation. The process has not found industrial application, apparently because the American cracking processes attain the same object by less expensive means. From Gaseous Fuels—-Gascous fuels frequently contain vapours of liquid fuels of low boiling points. Natural gas, for example, very frequently, though not always, carries higher homologues of methane. There are benzene vapours in cokeoven gas, and the gases of low-temperature carbonisation retorts contain vapours of benzene character. These vapours can be removed and recovered by physical methods, scrubbing the gas with oil or treatment with adsorbents, such as activated carbon and recently also silicagel; the use of the latter reagent is so far largely experimental. These vapours are further condensed by cooling or by compression, or by a combination of the two methods. Both methods yield the liquid directly; in the former cases the oil or activated carbon used for the scrubbing or adsorption must afterwards be submitted io steam blowing in order to obtain the liquids. | The object of these processes is simply the recovery of fuels of low boiling point already present. Methods for the synthetic preparation of such fuels have been developed within the past few years. The process is a high-pressure catalysis, starting with carbon monoxide, utilised suitably tn the form of a mixture of monoxide and hydrogen, a water-gas containing an excess of hydrogen. A mixture of one part of carbon monoxide and two parts of hydrogen is first carefully purified, especially of all sulphur compounds, and then compressed to about 150 atmospheres. At this pressure and a temperature of about 400°, the mixture is passed over the catalyst, for instance, zinc oxide or chromium oxide. The hydrogen is bound by the carbon monoxide and the reaction CO+2H.2=CH;0H yields almost pure methyl alcohol. Provided disturbing metals, particularly iron which would form iron carbonyl, be absent, no undesirable secondary reactions likely to diminish the alcohol yield seem to take place. Formation of methane, an undesirable reaction, would be aided by the presence of iron. This synthesis of methyl alcohol hardly concerns the fuel

problem.

The alcohol contains almost

50%

of oxygen,

its

128

FULLER— FUME

PRECIPITATION,

calorific value is about half that of benzene or gasolene, and it is not a motor fuel. Higher Atcofels —In the case of the higher alcohols, it is possible to prepare mixtures of those alcohols and ketones by highpressure catalysis, starting with the same raw materials, carbon monoxide and hydrogen, but resorting to other catalysts. These alcohol mixtures of oily character (2.c., little soluble in water) which may be designated by the general term “ synthol,” can, for instance, be produced with the ail of iron impregnated with potassium carbonate as catalyst. Ninety percent of this synthol boils below 200°, and it forms an excellent motor fuel, at least equal in value to benzene and gasolene. For the present the synthol process is too expensive. But in the future synthetic motor fuels must be prepared in this or similar ways. Water-gas can be produced from all types of coal and peat. It is therefore possible to manufacture synthetic motor fuels in all districts where some coal but not petroleum is available. This source of fuel would provide for the time when petroleum and petroleum products fail. We have more reliable knowledge as to the occurrence of coal than about oil-fields. The coal resources of the globe will probably hold out for many centuries.

WI. SOLID

FUELS

AND

THEIR

PRODUCTION

So far man essentially relies on fossil, chiefly solid, fuels for obtaining heat and power. Chronologically these fuels may be classified as peat, brown coal and coal. od

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1 Tn its original condition the mean stage discharge of the St. Marys river was about 78,000 cu. foot-seconds. The flow of this river is now entirely contralléd by regulating works. Commerce

TABLE III. (in Short tons) on the Great Lakes

i Total U.S.

Canals

Commerce!

at Sault

| Lakes

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Year, on Great (Ste. i Marie (Adjusted)

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State

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1921| a

71,400,17048,259,25463,973,3083, (076,422,734, 0651,457, 802

94,038,090 66,

o

497,062 3,391,4194,319,919'2,260,763

1923 125,517,551 91,379,65892, 170,460 3,755,9124,541,5282,572,635° 1924 109,831,27972,037,39080,07 3,8505,037,4125,536,3742,058,074 l Old canal system partly closed down between Igto and 1918 during construction of a new 12-ft. canal. 2 Includes 566,351 and 626,357 tons for 1923 and 1924 respectively of local terminal traffic that did not pass through the canals. (H. T.*)

GRECO-TURKISH GRECO-TURKISH WAR: sce BALKAN WARS. GREECE (see 12.425), a republic of southern Europe and a member of the League of Nations. Its area is 49,200 square miles. The area of Old Greece in 1912 was 24,400 square miles. The Balkan Wars of 1912-3 resulted in the addition of New Greece, con-

WAR—GREECE

281

A census taken in 1920 gave the total population of Old and New Greece as 5,536,375, including Thrace. An estimate which allows, on the one hand, for the subsequent loss of territory and for the transfer of the Moslem inhabitants of Greece to Turkey,

and, on the other hand, for the influx of some 1,400,000 refugees

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sistingof Macedonia, Epirus, Crete and a number of islands in the Aegean, with an arca of about 21,600 sq. m., making the total area of the country about 46,000 sq.m .in 1914. After the World War, Greece occupied Thrace and a part of the vilayet of Aidin

from Turkey after the war in Asia Minor, would place the population in 1925 in the neighbourhood of 6,200,000. The various racial migrations which have been brought about by the wars from rọr2 onwards, whether voluntary or compul-

in Asia Minor, and these occupations were confirmed by the treaties of Neuilly and Sévres. But, as the result of the Asia Minor campaign, Greece in 1922 evacuated Asia Minor and Eastern Thrace in favour of Turkey, and by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 she also retroceded Imbros and Tenedos. The area of Greece after these various changes, is now about 49,200 square miles.

sory,

involving

the

transfers,

in either

direction,

of nearly

2,500,000 Greeks, Bulgarians and Turks, have had the result of introducing homogeneity in the regions affected, where before there was great diversity. Thus the proportion of Greeks in the population of Macedonia and Western Thrace, which stood at 43 and 36% respectively before the Balkan Wars, is, in 1925, 88 and 62%. (L. G. R.)

GREECE

282

I. POLITICAL HISTORY In Jan. to10 the Military League had summoned Veniselos from Crete as their political adviser, and he had arranged for the election of a National Assembly. But the obstruction of the party leaders soon obliged him to take the premiership himself and to appeal once more to the electorate. When the second revisionary National Assembly met on Jan. 22 1911, he took office at the head of an overwhelming majority. During the following 18 months the constitution was revised, internal administration was thoroughly overhauled, army and navy were remodelled and trained under French and British missions, and the Macedonian feud was forgotten. The Balkan Wars.—A treaty was signed with Bulgaria (May 1912) who had already signed a treaty with Serbia for the partition of Macedonia, 'and in Oct., the first Balkan War broke out. Montenegro declared war on Turkey, Oct. 8; Turkey declared war on Bulgaria and Serbia, Oct. 17, but offered Greece the island of Crete and other concessions to remain neutral. Venisclos however realised the supreme importance of including Greece in the new grouping. The long-excluded Cretan deputies were admitted to the Greek Chamber and Greece declared war on Turkey on Oct. 18 1912. The Balkan allies gained rapid success, “The Greek Army cleared Macedonia and occupied Salonika (Nov. 9); the fleet blockaded the Dardanelles. Greece refused to sign the armistice obtained from the other allies (Dec. 3) but joined the conference which met a fortnight later in London. The allies demanded from Turkey the surrender of all the territory their armies actually held in Europe together with the fortresses invested. The seizure of power by the “* Young Turkish’ party at Constantinople prevented the acceptance of these terms, and hostilities were re-opened on Feb. 3 1913. But after Adrianople had surrendered to Bulgarians and Serbs, Scutari to

the Montenegrins, and Janina to the Greeks under Prince Constantine—who 12 days later (March 18) became King on the assassination of his father George I. at Salonika—-Turkey by the Treaty of London (May 30) signed away collectively to the Balkan allics all her territory in Europe west of a line drawn from Midia on the Black Sea to Enos on the Aegean Sea, leaving the Powers to settle the problems of Albania and the Aegean Islands. Second Balkan War.—Vhe erection of an independent Kingdom of Albania, by excluding Serbia from the Adriatic, rendered inevitable a quarrel between the allies. Greece, alarmed at the menacing attitude of Bulgaria, had in June signed a defensive alliance with Serbia, and when Bulgaria attacked without warning (June 30) she was heavily defeated, and after the intervention of Rumania was compelled to sign the Treaty of Bucharest (Aug. 10 1913) which excluded her from the Aegean port of Kavalla and carried the frontier of Greek Macedonia eastwards to the river Mesta and northwards to Doiran and Florina. The course of events had thus compelled

Veniselos to substitute a policy of balance of power for that of a

Balkan League. The Aegean Islands.—The Powers assigned to Greece (Conference of London, Feb. 1914) all the islands, of the Acgean actually occupied by the Greck flect during the war, with the exception of Tenedos and Imbros and of the islands of the Dodecanese which Italy had occupied in 1912 as security for the Turkish fulfilment of the Treaty of Lausanne (Oct. 18 1912) pledging her good faith that her occupation should be conditional and temporary. After the World War, Veniselos negotiated an agreement with Signor Tittoni (July 29 1919) by which all these islands were to revert to Greece unconditionally, the cession of Rhodes alone being made contingent on a plebiscite to be held within five years of England's cession of Cyprus. This agreement was recognised by the Supreme Council, the time limit within which the plebiscite was to be held being extended to 15 years, on the signature of the Treaty of Sévres (Aug. 10 1920) in accordance with which Tenedos, Imbros and Lemnos, which had been occupied during the War by the British fleet, were handed over to the Greek authorities on June 25 1921. The Tittoni agreement was repudiated by Italy, who remained in occupation of the Dodecanese, after the fall of Venisclos and the non-ratification of the Treaty of Sévres. Turkey closed the Balkan war with Greece by a provisional agreement (Treaty of Athens, Nov. 13 1913) but refused to accept the decision of the Powers of Feb. 1914; consequently the de jure possession of the islands remained in suspense until the Treaty of Lausanne (July 24 1923) whereby Turkey renounced in favour of Italy all rights over the Dodecanese, and recognised Greek sovereignty over the remaining islands as conferred by the Conference of London, subject to certain provisions for their demilitarisation, and with the exception of Imbros and Tenedos, which were retroceded to Turkey on condition that they should enjoy full local autonomy.

The World War.—Greece definitely annexed Crete and thus emerged from the Balkan Wars with a very Jarge acquisition of territory in Epirus, Macedonia, Crete and the Aegean Islands, with a total population of over 1,800,000, or almost as much as

that of “‘ Old Greece.””

Turkey’s refusal to recognise the ruling

of the London Conference was accompanied by a boycott of Greek shipping and an organised persecution of the Greeks in Asia Minor. But her evident intention of re-opening hostilities with Greece was anticipated by the outbreak of the World War. The attitude of the Greek Govt. as stated by Veniselos was never in doubt. Not only did her interests and tradition bind her to support Great Britain and France; she was bound to Serbia by her defensive alliance, the purpose of which would best be served if Greece stood by to prevent Bulgaria from making any hostile move and to guard Serbian communications with the Aegean. King Constantine on the other hand naturally inclined to Germany for family reasons, and believed in her victory; but he never found the courage to declare openly his intention to remain neutral, preferring to temporise. In Feb. 1915, when England definitely required Greck help for attacking the Dardanelles, the proposals of Veniselos for specific Greek forces to co-operate with the British fleet were unanimously approved by his own majority in the Chamber, and by a Crown Council of all the political leaders in the kingdom. King Constantine however dismissed Veniselos and dissolved the Chamber (April ro 1913). The newpremier Gounaris co-operated with the German propaganda in Athens to represent Venisclos as inspired only by love of war and hatred of the King. King Constantine was thus brought into party politics as a personal opponent of Veniselos and leader of the “‘ pro-German ” policy of neutrality. In mid-June the electors nevertheless returned the Liberal (Veniselist) party with a majority. But when Veniselos, after a delay excused by the King’s illness, at last returned to office (Aug. 22), his efforts to immobilise Bulgaria by threatening Greek action were useless, because Germany had already been secretly informed that Greek neutrality would be guaranteed by King Constantine even in the event of a Bulgarian attack on Serbia. Bulgaria mobilised on Sept. 19 19015, and King Constantine allowed his Prime Minister to order a counter-mobilisation, and even to suggest to England and France that they might reinforce the Greco-Serbian co-operation with some of their own troops, a suggestion which led to the Allied landing at Salonika. But as soon as Veniselos, on the eve of the Bulgarian attack, explained once more his well-known policy of defending Serbia and received a vote of confidence, he was abruptly dismissed, and M. Zaimes was put up (Oct. 5) to explain that the Greco-Serbian Treaty had ‘a purely Balkan character.” The Chamber was again dissolved and elections held in December. The Liberals abstained from the polls, as a protest against this second and unconstitutional dissolution, and a government was formed under M. Skouloudes (Nov. 6), who declared “very benevolent neutrality ” towards the Entente. From this time forward the King began not only to expect but eagerly to desire a German victory. The violence of his partisans was aggravated when the “ Three Protecting Powers,” Britain, France and Russia, demanded certain administrative changes which might prevent any connivance between the Govt. and the German espionage (June 21 1916). The Greek Army, which owing to the known sentiments of its general staff threatened, or at least inconvenienced, the Allied base at Salonika, was at last demobilised; whereupon the Bulgarians invaded Macedonia and seized Kavalla. Meanwhile King Constantine would from time to time change his Premieri (Zaimes, June 23; Kalogeropoulos, Sept. 16; Lambros, Oct. 9; Zaimes, May 3 1917) and ask the French or British minister to suggest terms on which it might suit him to abandon his “ neutrality.” When in Aug. Rumania joined the Allies and the King still refused to move, Veniselos seceded to Salonika (Sept. 25 1916) with Gen. Dankles and Adm. Condouriotes, set up a Provisional Government and out of half the kingdom which declared its allegiance to the Triumvirate began to organise a state militant. The Allies refused their oflicial recognition to the Salonika Govt., although Veniselist troops were already fighting for them. At Athens the French admiral suggested that King Constantine might surrender some of his war material. The King was understood to consent; but when French and British marines landed to take delivery they

GREECE

283

were shot down by Greek troops from prepared positions (Dec.

shehr, was disastrously defeated (April 5) with 4,000 killed and

I 1916).

wounded. On June rr (anniversary of the fall of Constantinople in 1453) King Constantine left for Smyrna hailed by the government press as emperor designate of Constantinople and commander of the Anglo-Greek forces in the Near East. On June 19 the Allied Powers again offered “ their friendly services to prevent the reopening of hostilties,” but the offer was magniloquently rejected. The Greek forces opened their new offensive in July.

|

The Allies now broke off relations with the King, but, owing to the hesitations of Russia’and Italy, did not demand his abdication till June 1017. He retired to Switzerland (June 12) and his second son Alexander was put on the throne. Veniselos returned to Athens as Prime Minister of a nominally united Greece (June 26), recalled the Chamber which had been unconstitutionally dissolved in Nov. 1915 and formally declared war against Germany, Turkey and Bulgaria (June 29). By April 1918, the Greek Army had been mobilised and re-equipped. In July 250,000 Greek troops shared in the Macedonian offensive which culminated in the capitulation of Bulgaria (Sept. 30 1918). Treaty of Sèvres and Fall of Ventsefos.—At the Peace Conference (Paris, Jan. rọrọ) Veniselos’ presentation of the Greek claims was remarkably successful. As affecting Bulgaria these wcre embodied in the Treaty of Neuilly, to which was annexed a Greco-Bulgarian convention for the protection of racial minorities,etc. (Nov. 27 1919). Bulgaria was cut off from the Aegean,

the Allies undertaking to ensure her an ‘‘ economic outlet.” This problem has not hitherto been solved, as it was found impossible at Lausanne (Jan. 1923), even with the guarantee of the League of Nations, to devise any scheme, other than a territorial cor-

A month later they were within 60 m. of Angora.

But in August

they were disastrously defeated on the river Sakkaria with very heavy losses. On Sept. 29 1921 King Constantine returned to Athens. On Oct. 16 Gounaris and his foreign minister Baltazzi, after receiving a vote of confidence in the Chamber, left for London and at last placed the interests of Greece without any reserve in the hands of Lord Curzon. Meanwhile the French “ Franklin-Bouillon ” agreement with Kemal had been signed at Angora (Oct. 20 1921); and Lord Curzon’s ability to make peace was limited by the difficulty of coming to a preliminary agreement with France and Italy. Gounaris thus abandoned all Greek interests vested in the Treaty of Sèvres. He also gave up all claim to the balance of credits guaranteed to Greece by the Allies during the War and received in return permission to raise

a loan on the open market if he could (agreement with Sir R.

ridor, acceptable to Bulgaria. The Treaty of Sévres (Aug. 10 1920) assigned to Greece the greater part of Thrace, and a mandate, based on Greece's interest in the Greek population of Asia Minor. It also assigned to her the basin and hinterland of Smyrna under a strictly controlled régime. Greek troops had landed at Smyrna at the request of the Supreme Council on

IIorne, Dec. 21 1921). At Athens this was represented as a financial triumph, and thus arose considerable outcry in British Press and Parliament to the effect that England was secretly financing the Greek Army. Meanwhile the truc situation was hidden from the Greek people; the persecution of Liberal deputies and journalists continued. Nor were the Liberals consulted when Gounaris

May 15 1919. Unfortunately during these negotiations Veniselos had lost touch with his people, and the Govt.at Athens had proven incompelent and corrupted. The resulting discontents were exploited by Constantine’s agents. Not the Greek peasants only but many of the urban population were innately averse to Veniselos’ 2zoth-century ideas. In Aug. 1920 Veniselos returned to Athens tired out, and angrily refused any clectioneering compromise with the 16 leaders of opposition. Then King Alexander, playing with a pet monkey, was bitten. He died of blood-poisoning (Oct. 25) and his younger brother Prince Paul having refused the Government’s offer of the throne, the restoration of King Constantine became the real issue at the general election. On Nov. 14 1920 Veniselos was heavily defeated at the polls. He resigned, and with many of his ministers and officials left the country. A government was formed by the aged Demetrius Ralli which entrusted the Regency to the Dowager Queen Olga. After the formality of a plebiscite King Constantine returned to Athens (Dec. 19 1920). ‘The Allied Powers refused to recognise him officially, withdrew their financial assistance, and agreed to reconsider the Treaty of Sévres, which though signed had not been ratified and had already been repudiated by the Turkish Nationalists. The withdrawal of their support was serious. The armistice concluded with Turkey (Oct. 30 1918) had made very incomplete provision for the disarmament of the Turkish forces and it was partly in order to restore order in Asia Minor and protect the Christian populations that Greek forces had been authorised to land at Smyrna. But the Supreme Council, although it had finally (July 1920) asked the Greek troops, in Mr. Lloyd George’s words, ‘to clear up the whole neighbourhood between Smyrna and the Dardanelles,” a task successfully accomplished in ro days, had set very definite limits to the Greek army of occupation: and Mustafa Kemal had had time to organise a formidable force. Greece was isolated; France and Italy both, overtly or covertly, supported Turkey, and Great Britain declined to embark on expensive Eastern adventures. Greco-Turkish War.—Yct the new premier M. Kalogeropoulos (Feb. 7 1921) and his successor MM. Gounaris (April 7) rejected

on returning to Athens (March 10 1922) was compelled to reform

the moderate proposals of a Conference of the Three Powers (Britain, France and Italy) which met in London (Feb. 21) to reconsider the Treaty of Sévres; and instead actually ordered from London an offensive (March 24) against the Turkish Nationalist positions, which after seizing Afiun Qarahisar and Eski-

his government. When the Near East Conference met in Paris, proposals for an armistice and the evacuation of Asia Minor by the Greek Army were transmitted to Athens and the two Turkish governments of Constantinople and Angora (March 26). The real ‘Turkish power, that of Angora, explained away the apparent acceptance of these terms al Constantinople by making it plain that Turkey would accept only the immediate evacuation of Asta Minor. A few days before the Conference Gounaris had privately addressed to Lord Curzon a desperate appeal for help and confession of imminent disaster. On May 11, after vainly following Mr. Lloyd George to Genoa, he resigned and joined M. Stratos in a coalition under the premiership of M. Protopapadakes, who had previously as Minister of Finance raised a forced internal loan by cutting in half all the bank notes in circulation. The first act of the new Govt. was to remove the commander-inchief, Gen. Papoulas, who had privately advocated strengthening the front by the reinstatement of Veniselist officers previously removed, and to appoint in his stead Gen. Hadjanestes. In July the Govt. had the independence of Ionia proclaimed by the high commissioner of Smyrna, M. Sterghiades. They also issued a report that the Allics would shortly allow the Greek Army to occupy Constantinople; while Gen. Hadjanestes, a figure of notorious eccentricity, completed the demoralisation of the front and actually transferred large bodies of troops from Asia Minor to Thrace. The Turks attacked on Aug. 26 and entered Smyrna on Sept. 9 1922; five days later the whole city, with the exception of the Turkish quarter, was burned to the ground. Revolution of Chios—~—The Govt. resigned on Sept. 8, after ordering the demobilisation of the troops who were leaving Smyrna, But the attempt to scatter the remnants of the army as they were evacuated from Asia Minor failed. Many units

landed on the island of Chios; and there a revolution headed by Col, Plasteras broke out on Sept. 26. King Constantine left the country and died in the following Jan.at Palermo. Eight of his principal ministers and advisers indicted by a special Commission of Enquiry were tried before an extraordinary court martial of 1r officers. Six of the accused (Gounaris, Stratos, Baltazzi,

Theotokes, Protopapadakes and Hadjanestes) were shot immediately after the verdict (Nov. 28 1922). The executions shocked Europe. The British Minister, Mr. Lindley, who had refused to take the responsibility of guaranteeing that the accused, if

GREECE

284

reprieved, should never again take part in politics, left Athens. But they had a salutary effect on the Greek Army. Thousands of deserters returned to the colours, and a small but efficient army, reformed on the Thracian frontier under the command of Gen. Pangalos, greatly strengthened the hands of the Greek representative (Veniselos, who had consented to represent his country abroad) and of all the Allies at the second Conference of Lausanne which finally succeeded in signing peace with the Turks on July 24 1923. | Refugees and Minorities —Neanwhile the Revolutionary Govt., after proclaiming an amnesty for all political offences (Jan. 22 1923), was confronted with the problem of the million destitute refugees expelled from Asia Minor. For some months the settlement of the refugees on a productive basis was organised with the help of American

charitable

societies; later the Greek

authorities

had

to

depend entirely on their own resources until a loan was raised (Dec. 1924) the administration of which was guaranteed by the League of Nations. In 18 months the Refugee Settlement Commission of the League of Nations had settled more than half a million refugees in new villages and urban districts throughout Greece. This scttlement increased the homogeneity of population on the Greek frontiers, where the problem of alien minorities had already been reduced by a system of exchanging populations, embodied in the Greco-Bulgarian Convention (1919) for the voluntary emigration of minorities and the Greco-Turkish ‘Convention (Jan. 30 1923) for the compulsory exchange of Moslem and Greek-orthodox minorities. These agreements (together with the Turco-Bulgarian agreement of 1913) completed and regularised a series of migratory movements which had begun with the Balkan Wars and had transformed the populations of Thrace and Macedonia. Thrace east of the Maritsa is now completely Turkish, Western Thrace predominantly Greek; and in Sept. 1925, the League of Nations Refugee Settlement Commission reported that Greek Macedonia was then “ crowded with an active and industrious population, of which more than 90%, were Greeks

by race and sentiment ” (see REFUGEES).

The Corfu Incident.—On Aug. 27 1923, the murder of the Italian member of the Greco-Albanian Frontier Commission Ied to the Italian bombardment of Corfu. Greece appealed to the League of Nations through whose agency the dispute was ultimately settled (see LEAGUE OF NATIONS). Greece's correct and conciliatory attitude in this unfortunate dispute did her great credit.

Return of Veniselos —At home the revolutionary Govt., led by Cols. Gonatas and Plasteras with M. Alexandres as Foreign Minister, made genuine attempts to return to constitutional government. They failed however to form a moderate centre party (Sept. 1923); and a month later the extreme Royalists, under Gen. Metaxas, attempted to raise a counter revolution, which was easily suppressed. There was evidence that Gen. Metaxas had been in communication with King George Il. Fhe Republicans thus received a tremendous impetus, and though at the elections (Dec. 16 1923), from

which

the Royalists ab-

stained, they were defeated, they had secured the support of the army and the navy, under the influence of Gen. Pangalos and Capt. Iadjikyriakos, whose pressure was so energetic that the Govt. to avoid disorder requested the King to absent himself during the meeting of the National Assembly which was to decide the future of the Throne. On Dec. 18 1923 the King and Queen left for Rumania. Adm. Condouriotes was appointed Regent and Veniselos was invited to return to Greece. In view of the apparent unanimity of the appeal he found it impossible longer to refuse. He returned (Jan. 4 1924) only, he was careful to announce, temporarily, in order to “ put an end to civil war,” and proposed to solve the constitutional problem by an immediate plebiscite. The Revolutionary Committee resigned and

Col. Plasteras retired into private life. Establishment of a Republic. —A week after his arrival Veniselos unwillingly accepted the premiership. He proposed (Jin. 23) that a plebiscite should be held in two months’ time, under the supervision of committees representing every party, to decide whether a republic was desirable, and if not who should be king. The decision was to be followed by a general election held under a system of proportional representation. He found himself opposed however by the extreme Republicans under M. Papanastasiou who insisted on the immediate expulsion of the dynasty and establishment of a republic by a vote of the Assembly. Veniselos resigned the premiership (Feb. 4) to M. Kafantares who also favoured a plebiscite. He succeeded (Feb. 27) in defeating the Republican motions in the Chamber and was proceeding to

negotiate for a joint programme with the Royalists when the Ofiicers League was reformed and demanded from Regent and Premier that a republic should be set up without more ado. M. Kafantares resigned, Veniselos left Greece (March 10) and a government was formed by M. Papanastasiou, who proposed to settle the fate of the throne by a resolution of the Chamber to be ratihed by asubsequent plebiscite. After the King had refused a very generous offer if he would abdicate voluntarily, there was no difficulty in getting the necessary vote. The republic was proclaimed on March 25 1924. The plebiscite, the arrangements for which were accepted by the Royalists, was held on April 13 when 758,742 voted for the republic and 325,322 for a monarchy. The republic under the provisional presidency of Adm. Condouriotes was recognised on April 23 by England, who had resumed diplomatic relations on Jan. 16. The Govt. of M. DPapanastasiou was strengthened by the inclusion of Gen. Pangalos, Col. Kondyles and Adm. Hadjikyriakos; but the two last-named officers soon left it again and M. Papanastasiou resigned, and was succeeded by M. Sofoules on July 19, after a violent attack on the Minister for War, Gen.

Pangalos, by M. Mihalakopoulos who himself formed a government on Oct. 7. The Unratified Pratocof — At the end of July 1924, Bulgarian komitadjis captured on Greek territory at Tarlis were shot down by their escort, anda month later a Commission of Inquiry appointed by the League of Nations censured the local authorities though it exonerated the Greek Govt.; a satisfactory feature was that the report was signed by the Greek member of the commission. On Sept. 29 the Bulgarian and Greek delegates (Col. Kalfoff and M. Politis) meeting at Geneva signed a protocol providing that each Power should appoint as its official advisers for carrying out the treaty protecting the interests of minorities Col, Corfe (British) and Major de Roover (Belgian), who were already at work on the frontier as

members

of

the existing mixed commission for the exchange of populations appomted under the Greco-Bulgarian convention of 1919. Their authority would be a protocol embodying provisions contained in the Treaty of Neuilly and repeated in an annexe to the Treaty of Sevres. Unfortunately this sincere and generous movement was regarded at Belgrade as an arbitrary recognition of the existence of “ Bulgar ” minorities in Greece which might lead Bulgaria to claim similar privileges for “* Bulgar“ minorities in Serbia. Serbian annoyance and Greek suspicion were quickened by exaggerated rejoicing in the Bulgarian press. On Nov. 27 Serbia denounced the Alliance with Greece and this undoubtedly determined Greek repudiation of M. Politis. On Feb. 3 1925, the Greek Chamber

refused to ratify the protocol and on March 14 it fell to Veniselos to announce and defend this refusal before the Council of the League.

Negotiations with Serbia.—On April 27 1925 negotiations for renewal of the Greco-Serbian alliance were opened at Belgrade and soon broke down over the preliminary demands of Serbia. Serbia demanded the control and exploitation of the railway from Ghevgeli to Salonika; an extension of the Serbian zone on the harbour of Salonika; and a recognition that the Slavs of Macedonia were not

“ Bulgars” but “ Serbs.” This last demand was referred by Greece to the League of Nations. With regard to the railway line she offered to rebuild and reorganise the line or to appoint a permanent League of Nations ofhcial to arbitrate on all Serbian complaints but objected to any such cession of rights as would be not only a diminution of sovereignty but a continual source of friction. The negotiations were broken off on June 1, and a subsequent proposal that the line should be worked by a French company (Oct. 9) was not more successful. With regard to the larger question of the Alliance, which remained in suspense, there was a possibility that, both Powers having disclaimed any territorial ambitions, negotiations might be re-opened (Jan. 1926) for the conclusion of a Balkan security pact analogous to that of Locarno. The Patriarchate-—At the Conference of Lausanne the Turks had consented to the maintenance of the Oecumenical Patriarch at the Phanar provided he exercised no civil or administrative powers. But on Jan. 30 1925 the new Oecumenical Patriarch was expelled from Constantinople by the Turks, who contended that he was not an ‘inhabitant of Constantinople ’’ and that accordingly he was not exempted by the Treaty of Lausanne from the provisions of the Convention for the Exchange of Populations. In any case the Greeks had put themselves in the wrong by ignoring the usual formalities of election and failing to obtain Turkish consent to his candidature. The Council of the League of Nations referred the dispute to the Hague Court (March 14); but meanwhile Greece and Turkey arrived at a settlement, Greece persuading the expelled Patriarch to resign,

Gen. Pangalos Seizes Government—Meanwhile the National Assembly had not yet succeeded in voting the new constitution

GREECE

285

and there were numerous complaints of peculation and admin-

The Greek Navy consists of 5 old battleships, 1 armoured and 1

istrative inefficiency. On June 16 M. Mihalakopoulos reformed his government but to days later, confronted by an ultimatum from Gen. Pangalos and Adml. Hadjikyriakos, he resigned. Gen. Pangalos formed a government (June 26) including Adml. Hadjikyriakos, M. Kofinas and, later, M. Rentes (July 2), an experi-

protected cruiser dating from before the World War, stroyers and 36 smaller units, including 2 submarines.

enced diplomatist, and after receiving a vote of confidence dissolved the Assembly. The new constitution, issued by proclamation on Sept. 30, provides for a president to be elected for a term of five years and a Senate of 150 members, too to be elected by the parliamentary franchise, 30 by various guilds and corporations and 20 by Chamber and Senate. Gen. Pangalos promised that it should be submitted for ratification after elections to be held in the new year. A proposal to court martial M. Papanastasiou for issuing a democratic manifesto was cancelled (Oct. 5) but Gen.

Plasteras was expelled from Athens

(Oct. 24). Two officials were publicly hanged for embezzlement. On Oct. ro there occurred a fresh frontier “incident ” with Bulgaria, in the course of which the latter appealed to the League of Nations (see LEAGUE oF Nations: Jerk of the First Six Years). The commission ordered Greece to pay damages and found she had violated the Covenant by occupying Bulgarian territory with her troops. The commission also made various recommendations for avoiding frontier incidents (including a system of frontier guards under neutral officers), and for com-

pleting without friction the convention for the Exchange of Populations. The undoubted success of the League was obscured in Athens by an inevitable comparison with the Corfu affair, but the decision of the Council in accordance with the report was accepted by the Greek Govt. on Dec. 15. Meanwhile Gen. Pangalos was making strenuous efforts to suppress political rancour at home. On Noy. 24 at a conference with the party leaders he reccived assurances that the constitutional question would not be raised at the elections in March and on this understanding the election of a senate was fixed for Jan. 10, and two Royalists, M. L. Roufos and M. Sehiotes, entered the Government. Apparently however it was too much to expect political leaders not to talk politics, On Jan. 3 1026 and in subsequent proclamations Gen. Pangalos announced that the senatorial and parliamentary elections would be indefinitely postponed and that his Government had decided to concentrate a! executive and administrative powers in its own hands; with the declared aims of economy and internal order and the forcible reconciliation of contending factions the Ministries of National Economy and Public Assistance were abolished, the permanence of the civil service was suspended and the Press was forbidden to publish any articles written by AIM. Kafantares, Papanastasiou and Mihalakopoulos. Adml. Hadjikyriakos and M. Schiotes immediately resigned. At the Ministry of Finance M. Tantalides, replacing M. Kofinas who had gone on a debt-funding mission to Washington, issued a forced loan similar to that of 1922 from which foreigners were not to be exempted (Jan. 23). All these measures were received by the people with the fatigue and jistlessness which were becoming almost a substitute lor political stability. Indeed while the agreeable M. Roufos remained at the Foreign Office to develop the improving relations with Serbia, Italy and Albania there was a prospect that Greece might at last enjoy a period of tranquillity and good government. The dictatorship of Gen. Pangalos had the merits as well as the defects of a fire-cating common sense, and it had the advantage of not being disguised in any pretentious ideology. (J. N. M.*) THE

COUNTRY’S

DEFENCE

‘The normal duration of military service, which is compulsory for all Greek citizens, is two years in the active army, Jr in the

reserve and eight in the territorial army. Men are called up at the age of 21, and ere liable for service until 5r. Territorials are only called up in case of invasion or threat of invasion, and are only called up for training twice in the fourth and eighth year for a fortnight. The peace-time strength of the army is 12 infantry divisions, 1 cavalry division and a certain number of units unattached. The total personnel in 1924-5 was 66,454.

rx de(X.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.——D. J. Cassavetti, Helas and the Balkan Wars (1914); S. B. Chester, Life of Veniselos (1921); W. Christmas, King George of Greece (1914); H. A. Gibbons, Veniselos (1921); L. Maccas, Ainsi Parla Veniselos (1916) and other works; J. A. R. Marriott, The Eastern Question (1917); P. F. Martin, Greece of the Twentieth Century (1913); W. Miller, The Ottoman Empire and Its Successors (1923); W. MihHer, A History of the Greek People (2821-1927) (1922); H. Morgenthau, Secrets of the Bosphorus (1918); A. A. Pallis, “ Racial Migrations in the Balkans During 1912-24," Geographical Journal (1925); R. Rankin, The Inner [History of the Balkan Wars (1914); A. J. Toynbee, Greece (1915); The Western Question in Greece and Turkey (1922); E. Veniselos and others (speeches by), Vindication of Greek National Policy (1918); H. C. Woods, The Cradle of the War (1918) and other works. IIandbooks prepared under the direction of the Historical Section of the Foreign Oflice on Greece, Afacedonia and The Eastern Question (1920); Handbook on Greece prepared by the Geographical Section of the Naval Intelligence Division at the Admiralty (1920); Greek “White Books” (AttAwparica @yypada, 2 vol., 1917). Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Treaties, ctc., issued by H.M. Station-

ery Office; annual and monthly Statistical Bulletins, issued by the Greek Ministries; publications of the League of Nations. See Oficial Journal of League of Nations and League of Nations’ Year Book.

IH. ECONOMIC

AND

FINANCIAL

HISTORY

Pre-War Position.—The economic situation of Greece during the early years of the present century, up to the outbreak of the Balkan War in 1912, was marked by a steady if modcrate progress. Industrial enterprises for local purposes were established in considerable

number. Communications by road and railway were extended, and large additions were made to the mercantile marine. The premium on gold gradually declined, and finally disappeared in 1909. By the Valaoritis law of 1910, providing for the automatic issue and withdrawal of notes against gold or forcign exchange, the currency was

definitely stabilised at par on the gold exchange system, to the great advantage of the general economy and the credit of the country. The state of the public finances, though less satisfactory, also showed signs of improvement at the latter end of the period. A series of deficits from 1907 to 1909 had to be met out of a portion of the proceeds of a new foreign loan raised for this and other purposes in 1910. At the same time, a programme of fresh taxation was introduced, including income tax and succession duties, with the result that the accounts up to 1912 showed a substantial surplus of revenue over expenditure. The varying interest on the old gold loans, payable out of surplus revenues in the hands of the International Financial Commission, marked a sensible upward progress, The Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 threw a considerable strain on the resources and the finances of Greece, which was, however, relieved in some measure by the material assistance rendered by Greeks abroad. Immediate war expenses were defrayed chiefly out of the balance of the 1910 loan and the proceeds of various provisional loans, which were liquidated by means of a new consolidated loan issued in 1914, and taken up for the greater part in Paris and London, This loan was secured on the revenues assigned to the International Financial Commission, an institution which, though regarded as an encroachment on the sovereign rights of the country, has been found useful on repeated occasions as a means of providing security for fresh loans. The economic strength of Greece was greatly enhanced by the acquisition of territories of both actual and potential value, including the important port of Salonika, the rich tobacco-growing districts of Drama and Kavalla and extensive arcas in Macedonia capable of productive development. The World War.—Alter the outbreak of the World War, and during the period of neutrality of Greece, which lasted from 1914 until 1917, there was a considerable accumulation of private wealth in the form of foreign balances, but the country suffered severely from internal conflicts, from the economic blockade of Old Greece in 1916-7 and from the prolonged mobilisation and war preparations. Noteworthy economic events during this period were: the law of 1915 facilitating the formation of co-operative societies; the connection, in 1916, of the railway system of Greece with those of Europe; and the agrarian legislation of 1917, which provided for the expropriation of large estates in favour of the peasants, and at the same time prohibited the alienation or mortgage of the peasants’ holdings and their subdivision at death. The entry of Greece into the War in 1917 involved a large increase in military and naval expenditure. Fresh taxation was imposed, including a tax on War profits, and a certain sum was raised by an internal loan and by the issue of National Defence, bills. But the bulk of the funds required was provided by advances in kind from the Allied Powers and by credits opened by the latter for expenditure in Greece, against which payments were effected in notes by the Greek Government. These credits were treated as cover for the note issue. The very considerable expansion in the paper currency which resulted from these arrangements did not cause at first too heavy a

286

GREEK

LITERATURE,

demand for exchange, for the factors which contributed to strengthen the foreign balances during the period of neutrality continued to operate until the end of the War. With the close of the War, however, and the suppression of restrictions on trade, the accumulated purchasing power of the country made itself felt in a large demand for foreign goods. Large purchases of Greek and other securities were made in foreign markets, and the depreciating currencies of Europe offered an attractive field

for the speculator. The resultant pressure on the exchange funds of the note-issue was so great that before the end of 1919 the available

reserves were exhausted, the exchanges began to fall away from the gold parity, and the Valaoritis law became a dead letter. In the course of 1920 a portion of the Allied credits was realised, but this was quickly absorbed by purchases of supplies, and the excess of imports reached unprecedented proportions.

Liffects of the Greco-Turkish

War.—aAt

the same time, the

Govt. found itself involved in fresh liabilities in connection with the military operations in Asia Minor. To raise the considerable funds required, recourse was had to a large internal lottery loan, to issues of National Defence bills, to loans from the National Bank and, finally, to inflationary issues of paper money. The fall in the exchanges was accelerated by the withdrawal of financial support and credits by the Allies on the return of King Constantine in 1920. By the end of that year the drachma had lost 60% of its gold value. This depreciation of the currency reacted unfavourably on the budget, while the prosecution of the Asia Minor campaign entailed ever-increasing expenditure. In 1921 and 1922 issues of paper money and National Defence bills were effected on a large scale, without authority from the International Financial Commission taxes were raised and a forced loan was extracted from note-holders by compelling them to surrender onehalf of each note in exchange for a government bond. The disaster in Asia Minor in 1922 reduced the finances and credit of

the country to the lowest ebb, and by the end of the year its securities were quoted on the International markets at prices yielding 20% to the investor, while the drachma had lost 94°% of its gold value. This collapse of the monetary unit, with the concomitant rise in the price-level, profoundly disturbed economic conditions throughout the country, and caused serious losses among particular sections of the community. The bulk of the public debt being on a gold basis, the real charge of its service on the state finances was not greatly reduced by the depreciation. Refugee Scttlement.—The influx from Asia Minor and Thrace of a vast number of destitute refugees threw a fresh burden on the resources of the country, and enlisted the sympathy and assistance of joreign countries, especially of England and America. Under the auspices of the League of Nations an independent refugee settlement commission was set up in 1923, for the establishment of the refugees, and a refugee loan was issued in 1924, in London, New York and Athens, guaranteed by revenues assigned to the International Financial Commission. Meanwhile, the Govt. made strenuous eflorts to put its finances in order. Considerable fresh taxation was imposed in 1923, including a capital levy to be spread over five years, which has given very mediocre results. The floating debt was largely increased in 1923 and 1924. A fresh uncovered issue of paper Money was made in 1923, and at the same time a law was passed authorising further issues against cover in funds abroad. The exchange, after violent fluctuations, settled down in 1924 to about one-tenth of the gold parity. By 1925 the public finances had so far recovered that the Govt. was able to allocate special revenues to the reduction of the tloating debt, and to present a balanced budget. But this equilibrium was afterwards disturbed by fresh expenditure and by a renewed fall in the exchanges, due to an inflationary banking policy and a maladministration of the foreign exchange fund created by the law of 1923. At the end of 1925 the drachma had again fallen back to one-fifteenth of its gold parity. Notwithstanding the instability of the political régime, of the public finances and of the monetary policy, the country as a whole showed remarkable powers of recuperation after a period of ro years of war ending ina great national disaster. The refugee population tended to become an asset instead of a burden. The refugees settled in Macedonia, extended the cultivated area and increased the production of crops, while large numbers found

ANCIENT

employment in industrial and other occupations. The expropriation of agricultural properties for the benefit of refugee and other peasants was accelerated, on terms very unfavourable to the owners, by special legislation in 1923 and 1924.

The mer-

cantile marine, which had been reduced by nearly two-thirds during the War by sales and losses through enemy action, was restored to its original strength. Exports expanded slowly, but the growth of imports bore witness (apart from the portion attributable to foreign loans) to the extent of the country’s additional resources in the form of shipping and other profits, of remittances from emigrants and of investments that were held abroad. The greatly increased burden of public debt was mitigated by the fact that the larger part of it was held by her own nationals. Nascent local industries, hampered during the War for lack of fuel, took a fresh upward stride, stimulated in some degree by high tariffs and other protective measures, and by the influx of refugee labour. The extension of building operations and other forms of economic activity afforded evidence of increased prosperity, but an exact measure of real progress could not be ascertained while inflation continued. Railways, roads, ports and urban services gencrally were still in a backward state. At the end of 1925, however, numerous projects were in contemplation or in course of execution, with the aid of foreign capital, for extensive improvements in these directions and for the further development of local resources. Statistical Comparisons. —The following statistical table summarises the changes in some of the salient economic and financial features of Greece over an interval of rather more than ten years, 7.€., I914 tO 1924. I9gi4

Present day

Area, square miles Population . ’ . $ Production of cereals, tons

46,000) 4,800,000| 847,000,

1925 1925 1925

Production of tobacco, tons Production, currants, tons Production of emery, tons

25,000] 158,000] 16,000] 20,000]

1925 1925 1925

1925

49,200 6,200,000 871,000 66,000 133,000 20,000 111,000

68)

1925

325

Production of lignite, tons

Exports, drachmas Imports, drachmas

178,500,000] 318,800,000]

Joint stock companies . . Companies, capital of, drach-

mas

Co-operative societies Letters carried Telegrams despatched Telegraph lines, miles Railways open, miles

OS . : .

Piraeus entrics, steamships

363,000,000|

. 5| . | 29,810,000] 1,968,000] 5,735) 1,366] .

1925 4,320,000,000' 1925 9,834,000,000!

1925 2,1g0,000,000' 1925 1924 1924 1924 1925

3,655 73,403,000 5,502,000

11,225 1,689

3,809 | 1925

Piraeus entries, net tonnage | 4,067,000 | 1925 Mercantile marine, steamships : ; | : 474] 1925 Mercantile marine, gross tonnage. ; : y 830,000| 1925 Bank deposits, drachmas 474,000,000| 1925 Bank deposits, postal savings, drachmas ; ; 700,000| 1925 Note circulation, drachmas. |253,000,000] 1925 Public debt, gold £ 43,900,000} 1925 Public debt, currency, drachmas . : ; i 173,600,000] 1925 207,700,000/1924-5 Ordinary revenue, drachmas Athens cost of living, index no. ; ; ; ; ; 100| 1925 Exchange on London, drachmas per £. i 25) 1925

7,915

5,044,000

467 QI2,000

5,755,000,000

93,500,000 5,339,000,000 77,800,000 7,918,000,000 4,719,000,000

Dec.

1,644

Dec.

378

1 These figures must be considered in relation with the exchange. BIBLIOGRAPITY.—A, Andreades, Les Finances de la Grèce (Paris, 1915); HI. Lefeuvre-Méaulle, La Gréce Economique et Financière en

rors (Paris, 1916); A. Andreades, Les Progrés économiques de la Gréce (Paris, 1919); T. G. Lecatzas, Les Finances de la Gréce pendant la Guerre (Athens, 1919); E. J. Tsouderos, Le Relévement Economique de la Grèce (Paris, 1919); C. J. Damiris, Le Systéme Monétatre Grec et le Change (Paris, 1920); A. A. Pallis, ‘‘ Racial Migrations in the

Balkans during the years 1912~24," Geographical Journal (Oct. 1925); also Financial and Statistical Publications of the Greek Government; Annual Reports of the International Financial Commission Annual Reports of the National Bank of Greece; Diplomatic and Consular Reports, etc. (L. G. R.)

GREEK LITERATURE, ANCIENT GREEK LITERATURE, ANCIENT (see 12.507).--Our knowledge of ancient Greek literature has been increased greatly since the beginning of the century. In 1918 Sir Frederick Kenyon knew of 920 literary papyri: Professor Oldfather in 1923 counted 1,167. No entirely new authors have been discovered equal in importance to Bacchylides, Herondas and Timotheus, and no new treatise quite equal to Aristotle’s Constitution of Athens. The New Comedy.—Of Menander we have considerable fragments—found in 1907—from seven plays, ranging from 550 lines to 88, and can form some opinion of at least three: The Epitrepontes (Appeal to Arbitration), with ten characters; The

Perikeiromené (Girl with her Hair Cut), with eleven; and perhaps The Samian Woman. Again, we have part of the plot of The Priestess. A man’s wife has left him (possibly for religious reasons) and become a priestess; he does not know what she did with their son, and the priestess is unapproachable. His slave pretends to be possessed by a demon, and so gets taken in to the priestess to be treated. He finds out that the boy is being reared as their own by certain neighbours, and tells the father, who goes straightway to claim his son. But these neighbours also have a genuine son of their own, and by mistake the old gentleman lights upon him. The boy decides that the old man is mad, and tells his foster brother, who, consequently, when his father approaches him on the same subject, humours him as a lunatic. ... An opening like this shows how far we have travelled from the simple pv@or of the 5th century. We can see that Menander invented his plots, and invented them with an ingenuity and complexity utterly beyond the conceptions of the great tragedians. We can appreciate his exquisite style; colloquial, yet refined, subtle and witty and capable of much emotional power. It is palely reflected in the wrbanitas of Terence. Contemporaries who were still under the spell of tragedy and the Old Comedy could ask themselves “ whether Menander copied life or life Menander ”; but on a modern reader he will not make an impression of realism. Lost or exposed children, recognitions, betrayed maidens, captured cities and heroines sold into slavery, faithful or ingenious slaves, indulgent or cross parents, play a larger part on his stage than they ever did in real life. Yet the general effect does give a vivid picture of Hellenistic Athens. It is an casy-going and cultivated commercial society, steering as best it can, with much understanding and sympathy and humour, amid the shipwrecks of a tormented world. There are no villains, no cruelty; the women have character, the betrayed maidens have generally been betrayed in the excitement of some wild religious festival, and the betrayer suffers torments of remorse. Except in the exposing of children, a favourite motive _ of Hellenistic fictions, Menander’s moral outlook would compare favourably with that of Molière, not to speak of Congreve. Callimachus.—Callimachus too has become a reality and we can understand the immense influence he exercised upon the Augustan poets. We possess many fragments from his slifte or Origins, one of them 80 lines long. Unfortunately nothing ts complete; but the fragments show a mastery of the Greek elegiac couplet unknown before. The diction is rather precious. The style often reminds one of Ovid, romantic with a touch of self-mockery, as though the poet felt the absurdity as well as the loveliness of the archaic legends which he collected with so much zest. The Alexandrian courtier is shown in his ‘‘ Lament on the Death of Arsinoe,” his “ Coma Berenices ” (which we know in a Latin version by Catullus) and other fragments. His gnomic poems are written in the assumed character of the ancient Hipponax, but have none of that satirist’s ferocity. One tells the story of the prize for wisdom, which was offered first to Thales but refused by him because Bias was wiser, and by Bias because someone else was wiser and so on by all the wise men in turn. Another contains a contest for superiority between the laurel and the olive, somewhat flat to modern taste. Another acquisition is a large fragment of a Life of Euripides by Satyrus, a Peripatetic of the 3rd century B.c. It takes the form of a dialogue; one of the characters is a woman; and the tone is that of drawing room belles letires rather than history. There

287

is much gossip and anecdote, given for what it is worth; many quotations, and some good literary criticism, e.g., the observation that Euripides wrote the “ things that held the new comedy together, peripatetics, betrayed maidens, supposititious children, recognitions by rings and necklaces, etc.” The fragment comes from Satyrus’ Lives in six books, the last of which dealt with the lives of the tragedians. It is extremely interesting as a specimen of the new subject of study introduced by the disciples of Aristotle, personal biography of writers and savants. Satyrus seems to have been the chief authority for the anonymous Life which has come down to us with the MSS. of Euripides. Lyric Poets-—Another new author of great interest is the Boeotian poetess Corinna, a contemporary and compatriot of Pindar, though curiously different from him. She stands right outside the sphere of Homeric influence. Her language is the coloquial Bocotian which she spoke, unaffected by literary tradition. Her themes, to judge from the two poems preserved, “ The Contest of Kithaeron and Helicon,” and “ The Daughters of Asopus,” are little more than local folklore. She cannot have been quite uneducated; her metre is too correct; but her work leaves the impression that Boeotian women in the 5th century, though they learnt Afousiké, did not know much literature. Unlike Sappho, she was a neither a bluestocking nor a genius. Sappho herself is now represented by about 100 new fragments, but the papyri have been so crushed and broken that very little is continuous or intelligible. The most beautiful of the new songs is perhaps equal to the best known before and has the same

poignancy.

It begins: “

. and simply I long to be dead.

She left me sobbing, and said: ‘Sappho, we have suffered terrible things. I swear, against my will I leave you.’ ” The exceptionally careful study of the whole material by Mr. Lobel has shown, first, that the papyri are very exact in reproducing dialect, and secondly that Sappho, except in poems modelled upon epic, wrote almost entirely in her native Lesbian. She stands between the rusticity of Corinna and the literary polish of Alcaeus. Alcacus also is represented by more than roo new fragments, various in subject and metre, but seldom large enough to yield continuous sense. A comparison of Helen and Thetis, a few lines about Sisyphus’ attempt to outwit Death, much about dura navis, dura fugae mala, dura belli confirm but do not greatly enrich the impression made by the previous fragments. There is style, spirit, vigour, variety and there must have been a mass of minute and intimate history. But we find perhaps more continuous beauty in the new fragment of I[bycus, passing in dreamy memory the great shadows of the Trojan War, or the short burst of lyrical hexameters in the style of Aleman. Pindar, of whom we had before only epinikia (victory songs) is now represented by considerable fragments of paeans, parthenia (girl songs) and dithyrambs. The pacans show the same abrupt and tortured magnificence of style as the extant epinikia; the parthenia, as Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Demosth. 39) had remarked, are simpler, and show Pindar in a new mood. “ Maidenly thoughts be mine and maidenly speech upon my tongue,” says one fragment.

The Drama.—There is also much beauty in the lyrics of Euripides’ Hypsipyle, one of which is a nurse’s song to a baby, with the accompaniment of a rattle and a new effect in one of the scenes where a mother, raging against the nurse who has inad-

vertently caused the death of her child, is suddenly reduced to silent tears by the presence of the gentle sage, Amphiaraus. The quiet exit of Amphiaraus to his foreseen death, and the subtle indications of Hypsipyle’s life-song devotion to Jason, the brief romance of her youth, are in Euripides’ most characteristic style. The fragments of Sophocles’ Satyr-Play, the Ichneutue (Trackers), have great charm. The infant Hermes has stolen the cattle of Apollo; the Satyrs go as detectives to track the thief, and hear

underground the first music known on earth—the child playing on the lyre he has made. The remains of Sophocles’ Eurypylus are very small, but show the great sth century style. Increase of Historical Knowledge.—lIf we turn from our direct gains in beautiful literature and try to estimate the new light thrown by recent discoveries on the history of Greek literature

288

GREEK

as a whole, the results are much larger.

LITERATURE,

The excavations of

Minoan Crete, though they have brought us no Greek text, make

a difference to our understanding of the Ilomeric poems and of the whole heroic tradition. We see quite clearly now that the poems do not stand at the beginning of literature. There were ages of literature before them. Even their heroic subjects can in many cases be shown to have been already known in or before the 16th century B.c. Gems and frescoes of that date show us the siege of a city, like Troy; a man under the belly of a ram and clinging to its long wool, like Odysseus escaping from the Cyclops’ cave; a scene in a deep glen, where a young man attacks an older man in a chariot, as Oedipus attacked Laius. This means that some of the main romantic motives used in Greek heroic poetry were already traditional then, attached to what names we know not. Again, the celebrated “‘ Ring of Nestor” (Jour. Hellenic Studies, 1925) shows scenes of initiation and of the next life, ideas which have generally been considered post-ITomeric and even for the most part post-classical. We sce now that they were in existence before Homer as well as after; and the characteristic theology of Homer, with its avoidance of these ideas, shows itself to be not a thing of primeval simplicity, but a peculiar product of the “ Heroic Age ” (i.e., the age of the destruction of Minoan civilisation by the Northern invaders). Again, while the excavations indicate pretty clearly that neither of the Homeric poems as a whole is ‘‘ history,” they also show that both are full of historic memories, in various degrees confused and fragmentary, and transmuted into the “ heroic”? mould. Variety in Greek Literature —But what we chiefly learn from the papyri is to appreciate the immense variety of Greek literature, especially in the Hellenistic Age. We have now specimens of three Satyr-Plays, instead of only the Cyclops. We have large

masses of the New Comedy.

We know something of the Alex-

andrian elegy and idyll, including bits of Euphorion as well as Callimachus. We discover the prevalence of poems in the style of different ancient writers: compositions in imitation of Hipponax, of Epicharmus, of Anacreon, of Alcman and letters professing to come from Hippocrates. We are reminded of the Delian Hymn with its claim to be by “ Homer ” himself. Religious or ritual poetry is represented by several hymns and paeans connected with the temple of Apollo at Delphi or that of Asclepius at Epidaurus. The most curious is a paean to Asclepius, which occurs in four almost identical copies of different dates and places. It seems to have been a stock form, with places left open, so to speak, for the names of the particular

city or individual wishing to perform the rite. More primitive worships, though in late form, are expressed in the Cretan Hymn to the Kouretes and the Eretrian Hymn to the Idaean Dactyls. The religious literature connected with Egyptian gods, such as Isis and Serapis, is of course extensive, but is generally in prose. Peculiarly striking 1s the great mass of light lyric poetry from

Hellenistic or early Roman times. A poignant “ Paraclausithyron,” or‘ Weeping outside the Door,’ by a woman; another, less good, by a man; several love-songs in loose Ionic metres (one starting with the poignant line xardxecuae pel? érépov, ce uéya PedAovea); soldiers’ songs; sailors’ songs; a song to the Rhocdian winds; a song of spring in the woods; a lament by a boy who has lost his pet cock; a powerful though roughly written complaint, of Roman date, by a girl whose lover is being sent to fizht intheamphitheatre asa mirmillo, and who desperately wants to buy him off; a charming quasi-philosophic jlute-song, written in a tricky metre with a refrain (ater wor), the first letters of each stanza forming an acrostic. Novels and Light Verse—Our own commonest form of light literature, the novel, is also well represented. There are three fragments of the preposterously romantic Chatreas and Callirhoe of Chariton, which had evidently great popularity: one of Achilles Tatius. The new evidence shows that these romances are much earlier than was supposed, Chariton about 200 A.D. and Achilles about 300. There are also fragments of several novels hitherto unknown—Semiramis and Ninus, Herpyllis, Chioné, The Dream of Nectanebo, etc. The supply of novels is equalled by that of ‘ Mimes,” or short realistic dialogues for

ANCIENT

acting or reading aloud. They are poor stuff, illustrating perhaps the pleasure in sheer coarseness which sometimes marks an over-refined age. More interesting are the poets who write under the inspiration of the Cynic “ diatribé,” or popular philosophical appeal to conscience. The confusions and inequalities of Hellenistic society stimulated a contempt for worldly standards and civilised conventions and a tendency to exalt the poor, the untaught, and the oppressed. In poetry this led to a revival of the scazons, or “lame jambies,” of old Hipponax, which affected both Callimachus and Herondas in later times, and has left us fragments of a 3rd-century anthology, in which the chief figure is Phoenix of Colophon. Better than these scazons are the ‘‘ meliambi ” of Kerkidas the Cynic (fer. 250 B.c.), who is known as a friend of the general Aratus, and is perhaps to be regarded as the author of the anthology itself. They are full of strange words and fantastic compounds which suit the mordant and rather brutal style of his “ diatribê.” It is instructive to observe that Cleanthes the Stoic, when writing his more ideal exhortations, avoids the deliberately fractious metres and uses the harmonious hexameter or iambic. In prose philosophy we have some striking specimens of sthcentury sophistic; a fragment of Hippias (?) on Music, deriding the theories which invested it with subtle moral values; and two of Antiphon the Sophist, known previously for his denunciations of slavery, with a highly provocative treatment of the difference between Phusis and Nomos. There is also a fragment of a dialogue

by that strange character, Aeschines Socraticus.

And meantime the charred remains of the library of the Epicurean philosopher at Herculaneum are slowly being deciphered; much Philodemus, Polystratus ‘‘ On Unreasoning Contemptuousness,” with fragments of Demetrius Laco, and the Stoic Ilierocles. Nor should we forget the uncommonly interesting Epicurean Gospel, inscribed by Diogenes of Oenoanda on a large wall, so that the world may read and be saved (2nd century AD.) “ Grammatiké” or philology is represented by Chrestomathies, “ Lives ” or “ Sayings ”’ of eminent writers, by scholia and glossaries and by a valuable fragment of Didymus’ Commentary on Demosthenes. Iistory, etc. —The additions to our historical literature are considerable. Besides the Constitution of Athens we have more than soo complete lines of a 4th century historian, who after much controversy seems likely to be identified with Ephorus, rather than with Theopompus or Cratippus. It deals chiefly with the year 395 B.c. Other fragments attributed to Ephorus treat the history of Sicyon and other subjects. There are small pieces of Timaeus, the Sicilian historian, and of Philochorus, the Attic chronicler. There are bits of what seem to be the authentic despatches of the third and second Ptolemies, and perhaps also of the first (P. Oxy., 679), dealing with their own campaigns; also of Sosylus, who lived in, Hannibal’s camp, and, according to Polybius,‘ gossipped like a barber,” on the “* Deeds of Hannibal.” Of Satyrus we have spoken above. There is some history also in the new fragments of the orators Lysias and Hyperides. But both as history and as literature the largest and most surprising additions to our knowledge are to be found in the nonliterary papyri, of which there must be more than 10,000. They may be divided into (a) official and (b) private, the first consisting of laws, rescripts, edicts, documents about taxes, Judicial proceedings and the like, the second of contracts, receipts, wills, manumissions and private letters or memoranda. ‘Their value is increased by the fact that they often fall into large coherent groups, such as the papers about the Serapeum, the correspondence of Cleon, the public architect, or of Zenon, the great estate agent. Combined with the rich mass of Hellenistic inscriptions, these documents have illuminated the life and social history oí the Hellenistic age to a degree undreamed of before. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The new texts are to be found in the principal collections of Papyri, e.g., B. P. Grenfell and À. S. Hunt,

Lhe Oxy-

rhynchus Papyri (1898, etc.), The Tebtunis Papyri (1902) and The Ilibeh Papyri (1906). See also Berliner Klasstkertexte, Berliner Griechische Urkunden, Boll. della Societa Papyrologica Italiana,

GREEK

LITERATURE,

MODERN—GREEK

Archiv fiir Papyrologie, and the various publications of the British Museum. The following separate publications are convenient (dates refer to first edition): S. Sudhaus, Menandri religuiae (1914); QO. Schrceder, Novae Comoediae Fragmenta (1915); R. Pfeiffer, Callimachi Fragments (1923); E. Diehl, Supplementum Lyricum (1910); Hans von Arnim, Supplementum Euripideum (1913); E. Diehl, Supplementum Sophocleum (1913); F. Bilabel, Kleinere Historikerfragmente (1923); F. Blass, Bacchylidis Carmina (1982); O. Crusius, Herondae Mimiambi (1923); B. Lavagnini, Eroticorum Graecorum Fragmenta Papyracea (1922); A. S. Hunt, Hellenica Oxyrhynchia with fragments of Theopompus (1909) and Tragicorum

Graecorum Fragmenta Papyracea (1912). Larger and more important

are W. G. Headlam and A. D. Knox, Herodas (Cambridge, 1922); E. Lobel, Sappho (Oxford, 1925); J. U. Powell, Collectanea Alexandrina —smaller fragments of poets of Alexandrine age, epic, elegiac, lyric and ethical (1925). See also the lists in W. Schubart'’s Einführung in die Papyruskunde (1918) and The Greek Literary Texts from GrecoRoman Egypt, by C. H. Oldfather, University of Wisconsin (1923); Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Menander, Das Schiedsgericht (1925). (G. G. A. M.)

GREEK LITERATURE, MODERN (see 12.521).—The troubled years from 1g10 to 1925 were marked by one event of capital importance to the literature of modern Greece, the all but total conquest of the entire literary field by the spoken language, commonly called the demotic or romaic, after a century’s struggle with the official or scholastic tongue, called the pure or catharévoussa. In 1910, Costis Palamas published the remarkable narrative lyrical poem The King’s Flute, in which he celebrates, in the moving atmosphere of Byzantium, the continuity of Greek throughout theages. In The Immutable Life he appears as a bold innovator, inspired by French intellectualism, and definitely establishes his position as a poet of world wide fame. Before losing himself in memories of his childhood, as he does in his next work (Longings for the Lagoon, 1912) he shows that he possesses the eternal spirit of ancient Hellas, of Byzantium and of modern Greece. He is a poet of theintellect and of thought, whose work, while showing the influence of Western symbolism, is yet filled with imagery and with glowing verbal music. In works such as fambs and Anapaesis and The Grave he has given expression to the deepest emotions. He was strongly influenced by the prophetic geniusof Joannes Psuchares,a master in every genre of prose, who introduced into Greece all the most recent linguistic theories.

Without his example it is unlikely that Palamas would have succeeded in realising his powers. So was founded the new School of Athens. Palamas, himself an occasional novelist and critic, became the centre of the popular renaissance. Among the stylists pure and simple of the school we find John Gryparis, a disciple of Hérédia; Laurence Mavilis, strongly influenced by Italian literature, who was killed in the war of 1912; the Baudelairean Papantoniou Costas Ouranis; Aristos Cambanis, whose work is chaste and, if anything, a little cold; and the delicate genius of Malakassis, who owes much to Moreas and to The Intermezzo. Peter Vlastos wanders from sphere to sphere, revelling in subtlety of rhythm and metre. All the storied past of Greece comes to life in his work. Apart from these, the dreamy Lambros Porphyras has written his Shadows; Sotiris Skipis has sung of his longings for his own country (Seng of pollo) and the sufferings of the fugitives from Anatolia. Myrtiotissa in his moving work has sung of passion, while G. Souris and Pol Arcas have turned to satire, and Drossinis, forerunner of many others, has produced his picturesque idylls. But apart from simple melodists like these tardy Parnassians, the newer poets venture even further than Palamas into uncharted territory. Among them are Angelos Sikelianos, who rediscovered the secrets of the ancient myths of sea and land, and who hymns the greatness of life; Rigas Golphis, bitter, eloquent and passionate; the fiery Varnalis, Ph. Yophyllis, who embodies in his work the minutest details of modern life, and Kavaphis, who, apart from the others, evokes, in a strange and unadorned style, the Alexandrian decadence which resembles his own depression. Prose Writings.—Modern Greek prose is unusually rich both in conte and in the novel. The scattered but recently collected

work of Papadiamandis,

who disappeared

in 1908,

remains

RELIGION

289

unequalled. Carcavitsas and Ephtaliotis painted the sea and the islands, and left models for others, as also did the regretted poet, novelist, critic and translator, C. Hatzopoulos. Costis Passayannis, Vlakhoyannis and the Epirote Ch. Christovassilis are accomplished writers of the heroic and the picturesque. D. Voutyras is more deeply moved by the troubles of the working classes. There are also C. Theotokis of Corfu,who combined criticism of society with the study of character, and showed himself in his

novels, The Slaves in their Chains and The Life and Death of Karavelas,as a cruel and unrelenting realist, also C. Paroritis, the powerful author of Red He-Goat, and Madame J. Dendrinos, who excels in depicting the ravages of passion. No one, however, in the novel or the theatre has excelled G. Xenopoulos, the creator of a whole gallery of pictures of Zante and Athens (/sabcel, Woman from Three Aspects). But Xenopoulos is not alone among Greek dramatists. Paulos Nirvanas, that fine critic and subtle observer, brought Ibsenism into fashion. Spyros Melas and Pandelis Horn achieved remarkable work with a high social aim, D. Tangopoulos distinguished himself in philosophical drama and N. Poriotis shows in Rhodopt that tragedy in verse is still to be found in Greece. Among the younger writers Constantinides in Photinoula reveals himself asa coming dramatist, and Valsa wrote a model of philosophic comedy in The Council of Ministers. In other spheres, we may mention the names of J. Dragoumis as a critic, of Philindas and of Triandoephyllides in philology and the study of language, while we must not forget the well-known Psuchares, Lambros in history, Politis in folklore, Andréades in political and social economy, Nenopoulos, Nirvanas and Cambanis in literary criticism, Voutieridis in the history of literature. The influence of the literary reviews 1s shown by the fact that modern Greek literature is becoming more and more westernised in inspiration and form and ceasing to be Byzantine. (P. Le.) GREEK RELIGION (see 12.527).—Our knowledge of this subject has been put on a new basis by researches into the beliefs of pre-Dorian Greece and Minoan Crete. N. M. P. Nilsson’s conclusions, that a Mother-goddess and a divine child, who is born, is suckled by an animal and dies annually are characteristic of Crete and of the mainland, that this pre-Greek goddess survives in the Olympian pantheon as Athena and as Hera, that at Eleusis and many other places a cult was continuously prac-

tised from prehistoric times, and that the great cycles of Greek mythology all centre round sites important in the Bronze Age, are of the utmost value.} How far this Minoan religion, which has clear affinities with Asia Minor, Philistia and Cyprus, was part of a general Aegean or even Mediterranean culture, we cannot yet say: Sardinia offers a remarkable point of contact.2 These researches into prehistoric beliefs have transformed the study of Greek mythology. We recognise in it not a little confused history, even if Forrer’s identification of Eteokles and Andreus, mythical kings of Orchomenus, with potentates mentioned in the Hittite tablets from Boghaz-K6i (see ARCHAEOLOGY: AsIA, WeEsT), should be seriously contested; we see in it also the reflex of old sacred traditions or rites (thus the death by burning of Herakles on Mount Oeta reflects a fire-ritual there annually performed), the influence of folklore motives distributed over a wide cultural area, and the effects of the desire to tell a good story for its own sake.? This study is in a favourable position, since Wilamowitz, Robert and others have done much to determine the earliest form and later developments of heroic stories,’ while Nilsson, Eitrem, Farnell and many writers in Religionsgeschichtliche Versuche und Vorarbeiten have increased our knowledge of ancient ritual.

Others, again, have investigated, not without exaggerations, the survival of ritual forms in drama and in the great games, and the gain to knowledge is clear, though it must be remembered that the search for a single origin of a human custom may well 1 Summarised in his History of Greek Religton (Oxford, 1925). | Ef. j Ashby, The Year's Werk in Classical Studies, p. 117 f. 1923-4). 3 C E. Pfister, Philologische Wochenschrift (July 1922); L. R. Farnell, Greek Hero Cults and Ideas of Immortality (Oxford, 1921), is of great value. 1C. Robert, Die Griechische Heldensage (1920) is noteworthy as giving a learned and critical survey. 5S. Eitrem's chief work is Opferritus und Voropfer der Griechen und Römer (Oslo, 1915). A good survey is F. Pfister’s article “ Kultus” in Pauly-Winowa Real-Encyclopadie.

GREELEY— GRENADES

290

prove Ulusory, that a rite can arise independently or by parallel development in two places and that at the same time few rites or beliefs have developed unchanged by external iniluences. Not all athletic contests started as acts of homage to a dead man, but some did, just as all heroes are not degraded gods, but some (as, for instance, Hyakinthos) are.’ Ritual origins can be forgotten; so could also the original meaning of certain survivals of primitive culture in historic Greece.? At the same time, the value of anthropological parallels appears in W. F. Otto’s conclusions, partly based thereon, that in Homer the yvxņ or soul in Hades is not the ĝvuós or soul of the living man.* The study of cult has further shown how moral requirements grow out of ritual requirements, and how important is the group as contrasted with theindividual.* In thestudy of cults and in particular of their geographical distribution has lain the chief advance in knowledge of Greek religion of the central period. Meanwhile we have learned much of the Hellenistic age as the period in which Eastern beliefs made their wav into the West, and in which many of the religious phenomena of the Empire have their roots; among these are ruler- worship, astral and other mysticism, as also certain liturgical forms and the type of magic familiar in Roman Egypt.’ Side by side with newer ideas the old worships lived on; there is no simple formula which expresses the religious attitude of the three centuries following Alexander’s death. Survivals of ancient paganism in Christianity? and in modern Greek beliefs and folklore have been much discussed; on many important points agreement has not been reached, but much progress in detail has been realised. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Among

books of note not mentioned earlier are

Boll's series Srocxeta (1914); A. B. Cook's Zeus, I. (1914), IT. (1925); Kurt Latte, Herliges Recht (1920); the alen of relevant inscriptions in the third volume of the new edition of Dittenberger, Siwloge

inscriptionum (1920); O. Gruppe, Geschichte der Kla ssischen. Mythologie und Rel igionswissesscha ft (1921) (a supplement to Roscher’s Lex ikon), the last work of a scholar who has deserved well of the subject for the high standard of accuracy which he set; R. Pettazoni, La religione nella Grecia fino ad Alessandro (1921) and Tmisteri (1923); : B. Drachmann, Atheism in Pagan Antiquity, Engl. trans. (1922); O. Kern, Orphicorum Fragmenta (r922); Ch, Picard, Éphèse et Can (192 2): B. Schweitzer, Verakies (1922): and F. M. Cornford, Greek Religious Thought from flomer to the Age of Alexander (1923) (a collection of texts in translation). Fuller surveys of recent advances are given by L. Deubner, Archiv. für Religionswissenschaft, 20 (1924); W einreich, id. , 23 (1924): Gruppe, Bursians Jahresberichte, vol. 186; and in The Year's Work in Classical Studies (annually). A. D. N.)

GREELEY, ADOLPHUS WASHINGTON (1844), American soldier and scientist, was born at Newburyport, Mass., March 27 1844. Enlisting in 1861 as a private, he served in the Civil War, and rose to be brevet major. In 1867 he was appointed second lieutenant in the regular army and became chief signal officer and brigadier general. While commanding at Lady Franklin Bay, one of the 13 international circumpolar stations, 1881-4, he reached, in 1882, 83°24’ N. 42°45’ W., the farthest north at 1QOn the drama cf. F. M. Cornford, Origin of Attic Comedy (1914); Sir W. Ridgeway, Zhe Dramas and Dramatic Dances of non-liurepean a (1915); on the games H. J. Rose, Aberystwyth Studies, No. 3, . 24 (1922); L. Malten, Römische Mitteilungen, vol. 38, 39; N. M. P.Nilsson, Deutsche Litteraturzeitung (Sept. 1925). eH: Ns Rose, Primitive Culture in Greece (1925), is very useful for its criticism of the supposition that totemism and tribal initiations were prevalent. 3 Die Manen (Berlin, 1923). *Cf. J. E. Harrison, Themis (1912), significant rather as one of the first attempts to employ modern psychological theory than for positive addition to knowledge. 5 E. Ciaceri, Culti e miti nella storia dell'antica Sicilia (Catania, IQII); Baege, De Macedonum sacris (Dissertationes philologicae IHalenses, 22) (Halle, 1913); G. Gianelli, Culti e miti della Magna Grecia (Florence, 1924); R. M. Peterson, Cults of Campania, Rome,

1919. (1923).

6 Cf. Franz Cumont, Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans (1912); R. Reitzenstein, /?re Hellenistischen Mystertenreligionen, 2nd ed. (1920); Das iranische E riösungsmysterinm (1921); E. Norden, A gnostos Theos (1913); S. Eitrem, Papyrz Osleenses (1925);

that time. Two relief expeditions failed to reach him, and when the third, under Capt. Schley, rescued him at Cape Sabine, all but seven of his party were dead. From 1887 to 1906 he administered the Weather Bureau and the Signal Corps. Under him were built more than 25,000 m. of cables and telegraph lines in Alaska, China, Cuba, Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands. Promoted major-general in r906, he conducted relief operations in San Francisco and put down the Ute rebellion. He served with the international conference, London, 1004, at the request of the British Govt. and was dean of the American delegation to the wireless conference at Berlin that year. Retired for age in 1908, in 1910 he was sent by President Taft to represent the United States at the coronation of King George V. He wrote extensively on meteorological, electrical, geographical and other subjects. His best known popular eolus are Three Years of Arctic Service (1885); Handbook of Polar Discoveries (1909), and Handbook of Alaska (1925). GREENOCK, Scotland (see r2.548), had a population of 81,123 in 1921. The area of the borough is 2,945 acres. There are several large shipbuilding yards, and a torpedo factory. The old West Kirk is to be removed and re-erected at Seafield to permit of the extension of Messrs. Harland and Wollf’s shipyard. The new works at the harbour include a tidal basin and an “always afloat ”’ dock, the entrances of which are closed by caissons to keep in 32 fi. of water at low tide. In 1921 there were three miles of quays in the port. Lacy Alice Park was given to the town in 1910, and Lady Octavia Park in the following year; in rorg Togo House was presented and opened as a maternity hospital. GREGORY, ISABELLA AUGUSTA, Lapy (1852), Irish playwright and author, was born March 5 1852, the youngest daughter of Dudley Persse of Roxborough, Co. Galway. In 1881 she married Sir William Gregory, a well-known Irish M.P. She produced many plays, essays, volumes of folklore, versions of ancient sagas and romances concerning early Irish heroes, and did much to popularise the Anglo-Irish dialect of English as spoken in the west. She translated for the Abbey Theatre several of Moltére’s plays into this dialect under the title of The Killartan Molière (x910). Her work as playwright and director of the Abbey

Theatre,

in association

with W. B. Yeats, was

extremely fruitful. This theatre was opened in roog and Lady Gregory told its story in Our Irish Theaire (1914). Sir Hugh Lane, whose life she wrote, Hugh Lanes Life and Achievement (1920), was her nephew. Among Lady Gregory's other works are: Cuchulain of Muirthemne (1902): Gods and Fighting Men (1904); Seven Short Plays (1909); The Kiltartan [i story Book (1909); Irish Folk History Plays (1912); The Golden Apple (1916); The Kiltartan Poetry Book (1919);

The Dragon (1920).

GRENADES (see 1.869 and 12.578).—A grenade is a small metal missile, usually filled with high explosive, which may be thrown by hand or projected with the aid of a rile. Grenades may also be charged with poison gas and incendiary or smokeproducing compositions, but the essential features of the various kinds remain the same. Gunpowder grenades, made of wood, bronze and other materials, were used in the 16th century, to be revived later in a high explosive form at the siege of Port Arthur in 1904 and in the trench fighting of the World War. Grenades are described as percussion or time grenades, according as to whether they explode on impact or after a definite time interval. Hand Grenades.—At the commencement of the World War, the limited supply of grenades in the British Army was of the percussion type, in which a needle in the head of the grenade is by direct impact caused to fire the detonator, a head-on fall

being insured by means of tail streamers.

At a later date, an

all-ways fuse was suggested

fire the grenade in

which

would

(1922-4). 7Ecf. C. Clemen, Religionsgeschichtliche Erklärung des Neuen Testaments (1924); the new Leipzig journal, Ayyeos; W. R. Halliday, Folklore Studies (1924), ef. also his chapter in R. M.

whatever position it alighted. The main disadvantage of the percussion type is the danger of it exploding if accidentally dropped after being made “live” prior to throwing by the withdrawal of the safety pin or other safety device. These considerations led to the adoption of time grenades as being safer in action and

Aaoypadia (Athens, I909-

allowing time in case of accident for the bomber to get clear or

The

Hopfner,

Dawkins’

Griechisch-dgyplischer

Modern

Offenbarungszauber

Greek in Asia Minor -~ ).

I.,

ÍL

(1916); and the journal

GRENFELL—GREY throw away the grenade. Furthermore, time grenades are more easily improvised than percussion ones, and during the period of severe shortage of munitions in the World War, many such grenades were constructed locally out of any handy receptacle. For this purpose a short projecting length (usually 5 sec.) of safety fuse terminating in a detonator (for high explosive fillings) within the grenade was employed. Various friction or strike and cap combinations were used to ignite the fuse before throwing. The principle of the time grenade is represented in its greatest perfection in the Millsgrenade (seefig. 1), invented during the War, of which enormous quantities were supplied to the British Forces.

It consists of a barrel-shaped iron casting, a, externally grooved in segments to ensure good fragmentation, and of a size to be conveniently clasped in the hand, weighing 1 lb. 8 oz. and containing 24 to3 oz. of high explosive, 4; amatol orammonal in powder form is convenient. The essential principle is that the ignition of the {ime arrangement cis caused mechanically, as soon as the grenade

leaves the bomber’s hand.

This is eflected by the release of a

291

if dropped vertically by accident, but is made “ live ” in the space of a short flight. Other essential conditions are to act in any position of impact or fall after throwing, to be interchangeable with trifling adjustment as a hand or rifle grenade, to be weatherproof and mud proof and to be simple in manufacture and use.

Brntrocraruy.—G.

M.

Ainslie,

Dyson, Grenade Fighting (New York, Text Book on Service Ammunition.

Hand

1917).

Grenades

(1917);

G.

See also the official (C. D. C.)

GRENFELL, WILFRED THOMASON (1865), British medical missionary, was born Feb. 28 1865 at Parkgate, Cheshire. He was educated at Marlborough and Oxford, where he took the degree of M.D., and studied medicine at the London Hospital under Sir Frederick Treves. At his suggestion Grenfell, in 1889, joined the Reyal National Mission for Deep Sea Fishermen

and for three years cruised with it in the North Sea as

medical missionary. In 1892 he went to Labrador as first medical missionary and there did a great work, building hospitals, establishing homes and missions for the inhabitants, and organising industrial schemes and co-operative stores. In rọo6 he received the work he did culminating Institute at America and

C.M.G. in recognition of his services. Besides the locally in Labrador and northern Newfoundland, in the opening by King George of the Seamen’s St. John’s in 1912, Grenfell lectured in Canada, England in order to raise funds, and the mission

expanded rapidly until, in 1912, its English, American and Canadian branches were united by the formation in New York of the International Grenfell Association, of which Grenfell became superintendent. During the early part of the World War he was attached as major to the Harvard Surgical Unit in France. In 1920 he became F.R.C.S. and in the same year received the gold medal of the National Academy of Social Sciences of America. è Fic. 1.—Section of Mills Grenade.

Fic. 2.—Grip for throwing.

striker d actuated by a powerful spring e which until then is restrained by a lever f. On withdrawing the safety pin g, this lever

is still held to the grenade by the thrower’s fingers (see fig. 2), but on the grenade leaving his hand, the loose lever flies off and a cap / is struck which ignites the 5 sec. length of safety fuse c, which in turn fires the detonator 7 and explodes the grenade. Rifle Grenades —Previous to the World War rifle grenades

had been designed in order to obtain an Increase of range beyond the restricted limits of hand throwing. These grenades were of the percussion type with a steel tail rod, with or without a gas check, which was inserted about 10 in. into the muzzle of the ordinary service rifle and propelled by the gases from a blank cartridge, which impinges on the tail rod. The rodded rifle grenade described above is open toserious objections, being unhandy, and Hable to bulge and split the barrel, particularly if the rod is not accurately straight and consequently tends to buckle. In any case, a severe strain is thrown on the rifle, which is eventually bound to damage it. This led to the introduction from the French of the discharger-cup or romblon, which isa short cylindrical cup

attached to the muzzleof the ritle, into which the grenade is fitted and from which it is propelled by the gases from a blank cartridge fired in the rifle, acting on the base of the grenade. The Mills grenade can be adapted for firing from a discharger-cup by the addition of a gas check plate, which is screwed into the base; the side of the discharger-cup holds the loose lever in position until the grenade is projected clear, when it flies off and sets the grenade in action. In this way rifle and hand grenades can be made practically interchangeable, thus simplifying both supply and transport in the field. Future Design.—The tendency of future design is in the direction of percussion grenades, which are considered to be more effective than time ones, chiefly in that no time is given in which to get clear or to throw back the grenade before it explodes, in the event of the time fuse being too long in its burning. The chief difficulty to surmount is so to design the grenade that it is safe

Grenfelľs publications include: Vikings of Today (1895); The Harvest of the Sea (1905); Labrador: the Country and its People (1909, re-issued 1913 and 1922 with additional chapters); -Adrift on an Tee-Pan (1910); A Labrador Doctor (1920, abridged 1925): Northern Neighbours (1923).

GRETNA, Great Britain, was the scene of a great undertaking during the World War. On a tract of land some rom. long and from one to two m. wide, partly in Dumfries, along the north shore of the Solway estuary, and partly in Cumberland, hundreds of stone, brick and steel buildings were erected for the making of munitions and providing for the wants of the workers who flocked there. These buildings included administrative buildings, schools, churches, messrooms, shops, halls, post-offices, firestations, etc., as well as factories, glycerine and ether distilleries, electric light and refrigerating plants. The buildings fell largely into two groups, one at Dornock to the west, and one about seven m. to the east at Mossband and Longtown. There were in addition two garden villages, one at Gretna, in the centre, and one four m. to the west at Eastrigg, with some 16 sq. m. of agricultural land, which has since been settled with ex-service men. The whole undertaking, about which great secrecy was preserved during and after the War, cost over £9,000,000 and employed at one time 24,700 people. It was sold in July 1924, although some members of Parliament made efforts to secure its use as a national factory. GREY,

ALBERT

HENRY

GEORGE,

qatH

EARL

(1851-

19017), British administrator, the son of Gen. Charles Grey, Queen Victoria’s private secretary, and grandson of the 2nd earl, the Prime Minister (see 12.586), was born Nov. 20 1851; he was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated with a first class in law and history In 1873. As his uncle, the 3rd earl, had no children, Albert Grey was the heir-presumptive to the earldom, and he sat in Parliament as a Liberal, first for South Northumberland, and then for the Tyneside Division, from 1880 to 1886. The Liberalism which he displayed in the House of Commons

and developed greatly in a

crowded after-life was unlike the conventional Radicalism of the period. He was an enthusiastic social reformer, and a whole-

292

GREY

OF FALLODON

hearted imperialist. He was one of the 93 dissentient Liberals who by voting against the Liberal Govt. decided the fate of the Home Rule Bill of 1886. He lost his seat in the ensuing Gencral Election and did not reappear in Parliament till he succeeded his uncle in the earldom in 1894. The interval had been largely filled with travel—chiefly along the by-ways of the British Empire. He was in South Africa when his uncle died, and his knowledge of, and interest in, that country led to his appointment in 1895, after the Jameson Raid, as administrator of Rhodesia in succession to Dr. Jameson. There he became a close friend and ardent admirer of Cecil Rhodes, and it was natural that, on returning to England, he should join, in 1899, the board of the Chartered Company. He visited Lord Milner in South Africa after the Boer War, and returned once more in 1912 to unveil the Rhodes memorial on the slope of Table Mountain. Canada, however, where he went as governor-general in r904,

was the part of the British Empire to hold the first place in his affections. Ife was no stranger there, but had already visited the Dominion twice, being brother-in-law of his predecessor, Lord Minto. His enthusiasm for the land and the people, his idealistic outlook, his bright and simple manner, his utter lack of conventionality and stiffness, his fondness for travelling and nature and sport captivated the Canadian heart. His term of office was twice prolonged; but Canada was loth to see him go in Oct. rọ1r, even though his successor was to be the Duke of Connaught. Never much of a party man, he was still less so after his return to public life in England. He devoted himself to the causes which appealed to him. Of these the Federation of the Empire was the first, and he would only contemplate Irish Home Rule as part of a federal scheme. He made a helpful contribution to licensing reform by the institution of the Public House Trust, and he worked hard for proportional representation. He forwarded all promising efforts for the improvement and organisation of agriculture. Lord Grey died at Howick, Northumberland, after a serious operation, on Aug. 29 1917, leaving, by his wife Alice Holford, a son who succeeded him in the earldom. GREY OF FALLODON, EDWARD GREY, rsr Viscounr (1862), British statesman (see 12.588), became Foreign Secretary in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman’s Ministry formed in Dec. 190s. Sir Edward Grey (as he then was) had previously announced that the Liberal Govt. would maintain Lord Lansdowne’s policy of an entente with France and an alliance with Japan, and during the general election of Jan. 1906 he was asked by France, who was being pressed by Germany about Morocco, whether, in case of a franco-German war, she could reckon on British assistance in arms. [fe replied that he could promise nothing which would not be fully endorsed by public opinion, but that, if war were forced on France through the entente respecting Morocco, he believed British public opinion would rally to her support. The French Govt. then suggested conversations between military experts. After consulting the Prime Minister, the Chancellor of the

Exchequer and the War Minister, he agreed, on the understanding that such conversations shouldi in no way bind the British Government. The Algeciras conference on Morocco followed in the spring of 1906, and the constant support which, on his instructions, the British representatives accorded to the French helped to produce a satisfactory result and to strengthen the Anglo-French entente. In t907 he came to an understanding with Russia. He concluded a convention with her about Persia, by which the integrity of that country was to be maintained, but Britain recognised that Russia had rights and interests in the northern zone and Russia recognised that Britain had rights and interests in the southern zone. In the same year he forwarded Anglo-American friendship by sending Mr. (afterwards Lord) Bryce to Washington as British Ambassador; and concluded a convention with Spain binding the Powers to maintain the sfutws quo in the Straits of Gibraltar and neighbouring waters. In t908—the year in which Mr. Asquith, an intimate friend of Sir E. Grey, became Prime Minister—the European situation was considerably modified by the assertion in Oct. by

Prince Ferdinand of the independence of Bulgaria and his assumption of the title of King and the simultaneous annexation by Austria-Hungary of Bosnia and Hercegovina, which she had administered under the Treaty of Berlin. These strokes of policy moved the indignation of both the Russian people and the Russian Govt.; but the German Emperor announced that he would stand by his Austrian ally in “ shining armour ” and Sir E. Grey, though he protested against the infraction of the public law of Europe, was naturally unable to promise Russia anything more than diplomatic support. The action of the Central Powers confirmed him in the view that it was they who might be the principal danger to European peace; but he was able to keep on friendly terms with them. The labours of the Foreign Office, coupled with membership of the House of Commons, left him little leisure for forwarding the general policy of the Government. Nevertheless, as occasion arose, he defended all the principal controversial measures. His main preoccupation, however, was British relations with Germany, who gave dramatic notice of her dissatisfaction with the spread of French aims and influence in Morocco by dispatching, at the beginning of July 1911, the gunboat “ Panther ” to the northwest African coast at Agadir, to protect, it was alleged, German interests. In view of this further attempt to test, and if possible loosen, the entente, he issued a warning, through the mouth of Mr. Lloyd George speaking at the Mansion House, that Britain intended at all hazards to maintain her place among the Powers. The warning sufliced to make Germany lower her tone, and subsequently Sir E. Grey explained to Parliament that the foreign policy of the Government was a continuation of Lord Lansdowne’s and had got rid of the constant trouble with France and Russia; that British friendship with these Powers, far from constituting a hostile encirclement of Germany, afforded a guarantee that neither would pursue an aggressive policy towards her; but that, when a nation had the biggest army and was increasing its already Lig navy, it was natural that other Powers should be apprehensive. While a section of Radicals and Labour men were suspicious of Sir Edward’s policy, public opinion in general (including the Conservative Opposition) supported him and was pleased when in

the following year his able services were marked by the very unusual distinction, for a commoner, of the Order of the Garter. In the beginning of 1912 he was a party to sending Lord Haldane on an informal mission to Berlin to reassure the Emperor and his Government as to the pacific intentions of Britain and to probe the intentions of Germany. The Cabinet formally notified the German Govt. that Britain would neither make, nor join in, any unprovoked attack on Germany. But nothing would content the German Govt. but an absolute pledge by Britain of neutrality if Germany were engaged in war —a pledge which Sir E. Grey naturally could not give. Largely in consequence of this ominous rebuff, he exchanged letters on Nov. 22 rot2 with the French Ambassador, agreeing that, if either Britain or France had grave reason to expect an attack by a third Power or a menace to the general peace, both Governments would consult whether they should co-operate and what measures they should take in common. Still he found himself able to work in general harmony with the German Govt. in the efforts made by the Powers, in conference in London, to bring a settled peace to the Balkans, which had been distracted in 1912-3 by a series of local but furious and barbarous wars. In this matter the diplomacy of Germany had appeared so reasonable that he was taken aback by her unyielding attitude in the negotiations arising out of the Austro-Serbian dispute. As soon as he heard of the Austrian ultimatum delivered at Belgrade on July 23 1914, he realised at once that Russia could not allow Serbia to be crushed and exerted himself in the most strenuous fashion to save Europe from the threatened catastrophe. Acting generally in conjunction with France and Russia, one or both, but in face of a lukewarm or hostile Germany, he urged upon Austria the extension of the alarmingly short timelimit of 48 hours; he proposed indefatigably various schemes for conciliation and conference; he pressed upon Serbia the

GRIERSON

293

necessity of going as far as possible to meet Austria. In fact, assertions of the German Chancellor that it was England and not Germany that was responsible both for the origin and for the Serbia accepted almost the whole of the Austrian demands; continuance of the War. When the pacifists called for negobut Austria would be content with nothing less than complete submission, and on the expiry of the time-limit de- tiationsin May 1916, he showed that when the Germans professed a readiness for peace it was only for a peace on the basis that clared war on Serbia. On July 29 Germany, asserting that war was inevitable if Russia attacked Austria, endeavoured to "Germany had won and the Allies were beaten; but the Allies were not beaten, and the first step towards peace would be purchase the neutrality of England by undertaking, if England remained neutral, to make no territorial acquisitions at the taken when Germany began to recognise the fact. Credit must expense of France—an undertaking which did not extend to be given to Sir Edward for facilitating, in the early summer of 1915, the entry of Italy—till May 3 a member of the Triple the French colonies—and by promising to respect Belgian integrity, after the War, if Belgium had not sided against Alliance—into the War against the Central Powers. It was, however, a bitter disappointment to him that his grave warnings Germany. Sir E. Grey next day absolutely refused to make failed to prevent Bulgaria, in the autumn of the same year, any bargain of the sort at the expense of France and Belgium. from taking the field against the Allies. Allied troops were sent In view of the apparent threat to Belgium, he asked France and Germany whether they were prepared to respect Belgian neu- to Salonika, and he offered Cyprus to Greece in order to induce her to carry out her treaty obligations and go to Serbia’s aid trality provided it was not violated, and he asked Belgium against Bulgaria. But on this issue King Constantine won the whether she would remain neutral. France and Belgium both support of his people against M. Veniselos, and Serbia was replied affirmatively, while Germany temporised. Hopeful crushed before help could reach her. negotiations which had been begun directly between Russia and In July 1916 an affection of the eyes, which had been giving Austria were wrecked by a German ultimatum to Russia to him increasing trouble, made it advisable that he should have as countermand her mobilisation; and on Monday Aug. 3 Germany much relief from work as possible, and he accepted a peerage. declared war on France. When a few months later, in Dec., his friend and chief Mr. The moment for decision had come for Great Britain. Russia had asked her to declare herself against Germany and so give Asquith was succeeded in the premiership by Mr. Lloyd George, the German general staff pause; France had asked her to co- failing eyesight and political comradeship both united to determine him to bring his 11 years’ tenure of the Forcign Office to operate as Germany was about to invade French territory. The Cabinet had hitherto been divided, a strong section press- a close. He had served for a longer consecutive period than any predecessor, and in his official methods he carried out his own ing for the preservation of neutrality, and so Sir Edward had precept—that foreign policy required not striking effects nor been unable to reply favourably to either Russia or France. But now Germany had declared war on France, and was ap- bold strokes but careful steering. After his resignation Lord Grey took little or no part in public parently about to disregard the neutrality of Belgium. ‘The Opposition, through Mr. Bonar Law, tendered support for life for several years. Happily, though he never regained normal vision, rest and quiet gradually worked a decided improvement active measures to aid France and Russia; and Sir Edward, in his eyesight. But, with the exception of a three months’ with a Cabinet rallying, with few exceptions, to his view, was able to make an appeal in the House of Commons on Aug. 3 mission in 1919 to the United States to deal with questions arising out of the peace, he did not definitely emerge from his for public and Parliamentary support to a policy of action. The speech finally decided a wavering public opinion; with the retirement till 1922. It was the time of the decadence of the exception of some Radicals and extremist Labour men, all parties, coalition government and Lord Grey urged that it was not trusted and should come to an end, which happened within a including the Irish Nationalists, accepted the necessity of war. Sir Edward demanded next day that Germany should respect few months; he was also anxious to resuscitate the Liberal party, a process which was only partially effected. In foreign the neutrality of Belgium, and, on the German refusal, England affairs he pressed for the re-establishment of good relations with went to war. France, and for the arrangement of an inclusive peace pact, One of Sir Edward’s first tasks was to turn the association beginning with France. When such a pact was concluded at of the Powers fighting Germany and Austria into an alliance, Locarno in 1925 he welcomed it warmly. But the cause to which which bound its members to fight in common, and make peace in common. Inthe course of the negotiations for this purpose he he devoted most of his energy was that of the League of Nations. did not hesitate to guarantee the support of Great Britain for He was especially anxious that Germany should be included as a member at the earliest possible date, and maintained that this the attainment of long-cherished national objects, provided that these did not conflict with the aims of liberation and self- should be the only business of the spring meeting of the League development common to the Allies: the most striking case in 1926, which unfortunately separated without effecting it. Mauch of his time in these years was taken up in the compilabeing the promise, after Turkey entered the War on the side of tion of a straightforward narrative and vindication of his course the Central Powers, that Russia should have Constantinople. in foreign policy, which was published in 1925 under the title Much of his time and attention was occupied by difficult quesTwenty-five Years, r892-1916. He had published in 1899 another tions arising out of the blockade of Germany and the consequent volume on F/y-Fishing, his favourite recreation. In 1885 he interference with the trade of neutrals. Public opinion in Great married Dorothy, daughter of Shallcross I. Widdrington, of Britain constantly complained that the blockade was not enforced with sufficient strictness; while the United States, as Newton Hall, Northumberland. She was killed in a carriage accident in 1906, and in 1922 Lord Grey married, as his second the principal neutral, harassed the British Govt. by repeated

notes, denouncing the methods of the British Navy

as un-

necessarily prejudicial to American trade and contrary to international law. He was perhaps more successful in his answers to the Americans than in his justification to the British public; and a large body of opinion in America accepted his explanations as reasonable. The tenure of the Foreign Office by a statesman so highminded, sincere and experienced as Sir Edward Grey was everywhere regarded as such a valuable asset for Great Britain that it appeared only natural and fitting for Mr. Asquith, when contemplating the formation of a coalition government in May 1915, to lay down, as one of the essential conditions, that

there should be no change in the office of Forcign Secretary. No

one

could

refute

with

such

authority

the intermittent

wife, Pamela, sister of George Wyndham, widow of the 1st Lord Glenconner. (G. E. B.) GRIERSON, SIR JAMES MONCRIEFF (1859-1914), British soldier, was born at Glasgow Jan. 27 1859 and joined the Royal Artillery in 1877. Noted from the outset as an exceptionally keen student of his profession, from 1896 to 1900 he was military attaché at Berlin. As a colonel he was with Lord Roberts during the advance from Bloemfontein into the Transvaal; but he was then transferred to China to act as British military representative on the staff of Count Waldersce, commander-in-chief of the Allied forces against the Boxers. In 1904 he was appointed director of military operations. He commanded the 1st Div. at Aldershot from 1906-10, and was in 1912 put in charge of the

Eastern command.

On the outbreak of the World War Sir J.

294

GRIFFITH

Grierson was selected for the command of the II. Army Corps. He proceeded to France, but died suddenly on Aug. 17 1914 while his troops were still assembling in the area of operations. A good linguist and unusually well acquainted with most of the European armies, Grierson had an understanding of “Ja grande guerre ” | and an intimate knowledge of the German Army that made his premature death an incalculable loss to the British cause. GRIFFITH, ARTHUR (1872-1922), Irish politician, was born in Dublin March 31 1872 and began his working life as a printer. When the Irish party was divided over the Parnell case, Griffith, like Dublin artisans in general, sided with Parnell and against the clergy. But the rancorous quarrels which then disfigured Irish politics disgusted young men and led them to despair of success along constitutional lines. New organisations came into existence in Dublin, the most important being the Gaelic League for the revival of the Irish language. Griffith joined this movement, but, since it was professedly non-political, his main activities were with the Celtic Literary Society, the leading figure of which was William Rooney. Over and above all these minor groups there existed the Irish Republican Brotherhood or Fenian Society, of which Griffith became a member. He went to South Africa in 1896, owing to lack of employment in Dublin, but home-sickness brought him back to Ireland in 1898. In 1899 The Untied Irishman, a weekly paper, was established, through the columns of which he was destined to influence Ireland. Early Writings and Aims —At first Rooney counted for more in the new movement than Griffith, for he possessed that personal magnetism in which Griffith was lacking, yet after his death in 1gor, the paper strengthened rather than weakened. No such journalism had appeared in Dublin since the time of Young Ireland. It was savagely political; but its politics had an idealism which was foreign to the agrarian revolution. Griffith cared passionately for the things of the mind; his own writing had the beauty of trenchant steel; and he welcomed contributions from the best writers in Ireland, W. B. Yeats, ‘* A. E.” and the rest. No contributor expected to be paid, for all knew that Grifhith himself lived on a pittance. Later, when the power of his pen was recognised, generous offers were made to him, but he rejected them, and steadily pursued his own aim. That aim was both destructive and constructive. He sought first to divert his countrymen from the attempt to win self-government through parliamentary action at Westminster,and secondly to persuade them to work for it in their own country. Physical force was then popularly regarded as an illusion; and Griffith, though all his intimate associates were Fenians, recognised that the majority of Irish Nationalists did not think separation from Britain possible. He therefore resigned membership of the I.R.B., and aimed at winning over the separatists to work for a Parlament in Ireland united to that of England only by the link of the Crown. Asa means to this end, he proposed passive resistance and an appeal to moral force. Payment of taxes was to be refused. Members elected to Parhament were to absent themselves from Westminster, and to sit in Ireland as a Council and govern only by the assent of the nation. Tribunals were to be set up to which cases should be brought, and the British courts were to be deserted. Rise of Sinn Péin.—This policy was first publicly announced at a meeting in Dublin in Oct. 1902. The body which met called itself Cumann nan Gaodheal or “ Society of the Gaels.” But the name chosen to represent their policy was Sinn Féin ‘ Ourselves ’— Irish words which in their proverbial use mean roughly “f Stand together.” The name was soon transferred from the policy to its adherents. Candidates were put forward at municipal elections and by r906 there were 14 Sinn Féiners on the Dublin corporation. But Griffith’s propaganda was mainly confined to the capital; and in 1907 a member of the Irish party, who resigning his seat, stood for re-election as a Sinn Féiner, was heavily defeated. The attempt to return a Sinn Féiner to Parliament was not renewed for ro years. The new policy at first did not make much headway. Resistance to taxation proved difficult because all taxation except

income tax was indirect, and a large proportion of income tax payers were Unionists. The only effective forces were the personality and the pen of Arthur Griffith. His paper changed its name in 1906 when damages for libel were awarded against the United Irishman. That journal disappeared, and re-emerged as Sinn Féin. In 1907, when the Parliamentary party had suffered a reverse, Sinn Féin appeared as a daily paper, but this experiment soon had to be abandoned, and after another bankruptcy Zire became its name. Griflith wrote no books: but he published in 1905 a pamphlet called The Resurrection of Hungary which described how an almost vanished language had been re-

stored to national use, and how the elected deputies of an ancient nation, through a policy of abstention from the Austrian Assembly, gained full freedom under a dual monarchy. The Volunicer Afovement.—Grilith, during these years, taught the rising generation to despise and distrust not only the methods but the character of those who were then leading the main national movement and he was less scrupulous in his modes of attack than a publicist should be. Yet when it became clear in 19tr that a Home Rule Bill was seriously intended, he announced his intention not to hamper Redmond. But the measure proposed was wholly unlike his ideal and he condemned it root and branch, his most furious opposition being directed against that partition of Ireland which he was later constrained to accept. In the shaping of events, neither he nor his paper counted for much till the growth of the Ulster Volunteers revived the hopes of the physical force party.

Griffith supported the counter-organisation of the Irish Volunteers by word and deed. He was one of those who received the rifles landed at Howth in July 1914. The outbreak of the World War revived all his importance. The Volunteers split, ninetenths of them adhering to Redmond in support of the British

cause but the remainder, active and determined, remained in Ireland; and Griffith’s paper was their main organ. The censorship attacked it, but instead of Eire, there came out Scissors and Paste, a Journal consisting of extracts from war news arranged to give an impression very unfavourable to the Allies. It was only one of many journals. Griffith had founded a school, a ‘‘ mosquito press ’” and had set the example of tenacity and courage. The Easter Ristng—The Easter Rising of 1916 was a surprise to the majority of Irishmen. Griffith took no part in it, and thereby lost influence with the extremists. But the British authorities remedied this by putting him into Frongoch, the detention camp in Wales, which became a crowded academy of Sinn Féin. Yet when in July 1917 the prisoners were released, Mr. de Valera was chosen as their leader. Griffith proposed this election at the Convention of Sinn Féin, while he himself returned to his desk, re-issuing his paper as Nationality; this also was suppressed and re-appeared as Hire Og. He was again put in gaol in r918. At the General Election after the Armistice, Sinn Féin swept the board outside Ulster, and Griffith’s policy was put into force. The elected members (such as were not in prison) assembled as Dail Eireann, the Irish Parliament. But, going beyond Griffith’s plan, they declared for an Irish Republic, electing Mr. de Valera as President and Grifhth as Vice-President. Both these men were then prisoners; but after some months the President escaped and Griflith was liberated. | Griffith as Leadcer.— During Mr. de Valera’s absence in America, from June roro to the close of 1920, Griffith acted as head of the “ Irish Republic.” His policy now was carried out in its entirety. The elected bodies, county councils and municipalities refused to take orders from the British authorities in Dublin Castle; Sinn cin courts were set up and functioned with notable success; income tax was withheld. But these forms of passive resistance were effective only because active resistance was in progress.

Griffith neither launched nor controlled the guerilla war, to the pressure of which England finally vielded. During that struggle, power rested with Collins and other young men. Yet Griffith had still a great part to play. When the truce was proclaimed and negotiations were opened in July 1921, Mr. cde Valera refused to accept the responsibility of abating the full separatist demand. Griffith, thereupon, undertook

GRIMSBY— GUATEMALA the leadership of the delegation which finally secured the inclusion in the treaty of the substance of Sinn Féin’s original demand. Defending this settlement in the Dail, he spoke with the conviction of one whose ideal had been accomplished and who knew that it satisfied the desire of Nationalist Ireland in general. Without his authority, prestige and sense of realities, it is unlikely that any settlement of the ditlicult Irish question would have been reached. | Many of those who supported him would not accept the full consequences of the treaty; and when Mr. de Valera resigned, Griffith was elected President, not of the Free State, but of the Republic and the army continued to be in theory the Republican army. To mect the dithculty, Griffith set up a Provisional Govt. with Michael Collins as Chairman to carry on till a general election should have ratified the treaty. This resulted in an illogical division of authority and as months passed Grilfith’s public utterances as President were often contradicted by the action or inaction of the Provisional Government. During the final discussions with the British Govt. in June 1922, concerning the treaty, he interviewed the leading Irish Unionists and pledged himself to secure them full representation in the public life of the Free State. His conception of Ireland was less narrowly Gaelic than that of Sinn Féin in general. After the elections on June 16, when a plain verdict was given for acceptance of the treaty, the Government was at last forced to take action against the mutinous section of the army. Civil war began on June 27. In July the main bodies of the Irregulars were everywhere decisively beaten, and on Aug. rr a force sent round by sea occupied Cork, the last important town to be regained. On the morning of Aug. 12 Griffith fell dead suddenly on the way to his office in Dublin. The strain had killed him, and the completion of his life work was left to a younger generation. Essentially he must rank as a publicist, an educator, an inspirer of action. Few men in history have accomplished more for their country than he by his unpaid pen. (S. G.) GRIMSBY, England (see 12.603), has an area of 2,868 ac. in the county borough and of 1,798 ac. in the parish, with 117 ac. of water and 248 of foreshore, and a population in 1921 of 82,355. The fishing trade has increased largely since 1910 and has necessitated the provision of a new dock; there are considerable imports of timber and ice, and the town has some ice factories. The tramways were taken over by the corporation

in 1925.

St. Augustine’s Church was built in tgt1, St. Luke’s

in rgt2 and St. Peter’s (Roman Catholic) in 1919; a new parish, that of St. Stephen’s, was made in rọrr. A children’s home in Brighowgate was opened in 1913, and Queen Mary’s hostel, built

by the National Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen, in 1925. A War Memorial in Bargate was unveiled in 1921. The Grimsby trawlers and their crews did splendid work in sweeping for mines during the World War (see MINELAYING). GROSSMITH, GEORGE (1847-1912), British comedian (sce 12.619), died at Folkestone March 1 rgrz2. His son, GEORGE GROSSMITH (1874), British comedian, and third of the name, who made his first appearance at the Shaftesbury Theatre in an operetta by his father, became a wellknown figure in musical comedy, especially at the Gaiety Theatre, London. He was the author, or part author, of many musical plays, songs and revucs, and took a leading part in popularising revue in London. Together with Edward Laurillard he became lessee and manager of several London theatres. During the World War he served as lieutenant in the R.N.V.R. GRUNDY,SYDNEY (1848-1914), British dramatist (sce 12.640), died in London July 4 1r9r4. His last play, A Fearful Joy, was published in 1908. GUAM (see 12.648).—American naval station in the North Pacific, the largest of the Marianas Islands. The native population, 69° of which lives in the chief town, Agafia, was 14,912 on June 30 1923, and 15,160 0n June 30 1924. On the latter date there were also living on the island 350 non-natives, besides the

personnel of the naval establishment amounting to 814. With the non-natives are included the families which are the result of marriages with native women.

295

Production.— Agriculture is the chief occupation, and the Government is making efforts to develop this, so that the island may be more nearly self-supporting and have a larger surplus for export. Copra is the chief crop and about the only export, the normal crop being about Soo tons. In 1923-4 the first coconut-oll mill in the island was erected. Maize and other foodstuffs grow readily. A good grade of coffee is produced, and excellent tobacco can be grown. Fish are plentiful in the waters surrounding the island, but the fishing industry has never been developed to its full capacity, and fish foods are imported. Education.—Education is compulsory up to the age of 12. Ir 1923-4 there were 16 primary schools, one intermediate school. one high school and one school for Americans, besides two private schools. Pupils attending the schools were 2,833, of whom 2,676 were in the public schools. The number of American teachers increased from 4 in 1922-3 to 14 in 1923-4. Teaching is in English. Athletics are a recognised part of the curriculum, and baseball is played enthusiastically throughout the island. About 40° of the public receipts are expended on education. Finance and Trade—The revenues for the fiscal year 1923-4 amounted to $137,805, and expenditures to $152,781. Revenues for 1923-4 included land taxes, about $42,000; licences, about $15,300; court fees and fines, about $10,650; customs and revenue collections over $9,000 (approximately $6,657 being customs collections); and productive industries, about $27,600. The Government is also collector of customs and revenues. The balance of trade 1s heavily against Guam. Imports and exports in 1923 Were valued at approximately $674,556 and $94,086, respectively, and in 1924 at approximately $632,721 and $66,095 respectively. In 1923 1,432,568 lb. of copra were exported to the United States, and in 1924 2,110,000 pounds. The heaviest import is of food supplies, amounting in 1924 to over $245,000.

The only banking institution is the Bank of Guam which was established by the Naval Govt. in 1915, for general banking business and as a depository of the Naval Govt. of Guam. It has a capital stock of $15,000 fully paid up. On June 30 1924 its surplus amounted to $29,000. Administration — The administration is directly under the Department of the Navy, and the Governor is a naval officer with the rank of captain who is appointed by the Secretary of the Navy. The Governor has full power and authority to make laws for the government of the island, from which there is no appeal. He is assisted by a native Congress which has only advisory power. The Guam Congress on July 1 1925 resolved that the Congress of the United States be petitioned to enact a law making all native Chamorros of Guam citizens of the United States, or that Congress grant them the privilege of becoming citizens of the United States by naturalisation. The cadastral survey is proceeding rapidly and new roads are being constructed. The Dollar Line has established a regular service to Guam, and there are regular sailings to Manila and Japan. Recent public improvements are a new post-office in Agafia, the capital, school buildings and a number of roads. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—L. M. Cox, The Island of Guam (1917); US. Bureau of Census, Census of Guam (1920); Guam Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin (Washington, annual, 1921, etc.).

(J. A. Ro.)

GUARANTEES: sce SANCTIONS AND GUARANTEES. GUARDIANS, BOARD OF: sec POOR LAW. GUATEMALA (sce 12.661).—A republic of Central America and a member of the League of Nations. Its estimated area is 48,250 square miles. The capital, Guatemala City, was completely destroyed by earthquake between Jan. 25 1917 and Jan. 24 1918.

I. POLITICAL

HISTORY

Guatemala was little affected by the World War, but on April 27 1917 she broke off diplomatic relations with the German Govt., and on April 23 1918 adopted “ the same belligerent attitude as the United States.” Guatemala was one of the signatories to the Treaty of Versailles June 281919. In rọr5 Manuel Estrada Cabrera, who had been dictator since 1898, was

GUATEMALA

296

re-elected for the term 1917-23. In 1920, however, 2 group of intellectuals known as the Unionist party opened a newspaper campaign against him, which developed into a revolutionary movement and spread to the National Assembly. When the army became infected Cabrera resigned (April 1920) in favour of the vice-president, Carlos Herrera, who was elected President by the National Assembly. His Government was promptly recognised by the Powers. Herrera, who had wide experience of agriculture, banking and commerce, aimed at encouraging foreign capital, stimulating immigration and internal development. Tle worked energetically to repair the damage caused by the earthquake of 1917-8, and erected many valuable public buildings. On Oct. ro 1921, after prolonged preliminary negotiations, Guatemala, Honduras and Salvador signed a pact of union at San José, agreeing to form a Central American Union. (See CEN-

TRAL AMERICAN UNION.) Each state, for the time, was to conduct its own internal affairs; but the signatory states were to constitute a unit on

foreign affairs and for matters of common interest. Costa Rica and Nicaragua failed to enter the Union. On Dec. 7 1921 the Opposition overthrew Herrera, leader of the Unionist party which was favourable to the Union, and Gen. Orellana, leader of a military faction, was elected President in March 1922 for a term of six years. A revolt against him in July was put down with bloodshed. Pres. Orellana repudiated the Pact signed on Aug. 20 1922 by Nicaragua, Honduras and Salvador (see CENTRAL AMERICAN UNION) on the ground of avoiding “ entangling alliances.” His Government was represented, nevertheless, at the Washington Conference of 1922-3 and signed the conventions there agreed upon. In June 1924 it was the first Central American republic to adept the international commissions of inquiry provided for by the Washington Conference. The National Assembly ratified the general Treaty of Peace and Amity

there drawn up. In Aug. 1924 Guatemala reached an agreement with the United States, according mutual most-favoured-nation treatment in customs, and in Nov. effected a commercial treaty with Germany on the same principle. By a decree of April 28 1925 all foreign companies domiciled in Guatemala must appoint a representative for legal and non-legal transactions. In April 1925, also, women obtained independent legal personality. Under the 1923 general Treaty of Peace and Amity, Guatemala agreed to limit its armed forces for a period of five years to 5,200, and moreover to restrict aircraft to 10 aeroplanes and to maintain no navy. Education.—Primary education is free and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14. In 1917 there were 1,942 government schools, with 54,479 pupils in attendance. After the destruction of Guatemala City by earthquake in 1917-8 education suffered a check until 1924, when it received special attention. In 1924 there were 1,477 Government schools, and a number of private secondary, professional, normal and vocational schools, as well as four schools of commerce. There were 94,177 pupils in attendance and 4,284 teachers.

II. SOCIAL AND

ECONOMIC

CONDITIONS

The census of 1920 gave a population of 2,004,900, and the estimates for 1923 were 2,454,000.

About 60% of the population

are pure Indians. In Oct. 1924 a contract was authorised for the admission of one hundred Czechoslovak farmer families, for whom were assigned 4,500 hectares of undeveloped lands. Dwellings, medical attendance, schools and hospital service were included in the contract. Finance-——A new monetary system was introduced in Nov. 1924, with the quetzal (equal to the dollar) of 1-504665 grammes of pure gold as the unit, having a value of sixty pesos. It was to be coined in 5, to and 20 quetzal denominations, with subsidiary silver and copper coins. The silver peso in Oct. 1924 was worth $.5376, although only unconvertible paper currency was then

in circulation. Provision has been made since Feb. 1925 for a circulation reserve fund, by a tax of an added 50 cents a quintal on coffce and a graded tax of 20 to 30 cents on sugar exports.

The Government budget for the years 1921-4 was (in pesos) :-— Expenditures

Revenues

387,365,234 348,489,894 396,121,964 471,969,841

256,261,970

306,810,074

385,874,260 466, 190,332

In 1924 revenue in quetzales was 8,101,686 and expenditure 8,095,573. Current expenditure for 1921 deducting items nat requiting cash outlay, such as amortisation of the external debt by transfer securities in London to the Council of Foreign Bondholders, was actually only 324,049,887 pesos. Increase in 1922 revenues was largely due to the high rate of foreign exchange and to collection of the export tax on coffee in gold. The total debt Dec. 1922 was £1,908,563 constituted as follows:— $1,257,898, 11,923,401 silver pesos and 181,887,314 papcr pesos. At the end of 1924 the external debt was considered as £1,875,603 and the internal debt £1,426,961. The total debt was then in dollars 13,239,240. Industry.—Exports mainly consist of coffee and sugar; cotton and bananas are among the growing exports. The figures of the years 1922-4 for the exports of coffee, sugar and bananas were:— Bananas

Coffee (Ib.)

Sugar (lb.)

(bunches)

94,000,000 96,000,000 $9,000,000

24,000,000 27,000,000 18,000,000

3,884,170 4,384,077 5,547,531

The principal imports are cotton goods, flour and other foodstuffs. The average wheat production is 400,000 bu., equivalent to 90,000 barrels of flour. Milling is not commercially developed. During the year preceding May I 1925 the cotton crop reached 30,000 quintals, a large increase in spite of poor crops in certain parts. Commercial conditions in 1925 were excellent, duc to high coffee prices. Importation of automobiles and other luxuries was heavy. Import duties for 1924 amounted to 19,921,316 pesos and $3,009,315, or a total of 3,341,336 quetzales. Exports produced revenues of 56,713 pesos and $1,435,492, or a total of 1,436,437 quetzales. A banking decree stabilising exchange aided merchants in the conduct of business, A contract for developing petroleum fields by a New York company in the departments of Ezabal and Alta Verapaz was approved in Nov. 1924. Another contract provided for similar development in Alta Verapaz, Quiché and Huehuetenango. Changes in the mining and petroleum development Jaw make the sole tax 10 per cent on the gross product in two zones and eight per cent in two others. Contracts endure 40 years; the geological surveys must begin within six months from the date of the concession. The foreign commerce for 1913 showed imports worth $10,062,000 and exports worth $14,450,000. For recent years the figures were:—

1921 AH countries Imports . Exports . . United Kingdom Imports . Exports . France Imports . Exports . Germany Imports . Exports . United State Imports . Exports .

$10,840,781

14,725,567

$10,751,660

12,065,949

$13,369,611

12,130,826

1,599,131 306,591

2,289,047

355,249 307,148 24,694

355,678 17:977

480,143

1,302,267 2,047,320

1,199,910 1,961,395

6,519,630

6,644,449 7,883,386

1,665,643

11,330,986

133,618

For 1924 the exports to the United States were $10,089,156, and the imports $8,823,542. Communications. British interests in the International Railways Co., incorporated in 1912, and controlling 597 m. of railway, were acquired by American capitalists in 1924. A branch is to be constructed fram the Mexican boundary and the Caribbean coast to the Southern end of Salvador. A new line south to Asuncion Mita has been approved by the minister of promotion, A private roddbuilding programme, initiated in 1924, provides for the building of new roads from Guatemala City to San Jose: from Antiqua to Panajachel, thence to Quezaltengo; and from Guatemala to Santa Ana in Salvador. The first of these will serve important coffee and sugar export interests. Three wireless stations largely supplant telegraph lines, which are difficult to maintain in the tropical forest. They are at Quezaltenango, a gift from Mexico, Puerto Barrios and at the capital.

GUCHKOV—GUIANA, FRENCH Bipiriocrapny.—C. W. Domville-Fife, Guatemala and the States of Central America (1913); A. Caille, Au Pays du Printemps éternel; La Guatemala et son avenir économique (1914); D. G. Munro, The Five Republics of Central America (1918); D. G. Munro, Guatemala: Five Republics of Central A merica (1919); J. V. Mejia, Geografia descriptiva de la República de Guatemala (1922); Department of Overseas Trade Reports on the Economics and Financial Conditions in

Guatemala, published by H.M. Stationery Office, London. See also the annual reports of the various government departments, Guatemala. ; (H.L P

GUCHKOV,

ALEXANDER

(1862-

J, Russian

politician,

was born in Moscow. He studied at the universities of Moscow and Berlin and, after leading an adventurous life of travel, en-

tered politics.

He helped to found the Russian “ Octobrist ”

party in the hope that the Tsar’s Govt. would work with the moderate Liberals of the Zemstvo, while safeguarding the monarchical principle. In roro Guchkov was elected president of the Duma, but as Stolypin became more reactionary, the Octobrists lost their standing ground, and Guchkov eventually resigned the presidentship of the Duma. In the elections to the fourth Duma he failed to secure a seat. During the World War, however, he was in charge of the Red Cross organisation on the German front, and devoted his energies to refitting the army on the technical side. When the March Revolution of 1917 broke out Guchkov became Minister of War, but he was powerless against the mounting tlood of desertion and demoralisation in the army,

and resigned in despair. Emigrating he found himself without proper place and influence, and later took refuge in Paris, where he pleaded for a reunion of all parties against the Bolsheviks. GUERRINI, OLINDO (1845~1916), Italian poet (see 12.672), died at Bologna Oct. 21 1916. GUESCHOFF, IVAN EVSTRATIEW (1849-10924), Bulgarian politician, was born at Philippopolis Feb. 1849. He was educated first at Philippopolis, and was then, in 1865, sent to Owens College, Manchester, for four years. He remained at Manchester ‘in business with his father until 1872, when he returned to Bulgaria. In 1877 he was arrested by the Turkish governor and condemned to death for political propaganda against Turkish rule, but was saved by the intervention of the British and American Consuls. He then began to send accounts of the Turkish atrocities to The Times and The Daily News (London). In 1878 Gueschoff became general manager of the Bulgarian National Bank at Sofia, and was Minister of Finance from 1894 to 1897. He was elected president of the Sobranie (National Assembly)

in 1901 and became Prime Minister in 1911. As such, he concluded defensive alliances with Serbia, Greece and Montenegro against Turkey, and so paved the way for the Balkan victories of r912. After the London peace treaty, May 30 1913, Gueschoff resigned with his Cabinet. During the World War he retired from politics and became president of the Bulgarian Red Cross. He died at Sofia March 11 1924. GUESDE, JULES BASILE (1845-1922), French socialist (see 12.672), died in Paris July 28 1922. GUIANA, BRITISH (see 12.676).—The sole British possession on the continent of South America, has an area of 89,480 sq. miles. The population of the colony at the end of 1924 was

301,204. Sugar maintains its position as the principal export from British Guiana; of the area under cultivation 57,000 ac. are reaped. The value of the sugar exported in 1924, with its byproducts—rum, molasses, molascuit--was approximately £2,000,000. Between 1915 and 1924 machinery to the value of £1,500,000 sterling was imported for the equipment and improvement of the sugar factories. Exports of rice in 1924 were valued at £65,120, an increase on the exports for 1923, which were valued at £57,018. The production of diamonds has increased since 1913; in 1923 214,385 carats were exported, valued at £1,032,585. The output of gold has decreased; in 1924 the exports were valued at £19,600, as against 63,803 ounces exported in tor4 and valued at £232,085. The value of bauxite exported in 1924 was £176,200, and in the same year balata valued at £164,400 was exported. The chief imports are foodstuffs, manufactured textiles and machinery. Under the British preferential tariff imports from the United Kingdom, Canada and other

297

British possessions have increased, while imports from the United States have decreased. The forest area of 78,000 ac. contains many valuable woods— greenheart, which is produced only in British Guiana, and mora, both of which are suitable for shipbuilding and are resistent to marine borers, purpleheart and crabwood. 168,454 cu. ft. of timber, valued at £26,006, were exported in 1924. Difficulty of access has limited the exploitation of the mineral and timber wealth of the colony to the northern half. The development of the forest lands is being actively pursued by the newly-created Forestry Department, which began its work of locating fresh sources of supply of commercial timbers in Nov. 1925. British Guiana participated in the British Empire Exhibition in London 1924-5, and a resident trade commissioner has been appointed in London. BisLtiocrapyuy.—lI. B. Harrison and F. A. Stockdale, Rubber and Balata tn British Guiana (1911); A. Leechman, The British Guiana Handbook (1913); Board of Trade, Colontal Import Duties, Cd. 7641 (1914); Statistical Abstract for the Several Self-Governing British

Dominions 1899-1913, Cd. 7786 (1915). See also Annual Reports and Blue Books. GUIANA, DUTCH (see 12.680).—The only Dutch possession

on the South American mainland, has almost doubled its population since 1910. Statistics obtained in 1925 gave the population as: Europeans, 1,422; natives, comprising Indians and bush negroes, 56,339; Javanese, 18,685; Hindus, 30,974; Chinese, 1,454. The population of the capital, Paramaribo, in 1925 was 44,772. In 1923 there were 35 public schools in the colony with 5,296 pupils in attendance, a Government normal school with 127 students, and 55 private schools attended by 9,481 pupils. The shortage of labour that followed on the abolition of slavery in 1863, causing the reduction of the plantations from 500 to 5 sugar plantations and 66 for other products, created a labour problem that led to the introduction of Chinese, Javanese and Hindus as contract labourers. The chief products are sugar and coffee; next in importance come bananas, rice and cocoa. Cotton is produced on a small scale, and oranges and coconuts are grown by the crofters, many of whom were originally contract-labourers. The principal articles of export are sugar, coffee, bananas, cocoa, balata. Timber is furnished from the hinterland and gold is mined in many districts. Important deposits of bauxite are known to exist in the colony, but hitherto this mineral has not been worked on any large scale. The balance of trade is usually adverse, and the deficit is adjusted by an annual subvention paid by the Netherlands Government. During the four years 1922-5 the sum required for the state subvention has progressively decreased. Imports in 1924, mostly foodstuffs and manufactured articles, were valued at £624,704. Exports, consisting of agricultural and mineral products, besides timber and balata, were £617,453 during the same year. See J. M. Brown, The Dutch East (1914); A. S. Walcott, Java and Her Neighbours (1914); also Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Neder-

landen, annual publication of the Colonial Office, The Hague.

(J. C. K.) GUIANA, FRENCH (see 12.681), has an area of about 32,000 sq. m. and a population (1921) of 44,202, including 2,368 Indians (natives). Some Indian tribes may have escaped enumeration, but in any case the colony is very sparsely inhabited. About 10°% of the people are whites and another 10% negroes; the remainder are mostly of mixed blood and locally are called Creoles. Cayenne, the capital and chief port, had 10,146 inhabitants; St. Laurent du Maroni, 1,300. The colony is best known as a penal settlement and as including the Iles du Salut, one of these islands being the notorious Devil’s Island. The 1921 census figures included 3,775 convicts. The natural resources of the country remain very little developed. The chief industry is gold mining, the gold produced representing fully half the value of the exports. The mines are near the Dutch and Brazilian frontiers respectively. The forests contain valuable timbers. Rosewood is exported and there are factories for the extraction of rosewood essence. Balata is also

obtained

from

the forests.

Small

quantities of coffee, cocoa

and sugar figure in the exports, but labour is scarce and dear and

298

GUILD

SOCIALISM—GUNNIERY,

only a very small portion of the land is cultivated. The adverse trade balance in r192t was 25,000,743 francs. The cost of the penal settlement is borne by France. There are few roads and but 15 m. of railway. A seaplane service is maintained between Cayenne and St. Laurent and there is a wireless telegraph station. The colony is represented in the French Parliament by one deputy. Sce Le Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris,

for articles on the history and explorations of the country. GUILD SOCIALISM: sce SOCIALISM. GUILLAUMAT, MARIE LOUIS ADOLPHE (1863-

), French

soldier, was born at Bourgneuf, Charente Inférieure, Jan. 4 1863. He left the military school of St. Cyr in 1884, and became a captain in 1893. He served for three years in Tongking with the Foreign Legion, and during the Boxer rising in 1900 was in Tientsin where he received his first wound. In 1903 he was appointed professor of military history at St. Cyr and in 1908 lecturer on infantry tactics. After being director of infantry at

the Ministry of War from 1911, he became chef de cabinet to the Minister of War, M. Messimy, in tory. At the outset of the World War, Guillaumat, who had already taken part in 12 cam-

paigns, commanded a division at the battle of the Marne and later in the Argonne. Subsequently, in command of the I. Army Corps, he took a notable part in the battle of Verdun and the Somme. In Dec. 1916 he was given the command of the II. Army in front of Verdun and directed the attack of Aug. 20 1917, which succeeded in freeing the position. In Dec. 1917 he was sent to Salonika as commander-in-chief of the armies in the East (see SALONIKA CAMPAIGNS) but was recalled in July 1918 to take command of the entrenched camp at Paris in face of the enemy advance. He urged the launching of an offensive in Macedonia both at the Inter-Allied War Council at Versailles and before the British War Cabinet; and on Sept. 4 1918, at the London conference, his advice was adopted. In

NAVAL

GULLSTRAND, ALLVAR (1862}, Swedish physician, was born June 5 1862 at Landskrona. In 1894 he became professor of diseases of the eve at Uppsala and in 1913 was appointed professor of physiological and physical optics at the same university. His investigations concerned the general laws of dioptrics, a new conception of the theory of optical images; the extrication of the optical images in the eye, and the eye’s relation to the diffusion of light. In r911 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for medicine. Among Gullstrand’s works are Allgemeine Thevric dev monochromatischen Aberrationen (1900), Die optische Abbildung in hetero-

genen

Medien und die Dioptrik der Kristallinse des Menschen

(1908) and Einführung in die Methoden der Diopirtk des Auges des Menschen (1911). He received the honorary degree of Sc.D. at Dublin in tor2 and became honorary member of the

Ophthalmological Society of the United Kingdom in rg16. GUN: sce ARTILLERY; ORDNANCE. | GUNNERY, NAVAL.—It is no easy matter to hit, and keep on hitting a moving target at sea, with a gun mounted upon an unstable platform that is also moving in relation to the target. With a single gun firing, at short ranges, the gunlayer can follow the path of his shot and see it strike the water or target, and can correct his sights so that the next shot will hit. With several guns firing, under battle conditions at even moderate ranges, this becomes a sheer impossibility for anyone stationed at the guns. Hence the necessity for controlling the fire of the guns of a ship from a central position remote from the guns themselves. The control officer is usually stationed high up in the ship where

he is in a good position to spot the fall of the shot and has all the

available information for estimating the hitting range and for communicating it to the guns. The gunlayers keep their guns continuously laid upon the target and the guns are fired at the command of the control officer. Let us consider a simple case of a ship firing at a towed target at a range of about 10,000 yards. The range of the target is ob-, V. the of command Oct. 1918 Gen. Guillaumat was given the tained by the rangefinder and certain corrections, which will be Army on the Aisne for the final advance. After the war he was explained later, are applied to the rangefinder range to obtain president of the commission of inquiry into the surrender of the the estimated “ gun range ” which is passed to the guns. As the frontier fortresses and later was elected a member of the Conseil firing ship and the target are both moving, it is obvious that the Supérieur de la Guerre. After being entrusted with a mission range must be changing at a certain rate. This rate of change of to Athens, where he drew up a plan for the reorganisation of the range is estimated and is applied to the gunsights at set intervals. Greek army, he took command of the army of occupation in The deflection is estimated by the control officer and is applied the Rhineland at the end of 1924. to the sights. The control officer then fires a salvo of two or more GUILLAUME, CHARLES EDOUARD (1861), French guns and watches the fall of the shot. He makes a spotting corphysicist, was born at Fleurier, Switzerland, Feb. 15 1861, Edurection in range and dellection, calculated to get the next salvo cated at Neuchâtel, he became a docteur-és-scicrees, and devoted to fall, if possible, upon the other side of the target to the first himself to the study of practical physics. He is principally one. If this happens he halves his original spotting correction, known for his invention of the metal, invar, an alloy of nickel applies it in the opposite direction and fires again. This third and steel which, having a co-efficient cf lincar expansion of only salvo should fall very close to the target, if it does not hit, and -9000008 for one degree Centigrade, is in general use as a material if the rate of change of range has been estimated correctly, subfor standard measures and instruments of precision. In 1920 sequent salvocs will, theoretically, continue to hit. This is a very became he he was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics and simple case of a bracket system, which is used in one form or director of the international bureau of weights and measures. another by all control officers. Correciions.—The corrections which must be applied to the Guillaume's works include: Traité pratique de la thermométrie de précision (1889); Les radiations nonvelles; Les rayons X, etc. (1896); range observed by the rangefinders in order to obtain the hitting Les applications des aciers au nickel (1904); Détermination du volume or gun range are duc to (1) the variations in muzzle velocity du kilogramme d'eau (1910); Compensation des horloges et des montres caused by the wear of the guns, (2) the change in muzzle velocity (1921); Les récents progrès du système mélrique (1907-21). due to changes in the temperature of the charges, (3) the direc` GUINEA, FRENCH (sec 11.102). Revised estimates give the tion and force of the wind and (4) the height of the barometer arca as 90,000 sq. m. and the population (1925) as 2,000,000. and thermometer. The first two are usually applied as a correcThere were 2,000 Europeans, of whom half were French. From tion upon the sights of each individual gun and remain more or the port of Konakri (population 9,000) a railway 411 m. long less constant for any one day. The last two factors are variable was completed in rọr15 to Kankan, on the Upper Niger. Palm from hour to hour and are applied as a direct correction to the oil and kernels, ground nuts, rubber and hides are the chief rangefinder readings. The rate at which the range is changing is a exports. Since 1922 cotton has been grown in the Niger regions. variable factor since it depends upon the relative bearing between Coffee and bananas are other crops. the two ships, which is constantly changing. The same applies, in a lesser degree, to the deflection, and constant corrections are GUISE, BATTLE OF: see FRONTIERS, BATTLES OF THE. GUITRY, LUCIEN GERMAINE (1860-1925), French actor (see necessary in both rate and deflection to maintain hitting after 12.705). In rg20 he came to London with his son Sacha, and it is once established, Increase of Range-—Thus there are many problems to be achieved an immense success in Pasteur, when he played the solved, even in the simple case of firing at a target at 10,000 title rôle. He also played in his son’s play, Afon père avait raison. yards. Battle ranges have now been extended up to 20,000 yd. He died in Paris June 1 1925. Sacha Guitry’s play, Deburand,

had a successful run in New York and London.

or more, and as the range is increased the problems with which

GUNNERY, NAVAL the control officer is faced become much more complicated. At ranges which approach the limits of visibility the observation of the fall of shot becomes: extremely difficult, and it is practically impossible to tell whether shot are falling over or short, unless they are falling directly in line with the target. As the range increases errors caused by the roll, yaw and pitch of the ship, which at moderate ranges are not so serious, become accentuated and have to be taken into account. Trial and Error Process.—The trajectory of the shell reaches a very high altitude and the wind and atmospheric conditions in the upper air cannot be known with sufficient accuracy to enable a correct forecast to be made of the eflect upon projectiles. The effects of the variations in muzzle velocity, due to the wear of the guns, to changes in the temperature of charges and to other more obscure causes, become more pronounced. Range observation, even with the most perfect instruments and with the best trained observers, becomes unreliable when the visibility is poor and the errors in the rangefinders themselves become greater as the range increases. It thus becomes a matter of great difficulty to make an accurate forecast of the initial gun range and deflection. It has become the practice to obtain the hitting range by a process of “ trial and error,” employing a large bracket svstem and using the gun as its own rangefinder, obtaining what assistance is possible, under prevailing conditions, from the instruments of observation. This can be done as long as the fall of shot can be observed, but becomes impossible as soon as this condition ceases to exist. The use of aircraft to assist the spotting officer, or to carry out the whole of the observation of fire at extreme ranges, naturally suggests itself, and it is in this direction, followed by the possible introduction of some form of indirect fire, that future developments may be expected. THe

MECHANISM

OF FIRE

CONTROL

The installation used for the contro! of fire was intricate in the years before 1914, and War experience has made the addition of further complications necessary. Little can be said of the details of the various instruments used, as the majority of them are confidential, and the functions, and even the existence, of some of them are kept as secret as possible. The main problems are the same for all and may be divided into three parts:— (1) The communications between the control stations and the guns. (2) The apparatus for obtaining the hitting range and deflection and for keeping them both correct. (3) The arrangements for firing the guns and for observing the fall of shot. Communications.—The positions between which communication must be maintained are the observing positions aloft, the principal control position, usually in the vicinity of the conning tower, the transmitting station.and the turrets or other gun positions. Communications must be rapid and sure, as most of the information sent is only of value at the moment of transmission and loses its significance if any delay occurs. Hence several lines usually exist between important stations, any one of which can be used in the event of breakdown of the others. All lines of communication are usually concentrated from outlying stations into the transmitting station. This station is situated in the centre of the ship, well below ihe armoured deck in the quietest position that can be selected and is the centre of the whole control organisation. Voice-pipes are used to a great extent between stations that are

permanently manned and that are moderately close together. To be efficient a voice-pipe must be as straight as possible, and there are well-defined limits of length for each diameter of pipe beyond which the acoustic properties are lost. Voice-pipes are difhcult to make watertight and gastight. The telephone is used between all stations, often in addition to the voice-pipe. There is usually a telephone exchange, in or near the transmitting station, solely for the use of the fire control organisation and quite independent of the general telephone system of the ship. The telephone transmitters and receivers are of many patterns and

are specially designed for use by operators who have other duties to perform, or who have to use the instruments in positions which are exposed to the weather. Electro-mechanical transmitters and receivers are used for passing ranges, deflection, bearing, orders and other information of a standard character between the control positions and the guns. There are several different patterns of these instruments, those most commonly used in all navies being the Barr & Stroud “ step-by-step,’ and the Vickers “ counter ”’ types.

299

Frequently one transmitter is arranged to work a number of re-

ccivers in outhing stations. A development of these instruments is found in the * follow the pointer "’ method, which is commonly used for sending ranges from the transmitting station to the guns. The transmitter takes the form of a sight dial upon which the range is set by moving a pointer to the required setting. The motion of the pointer is transmitted electrically to pointers upon the gunsights. A mechanical pointer, geared to the mechanism which works the gunsight, is kept in line with the electric pointer by the sightsetter, and the sight is thus kept set without the sightsetter having to watch the movements of a separate instrument. The large clock-faced dials and other similar arrangements which are often seen about the upper works of warships are used for communicating the range and deflection in use to consorts who may be firing at the same target. Their place will doubtless be taken in the future by wircless telegraphy or telephony. Rangefinding and Rangekeeping.—In the transmitting station are situated the majority of the calculating instruments, and to this position are passed the results of all observations of range, bearing, course of enemy, fall of shot, etc. Also all orders from the chief control officer to the guns are passed through the transmitting station. Asa rule the control officer is in direct communication with the officer in charge of the transmitting station by means of a large, direct voice-pipe. The functions of the majority of the instruments in the transmitting station and their details are naturally confidential. Broadly they consist of arrangements for deducing the course and speed of the enemy from such data as may be available, and for calculating from this the rate of change of range and dellection that should be applied to the gunsights. In the British service the Dreyer calculating table is in general use, and to this constant improvements are being made to meet the changed conditions brought about by the increasing range at which the guns are used. The details of this calculating table are secret, but there are other patented apparatus, notably the Argo and the Ford, which aim at achieving the same results. Apart from the calculating apparatus, some form of which is in use in all navies, there are a certain number of instruments which are generally employed. Rungefinders.—T he rangefinder most commonly used by all navies, and which forms the equipment of the British fleet is the Barr & Stroud coincidence instrument. In a capital ship there are at least six large rangefinders, mounted in various positions, and the number and size of the instruments are reduced proportionately in smaller ships. The observations of each instrument are transmitted electrically to the transmitting station, where apparatus exists for obtaining rapidly a mean of all the observations, thus giving what is called the ‘ mean rangefinder range.” To this arc applied corrections for the density of the air, the effect of wind, the temperature of the charges, the nature of ihe projectile, the change of range during the flight of the projectile and for several other variables. The result is the gun range which is passed to the guns. Change of Range Calculators. — To obtain the rate at which the range is changing at any moment involyes the solution of two triangles, the functions of which are the course and speed of the fring ship, and the bearing, course and speed of the target ship. The first two of these are known, the third is easily observed, but the other two can only be obtained by calculation, or judged approximately by observation. There are several types of calculators for this purpose, but that used in the British service is the Dumaresque in which the elements are set graphically, and the resulting rate of change of range corresponding to the settings is read olf in “ wards per minute ’’ which, is what is required. The speed of the target ship must always be guessed in the first instance, but instruments known as inclinometers are being experimented with, whereby the angle between the course of the target ship and the line of fire can be observed with fair accuracy at any moment. The course of the target ship is thus obtained. Range Clocks —Some type of clock, which can be set to run at the rate at which the range is changing is used in all navies. In the British service the Vickers clock is used. This consists of a powerful clockwork escapement, driving a large pointer around a clock face, the perimeter of which is graduated in yards. A method of altering the speed of the pointer is fitted, so that it can be made to move at speeds of 0 to 2,000 yd. per min. in either direction. Arrangements are made for large corrections in range to be put on the perimeter of the clock without interfering with the motion of the pointer, so that the clock can always be run at the gun range that it is desired to transmit to the guns. There are many other uses to which it can be applied. Deflection Calculators.—It is a difficult matter to obtain the correct deflection for hitting a target at long range. There are many types of deflection calculators, wherewith, by using the data available in the transmitting room, an approximation to the theoretical deflection can be obtained. All these instruments, however, have their limitations, because, allhough the allowance can be mace for the wind at the firing ship, at Jong range the wind effect at the target may be entirely diferent. Also the direction of the wind in the upper air, through which the trajectory of the projectile passes, is an unknown factor. The practice is to calculate the proper setting as near as possible and to correct it by observation of fall of shot. Dellection is of the greatest importance in ranging, for at long

GUN POW DER— GYMNASTICS

300

ranges, unless the shot fall in line with the target, it 1s impossible to tell whether they are short or over.

Bearing Indicators.—These instruments are mounted in the control positions, and consist of a bearing plate, mounted with the zero in the fore and aft line of the ship. A telescope or binocular is suitably mounted and the bearing of any object, with reference to the ships fore and aft line, can be readily observed. In the Evershed type used in the British Navy, the bearings are transmitted electrically to the guns and to the transmitting station. This forms a ready method of indicating the correct target to the guns, and from the observations the rate at which the bearing is changing can be obtained.

OBSERVING

AND

FIRING

THE

GUNS

Before the range at which heavy guns are used at sea became so extended, a single gun was used for ranging, before opening fire with the whole broadside. The differences between the ranging of individual guns, due to wear and a variety of other causes, become accentuated at long ranges, and no two guns can be

built that will always shoot precisely the same. This leads to a “ pattern,” or spread, resulting when a number of guns of the same size are fired at the same elevation. Apart from this, in practice the errors in laying of the individual gunlayers have to be taken into account. The “ spread of the salvo,” as it is called, can be reduced by making careful adjustments, but it can never be eliminated entirely, even if there are no errors in laying the guns. The spread can, however, be made an approximately constant quantity, by careful adjustments and training of the personnel, and this quantity is known to the control officer of each individual ship. To base the corrections for the broadside upon the result of the fall of a shot from a single gun is obviously liable to lead to large errors, and at extreme ranges the splash of a single shot is extremely difficult to see. It is now the general practice to range with a salvo of several guns, usually half the broadside, and to continue firing alternate salvoes of an equal number of guns. The object of the control officer, knowing the approximate spread of his salvoes, is to give such corrections, using some form of bracket system, as will bring the mean point of impact of the salvo on to the target. This is termed a straddle—that is, some shots short and some over, and when this is achieved, the control officer knows that he is obtaining the maximum hitting effect from the armament that he is controlling.

Director Firing. —Practically all navies have now adopted some form of master sight or director, whereby all guns can be fired by a single layer. This system of firing has many advantages, chief amongst which are the elimination of smoke interference between the guns; the reduction in personal errors in laying; and the fact that it is far easier to spot the fall of a salvo that falls ‘‘ all together ” instead of being spread out over an irregular time interval. In the British Navy the director installation invented by Adml. Sir P. Scott is used. This consists of a director sight mounted aloft, or in a director tower well separated from the guns themselves. The sight is similar to a gunsight and is carried in a mounting which can be trained and elevated in the same way as a gun mounting. The motion of the director mounting is transmitted electrically to training and elevation receivers at the guns. On these receivers are mechanical pointers geared to the training and elevating gear of the turret or gun. The gun is moved in training and elevation so that the mechanical pointers are kept in line with the electric ones worked by the director mounting. The guns thus follow the motions of the director or master sight and are laid at the desired elevation and training. The gun range and deflection are set upon the director sight, and the director telescope is laid upon the target in the same manner as a gunsight. The firing circuits of all guns are brought to a single trigger at the director sight, so that all guns can be fired simultaneously by the director layer. This brief description indicates the principle upon which the director is worked, but in actual practice there are many complications. Corrections have to be made for the relative positions and levels of the different gun mountings and the director sight and for many other matters. The installation is intricate, but has stood the test of prolonged war service and the results achieved by it have been invaluable. In capital ships there are, as a rule, two director sights, one mounted aloft and one just above the level of the guns, which can be used alternatively for the main armament. A director is also fitted for use with the secondary

armament. Light cruisers are fitted with directors for their main armament, and a modified form is used in destroyers. Squadron Control.—In the foregoing, the control of the fire of the guns of a single ship has been dealt with, but under modern battle conditions, it often happens that one or more ships will engage the same target. When this occurs, unless there is some pre-arranged organisation between the firing ships, confusion will occur owing to the spotting officer taking the fall of another ship's salvoes for his own. Therefore a pair of ships firing at the same target generally fire a salvo or pair of salvoes alternately, each waiting upon the other and correcting the gun range by the fall of the other’s salvoes. This necessitates an intimate intercommunication between the two control officers, which is possible by wireless telegraphy. A squadron of four ships may fire together at the same target, the fire being controlled by the control officer of the leader, who orders the gun range at which each ship shall fire, after receiving the result of observations as to fall of shot from his own and the firing ship’s spotting officers, and possibly from the air. Ina case such as this, the object of the squadron control officer is the same as that of the control officer of a single ship, that is to bring the mean point of impact of the shell from the armament he is controlling as near the target as possible, for then only can he be sure that he is getting the maximum hitting effect. In view of the extreme ranges at which future actions at sea will be fought, it appears certain that fire tactics will tend to develop in the direction of concentrated fire by pairs of ships or by squadrons, aided by observation from the air. The perfecting of the intricate organisation of the fire control of any ship is the most Important item in making her an efficient fighting unit and requires arduous and painstaking exercise lasting over many months. (See ORDNANCE.) (S. H. W.) GUNPOWDER: see EXPLOSIVES. GWALIOR,

MAHDO

RAO

SINDHIA,

Manaraja

oF (1876-

1925), was born Oct. 20 1876, and succeeded his father, Sir Javaji Rao Sindhia, in 1886 (see 12.748). He threw himself with the utmost keenness into the supervision of every detail of state management, endowing Gwalior with an excellent system of light railways, carrying out irrigation projects, husbanding the revenues and raising the standards of administration by unceasing vigilance. In the World War his two regiments and transport corps fought with distinction in France, East Africa, Egypt, Palestine and Mesopotamia. A boundless and inventive generositv found scope in his constant presentation of munitions of war and princely donations to various relief funds. He took the main part in purchasing, equipping and maintaining the hospital ship “ Loyalty,” which carried 15,000 war patients; and provided a convalescent home at Nairobi in East Africa—to mention only a few of his gifts. A lleutenant-general in the British Army, he was Hon. A.D.C. to King George V., and the bearer of several Grand Crosses; his permanent dynastic salute was raised to the maximum of 21t guns, and Oxford and Cambridge conferred honorary degrees upon him. King George V. also honoured him by becoming sponsor to his heir, George Jivaji Rao (b. r916). The Maharaja went to Europe in the spring of 1925, partly to recuperate his impaired health, but died in Paris on June 5. GYMNASTICS (see 12.7532).—This form of athletic sports has changed little since roro. The undoubted influence of the revived Olympic Games upon the modern development of athletic sports and exercises has not greatly affected gymnastics, perhaps because of the already high state of efficiency reached prior to the revival, The International Gymnastic Federation, which has but one affiliated nation outside Europe, i.e., the United States, was founded in 188r, and 2oth-century efforts have tended rather to consolidation and perfection than to extension and progress. One important feature was the foundation, in 1923, of an International Federation for the promotion of the educative, instead of the executive, branch of the art. Both federations have their British affiliations, that to the Fédération Internationale de

Gymnastique being the Amateur Gymnastic Ass’n and that to the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique Educative being the Ling Association.

GYNAECOLOGY— GYROSCOPE The enormous development of athletic sports throughout most of the European countries has not caused gymnastics to suffer;

the great festivals at Nuremberg,

Leipzig, Frankfort

and in

Sweden, France and Switzerland continue to attract thousands of gymnasts. On the continent of Europe the movement is national: in Great Britain, and to a lesser extent in the United States, interest in gymnastics is individual. The repetitive character, the absence of the competitive spirit, perhaps also the

collective discipline so necessary, appear to have too little in common with the Anglo-Saxon character for gymnastics ever to arouse the enthusiasm which prevails in the European countries. The inclusion of gymnastic competitions at the Olympic Games has not appreciably aifected the situation. (See ATIILETICS; OLYMPIC GAMES.) (P. Lo.) GYNAECOLOGY: see WOMEN, DISEASES OF, GYROSCOPE (see 12.769).— This instrument has rapidly become of technical and commercial importance after having been regarded as little more than a toy or means for use in demonstrating the dynamics of solid bodies. The developments in its construction and application, since torpedoes, submarines and aeroplanes came into extensive use, have been numerous. Inventive efforts in connection with it were greatest about the year 1920. Froma commercial standpoint, the successful appli-

201

used extensively in submarines, for which the magnetic compass is unsuitable. A gyro-wheel, mounted to rotate rapidly about an axis free to turn in any direction, but provided with a form of gravity control, limiting its tilting movement, tends to set itself so that its axis points in the direction of the true north. This represents the working of the principle on which the construction of the gyro-compass depends. The many forms of gyro-compass which have been patented differ mainly in the construction of their gravity control.

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important industries turning out gyroscopic rotors weighing up to about go tons.

appliances

with

Improvements in Construction.—Since I910 many improvements have been made in the construction of the gyroscope and its modification, the gyrostat, independently of accessories for rendering them useful in the arts. Messrs. Gray and Burnside’s gyrostat, designed chiefly for experimental purposes, is essentially a direct current electric motor, the rotor of which, in the form of a Gramme ring secured between the peripheral parts of two magnalium disks, serves as the wheel or rotor of the gyrostat. The fiell magnet and brush gear are within the space between the disks, and the commutator is secured to the inner side of one of the disks. The rotor, made up of the heavy ring, the very light disks and the commutator, is mounted on a stationary shaft and may be driven at a speed of 25,000 revolutions per minute. Enclosed in a magnalium casing, the whole forms a compact, portable apparatus. In Rutt's gyroscope, the relative arrangements of the parts is reversed, so as to leave the rim of the rotor entirely free, the rotor being mounted adjustably on a central gimbal carried by a rotary shaft. It is important that the rotor of a gyroscope should be mounted in accurately adjusted bearings, especially when the rotor is spun at a high velocity. In order to satisfy this requirement, when ball bearings are used, Messrs. Griffin and Sons, Ltd., mount the rotor on a tubular spindle encircling a screwed rod secured within the Cardan ring carrying the rotor; the ends of the spindle rotate against ball bearings held in correct position by adjustable sleeves on the rod. The spindle and rod are concentric but do not touch each other. The rotors of many gyros are rotated in a partial vacuum to reduce frictional resistance. In order to minimize the resistance and at the same time keep the interior of the gyro casing cool, Messrs. Anschiitz, near Wiel, circulate hydrogen, helium or other light gas through the casing.

Gyrostatic Horison.—On ships, aeroplanes, etc., where the use of a mercury bath for obtaining an artificial horizon is often impracticable, one of the methods adopted is to employ a gyrostat with its spinning axis vertical and carrying a plane retlector at right angles to that axis. This, the first practical use of the gyro, was introduced by M. Serson in 1774.

Since 1910, several forms of this type of apparatus have been designed. Fig. 1 shows the main features of the gyrostatic horizon of Messrs. Anschütz & Co. A box a is mounted on knife edges by a suspension differing from the ordinary Cardan in that the horizontal line joining the knife edges b, which directly supports the box, is below that joining the knife edges which support the outer ring, both lines being higher than the centre of gravity of the box and its attachments. Within the box is the rotor ¢ supported by ball bearings d, e and rotated by any suitable motor. A rotary ring f carrics an adjustable weight g, by means of which the centre of gravity of the whole is moved out of the gyroscopic axis so that this axis is constrained to precess in such a way as to compensate for the effects of the earth’s rotation; by means of a scale, graduated in degrees of latitude, the weight can be adjusted correctly. An annular vessel h, containing mercury or oil, and formed with perforated partitions, is employed for damping precessional movements of the gyro.

Gyro-compass.—This

instrument of precision is used in the

various navies of the world, and in the mercantile marine; it is

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Fic. 1.—Diagram showing the main features of the gyrastatic horizon of Messrs, Anschütz & Co. In 1832 Foucault used a gyro apparatus to demonstrate the earth’s rotation; this was the first practical step towards the production of the gyro-compass. A form of gyro-compass, constructed by Sir W. Thomson (afterwards Lord Kelvin) was exhibited in 1884. In the early part of this century the increasing use of submarines demanded the provision of a compass unaffected by magnetic conditions, and Dr. Anschiitz invented a gyro-compass in which the rotor and its casing were mounted in a support floating in mercury, thus limiting movement about a horizontal axis. This compass was unreliable when the ship was rolliag, and, to overcome this defect, Messrs. Anschütz & Co. introduced, in 1912, an apparatus comprising three gyros, two of which eliminated errors due to rolling, This apparatus was used in the German navy, In the gyro-compass of The Sperry Gyroscope Co., of New York (British patent specifications, Nos, 15669 of 1911 and 135500), the

evro-wheel casing is supported by a suspended wire, any twist of which caused during the working of the compass is taken out by a follow-up mechanism of special! construction. The Sperry Co.'s compass was adopted for use in the British and Allied navies, and was improved by Messrs. Harrison and Rawlings, who introduced a mercury control attachment (British patent specification, No. 131987). The suspension of the vertical axis in the Brown gyro-compass (British patent specification, No. 124529) is provided by a pulsating column of oil under great pressure. In Hlenderson’s gyro-compass (British patent specification, No, 166570) the gyroscope has its centre of gravity and that of its gravity-control apparatus at its centre of suspension, and relative motion between the gyro and gravity control is arranged to produce a controlling couple.

Gyro-apparains for Stabilising Wheeled Vehicles —About the year 1905, Mr. L. Brennan, of Gillingham, introduced his monorail car, in one form of which he employed two gyrostats rotating in opposite directions and mounted in a horizontally pivoted frame. The gvrostats were geared together so as to rotate in opposite directions; one was provided with means for automatically accelerating the precession when the car swayed to one side, thus effecting stabilisation, in accordance with Lord Kelvin’s rule that acceleration of the precession causes the gyro to rise

GYROSCOPI

302

against gravity. In 1909, Mr. Brennan introduced powerful mechanism to control the precessional movements or to alter the position of the centre of gravity of the car, e.g., by sliding the car body on the under-carriage. The car was generally unreliable when running rapidly round sharp curves, and its gyro bearings were liable to overheating. Several of the cars were exhibited at different times; a large one was run at the Brennan factory, on Nov. 10 1909. This car had two bogies, each with two double-flanged wheels. The rotors, 15 cwt. each, were rotated at a speed of 3,000 r.p.m.; the gyros were encased and in a partial vacuum. At a speed of about 7 m. an hour, the car travelled satisfactorily on a curved track and could travel on gradients up to r in 13,

I

Gvroscopic Apparatus for Stabilising Ships.—The earliest use of the gyro principle for stabilising ships was made by E. O. Schlick, of Hamburg, in 1903. He mounted a number of gyrostats in the ship and used, for eliminating precessional motions, a braking-mechanism exerting a constant pressure on the gyro mountings. His invention was improved by Messrs. Swan, Hunter and Wigham-Richardson by using spring-controlled or floating bearings for the gvro frames and regulating the braking effect in accordance with the degree of rolling of the ship. The gyroscopic apparatus of FE. A. Sperry and The Sperry Gyroscope Co., of New York, is of an active kind, for its action is not limited by the rolling of the ship but may itself impart to the ship a rolling motion so that the ship may be listed and held

h E Rn

mi Fic. 2.—Diagram showing principal parts of P. Schilowsky’s Auto-car,

The monorail car of R. Scherl, of Dresden, had one or more gyrostats with their rotors on vertical axes and mounted so as to be in unstable equilibrium and positively connected to the car at every moment. Scherl’s car was not successful, dithculties having been experienced on inclines and when running round curves to

right and left. In the auto-car of P. Schilowsky, described in British patent specifications, Nos. 12024 of 1909 and 941 of 1914, the gyrostat, like Scherl's, is unstable. Fig. 2 shows diagrammatically the principal parts of the car. The rotor a is mounted in a frame b supported by pivots cl, one at each side of the car frame d. A rod e connects the gyro to a quadrant f; this rod is encircled by adjustable springs g, f', to obtain a yielding connection. The quadrant f is suspended at }° from a lever 2, fulcrummed at / and caused to oscillate by the action

of a pendulum m; the pendulum is pivoted to the car frame and presses against a cord which extends from a fixed part of the frame over a pulley and then beneath the pendulum, on its way to one arm

of a bell-crank lever z; this is connected to a rod o, which rocks the lever k. When the pendulum presses against the cord, as a result of the tilting of the car to one side, the quadrant f is lifted and a rack pt on the quadrant engages with a rotating pinion g'; consequently, pressure is applied by the rod e to the gyro mounting with the result

that its oscillations are annulled and the car brought into an upright position. Although only one pendulum is shown in fig. 2, the autocar had two pendulums to enable the car to reverse and take curves to right and left.

The inventor, in 1914, made trial runs in cars of

this type and met with much success. Claiming that a monorail system of transport would be quicker and cheaper than the existing

systems, Messrs. Scherl and Schilowsky, at different times, have considered plans for laying down extensive networks of lines, especially in Germany, but nothing seems to have been done. Dr. J. G. Gray, of Glasgow University, has designed a two-wheel car controlled gyroscopically. This car has a front and a rear compartment, each running on a wheel and connected together by a vertical swivel-joint. The front compartment carries a gyrostat mounted in fixed lateral bearings and the rotor is spun in the vertical plane containing

the wheel

base.

A motor

for driving the car 1s

installed in the rear compartment. A car of this kind was shown at a meeting of the Inst. of Civil Engineers, on June 17 1925. The car was driven forwards and the gyro rotor was spinning clockwise as seen from the left-hand side of the car, but when the car swayed to one side the two compartments were thrown out of line. Then, in consequence of the propulsion by the rear compartment, an acceleration of the gyroscopic precession was effected and the car was | brought back to the upright position.

up to the full strength of the gyro apparatus installed.

Con-

trolled in this way, the ship may be extricated from a difficult

position, may be used as patent specification, No. mined magnitude may be are being fired. The important elements

an ice-breaker or, as set out in British 149439, a rolling motion of predetermaintained ina warship while her guns of a Sperry stabiliser are the main gyro,

the sinall control gyro, the precession engine and the system of electric circuits. The main gyro may have its spinning axis vertical

and is so mounted that a precession can be imparted to it by means of a circular rack which engages with a pinion of the precession en-

gine. The control gyro, spinning on a horizontal axis, 1s so sensitive that it precesses as soon as the ship begins to roll and effects the closing of an electric contact which, by means of relay switches, operates the precession engine, thus bringing into action a powerful stabilising couple. Next, the control gyro stops the precession engine

and is ready to deal with the next wave impulse. Among the stabilisers built by The Sperry Gyroscope Co. is that

for the liner ‘‘ Huron ” of 18,000 tons displacement. A large biconical casing encloses the main gyro ina partial vacuum and the gyro wheel, made by bolting together two disks each 13 ft. diam., weighs about 100,000 pounds. In the stabilising apparatus of Sir J. B. Henderson, of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, the velocity of the gyroscopic precession is controlled wholly by means of a single mechanism, which may be a continuously variable spced-gear of the variable-stroke pump type, of the mechanical type or of the viscous resistance type. Fig. 3 shows the mounting of a gyroscope and its hydraulic connections with the ship and fig. 4a controlling means comprising a variablestroke pump. ‘The rotor casing a is mounted on trunnions $ in the Cardan ring c, which is carried by trunnions d supported by standards e, bolted to the deck so that the trunnion axis d extends fore andaft. The ring c is connected by rodsf to the buckets g of the single acting pumps h, j, which have suction valves k and spring-controlled delivery valves /; the suction pipes # and delivery: pipes # may lead to the sea far below the water line. When a wave strikes the ship, the pressure in one of the pumps 4,7 increases at once and tends to force the gyro to roll with the ship. The hydraulic cylinders o, p of the precession-control apparatus are mounted on the ring c and their plungers g, z are connected to a crank s, fixed to the trunnion b of the gyro case. In order to prevent the ship from rolling, the velocity of the plungers g, r should be proportional to the difference of pressure in the cylinders 2, j and the ratio between them must have a certain value. To effect this, the cylinders o, p are respectively connected by pipes ¢, « to the cylinder of a variable-stroke pump v, the

GYROSCOPE piston of which is connected to a spring-controlled piston w, working in a cylinder x; the ends of this cylinder communicate with the pumps h and j respectively, by means of pipes y, 2. In a gyro apparatus designed by the Tokio firm, Mitsubishi Zosen Kaisha, the precessional movements of one or more gyrostats effect the closing of electrical circuits controlling an engine ee is geared up to rotary retractile fins projecting from the ship’s ilge.

Fic, 3.—Diagram showing the mounting of a gyroscope, and its hydraulic connections with the ship; and Fic. 4, a controlling means comprising a variable stroke pump.

Gyro-stabilisers for Atrcraft-—One of the more recent of these stabilisers is The Sperry Gyroscope Co.’s, which has two pairs of oppositely rotating gyrostats, with their precession axes vertical, mounted in a Cardan suspension, the outer ring of which has its pivots above the centre of gravity of the gyro-apparatus. The lateral and longitudinal balancing planes of the aeroplane are respectively actuated by relative displacements between the gyro-apparatus and two control arms carried on the aeroplane.

393

These arms control the working of a motor which adjusts the planes. A still more recent stabiliser, that of the Société Anonyme des Établissements Marmonier Fils, comprises two gyros mounted in an elongated frame supported by horizontal pivots, each gyro carrying a pendulum bob. The rotors spin in a horizontal plane and in opposite directions with equal velocities. Gyro-steering Apparatus for Torpedoes.—Since roto, improvements have been mainly in details in connection with the driving of the gyro-rotor, its locking and releasing mechanism, or the arrangement of the gyro-apparatus to minimise the effects of rolling of the torpedo. Gyro Turn-indicators.—In a form developed at Farnborough, the rotor was mounted outside the aeroplane and driven by the wind, the rotation being in a vertical plane at right angles to the direction of flight. The direction and rate of turn was indicated by a precession-actuated pointer. In the Reid control indicator, a compact combination of gyro-turn-indicator, airspeed indicator and clinometer, manufactured by Messrs. Vickers, Ltd., the rotor of the turn-indicator is driven by a jet of air passing through a compound Venturi tube placed in the slip stream of the propeller. The turn is indicated by means of precession-actuated electric contacts, which switch on one, two or more green lamps, if the turn is to the right, or one, two or more red lamps, if the turn is to the left; the number of lamps switched on is directly proportional to the rate of turn (see AIR NAVIGATION). Gyro-apparatus for Indicating Rate of Angular Motion —This is usually employed for recording the rolling motions of a ship. In the Cunard liner “ Laconia,” fitted with Frahm’s anti-rolling tanks, a gyro pendulum was used for recording the rolling motions. Its rotor was horizontal and driven by an electric motor; the rotor was mounted in a Cardan ring suspended tn a stand secured to the deck, the pivots of suspension being fore and aft. The angular motion of the stand relatively to the gyro represents the rolling of the ship and is recorded by a pencil beneath which a paper band travels continuously. Gyroscopic Transmisston Gear.—The gyro principle has been utilised in transmitting power, the gyro serving as a flexible connection between a driving and a driven shaft. (See VARIABLE TRANSMISSION GEAR.) Other Applications —In apparatus for measuring deviations of bore-holes from the vertical, the gyroscope has been employed to compensate for rotation, in the bore-hole, of the outer casing containing the measuring apparatus. Messrs. Krupp’s fire control apparatus for use with naval guns makes use of a gyrostatic apparatus at the observation station and a precisely similar apparatus at the gun station, both apparatuses being connected electrically so as to operate strictly in unison. The gyroscopically controlled photographic camera of Prof. Sir J. B. Henderson comprises a gyro-controlled prism for counteracting the effects of lateral movements and pitching of the support and a gyroscopically rotated sensitive plate to compensate for rolling movements. The camera is intended chiefly for aerial photography and is rigidly secured to an aeroplane. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A. Gray, A Treatise on Gyrostatics and Rotational Motion; Theory of Applications (1918); J. Perry, Spinning Tops and the Use of Gyrostats and the Gyro-Compuss (1919); T. W. Chalmers, The Gyroscopic Compass: A Non-Mathematical Treatment (abate Fs Er Ia

HAAG— HABSBURG

304 1

| AAG, CARL (1820-10915), British painter (see12.780), died at Rother Thurm, Oberwesel, Germany, Jan. 17 1915. HAASE, FRIEDRICH (1827-1911), German actor (see 12.782), died in Berlin March 17 1911. HAASE, HUGO (1863-1919), German politician, was born Sept. 29 1863, at Allenstein in East Prussia. At the outbreak of the World War he was parliamentary leader of the Social Democratic party in the Reichstag, but in 1916 he seceded with the Independent Socialists, who refused to vote the estimate and war credits, and became their leader. In this capacity he exercised a moderating influence upon the extreme section of the Independents, who at a later date (1920) joined the Communists. He was one of the commission of six who conducted the Government of the German Reich, in the name of the people, immediately after the revolution of Nov. 1918. Haase died on Nov. 7 1919 from wounds received in an attempt upon his life while he was entering the Reichstag building.

HABER, FRITZ (1868-

J, German chemist, was born in Bres-

lau Dec. ọ 1868. He studied at the universities of Berlin and Heidelberg and at the technical high schools at Charlottenburg and Carlsruhe. He was then appointed staff professor at Berlin University and afterwards became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for physical chemistry and electrochemistry. tle made a special study of thermodynamic technical gas reactions, and also made experiments in connection with the equilibrium of ammonia and the influence of very high pressures and high temperatures. During the World War he studied the gases used in warfare and their effective frustration by gas masks and chemical means. He conducted particularly important researches in collaboration with Bosch, which led to the establishment of the Haber-Bosch process for the production of nitrogen manure. After the War the large works at Leuna, near Halle, produced more nitrogenous manure, according to this process, than was imported previously in the form of nitrate of soda. The

chief characteristic of the process is the continuous reaction under a pressure of 200 atmospheres, and the most important raw material used is water gas, produced from coke and gypsum (see NITROGEN, FIXATION OF). His recent works include Betirag zur Kenntnis der Metalle (1910); Uber die Synthese des Ammoniaks: Die Chemie im Kriege (1922); Fiinf Vorträge aus den Jahren 1920-3: Uber die Herstellung des Ammoniaks aus Stickstoff und Wasserstoff (1924). HABITUAL OFFENDERS.—In the law, as in common parlance, a habitual offender is one who is repeatedly guilty of criminal offences, who makes a business of crime. In this broad sense the term is identical in meaning with recidivist, a constant backslider. In a more restricted and accurate sense, however, habitual offender denotes one who has become a recidivist by force of habit, and this opens up a wide and interesting divergence of opinion among psychologists as to the mainsprings of conduct. One school of students of this science stresses the hereditary elementin human nature—instinct, impulse, the innate characteristics—and to the most extreme of these every “ true ” criminal is by propensity if not in act, a recidivist. The criminal is born, not made. The other school, believing that our original endowment differs only in degree and not in kind, lays the emphasis on environment, the individual’s experience of life. The criminal is the product of circumstances. The Schools of Thought—Without drawing too fine a line between the adherents of these two schools of thought, it may safely be asserted that the medical criminologists tend to align themselves with the former and the sociological criminologists with the latter. Many psychiatrists have committed themselves to the view that all recidivists, if not all criminals, are either insane

or psychopathic personalities. There is, on the other hand, a strong current of psychological thought in evidence at the present time, which strongly supports the view expressed in the popular

maxim, “‘ man is a creature of habit.” Habit is not only a man-

ner of acting but of thinking and feeling as well. Wil, conscience, impulse, are all the fruits of habit. Indeed they are the habit of which the external act or conduct is only the expression. The habitual ofender is what he is because his experience of life has been such as to cultivate criminalistic ways of thinking, feeling and acting. Probably no one would deny that the development of these anti-social tendencies comes easier to some than to others, but the clear implication of this doctrine is that, given a sufficiently evil environment, no man that is born of woman Is so endowed by nature as to resist 1ts moulding influence. On the other hand it is conceded that some, probably a very small proportion of the whole, are born into the world with such a defective equipment as to render them very unlikely subjects for the development of a socially useful character. Such are the neurotic individuals who early in life develop into insane or psychopathic personalities. The notion, current a few years ago, that the feeble-minded are of this sort, has now been generally abandoned. Mental defect is a handicap in leading any kind of life, good or bad, but it involves no predisposition towards the latter. The net result is that the good life is not an individual endowment but a social achievement, and the same is true of the evil life. That the habitual offender is not irredeemable appears to have been demonstrated by the experience of Camp Hill in England and by fortunate periods in the recent history of Sing Sing and Auburn prisons in the United States. “ Habit is second nature,” but like the original nature, it is still plastic and susceptible to new and more wholesome influences. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The literature of the subject is still, for the most part, to be found in psychologic and other periodicals. Books or articles that may be read with profit are: John Dewey, Human Nature and Conduct (New York, 1922);

S. Hobhouse

and F. Breckway,

English

Prisons

To-day

(London,

1922); B. Glueck, “A Study of 608 Admissions to Sing Sing Prison,” in Afental Hygiene, 2 (1918); ‘ Jack ”’ Black, “ Breaking the Shackles,” Zhe Cail (San Francisco, 1918, 1926). (G. W. K.*)

HABSBURG

(see 12.787), the former ruling dynasty of the

Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Habsburgs’ relations with their subjects were defined in the 18th century, when Charles VI., last of the Habsburgs proper, issued the pragmatic sanction, which was accepted by the estates of his peoples. The family dominions were hereby declared indivisible, and the descendants of Charles were accepted as their hereditary rulers in perpetuity, so long as a male or female member of them remained. The dynasty of Habsburg-Lorraine, founded by Charles’s daughter, Maria Theresa, and her husband Francis I., ruled in virtue of this contract. In 1918 there were over 120 archdukes or archduchesses, descendants of Maria Theresa, who could thus succeed to the throne. Results of the War.—Charles I. (q.v.), the last ruling Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, succeeded his great-uncle on Nov. 21 1916. At this time his subjects still protested loyalty to the dynasty; but during the collapse of Oct. ror8 one nation after another repudiated its rule. The Poles of Galicia, who had long been practically independent, formed a national council at Cracow on Oct. 28 1918 and soon after adhered to the republic of Poland. The Ruthenians of East Galicia decided on Oct. 19 to form a separate state. The Czechoslovaks on Oct. 21, in a manifesto dated the 18th, declared themselves independent and expressly repudiated Habsburg rule. The Yugoslavs made very similar proclamations during the last days of October. On Oct. 27 Count Andrássy, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister, accepted President Wilson’s demands “ regarding the rights of the peoples of Austria-Hungary, particularly those of the Czechoslovaks and Yugoslavs.” The states of Poland, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia soon after came formally into being, and although Charles never renounced his sovereign rights in these territories, the Habsburg family has made no serious claim to reassert them; although a small monarchist party in Croatia

HADFIELD—HADLEY, A.T. has since toyed with the idea of reuniting with Hungary under Habsburg rule. The treaties of Saint Germain and Trianon perpetuated the boundaries of these States, and confirmed Italy and Rumania in the possession of their parts of the former Habsburg monarchy. Most of the treaties of the “ Little Entente ” (q.v.) are expressly directed towards the maintenance of these frontiers, especially those of Hungary, and thus implicitly (the forms of those states being what they are) to the exclusion of the Habsburgs from these territorics. Position of the Emperor Charles——-There remained only German-Austria and Hungary. On Nov. 11 1918 Charles issued a proclamation in which he stated: Still, as ever, filled with unchanging love úri

all my peoples,

Į will not oppose my person as an obstacle to their free development.

I recognise in advance the decision which German-Austria will take on its future form of State. The people has assumed the government through its representatives. I renounce any share in the affairs of State. At the same time I remove my Austrian Govt. from its office.

The Provisional Govt. of German-Austria proclaimed a republic on the following day. On March 12 1919, following the elections, the first national assembly repeated this declaration. Charles, however, refused to abdicate in his own name and that of his dynasty. Thereupon the national assembly, by decree of April 2 1919, banished all Habsburgs from Austria and confiscated the family property for the benefit of the War invalids. Habsburgs who renounced all rights other than those of private citizens were, however, allowed to live unmolested in Austria, and several of them did so. The legitimist movement in Austria has been very weak since these events. Vienna is almost fanatically republican, and even in the provinces, the monarchist movement in favour of the Wittelsbach dynasty has been quite as strong as the legitimist Habsburg movement. Austrian republicans claim that Charles’s acceptance in advance of the republic was equivalent to a renunciation of the throne. Charles and Hungary.—Charles issued a similar proclamation to Hungary on Nov. 13 which Karolyi answered by proclaiming the Hungarian Republic on Nov. 16. When, however, the Right regained power in Hungary after Karolyi’s and Kun’s régimes, it proceeded by Act I. of 1920 to abolish all legislation passed by these two Governments. Hungary, therefore, reverted to the status of a kingdom, and controversy arose whether or not Charles’s action has annulled the pragmatic sanction, in which case the monarchy in Hungary, under her old constitution, was elective or not. ‘‘ Legitimists’”’ and “ free electors’ disagreed violently, the latter usually demanding the election of a Habsburg but one whose person and wife should be more popular

than those of Charles. On Feb. 2 1920, during the discussions on the draft treaty of Trianon, the Allied and Associated Powers declared that a Habsburg restoration in Hungary would be a matter of international concern and that they would neither recognise nor tolerate such a restoration. They attempted to insist on Hungary’s styling herself a republic, but finally, in view of the objections raised by the Hungarian delegation, compromised on the word ‘ Hungary.” Charles returned to Hungary an attempted to assert his claim on March 27 and Oct. 20 1921 (see HUNGARY). On April 4 the Conference of Ambassadors insisted that Charles should leave Hungary. After the second coup, under pressure from the Powers and the Little Entente, the Hungarian Parliament passed a decree (Nov. 3 1921) whereby the sovereign rights of Charles and the pragmatic sanction were declared forever abrogated and the right of the Hungarian nation to elect its king by free choice restored. On Nov. ro Hungary addressed a note to the Powers consenting only to elect its king in agreement with the Powers and accepting the notes of Feb. 2 and April 3 1921. The Legitimist party, however, still looks on Otto as the legitimate king since Charles’s death on April 1 1922. Otto and his mather share this view. Habsburgs are scattered over Europe. Most reside in Hungary, Austria and at the Spanish Court. Their financial position is various. They have lost all valuables and estates owned in

305

virtue of their rank. Great controversy was aroused by the fact that Charles took with him, and sold, the crown jewels. Many of the family, however, as the Modena and d’Este branch, own vast private fortunes and great estates. The Hungarian branch was fortunate in this respect, as their wealth was not touched by the non-socialist Government. The Polish Govt. at first sequestrated Habsburg estates, but afterwards released them. Austria confiscated all estates, etc., that were not purely private property. The income of the senior branch of the family is small. The Archdukes—The remaining Habsburgs have not been prominent outside the realms of politics. Fhe Archduke Frederick (b. 1856) became inspector-general to the Austro-Hungarian army after the murder of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand (g.v.) in June 1914. His command was only nominal, his chiei of staff, Conrad von Hötzendorf, performing the real duties. In rọr7 the Emperor Charles took his place. The Archduke Eugen (b. 1863) also held a high command, assisted by Gen. Krauss. The Archduke Joseph (b. 1872) resided in Hungary, where he enjoyed great popularity. During the World War he commanded a division, and later an Army Corps. At the debacle he assumed a nationalist Hungarian attitude, recalled the Hungarian troops under his command from the front and acted as intermediary between the King and Karolyi’s Government. While Karolyi still took the oath of loyalty to King Charles, Joseph had already repudiated the monarchy and his own title. He lived quietly on his own estate as “ Joseph Habsburg ” throughout the Commune; but after its fall, he assumed power on Aug. 6 1919 as administrator of Hungary. He was forced to retire on Aug. 22, as the Entente declared that they would not negotiate with Hungary under a Habsburg and were ‘“ obliged to insist upon the present pretender to supreme power in the Hungarian State resigning.” After this time Joseph took little part in public life. The Archduke Albert (b.1897), son of Archduke Frederick supported by his wife, Isabella, became the chief candidate of the “free Electoral party ” in Hungary, with whom he had close relations.

The Archduke Stephen (b. 1860), whose estates

were in Galicia, was put forward as a candidate by the Polish monarchist party. His son, the Archduke William (b. 1895), at one time aspired to the throne of the Ukraine. Although many archdukes, including Frederick and Francis Ferdinand, were known as collectors, the Habsburgs have not been prominent as creative artists. Archduke Leopold W6lfling wrote a book entitled Huabsburger unter sich. (See Austria.) (C. A. M.)

HADFIELD,

SIR ROBERT

ABBOTT,

(18s9-

), British

metallurgist, was born in Sheffield Nov. 29 1859. Educated at Sheffield Collegiate School, at an early age he interested himself in metallurgy, subsequently becoming chairman of Hadfields, Ltd., Hecla and East Hecla Works, Sheffield, and director of other important companies. In 1883 he patented his process for the production of manganese steel (see 14.809) and became famous as the inventor and improver of various metallurgical processes, including low hysteresis steel and many other special ferrous alloys. He became a member of many scientific committees, and was president of the Iron and Steel Institute (19057), of the Faraday Society (1914-20), and of the Society of British Gas Industries (1917-8), besides being master cutler of Sheffield 1899-1900. In 1908 he was knighted; the following year became F.R.S., and was created a baronet in 1917. Sir Robert received many honours, including 10 gold medals, from scientific and learned societies; and became corresponding member of the French Academy of Sciences; hon. member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; and officer of the Legion of Honour. He published over 160 scientific and technical papers of considerable importance. His book Metallurgy and Its Tijluence on Modern Progress isa standard work of reference.

HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING (1856j), American economist and educationalist (see 12.798), was elected a director of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railway in ror3. In 1914 he lectured at the University of Oxford on “ Institutions of the United States.” In rors he endorsed college military camps and advocated the counting of military training for a degree.

HADLEY, H. K.—HAIG

306

In 1920 he resigned as president of Yale University and the same year was elected a director of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Railway. He wrote The Aforal Basis of Democracy (1919) and Economic Problems of Demiocrucy (1923). HADLEY, HENRY KIMBALL (1871), American composer, was born at Somerville, Mass., Dec. 20 1871. He studied theory and composition under Emory and Chadwick in Boston, completing his studies in Vienna. In roo4 he went to Germany, where he was Kapellmeister in Mainz Opera House for two seasons, and produced his opera Sofie in 1909. Returning to the United States in the same vear, he was conductor of the Seattle Symphony Orchestra until 1911, and of the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra 1911-5. In 1921 he became associate conductor of the N. Y. Philharmonic Orchestra. He produced three grand operas: Azora (Chicago Opera Co.), Bianca (Society of American Singers) and Cleoputra’s Night (Metropolitan Opera House), He composed also ode-music for the Worcester (Mass.) Festival (6oth Anniversary) and Resurgam for the Cincinnati Festival, 1923, in addition to four symphonies, overtures and cantatas, three tone poems, ballet suites and over r50 songs. He was elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters im 1924. HADOW, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (18509__+), British scholar and musician, was born at Ebrington, Glos., Dec. 27 1859. He was educated at Malvern and Worcester College, Oxford, and. after taking his degree remained at Oxford as a tutor and fellow of his college. In 1g09 he became principal of Armstrong College, Newcastle, retaining this post until 1919, when he became vicechancellor of Sheffield University. He was in 1918 appointed assistant director of education for the troops by the War Office and also worked for the ¥Y.M.C.A. He was knighted in 1918 and was made a C.B.E. in 1920. In 1922 he became Stevenson Lecturer to the University of Glasgow. Well known as a great authority on the history of music, Sir Henry Hadow also composed many songs and pianoforte pieces besides the incidental music to Robert Bridges’ Demeter (1905). He published Studies in Modern Music (1894 and 1895); Sonata Form (1896); -4 Croatian Compaser, a valuable tract on Haydn (1897); the section ‘ The Viennese Period ” (1904) in The Oxford History of Music, of which he was the editor; Criisenship (1923); and Music (1924) in the JIome University Library.

HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH (1834-1919), German biologist (see 12.803), died at Jena Aug. 8 toro.

HAFSTEIN,

HANNES

THORDUR

(1861-1922),

Icelandic

statesman and poet, was born Dec. 4 1861. As a young man he became known as a lyrical poet. In 1901 he was elected a member of the Althing, and soon became a leader of the Home Rule party. It was chielly owing to his influence that Denmark consented, in 1903, to the transfer of the residency of the Minister for Iceland from Copenhagen to Reykjavik. On Jan. 31 1904 Hafstein was appointed to this office and Inaugurated a new era of practical reform. His first work was to arrange a telegraphic cable to Great Britain and a net of telegraphs and telephones all over the island. His efforts, however, were hampered by the extremists, who demanded greater political independence from Denmark. Their obduracy led to his resignation in 1908. On the victory of the Home Rulers in 1ro11, Hafstein again became Minister in rg12, but had to resign in r914 after new and fruitless efforts to effect reconciliation. He lived, however, to see the full reconciliation between the two countries in 1918,

and. the recognition of Iceland as an independent state in union with Denmark. He died Dec. 13 1922. HAGENBECK, CARL (1844-1913), German collector of wild animals (see 12.814), died at Ilamburg April 14 1913. HAGGARD, SIR HENRY RIDER (1856-1925), British novelist (see 12.816), was knighted in 1912. Among his later novels are Child of Storm (1913); The Ivory Child (1916); Love Eternal (1918); The Ancient Allan (1920); and Heu-Heu: or the Monster (1924). Much of his time, however, in his later years was devoted to matters affecting the welfare of the Empire. Asa

member of the Dominions Royal Commission he travelled round the world and, to further schemes for settling ex-service men on

the land, he visited various parts of the Empire, writing a Report to the Royal Colonial Institute. He also wrote Rural Denmark and is Lessons, 1911. He died in London May 14 192s. HAGUE, THE (see 12.817), with a population in 1923 of 328.581, continues to be a centre of diplomatic and international movements. In roro the tribunal of arbitration of the North Atlantic Fisheries met in the city, and in r915 the International Congress of Women. In 1917 an agreement was reached here by British and German representatives as to repatriation of disabled prisoners, etc., and in 1920 a committee of the League of Nations Council met here to frame a scheme for the Permanent Court of International Justice. (¢g.2.) In 1913 the Palace of Peace, to which most countries of the world contributed gifts, was dedicated. In 1922 the house, lent to the town, with his pictures and furniture, by Dr. Bredius, the art historian, was opened to the public; in 1924 a museum, chieily for educational purposes, with large Greek, Asiatic and Egyptian collections, was established. HAIG, DOUGLAS HAIG, ist Ear (1861), British soldier, was born in Edinburgh June 19 1861, son of John Ifaig, of Cameronbridge, Fife. He was educated at Clifton and Brasenose College, Oxford, and in 1885 joined the 7th Hussars. He was promoted captain in 1891, afterwards passed through the staff college and was employed with the Egyptian Army in 1898 during the Nile campaign, for which he was given a brevet majority. On the outbreak of hostilities in South Africa in 1899, he went out to Natal on the staff, and was present during the opening engagements near Ladysmith. He was afterwards chief staff officer of the cavalry division during Lord Roberts’ victorious advance from Cape Colony through the Orange Free State into the Transvaal, and was promoted brevet lieutenantcolonel for his services. In the later phases of the struggle he was in command of a column and later was controlling groups of columns; at the close of the war he was appointed A.D.C. to the King, promoted brevet-colonel, and given the C.B. Col. Haig subsequently commanded the 17th Lancers for a year, after which he went out to India as inspector-general of cavalry; this appointment he held until 1906, having been promoted major-general in 1905, in which year he married the Hon. Dorothy Vivian, daughter of the 3rd Lord Vivian. From 1906—9 he was a director in the War Office, and during this time he was intimately concerned in the development of the general staff and the improvements effected in the organisation of the army, which were set on foot while Lord Haldane was Secretary of State. In 1907 he published a volume of Cavalry Studics. His next appointment was that of chief of the general staff in India, which he held for three years, being promoted licutenant-general in roro. In 1ọr2 he was brought home to take the command in Aldershot, and in 1913 he was made a K.C.B. On the mobilisation of the Expeditionary Force in ror4, Sir Douglas Haig took the field as commander of the I. Army Corps, which he led during the Mons, Marne and Aisne operations, and the first battle of Ypres; he was promoted full general in Nov. for his services. On the division of the British Expeditionary Force into two armies at the beginning of 191s, he was placed at the head of the first. On the front of his army during rg15 there took place the battles of Neuve Chapelle, Festubert and Loos, and at the end of the year he succeeded Sir John French in the chief command. He had been made a G.C.B. in the autumn. At this time the armies were passing through a period of transition. The regular army with the exception of its cavalry, had almost ceased to exist and the first need was to weld its remnants, the new armies created by Lord Kitchener and the Territorial Army, into a whole capable of combined action both in attack ‘and in defence. This involved the creation behind the lines of a large number of schools of instruction in the use of the new weapons, which the requirements of trench warfare had created, and of the old ones which had been brought back with the service of war. Beyond and above this technical instruction came the training of the larger formations of all armies and for this it was necessary that a certain number of divisions should

HAINISCH—HAITI be placed sufficiently far behind the line to allow them the ground and the opportunities for gaining experience. This remained one of the chief items of Sir Douglas ITaig’s military policy until a late period of the War. It was a policy which often brought him into discussion both with the French generals and with the French statesmen, who were continually pressing him to take over a larger extent of front. Sir Douglas Haig pointed out that it was not possible to compare a national army created during the course of the War with one which had

been long established in time of peace, and that the Germans throughout the War maintained a greater density of men oppo-

site the British lines than they did clsewhere. In the event, his policy was justified by the fact that in the latter half of r918 the British Army, was as a whole, at least as eflicient as any which

was then fighting in the War. The campaigns and battles of the British Army in France and Belgium are dealt with elsewhere and it is here only necessary to refer to the principles which guided Sir Douglas I[faig in certain of the crises of the War. The first of these during his command arose out of the German attack on Verdun during the first half of ror6. On that occasion he assisted the French by relieving their troops in the front and by preparing for the battle of the Somme. While that battle disclosed defects both of preparation and of execution, its results convinced Sir Douglas Haig that it had caused such exhaustion of the German armies as should be exploited at the earliest possible moment. He therefore agreed with Jotire to renew the battle early in 1917. But the battle of the Somme had caused grievous losses and the gains of ground as shown on the maps appeared trifling. Therefore, neither French nor British statesmen were prepared to agree to a policy which to their minds seemed likely to exhaust their resources before it caused the enemy to yield. The consequence of this was the replacement of Joffre by Nivelle and the assembly of an Allied Conference at Calais at the end of Feb. 1917, at which it was decided to give Nivelle the general direction of the British Army, while he was at the same time to be In active command of the French Army. This arrangement, militarily unsound, early produced friction. For Nivelle, who was ill-informed of events on the British front, issued to Haig instructions which were inappropriate both as to form and substance. These differences were adjusted at a further conference in London, but they created the impression that Haig was opposed to any form of unity of command, which was not true. The direct result of the failure of Nivelle’s campaign was a wave of depression which spread through the French Armies and resulted in serious mutinies. Pétain, who had succeeded Nivelle, appealed to Haig to keep the Germans occupied while he was restoring the morale of the French troops. To this appeal Haig responded by opening in the summer of 19017 a campaign in Flanders, which began with Plumer’s victory at Messines and was followed by the battle of Passchendaele. It was only with difficulty that Haig won the consent of the British Govt. to this campaign. By the middle of Oct. of that year Pétain was able to tell Haig that the French Army was suficiently restored to be able to look after itself; and it might have been wiser to have stopped the battle of Passchendaele then, as no adequate return was gained for the exhaustion caused by the prolongation of the attack in execrable weather. The crisis brought about by the success of the German-Austrian attack on the Italians at Caporetto following on the collapse of Russia, resulted in the creation in Nov. 1917 of the Supreme War Council, the first meeting of which was held at the end of the following January. This mecting had been preceded by a renewal of French demands for an extension of the British front, which Haig eventually met by agreeing to take over a portion of the line at and south of Peronne with his V. Army. At this meeting a difference of policy between Haig and his Govt. was disclosed. The commander-in-chief anticipated an early attack by the Germans and asked for reinforcements: the Prime Minister wished for an offensive campaign in Palestine, and won his way; and at this same conference, it was

decided to create an Allied general reserve on the Western Front

307

under the control of the military representatives of the Supreme War Council with Foch as chairman. During Feb. 1918 Haig became more than ever convinced that a great German attack on his front was imminent, in which he differed from the military representatives, who did not expect it before May. When the military representatives applied to him for divisions for the general reserve, he answered that in view of the lack of reinforcements, the extension of his front and the massing of German troops, he would be unable to furnish these divisions, and the formation of the general reserve broke down. With what calm determination Haig met the great German offensive of the spring of 1918 is described elsewhere. In the most critical days of that offensive it was Haig’s direct intervention with the British Govt. which brought Lord Milner to Trance, a visit which resulted eventually in giving Foch direct control of the Allied Armies. With Foch Haig’s relations were as harmonious as they had been with Joffre, and in the late summer of 1918 the British commander-in-chief reaped at last the reward of his patient policy. When in Aug. tor8 Rawlinson’s IV. Army won the victory of Amiens, Foch desired that Rawlnson should follow up his success. Haig, convinced that this would result in another deadlock, and confident now in the superior morale and efficiency of his army, persuaded TIoch to agree to an extension of the battle northwards, and so came about the breaking of the Hindenburg line which made it clear that victory could be won in 1918. For his great services Sir Douglas Haig was raised to the peerage as Earl Haig and Baron Haig of Bemersyde and was given a grant of £100,000. The Order of Merit was also conferred upon him, and the ancestral home of the Haigs at Bemersyde was purchased by national subscription and presented to him. On returning home he was for a short time commander-in-chief in Great Britain, but when that position was abolished he refused other offers of employment and devoted himself wholly to the welfare of ex-service men. He succeeded in uniting other organisations with the British Legion, of which he became president. He also created and became president of the British Empire Services League, a union of the ex-service men’s organisations of Great Britain and the Dominions; he was also appointed chairman of the United Services Fund, which together with the fund he established for the benefit of ex-service men forms one of the largest benevolent organisation in the country. (See Loos; NEUVE CHAPELLE; SOMME and articles on other battles of the World War; also WESTERN FRONT.) See Sir Douglas

Haig's Despatches, ed. J. H. Boraston (1920)

(F. B. M.)

HAINISCH, MICHAEL (1858), Austrian statesman, was born Aug. 15 1858,at Aue, near Gloggnitz, Lower Austria, the son of a manufacturer, and Marianne Hainisch, a pionecr of women’s rights. After a short career in the Austrian public service, he devoted himself to the study of social and agricultural questions. He was founder with Engelbert Pernerstorfer of the Gesellschaft der Fabier on the model of the British Fabian Society. Hainisch, who was particularly active in the cause of popular education, founded and endowed many hundreds of popular libraries. His works include: Die Zukunft der deutschen Ocsterreichers(1892); Voraussetzungen und Berechtigung des Sozialismus (1919); Die Landflucht (Jena, 1923). Hainisch was elected first President of the Austrian Republic in Dec. 1920 and re-elected unanimously for a further period of four years, Dec. 1924. HAITI (sce 12.824), a republic in the West Indices and a member of the League of Nations. Its area is 10,204 square miles. No reliable census of the population has been taken. Estimates vary from 1,500,000 to 2,500,000, the most reliable giving 2,028,000 in 1924.

I. POLITICAL

HISTORY The principal event in Haitian affairs in the period r910~-25 was the military intervention on the part of the United States, which developed into a close political and fiscal protectorate. The first part of the period was marked by constant revolutionary turmoil and by rapid political disintegration. In July 1911

HALDANE

308

President Simon was overthrown and on Aug. 14 Io91r Cincinnatus Leconte became president. A year later (Aug. 8 1912) the presidential palace was blown up and Leconte and a number of his followers killed. The National Assembly at once elected Tancrede Auguste, a prominent planter; he died the year after, and on May 4 1913, Senator Michel Oreste was elected.

Intervention of the United Siates—Dec. 1913 ushered in a period of political turbulence, and three military presidents assumed office in quick succession: Oreste Zamor, on Feb. 8 1914; Davilmar Theodore, on Nov. 7 1914; and Vilbrun Guillaume Sam, on March 4 1915. The last named, after withstanding the attacks of his opponents for several months, was compelled to seek refuge in the French legation in the night of July 26 1915, while 200 political prisoners in the gaol of Port-auPrince were massacred by order of one of his followers. At the funeral of the victims a party of mourners invaded the French legation, dragged out the ex-president, handing him over to the mob for death, and killed the ex-gaoler. Two hours later a U.S. cruiser arrived at Port-au-Prince and landed marines. US. forces occupied the country, disarmed the natives and restored

order. Although U.S. naval officers assumed charge of most administrative functions, the Haitian governmental organisation remained intact. On Aug. 12 1915 Sudre Dartiguenave was chosen by the Haitian Congress as president. A treaty having been accepted by the Haitian Govt. in 1916, the U.S. Senate advised ratification. Ratifications were exchanged at Washington and the treaty was proclaimed on May 3 1916. Modelled upon the American-Domingo Convention of 1907 (see 24.194), this instrument was designed to secure political stability and economic development in Haitian affairs by a political and fiscal

protectorate, to remain in force for a period of 20 years. By its terms the President of Haiti appointed, on the nomination of the President of the U nited States:—

Roads had been constructed and banditry

policy of financial reform was adopted, with very satisfactory results. The public debt, which in 1915 amounted to $36,000,000, had been reduced to $22,046,252 at the close of the fiscal year 1924-25. The budget had been balanced and a comfortable surplus realised by 1923-4, thus enabling the Govt. to spend substantial sums on public works and other developments. Borno was re-elected president in 1926. Il.

ECONOMIC

HISTORY

Production and Trade.—The chief crop is coffee, which represented

in 1925 some 75 % of the total income of the country. Other important products are cotton and sugar. Great efforts are being made to develop systematic cultivation, for even in 1925 coffee and cotton grew semi-wild. An agricultural school had been established at Portau-Prince, experimental

stations set up under American

such officers to be later succeeded by qualified Haitians;

(d) engineers and doctors to supervise the public works depart-

ment and public health services respectively.

Haiti agreed not to increase the public debt and not to modify the

customs duties without the consent of the United States; the United States undertook to intervene when necessary for the preservation of Haitian independence and the maintenance of a stable and effective government. The treaty provisions were promptly put into effect, and determined entirely the subsequent course of events. In the early period of American intervention the division of author-

ity caused friction, but with the appointment in 1922 by the President of a high commissioner to supervise and co-ordinate the activ-

ities of the treaty officials and the military occupation, native irritation and the friction between the American authorities and the

The U.S. marines were later withdrawn

from all interior points and concentrated at Port-au-Prince and Cape Haitien. The maintenance of order was placed in the hands of the Haitian gendarmerie. This was composed of native troops, but the

officers generally were officers and enlisted men of the U.S. Marine Corps.

The future of Haiti presented in 1921 the gravest problem of United States influence in the Caribbean (g.v.). Early termination of military occupation was, in the opinion of those in responsible charge, certain to result in reversion to old conditions. On the other hand, public sentiment in the United States did not view with satisfaction the definitive abandonment of the one great opportunity left the negro race to demonstrate, even after repeated trial, an ultimate capacity for self-government. Until 1921 the establishment of civil order had engaged the best energies of the American officials. With this accomplished, opportunity was afforded for rendering the further offices contemplated by the treaty in a way conducive to the ultimate assumption of civil authority by the Haitian Govt.; subject only to those reservations as to political stability and fiscal solvency in force in other areas within the range of American influence in the Caribbean. Borno as President—Louis Borno, who was elected on April 10, was inaugurated on May 15 1922 as president of the repub-

lic. He found civil order firmly established through an efficient

officials, a

system of premiums inaugurated to encourage coffee growers, and attempts made to improve the coffee and sugar crop and encourage the growth of other crops, such as cocoa, sisal, hemp and tobacco. A modern sugar-cane mill and refinery were erected at Port-auPrince, as well as a smaller plant near Cape Haitien, and also cotton ginning plants, etc. Means of communication and transport are being improved in order to open up the country and develop the

agricultural, forest and mineral resources; 1n 1925 some 7,500 m. of

road were open to traffic, motor roads totalling about 650 m. linking up the chief towns. Only some 60 m. of railway line were in operation in 1925, but the lines were being extended. Banking is in the hands of the National Bank of Haiti, a subsidiary of the National City Bank of New York, and the Royal Bank of Canada. Foreign trade had greatly improved between I915 and 1925. The following table shows the value of imports and exports from 1916 to 1924:—

l

i (a) a recciver-general of customs to take charge of the customs ouses; (b) a financial adviser to be attached to the Ministry of Finance; (c) American olħicers to organise and command a Haitian constabulary (gendarmerie) which was to replace the Haitian armed forces,

Haitian Govt. disappeared.

native gendarmerie.

eliminated, and the peasantry enjoyed, for the first time perhaps in their country’s history, complete freedom. Public health services had been greatly improved under American supervision, great progress being made in town sanitation. A vigorous

1916-7 . Ig17-8 . 1918-0 . 1919-20 I1020-I . Ig2I-2 . 19221923-4 1924-5

À : ; ; .

; ; ; ; ; :

: ; f i : ;

: ‘ : è . :

: ; : j

Imports gg

. .

8,606,086 10,180,693 17,117,608 27,398,4II 11,957,206 12,350,271 14,157,963 14,696,128 20,237,505

Exports

$

8,932,887 7.743,530 24,762,220 21,620,928 6,590,409 10,712,210 14,591,012 14,176,332 19,403,702

The chief articles of export in 1923-4 were coffee, valued at $10,361,776; raw cotton, $2,068,628; raw sugar, $620,412; logwood and logwood extract, $440,670; cotton seed, $202,580; and cocoa, $139,341. Exports to France were valued at $9,369,923; the United States, $1,329,251; Denmark, $847,118; the United Kingdom, $722,699; Germany, $652,688; and Belgium, $509,375. Imports were mainly from the United States, $11,817,376; the United Kingdom, $984,600; France, $885,228; and Germany, $447,999. Both imports and exports increased during 1924-5, when the total trade approximated $40,000,000, with a small balance in favour of Haiti. BIBLIOGRAPIITY,—S. Bonsall, The American Mediterranean (1912); C. L. Jones, Caribbean Interests of the Untied States (1916); Paul Rebeaux, Blanes et Noirs (1919); J. W. Johnson, “ Self-Determining Haiti,’ Nation (N.Y), Aug. 28, Sept. 4 and 11, 1920; Anual Reports of the United States Secretary of the Navy, 1920-5; Kepori of Inquiry into the Occupation and Administration of Haiti and Santo Domingo, before select committee of the U.S. Senate (1922); Carl Kelsey, “ The American Intervention in Haiti and the Dominican Republic,” Annals of The American Academy of Political and Social Science, March 1922; Charles Malo, Histoire d'Haiti (1925), Dept. of Overseas Trade, Reports on the Economic, Financtal and Contmercial Conditions in the Republic of Haiti, published by H.M. Stationery Office, London (1925 and 1926). (J. H. Ho.)

HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON HALDANE, rısT VISCOUNT (1856), British statesman, philosopher and lawyer (see 12.831). In rọro he was appointed chairman of the royal commission on university education in London. To organise a university of the first order in, of, and for London, which should secure for science and scholarship, under wise conditions, the full use of the great resources, human and material, of the capital of the British Empire, was a task demanding constructive statesmanship in a high degree. The report of this commission (Cd, 6717) dated Dec. rori dealt faithfully and vigorously with the

problems placed before it. Effect has not yet been given to its

HALIE—HALL recommendations.

399

Time may show that the university will and

association with it. The report of the Machinery of Govern-

can reform itself from within. If, and when, the university sets itself, or is sect, in order, the counsels of this commission, which bear the impress of the chairman’s mind, will form the basis of its new activities. In March 1o11 he was raised to the peerage and appointed a member of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council—that most important tribunal which constitutional lawyers know to be a practical bond of Empire. As a student of the principles which underlie all systems of law, he found the cases brought before the committee to be of absorbing interest, perhaps, most especially, those from India, where the fundamental principles of Hindu law are based on religious duty and philosophic concepts, unfamiliar to the west. In ro12, at the request of the Cabinet, he visited Berlin to discuss disarmament proposals and on his return reported to the Cabinet information he gathered there as to the attitudes and conditions of those then guiding the policy of Germany. To bea messenger of conciliation and co-operation between the two nations was a duty for which he was in every sense especially equipped, but he was, and soon knew he was, to be baulked by the conditions under which Germany was then ruled. Much party capital was made out of this visit, both then and later during the War. To have refused the opportunity was impossible. To have sent any other member of the Cabinet, would have been infructuous. Something resulted from the mission, but not all that he had hoped for. Lord Haldane accepted the thwarting of the full result he had looked for with characteristic courage and dignified silence. In 1912 he succeeded Lord Loreburn as Lord Chancellor and presided over the Jouse of Lords with dignity and efficiency.

ment Committee (Cd. 9230, 1918), of which Lord Haldane was chairman, pointed out that “ Further provision ts needed in the sphere of civil government for the continuous organisation of knowledge and the prosecution of research in order to furnish a proper basis of policy.” Accepting this declaration of principle, Mr. Baldwin established in to25 the Committee of Civil Research, on which Lord Haldane has served as a member. Thus, through every department of State, in education, in university hfe, in the army, in the law and in industry are found the effects of his master mind, of his clear vision, of his resolute adherence to first principles and of his practical philosophy. Elected first Chancellor of Bristol University, he has been Lord Rector of Edinburgh, and has received many honorary degrees. His book, Before the War, gives an account of his political activities

When the War broke out in r914, the great reorganisation of

the War Offce which he had effected was tested to the extreme. His labours were justified by their fruit. A new model had been created. There was a new spirit in the army. It had been set on the way of becoming a learned and scientific profession. It had been organised in accord with sound principles and its constituent elements had been brought into close relationship and enabled to co-operate with and understand one another. By the creation of the Officers’ Training Corps in 1909, the universities and schools were able to contribute in the time of need exactly the type of officer required. The Militia had been replaced by a Special Reserve of real value as events showed.

The Territorial Army had been created, and saved the situation more than once. The General Staff was brought into existence by the issue of a special army order, establishing it on the footing it held during the War and after. To Lord Haldane, again, is due the decision of the Dominion Conference in 1907, accepting the principle of an Imperial General Staff, by which concerted action and intelligent co-operation between armies drawn from all parts of the Empire was made possible. The experimental mating of Minerva with Mars had, indeed, been fruitful and felicitous. Practical reasons and popular prejudice account for his absence from the first Coalition Ministry in 19015, when he received the Order of Merit. He was then free—as free as any patriot of his nature and temperament could be in such stressful davs—to turn to philosophy. He published in 1921 The Reign of Relativity, a masterly presentment of profound, scientific and metaphysical thought, and in 1922, The Philosophy of Humanism, an abiding memorial of the dictum Das Geistige allein ist das Wirkliche. When Einstein came to England to lecture, he was the guest of Lord Haldane, who presided over the gathering which heard the exposition of the theory of relativity from its discoverer. Always eager to promote national education, Lord Haldane devoted much time and energy to the Workers’ Educational Association, which owes much of its success to his support. Lord Haldane was Lord Chancellor in the Labour Ministry of Mr. Ramsay MacDonald (1924), and working chairman of the Committee of Imperial Defence, where his experience, tact and indefatigable industry were invaluable, and, on the fall of the Labour Ministry, Mr. Baldwin invited him to continue his long

at that time.

HALE, GEORGE ELLERY (1868), American astronomer, was born at Chicago, Ill., June 29 1868. He studied at the Harvard College Observatory and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, graduating in 1890. He was director of the Kenwood Astrophysical Observatory, in Chicago, from 1890 to 1896. From 1892 to 1905 he was at the University of Chicago as associate professor of astrophysics, professor, from 1897, and director of the Yerkes Observatory, after 1895. In 1904 he became director of the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory (Cal.) of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, a position which he held tül 1923, when he became honorary director in charge of policy and development. He invented the spectroheliograph first used in 1892 for photographing solar prominences, and won an international reputation for his solar and stellar spectroscopic work. He was awarded the Janssen Medal by the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1894, the Rumford Medal by the American Academy in 1902, the Draper Medal in 1903, a gold medal by the Royal Astronomical Society in 1904, the Bruce Medal by the Astronomical Society of the Pacific in 1916, and the Janssen Medal by the Astronomical Society of France in 1917. He was the author of The Study of Stellar Evolution (1908) and Ten Years’ Work of a Mountain Observatory (1915), besides numerous papers in scientific publications. HALIFAX, Nova Scotia (see 12.843).—The population of the city in 1921 was 58,372. The public buildings and many of the houses built of stone show a considerable taste in architecture. Much of this stone was brought from the dismantled homes and fortifications of Louisburg. About one-tenth of the city area was devastated by the explosion on Dec. 6 1917, of a French steamer carrying 3,000 tons of T.N.T., on colliding with a Norwegian steamer on its way with a relicf cargo for Belgium. The reconstruction of a Greater Halifax has been carried out on modern lines of town planning. The harbour is accessible all the vear round to the largest vessels. New docks and railway stations, in course of construction, will give it an area of over 200 ac. and make it one of the best equipped ports in the world. Grain elevators and conveyor systems will meet the needs of expanding commerce. Halifax claims to have the lowest port charges on the Atlantic coast. There are a number of manufacturing industries, including the largest sugar refinery in Canada, and the city is also an important distributing centre. Halifax is the chief winter port of Canada and the Atlantic terminus of the Canadian National Railwavs. It has a naval dockvard and training school. HALL, GRANVILLE STANLEY (1846-1924), American psychologist and educationalist, was born at Ashfield, Mass., Feb. 1 1846. He graduated from Williams College in 1867 and took the degree of Ph.D. at Harvard in 1878. After holding the chair in psychology at Antioch College, 1872-6, he pursued further studies at Berlin, Bonn, Heidelberg and Leipzig. le was professor of psychology in Johns Hopkins University, 1881-8, anc was then elected the first president and made professor of psychology of the newly formed Clark University, Worcester, Mass. which, under Hall's personal leadership, was devoted, during its first two decades, chiefly to educational research. He became widely known as an exponent of the culture-epoch theory of

310

HALLE—HAMILTON

mental development, a doctrine set forth in his most influential | Seas. Anthropology, folklore and missionary problems are work, Adolescence, 2 vol. (1904). During the later years of his among the many notable features of the courses—especially the presidency his influence perceptibly diminished, this being partly summer course, which attracts a large number of students. HAMILTON, SIR IAN STANDISH MONTEITH (1853j, due to the lack of scientific method in his work. He resigned in British soldier, was born at Corfu Jan. 16 1853. Educated at 1920 and died April 24 1924. Wellington College and in Germany, he joined the army in Hall’s numerous published works include: Educational Problems 1872. He served with the g2nd Highlanders in the Afghan War (2 vol., 1911), Founders of Modern Psychology (1912), Senescence and the Boer War of 1881, and was severely wounded on Majuba (1922), and Life and Confessions of a Psychologist (1923). Hill, one arm being permanently disabled. He was then for HALLE, WILMA MARIA FRANCISCA, LADY (1839-1011), several years intermittently on the staff of Sir F. (Lord) Roberts. Anglo-German musician (see 12.853), died in Berlin April 15 He served in the Nile Expedition of 1884-5, in Burma in 1886-7, IQII. and on the staff of the Chitral Relief Force in 1895. He comHALSBURY, HARDINGE STANLEY GIFFARD, ist Eart oF manded a brigade on the North-West Frontier in 1897, and after(1823-1921), British lawver and politician (see 12.867), died in wards the School of Musketry, Hythe. In the South African London Dec. 11 1921. The year of his birth, earlier given as War he commanded a mounted infantry division during the 1825, was subsequently found to have been wrongly stated. The advance from Bloemfontein to Pretoria and into the eastern records of Merton College, Oxford, show him to have been born Transvaal. We returned home early in 1901 to become military on Sept. 3 1823. secretary at the War Office, but towards the end of the year HAMBURG, Germany (sce 12.871}, with a population in 1922 went back to South Africa nominally as chief of the staff to of 1,025,502, 1s the second city of Germany. Its commerce, in- Lord Kitchener, although in reality he was employed chiefly as dustry and shipping had been increasing up to the outbreak of the the commander-in-chief?’s deputy to control particular groups World War, which sharply arrested its development, but after of operations from time to time during the closing stages of the the Armistice it began to recover. In 1923 the port was entered struggle. by 13,192 seagoing vessels of 15,344,999 tons, as compared with He was afterwards again military secretary and then quarter16,427 of 14,185,496 tons In 1913. Traflic at the end of 1925 master-general at the War Office, and in 1904 he went out to the was about 90% of the pre-War figure. The proportion of shipFar East to accompany the Japanese armies in the field. His ping flying the German flag was only half what it had been, and impressions under the title uf Staff Officer’s Scrap Book (2 vol., emigrant and tourist traffic much less. The I!amburg-Amerika 1906-7), by reason of the interest of its subject, the charm of line, which had made great strides before the War, had 89 steamthe author’s style, and the combination of war experience and of imagination which inspired his judgments and criticisms, at once ers of 386,000 tons in 1924. Since 1910 new docks have been built on Waltershof Is., forming a second free port, and large ship- took rank in Europe as a modern military classic. His literary yards were laid down at Finkenwerder in r918. New buildings ability, though a token of unusual imagination and clearness of include the Trade Corporation House (1912-6) in Neustadt, the thought, rather prejudiced him throughout his career in the eves of old-fashioned soldiers. On his return he had charge of the Museum of Hamburg Antiquities (1914-20) and two ten-storyed Southern Command until 1909, and was afterwards adjutantoffice buildings of vitreous brick on the Messberg. The Exchange was rebuilt in 1908-12, and the Institute for Tropical general at the War Office for a year. He took a prominent part Diseases in 1914. Great S. Michael’s Church, burnt down in 1906, on behalf of the voluntary service system during the campaign has been re-erected on the old lines and the Kunsthalle, to the in favour of compulsory service led by Lord Roberts, and in the course of this controversy he published a book Compulsory east of the Binnen-Alster, has been much enlarged. The tunnel Service (1910), which he wrote at the request of Lord Haldane. under the Elbe from the St. Pauli district to Steinwarder, which In 1910 he was appointed commander-in-chief in the Mediis entered by lifts, was finished in 1911; but a two-storyed bridge over the river, begun In 1914, was still unfinished In 1925. {erranean and inspector-general of the Overseas Forces. On the outbreak of the World War in 1914 Hamilton served The university, founded in 1918, with a democratic constitution, is in Rotherbaum, to the north of the city, in a building for some months as commander-in-chief of the Home Defence originally designed as a lecture hall. Near it is a statue of Her- Army in England. Then in March rors, he was selected to take charge of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (sce Darmann von Wissman, the explorer, which was erected at Dar-esDANELLES CAMPAIGN). The naval effort to force the Dardanelles Salaam and removed here in 1922. Space in Ohlsdorf cemetery having failed, he found himself obliged to undertake operations for 700 graves of men who died in the district during the World in the Gallipoli Peninsula, and although his army was very illWar has been acquired by the British Government. A memorial commemorating the seamen of Hamburg who died as prisoners equipped for the task, he succeeded in landing it in the face of the enemy, but was brought to a standstill. Having, alter considerof war in America was unveiled in 1920. able delay, reccived substantial reinforcements, he made a great In 1917 a commission was appointed to bring about a reform effort in Aug. to improve his position, but partly through the of the class franchise which had hitherto existed in the Hanseatic cities, and a measure of electoral reform was adopted. The city inertia of some of the local commanders, sent out without consulting him, the operations miscarried, and a situation of staleand territory had nevertheless as severe an experience of the revolutionary movement as any region of Germany. The Council of mate arose. The Government consulted him in Oct. as to the Workmen and Soldiers assumed complete political power in expediency and feasibility of withdrawing from the peninsula, and on his pronouncing himself strongly opposed to such a Nov. 1918. The region of Cuxhaven belonging to Hamburg policy he was replaced by Sir C. Monro and returned home. declared its independence in Jan. 1919 under Communist leaderIn 1920, after the issue of the Report of the Dardanelles Comship, but the republic only lasted four days. In Jan. and Feb. mission, he published his own story of the campaign under the 1919 Communist disturbances broke out in the city itself. The new constitution adopted in 1920, reduced the authority of the the title of Gallipoli Diary (2 vol., 1920), and in 1921 The Soul senate, and the power which it formerly wielded is now in the and Body of an Army. For this Encyclopedia Sir lan wrote a brilliant article on WAR. (B. H. L. H.) hands of the Bürgerschaft (representative assembly), which HAMILTON, Ontario (sce 12.891), had in 1921 a population of consists of 160 members elected on the system of proportional 114,351. It was estimated (1924) at 120,235. Hamilton’s georepresentation. graphical posilion gives it excellent shipping facilities on the HAMBURG, UNIVERSITY OF.—By a process of natural Great Lakes. The city ison the Canadian Pacific and Canadian development the University of Hamburg was formed in rọrọ from the material of the Colonial Institute, and consists of the National Railways and is connected with several lines of the faculties of law, medicine, philosophy and natural science. Spe- United States. It is the centre of asystem of city and suburban cial facilities exist for study of the history and culture of the lines, and the municipal supply of electric power is cheap and practically unlimited. Hamilton has about oo factories, including Orient generally, of India, China, Japan, Africa and the South

HAMMARSKJOLD—HANDICRAFTS, ARTISTIC the largest plough works and implement works in the British Empire. Besides its Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, the city has 89 churches, 50 banks, 45 schools (public, private and technical), five hospitals and three public libraries.

HAMMARSKJÖLD,

HJALMAR

(1862—

__), Swedish states-

man, was born at Tuna Feb. 4 1862 and educated at the University of Upsala, where in 1891 he was appointed professor of civil law. After establishing his reputation as a jurist, he played an important part in national politics and became Minister of Justice in the Van Otter Cabinet, holding this post from tgo1~2 when he was appointed president of the Géta high court.

In ro05 he was Minister of Education in the Lundeburg Cabinet and also a delegate to the conference with Norway at Karlstad at the time of the dissolution of the union. He was Swedish Minister in Copenhagen from 1905-7 when he became governor (landshérding) of the province (lin) of Upsala. He had been Swedish delegate at the Hague conferences in regard to private international law in r900 and 1904, and from ro04 was Swedish member of the Hague International Board of Arbitration. In 1907 he was Sweden’s leading delegate to the Hague Peace Conference and in 1909 acted as president of the Franco-German board of arbitration in regard to the Casablanca affair. He presided in 1913 over the Franco-Italian arbitration court regarding the seizure of vessels during the Tripoli War. In Feb. 1914 he succeeded Staaff as Prime Minister, retaining this post during the World War until 1917 (see SWEDEN). Hammarskjéld became a member of the Institut de Droit International and a curator of the Académie de Droit International at The Hague. In Dec. 1924 he was appointed by the Council of the League of Nations chairman of the commission relating to the codification of international law. HAMMERSTEIN, OSCAR (1847-1919), American musical director, was born in Berlin. He went to the United States in 1863, where he made money as an inventor of cigar manufacturing machinery. In 1870 he became lessee and manager of a Bowery theatre and after 1880 built and operated the Harlem Opera House, the Olympic, the Victoria and other theatres. In 1906 he built the Manhattan Opera House, in avowed rivalry with the Metropolitan Opera House. In the operas which he produced there he broke away from the classics and presented the works of modern composers, for example Massenet’s Thdts, Debussy’s Pelléas et Mélisande and Charpentier’s Lozise. He secured artists such as Melba, Tetrazzini, Boncit and Renaud with Campanini as conductor and artistic director. In 1or1, however, he was compelled to sell his concern to the Metropolitan Opera Company, agrecing to abstain from producing grand opera for 10 years within the latter’s territory. He then went to London and built the London Opera House, but here again he failed to make a commercial success of the undertaking. Returning to New York in 1912 he built another theatre for the purpose of entering his former field of grand opera, but the Metropolitan Opera Company secured an injunction prohibiting him from so doing. He opened his new house under the name of the Lexington Theatre in 1914, with the usual form of theatrical programme. He died in New York City Aug. 1 1919. HAMMOND, JOHN HAYS (1855), American mining engineer, was born in San Francisco March 31 1855. He studied at the Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University (Th.B., 1876), afterwards taking a course at the Royal School of Mines, Freiburg, Saxony. In 1880 he was engaged in the U.S. Geological Survey of the California gold fields, afterwards practising as consulting engineer, in which capacity he visited most of the countries of North and South America. In 1893 he became associated with Barnato Bros. and Cecil Rhodes in South Africa, acting as consulting engineer for the Consolidated Gold Fields Co. of South Africa, the British South Africa Co., and the Randfontein EstatesGold Mining Company. As one of the leaders of the Rand faction, he was, in Jan. 1896, after the Jameson Raid, arrested and condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted, and later he was released on payment of a $125,000 fine. In 1go0 he returned to the United States and became largely interested in mining properties and irrigation projects both in the United States and

311

Mexico. Ife was president of the Panama Pacific Exposition Commission to Europe, 1912; chairman of the World Court Commission, 1914-5; and chairman of the U.S. Coal Commission 1922-3. He became general manager and consulting engineer of the Guggenheim [Exploration Company. His son, Jon Hays ITAmMonn, Jr. (1888), American inventor, was born in San Francisco April 13 1888. He studied at the Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University (B.S., rote). Devoting himself to clectrical developments and experiment, he in-

vented a torpedo for coast defence controlled by wircless energy, a system of radio control of ships and a system of selective radio telegraphy; also various electrical devices the use of which for military purposes was secured by the U.S. Government. HAMSUN, KNUT (1859y Norwegian author, was born Aug. 4 1859 at Lom in the Gudbrandsdal Valley, the son of poor parents. Ie started to write at the age of 19 when he was a shoemaker’s apprentice at Bodö in North Norway, and for ihe next 10o years earned his livekhood in various ways such as coal trimmer and country schoolmaster. He eventually went to America, where he became a tram conductor in Chicago and a farm labourer on the prairies. In 1888 he published, in a Danish magazine, the fragment of a novel, Su/t, which was later translated into English, as Hunger. This work at once attracted attention by the beauty of style and originality of treatment. His works from this time onward revealed a richness of talent which rapidly increased his reputation. He is akin to the Rus-

sians in his psychological analysis of morbid types, but the American influence is apparent in his use of startling metaphors and the aptness of his expressions. An intense love of nature also characterises his work. Ele is chiefly known to the Englishspeaking world by his three novels, Hunger, Growth of the Soil and The Woman at the Well. Nobel Prize for literature.

In 1920 Hamsun was awarded the

HANDICRAFTS, ARTISTIC (see ARTS AND CRAFTS,2.700).—The revival of interest in and the practice of the artistic handicrafts which was organised in the early ’cighties in England by Morris, Crane, W. A. S. Benson, W. R. Lethaby and their associates exercised an influence which soon extended to other European countries, the United States and Canada. Although it must be admitted that the dream of its founders has not been and cannot be realised, that influence is not dead. The quality of production may and must vary from time to time with the varying skill of the worker; but a standard of excellence has now been promulgated which is—if not vet equal to the hopes of the pioneers of the movement—at least well advanced in that direction. The arts and crafts movement was, and is, a protest against machine-made goods and commercialism, and though these, in the nature of things, must continue, definite results have been achieved. The iniluence of the movement upon the trade side of art-industry has been undeniable. The machine-made article cannot—or, at all events, docs not yet—equal in technical execution the hand-made article. But in colour, in pattern, in form, one has only to compare the shop-window display of the period since 1910 with that of the earlier period, to see how

great has been the advance of taste. And there has never been so great a demand for books, magazines and the written word generally relating to the arts, as there is at present; in itself a fairly convincing evidence of the growth of interest in the subject on the part of the public. I. HANDICRAFTS

IN GREAT

BRITAIN

An effort is being made, in Great Britain, by various societies and with some support from the Govt., in the direction of a general revival of village handicrafts. It is too soon to measure its success; but the movement is worthy of record. Furniture —While it is true that the most important of the industrial arts, the making of furniture, is suffering to some extent from a fashion for r8th-century reproductions, steady progress is being made towards what may. turn out to be a veritable 2oth-century style, of which the distinctive features appear to be simple construction based on good joinery rather

312

HANDICRAFTS, ARTISTIC

than on cabinet-making. The use of woods selected for their natural beauty and undefiled with polish or stain is another characteristic. Ornament is scantily applied and with increasing attention to utility and comfort; and the general tendency is towards rather substantial and even massive forms, although work on more delicate lines is not wanting. Undoubtedly the most distinguished figure in these, and in other, branches of craftsmanship was Ernest Gimson, whose style seems to be well on its way to becoming a tradition. But distinguished work in England has also been done by E. A. and S. H. Barnsley, P..Waals, A. Romney Green, S. Gordon Russell, C. A. Richter and Ambrose Heal. The wood carving of G. Jack and Lawrence Turner and the carved wood puppets and other figures by William Simmonds are especially notable. Continental furniture follows much the same principles, with perhaps more reliance on mass than on line; as for instance in the work of Louis Sognot of Paris, Hans Hloucat of Vienna and the productions of the Deutsche Werkstitten, Munich. Silversmiths’ W ork.—In silversmiths’ work, progress has hardly been maintained so far as regards a demand on the part of the public for really fine personal craftsmanship, although, again, the design characteristic of the revival is being reflected to some extent in commercial products. Most of those who are concerned with presentation plate still seem afraid to entrust their commissions to artists whose names and individuality would enhance values. For church purposes, however, admirable work has been done, especially as altar furniture, pastoral staves, etc., by Alwyn Carr, Henry Wilson, Omar Ramsden, Edward Spencer and others; and the series of episcopal and other seals engraved by Cecil Thomas would come into this category. A search for variety has revived, in new form, a combination of shagreen with silver or copper, worked with considerable success by Paul Cooper. Modern jewellery, with its distinctive use of stones en cabochon rather than cut, has perhaps kept its small place, but has not affected the more popular taste to any appreciable extent, and of enamels it can only be said that the art has lost rather than gained ground. The silversmiths’? work of the Scandinavian group shows promise and originality, and French artists still display extraordinary technical skill and ingenuity; but for obvious reasons there is little new movement to record. Textiles —Textile fabrics generally show a tendency towards = simple and effective colouring, side by side with a revival of the brocade and chintz patterns of the 18th century, and astill powerful oriental influence. Patterns directly based on flower and plant form have no longer the vogue of the earlier years of the century; though the renaissance of good needlework, due very largely to the efforts of Miss May Morris and Mrs. A. H. Christie, as well as to the effective work done by the Dept. of Textiles of the Victoria and Albert Museum under Mr. A. F. Kendrick, seems to be firmly established in Great Britain. On the Continent, peasant design has influenced pattern, and a definite revival of tapestry in Sweden is to be noted. In this class reference must be made to the effect of the costume designs of Léon Bakst originating a new movement which has spread far beyond its original purpose. Design in carpets and rugs, so far as it exists at all, appears to be almost entirely subservient to Persian and Near Eastern motives; apart from these, however, public taste seems to prefer unpatterned colours to an increasing extent. Glass.—Much more attention has recently been given to original design in glass-ware on the continent of Europe than in Great Britain; and while there is perhaps too strained an effort in this direction, it cannot be denied that a fair amount of good work is being done. That of Marinot of Paris is decidedly in this class, for it keeps well within reasonable limits in appropriate treatment of the material and yet achieves a novel and highly decorative effect. Some excellent glass for table use is being made in Sweden and Denmark; and the more highly elaborated designs of E. J. Margold of Darmstadt and of the cut-class made under the direction of Prof. G. Beckert of Czechoslovakia are enterprising in pattern and by no means without interest. If in this

department Great Britain is behind, in stained glass she has made distinct progress. A Gothic tradition is, in this instance, almost essential; but its treatment of subject can be, and is, sufficiently modern for all practical purposes. The designs of Christopher Whall, P. Woodroffe, G. Kruger Gray, G. Parlby and others have continued and developed the new life instilled in this art by William Morris and Sir P. Burne-Jones. (E. F. S.)

II. HANDICRAFTS

IN THE UNITED

STATES

In the first quarter of the 2oth century the artistic handicrafts, or arts and crafts, have made substantial progress in the United States of America. When the revival began with the

Boston Exhibition in 1897, the standards were not particularly high and the amount of work being done throughout the country was insignificant. The Boston Society of Arts and Crafts was organised in this year and has maintained its leadership in the movement ever since. Its annual sales have increased from $4,000 in Igor to over $200,000 in 1925. The arts and crafts were taken up with fervour and a large number of societies were soon organised. The result was that

with the showing at the St. Louis Exposition in 1904 and at the Boston Exhibition in 1907, fairly good standards were established in all branches of craft work. It must be admitted that craftsmen who were foreign-born and trained contributed largely to this rapid advance. While some of the initial enthusiasm died down after a few years, there has been a decided renewal of interest since the World War. Distinguished work is now being done, which has had considerable influence on commercial work and in the improvement of popular taste. Probably the most important advance has been made in the field of stained glass, in which it may be said that an outstanding American style has been established, notable for its decorative character and its emotional quality of colour. While it very definitely carries on the traditions of the early stained glass, it is already adding traditions of its own. The fact that the importation of fine stained glass from Europe has dropped off at least 75% in the last ten years, although there has been an unprecedented number of fine churches built, is due to the work of such . men as Charles J. Connick, Nicola D’Ascenzo, Henry Wynd Young, J. Gordon Guthrie, Lawrence Saint and Joseph G. Reynolds. In metal work, there has been the greatest advance in ironwork and jewellery. Samuel Yellin is doing some masterly work in iron, as well as Frank L. Koralewsky, Morgan Colt and Miss Marie Zimmerman. In quality of design and technique, high standards have been reached by such jeweller-craftsmen as Frank Gardner Hale, Edward E. Oakes, Herbert Kelley, Miss Margaret Rogers, Mrs. Josephine H. Shaw, Mrs. Eda Lord Dixon and Horace E. Potter. The early American silversmiths carried their art to a high point of perfection, and those of the present generation have been content to follow along the Colonial lines without attempting much originality or change. American silver is characterised by good lines and plain surfaces, with less decoration than is usual in Europe. The marked increase in the demand for handwrought silver is due to the notable work of Arthur J. Stone, George C. Gebelein, James T. Woolley, George E. Germer (who has done some fine ecclesiastical pieces), Douglas Donaldson, George J. Hunt, Porter Blanchard, Karl F. Leinonen, John P. Petterson and F. J. R. Gyllenberg. A growing demand for pewter is recently apparent, stimulated by the work of Lester H. Vaughan. The leading American woodcarver is undoubtedly I. Kirchmayer, who has developed a style of his own which he calls American Gothic, characterised by the introduction of architectural motives in the drapery, but more especially by strength of character, reverence and a mastership of all the best traditions. In furniture, as in silver, there has been a harking back to Colonial times, and the standards of public taste have been raised enormously through the great vogue of antique pieces and good modern reproductions. No new styles have been developed.

In textiles the advances have been Jargely in batik and block

HANGAR—HARBORD printing. The names of Miss Lydia Bush-Brown, Miss Helen Dryden, Charles S$. Todd, Jean Paul Slusser, Arthur Crisp, Miss Nell Witters, Gilbert Fletcher and Mrs. Marion Maercklein Woodbridge stand out prominently. Weaving has been restricted

largely to Colonial models. Creditable work is being done in pottery. The porcelains of Mrs. Adelaide A. Robineau and the tiles of Henry C. Mercer and Mrs. Mary Perry Stratton have a high reputation. Other master potters are Charles F. Binns, Arthur E. Baggs, Edmund de F. Curtis, H. Varnum Poor and R. Guy Cowan. Some excellent illumination has been done by Sister Olive

Frances, Sister Magdalen, Miss Winifred M. Crawford and Mrs. Gertrude S. Bassett. The demand for hand bookbinding must always be limited, but good work was done by Miss Mary Crease

Sears, Mrs. Averill Cole Howland, John F. Grabau and Miss Eleanor I. van Sweringen. In the field of fine printing and typography it is generally conceded that such men as Bruce Rogers, D. Berkeley Updike, and T. M. Cleland are among the leaders. The demand for good commercial printing and binding has stimulated many of the leading publishers to put out books of really artistic merit. American craftwork is holding its own with that of Europe and, in comparison, its dominant characteristics seem to be its conservatism and restraint. (H. P. M.) HANGAR: see AERODROME. HANIHARA, MASANAO (1876), Japanese statesman, was born in Yamanashi-Ken. He graduated from Waseda University, Téky6, in 1897 and entered the diplomatic service. In 1899 he went to the legation at Seoul (Korea), as attaché, being transferred to Washington in the same capacity in 1901. After a year of service there, he was made secretary, invited specially to study American affairs, and later became chief secretary for foreign affairs. He felt that American-Japanese relations were unsatisfactory and wished to impress upon the citizens of the United States the necessity for friendly co-operation with the Japanese. He was sent to San Francisco as consul-general in 1916, remaining until the end of r917. Returning to Tékys he first became director of political affairs and then, in rọrọ, ViceMinister for Foreign Affairs. As vice-minister he was one of the four delegates to the Washington Conference 1rg21-2. In 1923 he was appointed Japanese Ambassador to Washington, and it is maintained in America that his reference, in a public speech, to the “ regrettable consequences which would follow the passage ” of the Immigration bill, was responsible for the bill becoming law. The Japanese Govt., realising that some blunder had been made, recalled Hanihara in 1924. HANKOW, China (see 12.919).—A great commercial entrepét is provided for China by the three large cities, Hankow, Hanyan and Wuchang, at the point where the Han flows into the Yangtze Kiang. The population was given in 1923 as 1,646,800. In summer the surrounding country is flooded, and vessels drawing 29 ft. can get up to Hankow, but during the winter the port is accessible only to vessels drawing 12 ft., even at favourable periods, and as the water falls hulks are moved out from the banks, with which they are connected by staging. In 1921, however, a river commission was formed, and the work of levelling the river bed from Hankow downstream was begun. The advisability of flood prevention works is also being investigated. Hankow, owing to its strategical importance, suffered considerably during the Revolution of 1911, and in Nov. two-thirds of the city was destroyed by fire, as a result of bombardment by the Imperialists. By 1914 80% of the area was again covered with houses on the old pattern. Several new roads, however, have since been laid out to the rear of the native city on reclaimed land, and a scheme for housing large numbers of the poorer classes on new areas, to relieve the housing problem, has been promulgated. The industrial development of the district, increasingly active after the World War, is reflected in the building of a number of factories and workshops, and foreign interests are largely increased. The British Bund has become the banking and commercial centre, and a number of imposing banks and offices have been erected, including a customs house, a large Chinese hospital

313

in European style in the native quarter, and a church in the French Concession. The British Concession has been enlarged, and the concessions, each with its own municipal council, now extend for over 2 m. along the river. Those of the Germans and Russians have been taken over by the Chinese authorities. The water supply of the city is good, and there have been no recent outbreaks of cholera. After the World War trade expanded steadily, though the black tea trade, Hankow’s staple industry in former days, has declined, largely because of the elimination ot the Russian market. The interruptions to communications and the constant impositions which have resulted from the internal

troubles of China, as also the increased competition since the re-entry of German traders, have greatly troubled exporters. HANN, JULIUS (1839-1921), Austrian meteorologist and climatologist, was born near Linz, Upper Austria, March 23 1839. In 1865 he became editor of the Zeitschrift der Oesterveichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie, and from 1877 was occupied in the Central Meteorological Institute at Vienna. In 1873 he was appointed professor of physics at the University of Vienna. He acquired a world-wide reputation for his works on atmospheric dynamics and thermodynamics, the ‘‘ atmospheric pulse,”’ cyclones and climatology. His principal works are Die Erde als Ganzes; Die Atmosphäre und Hydresphäre (1872); Handbuch der Klimatologie, 3 v. (1908); Lehrbuch der Meteorologie, 3d ed. (1914) and many papers in his own Zeitschrift and the reports of the Akademie der Wissenschaften. He died in Vienna Oct. 1 1921.

HANUSCH, FERDINAND (1866-1923), Austrian politician, was born Nov. 9 1866 in Oberndorf, Silesia, the son of a poor Silesian weaver. After a childhood of crushing poverty, Hanusch became in rogoo secretary of the Austrian Textile Workers’ Union. In 1907 he entered Parliament as a deputy. He was a pioneer of the Austrian trade union movement, especially in his own branch of industry, and did much to improve conditions for this class of labour, which were abnormally bad. In Oct. 1918 he became secretary of state in the new ministry of social welfare, and was author of most of the social legislation of the period, including the eight-hour day, the Works Councils Act, the law compelling employers of 14 hands or more to ìncrease their stafis by 20% in order to reduce unemployment, and the laws dealing with the unemployment dole. He was universally respected for his personal probity and first-hand knowledge of labour problems and conditions. He died Sept. 28 1923.

HARA, TAKASHI (1856-1921), Japanese politician, was born at Morioka. After studying law and practising Journalism he entered the diplomatic service, and was chargé d'afaires in Paris in 1886. In 1892 he was appointed director of the commercial bureau at the Foreign Office, and in 1895 became Vice-Minister of the department. He acted as minister to Korea from 1896-7, when he became chief editor of the Osaka Mainichi. Still deeply interested in politics he became the leading spirit of the SelyuKai (Liberal) party. From the end of 1900 to May 1go1 he was Minister of Communications in the Ito Ministry. He then reverted to journalism, and became chief editor of the Osaka Shimpo, and was elected a member of the House of Representatives for Morioka in 1902. Definitely abandoning journalism he was appointed Minister for Home Affairs in the first Saionzi Ministry of 1906, in the second Saionzi Ministry of 1911 and in the Yamamoto Ministry of 1913. On Sept. 29 1918 Mr. Hara, as the first commoner to become Prime Minister of Japan, formed a Cabinet based, for the first time in the history of Japanese politics, on strictly parliamentary principles. He was assassinated by a demented youth in Toky6 on Nov. 4 1921. HARBORD, JAMES GUTHRIE (1866~ ), American soldier, was born at Bloomington, Ill., March 21 1866. He graduated from the Kansas state agricultural college, Manhattan, Kan., taking the degree of B.S. in 1886. He joined the 4th Infantry in 1889 and was commissioned in the cavalry in 1891. Serving in the 5th, rith, roth and ist Cavalry, he became a major in 1914. From 1903 to 1914 he served in the Philippine Constabulary. He became brigadier-general in 1917, and was chief of staff of the American Expeditionary Force in France 1917-8. He com-

314

HARCOURT-—HARDING

manded the Marine Brigade near Château-Thierry, June 1o18, being appointed major-general on June 26. Ile commanded the and Div. A.E.F. in the Soissons offensive under Mangin, July 1918, after which he was placed in command of Service of Supply. [le was reappointed chief of staff A.E.V., May 26 roto, and was head of the American military mission to Armenia, Aug. rọrọ. He served as deputy chief of stall, U.S. Army, 1921-2. Retiring from the army Dec. 29 1922, he became presi-.,

dent of the Radio Corporation of America. HARCOURT, LEWIS VERNON HARCOURT, rst VISCOUNT (1863-1922), British politician, was born in London Feb. 1 1863, the elder son of Sir William Harcourt (sce 12.939). He was educated at Eton and afterwards travelled widely, becoming well known for his interest in art. In 1899 he married the only daughter of Walter H. Burns, of New York. In roo4 he was elected Liberal M.P. for the Rossendale division of Lancs.,

retaining the seat until 1916, and on the formation of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman’s Government (1905) he became First Commissioner of Works. In roro he became Secretary of State for the Colonics in the Asquith Cabinet, and on the formation of the Coalition Government in rors again became First Commissioner of Works. In 1017 he was raised to the peerage. He died in London Feb. 24 1922, leaving a young son who suceeedecd to his title. HARDIE, JAMES KEIR (1856-1015), British politician, was born on Aug. 15 1856 at Legbrannock in Lanarkshire of very poor parents. Ile was a message boy at six, and at 10 a “ trapper ” in a mine. After 13 years underground he became a miners’ agent and helped to form the Ayrshire Miners’ Union which was the first organised body to put forward the demand for a Labour party. In 1888 he stood as Labour candidate for MidLanark and in the same year formed the Scottish Labour party.

In 1892 he was elected for West Ham as the first Independent Labour M.P. At the formation of the Independent Labour party in 1893 he was made chairman, and eventually succeeded, with James Ramsay MacDonald, in forming the Labour party.

He lost his seat in 1895, but was returned for Merthyr in 1900, 1906 and rg1to. In 1894 he founded The Labour Leader. In 1908 he made a tour of the world. Asa begetter of the Labour party and on account of his personality and courage he is considered one of the party’s heroes. He died in Glasgow on Sept. 26 1915. SeeJ. B. Glasier, Keir Hardie; the Man and His Message (1919); W. Stewart, J. Keir Hardie. A Biography (1921); F. Johnson, Keir Hardie'’s Socialism (1922); D. Lowe, From Pit to Parliament; the Story of the Early Life of James Keir Hardie (1923).

HARDINGE OF PENSHURST, CHARLES HARDINGE, sT BARON (1858), British diplomat, was born in London June 20 1858, second son of the 2nd Viscount Hardinge. Ie was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1880 entered the diplomatic service. He became secretary of legation at Teheran in 18096, and in 1898 went to St. Petersburg as secre-

tary of embassy.

In 1903 he returned to England and became

assistant Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs, becoming later (1906-10) permanent Under-Secretary. In the latter capacity he accompanied King Edward VII. on his forcign visits. He was created K.C.M.G. in r904, G.C.M.G. in 1905 and K.G. in 1916. From 1904 to 1906 Sir Charles Hardinge was ambassador to Russia, and in roro was appointed Viceroy of India and

raised to the peerage. 1916 and was

Lord Hardinge returned to England in

reappointed

to the post of permanent

Under-

Secretary of Foreign Affairs. In Nov. 1920 he succeeded Lord Derby as ambassador in Paris, retiring in 1922. HARDING, WARREN GAMALIEL (1865-1023), 20th President of the United States, was born at Corsica (then Blooming Grove), Morrow co., Ohio, Nov. 2 1865, son of George Tyron Harding, a farmer and country doctor, and Phebe Elizabeth Dickerson. He studied in the common schools, and from 14 to 17 at the Ohio Central College at Iberia. Ife taught in a country school for a year, read law for a short time, worked in a newspaper office and in 1884 became editor and proprietor of the Marion Star. On July 8 1891 he married Florence Kling. Having attracted the notice of Senator Joseph B. Foraker (see 10.628), he

was encouraged to enter state politics, and was early recognised as an effective speaker. He served two terms in the Ohio senate (1900-4), and during the second was influential in securing Senator Foraker’s re-election to the U.S. Senate.

Irom roo4 to

1906 he was lieutenant-governor of Ohio, but in 1910, when nominated for governor by the Republicans, was defeated by a plurality of 100,000. In the campaign of 1912 his paper supported President Taft. In ro14 he defeated Foraker in the Republican primaries ¢s candidate for the U.S. Senate, and was elected with a majority of 100,000 for the term of 1915-21; but his friendship with Foraker remained unabated. In 1916 Mr. Harding was delegate-at-large from Ohio to the Republican National Convention, of which he was chosen permanent chairman. In the Senate he was regarded as a “ safe” man, who could be relied upon to support orthodox Republican policies. In 1915 he urged “ preparedness °? for naval defence. In 1916 he voted against the confirmation of Louis D. Brandcis as associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1917 he gave his support to the declaration of War against Germany, and also to all the War measures, including the Selective Draft and Espionage bills. He favoured the death penalty for. spies, but after the War advocated amnesty for political prisoners. He opposed the suggested Federal control of food and fuel. He favoured the Prohibition Amendment, and voted for the Volstead Act, enforcing War-time prohibition, over the President’s veto. He favoured the anti-strike clause of the Cummins Railway bill, and voted for return of the lines to their owners within a year after the end of the War. Ie was for exempting Amcrican shipping from Panama Canal tolls and also supported woman suffrage. He was opposed to the Covenant of the League of Nations, holding that ‘ either the Covenant involves a surrender of national sovereignty and submits our future destiny to the League, or it is an empty thing, big in name, and will ultimately disappoint all of humanity that hinges its hopes upon it.” He voted for the Lodge reservations and also for the Reed reservation that the United States alone should judge whether matters of direct interest to it should be brought before the League; and finally he voted against ratification of the Treaty as submitted by President Wilson. He maintained that Americans should show chief concern for America, and opposed all tendencies toward internationalism. He supported the Knox resolution declaring that war with Germany was ended. At the Republican National Convention in 1920 Mr. Harding was not at first among the prominent candidates for president. On the first ballot he received 654 votes (493 being necessary for choice), 39 of these being from his own state. On the eighth ballot he received 1334 votes, on the ninth 3743 votes, and on the tenth he secured the nomination with 6924 votes, the result being due largely to the support of certain influential U.S. Senators, delegates to the convention, who hoped that as president he would be amenable to the Senate. He did not “ stump” the country, but conducted his campaign from the “ front porch ” of his own home. Mr. Harding based his campaign chietly upon criticism of the Wilson administration, denouncing especially the excessive power that, as he maintained, had been exercised by the executive as a result of War centralisation; he demanded as speedy as possible a return to normal conditions, political and industrial. While opposing the Covenant of the League of Nations, Mr. Harding gave to many of his supporters the impression that he desired an “association of nations” which, without the characteristics of a super-state (such as he believed the League to be), might safeguard peace. But he retained the political support of many who were opposed, like Senators Borah and Jehnson, to any sort of international association. In the Nov. elections he won an overwhelming victory over James M. Cox, the Democratic nominee, also from Ohio; he carried, generally by immense majorities, all the northern states and all but one of the states on the border between North and South, and he cut down materially the Democratic majorities in the South. The electoral vote was 4o4 for Harding against 127 for Cox. The popular vote was 16,138,000 for Harding against 9,142,000

HARDING for Cox. In Ohio the popular vote was 1,182,000 for Harding against 780,000 for Cox. The sweeping character of his victory was due less to his own personal strength or to the weakness of Cox than to the national reaction against the Democratic party and the popular feeling against President Wilson. Mr. Harding resigned from the U.S. Senate in Dec. 1920, and was inaugurated March 4 1921, the sixth President to come from Ohio. The promise frequently made by Republican campaign leaders that Mr. Harding would surround himself with advisers of capacity and experience, scemed to be fulfilled by his choice of Cabinet members. ‘The outstanding names were those of Charles E. Hughes and Herbert C. IIoover, who became Secretary of State and of Commerce respectively. The distinguished career of the former and the widespread confidence in his ability and political integrity had marked him for the most important position in the Cabinet; and there had been a general demand that the new administration should utilise the organising ability displayed by Hoover in many fields. Various elements in the Republican party, nevertheless, had stoutly opposed their appointment, so that the President’s choice showed that he was prepared to exert his independence of party managers and to insist upon administrative efficiency. The choice of Andrew W. Mellon, a wealthy banker and ironmaster of Pittsburgh, as Secretary of the Treasury, was welcomed by men of business; and though that of Will H. Hays to be Postmaster-General was in the nature of payment of a political debt to the man who had been the manager of the Republican campaign, it was early justified by his administration of the Federal postal service. Mr. Harding’s inaugural address, and his first message to Congress, delivered in person on April 12, voiced his desire to return to “normalcy,” as he expressed it. Retrenchment in expenditure formed a major item in his programme, together with a prompt and thorough revision of taxation. He advocated the adoption of a national budget system, and the Congress having passed a Budget bill similar to that vetoed by Mr. Wilson in 1920, he approved it on June 10 1921; it provided for a Budget Bureau in the Treasury Department and the appointment of a director of the budget, the first being Charles G. Dawes, formerly general purchasing agent of the American Expeditionary Force. President Harding’s first budget was presented Dec. 5 1921. The President was insistent upon the need of repealing the excess profits taxes and reducing transportation taxes and income surtaxes. The need of financial retrenchment led to his opposing the proposal that War veterans should receive a cash bonus. In this matter, as in others, he proved his ability at this early stage to resist political pressure. As regards the tariff he advocated, as a temporary stop-gap, the passing of the emergency tariff, which had been vetoed by President Wilson, but which with slight alteration was approved by Mr. Harding on May 27 1921. He urged the need of adopting a permanent tariff policy, and on Dec. 5 1921 suggested a “ flexible tariff’ which might provide for the adjustment of rates to meet unusual and changing conditions. Such adjustments might be made, in his opinion, by the executive on the advice of the Tariff Commission. Mr. Harding’s interest in agricultural problems was keen; in his first message he asked special protection for agricultural interests, and in his second he declared that something more than protection must be given the farmers, advocating warmly the encouragement of co-opcrative marketing plans. As regards domestic legislation, the President, in general, assumed the rôle of moderator. He disclaimed any desire to enlarge the powers and responsibilities of the executive, which, he declared, were already too large; and he aimed at close co-operation with Congress. In marked contrast to his predecessor, he left administrative responsibility to the members of his Cabinet. Foreign policy was largely determined by Hughes, financial by Mellon, and the problem of unemployment was thrown upon Hoover. The President, however, frequently played an active rôle in the conferences necessary to secure gencral agreement, as on Aug. 9 1921 when an accord was reached between the Treasury and the Representatives on the taxation plan. The foreign policy of the administration at first seemed likely

315

to emphasise independence of action, on contradistinction to that of President Wilson; the threatened war between Panama and Costa Rica was prevented by a sharp note from Secretary Hughes; the claims of the Japanese to a mandate over Yap were stoutly denied; the administration refused to follow Great Britain in resuming trade relations with Soviet Russia. President Harding made plain in his first message that the United States would not enter the League of Nations. But he expressed himself warmly in favour of active co-operation with other nations of the world, and by accepting the invitation to participate in interAthied councils indicated that he would avoid a policy of isolation. In rejecting the League Covenant, he said “* we make no surrender of our hope and aim for an association to promote peace, in which we would most heartily join.” The President advocated a declaration of peace with Germany by resolution, and the immediate negotiation of a treaty. This policy was adopted by Congress, which agreed upon a joint peace resolution, signed by him on July 2. On Aug. 25 1921, a treaty with Germany was signed, embodying the President’s plan of including most of the stipulations of the Versailles Treaty, but repudiating adherence by the United States to any clause referring to the League of Nations. This treaty and similar pacts with Austria and Hungary were ratified by the Senate, Oct. 18 1921. The most important step taken by President Harding during the first year of his administration was the calling of an international conference on the limitation of armaments. On May 25 1921 the Senate had adopted an amendment of Senator Borah

to the Navy bill, authorising and inviting the President to call such a conference. Mr. Harcing’s preliminary invitations to the principal naval Powers (Great Britain, Japan, France and Italy) were sent July ro, and formal invitations Aug. rr. He made clear his belief that ‘the question was closely connected with the problems of the Pacific and Far East, and invitations were also sent accordingly to China and to the smaller European Powers with Far-Eastern interests—Holland, Belgium and Portugal. The invitations were accepted, and the conference assembled at Washington on Nov. 12. President Harding avoided the example set by his predecessor, and did not himself participate as a delegate. He displayed his political tact in the choice of the American delegation, which was led by Secretary Hughes and included, besides Elihu Root, two members of the Senate, Lodge and Underwood, the Republican and Democratic leaders respectively. The policy drafted by the President and Mr. Hughes was direct and vigorous. They refused to permit the vital problem of Imitation

of armaments

to be side-tracked,

and sur-

prised the conference by proposing a 1ro-year naval holiday and a drastic scrapping of tonnage by the three chief naval Powers. The President made it clear that he regarded the conference merely as a step in securing international understanding and goodwill; he advocated the convening of succeeding conferences as a possible means of securing an international association for the promotion of peace, and he approved the principle of substituting an understanding between the United States, Great Britain, France and Japan regarding I'ar-Eastern problems, for the existing Anglo-Japanese Treaty. (See WASHINGTON COoNFERENCE.) The Washington Conference was the highwater mark of the Ifarding Administration. ‘Thereafter he faced the development of blocs in the Republican party which destroyed its solidarity, and the growth of criticism which was manifested by the elections of 1922, as a result of which the Republican majority in the Jiouse was reduced. Mr. Harding’s veto of the Bonus bill indicated his unwillingness to sacrifice principle to expediency. But he found difficulty in explaining the administrative incompetency, or worse, of office-holders in Washington; resentment was felt against the Republican national organisation controlled by the Old Guard; there was outspoken criticism of the new tariff; keen discontent among the farmers led to the clection to the Senate of Shipstead and Magnus Johnson. Again the threat of a Third party became imminent. In the summer of 1923 Mr. Harding set forth on a tour across the United States and to Alaska, designed to reassure the

316

HARDY—HARRISON

farmers and reawaken enthusiasm for the Administration. The President, already tired, became ill on the trip back from Alaska and was stricken with pneumonia in San Francisco. On Aug. 2 1923 he died suddenly. (C. SEY.) HARDY, THOMAS (1840), English novelist (see 12.946); in Jater years received increasing recognition, not only as a great novelist but also as a poet. His great epic-drama The Dynasts (1904-8), a chronicle play of England’s struggle against Napoleon, with an accompaniment of philosophic comment chanted by a chorus of “phantom intelligences,” was in part produced at the Kingsway Theatre, London, in the early months of the World War, and again at Oxford in 1920. several volumes of lyrical poetry followed (Selected Poems in 1916; Collected Poems in 1919—but now incomplete). His first wife died in 1912, and in rọr4 he married Florence Emily, daughter of Edward Dugdale, herself a writer of children’s books and articles in periodicals. Both on his 7oth and on his 8oth birthday he received tributes of respect and admiration throughout the English-speaking world. Thomas Hardy’s career naturally divides itself into three periods. The first of these contains his work as a novelist, and ends with Jude the Obscure in 1896 (The Well-beloved, published in book form in 1897, appeared serially in 1892). The second period consists of The Dynasts, the three parts of which were issued separately in 1904, 1906, 1908: no doubt the greatest single achievement of his career. The third period may be said to begin with Time’s Laughing-stocks in 1909, and 3s wholly devoted to lyrical poetry. It is not often that an artist’s life can be divided so definitely into separate stages, each stage characterised by the use of a different form; and, next to its length and plenty, and consistently noble idiosvncrasy, this tripartite division is perhaps the most remarkable feature of Mr. Hardy’s career as a whole. The lyrical period, however, does not give us an entirely new development of his genius. While he was writing novels, he had occasionally experimented with poetry, and some of the results were published, in Wessex Poems (1898) and Poems of the Past and the Present (1901), between Jude the Obscure and The Dynasts. The volumes published since The Dynasts also contain a good many more of these earlier poems. But from 1909 onwards Mr. Hardy wrote nothing but lyrical poetry, and this may therefore truly be called his lyrical period. (A Changed Man in 1913 merely rescued from the periodicals of former years several stray pieces of minor fiction.) It represents a new concentration of his power, but certainly no diminution of it. Devotion to lyrical expression has produced a mastery almost as signal in its kind as his command of the art of fiction; and his 7oth year saw him beginning, with Time’s Laughing-stocks, the series of volumes—Satires of Circumstance (1914); Afoments of Vision (1917), Late Lyrics and Earlier (1922), Human Shows, Far Phantastes (1925), which has shown him to be the most original, the most poignant, and also the most copious, of contemporary lyrical poets. The originality of the technique in these volumes does not by any means consist in a mere breach with the accepted conventions, but rather in its highly individual—to some, perhaps, rather disconcerting—compound of the conventional and the unconventional. Most of these lyrics maintain an exact and even rigid formality of stanza, in which a scheme of rhymes is imposed, as it seems, arbitrarily and at all costs. The effect is sometimes justified by its music; but more often by the compact force its pressure gives to language almost conversational in its idiom and choice of words. Yet the diction which defies poetic tradition and seems to despise the magic of elaborated verbal suggestion, is oddly blended with stiff literary phrases and even with words that one might expect only lexicographers to think of. The truth seems to be that, in lyrical technique, Mr. Hardy has no prejudices either for or against the conventions. He is simply concerned with the matter which intense feeling and profound understanding have enabled him to imagine in a way peculiarly his own, and to express this faithfully he has forged a technique peculiarly his own, out of whatever the language of literature or of speech could offer him. Readers who are willing

to allow him this liberty can hardly fail to be impressed, as perhaps nowhere else in recent poetry, by the subtlety, depth and variety of his versions of the experiences common to humanity: the commonplace becomes in his hands something rich and strange. Naturally the habit of thought and outlook on the world, which we find progressively insistent in the series of the Wessex novels, and which inspire the turbulent matter and monumental structure of The Dynasts, are very evident also in the lyrics; which indeed are often in the nature of marginal comments on themes previously used. But something like the quintessence of his tragic power may be found in such ballads as ‘‘ A Trampwoman’s Tragedy,” or such keen discrimination of pathos as “ Near Lanivet,” and something too like the quintessence of his irony to be altogether comfortable in Satires of Circumstance or “ Ah, are you digging on my grave?” Nor is the rustic humour of his beloved Dorset villagers wanting, nor the vivid delight in nature, in the extraordinary range of his lyrical art. It is, in fact, the same Hardy in the lyrics as in the novels and The Dynasts; but a Hardy who, if his lyrics were all we had of him, would surely, by virtue of them alone, hold a secure, indeed a unique, position in modern English literature. (L. AB.) HARE, SIR JOHN (1844-19021), British actor (see 12.048), died in London Dec. 28 rọ2r. He made his latest appearance on the stage ina revival of Grundy’s A Pair of Spectacles at Wyndham’s Theatre in 1917. HARINGTON, SIR CHARLES HARINGTON (1872J, British soldier, was born at Chichester May 31 1872 and commissioned in the King’s (Liverpool) Regiment in 1892. After service in the South African War, he held a series of staff appointments, and on the outbreak of the World War went to France as general staff officer, 2nd grade, of the III. Corps. His ability brought him rapid promotion and in June 1916 he became major-general, general staff of the II. Army. Ile remained chief of staff to Gen. Plumer in France for nearly two years, with the exception of a short interval in Italy. The combined talents of the two men were such that the II. Army became proverbial forits excellent staff work and for carrying out any operation with the maximum economy of life. Messines 1917 was perhaps their most brilliant feat. In April 1918 Harington was recalled to the War Offce to become deputy chief of the Imperial General Staff. In the following year he was created Knight commander of the Bath. In Sept. 1920, he succeeded Gen. Milne as Commander-in-chief of the British forces, and subsequently of the Allied forces at Constantinople and in the Black Sea. His tact and diplomacy in a difficult situation, especially during the Chanaq incident, helped to avert serious complications, and was fittingly acknowledged in Parliament. On his return to England in Oct. 1923 he was appointed to the Northern Command. HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL (1833-1011), American jurist (see 12.954), died in Washington, D.C., Oct. 14 1911. HARPIGNIES, HENRI (1819-10916), French painter (see 13.15), of whose drawings there was an exhibition in London in March roto, died in Burgundy Aug. 25 1916. HARRIGAN, EDWARD (1845-1911), American actor (see 13.17), died in New York City June 6 rort. HARRISON, FREDERIC (1831-1923), British man of letters (see 13.23). Frederic Harrison’s death at Bath from sudden heart failure at the age of 92, on Jan. 14 1923, closed an unusually long and active career devoted to literature and religious service. In his last book De Senectuie (1923), which he did not live to see published, he re-aflirmed his life-long principle and attachment to the religion of Auguste Comte, and no estimate can do him justice which does not take into account the essentially religious character of his life, of which all his written works may be said to be a contnbutory expression. Though Frederic Harrison originally came into prominence in the days (1850-80) of fighting agnosticism, he was never himself an “agnostic,” and in fact was severely criticised by the leading agnostics, notably by Huxley and Herbert Spencer, etc.; moreover, as a Positivist, he was a republican in spirit and, what was new at that period, a sociologist. It was this positivist sociology which caused him as a young

HART—HARVARD man to espouse the cause of trade unionism, which he did with such energy and legal skill as adviser to the Royal Commission on Trade Unions in 1867, that he was really the inspirer and founder of the trade union law as it existed from 1868 to 1906.

None the less, his religion did not permit him to embark upon a public career. He virtually retired from politics (in the party

sense) and from legal practice in mid-life, this latter very largely as the enforced consequence of his pioneer fight on behalf of trade unionism, and took to letters. At the age of 80 he published his A aie: Memoirs, 2 vol. (1911). Among the books that flowed almost annually from his pen may be mentioned: Afemories and Thoughts (1906); National and Social Problems (1908); Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill and other Literary Estimates (1899); George Washington, etc.

(1901); The Creed of a Layman (1907); Realities and Ideals (1908); Novissima Verba (1920); De Senectute (1923). As an historian Frederic Harrison did not belong to the modern school of specialisation, and ranks as a “ literary-historian ”; as essayist, he excelled, occupying a distinguished place both for the soundness of his judgment and for the vigour and clarity of his style.

Politically, he stood in the position of an unofficial pro-

consul, and for some years before the World War he repeatedly warned his countrymen of the tmpending crisis arising out of the armed system of Europe, and of the necessity of British preparation to mect it. An article he wrote in The English Review in 1913 proved to be only too prophetic. During the War he stood unfalteringly for victory and for the cause of France. His son, René, was killed in Flanders in rots. Frederic Harrison can hardly be classified either as a pure man of letters or as politician by virtue of his religious opinions which debarred him from active participation in worldly affairs, and even as a critic the humanist motive was uppermost. His life may be described as an attempt to introduce Comte’s Humanist sociology into this country, to which end he devoted all his energies. For 20 years he was the leader of English Positivism and regularly lectured at Newton Hall, being also a co-founder of and contributor to The Positivist Review. His political views were zealously put forward in that organ. He was not a Radical in the party sense though always a Liberal in spirit. Internationally, he was a life-long supporter of France, and in 1870 vehemently urged British support of Gambetta as against Bismarckianism. If he was a “ Little Englander,” it was because of his championship of the “‘ Little Peoples,” and during the Boer War his pronounced anti-jingoism led him into acute controversy. Publicly, his attitude was often misunderstood for that reason. He may be said to have been a republican in spirit, a humanist by conviction and a “ meliorist ” as politician. Frederic Harrison had not originally wished to found a Positivist centre or sect, but after the secession of Dr. Congreve on the crucial issue of allegiance to French Comtists, he virtually had no alternative, and it was thus that Newton Hall came into being. As the head of that body, Frederic Harrison found copious use for his scholastic knowledge and energies as lecturer and teacher, and though in that position he was “labelled,” the sincerity and disinterestedness of his opinions were so universally recognised that his public moral authority did not lose through isolation. In this way he occupied a kind of “ chair ” of public morals, such as is hardly conceivable in any other country, hence his unflinching war determinism in 1914 caused him to be more popularly known and appreciated in extreme old age than had been the case during the Victorian epoch when, as a humanist, he found himself neither on the one side nor the other of the great Victorian struggle for “ liberty of thought,” the foundation of which intellectually had been laid by Auguste Comte and Charles Darwin.

In this great battle of “ reason,” which started at Oxford, Harrison played a conspicuous part, though never as an iconoclast and in interest, spiritually; z.e., outside the intellectual ethicism arising out of the new criticism, for he neither adhered to the utilitarianism of Mill nor to the “dry light ” of the debaters in the famous Metaphysical Society of which he was a member. Positivism was at that time regarded as a “ heresy ” both by

UNIVERSITY

317

orthodoxy and by the agnostics, and in the controversies that ensued Harrison drifted somewhat out of the movements of his time. He was perhaps the last survivor of the “ great ”? Victorians. He will be remembered as a supreme individualist, a slashing controversialist, as a practical idealist and citizen. Thus he consistently advocated the return of the “ Elgin Marbles ” to Greece on the ground that the statuary belonged to the historical religion of the Greeks. He was a friend of President Roosevelt and twice lectured in the United States. He was at his best as critic of life and art in the relation of the past to the present, which was Comte’s “ law ” of continuity, but Harrison was alive to the academic weaknesses in Comte’s Polity and rejected any dogma. In his latter years he resided at Bath, of which city he was given the freedom. He refused all titles or “ honours.” His ashes, mingled with those of his wife, repose in an urn placed in

the chapel of Wadham wishes.

College, Oxford, according to his last

See Austin Harrison, Frederic Harrison: Thoughts and

Memories, 1925 (A. HN.*) HART, SIR ‘ROBERT (1835-1911), Anglo-Chinese official (see 13.30), died at Great Marlow, Bucks., Sept. 20 1011. HARTLEPOOL, England (see 13.34), had a population (1921) of 20,997 and an area of ọ24 acres. It is connected with West Hartlepool by rail and tramway over Hartlepool Bay. West Hartlepool had in 1921 a population of 68,689 and an area of 2,958 acres.

The parish church

was restored in 1921, and the

Baptist church, destroyed by bombardment, was rebuilt. An obelisk has been erected in Victory Square, West Hartlepool, as a war memorial. In 1924, 5 ac. of land were levelled for additional timber storage, and a quay was built for the fishing Industry in 1910. The total area of docks in the Hartlepools is now 200 acres. In Dec. 1914 the towns were shelled by German cruisers and a little damage was done. HARTLEY, SIR CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1825-1015), British engineer (see 13.35), died in London Feb. 20 rots. HARTLEY, JONATHAN SCOTT (1845-1912), American sculptor (see 13.35), died in New York City Dec. 6 1912. Among his last exhibits were “‘ Young Hopi Stick Thrower ” (1911) and “The Cradle of Pan ” (1912). HARVARD UNIVERSITY (see 13.38).—The history of Harvard University after 1909, when Abbott Lawrence Lowell succeeded Charles William Eliot as president, is one of change and growth to meet new needs and opportunities. Butldings.—Three residence halls for freshmen (Gore, Standish and Smith) accommodating about 4s0 men, built near the Charles river at a cost of approximately $2,500,000, were opened in rọr4; andin 1919-20 a number of other dormitories, originally erected by private enterprise, were purchased by the university, thus largely increasing the residence halls under its control; in 1924-5 over half the undergraduates of Harvard College and a considerable proportion of the students in the graduate schools located in Cambridge were housed in buildings owned by the university. In 1925-6 Massachusetts Hall, which was a residence hall from 1720 to 1870, was again occupied by students, and two new dormitories, Lionel and Mower halls, became available for seniors; the erection of a third dormitory in the Yard was begun, while by the Charles river a fourth large dormitory for freshmen was under construction. Two new chemical laboratories, the Wolcott Gibbs and the Thomas Jefferson Coolidge, Junior, Memorial, were opened in 1913-4; these facilities for the study of chemistry were, in 1925-6, being increased by large laboratories, which at time were under construction ata cost ofapproximately 2,000,000. During 1914-5 the university’s museum buildings as originally planned by Louis Agassiz in 1859 were completed by an addition to the Peabody Museum.

; , ; : og ;

; i s :

52-4 55:6 85-6 I1-2 97:6 9:2 415-2

Currency.—During the existence of the Dual Monarchy, Hungary and Austria had a joint monetary system and a joint bank of issue. After the outbreak of the revolution the Austro-Hungarian Bank was able for some time to continue its work in Hungary, but the Bolshevik régime seized the entire stock of notes. When these began to run short the so-called soviet republic issued their own notes. After the collapse of soviet rule in 1919, the Hungarian Govt. issued the necessary decree to enable the Austro-Hungarian Bank to continue its statutory work as ‘‘ Manager of the Hungarian business of the Austro-Hungarian Bank.”

In March 1920 the Government ordered the stamping of the notes of the Austro-Hungarian Bank which were in circulation within the country, and requisitioned 50°% of these notes as a forced loan in order to secure, so far as possible, the carrying on of the state administration without constant application to the note printing press. As the creation of a special issuing institution appeared to be inevitable in consequence of the liquidation under the Peace Treaties of the Austro-Hungarian Bank, the state itself provisionally established the Royal Hungarian State Note Institute (M. Kir. Allami Jegyintézet), which began its activities on Aug. I 1921. The notes of the Austro-Hungarian Bank, which had been provided with the Hungarian stamp, were exchanged in the same year against state notes.

When the State Note Institute commenced its work, the financial and economic position was such as to compel the state to cover its budgetary requirements not from revenues but by means of the note printing press. This naturally resulted in the gradual depreciation of the crown. The forced loan raised by stamping notes had covered the budget deficit only fora short time. In 1921 the Government had recourse to a non-recurring capital levy, but by the time most of the proceeds reached the Treasury the value of the crown had so depreciated as to nullify these efforts. In the first half of 1921 the exchange rate of the crown rose temporarily in Ziirich from 1-05 to 2-85 Swiss francs (100 crowns), owing to the impression created by the taxation and other plans of the then Minister of Finance, M, Hegedus. When it was seen that these plans were impossible of realisation, and as Hungary’s balance of payments became more and more unfavourable, the crown continued to fall, until in March 1924

IBN ALI

it reached 0-0085 Swiss francs for 100 crowns.

As the result of long

negotiations the League of Nations loan was raised, and the restoration of normal economic and currency conditions was thus made possible (see above, Political History). All restrictions in foreign exchange were abolished in Oct. 1925, when the currency was considered to be sufficiently stabilised to be left to fluctuate freely according to supply and demand. Central Bank.—The re-establishment of an independent bank of issue was in the forefront of the programme of reconstruction. The Hungarian National Bank was founded, with a capital of 30,000,000 gold crowns, and commenced its activitics on June 24 1924. From that day the state notes then in circulation were rcgarded as bank-notes. Under its statutes the bank is precluded from lending to the state, and is required to maintain against its note circulation a percentage of cover in precious metal and stable foreign exchanges, on an ascending scale, beginning at 20°, during the first five years. The bank return of Dec. 31 1925 showed the proportion of cover to be 56-46 per cent. Since July 1924 the currency has been stable on a sterling basis. In Oct. 1925 the basis of stabilisation became gold, and all restrictions on dealings in foreign exchange were abolished. The following table shows the development of the note circulation:— Circulation in Date paper crowns Tssuing institution Jlungarian manageDec. 31 1920 ment of Austro-HunT4,307,808,630 garian Bank . ; State Note Institute Aug. I 1921 15,787,175,750 State Note Institute Dec. 31 1921 25,174,941, 187 State Note Institute Dec. 31 1923 931,337:334,030 June 24 1924 Hungarian National Bank . : ; 2,520,115 3,700,576 Dec. 31 1924 Hungarian National Bank . ; 4,513,989,561,419 Dec. 31 1925 Hungarian National

Bank.

New

Currency.—On

.

5,193,937:447;500

(415,514,995°79 pengés)

Dec. 31 1925 the currency per capita of the

population was approximately 43 gold crowns. In the latter part of 1925 the new monetary unit was chosen and named the pengé,

divided into 100 fillér; 3,800 new units go to once kilogramme of fine gold, so that I1 pengö contains 0-26315789 grammes of fine gold. The Currency Reform Law passed on Nov. 6 1925 provides for the minting of gold coins for 20 and 10 pengés from an alloy consisting

of 900 parts of gold to 100 of copper, so that 3,420 pengds will be

struck from one kilogramme of this alloy. The National Bank is required to buy gold in bars at a fixed price without limit and on demand. Silver coins of one peng will be put into circulation to a total nominal value of not more than 45,000,000 pengé. From Jan. I 1927 the pengé will be the obligatory unit of account in Hungary. The rate of conversion from the old to the new currency is 12,500 paper crowns to one pengé, or one gold crown =1-1585365 pengd. I pengd is therefore equal to 0-0359388 pound sterling, or o-1748985 dollar. BistioGraruy.—-Afonthly Reports of League CommissionerGeneral Jeremiah Smith (Geneva); Revue ITongroise de Statistiques (Budapest); Department of Overseas Trade Reports 1924 (1925).

(W. Go.*) HUNTING: sce FOX HUNTING: SHOOTING. HUSAIN IBNA‘LI (c. 1854), Amir of Mecca from 1908 to 1916 and King of Iejaz from to16 to 1924, was the second son of Muhamnad Ibn‘Aun of the *Abadila clan of Ashraf. Ele was brought up in Bedouin surroundings, but spent a great part of his life at Constantinople. Reputed to harbour Anglophil tendencies, he was deeply versed in the bywavs of Ottoman politics and his best trait was a profound knowledge of the desert, for which he always maintained a genuine affection. At the beginning of his Amirate he won golden opinions by his sagacity and modesty and set himself vigorously to forward Turkish interests in Arabia. In roto he subdued a rebellion in ‘Asir and subsequently invaded Qasim without result, but in r913 he began to show his true colours by opposing the extension of the Iejaz Railway to Mecca. When the World War broke out he entered into negotiations with the British, which culminated in the Arab revolt in June 1916. In Oct. he proclaimed himself “‘ King of the Arab Countries” though he was formally recognised only as King of Hejaz. At the Versailles Peace Conference (1919) he was represented by his third son, Faisal, but refused to ratify the treaty as a protest against the mandatory régimes imposed on Svria, Palestine and ‘Iraq. Subsequently his domestic policy was marked by ever increasing avarice and reaction, while he

HURGRONJIE—HYDE sowed the seeds of future trouble by deliberately courting the enmity of Ibn Sa'ud. In March 1924, while on a visit to Transjordan, he proclaimed himself Caliph, but war with Ibn Sa‘ud was already imminent and the Wahhabi attack on Zaif in Sept. found him unprepared. On Oct. 5 he abdicated and proceeded to ‘Aqaba, whence in July 1925 he was conveved by a British warship to Cyprus, where he took up his residence. By his first marriage Husain had three sons: ‘Ali; ‘Abdullah, Amir of Transjordan, and Faisal. The first of these, ‘Ali Ibn Husain, who was born about 1880, took no conspicuous part in affairs during his father’s Amtrate. After the World War he became Amir of Medina and in that capacity did much useful work in connection with the reconstruction of the Hejaz Railway. In 1924 he was pressed to accept the Amirate of Transjordan but declined in favour of returning to Medina. He succeeded his father as second King of Hejaz on Oct. 3 1924, but abdicated on Dec. 19 of the following year (see HEJAz) and returned to Baghdad to live as the guest of his brother Faisal. HURGRONJE, CHRISTIAAN SNOUCK (1857), Dutch orientalist, was born at Oosterhaut Feb. 8 1857. After completing his studies in theology and Oriental languages he went to Arabia, where he stayed for several years, and to other parts of the Near East. The result of these travels was his work Mekka (2 vol., 1888-9). He refused a nomination as professor of Arabic at Cambridge University in succession to Robertson Smith and also nominations in Germany and at Leyden, preferring to continuc his stuclies on Islam in the Dutch East Indies (1889-1906) where for some years’ he was counsellor to the Government in Mahommedan afiairs. In 1893-4 he published De Atjehers, which was translated into English in 1900. He returned to Holland in r906, where he accepted the chair of Arabic at the University of Leyden; in 1907 he was nominated counsellor for Indian and Arabian affairs to the Dutch and the Dutch East Indies Government. Among his other works are Nederland en de Islam (1911); and Verspreide Geschriften (1923f1.). HUTCHINSON, SIR JONATHAN (1828-1013), British surgeon (see 14.13), died at Haslemere, Surrey, June 23 1913. HUTMENTS: see BARRACKS. HUYSMANS, CAMILLE (1871), Belgian politician, was born at Bilsen in Belgian Limbourg May 26 1871. After graduating in Germanic philology at Liége, he became a professor, first at the Collége Libéral at Ypres, and then at the Université Nouvelle, Brussels. He edited the Petit bleu and the Peuple and after the War started the Volksgasef in Antwerp. He entered the Chamber in roro, first as deputy for Brussels and then for

Antwerp, where he became an alderman of public instruction. In rorg he was secretary of the Socialist International party and while in Holland endeavoured to organise a congress at Stockholm. Though he was severely criticised for this by his fellow socialists at the time, he completely regained their confidence later and became the chief organiser of the Socialist party in Antwerp. In June 1925 he became Minister of Science and Arts in M. Poullet’s Government. His chief works are: Limburgsch. Jaarboek (1891-5); Zoponymische studie over Bilsen (in conjunction with J. Cuvelin) 1897; Stockholm (1919); and numerous socialist brochures. HWANG-HO (see 14.23).—A reconnaissance of the floodstricken delta of the Hwang-Ho was undertaken by the American Red Cross in rgt1 and 1914; a promising series of observations by the Kiang-Hwai engineers under H. E. Chang Chien was begun in 1911, and a critical review of these previous findings was made in the field in rg19-20 by John R. Freeman, partly in connection with his work for the Grand Canal Improvement Board. Through the province of Shantung the Hwang-Ho’s fall to the sea has been found to be about 1 in 5,000, a steep graclient for so large a river. The current is therefore very swift, and the river not only carries along great quantities of sediment, but the muddy bottom itself steadily works forward and the bed of the channel is raised. Measurements by Freeman’s staff show that the river carries over 4° by weight of silt, and may even carry 13% in greatest flood. Naturally the stream drops a part

399

of its heavy burden whenever its velocity decreases. Three types of deposit are to be considered: outside the outer dikes; between the dikes; and along the river bed within the main channel. Deposits outstde the Outer Dikes.—When the river overflows or breaches the outer dikes, it deposits over the land a sloping ridge of sediment which varies greatly in size, but probably during the past 1,000 years has not exceeded the equivalent of ro ft. close to the main dike, tapering off to almost nothing at 5 or 10 m. away. Deposits between the Inner and the Outer Dikes.—Whenever the river floods the space between the outer and inner dikes, the waters as they subside deposit their silt and a flood plain is formed. These flood plain deposits between the dikes, while varying from 12 to 20 ft., average 15 ft. above the low-water level. Probably they accumulate somewhat rapidly. It is this very action which can be utilised to form a permanent barrier of surpassing strength if the river be trained as Freeman suggests (Proc. Amer. Sec. Civil Engineers, May 1922, pp. 1113-67). Deposits within the Main Channel.—When the summer floods subside, the river, in narrowing to its winter channel, slows up and deposits sediment on its own bed. Although much has been written about the Yellow river continually raising its bed, compelling the inhabitants constantly to build the dikes higher, there were no facts upon which to base such statements until the Red Cross in I914, and the Grand Canal Improvement Board in 1919, gave cross sections, extending far beyond the dikes, showing broadly the relation

of the elevation of the river bed to that of the adjacent country.

‘These show that the river has done remarkably well in conveying nearly all of its silt to the sea, ancl that the rise of its bed has been extremely slow, in general not more than 15 ft. during the past

1,000 years, or perhaps 2,000 years—say a foot a century. Great as the river’s land deposits have been, they are small in comparison with the total volume of sediment transported in 1,000 years, if the river during that time carried anything like the percentage of sediment recently observed. It appears that the Yellow river during all the historic period has carried to the sea 99°, of the burden of silt gathered in the loess country. The flow of the Yellow river varies much with the season, being ordinarily three times as great in flood as at low water. In the summer of 1919 a flood flow of 265,000 cu. ft. per sec. was measured (the highest for 1o years) with a minimum of 10,600 cu. ft. per second. This is remarkably small, considering the great extent of the drainage area; much of it, however, is a land of little rain, and

the losses on the way are very large. Moreover, this river has no tributaries for some 300 m. from its mouth. Its only connections are with irrigation and navigation canals which serve during highlevel periods to draw off water. Though practically useless for navigation, the Yellow river may, in spite of its relatively small discharge and variable flow, be a blessing in the way of drainage and irrigation if it is properly dealt with. (C. K. E.)

HYATT,

ANNA

VAUGHN

(1876-

}, American

sculptor,

was born at Cambridge, Mass., March r0 1876. Educated at a private school at Cambridge, she commenced the study of art in

Boston, proceeding later to New York City. There she studied a short while with H. A. MacNeil and Gutzon Borglum, under whose influence she acquired that knowledge of horses which is so signally exemplified in some of her works. She devoted herself chiefly to small bronzes. Her equestrian statue, ‘ Jeanne d’Arc,” was selected for Riverside Park, New York City, in rors, and copies of it were erected at Gloucester, Mass., and Blois, France. This work, a “ Saint Joan of Arc ” in the Cathedral of St. John the Divine, New York City, and a “ Diana ” have been her chief figure compositions. Notable among her other works is a colossal ‘ Lion on a Boulder ” executed for the Dayton High School. In 1923 she married Archer Milton Huntington. . HYDE, DOUGLAS (1860), Irish scholar and writer, was born at Frenchpark, Co. Roscommon, 1860, and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin. In 1891 he acted as interim professor of modern languages at the University of New Brunswick, Canada. He formed in 1893 the Gaelic League, for the preservation and extension of the Irish language, and was president of that body until rors. In 1899 his production, before a vice-regal committee on education, of letters from leading Celtic scholars throughout Europe saved the Irish language on the intermediate board which regulated the curricula for Irish schools. During 1905 he toured America and raised £11,000 for the Gaelic League. On his return he was appointed a member of a royal commission on Irish university education. Dr. Hyde was made professor of Modern Irish at University College, Dublin, in

400

HY DERABAD—HYDROELECTRIC

1909. He was co-opted by the Free State Senate in 1922, but failed to secure re-election in 1925. In the latter year he became editor of Lia Fát. The movement created by him initiated an enthusiasm for the native language, which finally resulted in the teaching of the language being made compulsory in Irish schools. Among of Ireland Connacht Connacht

Dr. Hyde’s more important works are A Literary History (1 son): collections and translations of the Love Songs of (1893); Raftery’s Irish Songs (1904); The Religious Songs of (1906). He also wrote several short plays in Irish.

HYDERABAD, SIR MIR OSMAN ALI KHAN, Nizam oF (1886}, was born April 6 1886 and succeeded his father, Sir Mir Mahbub Ali Khan, on his death on Aug. 29 rg11. His education had been under an English tutor, Sir Brian Egerton, and a nobleman of the state, of scholarly attainments, Imad ul Mulk (Saiyid Husain Bilgrami). Soon after accession he abandoned the traditional system of governing through a Diwan, and for five years was his own prime minister. In 1919 he constituted an executive council with a president and eight other members, each in charge of one or more departments. During the World War he enjoined on his subjects the duty of firm and steadfast devotion to the British cause and prohibited anti-British propaganda in his dominions. The War expenses of the state amounted to over three-fifths of the annual income. His Highness, already a G.C.S.I., was awarded the G.B.E., was promoted to hon. lieutenant-general in the British Army, and in ror King George V. conferred upon him the new and special nue of Exalted Highness. HYDROELECTRIC ENGINEERING.—The extent to which the water powers of the world have been investigated and developed during the past decade forms one of the striking engineering features of the period. Although falling or flowing water formed the earliest of the natural sources of energy to be utilised for providing power, some two-thirds of the water power at present in use has been developed since 1910. The reasons for this are partly technical and partly economic. The technical development of electric generation and transmission has made it economically possible to utilise powers remote from any industrial centre, while the great developments in electrochemical, electrophysical and metallurgical processes have provided an outlet for such energy as could be cheaply developed. Most of these processes require relatively large amounts of energy, and all are economically dependent on the cheapness of this energy. They have created a demand for large blocks of cheap power which can, under favourable circumstances, be satisfied more readily from a water-power installation than from any other source. Developmenis.—The urgent demand for energy to supply the abnormal requirements of the War period, combined with the increased cost of fuel, was responsible for an unprecedented rate of development in those countries having available water-power resources and normally dependent on imported fuel. Thus in France something like 2,500,000 of water-horsepower is now developed as compared with 750,000 H.P. in 1914. In Switzerland, the present output is 1,500,000 H.P. as compared with 880,000 H.P. in rọr4. In Italy it is estimated that the total output will shortly amount to 3,000,000 horsepower. Japan, which only recently began to investigate her water- powers, has, since 1916, developed over 1,200,000 H.P., or about 20% of her available resources. Step by step with developments on the electrical side, advances have been made in the design of hydraulic turbines. These various developments have made it commercially possible to make use of large water-power at sites quite remote from any centre of industrial activity. In many cases industrial communities, attracted by the cheapness of the power, have grown up around such sites. In others the energy has been transmitted electrically for long distances, in some cases between 200 and 300 m., to some more convenient centre.

Available Water Power.—An estimate, based on papers presented to the World Power Conference at London in 1924, and on other sources, indicates that the amount of water-power,

ENGINEERING

respectively available and developed in some of the chief countries of the world, is approximately as follows:— Millions of Horsepower Available Great Britain Canada

0:9

.

Australia 5 Africa (East) he Africa (South) a ua Africa (West) i= British Guiana a India and Ceylon a including Y New Zealand ~& British EmpirePapua

23:0

Developed

0-25 3°28

w ©

Austria South America Dutch East Indies France Germany

Italy Japan . Norway

Russia .

Spain

Sweden Switzerland United States

ON AWD eb cw Oo oO

From these figures it appears that some 200,000,000 H.P. is available, of which approximately 27,000,000 is at present developed or in course of development. Uses

or

HYDROELECTRIC

ENERGY

While a large proportion of the energy developed from water power is utilised for industrial purposes and for lighting and traction, an increasing proportion is being used for pulp and paper making and electrochemical and electrometallurgical processes; indeed the chief outlet for hydroelectric power in the near future is likely to be in connection with such processes and, probably, railroad electrification. The amount of power already used in electrochemistry is large. Thus the world’s production of calcium carbide alone requires some 500,000 H.P. and when it is remembered that such products as aluminium, carborundum, chromium, cyanamide, caustic soda, chlorates, magnesium, phosphorus and silicon are only rendered commercially possible by such processes, it will be realised that the future demand for energy for their manufacture is certain to be large. Nitrogen fixation is also likely to make great demands. In Norway alone some 400,000 H.P. is available for this purpose, and in view of the rapid depletion of the natural nitrate deposits, from which four-fifths of the world’s nitrogen consumption has hitherto been supplied, and of the diminution in fertility of many of the great wheat and cotton growing areas of the world, the production of artificial fertilisers by one or other system of nitrogen fixation must, in the near future, become a question of great importance. Ratlroads.—The electrification of railroads has made rapid strides of recent years. In the United States some 3,300 m. of track have been electrified, while the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway has the longest electrified section in the world (8so m.}, the power for operation being obtained from hydroelectric stations. In France, much of the track of the Compagnie du Midi in the region of the Pyrenees has been electrified with the aid of water power, and it is anticipated that the whole system of about 3,000 km. will be electrified within 10 years. The hydroelectric stations supplying these lines havea capacity of close on 300,000 horsepower. The Orleans Co. has a scheme for electrifying 3,000 km. of its lines, part of which is to be supplied from hydroelectric stations having a capacity of about 210,000 horsepower. In Austria some 1,800 km. of line is in process of electrification for which 120,000 H.P. is available from hydroelectric stations. In Germany about 1,200 km. is now electrified, its electricity coming from hydroelectric schemes. Much of the Swiss Railway system has been electrified, and the electrification of further trunk lines in these and other countries

HYDROELECTRIC is at present under consideration. Such developments will open up a very large field for the utilisation of water-power where this is available. (See RAILWAYS, ELECTRIFICATION OF.) Agriculture —Much energy is now being utilised in the United States of America for purely agricultural purposes. In California, for example, there is in eflect one vast system of electrical supply extending over a distance of 800 m. with 7,200 m. of high-tension transmission lines. This is fed from 75 hydroelectric stations interconnected with 47 steam plants, to give a total output of 785,000 horse-power. A further group of 13 hydroelectric schemes now under construction will add another 520,000 horse-power. A large proportion of this power is used in agriculture, and it is estimated that electric motors equivalent to over 500,000 h.p. are now installed on Californian farms. The Californian rice industry is almost wholly dependent on irrigation made possible by electric pumping, whilst most of the mechanical processes involved in farming are being performed by electric power. The economic development of many of the tropical dependencies of the British Empire, whose latent wealth is practically untapped, is directly inter-connected with the development of their water-power resources. Not only would an abundant supply of such power enable railroads to be operated, irrigation schemes to be set on foot, and mineral deposits to be tapped and worked, but 1t would go far toward solving the labour problem which promises to be one of some difficulty in the future. While those outlets for electrical energy which are now in sight promise to absorb all the energy which can be cheaply developed for many years to come, there are many other probable directions in which such energy might find a new and profitable outlet. Among these may be mentioned the purification of municipal water supplies; the dehydration of food products; and the preservation of timber. LAY-OUT

OF HYDROELECTRIC

ENGINEERING

401

inertia of the column of water in the pipe line, any sudden demand for water caused by opening the turbine gates on an increasing load causes a relatively large drop of pressure at the turbines, which renders governing very difficult. To reduce this difficulty, a surge tank is fitted to the pipe-line at a point as near to the turbines as possible. This is a stand pipe surmounted by an open tank having a comparatively large surface area,

whose upper level is slightly higher than that of the water in the reservoir. Any sudden demand is then supplied in part by flow down the stand pipe and the drop of pressure is greatly reduced. At the same time any rise in pressure caused by suddenly closing the turbine gates is also reduced. In a low head station the available space is usually limited by the width of the dam on which it is built. In consequence, in such plants, there is a tendency to locate the switch gear and transformers either on floors above the machine-room, or, as is becoming more common, in an entirely separate building on the river bank. In some few cases all the transformers and high-

Uae ia npa

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SCITEMES

Tigh Head Schemes.—The layout of a hydroelectric scheme depends on the physical characteristics of the catchment area and site. High head schemes are of necessity located in mountainous country and are usually fed from streams of relatively small volume. Owing to this a comparatively small reservoir is often sufficient to provide suficient storage of the head waters to give uniform output over a considerable portion of the year at a reasonable cost. The water may be brought directly from the reservoir to the power house through a pipe line or pressure tunnel if the gradient is suitable. Often, however, it is possible to bring it through an open canal at a very flat gradient, to a forebay on the hill-side above the power-house, whence a short pipe-line conveys it to the turbines. Low Head Schemes.—Low head schemes are usually located on rivers where the gradient is small, the head being provided by a dam, or naturally by means of rapids or a waterfall. A river dam, by raising the natural level of the water, provides a certain amount of storage, but seldom more than is sufficient to store the night flow for use during the day. Such a scheme can therefore only give a continuous output equal to the dry weather capacity of the river, unless operated in conjunction with some steam station capable of equalising the output at such times.

Several types of low head layout are available. Where a dam is built, the power house is often constructed on one flank of the dam with a short head race or tail race as is most convenient, and the dam itself is used as a spillway over which excess water is discharged in times of flood. Where the river flows in a narrow and steep gorge the power-house may sometimes with advantage be constructed in the dam itself, which now consists of a hollow reinforced concrete structure. Where the river forms

a long bend, it is often possible to cut across the neck of the bend and to utilise the head between the two points. Medium Head Schemes.~In medium head schemes—utilising between 40 and 200 ft. head—the layout is usually similar in broad outline to those involving either high or low heads. Where such a scheme involves the use of a long closed supply pipe to the turbines, having only a small gradient, somewhat special treatment, however, becomes necessary. Owing to the large

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Fic. 1.—Types of Low-head Development.

tension switch gear are out of doors, and this will probably become standard practice in the future. It has even been proposed to place the whole generating plant outside, merely providing a portable cover for use during repair work. The recently planned Muscle Shoals development in Alabama was originally schemed along these lines. It has finally been decided to adopt the conventional type of station building, but the complete outdoor generating station will doubtless arrive in the near future. Turbines.—The inward flow pressure turbine and the Pelton wheel are the only types of turbine used in modern hydroelectric schemes of any size. The type to be adopted depends largely on the available head. The Pelton wheel is a slower running machine than the pressure turbine and is therefore better fitted for very high heads. It has the further advantage for such heads, that since the water is discharged through one—or at the most two—nozzles, these may be of reasonable size when dealing with the small volumes of water normally available in high head schemes. The pressure turbine on the other hand with its full peripheral admission of water is well adapted to utilise the large volumes necessary in low head schemes, and its higher speed of rotation is also a great advantage in low and medium head plants, in enabling the cost of the electrical generators to be reduced Broadly speaking the Pelton wheel is more suitable for heads above about 700 ft.; the pressure turbine for heads below about

250 ft. in small units and below about 500 ft. in large units;

402

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while over the intermediate range of heads much depends upon the size of the units and the special circumstances. All modern pressure turbines are of the mixed flow type, having inward radial flow through guide vanes surrounding the runner, and axial discharge. Pivoted guide vanes are universally used, speed regulation being attained by simultaneous rotation of these about their axes. Low head turbines—up to about 4o ft. head—are usually set in an open forebay. Either vertical or horizontal shaft machines may be used, but the former are becoming more common, especially for large units. For higher heads the water must be supplied through a pipe-line and the turbine is enclosed in a spiral casing so designed as to distribute the water evenly around the periphery of the guide vane ring. For heads up to about 120 ft. this casing may be moulded in concrete, but for higher heads and pressures a metal casing becomes necessary. This may be of cast iron, cast steel or of steel plate construction, and in order to give rigidity and increased safety in case of surges of pressure is sometimes em-

4

14,000 K.V.A. under 80 ft. head.

bedded wholly or partially in the concrete of the substructure. Modern development ts tending in the direction of units having

a single runner and a vertical shaft on the top of which the electrical generator is mounted. The weight of the shaft, runner and generator is then carried from a single thrust bearing of the Michell or Kingsbury type. This type lends itself to a simple and efficient form of setting, while the friction losses are extremely low. One of the great drawbacks of the low head turbine in the

past has been its relatively slow speed of rotation, which necessitated either a slow speed and costly generator or expensive gearing. Asa result of experiment it has, however, been possible

so to modify the form of the runner as greatly to increase the speed of rotation under a given head without seriously reducing the efficiency. Such runners are characterised by their small number of vanes—often not more than four being used—and approximate in form to that of a marine propeller. In one of the latest types,

HYDROELECTRIC the Kaplan, the vanes are capable of rotation about their own axes so as to enable the vane angles to be adjusted to suit the varying flow of water at part loads. Further developments in the direction of increasing the speed are in active progress and promise to give important results. At the present time, however, turbines are in existence which are capable of eflicient operation at spceds at least three times as great as would have been thought possible to years ago. The pressure turbine is now built in units capable of developing upwards of 70,000 H.P. under a head of 300 ft., and this size could readily be increased if necessary. If well-designed and installed in a suitable setting the efficiencies are remarkably high. Efficiencies of 93% have been obtained on tests of vertical shaft turbines at Niagara and values approximating 90° are quite common. Ina medium head plant the following are typical values:— Fraction of full load

Percentage efficiency

Pelton wheels are usually built as horizontal-shaft units with one or two nozzles, and in sizes up to about 30,000 horse power. Speed regulation is usually performed by a dellector which cuts off the jet from the wheel, acting in conjunction with a central needle or spear which slowly reduces the size of the jet while the deflector returns to its original position. The mechanism is operated by a relay cylinder supplied with pressure water or oil through a pilot valve actuated by the governor. In a welldesigned plant the instantancous speed variation corresponding to a sudden application of full load should not exceed 12 to 15%.

The difference between the initial and final steady speeds should not exceed 2°% between full load and no load, exceed 5° with a load variation, At constant speed the efficiency of a Pelton comparatively slowly as the load is diminished. wheel should have approximately the following

and should not

wheel falls off A well-designed efficiencies:—

Fraction of full load

Percentage efficiency

The lack of a suitable pipe-line has, until recent years, tended to retard the development of plants for very high heads. Under such heads the necessary wall thickness, even with a moderate pipe diameter, becomes too great to permit of the use of riveted joints. Recent developments in electric welding and oxyacetylene welding have, however, rendered it possible to construct suitable welded pipes and by their aid, and by the use of solid drawn steel pipes in extreme cases, it has been found possible to harness some very high falls. The highest as yet utilised is

at the Fully installation in Switzerland. Here the working head is 5,412 ft., corresponding to a working pressure of 2,360 lb. per sq. inch.

The pipe-line is 19.7 in. in diameter and 14 in. thick at its

lower end, and each of the three Pelton wheels in the powerhouse develops 3,000 horsepower. Pipe-lines.—The pipe-line for a water-power plant may be constructed of steel, reinforced concrete or wood. Steel is the most usual, riveted pipes being suitable for all but the highest

heads. For heads up to about 200 ft., reinforced concrete pipes are suitable and have the advantage of not deteriorating appreciably with age. As compared with steel pipes the materials are more easily transported and the friction losses are less. Large pipes are moulded in site, and as the bulk of the materials is usually obtained locally, only the cement

and

reinforcement

require

to be transported for any distance. For small diameters, premoulded concrete pipes with loose-sleeve or spigot-and-faucet

joints are often used. For moderate heads, wooden

pipes are extensively used in

countries where suitable timber is cheaply available, and under favourable conditions have a useful life of at least 25 to 30 years. They are built up of wooden staves about 6 in. wide, shaped to the correct radius and jointed end to end by thin metal plates driven into saw cuts on both the abutting ends, covering the

joint. The staves are so arranged that the circumferential joints

403

ENGINEERING

are not continuous. They are held together by circumferential steel bands which resist the bursting pressure, and whose diameter and spacing depends upon the pressure to be anticipated in each section of the pipe. The materials are easily transported and neither erection nor repair require any great degree of skill. If suitable timber is available the mill can be set up on the site and only the bands and shoes require transporting. As heads and diameters increase the amount of steel necessary for the bands increases until it becomes comparable with that required for a steel pipe for the same duty. In general the range of useful heads is from 20 to 200 feet. These pipes have been constructed in sizes up to about 18 ft. in diameter. Generation and Transmtission.—Generators to be driven by hydraulic turbines range from the simple open-type machine which is often applicable to small units, to constructions approaching those of steam-turbine driven alternators, which are necessary for the largest high-speed machines. At the present time the energy is almost universally generated as alternating current, on account of the simplicity and reliability obtained with a moderate generating pressure which is readily transformed to the highest pressures which may be required for economical transmission. Occasionally, however, the advantages of high-tension direct-current transmission may outweigh the essential difficulties of its generation, in which case the Thury system is available. Of the two types of alternating

current generators, the synchronous and induction types, the latter has come largely into use in recent years, especially for automatic stations, on account of its robustness of constructton and simplicity in operation. Frequencics.—The question of the most desirable frequency is simplified by the fact that in most countries two frequencies— a high and a low—have become recognised as standard. In the U.S.A. and Canada, either 60 or 25 cycles per sec. is almost universally adopted; on the Continent 50, 162 and 15; in Great Britain and South America so and 25 cycles. As regards the number of phases there is little freedom of choice, the question being largely determined by the nature of the load. Single phase supply, though offering some advantage in simplicity of equipment, involves increased losses In the generators and gererally less reliable performance. ‘This system is only used where absolutely necessary, as for direct supply to alternating current railways using commutator motors. Of the polyphase systems, three-phase is preferable to two-phase for general power purposes, since the plant is more fully standardised and therefore cheaper, while rotary converters are smaller, more efficient, and give better commutation on three-phase than on two-phase systems.

Distribution.—For distribution within a short radius of the power-house the voltage of generation and transmission will be the same as that required for the supply to consumers; but for transmission to greater distances, for which the voltage is stepped up, there is a wide choice of the voltage of generation. An unduly low voltage involves heavy and expensive bus-bars and switch-gear, and in large units presents difficulty in the construction of the stator windings of the generators. A very high voltage, on the other hand, requires a winding with many windings in series per slot, a greater thickness of insulation and involves a generally reduced reliability. From the point of view of the construction of the generator it is desirable to have two conductors per slot, and the stator current should then vary

from about 300 ampères in the smallest to 1,000 ampéres in the largest machines. It may therefore be shown that the most suitable voltage of generation, when not otherwise restricted for a three-phase machine, should vary approximately as follows:— Output (kw.)

200 | 500 | 1,000 | 2,000 | 5,000 | I0,000

Pressure | (volts) | 450 1 goo | 1,500 | 2,500 | 5,000

9,000

15,000

11,000

The power factor is here assumed to be o:8. For two-phase machines the phase pressure should be about o'o times the above values.

404

HYGIENE—HY THE, CONFERENCE

One of the most important modern developments in transmission has been in the direction of reducing the losses by increasing the voltage of the transmission lines. (See ELECTRICITY, TRANSMISSION OF.) Automatic Generating Stations —The automatic generating station is especially suited to systems where numerous smallpower falls are available. In such a case the expense of an operating staff at each would be prohibitive, but if each station can be made automatic, and all are linked into a common distribution system, the labour cost is reduced to a minimum. The first of such stations was set in operation in 1917. This is on the system of the lowa Railway and Light Co., where it operates in parallel with a steam plant situated about two miles away. The automatic station contains three soo-K. V.A. generators driven by Francis turbines operating under a head of 10 feet. Normally the starting and stopping of these sets is accomplished automatically through the medium of float switches actuated by the change in the level of water above the dam. Provision ts also made for controlling these operations as well as the gate open-

ings of the individual turbines by push buttons in the central power-house. Other plants of this type have since been installed, and this method of development promises to do much to render it economically possible to utilise many low head river falls which have hitherto been neglected. Combined Operation of [Hydraulic and Steam Plants -—Owing to the variability of river flow, it is impossible to utilise more than a fraction of the total available energy unless machinery is installed which will have to be idle during the greater portion of the year. Broadly speaking it is found that the most economical results are obtained when the capacity of the turbines is such as will enable them to be run at full load for about six months in the year. By operating a steam plant in conjunction with the hydraulic

installation, it becomes economically possible to increase the capacity of the hydraulic plant, the defect of its output at times of less than normal flow being made good by the steam installation. The latter also serves as a stand-by in case of a breakdown of the hydraulic plant. (See SupER-POWER.) The best method of operation of such a combination depends upon the type of load, storage capacity, etc., and can only be determine! by special reference to the special circumstances of each individual plant. Very often, however, the steam station is entrusted with the special duty of carrying the peak load. (A. H. GL) HYGIENE: see INDUSTRIAL WELFARE; PUBLIC HEALTH. HYMANS, PAUL (1865), Belgian politician, was born at

Ixelles, Brussels, March

23 1865.

He became a barrister in

OF

1885, and from 1898 to 1914 was professor of comparative parliamentary history at Brussels University. From 1900 he was deputy for Brussels and soon became the Liberal leader. After a mission to President Wilson in Aug. 1914 he was plenipotentiary in London, 1915-7, when he became head of the Ministry of Economic Affairs. From 1918-20 and 1924-5 he was Minister for Foreign Affairs. In Nov. 1918 he attended the inter-Allied Council at Versailles; he also represented Belgium at the Peace Conference in roro and on her behalf signed the Peace Treaty. In the same capacity he attended the conferences at San Remo, Boulogne, Brussels and Spa. He played a leading part in the settlement of the Ruhr question, the Dawes Plan, the. Security Pact and the economic union of Luxembourg with Belgium. In Jan. 1920 he was appointed Belgian representative on the League of Nations, and in the same year was made president of the first Assembly at Geneva. A member of the Académie Royale de Belgique, AL. Hymans wrote L’/istotre parlementaire de la Belgique and Frere Orban. HYNDMAN, HENRY MAYERS (1842-1921), British politician, was born March 7 1842 in London. His father was a barrister and founder of the Hyndman Trust for building churches. After leaving Trinity College, Cambridge, he travelled extensively and became war correspondent for Tke Pall Mall Gazette during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. In 188r he founded the Social Democratic Federation and from this time on was the chief exponent of Marxism in Great Britain. As such, he came into conflict with William Morris and later with J. Ramsay MacDonald. Hyndman opposed the South African War; took an active part in the Second International; but, in spite of his sympathies with India’s demand for self-government he took a strongly Imperialistic line at the outbreak of the World War in rọr4. He died in London Nov. 22 1921. One of his latest books, The Evolution of Revolution (1920), clearly sets out his general views; In addition to numerous other propagandist works he also wrote

Records of an Adventurous Life (1911); Further Reminiscences (1912); and The Future of Democracy (1915). See Rosalind T. Hyndman, Tke Last Years of H. M. Hyndman (1023). HYTHE, CONFERENCE OF (May 15 to 17 1920), a meeting between the British and French Prime Ministers, together with the Chancellor of the Exchequer and the French Minister of Finance, in preparation for the Conference of Spa (see SPA, CONFERENCE OF). A French proposal that France should be granted priority in reparation payments seems to have been put forward but not pressed, and the linking up of the reparation problem with the question of inter-Allied debts was proposed

publicly for the first time in the official communiqué.

IBANEZ—ICELANDIC

| es

VICENTE BLASCO (1867—-

), Spanish novelist

and politician, was born at Valencia Jan. 29 1867. He became an impassioned political agitator and suffered exile, hard labour and frequent imprisonment for his opinions, although he was returned to Parliament on eight occasions by his native city. His early novels, of which Canas y Barro is considered the best, deal with life in Valencia and are in some respects superior to his later productions. Although a republican, Ibanez held strong anti-feminist opinions. He travelled extensively and achieved world-wide success as a writer for the cinematograph. Among his best-known novels are La Catedral (1903, English translation, The Shadow of the Cathedral, 1909); Sangre y Arena (1908, English translation, Blood and Sand, 1913); Los cuatro Jinetes del Apocalipsis (1916, English translation, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, 1918) and Mare Nostrum (1918, English translation, Our Sea, 1920). He was unpopular in Spain, where his writings were ignored by the majority, and he eventually settled in Paris, becoming the centre of a group of politicians with anti-monarchical views. . ICELAND (see 14.227), an independent State in personal union with Denmark. Its area is 40,437 sq. m. and its population is In ror8 Iceland was recognised as a separate about 100,000. kingdom, with unlimited sovereignty, in personal union with Denmark. According to the Act of Union there are no real joint affairs; Denmark, however, provisionally till 1940, takes

charge of the foreign affairs of Iceland as its mandatory. For the same period Danish and Icelandic citizens, residing in either State, enjoy in every respect equal rights. Since 1915 Iceland has had its own merchant flag; since 1918 its own national arms.

Abroad Danish legations act on behalf of both Denmark and Iceland. Iceland has a legation in Denmark, and Denmark a legation in Iceland; other states are represented in Iceland by consulates. Constitution.—According to Iceland’s new constitution (1920) the King shares the legislative power with the Parliament, the Althing, an assembly of 42 members, sitting in two divisions, the Upper House (r4) and the Lower House (28), but in cases of dissension it can assemble as a joint parliament. The Cabinet consists of three ministers, but there is no governor-general, and

every legislative Act passed by the Althing and many administrative measures must be sent to the King in Copenhagen for signature. Since 1920 Iceland has had its own supreme court, and {since rort) its own university. Other improvements in education are the establishment of a teachers’ seminary and a system of public schools. In almost every other respect Iceland in this period has made constant and rapid progress. Population.—The total population in 1925 was 100,000 (1901, 78,000), about 50% living in towns and trading-stations. There are seven towns with chartered privileges, the greatest of which is the capital Reykjavik, which has about 22,000 inhabitants (1gor, 6,700). Industry.—The fishing trade has been considerably improved by the introduction of new methods, especially steam trawlers and motor cutters, and the export of fish products, chiefly cured split cod, herring and fish oils increased from a value of 11,000,000 kr. in tort to 68,000,000 kr. in 1924. The cultivation of the soil is also constantly improving, though in a smaller degree, and dairy farming after the Danish method has been introduced, by which the production of butter has been greatly improved. With the exception of several handicrafts in the towns there is almost no industry. Some woollen factories have been established, and yield a good return, but capital is lacking to provide as many as are needed. Water Power.—In its innumerable waterfalls (the greatest and most accessible estimated to represent about 4,000,000 horse power). Iceland is in possession of almost inexhaustible motive power, and it is very likely that considerable industries may grow up in Iceland in the near future; both Danish and Nor-

LITERATURE

405

wegian companies during the War petitioned the Althing for concessions to utilise some of the greater falls. The realisation of this plan was, however, hindered partly by the Icelanders’ reluctance owing to their fear of invasion of foreigners and partly by the common European economic crisis. Thus far the water power has only been used to produce electric light in most of the towns and on some few farms. Minerals—The only mining industry is that of the precious calcareous spar, only found in Iceland, as the many rich sulphur mines and the lignite mines, worked during the War cannot pay on account of difficult transport to the coast. Both iron and copper and even gold have been found, and English as well as German experts have declared that the working of the gold mines near Reykjavik would be remunerative; here a German-Dutch Company was still engaged in preparatory investigations in 1925. | Communications.—Communications are constantly developing, and driving roads have been made in almost every district; bridges have also been constructed

over

most of the rivers, and a scheme

for construction of a railway was in 1925 fully prepared by the Government. A telegraph cable to Shetland was opened in 1906, and telegraph and telephone lines inland have been extended practically throughout the whole country. In 1917 a wireless telegraph station was erected in Reykjavik and broadcasting (radio) introThe lighthouse system is yearly improving, and duced in 1925. at Reykjavik a modern harbour with quays and cranes has been built. In 1914 Iccland acquired its own steamship company, which in 1925 controlled six mail steamers. Public Iealth.—The birth-rate in 1923 was 26°5 per 1,000 and the death-rate 12-5 per 1,000, the latter showing a marked improvement on pre-war figures. A mental hospital and a sanatorium for tuberculosis, together with some other minor infirmaries, have been established and the building of a great state hospital in Reykjavik was commenced in 1925. Liquor Control.—From 1912 onwards there came into force a system of complete prohibition of import and making of any liquor containing more than 2} % of alcohol, with the exception of medical requirements and denaturalised spirits for industrial use, But in 1923 Spain (the chicf market for Iceland’s fish products) forced Iceland to allow import and sale of Spanish wines, while the prohibition for the rest has been maintained. BreLioGRAPny.—Valtijr Gudmundsson, Jsland am Beginn des 20 Jahrhunderts (1904); De Danske Atlanterhaver 1 Island (1907); Daniel Bruun, Routes aver the Highlands (1907); P. Herrmann, Jsland, das Land und das Volk (1914), Starfskrd Islands (1917) and DanskIslandsk Forbundslov (1918); Stjórnarskrá Konungsríkisins Island (1920); Daniel Bruun, Hagskýrsluv Islands (Statistique de l'Islande), Nos. I-44 (1914-25). (V. G.)

ICELANDIC LITERATURE

(sce 14.240).—As in the previous

period poctry takes the foremost place; although great progress was made in novel writing, and the drama also gained in significance. Among the many lyrical poets Einar Benediktsson and St. G. Stephanson, resident in Canada, were the most important, both rather heavy in style, but rich in ideas and weighty in thought. Lighter and more elegant in style are David Stefánsson, Stefan frá Hvítadal and Hulda (pseudonym Unnur Bjarklind), while the best novelists are Einar H. Kvaran and Gunnar Gunnarsson. Gudmundur Fridjónsson, Jón Trausti (pseudonym Gudmundur Magnússon} and Gudm. G. Hagalínre portray folk life with considerable skill; so do J. M. Bjarnason and Laura Salverson; both reside in Canada and portray the life of the Icelandic colonists there, the latter writing in English, e.g.,

The Viking Heart. The best dramatists are Jóhann Sigurjónsson and Gudm. Kamban, whose dramas achieved a great success at the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen. The drama, The Mother-in Law, by an Icelandic countrywoman, Kristín Sigfúsdottir, was produced at Reykjavík and Winnipeg, and was much admired. Among the more notable writers on other subjects were, Tón Adlis, Páll E. Olason and Jon Helgason on history, J. Th. Thoroddsen on geography, and Sigfus Sigfússon on folklore. Sigfús Blöndal published an Fcelandic-Danish Dictionary, the first complete dictionary of modern Icelandic. BieLIOGRAPHY.— Halldór Hermannsson, Zslandica, vol. 6, 16 vol. (1908-24); Icelandic Authors of To-day (1913); Sigurdur Nordal, Ìslenzk Lestrarbok (1924); Edmund Gosse and W. A. Craigie, Oxford Book of Scandinavian Verse, p. 331-423 (1925).

The

IDAHO—ILLEGITIMACY

406

IDAHO (see 14.276).—The population in 1920 was 431,866, of which the rural population, 312,829 constituted 72-4°%. The total population in 1926 was estimated by the Bureau of the Census at 522,175. The average number of inhabitants per sq. m. increased from 3-9 in 1910 to 5:2 in 1920. Boise, the capital and largest city, had in 1920 a population of 21,393 (17,358 in 1910). _ Agriculture —Agriculture continues to be the principal source of wealth. In 1925 the number of farms was 40,582 as compared with 42,106 in 1920 and 30,807 in 1g10. Nearly two-fifths of all the farms were between too and 174 acres. The average value of land and buildings per farm in 1925 was $0,213 as compared with $313,811 in 1920 and $7,955 in 1910. The number of mortgaged farms nearly doubled in the 10 years 1910-20. The farm value of all crops in 1923 was $81,308,000 as compared with an average value for the period 1917-21 of $106,2090,0cc0. The following

table indicates the statistical position of several of the more Important crops for the year 1924:— Crop

Oats

Acreage

184,000

Barley Wheat Hay Potatoes .

Production

Farm value

6,624,000 bu. | $ 3,842,000

162,000 2,958,000 933,000 | 17,828,000 I,018,000 2,059,000 67,000 | 10,725,000

bu. 2,426,000 bu. | 23,355,000 tons| 25,120,000 bu. 5,792,000

Specialised cash-crop agriculture is replacing the older type of farming. Because of transportation costs on bulky products, more attention is being given to seed production, beans, peas,

head lettuce and the like. Dairying is of increasing importance, much of the output being marketed in the form of cheese.

As a

sheep-producing state, Idaho ranked fourth in 1924 with nearly 2-05 million head having an estimated farm value of 22 million dollars. The total value of all livestock on Idaho farms was estimated at $49,000,000, In 1924. Poultry production for the Pacific

Coast market is rapidly becoming a leading agricultural enterprise. About half the farms in the state were under irrigation in 1920. The enlarged American Falls Dam, which was in 1925 the largest Federal reclamation project, was undertaken to provide additional storage capacity for the existing irrigated areas of southern Idaho. Mining.—-Mining continues to rank second in economic im-

portance. The following table shows the value of mineral production since 1920:— a

|

Gold 1920 1921

Silver

Lead

+ $459,000 [$8,379,000 $22,292,000$ 552,000 | 6,184,000 | 9,559,000)

Copper

Zinc

491,000 172,000

[$1,785,000 94,000

|1922

458,000 | 6,149,000 | 11,762,000]

394,000

431,000

| 1923 |

733,000 | 6,158,000 | 18,550,000; 2,292,000

603,000

Lead is first in importance, the principal mines being in the Coeur d'Alene district. Successful developments of lead-silver and lead-zine ores have been made in the east central part of the state, largely stimulated by the mining activities of the Ford Motor Co. The extraction of silveris in most sections incidental tolead mining. In recent years there has been a renewed exploitation of zinc ores. The Interstate-Callahan Mine is probably the third largest producer of zinc ore in the United States. The largest copper-producing area is in Custer county. The Seven Devils range in Adams county is one of the most extensively mineralised copper belts in the west. Tungsten mines are being developed in Lemhi county. In southwestern Idaho are great quantities of phosphate rock which are being gradually exploited. Manufactures —There has been a marked growth since roro

both in the number of manufacturing establishments and in the value of their products. The following are the chief industries, in order of importance: lumber, flour and grist mills, car and railway shops, printing and publishing. About half of the value of all manufactured goods is represented by lumber products. Idaho ranks first among the states in the area of state and national forests, aggregating approximately 1ọ million acres. In addition there are large stretches of privately owned timber land. Trans port.—In 1923 the state had 2,877 m. of steam railway and 89 m. of electric track. In 1915 the Celilo Canal, on the

Oregon side of the Columbia river, was opened and vessels can now pass from the Pacific to Lewiston, a distance of 480 miles. Government.—The legislature of 1919 completely re-organised the state civil administration in so far as the limitations imposed by the state constitution permitted. The Administrative Consolidation Act abolished some 46 boards, commissions and offices and gave Idaho a consolidated form of state government, or,

as it is locally called, a cabinet or commission form of government, with the governor at the head, assisted by nine departmental commissioners. These nine departments are: Agriculture; Commerce and Industry; Finance; Immigration; Law Enforcement; Public Investment; Public Welfare; Public Works; Reclamation. Each commissioner is appointed by the governor and, except “those under the constitution who are appointed for specific terms,” may be removed by him at his discretion. In certain departments a small number of designated officers are appointed by the governor, but on the whole the organisation within each department is under the control of the commissioner. This consolidated form of government concentrates authority in the hands of the governor to a marked degree. The Jaw provides an executive budget system for thestate. The Eighteenth (Prohibition) Federal Amendment was ratified Jan. 8 1019. Education.—In 1924-5 there were 137,256 pupils enrolled in the state schools, of whom 19,759 were in the high schools and 117,497 in the elementary schools. The state university comprises colleges of Letters and Sciences, Agriculture, Engineering and Law; schools of Forestry, Mines, Education, Business Administration and Graduate Study. The total enrolment in 1925 was over 2,000. Idaho has attracted much attention because of its scientific and economical administration of higher education. A Board of Education of five members appointed by the governor forterms of five years, has general supervision over the normal schools and the Technical Institute, and, as a Board of Regents, over the university as well. The result is a unified system of higher education with little duplication, low cost and excellent standard. The governors during the period 1910-25 were: James H. Brady, Rep., 1909-11; James H. Hawley, Dem., r911-3; John M. Haines, Rep., 1913-5; Moses Alexander, Dem., 1915-9; D. W. Davis, Rep., 1919-23; C. C. Moore, Rep., 1923BIBLIOGRAPIIY.— Brosnan, History of the State of Idaho (1918); Hailey, Hristory of Idaho (1919); biennial reports of the Commissioner of Finance, the Board of Education ‘and the inspector of mines; bulletins issued by the state Schoot of Mines

(Bureau of Mines);

the Idaho Economic Bulletin, issued by the School of Business Administration; and the Forestry Bulletin issued by the School of Forestry at the State university. (H. C. D.)

ILLEGITIMACY (see 14.301).—Illegitimacy may be measured in different ways. One way is to state the number of illegitimate births in every 1,000 births asin Table I. The range of variation there shown between different countries is much more striking than the variation between different times in the same country. Where the figures are small they may be incomplete. Statistics are not given for the United States as a whole; in New York the rate is in the neighbourhood of 12, and in Pennsylvania, 20. In countries affected by the War the rates were generally highest during the War period; thus, in Germany, the rates in the periods IOII-4,

1915-8,

1919-22

Were 94, 115, 109; in Hungary,

they

were 90, 104, 76; in France, 87, 132,132 (the last for 1919 only). Taking the rates as recorded, two causes might account for this: it might be due to a rise in the number of illegitimate births, or, as in this country, chiefly to a fall in the total number of births; the second movement sometimes disguises the other. But it

must be borne in mind that the figures for successive periods are not really comparable for countries with altered territories. A better method of measurement is to refer illegitimate births to the total of unmarried women at fertile ages. Thus, from the date when the decline of the birth-rate in England began, about 1876--80, to 1919-23, the number of legitimate births, per 1,000 married women between the ages of 15 and 45, had fallen 44%; the number of illegitimate births, per 1,000 single and widowed women between the same ages, had fallen 46°4; while the number of illegitimate births per 1,000 of all births had only fallen about

407

ILLINOIS two percent. Table II. shows the illegitimate rates, calculated by this better method, in a few countries for which data are available in a pre-war and a post-war period. The trend, though in some cases slight, is downward, and we know that the same trend was apparent in earlier years. This does not necessarily imply a rise in the standard of morality: it may denote an increasing use of means

to prevent conception.

In Table III. the number of illegitimate births in England and Wales in 1921, expressed per 1,000 of the total census population, is analysed according to locality ‘and according to extent of urbanisation. The third column shows these rates as percentages of the rate for the country as a whole. The last column represents an attempt by the registrar-general to allow for the number of potential mothers among the unmarried at different ages between 15 and 45 in each locality or class of area; for this purpose certain standard fertility rates applicable to different age-groups are used, and the actual births are compared with the ‘ expected ” births. The rates are higher in Wales and the northern counties than in the southern and midjand counties. The more accurate index also emphasises the highness of the rate in rural districts. These differences are in part due probably to differing degrees of familiarity with the use of contraceptive measures. (See POPULATION.)

TABLE

I. Mean Number of Illegitimate Births per 1,000 of all Births, excluding Stillborn

Country

IQI1-4

England and Wales

1915-8 1919-22

1923

1924

.

Spain ; Switzerland Netherlands Denmark?

Norway Sweden4 Finland

.

South Africa} Australia’ New Zealand?

1! 1013-4. ? 1918. 3 White population. 4These figures are doubtless explained, in part at any rate, by a form of betrothal known as trial marriage.

TABLE | Period|

II.

England & Wales

Mean Number of Illegitimate Births per 1,000 Unmarried Women, aged 15 to 45 acot-

SwitZerland

56

Netherlands

toa

Denmark

Norway

i Finland

IH. Megitimate Births in England and Wales, 1921,

according to (À) Locality, (B) Extent of Urbanisation

Actual Births as percentages

Hiegitimate Rates as of Births Births per | percentages {which would 1,000 of of that tor have ocTotal England and | curred with Population Wales the Standard Fertility Rates

England and Wales

.

À. Northern Counties Midland Southern (including London) Wales . ‘ B. London 7 County Boroughs i Other Urban Districts Rural Districts .

in towns and cities of 2,500 or over was 67:9% and 41:7% of the total population lived in the city of Chicago. In 1920, 52:5 % of the state’s population was in cities greater than 25,000. Population in villages of less than 2,500 declined from 12% in 1919 to 10:5? in 1920. Purely rural population fell from 26-4% in 1910 to 21°6%% iN 1920. Population of Cittes of over 40,000 City ? Chicago .

Cicero

Decatur

East St. Louis Peoria . Rockford Springfield

Population, Population} I9IO 1920

Increase | Estimate o 1925

2,185,283 | 2,701,705

23°6 | 2,995,239

14,557

44,995 | 209-1

62,238

58,547 66,950 45,401 51,678

66,767 76,12I 65,651 59,183

71,423 81,564 76,462 63,923

31,140

43,818

40:7

14-0 137 446 14-5

50,359

1:02

100

census of manufactures shows Illinois than an agricultural state, there has in her agriculture. According to the second only to Iowa among the states in agricultural importance. Based on crop values, in 1923, Texas was first, Iowa second, and Illinois third, with farm crops amounting to $459,509,000. Cereals are still the main crop and maize is the leading cereal. The largest crop was that of 1917 when 418,000,000 bu. were produced from 11,000,000 acres. In 1923 the crop of 337,000,000 bu. was a slight increase over the years immediately preceding. In 1923, 62,506,000 bu. of wheat were produced, grown on 3,479,000 acres. The production of oats has declined, but in 1923 with a harvest of 135,100,000 bu. from 3,860,000 ac. she took third place in the United States. In 1923 Illinois n seventh in the production of barley and rye, producing 3:33% of the barley and 5:56% of the rye grown in the United States. In livestock, Illinois, Jan. r 1923, with 1,125,000 milch cows, ranked fourth among the States; and in other cattle, numbering 1,477,000, ranked sixth. In number of swine, 4,460,000 and the number of horses, 1,277,000, Ilinois ranked second only to Iowa. Manufactures —In the value of manufactures, Illinois, in 1923, ranked fourth among the States.

20

' 1919-22.

TABLE

population as of July 1 1926 was estimated to be 7,202,983. The increase of 1910-20 was urban, the rural population continuing to decline. In 1920 the percentage of urban population

Agriculture.—While the to be an industrial rather been no absolute decline census of 1920 Illinois was

Scotland . North of Ireland

Japan

ILLINOIS (sce 14.304).—The population of Illinois according to the U.S. Census of 1920 was 6,485,280, as compared with 5,638,591 in 1910 and 4,821,550 in t9g00. The rate of increase 1910-20 Was 15% as against 14:9% for the whole United States and as against 16-9 °% for the state in the preceding decade. The

100

Manufactured Products, IHinois, 1023 £606, 320,553 Slaughtering and meat packing (wholesale) Foundry and machine shops . 2751:955,047 Iron and steel, stee! works and rolling mills 213,671,552 Electrical machinery and Sunes 211,366,206 Clothing, men’s 186,683,333 Cars, steam road (not back in repair shop) 159,364,227 Printing and publishing, book and job 138,227,215 132,288,355 Printing, publishing, newpaper, ete. Cars, and general construction,

IIO 98 go

109 99 88

1-03

IOI

III

0-89 1-09 0-96 1-07

87 107 94 105

79 103 94 120 (De Coste)

113,604,362

steam

Bread, and other bakery products

I-12 1-00 0-92

In 1919 the total value of

her manufactured products was $3,366,452,9069. In 1923 the total value had risen to $5,041,519,455. Manufactures employed 645,433 Wage-earners, working in 14,348 establishments. The ten mosi important industries with the values of their respective products in that year are as follows:—

,

105,289,516

The tendency in manufacturing was tow ra large-scale production and corporate ownership. Of the 18,593 establishments in the state in 1919, the 799 producing $1,000,000 or over turned out some 75° of the products. In these industries 389,686 wagecarners were employed. Chicago, with its tributary manufacturing suburbs of Maywood, Harvey, Cicero, Blue Island, Chicago Heights, and, in Indiana, Hammond and Gary, is the greatest manufacturing centre of the state. A lesser manufacturing centre has grown up in the net of railways that centre at St. Louis, Collinsville, Granite City and Edwardsville. The third centre

408

ILLINOIS

is formed by Moline and Rock Island with Davenport, Iowa. Joliet and East St. Louis were second anc third respectively to Chicago in the value of products in r919. Manufactures in Chicago, are generally diversified. The same is usually true in the smaller centres, although a few cities are noted for their special products. Thus, Rockford is best known for its furniture manufactures, Kewanee for boilers, Elgin for watches, Moline for farm implements and automobiles. Minerals.—In mining and allied interests Illinois occupies an important position. Coal constitutes her leading production. During 1924 67,880,000 short tons were minced, a total exceeded only by Pennsylvania and by West Virginia. The value of her petroleum production in that year was$14,200,000. Limestone, sandstone, fluorspar, lead and zinc are the other leading products. Communications.—For transportation, Illinois relies chiefly on its steam railways. With 12,046 m. of main line she was In 1924 second only to Texas. For over 30 years little new main-line road has been built. The important extension has been in doubletracking and improvement of the right-of-way and terminals. The field of passenger and light freight and coal transport, since 1900, has been invaded by the electric lines, which by 1924 operated 3,555 m. of track. The Illinois Traction System operates a ramification of electric lines across the state from Danville to East St. Louis and radiating throughout central Illinois; on certain runs it operates sleeping and parlour cars. Illinois’ most important water transportation system is that of the Great Lakes. Receipts of grain at Chicago by lake have steadily declined of late years, although the lakes are still the usual route for shipment of wheat to eastern points. Flour shipments by lake are comparatively Insignificant, an important fact In view of the increasing quantity of grain milled at Chicago. Iron ore is still shipped to Chicago and South Chicago by way of the Great Lakes. In 1900 the Sanitary District Channel was opened, providing a waterway with a depth of 20 ft. for navigation between Chicago and Lockport. But from Lockport to Utica, on the Illinois river, a distance of 62 m., there was no adequate means of water transportation. A legislative Act of rọrọ actively supported by Gov. Frank O. Lowden provided for the issue of bonds to the amount of $20,000,000 for the construction of an eight-foot channel, “ The Illinois Waterway,’ connecting the points mentioned. Little actual progress had up to 1925 been made towards carrying out this project for the Lakesto-the-Guli water route. The improvement of the roads in the state of Illinois has in recent years been given marked attention.

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to give open advice on political questions, tacitly backed the Power which had been placed in command by the vicissitudes of war.

Nevertheless, the holy towns presented a fertile field for

intrigue, and when the government of occupation showed a determination to check the rapacity of the local chiefs of An Najaf, a plot, engineered from without, came to a sudden head with the murder of the newly appointed assistant political officer. Sir Percy Cox was on his way home to attend a conference in London, but thesituation was handled successfully by Colonel Wilson, afterwards Sir A. T. Wilson, who was in charge. He was aided by the universal condemnation of the An Najaf rebels by public opinion elsewhere and by the friendly relations which were maintained with the chief Mujtahid. Though An Najaf was blockaded, not a Shot was fired; but the pressure exerted resulted in the handing over of the guilty by May 1. A court of specially qualified officers condemned 13 of the men to death. Over too persons were sentenced to transportation for life or for shorter periods, but all these have since been permitted to return. Northeast of Baghdad, progress was hindered by the Russian débacle, but when, at the end of June 1917, the upheaval which was taking place in Russia obliged the Russians to retire, the British force gradually drove the Turks from the vacated positions, occupying Khanaqin in Dec. 1917, and Kifri in April 1918. The first task of the British administration was to save these provinces from the destitution and famine into which they had been plunged by the flux and reflux of Turkish and Russian armies, but again the British advance was impeded by the rapid dissolution of the Russian forces in Persia and the necessity of guarding northern Persia from Turkish attack. It was the more unfortunate, as nowhere was the establishment of administration effected more smoothly than among the Kurdish and Turkoman elements with which the British forces now came into touch. Kirkuk was reached in May, and immediately a provisional government under a local magnate, Shaikh Mahmud al Barzanji, was set up voluntarily in Sulaimaniya in friendly co-operation with the British. But the exigencies of the Persian situation made it impossible for the General Staff to maintain the position so easily acquired; the British, accompanied by a large number of the Christian population, abandoned Kirkuk, which was not reoccupied until the final advance, in Oct. 1918, ended in the occupa-

worked with success on the Indian frontier, thus solving the problem of administering to tribesmen justice which should be ade-

tion of the whole of the Mosul vilayet. Liberation of ‘Irag—On Nov. 7 1918, 10 days after the signature of the Turkish armistice at Mudros, the British and

quate and also comprehensible to their primitive understanding. The advance from Basra to Baghdad is described under MESOPOTAMIA. A period of grave anxiety preceded the victory of Shu‘aiba, on April 12 rors, when a reverse would have en,

French governments issued a joint declaration of vital importance to the occupied Arab territories, stating their aims in the East to be:— The complete and final enfranchisement of the peoples so long

tailed the annihilation of the Indian Expeditionary Force “ D.’, After the retreat from Ctesiphon, Nov. 25 1915, and the fall of Kut on April 29 1916, the fate of ‘Iraq hung in the balance, but the reorganisation of the force under General Maude laid the foundations of victory, and Baghdad was occupied on March it 1917. In the proclamation which General Maude issued upon the occupation of Baghdad a definite promise was given that alien institutions should not be imposed, that Arab aspirations should be realised and that on those grounds the collaboration with British political officials of Arab nobles, elders and representatiyes was required. A further development of civil administration was made when in July 1917, Sir Percy Cox was appointed Civil Commissioner. The country suffered great loss in the death in Nov. 1917 of General Maude, whose distinguished powers asa military leader had earned the respect and admiration of ‘Iraqis, but under Géneral Marshal! the success of British arms was carried on. Late in Nov. 1917 the northern Euphrates was occupied up to Ramadi, and in March 1918 up to ‘Ana. In the same month, a serious incident occurred on the middle Euphrates. The holy

towns of Karbala and An Najaf were not only racked by internal feud, but both they and the adjacent tribesmen owned the sway

of Persian divines to whom the secular interests of ‘Iraq counted nothing. In the first years the British government of occupation was fortunate in finding in the recognised leader of these Mujtahids aman of singular personality who, while consistently refusing

oppressed by the Turks, and the establishment of national governments and administrations drawing their authority from

the initia-

tive and free choice of native populations.

The proclamation went on to promise encouragement and help in the establishment of native governments and administrations in Syria and Mesopotamia. General Maude’s pronouncement had been made while the upshot of war was still doubtful, and was therefore discounted as a natural mode of propaganda, whereas the Anglo-French declaration was published after victory had been achieved. Together with President Wilson’s Fourteen Points, it gave unbridled play to political speculation, which was further encouraged when the British Govt. directed Colonel Wilson to hold an inquiry as to whether the people of ‘Iraq were in favour of a united Arab State from the northern boundary of the Mosul vilayet to the Persian Gulf under British tutelage, whether

they desired that this state should be placed under an Arab Amir and if so whom would they suggest. In the light of experience it can safely be said that public opinion was not ripe to reply to these questions which, in the provinces, at any rate, were nothing but a bewilderment to tribesmen, landowners and cultivators. Save on the first point, which was unanimously approved, no definite answer was given. In Baghdad the representative Moslems assembled by the Sunni and Shi‘ah Qadhis asked for an Arab State under a son of the Sharif Hussein. Elsewhere every variety of reply was given.

IRAQ

512

No action could be taken on replies so conflieting, but during

Choice of a King—Towards the end of June, the Amir Faisal

the year 1919 some progress was made towards the appointment

arrived in Baghdad, as a candidate for the throne. This candidature was known to be acceptable to the British Govt., and on July 11, the Council of Ministers passed a resolution declaring him

of local subordinates in an advisory capacity.

Other factors had,

however, come into play. The first of these was the establishment of an independent Arab State in Syria, largely the

handiwork of a number of eager and adventurous ‘Iraqis who were anxious to return home and enjoy the same powers as those of which they stood possessed in Damascus or Aleppo. They carried on an active propaganda in ‘Iraq, and when, in March 1920, the Amir Faisal was proclaimed King of Syria they responded by electing the Amir ‘Abdullah King of ‘Iraq. The movement in ‘Iraq which led to the rebellion of t920 was part of a general resentment against the policy of the British and their allies. In India, Persia, Egypt and Turkéy, no Jess than in Syria and ‘Iraq, a crisis was reached during the years 1919 and 1920, and the political credit of Great Britain fell low in the Eastern world. ‘Iraq was in the centre of this hostile vortex, and was specially affected by the Persian Shi‘ah divines, who were domiciled in the holy towns but were responsive to every shade of feeling in their own country. While the administration was still patently alien, British forces had been cut down to a minimum, and when, in May

1920, the British Govt. announced their aCe

ceptance from the League of Nations of a mandate over ‘Iraq, the Damascus Govt. had already, in the absence of the Amir Faisal and contrary to his orders, begun its encroachments. In answer to objections raised against the mandate by a self-chosen committee in Baghdad, it was announced (June 20) that Sir Percy Cox would return in the autumn to establish a provisional Arab Govt. and call an Assembly, freely elected by the people, in consultation with which he would prepare an organic law. But nothing would then have satisfied the claims of the Nationalist leaders, and on July 2 1920, the turbulent Shi‘ah tribes, encouraged by their religious leaders, broke into open revolt. To restore peace and order was the first necessity. Troops were drafted in from India, and when Sir P. Cox reached Basra (Oct. 1), as High Commissioner, the rebellion in its main centres, the middle Euphrates, the Diyala and the adjacent part of Kirkuk district was already doomed to failure. By Nov. ro, a provisional Council of State was formed under the Naqib of Baghdad. It included Saiyid Talib Pasha as Minister of Interior, Sasun Effendi Haskail, the best known member of the Jewish community, as Minister of Finance, and Ja'far Pasha al ‘Askari,

distinguished for his services during the War and in the Syrian administration of King Faisal, as Minister of Defence. The Council of State, some of the members of which were without portfolios, represented all classes and sects of society; at its request some of the leaders of the rebellion who had been interned at Henjam were released at once. It gave immediate attention to the repatriation of ‘Iraqi officers from Syria and the Hejaz; to the reorganisation of civil government under ‘Iraqi officials, greatly facilitated by the return of many experienced men from Turkey; and to the preparation of an electoral law and the formation of an army. It was the arrival of ‘Lraqi officers who had served under the Amir Faisal which set on foot a movement in his favour in ‘Iraq. Tle had been driven from Syria in July 1920, and had since resided in England. To this movement Saivid Talib was opposed, and during the absence of Sir

Percy Cox in Feb. and March 1921, to attend the conference summoned at Cairo by Mr. Winston Churchill, Saiyid Talib’s ambitions developed, and he assumed a menacing attitude towards the British efforts to secure a free discussion of the future government of ‘Iraq by its people. In April, after a direct threat on the part of the Saiyid, the High Commissioner secured his deportation to Ceylon, and the political atmosphere cleared. The first result of the Cairo Conference was the publication of a general amnesty in May, and at the same time an attempt was made to ascertain the wishes of the Kurdish provinces as to

their inclusion in the ‘Iraq State. The net result was that Sulamaniya remained under the control of the High Commission, but the rest of the Kurdish population was content with the promise of Kurdish officials, under the ‘Iraq Govt., and the local use of the Kurdish language.

King of ‘Iraq, on

condition that his government should be

constitutional, representative and democratic. But Sir Percy Cox fortified himself by consulting the people, and a referendum was carried out, through the Ministry of Interior, throughout the country, with the exception of Sulaimaniva, with the result that 96° of the votes were cast in favour of the Amir Faisal;

outside Baghdad most of the townships and districts stipulated for the continuance of the British mandate. he Amir was crowned on Aug. 23 1921, and entrusted the Naqib with the formation of his first cabinet. Troubles on Turkish and Arabian Frontiers —The early years of King Faisal’s reign were troubled without and within. To the north, Turkish nationalism had taken a turn distinctly hostile to ‘Iraq. Turkish garrisons on the frontier had increased, the tribes were flooded with propaganda, and a Turkish official with a small party of irregulars had occupied Ruwandiz in June 1o21. From that ad vantageous position the Turks kept the whole of southern Kurdistan in a ferment till they were finally ejected in the spring of 1923. Turbulent chieftains roused some of the tribes of Sulaimaniya in the spring of 1922, and a general ery was started for the return of Shaikh Mahmud, who had been defeated by the British and deported in 1919. ‘The British administration evacuated the province in 1922, and Shaikh Mahmud was reinstalled in the autumn, under binding assur-

ances that he would be loyal to the British and ‘Traq governments. He entered at once into correspondence with the Turks. On the Arabian frontier, since the beginning of 1921, the operations of Ibn Sa‘ud against Ibn Rashid had profoundly disturbed the tribes. As early as April rg21, the Shammar of Ibn Rashid began to seek safety in ‘Iraq where a large section of the tribe resides. Their presence embittered relations between ‘Iraq and Nejd, and after the fall of Ibn Rashid’s capital, Hail, in Nov. t921, Ibn Sa‘ud’s pretensions increased, and he claimed the allegiance of the ‘Anizah on the eastern side of the Syrian desert, who had always been attached to ‘Iraq. In March 1922 he permitted the leaders of his Akhwan, or Brethren, to aitack the ‘Iraq desert camel corps and the shepherd tribes grazing under its protection about 30 m. south of the railway between Baghdad and Basra. Heavy loss was intlicted. Anti-mandate Agitation and the Preliminaries of the ‘Trag Treaty — These dangers on the frontiers coincided with a serious divergence of views between the British and ‘Iraq governments as to the nature of their relations with one another, King Faisal and his Prime Minister asked for the complete abrogation of the mandate and its substitution by a treaty of alliance, whereas the British Govt. were aiming at a treaty within the scope of the mandate. The difference was largely technical, but it gave rise to grave misunderstandings and embittered controversy. It was alleged that the attack by Ibn Sa'ud, who was at that time in receipt of a subsidy from Great Britain, had been instigated by the latter in order to show the ‘Iraq Govt. its weakness. At this point the Shi‘ah divines took a hand in the matter and summoned a conference at Karbala, nominally to consider measures of defence against the Akhwan, but with the underlying object of

protesting against the British mandate. The conference assembled, but the Sunni shaikhs held off, the wiser among the Shi‘ahs nipped any subsidiary intentions in the bud, and the meeting confined itself to petitioning King Faisal to take steps against the Akhwan. But the heat engendered was not extinguished, the anti-mandate agitation continued through the summer, though in June the Council of Ministers accepted the treaty w ith Greal Britain, subject to its acceptance by the Constituent Assembly. On Aug. 16 the Cabinet resigned, and Sir Percy Cox, when attending a levec, was greeted by an anti-mandate demonstration. He demanded and received an instant apology, but at the same moment it was announced that King Faisal was struck down by a dangerous attack of appendicitis, and an immediate operation was recessary.

IRAQ Thus, by a singular combination of circumstances, the country was left with no authority but that of the High Commissioner. He issued a proclamation explaining the situation, arrested and deported certain agitators, and induced two of the Shi'ah divines to leave voluntarily for Persia. By Sept. ro r922 the agitation had died out. On Oct. ro 1922 Sir Percy Cox and the Naqib signed a treaty of alliance between Great Britain and the ‘Iraqi for 20 years (British Treaty Series No. 2), but ratification was delayed and negotiations over the subsidiary agreements dragged on until r924. No sooner was the internal situation stabilised than the northeastern frontier again demanded attention. With Shaikh Mahmud in Sulaimaniya and the Turks in Ruwāndiz and its neighbourhood, effective administration had ceased east of Erbil, Kirkuk and Kifri. In Oct. 1922 a measure decided on at the Cairo Conference was put into force and the Air Marshal, Sir John Salmond, assumed charge of all imperial forces in ‘Iraq, ground troops, levies and air force. By his vigorous action he forced the Turks to retire to Ruwāndiz. But the autumn of 1922 was the period of Mustafa Kemal’s great triumph over the Greeks. It influenced both the Shi‘ahs of the Euphrates and the tribes of the north. On Oct. 21 1922 the King issued an Iradah ordering elections for the Constituent Assembly to begin; it was countered by a fatwah, signed by the Shi‘ah divines of Karbala and Kadhimain forbidding participation in elections. In Nov. the Naqib resigned, and ‘Abdul Muhsin Beg al Sa‘dun formed anew Cabinet. In the same month elections were held in Great Britain, during which a campaign was conducted against the fulfilment of the pledges to ‘Iraq. Mr. Bonar Law’s Cabinet came in under obligation to consider the question, and Sir Percy Cox was summoned to London in Jan. 1923, to take part in the

discussion. He left in charge Sir Henry Dobbs who had come out as Counsellor in the previous December. The position of

the British Govt. was extremely difficult. A solution was found in the reduction of the term of the yet unratified treaty from 20 to a maximum of four years after the ratification of peace with Turkey,’ with the prospect of renewal at the end of

that period.

The treaty would lapse in the event of ‘Iraq be-

coming a member of the League of Nations. The protocol embodying this agreement was brought back by Sir Percy Cox on March 31 1923, and signed on April 30. Sir Henry Dobbs, who had acted since January, became High Commissioner in Sept. 1923. Operations in Afosul.—Meantime, in March 1923, Sir Henry and the Air Marshal had been obliged to take steps against the Turkish threat in the north. The Amir Zaid, who had arrived in Baghdad in the previous autumn, went to Mosul, where he superintended the formation of a force of Arab irregulars to operate in the plains if necessary. The strong stand taken by Lord Curzon at Lausanne reacted on ‘Iraq. Shaikh Mahmud, who was in league with the Turkish band at Ruwandiz, was dealt

with, and in April, by a brilliant military movement, supported by air action, the Turks were ejected from Ruwédndiz, and a Kurdish chicf put in as Qaimmaqam under the Mutasarrif of Erbil. With a force of Assyrian levies behind him, Saiyid Taha had closed Ruwandiz to Turkish intluences. Though it was found impossible to set up a local administration in Sulaimaniya, the outlying parts were placed under the ‘Iraq administration and Shaikh Mahmud was allowed to return to Sulaimaniya town and the mountains between the town and the Persian frontier, till in 1924 his intrigues made it necessary to eject him from Sulaimaniya town. This was done by a column of the ‘Iraq Army, with levies and air force support; the Sulaimaniya liwa was included in ‘Iraq in March 1924, and sent representatives to the Constituent Assembly. Shaikh Mahmud, with small robber bands, was still lurking on the frontier at the close of 1925; he had incurred the hostility of the Persian Govt. as well as that of the Govt. of ‘Iraq. The Elections.—In July 1923, King Faisal authorised his government to deport the chief obstructionist among the Shi‘ah divines, Shaikh Mahdi al Khalisi. This act was followed by the ‘This tock place on Aug. 6 1924.

513

voluntary exodus to Persia of a number of other religious leaders, all Persian subjects. They were allowed to return after the Constituent Assembly had ratified the treaty, and have since passed

out of political history.

After its decisive handling of the Muj-

tuhids, for which the ‘Iraq Govt. deserves the greatest credit,

the elections went forward without a hitch. From the Kurdish mountains to the Persian Gulf, primary electors enrolled themselves with surprising alacrity, and, in marked contrast to their practice in Turkish times, the tribal chiefs pressed their followers to come forward in great numbers. Secondary elections began in Feb. r924, and all results were declared by the middle of March. Settlement with Nejd.—During the winter of 1923-4 an attempt was made to settle the growing differences between ‘Iraq and Nejd by a conference of representatives held at Al Kuwait under Colonel Knox. The main point of difference was the repatriation of Nejd tribes which had taken refuge in ‘Iraq. The ‘Iraq representatives rightly pointed out that, apart from the violation of tribal custom involved, they had not the requisite force to constrain these unwelcome guests to return to theirown country,

but they agreed to abide by stipulations considered satisfactory by the British Government. Though on lesser matters agreement was reached, Ibn Sa‘ud proved obdurate on the major issue, and just as the conference was about to reassemble in March 1924, his followers carried out a brutal raid on the ‘Iraq shepherd tribes. The conference thereupon broke up. Other raids occurred during 1924-5, and, as a result, the ‘Iraq Govt. made a determined effort to remove the tribes from the vicinity of the frontier and Ibn Sa'ud gave orders to his Akhwan leaders to discontinue raiding. Finally, at the conference held at Bahra in the Hejaz between the Sultan and Sir Gilbert Clayton, in Nov. 1925, a treaty was drawn up between ‘Iraq and Nejd on the lines proposed by H. M. Govt. and the ‘Iraq Govt. at Al Kuwait.

Ratification of the Treaty.—Sir Henry Dobbs and Govt. had been engaged during the winter of 1923 the provisions of the agreements subsidiary to the resignation of ‘Abdul Muhsin Beg, in Nov. 1923, the midst of these discussions, which were carried

new

Cabinet presided over by Ja‘far Pasha

agreements

the ‘Iraq

in discussing treaty. The occurred in on with the

al ‘Askari.

The

were signed on March 25 1924, and the instrument

of alliance being thus complete, the Constituent Assembly was opened by the King on March 27. The debates on the treaty and agreements continued until June ro. There was much misrepresentation and some solid ground for dissatisfaction at the heavy burdens imposed on ‘Iraq by the obligation simultaneously to expand the army, redeem the capital cost of the railways and shoulder a large share of the Ottoman Debt. H. M. Govt. gave an undertaking that after the ratification of the treaty they would be prepared to reconsider certain of the financial obligations of ‘Iraq towards Great Britain, and the debates were brought to a close by the announcement of the determination of the British Govt. to raise before the League of Nations at the June session the whole question of the continuance of their mandate, and the warning that if the Assembly had not passed the treaty by June 10, it would be taken as a rejection. King Faisal and his government clearly discerned the attendant risks, the Cabinet called on its followers for support, and the treaty and agrcements were accepted befcre midnight on the appointed date. The instrument was accepted by the League of Nations on Sept. 27 1924, as giving effect to the provisions of Art. 22 of the Covenant of the League for the regulation of the relations between “Iraq and the mandatory

Power, and was ratified by King George and king Faisal in the winter of 1924. The Constituent Assembly then passed the Or-° ganic and Electoral Laws, and was dissolved on Aug. 2 1924. Ja‘far Pasha and his Cabinet having concluded their work, resigned office, and Yasin Pasha al Hashimi formed a new Cabinet.

‘The question which now overshadowed all others was the settlement of the northern frontier with Turkey. (See LEAGUE OF NATIONS; MOSUL.) It had not been considered advisable to disturb the proceedings of the Frontier Commission sent by the League of Nations to Mosul in the spring of 1925 by the holding of elections; on

IRAQ

514

March 21 1925, however, the Organic Law was promulgated and elections for the first parliament began. Yasin Pasha’s Cabinet had previously passed four notable measures, vital for the further prosperity and stability of ‘Iraq. The first was the signature with the Anglo-Persian Oil Company of an agreement for the dredging of the Shattal-‘Arab bar. The second was a trade transit agreement with Syria. The third was the granting to an international group, known as the Turkish Petroleum Company, of a concession for the development of oil in the Baghdad and Mosul vilayets, while the fourth was the signature of long term contracts with over a hundred experienced British advisers and officials. The visit in April 1925 of the Secretaries of State for the Colonies and Air gave opportunities for frank and valuable exchange of views, and also resulted in the adoption of a scheme which should provide for the speedier training of the ‘Iraq army, so that it might eventually assume responsibility for internal security and external defence. Elections were completed by June 23 1925, but before parliament met Yasin Pasha resigned, owing to differences of opinion in his Cabinet, and ‘Abdul Muhsin Beg was again charged with the formation of a government. Parliament, consisting of two chambers, a Senate of 20 members, appointed by King Faisal, and an elected house of 88 members, met on July 16 in extraordinary session to consider the budget and certain necessary amendments to the Organic Law. Its debates were characterised by earnestness and good sense, and when its task was finished it was prorogued, on Oct. 28, by the Amir Zaid, acting as Regent during King Faisal’s absence. The second session was opened formally on Noy. 1, but was postponed for six weeks and met definitely on Dec. 20. The New Treaty.—The settlement of the question of Mosul (see LEAGUE OF NATIONS) was accepted by ‘Iraq with relief, and negotiations for the signature of the new treaty were initiated before the end of 1925. The treaty was signed by the representatives of the two governments on Jan. 13 1926, and accepted by the “Iraq Parliament on Jan. 18 and by the British Parliament on Feb. 18. It is contracted for a maximum period of 25 years or until ‘Traq shall be permitted to become a member of the League of Nations. When the delimitation of the northern frontier along the Brussels line and of the Syrian frontier, which is as yet only provisionally fixed, has been completed, it will remain for ‘Iraq to satisfy the League that the conditions of membership laid down in Article I of the Covenant have been fulfilled. The arrangement was not accepted by the Turks until June,

1926.

(See Mosut.)

Since 1920 great progress nas been made in this direction. A police force, which compares favourably with any in the East, does its part in preserving internal order; a body of responsible ‘Iraq civil officials is coming into being; communication by rail and road are opening up the country, the trans-desert route, in particular, having brought ‘Iraqi into much closer touch with Syria, Egypt and Europe; the tribal leaders are stepping into their place in public life, thus tending to reduce the former gulf between tribesmen and the effendis of the town. Justice is on the whole satisfactorily administered; the Ottoman Law still remains the principal system of law in use in the civil courts, while the criminal codes are founded on those of Egypt and the Sudan. Good hospitals exist in Baghdad, Basra and Mosul and smaller establishments in other provincial towns; the Baghdad hospital is as well equipped as any in Asia and is able to deal with and stamp out recurrent epidemics. Education has perhaps seen the greatest revolution since Turkish times. Arabic is now the ‘medium of instruction, or the local vernacular in Kurdish or Turkoman districts. Great efiorts have been made to provide a sound grounding. Four secondary schools are all that the Government can yet afford, but teachers are being trained, recruits engaged in Syria and the quality of education shows a marked improvement. The desert route has enabled many boys to seek higher education abroad. The agricultural department is raising the level of husbandry by providing selected seeds and has given special attention to the growing of cotton, which bids fair to become one of the most valuable crops of the country.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Draft Mandates for Mesopotamia and Palestine, British, Cd. 1,176 and Misccllancous No. 3 of 1920; Treaty between Great Britain and ‘Iraq, League of Nations Series 35, Nos. 1, 2 and 3 (Series 35 also contains four supplementary agreements); Gertrude L. Bell, Review of the Civil Administration of Mesopotamia, Cd. 1,061 (1920);

(1912).

E. B. Soane,

To Mesopotamia

and

Kurdistan

in Disguise

(G. BE.)

II. FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY The truth about the public revenue and expenditure of ‘Iraq is very hard to determine. Figures dating back to the period of Ottoman rule bear small resemblance to fact, and during the War period fancy played a large part in the preparation of figures relating to the “ civil administration.” To draw a distinction during that period between military and civil expenditure, between the activities of the Expeditionary Force and those of the Civil Service, and to analyse the respective liabilities of the Imperial Govt., the Government of India and the civil administration of Mesopotamia were tasks which provided abundant exercise for a lively imagination.

—-

Revenue and Expenditure-—The average revenue during the two years rọr0o~2 was made by the Treaty of Lausanne the dcetermining factor in ‘Iraq’s liability for the Ottoman Public Debt, and the total figure for the three vilayets of Baghdad, Basra and Mosul was £T. 1,492,953. ‘Iraq was no source of profit to the Ottoman Empire. Basra, in spite of a complete lack of harbour facilities, was an important gateway, and customs receipts there were heavy. But ‘Iraq was to all intents and purposes a foreign dependency in which other revenues were only collected by means of minor military operations, the cost of

which exceeded their proceeds. The Review of the civil administration of Mesopotamia which the British Govt. published in 1920 (Cmd. 1061 of 1920) gave figures showing a large balance of revenue over expenditure for each of the four years ending with March 31 1919, and only a comparatively small deficit for the following year, and stated that for the whole period of five years ‘‘the aggregate civil expenditure was approximately {8,000,000 ... while the receipts amounted to about £10,000,000."’ 1920-1 was a bad year, with a rebellion in progress, little revenue coming in and expenditure inevitably heavy. In 1922 Parliament was asked to vote money to make good the “ civil deficit ” in Mesopetamia on March 31 1921, from which date responsibility for the finances lay with the ‘Iraq Government. The figure was put at {£1,087,000, but ultimately oniy £559,000 was required. Even this figure, although supported by appropriation accounts and audits, hardly represents the real facts. There was expenditure in Persia and in Nejd, expenditure on refugees from Armenia and from Russia, and expenditure in connection with fantastic War-time enterprises, which

had no real connection

with the

public services of ‘Iraq. The financial mission which reported to the British and ‘Iraq Govts. in 1925 (Cmd. 2438) quoted the figures as follows:—

1921-2 ; 1922-3 | 1923-4 mates)

(In lakhs of rupees)

Expenditure Revenue

Surplus Deficit

479 475

418 508

E 460 520 60

The mission pointed out that for the year 1925-6 ‘Iraq was faced with a liability of about 80 lakhs for the Ottoman Public Debt and an increase in expenditure on the army of 34 lakhs, and that the cost of these two services was beyond the present financial capacity of the country. They maintained that a reduction of one or the other was inevitable, and in fact the Ottoman Public Debt contribution has not been paid, the actual determination of an amount not having resulted from the Treaty of Lausanne. The position of the public finances of ‘Iraq affords no ground for pessimism. ‘‘ History,” says the report of the financial mission, ‘‘ probably shows no instance of a state expected to do so much so soon.” The public revenue and expenditure are not a safe index of the resources of a country even when, as in ‘Iraq, a large proportion of the revenue is derived from the Government’s share in the agricultural output. The machinery of assessment and collection is primitive and defective; and the Government gets far less than its theoretical share, which over a large part of the country is as high as 402i. i

IRELAND, JOHN—IRELAND Agriculture and Irrigation.—Traq is a country within which | are found records and traces of very ancient civilisation. Great centres of population were in existence thousands of years ago in places which are now desert, and these great centres depended for their existence on a highly-organised system of agriculture based on irrigation. Down to the 13th century ‘Iraq was an agricultural country made wealthy by the proceeds of its harvests and its pastures. Those harvests and pastures depended on - the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers which, thanks to an ancient and elaborate system of irrigation canals, fed vast areas which to-day lie derelict. The destruction of that system is definitely traceable to the Mongol invasion of the 13th century. To that supreme catastrophe succeeded a long period of upheaval and unrest, and then the alien rule of the Ottoman Turk, inimical to all attempts at reconstruction, and destructive not only of mate-

rial resources, but also of the initiative and capacity by which such resources are fostered and developed. The irrigation problem in ‘Iraq was made the subject of an elaborate series of enquiries and reports in Turkish times by Sir William Willcocks, and he was responsible for the one important engineering enterprise which has been carried out in the country, the Hindiyah barrage across the Euphrates, which regulates the supply of water to an elaborate series of canals. The completion of the programme which he sketched out would entail a capital expenditure far beyond the present resources of ‘Iraq; and the increased difficulty of raising large sums of money for such enterprises after the Great War inevitably postpones the fulfilment of even a more modest programme. The whole question of irrigation in ‘Iraq requires further study and experiment before ambitious schemes are undertaken. Irrigation without drainage may be a danger, and may even do more harm than good; for irrigated land easily becomes salt and water lavished on one area may leave other areas, which need it equally, dry and unfertile. But the subject is now receiving close study, and it may be prophesied with confidence that the productivity of the country will be increased by a better use of the water available. The immediate need is for a systematic examination of possibilities and a rigorous avoidance of pretentious schemes inadequately

prepared. Population—The

population which once cultivated vast areas of arable land has disappeared, and its restoration must depend less upon immigration from other Arab areas—for the national spirit of ‘Iraq will not tolerate an alien immigration— than upon a lowering of the death-rate, and especially of the rate of infant mortality, which will give the ‘Iraqi nation the numbers for which the cultivation of such areas calls. The dif-

ference between desert and fertile land is summed up in this part of the world by the single word “ water; ” but fertile land will not be productive unless there is a population to cultivate it. Nowhere else in the world will peace, order and good government so surely find reilection in economic development. Improved conditions of health, education and social well-being mean quite

definitely in ‘Iraq increased productivity. Cotton and Oul.—There are well-grounded hopes that new sources of wealth will be found in cotton and oil. A concession was granted in 1925 for the development of the oil resources of the Mosul and Baghdad Vilayets to the Turkish Petroleum Com-

pany, which represents a combination of international oil interests and is a development of the company which had obtained a promise of a concession from the Ottoman Govt. in 1914. The Anglo-Persian Oil Company enjoys similar rights, in virtue of the original Persian concession of the D'Arcy Exploration Co., in the “ transferred territories ”? which were formerly part of Persia, and here boring for oil has already been successful. The British Cotton Growing Association have interested themselves actively in the development of cotton cultivation. The production is, as yet, comparatively small, but the possibilities have been .effectively proved, and with the improvement of public security the investment of more capital may be anticipated. There is therefore every reason to expect that a country which was once the chief granary of the eastern world will once more become a great grain-exporting land.

515

Communications.—To-day ‘Iraq derives much profit from the transit trade with Persia. The route through Russia has been practically closed for some years, and its reopening must be dependent upon the most incalculable of all factors, the political and economic future of Russia. The ‘Iraq railways, which have grown out of an emergency War-time line of communications, nearly reach the frontier of Persia, a country undeveloped as regards railways. Baghdad is the evirepét of Persia and Basra its gateway, and the importance of fostering this transit trade is fully appreciated in “Iraq. The motor service across the desert via Damascus to the Mediterranean at Beirut, due to the enterprise of a New Zealander, has already had far-reaching consequences, and an air service as yet in its infancy has possibilities which can hardly be gauged. ‘Iraq looks West to-day, after looking East for thousands of years, and Baghdad is only a week from London. Port of Basra.——'Iraq has inherited one asset of great value from the War period tn addition to its railwavs—the port of Basra, where vessels of the deepest draught can le alongside fine wharves fully equipped with railway connections, electric cranes and warehouses. Work is now in progress, and it is hoped nearing completion, which will provide a deep-water channel across the bar of the Shatt-al-Arab and thereby enormously improve the speed and reduce the cost at which vessels can be berthed and cleared. The Shatt-al-Arab is the way not only to the wharves of Margil and the navigable Tigris. but also to Abadan, where the refinery of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company is situated, served directly by a pipe-line from the oil-fields. Imports and Experts Figures of imports into and exports from ‘Iraq are as follows (in lakhs of rupees—re-exports excluded): Imports Exports

1922-3 969 370

1923-4 879 422

1924-5 890 423

They appear to indicate a heavy “ adverse balance of trade,” but like most figures relating to ‘Iraq, they are misleading unless they are analysed. The expenditure of H.M. Govt. in ‘Iraq onthe maintenance of the garrison must be accounted an “invisible export,” and there has also been a large export of currency— Indian rupees and rupce-paper—since the steady reduction of the garrison reduced the amount of currency needed for internal circulation. There is some reason for believing that the adverse balance has now almost reached vanishing point, and this view is confirmed by the latest movements of the exchange-rate with India. The percentage (in values) of imports from the United Kingdom in 1924-5 was 33, and of those from British India 30. Textile goods formed by far the largest item, sugar and carpets and tea coming next. All these items represent largely articles in transit between Europe and Persia. The principal items of local produce figuring among the exports were

dates (183 lakhs in 1924-5), raw wool (84 lakhs) and grain (54 lakhs). (R. V. V.) IRELAND, JOHN (1838-1018), American Roman Catholic prelate (sce 14.742), died at St. Paul, Minn., Sept. 25, ror8. IRELAND (see 14.742).—The first part of this article deals with the history of Ireland from 1910 to the creation of the Irish Free State, while the second discusses its agricultural development. Its history subsequent to that date is dealt with under IRELAND, NORTHERN; IRISH [REE STATE, I. POLITICAL HISTORY FROM I910 TO THE OUTBREAK OF WAR The vear roro saw the opening of the most important period in the relations between Great Britain and Ireland since the Act of Union. The relative strength of the two great English parties in Parliament as the result of the general election in December made the Liberal Govt. dependent on the assured support of the Irish Nationalists; and this support could only be secured by a genuine effort to pass a Home Rule Bill into law. Nationalist sentiment was by no means universal. There was a formidable minority for the maintenance of the Union.

The

line between Nationalists and Unionists coincided roughly with

IRELAND

516

the line between Catholics and Protestants, though a certain number of persons of either religion held the political views generally identified with the other. The Unionist minority existed in every part of Ireland, but was more concentrated in the North. Even in the Unionist North there was a respectable Nationalist minority in Belfast, and in the predominantly Unionist counties of Antrim, Down, Armagh and Derry; in Fermanagh and Tyrone and in the city of Derry Unionists and Nationalists divided the population; in Donegal, cavan aip Soouteten Unlonists were in a minority.

©

All over Ireland, but more siaa in ie North, the political cleavage was deepened, and differences exasperated, by the difference in religion. In such circumstances it would not have been reasonable to expect a compromise on the political question; and the Nationalist party as a whole hardly attempted to secure one, or to face the issue of the position of the Unionist population under Home Rule. They seemed to expect that the minority, after violent protests, would accept a position which ‘they would be no longer able to alter. Some of the Nationalists, notably Mr. William O'Brien, saw the necessity of attempting to conciliate the minority; and the All for Ireland League was inaugurated in Cork on March 31 1910, its declared object being to combine “all the elements of the Irish population in a spirit of mutual tolerance and patriotic goodwill.” ” The Rise of Sinn Fein—Outside the Nationalist party a small but earnest body of Irishmen, led by Mr. Arthur Griffith, had been for a dozen years! declaring that the Nationalist party was

upon entirely wrong lines.

Their policy was to assert the posi-

tion that Ireland was a separate and independent kingdom united to Great Britain by only one link, that of the Crown. They went further than the most advanced Nationalists, and

claimed for Ireland in the United Kingdom the same position that Franz DeAk had claimed for Hungary in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This party, afterwards known as Sinn Fein, had for vears insisted that the National movement should include all classes of Irishmen; they recalled the fact that some great leaders of Irish Nationalism in the past, such as Henry Grattan, Wolfe Tone, Robert Emmet and Charles Stewart Parnell, had been Protestants, and tried to enlist Protestant Irishmen in a

comprehensive

National

movement.

They

repudiated

and

ridiculed the parliamentary policy of the Nationalist party; they would have the Irish members withdraw from Westminster and devote themselves to building up a national culture and economic life, and to developing Irish industry and commerce, in the hope of ending the economic nepencpacgsof Ireland upon Great Britain. This party, though more intellectually vigorous than the Nationalist party, was small and without any very wide influence in rọrr. Its importance lay in its almost fanatical earnestness and in the fact, not then apparent, that a revolution in the affairs of Europe was at hand in which the most drastic constitutional changes would be regarded as almost normal occurrences. But while the Sinn Fein party proposed a peaceful, though extraconstitutional, policy for the immediate future, it did not refuse to contemplate the possibility that Ireland, strengthened by years of perseverance, might in the end find herself strong enough to assert her freedom by force of arms. This brought it much nearer to the revolutionary elements in Ireland than to the parliamentarians. Republican feeling was represented by the Irish Socialist

Republican party founded in Dublin by James Connolly in 1896. It was not till 1911 that this party became active in Irish politics, but during the next few years Its intluence through Connolly’s paper, The Workers’ Republic, became more and more marked upon the Republican side; and the Irish Transport and General Workers Union founded by him, though not professedly Republican, could always be depended on to cast its weight upon the side of the more “ advanced ” political parties. The Ulster Protest—During the year tott Nationalist Ireland was practically undisturbed, but the Northern Unionists ‘Mr. Griffth’s paper, The United Irishman, first appeared in 1899. The National Council of Sinn Fein was founded in 1905.

were in a ferment of unrest and apprehension. The introduction of the Home Rule Bill was imminent; and while Nationalist Ireland awaited events in comparative quiet, Unionists were aware that, so far as Parliament was concerned, their cause was lost. They were convinced that they had an unassailable case. They held that Ireland as a whole had benefited by the Union, and that in particular the industrial development of Northern Ircland had been made possible by it. They believed that a selfgoverning Ireland would prove an irreconcilable enemy of the British Empire, and, by its hostility in the case of a future war, would menace the safety of Great Britain. Ireland was, they argued, a strategic position which on naval and military grounds alike it would be madness to abandon. Mr. John Redmond’s prophecy that the grant of Home Rule would produce tn Ireland a demonstration of ‘f imperial loyalty ”’ fell upon deaf cars, and it was not hard to produce statements of a very different tenour, not only from the acknowledged leaders of Irish Nationalism of a previous generation but even from other speeches of Mr. Redmond. Finally, they raised the religious objection to a Parliament which would be composed mainly of Roman Catholics, and declared that they would never sit in it or submit to any laws which it might pass. Their ideals as Protestants differed essentially from those ideals which would command the respect of a Parliament of Irish Catholics, and to force them to submit to the decrees of such a body would be tantamount to religious persecution? They refused to credit any assurances from any quarter designed to allay their apprehensions, and declared that, in spite of any legislation to the contrary, they would retain the constitutional position in which they had stood for more than a century. The views of the Irish Unionists had often been proclaimed, but their complete sincerity was called in question. The rest of Ireland had not forgotten the United Irishmen, a body that arose and had its chief strength in Northern Freland, and they could not believe that the interval that had elapsed since 1798 had completely extinguished in the North the love of independence and the spirit of religious toleration which had once distinguished the Protestants of Ulster. They hoped with some confidence that this spirit would revive or that at the least Home Rule would be accepted under protest. And the British Govt. seemed to regard the often vehement defiance of their

policy in Irish Unionist circles as but another example of Hibernian hyperbole. On Sept. 23 IQI1r a great ta demonstration of protest against Home Rule, said by the Belfast newspapers to have been attended by 100,000 persons, was held at Craigavon near Belfast. It was addressed by Sir Edward (Lord) Carson, the leader of the Irish Unionist party. In the following week the Ulster Unionist Council, strengthened by representatives of the Unionist Clubs and the Orange Lodges, resolved to frame a constitution and appoint a Provisional Govt. for the province of Ulster, to come into operation when Home Rule should become the law of the land. This bold step aroused the Govt. to a sense of the nature of the resistance they might expect, and carly in 1912 Mr. Winston Churchill decided to explain at a public meeting in Belfast the general principles underlying the government policy. The Unionist party organisers in Belfast decided that he should be prevented, by force if necessary, from speaking in the public hall which had been engaged for his meeting. No steps were taken by the Govt. to meet the challenge, and their inaction was interpreted in Belfast as weakness. Mr. Churchill spoke (Feb. 8) under military protection, in a marquee erected on a football ground, and explained that any measure of Home Rule would be part of a general scheme of devolution, not in any sense inconsistent with the federation of the Empire. But nothing he could then say would have had the least effect; he was mobbed on his way to the meeting, and had to slip out of the town the moment it was over. A month later the Unionists 2 The quite land did much interpreted as decrees of the

recent promulgation of the Ne Temere decree in Ireto harden the attitude of Protestant Unienists, being an attempt to subordinate the law of the land to the Church,

IRELAND held a great counter-demonstration at Balmoral, a suburb of Belfast, over which the Protestant Primate presided. It was addressed by Sir Edward Carson and Mr. Bonar Law, the latter

of whom declared that Protestant Ulster formed a separate “nation” which it would be unjust to force into any political combination with the rest of the population of Ireland. From this time on resistance to the Home Rule bill took more and more the form of the assertion of the distinct nationality of the Ulster Protestants, and it was this which finally led the Ulster Unionists

to dissociate their cause from that of the Southern Unionists. Home Rule Bill of rgt2.—In April 1912 the Home Rule bill was introduced in the House of Commons by Mr. Asquith. It proposed to establish in Dublin a parliament strictly subordinate to Westminster (a large number of services being reserved for the exclusive control of the British Parliament); it did not confer upon Ireland fiscal autonomy, nor did it propose to establish a separate Irish Treasury; and Ireland was still to be represented in the Imperial Parliament as an integral part of the United Kingdom. The bill was so far from an attempt to repeal the Act of Union, that it might have been expected to appease Unionist opposition: but it was received with uncompromising hostility. No one in Ireland was entirely satisfied, although a Nationalist convention officially endorsed the bill as satisfactory on April 23. It was at best regarded as an instalment, while the extreme Nationalists and the Republicans denounced the acceptance of it as a surrender of Jreland’s national rights. An amendment to exclude the four counties of Antrim, Armagh, Down and Londonderry put forward on June tr was defeated, both the Prime Minister and Mr. Redmond declaring that Ireland must

be treated as a national unit; but the amendment was a sign of the direction in which Ulster Unionists were moving. The Southern Unionists, who would have been placed in a hopeless position by the acceptance of the amendment, or by any solution of the controversy along similar lines, continued to protest against any form of Home Rule; and English Unionists in a great demonstration held at Blenheim on July 27 pledged themselves through the mouth of Mr. Bonar Law to an almost unconditional support of Ulster in resisting the bill. Fortified

by this assurance the Ulster Unionists took still another step. On Sept. 28, amid scenes of great enthusiasm, the “ Ulster Covenant’? was signed by large numbers, who pledged themselves to defend their political position by the use of any means which might be found necessary to defeat the imposition of Home Rule upon Irish Unionists. This pledge was at the time understood to be a pledge on the part of the Ulster Unionists to resist Home Rule for the whole of Ireland. Undeterred by the temper of Ulster, and the opposition of the English Unionist party, the Govt. pressed on with their bill, its repeated rejection by the House of Lords serving only to delay its final enactment. Resistance of Ulster —Meanwhile the Ulster Unionists decided upon a final defiance. They had begun to form companies of Volunteers, who were drilled and practised but not yet armed; and on Sept. 25 1913 the Ulster Unionist Council formally took upon itself the duties of a Provisional Govt. for Ulster, and appointed Sir Edward Carson as head of that Government. Gen. Sir George Richardson, an officer on the retired list, was appointed to command the Volunteer force, which was formally inspected by the head of the Provisional Govt.; committees were formed to manage the various public services, posts, customs, excise; and the administration of justice and even education were entrusted to the care of their special committees. Ulster Unionists drew a. distinction between loyalty to the

S17

the royal assent to the Act was given some persons declared that the King had taken a step which put his authority upon a level with that of Parliament. But with the exception of momentary outbursts, the Ulster Unionists protested their entire loyalty to the Crown. This constitutional doctrine would be

subjected to a delicate test if the King’s army were called upon to support the decrees of Parliament, but it was hoped that the application of this test might be averted. The proceedings in Ulster were not without effect on the rest of Ireland. The Parliamentary party and its supporters, with an easy optimism, assumed that the difficulty would settle itself, or that Parliament would in the last resort assert its own

authority by force. But some elements hostile to the Parliamentary party held that what was happening was the just Nemesis of the policy which, they asserted, had persistently ignored the duty of persuading the Ulster Protestants to accept Home Rule under safeguards for their special interests and guarantees for their special rights. Nationalists of a more advanced type saw in Ulster’s passionate repudiation of the authority of Parliament an assertion by a body of Irishmen that Irishmen had the right to the final decision of the terms upon which they would consent to be governed; and they were content to overlook ihe particular ground of the quarrel between Ulster and Parliament for the sake of the principle logically involved. The official Nationalists were not aware of the complete sincerity of the vast majority of Ulster Unionists, nor did they attach enough weight to the formidable objections to any attempt on the part of Parliament to enforce its authority; while the Nationalists who applauded Ulster overlooked the fact that Ulster’s quarrel with Parliament was due not so much to the proposal to govern them in a particular way as to the proposal to divest itself of part of the functions of governing them. The National Volunteers —The example of Ulster was contagious. On Nov. 25 1913, at a meeting in the Rotunda in Dublin called by a Provisional Committee representing Sinn Fein, the Irish Republican Brotherhood and the Gaelic associations, it was decided to inaugurate the National Volunteers “ to secure and maintain the rights and liberties common to all the people of Ireland, without distinction of class, creed or politics.” This formula was a direct challenge to the Ulster Volunteers who held

that, Ireland having no separate political existence, there were no rights and liberties which Ireland was specially called upon either to secure or maintain. The formation of the National Volunteers was not at all palatable to the Parliamentary party, who were still confident that Parliament would give adequate protection to any rights and liberties that might be endangered. After the great strike which paralysed Dublin during the autumn of 1913, the Citizen Army! began to be enrolled, with headquarters in Liberty Hall, the property of the Irish Transport and General Workers Union. Though comparatively few in numbers, the Citizen Army, composed of men who with their families had suffered during the strike and were prepared to take great risks, played a very important part in later political developments. The Govt. in Ireland, now awake to the possibjlities of dis-

an Act giving Home Rule to Ireland in any form which they did

turbance, proceeded to seize arms consigned either to Dublin or Belfast; and in December a proclamation was issued, in spite of the repeal of the Arms Act by Parliament in 1910, prohibiting the importation of arms into Ireland. The validity of the proclamation was immediately challenged in Belfast, and it was not until June rs in the following year that the Court of King’s Bench in Dublin ruled on appeal in favour of its validity. Meanwhile small consignments of arms were making their way into the country, and preparations were being made upon both sides for the wholesale purchase of arms on the Continent. Proposals for Compromise —A conference between representatives of the Govt., the two Irish leaders and the leader of the English Unionist party led to no result, Sir Edward Carson being now confident of his ability to beat the Goyt., and Mr. Redmond being unwilling to consider the exclusion of any part

not approve, then their duty to submit to its decrees ceased to exist, and nothing remained but their loyalty to the King. When

1 The character and aims of this body are set out in The Citizen Army by P. O’Cathasaigh (Dublin, 1919).

Crown and submission to Parliament. In general they acknowledge both; as adherents of the Act of Union, they could not but admit the right of Parliament to legislate for every part of the

United Kingdom. But they held that the Imperial Parliament could not, without the consent of the Protestants of Ulster, alter

an Act which had conferred upon them the position which by its terms they held in the United Kingdom. If Parliament passed

518 of Ireland from the scope of the bill.

IRELAND The Prime Minister, how-

ever, on March 9 1914, proposed a compromise of his own, that six counties of Ulster should be excluded for five years, on the understanding that unless Parliament, at the end of that time, should otherwise determine they should be included without further delay. Both Irish leaders publicly refused to consider the expedient, Sir Edward Carson on the double ground that the security offered to his followers was insuflicient, and that he could not agree to abandon the Unionists of the rest of Ireland. After his speech in Parliament he and the other Irish Unionist members withdrew from the House, and crossed to Belfast, where he issued his final challenge to the Govt.: “ Give us a

clean cut or come and fight us.” The policy of the “ clean cut ” thus became the official policy of the Ulster Unionists as offering the best chance of success, but its adoption, nevertheless, was more or less a disappointment to Irish Unionists outside of Ulster. The Curragh Incident.—It was clear now that Ulster Unionists were prepared, if necessary, to resort to arms, and the Govt. took measures to protect the military stores in Ulster from being seized. On March 20 the attitude of the army was brought into sudden prominence by the “ Curragh incident.” Gen. Hubert Gough, with a large number of the officers stationed at the Curragh in Co. Kildare, on being asked whether if ordered to Ulster they were prepared to go, replied by tendering their resignations, some of them (at least) on the ground that such a question should not have been put to an officer. Their refusal, though their resignations were subsequently withdrawn as the result of mutual explanations, led the Ulster Volunteers to believe that the army was with them, that it had yielded to the insistent appeals to refuse to be made the instrument of ‘‘ coercing loyalists.” But the Ulstermen did not relax their vigilance, or countermand their orders for arms, on that account; and on the night of April 24 there was landed, under the superintendence of the Volunteers, at both sides of the mouth of Belfast Lough a consignment of nearly 50,000 rifles and 3,000,000 rounds of ammunition. The fact that the naval squadron, stationed at Lamlash for the purpose of supporting the army in the event of a conflict in Ulster, had not intercepted the vessel conveying the rifles was interpreted in Belfast as an indication that the sympathies of the navy, as of the army, were with Ulster. On June o 1914 Mr. Redmond identified himself formally with the Volunteers already in existence in Dublin and the South. The original committee, with some reluctance, for Mr. Redmond’s policy was increasingly divergent from their own, allowed him to nominate additional members of the committee. The National Volunteers were still unarmed, but their arms were already on the way. Meanwhile the Home Rule bill was nearing the end of its course. It passed its third reading on May 25 ro14. The Govt. were considering an amending bill, as certain to be as strenuously opposed by the Upper House as the bill which it was intended to amend; and as a last resort a conference was called by the King at Buckingham Palace to see whether some compromise could be arranged. After three days the conference broke up on July 24, each party adhering stoutly to its original position. Two days later the National Volunteers landed a consignment of arms at Howth in broad daylight. The Deputy Commissioner of the Dublin Metropolitan Police, hearing of the landing, called upon the military for assistance, and intercepted the Voluntecrs who had superintended the landing as they marched back with their arms. After some parley, however, the details of which are uncertain, the Volunteers were allowed to retain their arms, on condition of disbanding before they reached Dublin, and the soldiers marched back to their barracks. On the way they were assaulted by a jeering mob, on which they turned and fired, killing three persons and wounding a considerable number. This occurrence caused a profound sensation. The Govt. decided to dissociate itself from the Dublin incident, and the Assistant Commissioner, whose zeal had brought it about, was eventu-

ally dismissed on the ground that he had exceeded his authority.

THE WAR PERIOD When a few days later war was declared against Germany, Mr. John Redmond, in a moving speech in the House of Commons, declared that all quarrels between Great Britain and Ireland were at an end, that Ireland ranged herself on the side of England and her Allies, that English troops might with safety be withdrawn from Ireland, whose shores during the War would be“ defended by her armed sons.” His attitude aroused great enthusiasm in England, but in Ireland the response was less warm. On his own side the more advanced of his followers thought that he had failed in his duty to Ireland by this unconditional declaration, and the Northern Unionists, though they received his words with respect, were inclined to wait before committing themselves. It was not long before party passion was again aroused. The Cabinet had to decide upon their policy with regard to Home Rule in the new circumstances. They chose to proceed as usual to the royal assent (Sept. 1914), but of postponing the operation of the Act for a year (or to a date after the termination of the War to be fixed by Order in Council), with a promise to introduce, in the interests of Ulster, an Amending bill when the War should be over. Their action was denounced by the Unionist party both in England and in Ireland as a breach of the war-time truce in party politics;in Nationalist Ireland the promise of an amending bill robbed the provisional enactment of Home Rule of much of its value. The members of the committee in control of the National Volunteers divided into two sections, those in favour of Mr. Redmond’s policy and those who adhere to the original principles of the Volunteers. The latter seceded and formed a

distinct body, the Irish Volunteers, opposed to enlistment in the British Army and to any compromise upon the principle of the unity and independence of Ireland. But this party was in a minority, and the appeals of Mr. Redmond and the Prime Minister (who came to Dublin to address a recruiting meeting) met with considerable success. Southern Unionists united cordially with Irish Nationalists in the efforts to enlist Irish soldiers; many of the National Volunteers joined the army, andl it seemed as if Mr. Redmond’s enthusiastic support of the Allies was to prevail. | In Ulster recruiting was more successful. The Ulster Volunteers did not (any more than the National Volunteers) flock to the colours. They retained their arms, and they kept up their organisation. They found themselves faced by a double duty, that of protecting the Empire and that of securing their own political position. The Ulster Division, formed out of those Ulster Volunteers who enlisted and other Ulster recruits who did not join the Irish regiments of the line, did not readily admit Nationalists or Catholics to its ranks; the Ulster Catholics who enlisted were as a rule sent South to join the Division formed out of the Nationalist recruits of the other three provinces; and Sir Edward Carson refused to address a recruiting meeting in company with Mr. Redmond. During the year 1915 the Ulster mills and shipyards were working at high pressure on Govt. orders and the farmers were extremely prosperous. A period began in which constant em-

ployment at good wages was open to the workers and large profits could be made by the manufacturing and commercial community. As the War progressed this tended to check recrulting for the army. In Southern Ireland recruiting was at first fairly satisfactory, though the percentage of able-bodied men who enlisted was not so high as in Northern Ireland, and agriculture began as in Northern Ireland to enter on a period of

great prosperity. The political situation was peculiar. Nationalists and Unionists in the South had sunk their old political difficulties in the task of inducing men to enlist, but their efforts were checked and in the end nullified from two opposite quarters. The War Office in England made no concessions to the national feelings of the Irish recruits, who desired to be allowed to carry the national colours on service and were refused permission to do so. Difficulties were thrown in the way of the formation of an Irish Div. (though one was eventually formed), while the Ulster Div. was

IRELAND said to be favoured by the authorities.

The Nationalist Irishmen

who volunteered for the army resented this the more because it seemed to imply that the national claim was to be ignored in spite of the service which Mr. Redmond’s trustful policy had done to the cause of England.

The Easter Rebellionn—The Sinn Fein party and the Irish Republican Brotherhood had been long opposed to Mr. Redmond and his policy. The more belligerent spirits revived the oll maxim that “ England’s difficulty was Ireland’s opportunity,” and, pointing to the increasing difficulties of the Allies, asked whether the time had not arrived for a vigorous attempt to secure what it might not soon again be possible to claim with such apparent hope of success. These arguments were enforced with growing boldness in a number of papers, Sinn Fein, The Workers’ Republic, Trish Freedom, Eire and The Trish Volunteer, These were suppressed three months after war had broken out, and the importation of two American papers which proclaimed the same policy, The Gaclic American and the Irish World was prohibited. But other papers sprang up to take their place, such as Scissors and Puste and Nationality. Pamphlets, some of them written with considerable ability, in favour of the same policy, were widely circulated. Organisers formed branches of the Irish Volunteers, spoke against recruiting, and spread the doctrines of Sinn Fein and the Republican Brotherhood. Arms, ammunition and explosives were imported. The Govt. arrested and deported some of the most active of these organisers and attempted, not always with success, to secure the punishment by the courts of men arrested on the charge of breaking the regulations made by the Defence of the Realm Act, rorgq. This party had agents and correspondents in the United States, and early in the war Sir Roger Casement had gone to Germany, with the knowledge of the Irish Republican leaders, to induce the German Govt. to lend armed assistance in the event of an Irish rising. Most of these facts were known to the authorities, but the Chief Secretary, mistaking the significant for the accidental, took no drastic or immediate action.

The Vol-

unteers drilled, paraded and practised war-like manocuvres under the eyes of the police. As early as May 1915 the project of an immediate rising had been discussed by the Committee of the Irish Volunteers, but it was not till the early part of 1916 that there was general agreement that the right moment had arrived. America was still neutral, and the friends of the Volunteers there could assist them with comparative freedom. Germany was, it is true, unwilling to send help in the shape of an invading force, as Sir Roger Casement had requested, but was ready to send a vessel with warlike stores. It was hoped that Sir Roger Casement would arrive with these late in the week preceding Easter, and Easter Monday was fixed as the date for the rising. The Volunteers throughout Ireland were ordered to be ready for a ‘‘ very interesting series of manoeuvres at Easter.” The German vessel, the ‘ Aud,” arrived with her stores, but sighting no signals from the land and being accosted by and requested to follow a British gunboat was scuttled by her crew. Sir Roger Casement landed from a submarine on the Kerry coast; but by mistaking their directions, the occupants of one of the two motor-cars told off to capture the submarine cable station at Valentia drove into the sca and were drowned; no one met Sir Roger Casement, who was captured by the police and hurried across Ireland to prison in London. The news reached Volunteer headquarters on the Saturday before Easter. The chairman of the committee, Prof. John MacNeill, at once countermanded the order for the “ manoeuvres ” in Dublin, and sent messengers to warn the country battalions. But a section had determine to persevere with their plans at all risks, and, without the knowledge of the chairman, attempted on Easter Monday to carry out their original design. On Easter Monday they proclaimed the Irish Republic. They seized the Post Office, the Four Courts, Stephen’s Green, Boland’s Mill and Jacob’s Biscuit factory, all strategical positions; they seized houses on both sides of the road in Lower Mount Street, commanding the route by which any troops summoned from England must have entered Dublin. But they failed to secure two very im-

519

portant points, the Castle and Trinity College; and though they held the telegraph headquarters in the Post Office, they did net capture the telephone exchange. The authorities, civil and military, were for the moment paralysed. So complete had been their confidence that the officers of the Dublin garrison had been granted leave of absence to attend the Fairyhouse races. But on the evening of Easter Tuesday April 25 1916, the first companies of the 178th Infantry Brigade landed at Kingstown and fought their way past the fortified houses that lined their route. The light artillery shelled the Post Office, and on the evening of April 29 the Volunteer stronghold surrendered unconditionally to Sir John Maxwell. Outside Dublin City there was practically no fighting. The rising was foredoomed to failure; and there is some evidence to show that some of those who actually led it knew that this was so, and hoped for no more than that by the sacrifice of their lives they might, as other Irishmen had done before them, furnish to their countrymen an cxample which would not be forgotten in other days.

Of the leaders 15 were tried by court-martial and shot, 160 prisoners were sent to penal servitude for various terms and 1,841 were deported to England and interned there. From the date of these executions Sinn Tein and the Republican party began to acquire an iniluence and a following which in a short time made them the dominant factors in Irish political life. Mr. Lloyd Georges Conferences and the Convention.— Early in June 1916, Mr. Lloyd George was entrusted with the task of making another attempt to settle the Irish difficulty on the basis of the exclusion of six Ulster counties. Mr. Redmond and his party would have agreed to a temporary exclusion of them, provided that the Home Rule Act were put into immediate operation in the rest of Ireland; Sir Edward Carson and his followers claimed that the exclusion should be definite and permanent. No agreement was reached,! and at the end of July Mr. Duke became Chief Secretary for Ireland and Sir James Campbell, Sir Edward Carson’s chief lieutenant, was appointed as Irish Attorney-Gencral. It seemed as if a stern policy of repression were in contemplation, but the new Chief Secretary was more inclined to conciliation. In Dec. Gen. Maxwell, who had been in command since Easter, was recalled, and just before Christmas 600 of the prisoners interned in England were released. The next year (1917) saw a revival of the irrepressible national feeling of which Sinn Fein became more and more the authoritative exponent. In Feb. the publication of the Sinn Fein paper Nationality was resumed, and two by-elections in Ireland in Feb. and May resulted in the return of Sinn Fein candidates. A statement by the Prime Minister (now Mr. Lloyd George) in Parliament on March 7, declining to consider any proposal for Home Rule which would place the Ulster Unionists under an Irish Parliament against their will may be taken as the final step in the process by which the Irish Nationalist party finally lost its influence both in Parliament and in Ireland. Later in the month Count George Plunkett, the newly returned’ member for North Roscommon, called a convention in the Mansion House, Dublin, to inaugurate an Executive for Sinn Fein; while in the middle of the following month the Prime Minister proposed to summon a convention representative of all shades of opinion in Ireland, including even Sinn Fein, to draw up proposals for an Trish settlement. Mr. Lloyd George’s proposal was accepted by all parties except Sinn Fein, who were offered a representation unequal to their importance in the country and whose principle—Irish independence—would not have been even considered by the other parties. The Ulster Unionists, while sending delegates, insisted that they should have no power to agree to any proposal which 1 Mr. Redmond asserted that Mr. Lloyd George had led him to believe that the exclusion contemplated was only temporary; even on this understanding he hac great difficulty in persuading his followers (especially in Ulster) to agree to it. Sir Edward Carson claimed that he had understood Mr. Lloyd George to offer permanent exclusion, the only basis upon which he would negotiate; he was strengthened in his position by the attitude of prominent members of the House of Lords who, still opposed to Home Rule on principle, were likely to upset any arrangement with which the Ulster Unionists were not satisfied.

520

IRELAND

had not been communicated to and endorsed by the Ulster Unionist Council. As the Prime Minister had intimated that the Govt. would not be bound by the findings of the convention unless there was ‘substantial agreement ” the Ulster Unionists were thus in a position practically to veto any finding which was not their own. On June 15, to provide an atmosphere of general goodwill for the convention, the remaining Irish prisoners were released and returned to Ireland. In July the vacancy in east Clare, caused by the death in action of Maj. Willie Redmond, resulted in the return of Mr. de Valera by an overwhelming majority. Mr. de Valera had been in command of a company ‘luring the Easter rising in Dublin and had just been released irom prison. But in the autumn the atmosphere of goodwill was disturbed. The Volunteers began again to drill and the Govt. began again to arrest. And on Aug. 15 the military raided the barracks of the National Volunteers throughout the country and carried off their arms. This action, coupled with the complete immunity from disturbance enjoyed by the Ulster Volunteers, was signifcant. On Oct. 25 Sinn Fein summoned a convention of its own, at which Mr. de Valera was elected President, in place of Mr. Arthur Griffith, who had been till then the sole acknowledged, as he was still the ablest, leader in the party. The election indicated the final amalgamation of the Sinn Fein and the Republican parties and the formal acknowledgment by Sinn Fein of the service done by the leaders of the Easter rising. But the inexperience of the new leader was, fortunately for Sinn Fein, still allied to the ripe wisdom and real ability of its older chief. Mr. Lloyd George’s convention reported on April 8 1918, but there was no “ substantial agreement.” It was decided therefore that the report furnished no basis for legislation and the situation in Ireland remained where it was. But the Cabinet had by this time decided upon the application of conscription to Ireland. It was a most serious decision. The Parliamentary party joined with every other section of Irish Nationalist opinion in resistance to it, and the decision in consequence could not be enforced. Mr. Redmond did not live to sce this final collapse of all his efforts for peace between Great Britain and Ireland, for he had died on March 6, the very day on which an Irish district (the Co. Tipperary) had been named a “ special military area.” Military Rule in Ireland. —On May 1 Mr. Edward Shortt succeeded Mr. Duke, the viceroy (Lord Wimborne) was replaced by Lord French and the viceregal court was transformed into the headquarters of a military administration; at the same time Sir James Campbell was raised to the office of Lord Chancellor of Ireland. The new administration began by arresting prominent Sinn Fein and Republican leaders, and Sinn Fein, the Republican Brotherhood and their allied societies were “‘ proclaimed.” Conscription was not put into force; voluntary recruits, who were promised grants of land after the War, were called for in a viceregal proclamation and recruiting continued with some degree of success until the end of the War. At the General election of 1918, out of 106 members for Irish constituencies, Sinn Fein returned 73, who immediately refused to take their seats in Parliament, formed themselves into the Assembly of Ireland (Dail Eireann) and elected Mr. de Valera as President of the Irish Republic, with a number of ministers of departments, answerable to the Dail. From this date until the conclusion of the Anglo-Irish Treaty the history of Ireland is the record of one long struggle between two forces, the British Govt. in Ireland relying upon the right of possession, the existing law and the troops, and Dail Eireann, claiming to be representative of Ireland’s right to freedom and adopting the usual methods of insurgent peoples. FROM

THE

ARMISTICE

TO

THE

TREATY

During the year 19109, a large portion of the country was portioned off into “ special military arcas.” The plan usually adopted was to proclaim any district in which an ofheer of the Crown had been shot. But efforts were not wanting to bring about a peaceful solution. The Irish Centre party, later changing its title to

that of the Irish Dominion League, in which the most prominent members were Sir Horace Plunkett, Gen. Sir H. Gough, Capt. Stephen Gwynn and Capt. Henry Harrison, endeavoured to press upon both English and Irish opinion through their organ, The Irish Statesman, the necessity for a solution of the Irish question along Dominion lines. The Republican party on their side endeavoured in vain to have the case of Ireland brought before the Peace Conference by President Wilson. This hope had finally to be abandoned when on Mav 31 the American Peace Delegation in Paris refused to receive the Irish Republican envoys. In March the Govt. tried to placate Irish opinion by releasing their prisoners, and Mr. de Valera, who had succeeded in Feb. in escaping from Lincoln jail, was able to proceed to America to put the case of Ireland before American statesmen and the American public and to raise a republican loan in the United States. Shortly after he left the policy of boycotting the families and dependents of the police began to be put into force with the object of bringing about whole-

sale resignations from the police force. Later in the year (on Sept. 12) the Govt. retaliated by proclaiming Dail Eireann as a dangerous association.’ This did little to ease the situation, and from the beginning of winter raids for arms, the burning of barracks and courthouses and the shooting of police became matters of weekly occurrence. The first ‘‘ reprisal ” took place on Sept. 17, when the soldiers at Fermoy wrecked the shops of tradesmen who, as members of a coroner’s jury, had brought in an open verdict in the inquest on a soldier who had been shot on leaving church by a number of armed men who deprived the church party of their arms. The Last Home Rule Bill—Towards the end of the year the Govt. introduced the last Home Rule bill, providing for two separate Parliaments in Ireland, one for six counties in Ulster, the other for the rest of Ireland; each Parliament was to have control of the government of its own area, while customs and excise, the army and navy, foreign relations and the Post Office were reserved for the Imperial Parliament, Ireland contributing as its share of the cost of their upkeep an annual sum of £18,000,ooo. The Act also contained provision for the amalgamation of the two Parliaments by mutual consent.

It fell far short of

what the Republicans claimed; it was regarded with dismay by those Southern Unionists who still wished to continue the fight against Home Rule and with still greater dismay by the Unionists of the three Ulster counties which were not to come under the Northern Parliament. The Unionist party in the six counties agreed to accept it. Repression in Ireland, 1920.—By April the Govt. had decided to make a final effort to suppress by force the Republican party and its sympathisers. On the 4th of the month, Sir Hamar Greenwood was appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland, and the activities of the “ Black and Tans ” and the Auxiliaries, under the control of Maj. Gen. Sir Henry Tudor, began. In July Gen. Macready was appointed commander-in-chief in treland with an army of 60,000 men under his control. But on May 4 the corporation of Dublin formally acknowledged the authority of Dail Eireann, and its example was followed pretty generally throughout Southern Ireland. On May rọ the Sinn Fein courts began to function, and in a short time had replaced the King’s courts over a large area of Ireland. The conflagration spread to the North; on Aug. 8 the shooting of a district inspector of police in Lisburn (Co. Antrim) was the signal for the burning by a Protestant mob of the shops and houses of prominent Catholics, and on Sept. 25 the shooting of a detective in Belfast led to similar excesses there. Four days before this the town of Balbriggan had been partially sacked as a reprisal for the shooting of two policemen in a publichouse. During the course of the year reprisals of this kind took place in nearly 20 towns, culminating in the serious conflagration in Cork on Dec. 18. These reprisals, except in the cases of Belfast and Lisburn, were the work of the Crown forces. But in the

case of the “Black and Tans” and the Auxiliaries, recruited among ex-service men, it had been understood from the first that they were to be allowed a considerable freedom. Their excesses

IRELAND became notorious; roaming the country, armed to the teeth, they terrorised the countryside. On the other side the Trish Republican Army, moving about by night or in lonely places, sheltered and protected by the favour, and in some cases by the fear, of the inhabitants, laying ambushes, shooting spies or persons believed to have furnished information to the Crown forces, picking off small parties of their opponents, made life a nightmare to any members of the police and military who found themselves outside their barracks. Both sides fired or threw bombs at the members of the other at sight, often in crowded streets, to the danger of the civilian population. One of the most horrible of the incidents of the struggle took place on the morning of Nov. 21, when 21 officers were shot at an early hour in their lodgings, without opportunity of defence or escape. Such was the condition of Ireland when on Dec. 23 the bill for the Better Government of Ireland became an Act of Parliament. Policy of Reconciliation-—-But early in 1921 it became apparent that the true facts of the state of Ireland could no longer be concealed. The tide of opinion in Europe and America was beginning to set steadily against Great Britain. The policy of “‘ reprisals ” was checked and exchanged for one of “ official

reprisals.”

Gen. Macready issued an order that in future houses

in the vicinity of an ambush laid for the troops, whose inhabitants might be presumed to have known of it and had not given information, were to be burned. But public opinion in England began to be roused. On April 21 Lord Fitzalan was appointed Viceroy of Ireland, the first Catholic to hold the position, and so great was the universal desire for peace that early in the following month Sir James Craig, who had succeeded Lord Carson as the leader of the Ulster Unionists, held a conference with Mr. de Valera with a view to a settlement. During the same month, the elections for the two new Parliaments were held. In Southern Ireland out of 128

seats, 124 fell to the Republican party; in Northern Ireland out of s2 seats the Unionists secured 40, the others being divided between the Nationalists and the Republicans. In Southern Ireland the Republicans refused to acknowledge the new Parliament which, in consequence, could not meet. On May 25 the Customs House in Dublin with all its records was burned to the ground by a party of the Republican Army, and on the following day the Government resolved to send more troops to reinforce its army of occupation. Meanwhile preparations went on for the formal inauguration of IJome Rule in the six counties of Northern Ireland, which by the irony of fate were the first to accept a measure which a few years before they had repudiated with anger. On June 7 the Northern Parliament was opened by ‘the Viceroy, and on June 22 the King and Queen visited Belfast, when Iis Majesty addressing the new Parliament urged upon them and the rest of Freland

the necessity for harmony and goodwill.

But the Govt. had re-

solyed to yield, and on July 8 at a conference in the Dublin

Mansion louse between Gen. Macready and the Republican leaders and representatives of the Southern Unionists, invited by Mr. de Valera, a truce was signed by which the trial of strength which had lasted for so long was finally to be at an end. The Irish Treaty.—The relief in Southern Ireland wasintense. It was hoped that the details of an agreement would be settled at a conference between the Prime Minister and the Republican envoys: but after seeing them on July 14, the Prime Minister had a meeting with Sir James Craig, who made it clear that the six counties would not under any circumstances agree to a union with the rest of Ireland, though they would endeavour so far as possible to co-operate on a basis of mutual independence. Mr. Lloyd George thereupon offered the Republican leaders for the 26 counties the status of a Dominion with certain reservations, mainly with regard to the military, naval, fiscal and financial interests of Great Britain. On returning to Ireland and consulting Dail Eireann and the Executive of Sinn Fein, Mr. de Valera intimated to the Prime Minister, both on his own account and as the spokesman of the Republican party, that these proposals could not be entertained, and to this decision, in spite of advice and threats, the party adhered firmly.

521

Long negotiations followed, in which it seemed at every step that a break was inevitable; until finally on Sept. 30 the Republican leader accepted, with no other comment than the words “our respective positions have been stated and understood,” an Invitation to send envoys to London “ with a view to ascertaining how the association of Ireland with the community of nations known as the British Empire may best be reconciled with

Trish national aspirations.” The Irish envoys were Mr. Arthur Griffith, the founder of Sinn Fein, Mr. Michael Collins, who had chiefly organised the military policy of the Republicans and had been Finance Minister of Dáil Eireann, Mr. R. C. Barton and Mr. G. Gavan Duffy, with Mr. Erskine Childers as their secretary; they met the Prime Minister, Mr. A. Chamberlain, Mr. Winston Churchill, Lord Birkenhead, Sir Gordon Hewart, Sir L. Worthington Evans and Sir Hamar Greenwood. After protracted discussions there was signed on Dec. 6 a treaty by which Ireland was accorded the constitutional status of a Dominion; the right of Northern Ireland to intimate its desire to remain under the Act of 1920, provided it did so within one month of the ratification of the treaty by Parliament, being secured and provision made in that event for a commission finally to decide upon its boundaries. The new Dominion was to have complete fiscal autonomy, the right, within certain limits, to maintain an army and was to have its financial obligations to

Great Britain regulated by mutual agreement or arbitration. The treaty was ratified by the British Parliament on Dec. 16. It was not till Jan. 7 that a debate, which had begun on Dec. 14

in Dail Eireann, concluded by a division in favour of the treaty. Mr. de Valera, who disapproved of it, ceased to be President of Dail Eireann and his place was taken by Mr. Arthur Griffith, Mr. Michael Collins becoming head of the new Provisional Govt. appointed to carry the provisions of the treaty into etlect; and on Jan. 16 1922, Mr. Collins formally took over from the Viceroy Dublin Castle and all the offices of Govt. in the name of the Irish Free State. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Ít is impossible to name all the books and pamphlets which have appeared on the [rish history of the years 1911-22. Current [rish events may best be studied in the files of the leading Irish newspapers, Zhe Lrish Times (Unionist), Zhe Freeman's Journal

(Nationalist) and the Belfast Newsletter

(Ulster

Unionist),

The last named may be consulted for the manifestoes of the Ulster Unionist party and for the expression of the aims and feelings of the party. The Sinn Fein standpoint can best be studied in its newspapers, mentioned in the preceding article, files of which are preserved in the National Library, Dublin, and in its various pamphlets (to be found in the same library). The writings and pamphlets of Patrick Pearse, the intellectual author of the rising in I916 and one of its principal leaders, furnish the best key to an understanding of the motives which gave rise to it. There are many officia! publications which should also be consulted, such as the Report of the Royal Commission on the Rebellion in Ireland, Cd. 8279 (1916); Documents relative to the Stun bein Movement (1916); Repert of the Proceedings of the Irish Convention Cd. gorg (1918), ete. On the conditions in Ireland during 1920 and 1921 the anti-Republican account is given in The sldiminisiration of Ireland in 1920 (1921) and freland in ry2t (1922) by 1.0. (C.J. C. Street) published by Philip Allan & Co.; while the Republican account may be studied in the files of the Irish Bulletin. These should be supplemented by the Report of the Labour Commission to Freland (London, 1921) and Evidence on

Conditions in Ireland (American Commission, Washington, 1921).

U. AGRICULTURAL

(R. M H CO-OPERATION

The main interest and importance of the co-operative movement in Jreland since the beginning of the World War consists in the struggle of its promoters to preserve and develop it as the chicfagent for implementing a certain philosophy of rural life and evolving an agricultural policy consonant therewith. The movement had been initiated a quarter of a century before the War by men who were not themselves farmers, and its inspiration has ever since come from practical idealists. These men realised that in a country dependent upon a sound agricultural economy for the well-being of every section of the population, a technically educated and efficiently organised rural community was of the first importance. In countries highly industrialised, agriculture could be neglected without disaster; in a country predominantly agricultural

IRELAND

522

the efficient production and economical distribution of food was what mattered most. Yet those who saw that these ends could best be obtained by the application of the co-operative principle and system to the occupation of farming were chiefly concerned for the building of a rural civilisation which would provide intellectual interests and social amenities calculated to counteract “ the lure of the city.” For the solution of the modern rural

problem as they saw it, they invented Farming, Better Business, Better Living.”

the formula:

“ Better

To usea New World

phrase, the “ pivotal ” thing was Better Business and Better Business was co-operation. Agricullural Organtsatton Soctety—The post-War civil disturbances in Ireland might well have wrecked the movement. War prices and a demand which ignored quality had considerably demoralised the dairy societies. The movement was in no condition to meet the sudden decline in prices which set in in

1920-1. It became clear that its future success—perhaps even its survival—would depend upon the ability of the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society to continue its service as guide, philosopher and friend of the societies. This central body had always derived from the farmers it served and from philanthropic individuals a large part of its funds. In the circumstances of the country, these subscriptions were bound to fall off. While the Development Commission, which was authorised by its Act to treat ‘‘ the organisation of co-operation ’’ as one of the ways of ‘‘ aiding and developing agriculture,” functioned in Ireland it subsidised the I.A.O.S. for this purpose. Under the AngloIrish Treaty the Commission transferred its functions and a proper proportion of its funds to the two Irish Governments. The I.A.0.S. had to be partitioned, an Ulster A.O.S. being formed to

operate in the six northeastern counties. The Govt. of the Irish Free State has from year to year continued the grants to the I.A.O.S. and for its first year the Govt. of Northern Ireland continued it to that part of the organisation movement which came within its territory. This, however, was not renewed, and in Northern Ireland the movement in consequence had greatly to restrict its work. But that the farmers there have come to realise its value is evident from the fact that of its total funds in 1925 more than two-thirds came from societies’ contributions, so that it was able to end the year without a deficit. The new Free State Govt. wished to reconstitute the agricultural policy of the country. This was to be expected in a land which, itself purely agricultural, had just obtained independence from a union of countries mainly industrial. The department was merged in a new Ministry of Lands and Agriculture, and a commission on Agriculture was set up which made many farreaching recommendations, especially emphasing the importance of agricultural education and commending the development of co-operation as well as an increased subvention to the 1.4.0.5. At present the Ministry and the organisation society are engaged in negotiations pointing towards increased Government aid. Statistical Position.—In the country signs are not lacking

of a

renewal of co-operative enterprise. The largest trade federation of the movement, the Agricultural Wholesale Society, which made great progress in the more prosperous years, participated to the full in the country’s economic depression; but “Frish Co-operative Meat, Ltd.,” established in 1920, with headquarters in Waterford, is now preparing to work on a large scale. It was unable to function during the years of civil disorder, but has already a membership of 5,793, with a share capital of some £175,000, of which {65,000 has been paid up, the source of the capital being farmers or farmers’ co-operative societies. The shipment of pigs was begun in 1925, and the society proposes shortly to deal weekly with roo cattle, 1,000 pigs, and to be able to cold store 200 tons of butter (or equivalent produce) at one time. The Irish Co-operative Agency Society,

which markets the butter of the creameries, had in 1924 a trade turnover of £555,649, representing a quantity of butter only slightly exceeded by the years 1920 and 1922, the highest recorded. A further development took place in 1925. The credit socicties were doing a dwindling business, largely because the I.A.O.S. could not pay for propaganda and inspection, but the Commission on Agriculture had recommended that this aspect of co-operative business be specially endowed; two winters disastrous for farming (1923-4 and 1924-5) had resulted in severe losses of live stock

through fluke, etc., and the Dail of the Free State, at the instance of

the Minister for Agriculture, passed a vote for loans not to exceed £100,000, for restocking of lands, to be advanced to credit societies approved by the [. A. O, S., to whom the administration of the scheme was entrusted. Thus were re-established satisfactory relations between the state aid and the self help parts of a movement which may encourage other countries to adopt the device of an “ organisation society,’’ working in close co-ordination with the governmental Departments of Agriculture. There was, too, during the winter of 1925-6 a revival of energy among the dairying socictics. The organisation of about 150,000 farmers (in a country containing about 4,250,000 people) into a movement whose aggregate business for the decade I914-23 (inclusive) was well over £80,000,000—to which creameries contributed about one-half—is not an unimportant factor in Irish economics.

Education.—The

need of all co-operative movements

is al-

ways education, and the higher the development the greater js that need. The hampered condition of the Central Organisation Society is probably the true cause of the halt of the movement as a whole. Up to the present, the I.A.0.S. has had to render many services, notably technical advice to creameries and other socleties, which the Govt., through the Ministry, are now rendering under the Dairy Produce Act and the Agricultural Produce (Eggs) Act. To ensure the future of co-operation, technical instruction in itself is not the chief desideratum. When it can leave that to the Ministry, the Organisation Society will concentrate on educating the farmers not only in credit and the technique of co-operation, but in the co-operative spirit—without which loyalty and solidarity, essentials to success, must always be lacking. The standard of efficiency required of the modern farmer is only to be attained by an educated man. The Govt. of Northern Ireland, like that of the Trish Free State, through its Dept. of Agriculture, enforces egg-grading; but the Ulster Organisation Society, with an income of fo13, 3s. 6d., cannot do the work necessary to educate the farmer up to a standard which the Govt. can only punish him for failing to reach. The work, therefore, cannot be expected to show immediate spectacular results, but that, it must be understood, is as much due to the width of the aim as to the narrowness of the resources. And these two have another connection. To-day the central society’s funds are largely drawn from the fees the farmers will willingly pay it for technical instruction, which is not a co-operative but a manufacturing technique. When that function is transferred to Govt. and the Organisation Society is devoted to its educational but less remunerative purposes, the farmers’ financial support will for some time be considerably lessened. Nevertheless, the founders of the movement were convinced

that nothing less than a continual extension of the study of the rural problem—the regarding of agriculture as an industry, as a business and as a life—could bring the country population even to the standard demanded under modern economic conditions. The next step, therefore, in this concerted advance was to gather and distribute knowledge of every side of agricultural co-operative evolution the world over, and to provide a centre at which students and organisers could study and compare the progress of local developments. To provide this, the Co-operative Reference Library had been founded in Dublin in 1913. One of the founders of the Irish movement has endowed a trust (which the trustees christened the Horace Plunkett Foundation) for the

purpose of extending the Irish philosophy of rural life throughout the British Commonwealth. : Under its auspices there was convened at Wembley in July 1924, a conference on agricultural co-operation in the British Empire. The delegates, who were thoroughly representative of agriculture in this vast area, approved the Irish policy, and called upon the Foundation to establish an office in London to act asa clearing-house for the exchange of experiences and opinions of all organisations which were putting the co-operative principle into practice. This has been begun by opening a London centre which, when the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust promised to defray the cost of maintenance, naturally offered hospitality to the Co-operative Reference Library, an offer which the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust approved. Thus the Foundation is in a favourable position to see that Ireland is kept fully informed of the progress of similar movements in other countries.

IRELAND, NORTHERN BIBLIOGRAPNY.— Annual Reports of the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society from 1895 (Dublin); Herbert G. Smith, The Best Methods of Organisation for Agricultural Co-operation and Credit, Department of Agriculture for Ireland (1903); G. de K. Kossilowski, La Coopération Agricole en Irlande (Paris, 1906); Revival of Agriculture in Ireland: Report of Scottish Agricultural Commission (1906);

Æ, Co-operation and Nationality (Dublin, 1912); Co-operative Credit Movement, Report of the Departmental Committee on A gricultural Credit in Ireland (Cd. 7375); Ed. E. Lysaght, Sir Horace Pliunkeit and his Piace in the Irish Nation (Dublin, 1916); L. Smith-Gordon and L. C. Staples, Rural Reconsiruction in Ireland (1917); L. Smith-Gordon and Cruise O’Brien, Co-operation in Ireland (Manchester, 1920); At, The National Being: Some Thotughis on an Irish Polity (Dublin, 1920). (HC PS)

IRELAND, NORTHERN (see IRELAND, 14.742), a part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a certain measure of local self-government. The population at the census of rọrr was 1,250,531; at the census of 1926 it was 1,255,881, an increase of 5,350. The population of Belfast, the capital, in 1926 was 414,844. The area of 3,351,970 statute acres consists of the six counties of Antrim, Down, Londonderry, Armagh, Tyrone and Fermanagh, and the county boroughs of Belfast and

Londonderry. I. POLITICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY Under the Govt. of Ireland Act, 1920, the Lord Lieutenant, in the name of the King, summons, prorogues and dissolves Parliament. He gives and withholds the Royal Assent to Bills passed by the Senate and House of Commons, subject to the following limitations:— (1) He in respect (2) He or Order

shall comply with any instructions given by His Majesty of any such bill or order; and

shall, if so directed by His Majesty, reserve any such Bill for the signification of His Majesty’s pleasure, and a Bill

or Order so reserved shall not have any force unless and until within one year from the day on which it was presented to the Lord Lieutenant for His Majesty’s assent, the Lord Lieutenant makes known

that it has received His Majesty’s assent.

The Senate consists of the Lord Mayor of Belfast, the Mayor of Londonderry and 24 senators to be elected by the members of the House of Commons; the House of Commons consists of sz members; 13 members are returned to represent Northern Ireland in the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The members of the House of Commons are elected by the same electors and in the same manner as members returned by constituencies in Northern Ireland to serve in the Parliament of the United Kingdom, except that, in any contest election of the full number of members, the election is according to the principle of proportional representation, each elector having one transferable vote. All election laws relating at the time of the passing of the Act to the Commons House of Parliament of the United Kingdom and the members thereof were, so far as applicable and subject to the provisions of the Act, to extend to the House of Commons of Northern Ireland. Money bills can only originate in the House of Commons and may not be amended by the Senate. If the Senate reject, or fail to pass, or pass with amendments to which the House of Commons will not agree a public bill which is sent up to the Senate at least one month before the end of the session, and if the House of Commons in the next session again pass the bill, with or without any amendments which have been made or agreed to by the Senate, and the Senate reject or fail to pass it, or pass it with amendments to which the House of Commons will not agree, provision is made for the holding of a joint session. Subject to the provisions of the Act, the Parliament has power generally to make for the peace, order and good government of Northern Ireland, with the limitations that it shall not have

923

Certain taxes, such as customs and excise duties, were reserved to the Imperial Parliament; the postal service, post office savings bank, etc., were reserved temporarily, pending the formation of the proposed Irish union. The Act abolished the Supreme Court of Judicature for Ireland, and established the Supreme Court of Judicature of Northern Ireland, consisting of two divisions, the High Court and the Court of Appeal. Developments After tg20.—A proclamation was issued by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (Viscount FitzAlan of Derwent) on May 4 192: summoning a Parliament of Northern Ireland to meet in Belfast on June 7 following. The election of membérs of the House of Commons was held on May 24, the Unionists securing 40 seats to 6 Nationalist and 6 Sinn Fein. Elections for the Senate were held on June 12, and 24 Unionists were returned unopposed. The Ulster Unionist Council had on Feb. 4 unanimously elected Sir James Craig as leader of the party. The Nationalist and Sinn Fein members did not attend the opening of Parliament. The Hon. Hugh O'Neill was elected as Speaker of the louse of Commons and the Marquess of Dufferin and Ava as Speaker of the Senate. On June 22 Parliament was formally opened by King George V. The first Cabinet was constituted as follows:— Prime Minister, Sir James Craig. Minister of Finance, Mr. H. M. Pollock. Minister of Labour, Mr. J. M. Andrews.

Minister of Home Affairs, Sir R. D. Bates. Minister of Education, The Marquess of Londonderry.

Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, Mr. E. M. Archdale.

Sir James Craig immediately made it clear that his policy was to preserve the existence of Northern Ireland as an integral part of the United Kingdom, and, while willing to contemplate common action with Southern Ireland under the Government of

Ireland Act, to resist union with the rest of Ireland in any system which would involve separation from Great Britain and the abandonment of the representation of Northern Ireland in the Imperial Parliament. The first task of the Government was to restore internal order. Political and religious antmosilics, to which unemployment arising from post-War decline in trade and industry had added fuel, had been kindled to a dangerous heat. Outbreaks of civil disorder leading to murder and arson had taken place. The antiBritish party in Southern Ireland had undoubtedly contributed to increase the difficulties of the Government, presumably in the hope of forcing an all-[reland form of government by making government under the Act of 1920 impossible. However, the disruption of this political party, which followed upon the Irish agreement of the winter of 1921-2, accompanied as it was by an outbreak of civil war in Southern Ireland, actually eased the situation in Northern Ircland, as it caused the withdrawal of certain elements of disorder which had been organised and introduced from outside and which were now called off to take part in the quarrels of their leaders. After the setting up of the provisional Govt. in Southern Ireland, the Royal Irish Constabulary was disbanded under the

Constabulary

(Ireland)

Act, 1922, which received the Royal

Assent on Aug. 4 1922 and modified the provisions of the Govt. of Ireland Act by providing for the disbandment of the constabulary, in lieu of the transfer to the Govt. of Northern Ireland of the members of the forces serving in that area. Before this disbandment was completed the Parliament of Northern Ireland had established a new police force, the Royal Ulster Constabulary, and a considerable proportion of dis-

banded members of the Royal Irish Constabulary received appointments in the new Ulster force. A large body of auxiliary

relating to the portion of Ireland within its jurisdiction. The Crown, armed forces, defence of the realm, relations with foreign States and certain other matters were excluded from its power. The Parliament cannot make laws interfering with religious equality, taking property without compensation, etc

police was also organised and, thanks to vigorous measures both in and oul of Parliament, order was restored in a comparatively short time. The Irish Free State (Agreement) Act, 1922, affected Northern Ireland (although she was not a party to the agreement thereby given legislative sanction) in the following respects:—

All executive power in Northern Ireland continued vested in the King, but exercised by the Lord Lieutenant or other chief executive officers for the time being appointed in his place.

and Goyt. of the Irish Free State, as respects Northern Ireland, until the expiration of one month;

power

to make

laws except in respect of matters

exclusively

(a) it purported to give Dominion status to Ireland as a whole; (b) it put a stay upon the exercise of the powers of the Parliament

IRELAND, NORTHERN

524

(c) it enabled Northern Ireland to vote herself out of the Free

State by means of an Address presented to His Majesty by both Houses of Parliament of Northern

Ireland, before the expiration of

the month above referred to, and it attached to the presentation of

such an Address the consequence that a Commission was to be set up consisting of three members, one to be appointed by the Govt. of the Irish Free State, one to be appointed

by the Govt.

of Northern

Ireland, and one (who was to be the Chairman) to be appointed by the British Govt., in order to “ determine in accordance with the wishes of the inhabitants, so far as may be compatible with economic

and geographic conditions, the boundaries between Northern Ireland and the rest of Ireland "; _ (d) it expressly preserved the Council of Ireland and the Irish Free State representation thereon, whilst depriving the Council of any powers in that State; and

(e) it offered to Northern Ireland, as an alternative to going out of the Free State, a continued existence under the Govt. of Treland

Act, subject to an overriding jurisdiction of the Parliament and Govt. of the Irish Free State, in all matters in respect of which legislative power is withheld from the Parliament of Northern Ireland under that Act.

The majority of the points in which the Constitution of Northern Ireland was affected by the setting up of the Irish Free State received attention from the Imperial legislature in the Irish Free State (Consequential Provisions) Act, 1922, which came into force on the same day as the Act providing for the

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M.P., the Act marked a new departure in Irish educational administration by establishing the principle of popular control. Provision was made for the establishment of local education authorities, to be formed by the county borough councils and county councils, with power to appoint administrative sub-areas under regional committees. The fiscal separation from the Irish Free State, dating from April 1 1923, had an adverse effect on trade between Northern and Southern Ireland owing to customs duties levied by the Government of the Irish Free State on certain goods crossing the land frontier. Boundary Question.—The chief obstacle to the development of better relations with the Irish Free State during the years 1923 and 1924 was the boundary question. The Govt. of Northern Ireland declined to appoint a Commissioner under Article 12 of the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act, 1922, and, as a consequence of this refusal, the Irish Free State (Confirmation of Agreement) Act, 1924, was passed by the Imperial Govt., whereby, in the event of the continued refusal of the Govt. of Northern Ireland to appoint a Boundary Commissioner, the power of appointment residing in that Govt. was to be transferred to, and exercised by, the British Govt., any Commissioner so appointed being deemed to be a Commissioner appointed by the Govt. of Northern Ireland. The British Govt. and the Govt. of the Irish Free State had, in the meantime, appointed as their respective Commissioners, Mr. Richard Feetham, a Judge of the High Court of the Union of South Africa, and Prof. J. McNeill. Upon the passing of the above Act, the British Govt. appointed Mr. J. R. Fisher, barrister-at-law, as the Commissioner for Northern Ireland. The Boundary Commission occupied upwards of a year in visiting, and hearing evidence in, the various border districts in Ireland, and in considering the information so obtained. In Nov. 1925, on the eve of the promulgation of the report of the Commission, the Free State Commissioner withdrew. Ane

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main lines, and it became clear that the hopes of a war of movement must be given up, that only the slow processes of trench warfare coultl lead to success. The Italian mobilisation was now completed, and Cadorna had ready some 35 divisions. Against these the Archduke Eugene had some 20 divisions, including the Bavarian Alpenkorps, which had been sent to Tirol, although Germany and Italy were not yet at war. Boroević and Dankl were much weaker in infantry strength than the armies opposed to them. But they were strong in artillery, were very much better equipped with machine-guns, and held positions that were naturally ideal for defence and had been well prepared. First and Second Battles of the Isonzo-—On June 23 began what is known as the first battle of the Isonzo. The II. Army, with a strength of ro divisions and two Alpine groups, attacked the enemy linces in the Tolmino sector, and from Plava to Podgora, while the III. Army, with six divisions, moved to the assault of

the western rim of the Carso plateau. The Italians had not suthcient heavy artillery; Boroević had now nine divisions, with their march battalions, and further reserves were on the way. After very heavy fighting at Plava, where the earlier Italian advance had established a small bridge-head, at the Gorizia

bridge-head (M. Sabotino and M. Podgora) and on the edge of the Carso the action was broken off on July 7. During the fortnight’s fighting the Italians had gained a little ground at the cost of about 19,000 casna Mies: Tig Austrian casualties to date were 22,000. After ro days’ beeing space Gumi attacked again in the same sectors. Boroevi¢ had now 13 divisions under his command, but Cadorna had concentrated all his slender supply of heavy guns on the Isonzo front. No headway was made by the II. Army but a fierce struggle took place on the Carso. Monte San Michele was taken on July 20 but lost again, and six days later a fresh attack had the same result. The second battle of the Isonzo ended on Aug. 3 with the Italians close under the crest of Monte San Michele and the village San Martino del Carso, and in possession of most of Monte dei Sci Bus, farther south. The Italians lost some 34,000 men, but the Austrians also suffered severely and lost over 10,000 prisoners. ` The Autumn Offensive, Oct. ~Dec.—Various isolated actions were carried out òn the long front during the summer, but the

i

time was devoted chiefly to preparation for a big offensive in the autumn. By the middle of Oct. Cadorna could dispose of 312 battalions on the Julian front. The II. Army now consisted of 12 divisions and the III. of seven, while a reserve of five divisions lay ready in the Friuli plain. When the attack began Boroević had about half this number of troops, but within a fortnight he had the equivalent of 15 divisions at his disposal. It was on the II. Army front that the Italian numerical superiority was great; on the Carso the Duke of Aosta had no marked advantage in numbers over the Archduke Joseph, who had assumed the command in this sector in July. But the terrain on Boroević’s right was such that he could expect to hold with greatly inferior forces, especially in view of the Italian weakness in artillery. The offensive went badly. By his main attack Cadorna had hoped to turn the Gorizia positions from both north and south, and as a secondary operation, after crossing the middle Isonzo, to threaten Tolmino from the south, as well as from west and north. After a first phase lasting a week, the attack was renewed four days later on a narrower front, but the third battle of the Isonzo

closed on Nov. 4 with little tangible result. Six days later the fourth battle of the Isonzo was begun, and the struggle went on for more than three weeks, the offensive being finally broken off on Dec. 5. As men and munitions became exhausted the scope of the action had been gradually reduced to an attack on the Gorizia bridge-head and still another struggle for Monte San Michele. Once more the artillery proved insufficient, and the main feature of the fighting was the heroic efforts of the infantry on both sides. During the two battles, which were fought in persistent bad weather, the Italians lost over 113,000 men and the Austrians about 90,000. The result of the first seven months’ campaigning was disappointing to those who had hoped for far greater effects from Italy’s intervention. It was not generally recognised how poorly the Italian Army was provided with the material necessary to modern war. Inevitably, moreover, the Austrians had a great advantage in their nine months’ war experience. They were clearly superior in skill to their opponents, and their superior skill was backed by a spirit which the armies of the dual monarchy sometimes failed to show on tħe Eastern Front. Preparations for 1916.—The winter months were busily em-

ITALIAN

CAMPAIGNS

ployed, especially in the munition factories. It was beginning to be recognised in Rome that estimates regarding numbers of men and shells had to be revised. During the winter the small total of heavy and medium guns was increased sevenfold, and great if still inadequate efforts were made to increase the supply of shells. An important innovation of the winter was the bombarda, -or big trench mortar, large numbers of which were constructed to make up for the deficiency in heavy artillery. The bombard was in fact much more than what is usually understood by the

term trench mortar. Its range was much longer, and the destructive power of its big projectile was very great. The supply of men, no less than that of material, required to be replenished and augmented. In seven months the Italian losses in the feld were close upon 280,000—66,090 killed, 190,400 wounded and 22,520 missing or prisoners. The Austrian losses were 28,000 killed, 97,000 wounded and 31,000 missing or prisoners, in all 156,000. The Italian figure was in addition to casualties from sickness, which were heavy, including as they did the losses from an outbreak of cholera in the IT. Army. Men had to be found not only to fill up the gaps but to make new formations. During the winter the gaps were filled, and eight new divisions were ready in the spring, while others were in process of formation, and Cadorna had succeeded, after some difficulty, in having the classes required for drafts called up well ahead of his immediate needs.

Ill. BATTLES OF THE ISONZO AND TIIE CARSO During the early months of 1916 the only fighting of any importance took place in March, when Cadorna opened a big demonstrative action on the Julian front, with the object of preventing the dispatch of Austrian forces to Verdun. The action continued from March 11 to March 29, and received the name of the Fifth Battle of the Isonzo. Althoughit was only a demonstration, some hard fighting took place, and both sides suffered considerable loss. Meanwhile, preparations for a real Italian offensive on the Julian front were well advanced, when news came that the Austrians were preparing a big attack in the Trentino. Austrian Failure in the Trentino—This attack, which is described elsewhere (see ASIAGO, BATTLE OF) had a big initial success, but it was already condemned to failure when Brusilov, answering the appeal for co-operation made by Cadorna on May 19, attacked the weakened Austrian lines in front of him on June 4, and won the great victory that, if Cramon may be believed, came within an ace of being decisive. The attack in the Trentino, based on a miscalculation, nearly ended in the collapse of Austria’s eastern front, and brought only a slight territorial gain that was no compensation for the defeat elsewhere and for the losses suffered. Nor did the penalty end with these. Cadorna refrained from knocking his head against the lines upon which his retreating enemy turned and stood. The positions he reached were adequate to his aims in the Trentino, which were purely defensive, and instead of persisting in his counter-olfensive he rapidly swung his reserves back to the Julian front, smashed through the Gorizia bridge-head and took Gorizia, and drove the Austrians from the western section of the Carso plateau. The Taking of Gertsia.—During the winter of 1915-6, in preparation for an attack upon Gorizia and the Carso, the right wing of the II. Army had been transferred to the II., so that the front from north of Monte Sabotino down to the sca, was under the Duke of Aosta. At the end of July, when the delayed attack was Imminent, the Duke had 16 divisions and a dismounted cavalry division. He had 1,250 guns,of which 520 were heavy or medium, and these were supplemented by nearly 800 bombarde. On the Carso and iiou Gorizia Boroević was badly nice to meet the Italian attack. He had only five divisions in line between Monte Sabotino and the sea, and one in immediate reserve, when the Duke launched his attack, and the Austrians were taken by surprise. On Aug. 4 the Duke began with a feint against the low hills east of Monfalcone, and two days later the real attack developed, when the VI. Corps attacked the Gorizia bridge-head and the XI. the summits of Monte San Michele.

593

The VI. Corps, commanded by Gen. Luigi Capello, had outgrown the dimensions of an army corps, for it consisted of no fewer than six divisions. Capello’s attack was brilliantly successful. Monte Sabotino, which had resisted so many attempts at capture, was taken on the run in 4o min., while the greater part of the Podgora ridge was torn from the Austrians and some Italian detachments reached the river at sunset. The Austrians defended with the most obstinate valour, and gained precious time for their hard pressed commander. Italian troops crossed the river on the night of Aug. 8, and the town of Gorizia was occupied next day without resistance, while a general attack on the Carso was breaking down the stubborn defence which had survived the loss of Monte San Michele early in the first days’ fighting. On Aug. ro the Austrians were driven back across the Vallone, the deep cut that separates the San Michele-Doberdo section of the Carso from the main plateau. Both to the east of Gorizia and on the far side of the Vallone the advancing Italians found themselves faced by new lines hidden among the woody slopes beyond the town and the stony undulations of the Carso. Attempts to continue the offensive were not successful. The sixth battle of the Isonzo was an important Italian success, but there was not sufficient weight of guns and ammunition to push the attack home. Closing Operations of r916.—Ia Sept., Oct. and again at the beginning of Nov. the Duke of Aosta attacked on the main Carso plateau, between the Vippacco and the Brestovizza valley, punching out a big salient on the northern half of the Carso, driving the Austrians back to their last Jine of trenches and occupying the important position of Dosso Fajti. But the seventh, eighth and ninth battles of the Isonzo were each broken off as soon as the attack slowed down. Cadorna was attempting to gain position for a bigger attack later on, when men, guns and shells should be more plentiful. Bad weather prevented another blow, and prevented also an attack in the Asiago uplands, which had been planned for the middle of November. The year had seen much heavy fighting, and both sides had suffered severely. The Italian casualties were nearly 120,000 dead, 285,000 wounded and 78,000 prisoners, the bulk of the latter taken in the first days of the Austrian offensive in May. The Austrian losses were also heavy, well over 200,000 killed and wounded

and some 60,000 prisoners.

If the territorial gains at

the end of the year’s fighting were not great, Cadorna’s continued attacks, following upon the costly failure of the Austrian offensive in the Trentino, had done their work in occupying an increasing number of the enemy’s troops and wearing down his resistance. Cadorna’s réle was clearly marked out; so long as the plans of the Allies were based upon the policy of attrition, he had to hammer when he could, with what means he could collect from month to month as the output of guns and munitions increased and fresh troops were trained, keeping always in view as an essential aim that of attracting to his front, and wearing out, the maximum number of enemy forces. Juaged from this standpoint, the Italian effort of 1916 was of the greatest value to the Allied cause. Although Cadorna was strongly opposed to the dispersal of his forces in petits paquets and had resisted the suggestion of an expedition to Libya to quell the rising which had reduced the Italian occupation to a few points on the coast, the importance of the Balkan front had not been lost sight of by the Italian Government. Fresh troops were sent to strengthen the Italian position in Albania, and in Aug. a strong force arrived in Salonika under the command of Gen. Petitti di Roreto to take part in the Allied advance on. Monastir. Early in Oct. an Italian column occupied Argyrokastron, and before Nov. the talians were in touch with the left wang of the Allied forces based upon Salonika.

IV. THE AUSTRO- GERMAN

EF FORT

At the Allied conference held in Rome in Jan. ror7 the formal proposal was made that an Allied force should join the armies of Italy in an attempt to smash the weaker of the two Central Powers. In spite of Mr. Lloyd George’s advocacy the plan did not commend itself to the French and British military authori-

554

ITALIAN

CAMPAIGNS

ties, who offered, however, to send 300 heavy guns to Italy on condition that they were returned to the French front by the month of April. Cadorna declined the offer, on the ground that the season was unsuitable for an offensive on his front, and that the guns would have to be returned at the moment when they would be most useful. The question of closer co-operation was dropped for the time being, but the conference organised a line of communications through Italy to Salonika, via the southern Italian ports, a route which greatly lessened the dangers from submarine attack, and at the same time made a much smaller demand on the diminishing tonnage of the Allies. Cadorna’s Plan.—Cadorna embodied his proposals in a memorandum written after the Rome conference; they were as follows: If the Allies would give him at least 300 heavy guns he would make two attacks on the Trentino and Julian fronts—his own artillery was insufficient for this double offensive—and so find the enemy’s weak point. He had the advantage of interior lines, and would move his reserves of guns and men from the Venetian plain according to the development of the two actions. If, on the other hand, the Allies would send a minimum of eight divisions in addition to the heavy guns, he would concentrate upon the Julian front and attack from Tolmino to the sea, with the object of breaking through towards Ljubljana (Laibach). Such an attack, in Cadorna’s view, would have had decisive results. He believed that Austria could not recover from so severe a blow. The plan was tempting, but it did not commend itself to the Allied commands. French and British opinion was against any further diversion of effort from the Western front, for there was the chief enemy, upon whose defeat the result of the war depended. And there were obvious technical difficulties in the way of supplying large French and British forces on the Julian front. Nivelle and Robertson, who visited the Italian front in the spring, agreed to the principle of direct co-operation by the dispatch of troops and guns in the event of necessity, but both were inclined to prefer co-operation by simultaneous attack, and while a scheme for the quick transport of troops from France to Italy was prepared, no definite engagements were taken. It was agreed, on the other hand, between Cadorna and Nivelle, that the Italian and French spring offensives should be timed to coin-

cide as nearly as possible. The Italian Spring Offensive—Cadorna’s attack was slightly delayed owing to a threat of an Austrian offensive in the Trentino, and later, by bad weather. But the Italian guns, which had been reinforced by 11 batteries of British 6-in. howitzers and 35 French heavy guns, opened fire on May 12. Cadorna feinted with the HI. Army on the Carso, making his real attack with the II. Army, now under Gen. Luigi Capello, against the hills north and east of Gorizia. North of the town the greater part of the long ridge (Kuk-Vodice) running southward from above Plava was gallantly stormed and held against the most determined counter-attacks, but little progress was made east of the town. As soon as the occupation of the Kuk-Vodice ridge seemed assured Cadorna moved the bulk of his heavy guns southward and attacked with the III. Army on the Carso. Useful progress was made here also, a number of positions being captured, and the VII. Corps on the right carrying one line after another till they were half-way up Monte Hermada (Querceto). But ammunition was running very low; the offensive was broken off at a moment when it seemed as though further success lay very near. On the evening of May 26, when the attack on the Hermada was stopped, the defenders of the battered hill were reduced to under roo men, each of whom received the Maria Theresa medal. There was only a short breathing space. On June 4 the Austrians on the Carso counter-attacked in the most determined manner, Finding a weak resistance on the part of the troops who has come into line as reliefs, they freed the lower slopes of Monte Hermada, and took alarge number of prisoners. During the four weeks’ fighting Cadorna used 31 divisions and lost 132,000 killed and wounded and 25,000 prisoners. Boroevié had held

his ground, or nearly, with 17 divisions, and his losses, including 25,000 prisoners, were close upon 120,000.

The rumour of battle had scarcely ceased on the Julian front when the Italians attacked in force north of Asiago, on a front

of nine miles. The attack failed. Progress was made at one point only, on Monte Ortigara, and here too, after a long and bloody struggle, the attacking troops were thrown back. Between June 10 and June 29 the Italians lost 24,000 killed and wounded and 2,000 prisoners. The Austrian casualties were over 0,000. Cadorna’s Second Offensive, Aug.—Sept.—The general situation at the end of June gave cause for disappointment and some anxiety. Russia was going out of action. The prospect of an Entente victory with which the year had opened was clearly removed to a distance, and war weariness was making itself increasingly felt in Italy. The question of Allied co-operation on the Italian front was once more discussed but without result. It was decided that Cadorna should attack alone in August. The army was strung to the highest point of tension, awaiting the order to attack, when Pope Benedict XV. launched his appeal for peace. Parts of the army were shaken, for the Pope, in his impartiality, placed the two contending groups of Powers on the same level; he held out the hope that Germany and Austria were ready to consider certain territorial questions “in a conciliatory spirit,” taking into account “ the aspirations of the peoples”’; and to the long and weary struggle he attached the label ‘‘ useless slaughter.” Some of the commands were anxious about their men when the attack began, on the night of Aug. 18. As a matter of fact, the troops put aside their questionings, and the blow dealt to the Austrians was a very heavy one. The Isonzo was crossed in many places between Tolmino and Plava and the greater part of the Bainsizza plateau was occupied by troops of the II. Army, while the southern end of the Chiapovano valley was passed and a footing obtained on the western corner of the Ternova plateau. But a long sustained effort brought no further success. Cadorna intended to renew his offensive at the end of Sept. by an attack against the Ternova plateau, in the hope of definitely turning the Gorizia positions from the north and cutting the main line of communications between the Austrian right and left. But towards the middle of the month news came of increased enemy forces and a probable counter-offensive at an early date, and Cadorna, after taking stock, decided he must stand on the defensive. The four weeks’ fighting in Aug. and Sept. had cost him over 166,000 men—40,000 killed, 108,000 wounded and over 18,000 prisoners. The toll taken by sickness had also been very heavy. The units were at low strength and the new drafts had not been satisfactorily absorbed. A breathing space was urgently needed. British and French Reinforcements-—The Austro-German success against the II. Army, the retreat of the Italian forces to the Piave, and the resistance in the new positions are described in a separate article (see CAPORETTO, BATTLE OF). When the gravity of the situation became clear, England and France acted with all possible speed. The order was given for six French and five British divisions to entrain for Italy, and Foch and Robertson hastened to the spot. An Allied conference at Rapallo began on Nov. 4, and from its discussions were born the Supreme Allied Council, which was to meet, once a month if possible, at Versailles, and the Versailles Military Council, which was to sit permanently. It was agreed that the failure of the Italian armies to resist the enemy attack called for a change in the Italian command, and Cadorna was appointed Italian military representative at Versailles. He was succeeded by Gen. Armando Diaz, commander of the XXIII. Army Corps, and the functions of Gen. Porro, who was also relieved of his post, were divided between Gen. Giardino, who had been Minister of War during the summer, and Gen. Badoglio, commander of the XX VII. Corps.

V. THE

COLLAPSE

OF

AUSTRIA

After the failure of Krauss and Conrad to break through to

the Venetian plain, the Italian front saw no action of first class importance for nearly six months. The time was well occupied in reorganisation, but there were several minor combats. The German divisions left Italy at the beginning of 1918, in anticipation of the great offensive which was being prepared on the

ITALIAN

LITERATURE

555

Western front. Gen. Plumer, who commanded the British forces, also left Italy to take up his old command. He had acquired a great popularity, and his departure was much regretted. Fortunately he had a worthy successor in the Earl of Cavan. When the German offensive in March 1918 pierced the line of the Brit-

two and a half the Habsburg that increased the last three rose to 55, and

ish V. Army four French and two British divisions were immediately withdrawn from Italy. They were followed by the Italian II. Corps under Gen. Albricci. This left Diaz with 55 divisions (so Italian and five Allied) as against 60 freshly organised Austrian divisions, who were preparing for an early offensive.

Austria-Hungary was arrayed against Italy, the number of divisions at one time approaching 7o. The figures speak plainly, and Ludendorff, in an interview published in the spring of 1919, placed among the chief causes of the German defeat “the lack of support from Austria, gripped ever more tightly at the throat by Italy.” Cadorna rightly claimed that Italy’s “ grip on Austria’s throat from 1915, compelling her to immobilise against us ever increasing forces, constituted the most notable result of our war, though it was little apparent to the eyes of civilians. It contributed largely to the victory of the Allied arms and to our final triumph.”

Austrian Altacks Fail_—The original proposal of the Austrian General staff, now under Gen. Arz von Straussenburg, was to make a drive on both sides of the Brenta. Conrad, now in command in the Trentino, pressed for an attack in the Asiago uplands. Krauss disapproved of both plans and urged an offensive

on both sides of the Lake of Garda. Conrad’s plan was chosen, but Boroević urged that this offensive should be accompanied by a straight drive by his armies across the Piave. This was agreed to, and both army groups attacked on June 15. Conrad attacked with Scheuchenstuel’s XT. Army from south of Asiago to Monte Grappa, while the Archduke Joseph attacked the Montello and Werzel von Wurm crossed the lower Piave. Conrad had 27 divisions at his disposal, and Boroević 23. Conrad’s attack was a complete failure. It went well to begin with, but at the end of the day all hope of success had gone, and by the evening of June 16 he was finally beaten. Boroević, on the other hand, made good headway on the first two days, for the Archduke Joseph took half the Montello, and Werzel von Wurm established an extensive bridge-head opposite San Dona di Piave. But at the end of a week’s fighting the Austrians were closely held, and the order was given to retire across the Piave. The failure was complete, and very costly. Conrad lost 36,000 men and Boroevié over 60,000. The defeat broke forever the offensive power of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The consciousness of impending disaster grew and spread through the monarchy, and the troops were greatly disheartened by failure. Final Italian Offensive —It was felt in many quarters that Diaz should have followed up the victory by a strong counterattack, but he was unwilling to attack in force without careful preparation. He had had heavy casualties, over 40,000 killed and wounded and a very large number of prisoners, and he preferred caution. Plans were drawn up and preparations made for an offensive between the Vallarsa and the Brenta in September. Early in Sept. Diaz went to Paris to discuss the situation. He was still pre-occupied in regard to his reserves, and asked

that a strong American force should be sent to Italy. This was refused, and in spite of criticism he delayed his offensive still further, while working out secretly a more ambitious scheme which was to be adopted if the chance should offer. In the middle of Sept. the victorious advance from Salonika began, and the chance seemed to have come.‘ ‘On Sept. 25 orders were issued for a rapid concentration of troops, artillery and technical services in the sector chosen for the attack, which was no longer the plateau, but the Middle Piave.” (Gen. Diaz’s Report). The attack (see VITTORIO VENETO, BATTLE OF) was launched exactly a year after the disaster of Caporetto, and it shattered the armies of Austria-Hungary. Seldom in history has so great a disaster been followed by so complete a triumph. Yet the final overwhelming success of Vittorio Veneto was not Italy’s greatest victory. The way to it was paved by greater deeds, the wonderful recovery on the new line after the great retreat, and the successful resistance against the last Austrian offensive that was the first ray of light to break upon those gloomy months when the fortune of the Allies seemed at their lowest. Nor can the sum of Italian achievements be judged by the issue of those battles which were crowned with victory. Conclusion.—Italy’s contribution to the long effort that led to the triumph of the Allies can only be gauged by a review of the campaign as a whole, by a realisation of the extent to which she drained the resources of Austria-Hungary, and of the price which she paid. Her dead totalled 600,000; and 570,000 men were permanently disabled for military service by wounds or disease. For

years the Italian armies were a constant threat to Empire and kept employed a number of divisions from 20 to 40 (in the summer of 1917). During months of 1917 the number of enemy divisions in 1918 practically the whole effective strength of

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Italian official papers, Diario della Guerra d'Italia (1915-7); W. K. McClure, Italy’s Part (1918); L. Capello, Note dt Guerra, 1915-20 (1920); L. Cadorna, La Guerra alla fronte Italiana, 1915-7 (1921); T. N. Page, Italy and the World War (1921). (See also WorLD War: BIBLIOGRAPHY. ) (W. K. McC.)

ITALIAN LITERATURE (see 14.897).—The development of Italian literature, including philosophy and history, during the period rgro—26 was remarkable. Carducci and Verga mark the end of the stage during which Italians were finding themselves intellectually and politically. Pascoli, Fogazzaro, and D’Annunzio really belong to the new period which crystallised in the years immediately preceding the World War, and came to fruition in the social, political and spiritual revolution which followed it. These writers, together with Benedetto Croce and Giovanni Gentile, in the field of aesthetics and philosophy were largely responsible for widening the scope of intellectual activity and culture, so that they ceased to be narrowly Italian and became European. The works produced in the first 25 years of the present century, and more particularly during 1910-25, are characterised by a spirit of daring, restlessness and youth; by intellectual curlosity, love of novel experiments and experiences, and above all by self-analysis, which, in some cases, led to egocentricity and decadence. Such defects, however, were due to the ebullience of youth seeking vent for its new-found energy rather than to weariness and to the search after sensations for their own sake, Writers aimed at the discovery of new forms of expression to supersede the old; thus, the Futurists were of service to the new literature, if only by reason of their attempt to break down inherited and stereotyped traditions in prose and verse. Prose underwent a remarkable change. It became crisper and at the same time more flexible, while language attained the unity long advocated by Manzoni.

Fresh interest was awakened in the most varied forms of criticism, in history, culture and philosophy of all times and in all countries. In this eclectic tendency Renato Serra, a young and promising critic who was killed in the War, saw the beginnings of a new form of classicism. Interest in foreign literatures, including those of the East as well as of the West, produced a vast library of translations varying in quality, but on the whole showing a marked tendency towards treating translation as an art. With the exception of Adolfo de Bosis’ remarkable version of The Cenci (1916) and Epipsychidion, Carlo Linati’s Tragedie Irlandesi di W.B. Yeats (1914), Raffaello Piccoli’s Drammi Elisabettiani (1914) and Mario Praz’s magnificent tour de force represented by his anthology of verse renderings Poeti Inglesi dell’ Ottocento (1925), English literature found less translators than German, French or Russian, and contemporary writers, apart from Kipling, Shaw, Galsworthy and Barrie, are only

available in the original.

This cosmopolitan spirit acted as a

stimulus to the growth of the new national literature rather than to imitation of foreign models. A further significant evidence of this new energy are the changes which have taken place in the

publishing world, where the output has increased and the technical production improved as a direct result of the increase of the reading public of all classes.

556

ITALIAN

LITERATURE

Fiction.—Although strictly belonging to the preceding generation, Alfredo Oriani (1852-1909) and Carlo Dossi (1847-1910) did not receive due recognition until after their deaths. The former was obsessed by ugliness and horrors and at the same time had an intense love of beauty. The impartiality and variety of outlook was in part the reason for his popularity among the younger generation. And Dossi, by his harsh and elliptical style and his original and vivid treatment of his subject matter,

unfashionable in his own day, opened out new paths to his successors, G. Pietro Lucini (1867-1914) is also of interest on account of his reaction to the various decadent European schools and as a forerunner of the Futurists who claimed him as one of themselves. Of an entirely different character is the work of Alfredo Panzini (b.1863) one of Carducci's best pupils. Possessing a quiet sense of humour tinged with irony, his attitude towards life is detached but not aloof. In what are generally considered to be his masterpieces Le Fiabe della Virtu (1905), La Lanterna di Diogene (1999), Santippe (1914) and Viaggio di un Povero Letterato (1919), Panzini is acutely sensitive to all forms of beauty and to the conilict between ther: and the evils and uglinésses of the world. He has the temperament of a poet; his style is pure, simple, direct and moving, the prose coun-

terpart of Carducci’s best lyrics. Adolfo Albertazzi (b. 1865) learned the art of the short story from the Italian masters of the past and the modern writers of foreign countries. Some of those collected in the Diavolo nell’ Ampolla (1918) and in other volumes are among the best of the kind published in modern times. It is worthy of notice that most of the novelists, dramatists and critics of to-day—men and women—have tried their hand at the short story of the magazine type. Of these Luciano Zuccoli (b. 1870), Virgilio Brocchi (b. 1876), Antonio Beltramelli (b. 1880), Guido da Verona (b. 1881) and Ugo Ojetti (b. 1871) who is also a very highly esteemed art connoisseur, and among the women writers Clarice Tartufari (b. 1868), Sibilla Aleramo (b. 1879), Neera (1846~ 1916), Amalia Guglielminetti (b. 1885) and Carola Prosperi (b. 1883) are the most popular. Generally speaking, most of these works are of value mainly as documents of social history rather than as literature. The New School.—The younger novelists and story writers, though very numerous, shared a tendency to be egotistic, selfanalytical and autobiographical, and cultivated a lyrical prose style, The lack of any national literary centre comparable with Paris or London has created regional groups united by geographical convenience, the individual members of which continued to follow, in part at least, the literary and intellectual tradition of their several provinces which, however, amounted to little more than impressionistic landscape-painting in words, as in the case of Carlo Linati, who in the finely written Sulle Orme di Renzo (1919) has given a poctical interpretation of the Lombard spirit as revealed in the countryside. The War practically destroyed

narrow provincialism and successfully fused its best characteristics into a wider nationalism. The great national and international reputation acquired by Croce and, Gentile, both Neapolitans, the influence exerted on criticism by their review La Critica, founded in 1903, the fact that a considerable proportion of the best-known novelists and dramatists of the past 50 years (Capuana, Verga, Serao, Bracco, Pirandello) have been Southerners and, lastly, historical, geographical and racial conditions, have all contributed to produce a strong clan-feeling different from that of other regional groups. Of these the most important was perhaps the Florentine called “« Gruppo della Voce,” from the periodical of that name founded by Giovanni Papini and Giuseppe Prezzolini about 19009, itself the off-spring of an earlier review—La Leonardo (1903-7), which gave a great impulse to philosophical studies. Both periodicals had for their programme the revaluation of old values and the diffusion of new ideas in literature, art and philosophy. Scarcely one of the younger writers of any note slid not contribute to one or the other of these reviews, which, in many cases, were the first to discover them. Not all of the contributors were of equal merit or free from any defects, but they showed the presence of a new

spirit and vitality much needed, and exerted an influence as farreaching as it was important and often superior to their individual achievements. Papini (b. 1881), however, is the only one who is at all known outside Italy mainly on account of the muchadvertised Storia dt Cristo (1921), a work which has added little to a reputation really founded upon his autobiography, Un Uomo Finito (1912), Cento Pagine di Poesia (1915), and the briliant, provocative, and at times superficial critical essays Stroncature (1916), Papini’s encyclopaedic mind, ever in quest of new knowledge and intellectual experience, admirably typifies the vices anc virtues of the historical movement which came to an end on the outbreak of the World War. Papini, as the imposing bibliography of his works shows, has passed through many phases, Pragmatism, Futurism and later Neo-Catholicism, always preserving a style, essentially Tuscan in character, at times colloquial to the point of vulgarity, yet rich, vivid, lucid with a slight tendency to rhetoric. Giuseppe Prezzolini also wrote some excellent critical essays, mostly on his contemporaries, but later abandoned literature and philosophy for politics. Of the other principal contributors to La Voce, Scipio Slataper (1888-1915), a Triestino killed in the War, is best known for his noteworthy lyrical autobiography in prose, JI Mio Carso (1912) and a suggestive study on Ibsen published posthumously (1916). Ardengo Soffici (b. 1879) is one of the most remarkable of the group. His best writings are a fragment of a novel, Lemmonio Boreo (1912), two autobiographical journals, Giornale di Bordo (1915) and Kobilek, Giornale di Guerra (1918), and the art criticism in JZZ Caso Medardo Rosso e l’Impressionismto (1900) and Scoperte e Afassacrt (1919). Soffici asa writer is both thoughtful and forceful and uses language impressionistically, frequently introducing exact and unexpected similes. The latter two works did much to rouse the artistic youth of Italy to an intelligent

appreciation of the significance of modern art movements by their insistence upon the necessity for the art-critic to be an artist (Soffict himself was a painter of some repute) and thoroughly conversant with the technique of painting while possessing the capacity for feeling the values of form, colour and composition. Renato Serra, killed at the Front in 1915, was one of the most promising of the younger writers, who is best known for his remarkable psychological document, the Esame di Coscienza di un Letierato, published in 1916, in which he examines the attitude of an artist and an intellectual towards the War with great acuteness. The fact that some of it is mainly now of historical interest doves not detract from its high literary value, which makes it and D'Annunzio’s La Leda senza Cigno (1916-8) two of the very few works of art inspired in Italy by the War. Several other writers,

such as Federigo Tozzi (1883-1920), Ferdinando Paolieri (b. 1878), Bruno Cicognani (b. 1879) and Piero Jahier (b. 1884), also have points of contact, in spirit and in style, with the Florence group. Several journalistic and literary coteries were found in Rome, such as that of La Ronda (1919), a short-lived but lively periodical, edited by Emilio Cecchi (b. 1884). Among the contributors were Antonio Baldini (b. 1889) and Riccardo Bacchelli (b. 1891). Since the advent of the Fascist Govt., however, Rome is rapidly developing into the centre of Italian culture. The Futurists —It was very natural that the Futurist movement should have been started in Milan, since that city has always taken the lead in any new infellectual movement, and in the

present case, as the most modern and “ mechanical” city in Italy, was peculiarly adapted to be its headquarters. It is also significant that after the World War it moved to Rome with an entirely new body of supporters, though still under the leadership of its founder, F. T. Marinetti (b. 1878). In the first Futurist manifesto published in rọoọ in the Paris paper Figaro Marinetti announced the new aesthetic of the machine, considered as symbol, source and teacher of a new artistic sensibility, and preached the beauty of speed. It was rapidly followed by the

“Technical

Manifesto of Futurist Literature’

(1912), which

decreed that syntax should be replaced by “ wireless imagination and words at liberty,” and by others dealing with the theatre, art, architecture and life. Apart from its sensationalism and self-advertisement and its principles of destructiveness, Futurism

ITALIAN LITERATURE none the less acted as an irritant and forced writers, and particularly poets, to react against stagnation and to define poetry anew, and the difference between it and prose. Of the many books published by the first generation of Futurists some, like Filippo Tommaso Marinetti’s (b. 1878) extraordinary novel AMafarka le Futuriste (1910), Le Roi Bombance (1g10), a play, written originally in French, and Zang-Tumb-Tumb or The Siege of Adriano ple (1912)—an experiment in ‘ free-words ’’—are among the Curiosities of literature. On the other hand, Palazzeschi’s (b. 1885) ironically grotesque tale, Z Codice di Perela (1911), and the volume of free verse L'Incendiario (1910), Luciano Folgorc’s (b. 1888) Canto dei Motori Versi liberi (1912) and a few of Marinetti’s earlier poems practically sum up the best literary products of the movement. The Poets. —Carducci, Pascoli and D'Annunzio have had a certain number of followers and imitators, but either through lack of inspiration and technical ability or because fiction offered a more profitable market none have produced anything of definite importance excepting Salvatore di Giacomo (b. 1860). He has written some of the finest dialect poetry in Italian literature inspired, like moSt of his other work, by the life of the Neapolitan populace. The poignant “ Tarantella scura,” the dramatic sonnet-sequence “ A San Francisco,” and the very beautiful song ‘‘ Uocchie de suonno,”’ republished in Poesie (1907), possess the universal quality of true poetry, which is sometimes found also in a few of Pascarella’s and Trilussa’s poems in Roman dialect. Of the others, Guido Gozzano (1883-1916), Marino Morcttt (b. 1883), Enrico Pea (b. 1881), Amalia Guglielminetti (b. 1889) gave evidence at first of technical skill and lyrical vein which has since degencrated into affectation and mannerisms. As the very useful anthology, Poeti d’Oggi: rg00-1920 (1920), edited by Papini and Pancrazi paradoxically yet conclusively proves, those who write poetry to-day choose to do so by using prose instead of verse for their medium. In this sense many of the writers dealt with above may justly be considered poets. The Drama.—There have been since D’Annunzio some successful attempts at poetic drama such as Benelli’s historical tragedies Maschera di Bruto (tg09) and Cena delle Beffe (1909), written in effective blank verse, Ettore Moschino’s Tristano e Isolda (1910), Enrico Butti’s fanciful Castello del Sogno (1910), and E. L. Morselli’s (1882-1921) Ortone (1910) and Glauco (1919). The latter of these are written in lyrical prose and are by far the best productions of this type of drama. Some of the other playwrights like Dario Nicodemi have portrayed, with varying ability, society life, according to the formula derived from the French dramatists. Others, following the realistic tradition of Capuana, Verga and Giacinto Gallina, have written light comedies or dramas in dialect or local vernacular. Many of these are very charming and well constructed, especially the Florentine ones, L’ Acqua Cheta (1908) by Augusto Novelli and I’Patcracchio (1910) by F. Paolieri. Some notable plays of the grand-guignol type have been written in Neapolitan dialect by Salvatore di Giacomo, Assunta Spina and O’ Mese Mariano (1910), Ernesto Murolo and Roberto Bracco, and, in Sicilian, by Pirandello (Liold, 1917). The fame of Roberto Bracco as a dramatist rests, however, on Piccola Fonte (1905) and Piccolo Santo (1912), the latter being one of the masterpieces of modern Italian dramatic literature. Most of his plays present psychological and spiritual trageclies with hardly any external action, and are pronouncedly feminist in sympathies. Technically, they are remarkable for austere simplicity of construction and lack of any external appeal to the emotions. The essential difference between Bracco and Pirandello is that one is intellectual, the other cerebral. In Pirandello (q.v.) the dramatic form is a natural step from the novel and the short stories, in which the characters are, dramatis personae always talking among themselves but unable to make each understood to the other, until they begin to doubt whether they really exist and are not shadowy forms conjured up by the imagination of those among whom they live and by which they are bound. The dramatic situations arise out of the contrast between what the individual is, what he conceives himself to be and what others

557

think him. What is reality, if indeed there be such a thing, and what is unreality? Is there a dividing line between madness and sanity? Can life have a meaning outside the ever-changing, and arbitrary value attached to it by an individual? ‘These are the problems which constantly reappear in his fiction and in his plays—the logical, if extreme, outcome of the introspective and psycho-analytical tendencies of his period. Pirandello has revealed his sense of theatrical technique but his situations are the result of logic rather than of ingenuity. He is responsible for introducing a new prose style, clear-cut, dry and nervous on the stage, a considerable achievement which may have far-reaching effects on his successors. Next to Pirandello, Rosso di San Secondo (b. 1887), a Sicilian known also for his short stories, and Federico Valerio Ratti, author of a remarkable tragedy on Judas Iscariot, are the most promising dramatists. The work of the former has as its dominant motif the contrast of Life governed by discipline 4s opposed to impulse, symbolised respectively by the North and the South. The characters of Marionette, che Passione! (1918), La Bella Addormentata (1919), which he describes as a “ painted adventure,” and Lazzerina fra i Coltelli, his most recent and abstract work, are allegorical and poetical, and achieve a certain original and dramatic effectiveness. Luigi Chiarelli’s play, Za Mascheru e it Volto (1917), presents in light comedy form many of Pirandello’s ideas. Its success, perhaps, was due to the label of “ grotesque ” which he gave it and subsequently adopted locsely to denote plays of a similar genre such as Luigi Antonelli’s L’ Uomo che incontro se stesso (1919), Fausto Maria Martini’s Fiore sotto glt Occhi (1922), and Cantoni-Gibertini’s Fantoccio; other experi-

ments were encouraged more by the desire to appear original than by dramatic ability. Criticism.—Towards the beginning of the 20th century critical theories underwent a considerable change. This was due to the general reaction against positivism and materialism in favour of idealism, which found its most eminent supporter in Benedetto Croce (g.v.) Many have applied these principles, and even those who disagree with them have felt their influence. Croce has further made some notable contributions to the history of Naples, not counting those to philosophy. In this respect Gentile shares

with Croce the right to be treated as one of the most important philosophical thinkers of the present day and asa critic. Among the older idealist—though not Crocean—critics, Arturo Farinelli, author of I Romanticismo in Germania (1911), Michelangelo e Dante (1918), and several other valuable works; Cesare de Lollis, and Alfredo Galletti, who succeeded Pascoli in the chair of Italian

literature at the University of Bologna and to whom he had devoted a very brilliant and profound critical study, are the most important. To these three university professors all of whom combined wideness of literary sympathies and knowledge with uncommon critical abilities, should be added the name of a younger man— G. Toffanin—who at the time of writing has already given several proofs of originality, talent and scholarship of a very high order. The work of the militant critics is represented among other works by Thovez’s essays Z? Pastore il Gregge e la Zampogna (1910) and Afimt det Moderno (1919); by Renato Serra’s Scritti Critici (1910), and Le Lettere (1914), a brilliant survey of contemporary literature and its characteristics, as well as by the critical writings of Papini and G. A. Borgese (b. 1882) who, besides the Storia della Crilica Romantica in Italia (1903) has also written Rubé (1921) an interesting autobiographical novel. In some ways their views are often paradoxical and exaggerated, but they possess, however, the frank enthusiasm and charm

of youth added

to knowledge and aesthetic appreciation.

BIBLIOGRAPILY.— B. Croce, La Letteratura della Nuova Ttalia (1914); E. Boghen-Cognigliani, Antologia della Letteratura Italiana (1917, etc.); Cesare Levi, I! Teatra (1919); C. Foligno, Epochs of Italian Literature (1920); Luigi Tonelli, La Critica (1920); Guida Bibliografica (1921); E.G. Gardner, The National I[deain Italian Literature (1921); Luigi Rosso, I Narratori (1923); Adriano Tilgher, Sudi sul Teatro Contemporaneo (1923); and the critical works mentioned in the text. (A. DEL R.)

558

ITALO-TURKISH

ITALO-TURKISH WAR.—Following the diplomatic discussions which took place between Rome and Constantinople during the summer of rorr, an ultimatum from Italy was delivered to the Porte on Sept. 28, demanding Turkey’s consent to a military

occupation of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica.

A period of 24 hours

was set by the ultimatum, and as the Turkish reply did not meet the Italian demands a state of war was declared as from 2:30 P.M. on Sept. 20. Italian Naval Activity—Military action was slow to succeed the formal declaration of war, and it was not till Oct. 11 that the first transports reached Tripoli. Meanwhile the Italian navy had been busy. On Sept. 28 a squadron appeared off Tripoli, and notice was given that if the town were not surrendered it would be bombarded. The obsolete fortifications were bombarded for two hours on Oct. 3, after the Turkish authorities had declined to surrender the town. By next day, the Turkish garrison, acting upon orders received from Constantinople, had retired into the sandy plains, and on Oct. 5 a force of 1,600 sailors was disembarked. Meanwhile hostilities had been begun elsewhere. On Sept. 29 and 30 Italian destroyers under the command of the Duke of the Abruzzi sank the Turkish torpedo-boats off Prevesa in Epirus and on Oct. 1 Admiral Aubry left Augusta to go in search of the Turkish fleet, which the declaration of war had found at Beirut. But the orders given him were suddenly countermanded, and instead of steaming to the Aegean in order to intercept the Turks, he was sent to Tobruk, which was occupied by a detachment of sailors on Oct. 4. The renunciation of the attempt to cut off the Turkish fleet was inspired by political reasons. The Italian Govt. believed that the Porte would soon realise that it was impossible to defend the Tripolitan provinces, and would be willing to enter into some arrangement that would satisfy Italian aspirations and save the face of Turkey. Another reason was the desirability of localising the conflict. Other European Powers were not willing that hostilities should be extended, and the other members of the Triple Alliance were particularly energetic in their disapproval. Tialian Expeditionary Force -—A week elapsed between the landing of the sailors at Tripoli and the arrival of the expeditionary force, and it was not till Oct. 20 that all the equipment had been put on shore. The force consisted of some 9,000 rilles with a few field and mountain batteries and two squadrons of cavalry. There was very little transport, for it had not been anticipated that the Turks would retreat towards the interior and receive support from the native tribesmen. That Neshat

Bey, the Turkish commander in Tripoli, did receive this support was largely due to two men—Ferhat Bey, deputy for Tripoli and Suleiman el Baruni, a Berber from Fessato, who was deputy for the Jebel region.

Meanwhile Homs, Derna and Benghazi had been occupied. There was some resistance at each place, especially at Benghazi, but the first fighting of any importance was a sudden attack on Oct. 23 upon the Italian lines at Shara Shat in the Tripoli oasis, backed by a rising behind the lines. Two companies of Bersaglieri were cut to pieces, and the rest of the regiment were hard

put to it to hold their own.

Further attacks led to a withdrawal

of the line, and to the clearing of the oasis behind the trenches. Large reinforcements were sent from Italy, and by the fourth week in Nov. Gen. Caneva, who was in command of the expedition, had about 25,000 rifles and 16 batteries. He took the offensive, and in two actions cleared the oasis and sent the Turks and their tribesmen allies packing. Turkish headquarters were established at Aziziya, some 30 m. south of Tripoli. Political Aspect.—At the beginning of Nov. the Italian Govt. had considered the possibility of extending the theatre of war, on the sea at least, in the hope of inducing Turkey to give up the struggle. Austro-Hungary intervened, backed by Germany, invoking Article VII. of the Triple Alliance. Italy’s action being limited in this way, it was necessary to solve the problem directly, but the task was more difficult than it need have been owing to the limitations laid upon Gen. Caneva by the Italian Government. Gen. Caneva’s orders appear to have

WAR—ITALY been that he must not risk reverses or suffer heavy loss. In the circumstances, an expedition in pursuit of the Turks and their mobile allies seemed hardly practical. In any event, months went by without any action of importance in Tripolitania. In Cyrenaica there was one fight near Benghazi, when a force of Arabs who had come near the town were attacked and severely punished. Derna was closely beset throughout the winter, and Enver Bey, who had succeeded in reaching Cyrenaica towards the end of the year, organised a formidable resistance, securing relative unity among the tribesmen, and a willingness to co-operate with the Turks, which had never before existed. ftaltan Offensive Renewed.—In April, the long spell of inaction in the western province came to an end, and from that time onward the resistance of the Turks and Arabs was gradually broken by a series of operations at various points. In April, also, Italian warships appeared off the entrance to the Dardanelles. They were fired on by the Turkish forts and their answer drew a fresh and very energetic protest from Vienna. The northern Aegean was left alone by the Italians henceforth, but in May the island of Rhodes and 12 small islands of the Sporades (subsequently famous as the Dodecanese) were occupied by Italy. During the summer there were a number of successful actions in Tripolitania, and peace negotiations were begun at Ouchy in August. Progress was very slow, and it was not until Oct. 15, when two important victories had been won by the Italians, at Derna and Sidi Bilal (near Zanzur) that the Treaty of Ouchy was signed. Conclustons.—The conduct of the Tripoli campaign was prejudiced, first, by the failure of the Italian Govt. to judge the situation correctly, and secondly, by the limitations which were laid upon the military command. It was not possible at once to launch a desert expedition, and the difficulties of an advance to the Jebel, through country largely waterless, may be said to justily the adoption of a less ambitious plan. What is difficult to understand is the practical veto upon action of any kind, which immobilised large forces from Dec. till April and delayed the carrying out of the policy which eventually put an end to hostilities, the policy of extending the area of operations and striking a blow whenever the chance offered. The operations of the summer changed the situation, but Italian prestige was not wholly restored by the later successes, or by the subsequent actions against the tribesmen who did not lay down their arms when the treaty was signed. The policy of the Government bore heavily upon the army, which came in for much unfair criticism and increased the difficulties of those who undertook the administration of the country after the peace. The troubles which were to come with the outbreak of the World War may be traced in part at least to the hesitations and uncertainties of the six months following the landing. BIRLIOGRAPHY.—Sir T. Barclay, The Turco-Italian War (1912); G. von Griavenitz, Geschichte des Italientschen-Turkischen Krieges (1912-4); I. MacCullagh, Ztalzan Warfare in Tripolt (1912); W. Kk. McClure, Italy in North Africa (1913); Enver Pasha, Um Tripolis

(1918).

(W.K. Mc C.)

ITALY (see 15.1).—A country of Southern Europe and a member of the League of Nations. The additions to the territory of Italy under the peace treaties are shown in the attached map (see also St. GERMAIN, TREATY OF). The area was increased by 9,005 sq. m. to a total of 119,624 square miles. The census of 1921 gave a total population of 38,755,576. The population of the new territories at the date of the census was Trento Venezia Tridentina 641,747; Fiume, Pola, Trieste and Zara (together constituting Venezia Giulia) 728,544; making a total access of population of 1,370,291.

I. POLITICAL

HISTORY

The Giolitti Government.—On the resignation of the Luzzatti Cabinet (March 18 1911), Sig. Giolitti formed a government. During the previous few years relations with Turkey had become strained owing to the restrictions placed by the Porte on

Italian enterprise in Tripoli, the only part of North Africa where

ITALY Italian expansion was still possible. At the same tire the policy of Germany aroused the suspicion that she was contemplating action in that province. The Nationalist movement, created at the Florence Congress of 1910, and directed towards awakening the country to the necessity of a more vigorous foreign policy, advocated the occupation of Tripoli. The success was such that Giolitti himself, anxious as he was to avoid foreign complications, could not afford to disregard it. After a series of diplomatic incidents, an ultimatum was presented to Turkey on Sept. 28 r91z, and no satisfactory answer being obtained, war was declared on the 2gth. Except for the Socialists, public opinion strongly supported the government, regarding the war not merely as a colonial enterprise, but as a patriotic reaction against the old pusillanimous policy and the petty intrigues of Parliament. On Noy. 5 Italian sovereignty was extended to Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. Foreign Powers were not friendly to Italy’s African policy, and while Austria placed a veto on the extension of the campaign to the Balkans, a serious diplomatic incident arose with France over the searching by Italian cruisers of the French steamers “ Carthage” and “ Manouba,” suspected of carrying contraband. Although the affair was satisfactorily settled at The Hague, it did not improve Italo-French relations. On Oct. 15 1982 the peace preliminarics were signed at Ouchy, and the treaty on the 18th, the Sultan retaining only spiritual authority over the inhabitants of the annexed territories, Italy remaining in occupation of Rhodes and the Dodecanese until Turkey had withdrawn all her troops from Libya and fullfilled her other treaty undertakings. The total cost of the campaign had been 458 million lire. Fighting, however, did not end immediately, as the Arabs, secretly supported by Turkey, continued to resist in the interior. Sig. Giolitti’s proposals for the extension of the franchise (raising the electorate from three to cight million voters), payment of members and a government monopoly of life insurance were voted without much opposition, as Parliament did not wish to embarrass the Cabinet during the War. At ihe Socialist congress of Reggio Emilia (June 1912) a group of leaders, including Leonida Bissolati and Ivanoe Bonomi, who approved of the government’s African policy, were expelled from the party and formed a new group called the Reformist Socialists, prepared to collaborate with the Constitutional parties. The majority styled itself thenceforth the “‘ Official ” Socialist party. In the field of labour there were strikes at the iat works in Turin, and among the agricultural workers of Ferrara and a general strike at Milan in the summer of 1913. During the Balkan Wars of 1912-3 Italy and Austria had agreed to the creation of an independent Albanian state, thereby ex-

cluding the Serbs from Durazzo and the Greeks from Valona. In spite of this settlement and of the Marquis di San Giuliano’s attempts to arrive at a friendly understanding with Austria, relations were strained to breaking-point by Austria’s treatment of her Italian-speaking subjects and the menaces of the Austrian military party against Italy. At the elections of Oct. 26-Nov. 2 1913, under the extended franchise, the Socialist group was Increased to 79. For the first time a Catholic party presented itself to the polls, the Pope having withdrawn the zon expedit, and 33 Catholics were returned, while a number of Liberals and Democrats owed their success to Catholic support. Sig. Giolitti’s position was somewhat shaken, for, although the Socialists were ready to give him tacit support in exchange for concessions to their co-operative societies and certain measures of a demagogic character, disagreement among his own followers over the question of Catholic support, and the threatened railway strike were likely to cause trouble. On March ro 1914 he resigned and was succeeded by Antonio Salandra, a Right-wing Liberal of high standing. San Giuliano remained at the Foreign Office, but Gen. Spingardi was succeeded as War

Minister by Gen. Grandi.

The revolutionary Sindacato ferro-

vieri now demanded a general increase of wages, but, owing to financial difficulties, the government could offer an increase only to the lowest categories; the Sindacato threatened a strike, but eventually gave way.

559

On the national festival of the Statuto (June 7 1914) riots broke out at Ancona because the authorities had forbidden the holding of an anti-militarist meeting. A general strike ensued in the town and the trouble spread to other parts of the Marche, to Romagna, and most of the larger cities. The movement was cf a mainly revolutionary character; its leader was the Anarchist Enrico Malatesta, and Benito Mussolini (q.v.), editor of the Avanit; played a prominent part in it. For a week many towns were under mob rule, until a popular reaction led by the Nationalists cleared the streets of the seditious elements and the troops and police restored order. Sig. Salandra was criticised for his lack of energy in dealing with the outbreak, while the Socialists attacked him for his “‘ reactionary ’’ methods; a group of Giolittian deputies, headed by Orlando and Schanzer, tried to bring about his fall, but he secured a vote of confidence. Tue

WORLD

WAR

AND

THE

PEACE

The Austrian ultimatum was presented to Serbia on July 23 1914. Italy co-óperated with Great Britain in trying to avert a catastrophe, and public opinion, although realising that if a casus foederis under the terms of the Triple Alliance were to arise, Italy would be bound to stand by her Allies, was hostile to the idea of siding with Austria. General relief was caused by Italy’s declaration of neutrality on Aug. 3 which was based on (t) Austria’s failure to co-ordinate with Italy before taking action, (2) the fact that Italy had not been given time to act in favour of peace, or to make adequate military preparations and (3) the fact that Italy was not bound by the terms of the Alliance to take part in an aggressive policy. JH was afterwards

announced that no casus foederis could arise for Italy in a conflict in which Great Britain was involved.? Neutrality declared, military preparations began. The reorganisation and re-arming of the whole army was largely the work of the new Chief of the General Staff, Gen. Luigi Cadorna (q.1.). The question now was whether Italy should remain neutral to the ` end of the War. The Triplicists, although fairly numerous in Conservative and diplomatic circles, and in a part of the army, hardly went so far as to advocate intervention on the side of the Central Powers, for the invasion of Belgium had created a very unfavourable impression, but they advocated neutrality. The Catholics were neutralists from dislike of “ atheist ” France and Orthodox Russia and from sympathy with Catholic Austria. The “ Official ” Socialists were neutralists because they opposed all war except class-war, but ended by openly espousing the Austro-German cause. The Nationalists, Irredentists and some Liberals, realising that this was the last chance for completing Italian unity and affirming Italy’s position as a Great Power, favoured intervention, while the Democrats, Freemasons, Republicans and Reformist Socialists were interventionists from sympathy with France. Mussolini’s little group of Syndicalists desired intervention, partly for the same reason as the Nationalists, but also in the hope that war would promote social changes. Mussolini resigned the editorship of the Avanti! and founded a new paper, F} Popolo d'Italia, which supported intervention. On Oct. o ror4 Gen. Grandi resigned on account of a disagreement with Gen., Cadorna, and was succeeded by Gen. Zupelli. A week later the Marquis di San Giuliano died, and the Prime Minister temporarily took over the Foreign Office. On Oct. 31 the Treasury Minister Rubini resigned on a question concerning the supply of funds for the army, and the Cabinet followed suit. But Sig. Salandra himself reconstructed it by Nov. 5, and

selected Baron Sonnino as Foreign Minister. Owing to the troubles in Albania, the departure of Prince William of Wied and the Greek invasion of the southern districts, Italy occupied the islet of Saseno on Oct. 31, and on Dec. 26 the town and harbour of Valona. rọr5 began with a serious earthquake in the Abruzzi (Jan. 13), which caused the death of 30,000 people. The Treaty of London.—Mcanwhile the interventionist tendency grew stronger. Both Salandra and Sonnino were determined not to let the War end without trying to acquire at least 1 See Europe. The treaty of 1882 stated that “‘ the treaty was not in any case directed against England.”

560

ITALY

a part of the Italian districts of Austria, and to secure a rectification of the frontiers of 1866 which left Italy open to invasion. In Dec. 1914 Italy had reminded Austria that the invasion of Serbia, by tending to destroy the balance of power in the Balkans, gave Italy a right to compensation under the terms of Article 7 of the Alliance as renewed in 1887. Austria began by rejecting the claim, then suggested compensation at the expense of France, and finally offered a part of the Trentino to be ceded after the War, but Sonnino insisted on immediate cession, and to this Austria at last agreed. Sonnino demanded all the Trentino, the Isonzo valley, some of the Dalmatian islands, a free hand in Albania and the formation of Trieste and Northwestern Istria into an independent state, Italy in return to remain neutral to the end of the War. As Austria continued to give evasive replies, Italy opened negotiations with the Entente. On April 26 1915 the Treaty of London was concluded between Italy, Britain, France and Russia, to be completed by naval and military conventions. Italy undertook to intervene, and was promised the Trentino and Upper Adige valley to the Brenner pass, Trieste, Gorizia-Gradisca, Istria and the Istrian islands, Cherso and Lussin, Dalmatia as far as Cape Planka, Valona, full possession of Rhodes and the Dodecanese and in Asia Minor a zone of influence and eventually a share in its partition. If an independent Albania were created, it would be under Italian control, while Italy would not oppose the cession of the northern and southern districts to Serbia and Greece if the other signator so desired. The poct D’Annunzio by his fiery speeches, and Mussolini by his articles, largely influenced public opinion in favour of intervention, On May 3 1915 Italy denounced the alliance with

tionary force was sent to Macedonia where it played a distinguished part in the Eastern operations. On Aug. 27 Italy declared war on Germany, owing to the assistance she had afforded to Austria and the seizure of Italian property by the Imperial Government. In April 1917 the British, Italian and French Premiers concluded a convention at St. Jean de Maurienne whereby it was agrecd that in a future partition of Anatolia the Smyrna area was to be assigned to Italy. | During the operations of 1916 and 1917 the Italians achieved some important successes, and above all pinned down Austria’s best troops, preventing her from sending rcinforcements to the West. But the protracted struggle, the fearful losses, the collapse ef Russia, and the grave privations at home had accentuated the feeling of depression in Italy, to which enemy and neutralist propaganda contributed. The Socialists fomented the discontent. Claudio Treves’s phrase, “ next Winter not a man in the trenches,” the German peace offensive, the Pope’s allu-

sion to “ the useless carnage ” and the defeatist campaign of the Giolittians began to affect public opinion and the war-weary troops. There were revolutionary riots in Turin (Aug. 1017)

and signs of a diminished military spirit among certain units at the front. Gen. Cadorna had repeatedly warned the government, and particularly the Minister of the Interior, Orlando, but no attention was paid to him. This state of affairs and certain military errors of Generals Cadorna, Capcllo, Badoglio and others resulted in the Caporetto disaster (Oct. 23 1917). The Recovery.—After a defeat of these proportions it appeared impossible that the army and people could recover. But by Nov. 22 the army had reconstituted its front on the Asiago-GrappaAustria, but Prince von Biilow madea last effort to secure Italian Piave line, and the enemy’s advance was definitely held up. neutrality through Giolitti. That statesman believed in the British and French forces hurried to assist Italy, but did not necessity for neutrality, as he had no confidence in Italy’s powers come into action till December. Cadorna was relicved of his of resistance, and, although informed by Salandra of Italy’s command and succeeded by Gen. Diaz. At the Rapallo interengagements with the Entente, he continued his neutralist activiAllied conference on Nov. 4 the Military Committee of Versailles ties in collaboration with von Bülow. Salandra, knowing that was formed. In consequence of the Caporetto disaster the Boselli if Giolitti declared his opposition, the Cabinet must fall, resigned Cabinet resigned (Oct. 26}, and on the 30th Sig. Orlando sucon May 13. It seemed as though Giolitti’s triumph were assured, ceeded, he himself becoming Prime Minister, Sonnino remained but the voice of the country then made itself heard. Huge popuat the Forcign Office and Nitti became Treasury Minister. The lar demonstrations in favour of Salandra and intervention were necessity for relieving the refugees from the invaded arca was a made all over Italy, and the King refused Salandra’s resignation; scrious problem, but it was efficiently handled, and the sight of Austria’s final offer, no improvement on the last, communicated the refugees helped to strengthen the spirit of resistance. The by Von Biilow to Giolitti before being communicated to the army was rapidly reorganised and the losses in material made government, was rejected. good through the enterprise of the Italian manufacturers and the Italy Enters the War —On May 20 1915 the Chamber and the technical genius of Gen. Dalollio, Minister of Munitions. Senate granted the Government full powers. Neutralism and On Jan. 8 1918 President Wilson published his famous FourGermanophilism had apparently disappeared, except among the teen Points. Those referring to Italy—‘ the rectification of the Official Socialists. On the 23rd the gencral mobilisation was Italian frontiers on clearly recognised national lines,” and “ auordered, and on the 24th war against Austria was declared, while tonomy ” for the peoples of Austria-Hungary —were of a nature diplomatic relations with Germany were broken off. Owing to to raise anxiety as to his intentions. From April 8 to 10 the conthe persecution of Italian subjects in Turkey and Turkish gress of nationalities oppressed by Austria met in Rome, and assistance to the rebels in Libya, where Italian occupation was although organised by a private committee, its delegates were reduced to Tripoli and Homs and a port of Cyrenaica, War was received by Orlando, to whom they presented the so-called ‘ Pact declared against the Porte on Aug. 21, and against Bulgaria in of Rome,” this should have been an earnest of mutual good-will September. On Dec. 1 Baron Sonnino adhered to the London between Italy and the Yugoslavs, but it had no binding force Agreement, undertaking not to conclude a separate peace. An and compromised the solution of the territorial problems inexpeditionary force was sent to Albania, where it saved the volved. Meanwhile the Yugoslavs were conducting a proparemnants of the Serbian Army driven from its own country. ganda to induce Britain and France to rescind the objectionable The initial successes of the Italian offensive were satisfactory, clauses of the London Treaty, and even proposed that, should but did not lead to definite results. The subsequent defeats susItaly remain obdurate, the Allies and America should cut off tained in the Trentino and on the Asiago plateau (May 1916) her supplies of food and fuel, a request which was rejected. The shook the Cabinet’s position, and on June ro Sig. Salandra re- economic situation was becoming worse, but Italy submitted signed. The Giolittians regarded this as a victory of theirs, but to privations greater than those of any other Allied country. the new Cabinet was in no wise Giolittian. Sig. Paolo Boselli, The shipping losses were serious, the bread ration was reduced the veteran statesman, respected by all parties, formed a Cabinet to 250 grammes per head per day, meat was sold only twice a in Which all shades of opinion, except the Socialists and Neutralweek, and many goods were unobtainable. ists, were represented. Sonnino remained at the Foreign Office, In June r918 the Austrians launched a powerful new offensive while Orlando was transferred from the Ministry of Justice to on the Asiago-Piave front, but after a few initial successes, were that of the Interior. driven back with heavy losses. The Italian contingent in MaceThe Austrian Trentino offensive had delayed Gen. Cadorna’s donia, commanded by Gen. Mombelli, contributed mateattack on Gorizia, but this was now resumed, and on Aug. 4 rially to the victory in the Balkans (Sept. 15-29). On Oct. 1916 after rt days’ desperate fighting, the fortress fell and public 24 Diaz launched his attack on the Austrians from Asiago to the confidence was thereby restored. That same month an expedisea, and by Nov. 3 “ what had been one of the most powerful

[VALY

561

armies in the world,” as the victory communiqué stated, ‘ was.

The Italian Peace Delegation to the Paris Conference, which

annihilated.” Some 600,000 prisoners, 7,000 guns and immense quantities of material were captured. The same day at Villa Giusti near Padua the armistice between the Italian and Austro-Hungarian armies was signed, the enemy under-

first met on that same day, was composed of Sig. Orlando, Baron Sonnino, Sig. Salandra, Sig. Barzilai and the ambassador, Marquis Salvago-Raggi. On Feb. 17 the debate on the Adriatic question began, but led to no result. In the meanwhile frequent incidents between Italian and Yugoslav soldiers occurred on the

taking to evacuate all the territories assigned to Italy by the London Treaty.

The Armistice came into force on Nov. 4, fol-

lowed a week later by that with Germany; to the latter’s collapse the Italian victory had contributed, as it had opened the door into the heart of Germany. The whole area within the Armistice line was rapidly occupied, as well as certain points beyond it for the maintenance of order. Italy’s losses had amounted to well over 600,000 killed and a million seriously wounded, including 220,000 permanently disabled. The knowledge of these losses created a deep impression in Italy, but it was felt that they were not adequately appreciated in Allied countries. The Peace Conference.-—On Feb. 7 1919 the Italian Goyt. presented a memorandum to the Peace Conference, embodying and justifying its territorial claims, which corresponded to those agreed upon in London, but Fiume was also mentioned, because on Oct. 31 1918 the National Council of that town had, in the name of the Italian majority, applied for annexation to Italy.

There were no difficulties about the Trentino as its population was wholly Italian. The Alto Adige contained a Germanspeaking population, but it would have been difficult to devise a satisfactory frontier south of the Brenner. In the Venczia Giulia about half the population was Italian, but many of the Slavs had been recently imported by Austria to swell the non-Italian percentage; of the natives the majority were Italian, including all the more civilised inhabitants. In Dalmatia the great majority was Slav, but the civilisation and traditions of the province were Italian. Italian public opinion was unanimous in desiring a satisfactory frontier and the protection of the Z/alanitd of the Italian communities east of the Adriatic, but was divided as to the details of the settlement. The Nationalists demanded the Treaty of London territories plus Fiume. The rtitunciatart were ready to give up Dalmatia, part of Istria and the Trieste hinterland, because they wanted to conciliate the Yugoslavs and disregarded strategic necessities, but demanded Fiume. Sig. Bissolati, Minister without portfolio, wished even to renounce the Alto Adige. In the Italian Peace Delegation too, opinion was divided; while Sonnino stuck to the Treaty of London and did not insist on Fiume, Orlando demanded the latter, but was prepared to compromise on Dalmatia. The Yugoslav counterclaims extended to the old Italo-Austrian frontier and even beyond it, and this attitude aroused much indignation in Italy, the more so as, until the very eve of Austria’s collapse, the Croats and Slovenes had behaved as faithful subjects of the Dual Monarchy and had fought in the war against Italy, whereas now they made their claims posing as Allies, and were treated as such by British, French and American statesmen. The Government had many internal difficulties to contend with. The army could not yet be demobilised owing to the unsettled conditions on the frontiers and the necessity for keeping forces in Albania, Bulgaria, etc. In Italy itself the Socialists and Communists, now that the war régime and the censorship were relaxed, took advantage of the general weariness of the people to foment revolutionary agitation, hoping to emulate their comrades in Russia. The financial situation was serious and Sig. Nitti’s budget statement for 1917-8, presented on Nov. 2 1918, showed a deficit of 6,271 millions. Sig. Bissolati, disagreeing with his colleagues over the Alto Adige and Dalmatia, resigned. On Jan. 1 1919 the state of war was declared at an end throughout Italy, except in the Veneto. On the 3rd, President Wilson arrived in Rome and was received with frenzied enthusiasm as the man who had contributed the most to end the War, but the Ministers who discussed politics with him suspected him of little sympathy with the more extreme Italian aspirations.

The Adriatic Question—The ministerial crisis initiated by Bissolati’s resignation came to a head on Jan. 18, and resulted in

the resignation of Nitti, who wished to prepare the way for assuming the premiership himself, and of four other ministers.

frontier. The Adriatic debate in Paris was adjourned to give precedence to the treaty with Germany; to this the Italian delegation agreed, accepting all the proposals of the Allies, including the partition of the German colonics from which Italy was excluded. The delegation was severely blamed in Italy on this account. The Adriatic discussion was then resumed, and on April 23 Wilson published his famous appeal to the Italian people over the heads of their government, setting forth his reasons for opposing certain claims. The message caused wide-spread astonishment as a violation of the rules of secret diplomacy, while in Italy it aroused great indignation. Orlando started for Rome on the 24th to consult Parliament and the country, and was received with enthusiastic demonstrations. In the Chamber his policy was approved by 382 votes to 40 and found adherents even in the Socialist camp. D’Annunzio took up the Fiume-Dalmatia question with fiery eloquence, and the Nationalists urged the government to annex both. Orlando failed to take advantage of the anxiety of Britain and France that Italy should sign the treaty with Germany, or of Wilson’s desire that she should adhere to the League Covenant, to secure advantages for his country, and on May 5 he returned to Paris without having obtained any guarantees for Italy’s claims. He found the German treaty ready and Italy’s diplomatic position worse than when he had left. Discussions on the Adriatic question were resumed, and various proposals for its solution were advanced, including one suggested by M. Tardieu, on which agreement would have been possible, if President Wilson had not agreed to rejection by Yugo-Slavia. Orlando returned to Rome in June, and on the roth he was beaten in the Chamber and resigned. Sig. Nitti now formed a new Cabinet, with Senator Tittoni at the Foreign Office, Senator Schanzer at the Treasury and Gen. Albricci as War Minister. On June 28 the new Peace delegation, presided over by Senator Tittoni, left for Paris, and the same day the treaty with Germany was signed by Baron Sonnino and the Marquis Imperiali. Internal Troubles.—The internal situation now grew more serious. Prices had risen considerably. The government’s measures for limiting them merely made the goods disappear for a time and then reappear at still higher prices. The bread subsidy involved a huge deficit in the budget, the doles to the unemployed encouraged idleness, and the regulations hampering trade rendered production ever more difficult. The workers received high wages, but were discontented because prices were rising, while both they and the war profiteers indulged in an orgy of extravagance. The people with fixed incomes felt the pinch most, but everyone grumbled. The Socialists, who now adopted the name of “ Maximalists ’’ to affirm their dependence on Moscow, encouraged the workmen in the belief that the War had been fought solely to enrich the capitalists, and that now it was the workers’ right to secure all the wealth of the country. Ex-neutralists also helped to foment discontent. In Jan. rg1gothe Partito popolare italiano(Catholic) was formed; it had a more definite programme and a more complete organisation than the old Catholic group, and it developed rapidly under the guidance of its political secretary, the Sicilian priest, Don Luigi Sturzo. It advocated reforms of a Christian-Socialist character, including the expropriation of the landed estates for the benefit of the peasants, but with compensation to the landlords. Its foreign policy professed to be patriotic, and favoured co-operation between capital and labour. It attracted some peasants and workers who would otherwise have gone Red. A series of avowedly revolutionary strikes broke out in every trade, and even in the public services. A postal strike was threatened in Dec. 1918, fomented by the Socialist party, and only called off on the government’s promise of higher wages. During a Bolshevik demonstration on April 13 1919 at Milan, a shot was fired at a patriotic cortege, which provoked a reaction in

562

ITALY

the crowd and the offices of the Socialist paper Avanti! were wrecked. Strikes of tramwaymen, employees of the secondary railways and the merchant seamen followed in quick succession. At the Peace Conference, during the absence of the Italian delegation, Mr. Lloyd George and M. Clemenceau ignored the St. Jean de Maurienne agreement, and in accord with President Wilson decided to send Greek troops to Smyrna. Immediately after the Greek landing Italian troops occupied various points in southwest Anatolia. Italian forces co-operated with the British and the French in occupying other parts of Turkey, but the Italian view was that real peace could only be secured by a more conciliatory attitude towards the Turks. At the same time, in order to try to conciliate Greece, Sig. Tittoni concluded an arrangement with M. Veniselos in July rorg for the delimitation of their respective spheres of military occupation, leaving the Greeks a free hand in Southern Albania. This last clause had an unfortunate etfect on Italo-Albanian relations, but the whole agreement was afterwards rescinded, as Greece proved unable to carry out her part of the bargain. Meanwhile

Italian steamship companies, banks and business firms showed considerable enterprise in the Near East. D'Annunzio and Fiume.—F¥resh troubles broke out at Fiume (g.v.), where on July 2-§ 1919 the alleged antipathy of the French troops (mostly colonials) to the Italians and alleged sympathy with the Croats, led to reprisals, in which some French and Annamite soldiers were killed or wounded. The Peace Conference thereupon appointed an inter-Allicd commission of inquiry, which proposed the dissolution of the Fiume National Council, elections to be held under inter-Allied control, the disbanding of the Fiume volunteers, the reduction of the Italian garrison, and the importation of British or American police. These proposals were about to be carried out when on Sept. 12 D’Annunzio arrived at Fiume from Ronchi, at the head of some Italian troops, whom he had induced to follow him to save the town for Italy, and a number of volunteers. Most of the Italian troops and seamen in the town and port joined him, and he set up a government of his own. The Allied troops departed, and Nitti stigmatised the poct’s conduct in the most violent terms, calling on the workmen and peasants of Italy to back him up against the Pufriotards. But a large part of Italian opinion supported D'Annunzio, and volunteers, including men of the highest character and also many adventurers, flocked to his standard. Riots against high prices broke out in the summer of 1919 in various parts of Italy, and agents of the Chambers of Labour illegally requisitioned foodstuffs and other goods for which they paid prices far below the market rates. The Government did nothing. The Socialists and Communists then organised a general protest strike for July 20-1 against the policy of the bourgcois governments towards Soviet Russia and Hungary. But there was no revolutionary outbreak, and the strike was only partial, largely owing to the beginnings of reaction on the part of public opinion voiced by the various citizen committees, rather than to government action. The Fascist movement, under Benito Mussolini now began to arise as a patriotic reaction (see FASCISM). Strikes and disorders continued in various parts of Italy, but Sig. Nitti expressed the belief that the only remedy was to let the spirit of unrest wear itself out, regardless of the immediate danger to the country. He had created a new police force, the Guardia Regia, which, however, proved costly and unequal to its duties. The Premier’s treatment of the army caused much dissatisfaction. In his desire to restore the ‘ Peace spirit,” he failed to protect the soldiers from outrage and insult, and advised them to go about in mufti and disarmed when off duty. A decrece of the Minister of War, issued at the instance of Sig. Nitti, granted an amnesty to deserters, thereby placing them on an equal footing with those who had done their duty in the War. In consequence of the findings of the Committee of Inquiry on Caporetto, Cadorna and other generals were put on the retired list. On Sept. 10 rọrọ the Peace Treaty with Austria was signed at St. Germain-en-Laye (see St. GERMAIN, TREATY OF), whereby Italy definitely acquired the frontiers assigned to her by the Treaty of London on the north and northeast, plus the Sexton

valley and Tarvis. The German inhabitants of the Alto Adige were dissatisfied with this decision, but their treatment at that time gave no reason for discontent. On Nov. r2 Senator Tittoni resigned from the Foreign Office and the peace delegation, and was succeeded by the eminent jurist, Senator Vittorio Scialoja. INDUSTRIAL

AND

POLITICAL

UNREST

In spite of, or because of, the government’s restrictive measures, prices had more than doubled. The government had made the wheat trade a state monopoly. While it requisitioned domestic wheat at a price below the cost of production, it had to buy forcign wheat at the market price. Thus wheat-growing was discouraged at home, and bread was sold below cost thereby increasing the deficit by six milliards. Transport was disorganised. While the traffic had decreased, the staff, for demagogic reasons, had been increased from 154,000 to 180,000, and afterwards to 240,000; the railwaymen had become more and more idle and insubordinate and were wholly under the influence of the revolutionary syndicate, and thefts of goods on the railways had reached unheard-of proportions. The Extremists.—By the electoral law of Sept.1919 the proportional system, whereby the voter voted not for a candidate but for a list, was adopted to please the Socialists and the Popolari, who, as the only two mass parties hoped to derive bencfit from it. The

Socialists at the Bologna Congress decided to present a Maximalist programme demanding the abolition of capital and the institution of a Soviet Republic, but the extremist group proposed abstention from the polls and an armed rising. The Popolari decided to present their own candidates instead of co-operating with other parties; an extreme wing, led by Sig. Miglioli, promoted strikes and disorders and differed little from the Socialists. The Constitutional groups were split up and were without a programme or organisation. The government was discredited and unpopular. The elections were held on Nov. 16 1919: 156 Socialists, ror Popolari and 30 Combatants were returned, but none of the Fascist candidates. On the opening of Parliament by the King on Dec. 1 the Socialist deputies withdrew from the Chamber, and as a protest against this insult a patriotic demonstration was held outside, in which some Socialist deputies were injured. A general strike was proclaimed in consequence, and at Mantua there were serious riots, the anarchists committing several murders, breaking open the prisons and pillaging the shops. Fresh incidents occurred on the Adriatic coast, and at Spalato (Split) the Yugoslav mob attacked the Italian inhabitants under the eyes of the American admiral. Early in Oct. Senator Tittoni had proposed a modus vivendi to D'Annunzio, whereby Italian troops would occupy Fiume pending a settlement in Paris, Italy undertaking not to permit the annexation of Fiume to Yugoslavia; but D’Annunzio refused to agree. At the Peace Conference various proposals were suggested, but the Allies

ani the United States reached no settlement. The Socialist successes at the election resulted in further disorders. On Jan. 13 1920 the postal employees went on strike because their demands for higher wages were not instantly complied with; volunteers replaced the strikers, in spite of official discouragement, and this broke the back of the agitation. But on the 22nd the railwaymen struck, and although here too voluntcers enabled the management to maintain a reduced service, on the 29th Sig. Nitti came forward with concessions and undertook not to punish a single striker, in spite of the explicit provisions of the regulations. The strike ended in a triumph for the revolutionists. In the spring there was a two months’ strike of the secondary railways of Lombardy, and one at the Mazzonis cotton mills in Piedmont, where the government legitimised the arbitrary seizure of the factories by the workmen. The railwaymen in general refused to run trains conveying soldicrs or police

to places where there were disorders; there was a railway strike at Cremona and elsewhere because the station-master, who had dared to dispatch a train supposed to be conveying war material to Poland, then at war with Soviet Russia, was not dismissed.

Sig. Nitti, finding himself unable to conduct the Government

ITALY in the face of the growing opposition, had resigned a first time on March 12 1920, but as no one else was prepared to assume office in these difficult conditions, he reconstructed his Cabinet with a few changes. On April 17 the Supreme Council met at San Remo to prepare the peace with Turkey, the Adriatic problem was also

to be discussed, but at the request of M. Trumbich, the Yugoslav Foreign Minister, direct negotiations were instituted at Pallanza a few days later. On May 12 the Cabinet, having been defeated in the Chamber, resigned, and the crisis broke up the Pallanza conference. No other combination having proved possible, Sig. Nitti was again asked to reconstruct his Cabinet, which he accomplished by May 21, but even in its third reincarnation it proved stillborn. The Prime Minister’s failure to solve the Adriatic problem and the indignation aroused by the arrest of the Dalmatians and Fiumani in Rome on account of an alleged plot, made his position untenable. On June 4 he enacted a decree reducing the bread subsidy, but yielding to the threats of the Socialists, he withdrew it five days later and resigned without waiting for a vote. Giolitti’s Difficulties —Sig. Giolitti now appeared the only man capable of forming a government, and this he achieved by June 16. Count Sforza was chosen Minister for Foreign Affairs. The budget statement for 1920-1, presented on June 27 1920, showed a deficit of 14 milliards. Troubles now broke out in Albania. In 1917 Gen. Ferrero had proclaimed an Italian protectorate over Albania, but the subsequent agreements whereby Italy undertook to allow Yugoslavia and Greece to occupy parts of the country aroused much dissatisfaction among Albanians. An Albanian Govt. had been formed at Tirana and the Italian garrisons were greatly reduced;

in the spring of 1920 Albanian bands began to disturb the Italian troops, and on June 5 they attacked and captured some of the outposts. An attack on Valona was repulsed with loss to the enemy, but on June 24 Sig. Giolitti, alarmed at a mutiny which had broken out as a result of anarchist propaganda at Ancona, and yielding to the Socialist demands, announced that Italy would withdraw her troops from Albania and negotiate with the Tirana Govt. An agreement was arrived at on Aug. 3, and on Sept. 2 the last Italian troops departed, only the islet of Saseno being retained. | At the Spa Conference (July 5-16 1920) Italy succeeded in getting her share of the German indemnity raised to 10%, and that of the Austrian, Hungarian and Bulgarian indemnities to 25%. On Aug. 6 the Tittoni-Veniselos agreement was rescinded, and on the roth the treaty with Turkey was signed at Sèvres; by the terms of the tripartite agreement Italy obtained “ economic priority °” over a wide zone of Anatolia south and east of the Greek zone (Smyrna) and a concession for exploiting the Heraclea coal-ficlds, By aseparate agreement with Grecce,! Italy undertook to cede to the latter the Dodecanese minus Charki and Castellorizo, which together with Rhodes were to remain Italian for 15 years, and then, if Britain ceded Cyprus to Greece, a plebiscite was to decide the fate of Rhodes. The Rapalle Conference—~Serious anti-Italian disorders occurred on July 11 at Spalato, where the Croat mob murdered the

commander of the cruiser “ Puglie ’’ and wounded several officers and men; protest demonstrations were held at Trieste, and shots having been fired from one of the Yugoslav institutions, several of them were set on fire. At Fiume the National Council resigned and D’Annunzio proclaimed the Reggenza del Carnaro, for which he drafted a curious, mystical, semi-medieval statute. As President Wilson’s term of office was nearly up, the Yugoslavs felt that a direct understanding with Italy would be the best solution. The Italian Govt. communicated its proposals to those of Britain and France, which advised Yugoslavia to accept them. A conference was held at Rapallo on Nov. 8, Italy being represented by Sig. Giolitti, Count Sforza, Sig. Bonomi, Gen. Badoglio and Admiral Acton; Yugoslavia by MM. Vesnich, Trumbich, Kosta, Stoyanovich and Col. Kalafatovich. On the rath the treaty was signed. Italy waived her rights over Dalmatia, except for the town of Zara, and the following frontier was agreed upon: 1Denounced by Italy, Oct 8. 1922.

563

Mount Pec, Mount Yalovets, the watershed between the Isonzo and the Wurzen See and the Wocheiner Save, northeast slope of Mount Mezik, cast slope of Mount Porzen, west slope of Mount Blegos, Zelse, Cabranska, east of Mount Trstenik, east of Griza, east of Mattuglie, frontier of the Fiume State on the Fiume-Castua road; the islands of Cherso, Lussin, Lagosta and Pelagosa were assigned to Italy, while both Powers recognised the independence of Fiume; the Italian-speaking inhabitants of the territories assigned to Yugoslavia were entitled to opt for Italian citizenship without having to leave the country, and full freedom of language, culture and religion were granted to Yugoslavs in Italian territory. By a secret clause, which soon became public property, although Count Sforza denied its existence, Porto Baros, an integral

part of the port of Fiume, was promised to Yugoslavia. D’Annunzio, however, refused to recognise the treaty, and his /eg7onari occupied Castua and the islands of Vegli and Arbe (assigned to Yugoslavia) and tried to invade Dalmatia. But the Government, determined to enforce the treaty, established a blockade round Fiume; on Dec. 23, as D’Annunzio refused to obey Gen. Caviglia’s summons to submit, military operations were commenced. There was some fighting, but on the 30th D’Annunzio authorised his plenipotentiaries to accept the conditions imposed. Fiume was to be placed under its own town council, with alocal volunteer force to maintain order, assisted by Italian carabinicri, until after the elections for the Constituent Assembly. D’Annunzio left Fiume on Jan. 18 1921. But the elections in the spring of that year led to disorders necessitating the maintenance of Italian troops. The evacuation of Dalmatia, divided for the purpose into three zones, began in the spring of 1921. Indusirial Disturbances——The internal troubles reached their zenithin the autumn of 1920. There were industrial, agricultural and railway strikes in various parts of the country, and in Sept. a very serious agitation broke out in the metal trades. These industries had earned large profits during the War and were paying high wages. But the cost of production was increasing, and there were signs of a coming slump, so that ìt was impossible to grant the still higher wages which the workmen now demanded. The workmen of the Romeo works in Milan now adopted obstructive tactics and sabotage, and the management retorted by a lock-out on Aug. 20. Thereupon the F.I.0.M. (Federazione italiana operat metallurgici) ordered all the metal workers in Milan to remain in permanence at the mills without working. The Federation of Mechanical Industries then extended the lock-out to the whole of Italy on the 31st, and the workmen, many of them armed, seized a number of factories in Lombardy, Picdmont and elsewhere. Encouraged by the passive attitude of the authorities, they kidnapped owners and managers and tried to force them to run the works exclusively for the workers; armed “ Red Guards ” were organised, revolutionary tribunals set up and persons approaching the factories were shot at. At Turin the factory councils attempted to sell the goods manufactured during the occupation, although the owners warned the public of the nullity of such sales. But the workmen found themselves incapable of running the factories unaided, and the occupation ended by becoming merely an occasion for orgies. On Sept. 6 the General Confederation of Labour expressed its approval of the occupation, but declared that the movement must be placed under its own guidance in order to secure “ collective management,” and forbade any further extension of the seizures for the present. Nevertheless the extremists became more truculent, and at Turin a Nationalist student and a prison warder who happened to be passing near an ‘ occupied ” factory were brutally mur-

dered by ‘ Red Guards,” and in many works the safes were broken open and the contents pocketed by the leaders. Sig. Giolitti at last felt that he must do something. He summoned the representatives of the owners and the workers to meet him on Sept. 19 in Rome. At this meeting an agreement was arrived at; wages were to be raised and a form of workmen’s control over industry, which the Government undertook to embody

in a bill, was agreed to. The owners also agreed to pay for the

ITALY

564

work performed during the occupation, with deductions for damage done to the plant, but they refused to readmit all the workmen as the Government demanded, and only did so at last under protest against this imposition. The factories were evacuated on the 27th and work was resumed on Oct. 4. Asa practical

attempt to cstablish Communism, as the group by Bombacci hoped, the agitation had failed, and Giolitti claimed that by proving to the workmen that they could not run industry without the capitalist and the expert, they had been taught a useful lesson. But the Premicr’s real motive was probably the fear of provoking revolution and distrust of the nation’s patriotism and courage. Incidentally the “occupation” wrought serious injury to Italian credit at home and abroad. The Fascists —About

this time agrarian

troubles

had also

broken out in various parts of Italy, notably in the Veneto, the provinces of Bergamo and Cremona, the Lazio, Tuscany and Sicily. The peasants demanded contracts which, if accepted, would have left the landlords without enough income to pay the taxes. In this agitation Socialist and Left-wing Popolari vied

with each other in revolutionary methods. The public meanwhile was beginning to weary of these constant disorders and of the tyranny of a factious minority, and the middle classes set to work to organise resistance. The Agrarian Association of Bologna was particularly active, but it was the Fasci, now arising all over Italy, under Mussolini’s leadership, which organised the nationa] reaction. The first attempt at resistance at Bologna, the hotbed of revolution, was on Sept. 20, when, as the result of a

Communist attack on a patriotic procession, a kiosk where seditious papers were sold was destroyed. At a strike demonstration in the same city in Oct. 14 1920 against the “‘ white terror ”’ in Hungary, the Anarchist, Malatesta, incited the mob to violence, and a police inspector and a Guardia Regia were murdered. Small groups of Nationalists and Fascists thereupon paraded

the streets; in an instant the tricolour flag appeared everywhere and the strike ceased.

The municipal elections in Oct. and

Nov. registered a decline in Socialist influence in Rome, Naples, Turin, Genoa, Venice and Florence, but at Milan and Bologna revolutionary majorities were again returned. The assumption to office of the Red administrations was to offer occasion for fresh outbreaks of violence. In Bologna the Communist deputy, Bucco, secretary of the local Chamber of Labour who had been the Red tyrant of the province, now began to fear for his own safety and applied for police protection against

the Fascists; he was spirited out of the city and after his departure a deficit of a quarter of a million was found in the accounts of the Chamber of Labour. On Nov. 21 1920 the first mecting of the new Bologna town council was intended to be the occasion for an armed rising organised by the Communists, with the help of the municipal guards and the fire brigade. There were anti-Socialist demonstrations in the streets organised by the Nationalists and Fascists, supported by other citizens, but in the town hall two councillors of the constitutional minority,

Giordani, a disabled ex-officer, and Colliva were murdered by Communists. The upheaval of public opinion was now irresistible; the Red leaders had to fly for their lives and the whole fabric of Bolshevik organisation in Bologna crashed. The town council never met again and was eventually dissolved, while the Fascists wrecked or burned down various Socialist institutions. At Modena a Fascist was murdered and several others shared a like fate while attending their comrades’ funcral; this led to a general anti-Socialist uprising there also, and similar cpisodes occurred at Ferrara. Throughout the Po valley the Fascists proceeded to break the tyranny of the ‘f Red baronies”; the revolu-

tionary leghe which had dominated labour in that area, were dissolved, and one Red town council after another resigned or was dissolved by the prefects, while ever increasing masses of workers, industrial and agricultural, went over to Fascism and thus formed the basis of the Fascist labour movement. Socialist.

Dissensions

During

the last months

the

Maxi-

malist Socialist party had begun to show signs of dissension.

The extremist group led by Bombacci and Gennari advocated an immediate revolution, while the Turati-Treves group opposed

the idea; at the Reggio Emilia congress Nofri and Ponzani, who had returned from Russia, proceeded to condemn the Soviet system. The Russian leaders demanded the absolute submission of the Italian party to the orders of Moscow and the expulsion of all Socialists tainted with the Reformist heresy. At the general congress of the party in Leghorn (Jan. 13-22) a resolution in favour of a middle tendency, supported by Turati, Treves, Buozzi, Baldesi, D’Aragona and the G.C.L., who called themsclves Unitari and were prepared to collaborate with bourgeois Governments, was adopted. The Communists (represented by 18 deputies) thereupon broke away and formed a party of their own. The new party now tried to aflirm itself by a series of terrorist outrages in the hope of promoting revolution. Bombs were thrown in Florence on Feb. 27, killing ancl wounding several persons, whereupon the Fascists retaliated by murdering Lavagnini, a notorious Communist railway organiser; the railwaymen and electricians went on strike and various affrays between Communists and Fascists occurred, until the troops intervened and restored order. At Empoli a number of unarmed sailors were murdered by Communists, and the Fascists, summoned from various parts of the country, inflicted severe reprisals. Similar occurrences took place at Foiano della Chiana and other places. But everywhere the popular reaction, guided by Fascists and Nationalists, was vigorous and unmistakable. The Government, unable to tackle the situation, itself, left the Fascists a free hand to fight the Reds. Sig. Giolitti now had the courage to propose the abolition of the bread subsidy, and presented a bill to that effect, which was voted by a large majority on March 1, in spite of Socialist obstruction. Phe bill in favour of syndicalist control over industry, presented by the Premier in accordance with the agreement of the preceding Sept., encountered much opposition in Parliament and was finally dropped. Giolitti Resigns —The Parliamentary position was becoming insecure, and a hostile motion on foreign policy proposed by Sig. Amendola was rejected only by a small majority. On April 7 1920 Sig. Giolitti dissolved the Chamber, and on May 15 the elections were held. Out of 535 seats (27 had been added for the new provinces) the Liberals and Democrats of various shades secured 275, the Popolari rose from ror to 107, the Socialists fell from 156 to 122 Unitari and 16 Communists; there were in addition four Germans for the Alto Adige and five Slavs for the Venezia Giulia. The Fascists were 38 and the Nationalists r0. Although the composition of the new Chamber was not very different irom that of the old, the Socialists and Communists were now faced by a vigorous Fascist-Nationalist group supported by sympathisers belonging to other parties. On June 11 Parliament opened, and in the debate on the speech from the Throne, the Nationalist Federzoni (g.v.) delivered a strong attack on Count Sforza’s forcign policy. On June 26 the Cabinet secured only a small majority on a vote of confidence on forcign policy, and Sig. Giolitti resigned.

Sig. Bonomi formed an administration composed as follows: Bonomi (Presidency and Interior), Marquis Tomasi della Tor-

retta (Foreign Affairs), Giradini (Colonies), Rodiné (Justice), Soleri (Finance), De Nava (Treasury), Micheli (Public Works), Belotti (Industry and Trade), Bergamasco (Marine), Corbino (Education), Mauri (Agriculture), Beneduce (Labour), Giuffrida (Post Office), Ranieri (Liberated Territories). The Cabinet comprised members of many parties, but the Popolari were predominant and Don Sturzo ruled Sig. Bonomi with a rod of iron. Under Popolare influence, strengthened by that of thesemiSocialists Giuffrida and Beneduce, further advanced legislation was enacted. A bill enabling any public body to expropriate

land which in its opinion was inadequately cultivated, the owners to be indemnified with land bonds of uncertain value paid for by the whole community was introduced but aroused violent opposition and never became law. Sig. Bonomi had the merit of deciding that the celebration of the ceremony for the Unknown Soldier should at last be held; it took place on Nov. 4 r92r. Two days later the Fascist congress was opened in Rome, and Fascism was definitely constituted into

ITALY a political party. On the roth the Communists and Socialists proclaimed a gencral strike as a protest against the presence of the Fascists in Rome; disorders ensued, in which five persons were killed and several wounded. The troubles had ceased by the rath, after which the Fascist congress broke up. The debate in the Chamber on the eligibility of the deserter Misiano, who had been returned for Turin and Naples, led to violent scenes, until on Dec. 20 his election was annulled. During this same month the Banco di Sconto failed, and the Government was severely blamed for not having prevented the collapse of so important an institution, whose actual condition was by no means hopeless; as was proved at the subsequent legal proceedings before the Senate,! the failure caused serious prejudice to the general financial and economic situation of the country. The publication by a French journalist of an account of an imaginary insult attributed to M. Briand against the Italian Army at the Washington disarmament conference led to antiFrench demonstrations at Turin and elsewhere, until the misunderstanding was cleared up. The attempt to conclude a commercial treaty with Russia failed, as the Soviet Govt. refused to ratify the agreement. In Jan. 1922 Sig. Bonomi attended the Cannes meeting of the Supreme Council, where it was decided to hold an economic conference in Genoa in the spring. The Facta Govt—The Bonomi Cabinet was now attacked on all sides, and when on Feb. 2 1922 the Democrats, 16 of whom were in the Government, went over to the Opposition, Sig. Bonomi resigned. The King, however, asked him to go before Parliament, in order that by its vote it might give some indication for a solution. This Bonomi did, and the Cabinet having been beaten on the 17th resigned definitely. It was not until the 25th that a new Cabinet was formed by Sig. Luigi Facta. He was a thoroughly honest man, and his acceptance of ofhce in these circumstances was proof of his patriotism, but he was not a first-class statesman. He selected Senator Schanzer for the Foreign Office, while the other Ministers were of respectable mediocrity. On March 15 the Premicr communicated to the Chamber the Government’s programme, based on the restoration of order, and secured a vote of confidence. In 1922 the reconquest of Tripolitania was commenced with the reoccupation of the port of Misurata at the end of January. After a serics of operations lasting through 1922 and 1923 the whole colony was reoccupied. The Governor in this period was Count Giuseppi Volpi, afterwards Finance Minister. Trouble now broke out in the port of Naples between the Red dockers’ union, which wished to retain its labour monopoly, and the new Fascist dockers’ union, created to combat the prevailing conditions of anarchy and graft brought about by the Reds. The Red union proclaimed a strike in all the Italian ports on March 18 as a protest against the existence of the Fascist union, and the Government referred the solution of the conflict to the enxti-au‘onomi of the ports, a decision which caused much dissatisiaclion in non-Socialist circles, as those bodies were notoriously under Socialist influence. But the Fascists eventually succeeded in breaking the Red monopoly and restoring order and freedom of labour in the ports, to the great aera of the maritime trade of Italy. The Genoa conference was inaugurated on April 10. Sig. Facta presided with dignity, but the hardest work was accomplished by Sig. Schanzer, who often succeeded in composing differences between the British and the French and between the French and the Germans and Russians. The Russian delegation was at first alarmed at the possibility of an unfriendly reception by the Fascists, but the Fascist party directorate assured the Bolsheviks that if they abstained from interference in Italian internal affairs they would not be molested; this they undertook to do, and they carried out their undertaking. : The railway syndicate at Bologna issued an order that all traflic was to be held up on May 1, and although the managcment was able to secure an almost complete service, many railwaymen did cease work, thereby causing inconvenience and 1The case was tried by the Senate because Bene? were senators among the accused. $a

565

delay. This time the Government did indict the members of the executive committee of the syndicate, and some of the leaders were punished. On May 24 the funcral procession escorting the body of the war hero Enrico Totitothe cemetery in Rome was fired on by Communists in the San Lorenzo quarter, with the result that two persons were killed and several wounded. The next day the Committee of Proletarian Defence and the Alleanza del Lavoro, a newly formed coalition of the Communist, Socialist and Republican parties and the G.O.L., ordered a general strike in | Rome; the Fascists tried to organise a counter-demonstration,

but were dispersed by the police. This strike, which ended on May 26, intensified the ere! of all law-abiding citizens against agitators.

The Bologna Reds.—In the province of Bologna the Red unions had lost much of their influence, but the leaders managed to maintain authority with the acquiescence of the Government. While locally there was a scarcity of labour and very high wages, in the neighbouring provinces there was unemployment, but the Bologna union leaders were determined to prevent the migration of these “ forcign ’’ workers, lest their own monopoly should be menaced, and they induced the prefect to forbid it. The prefect’s action was ullra vires as it violated the rights of individuals in the interest of a privileged class, and the Fascists, voicing the general indignation which it aroused, concentrated on Bologna in military formation and demanded the revocation of the decree and the removal of the prefect. Sig. Mussolini, having obtained satisfactory assurances from the Government, ordered the Black Shirts to demobilise and evacuate the city, which they did on June 2; the decree was then revoked, and the prefect transferred. There were now rumours of a new cabinet crisis, and the Socialists were divided on the question of collaborating with a bourgeois government. The Fascists, Nationalists and the Right were opposed to any sort of Socialist infiltration, which would involve unlimited extravagance and more advanced legislation. On July 12 1922 Sig. Peano, the Treasury Minister, issued his financial statement for 1921-2, which showed a deficit of 4,500 million lire, while experts estimated it at 6,500 million; public opinion was seriously alarmed, but in Parliament the deputies were too busy over lobby intrigue in view of the expected crisis to worry about finance. There were disorders at Cremona, provoked by the left wing Popolari led by Miglioli and the Socialists: the Fascists mobilised and wrecked several Socialist institutions and Miglioli’s own law offices. The Democrats in the Chamber seized:the occasion to contract an alliance with the Popolart, and on July 19 Sig. Facta was outvoted and resigned. But it proved impossible to form a new Cabinet, and after various unsuccessful attempts by Bonomi, Orlando and Meda, during which even the Socialist Turati was summoned to the Quirinal for consultation, the King sent for Facta once more, and the old Cabinet was reconstructed, with mEnaIOE Taddei, prefect of Turin, as Minister of the Interior. The General Str ike “On Aue: la ee strike throughout Italy was suddenly proclaimed by the Alleanza del Lavoro, as the result of a Communist initiative, supported by the Socialists, who were disappointed at having failed to secure a DemocraticSocialist Cabinet, and Turati proclaimed it a ‘‘ legalist ” strike, because its professed object was to affirm the authority of the State against the Fascists. Work was suspended in many fac-

tories and a part of the railwaymen struck; but the Fascists and Nationalists ordered a general mobilisation, and the Fascist directorate issued a manifesto calling on the public servants and the workers “ to shake off the yoke of the politicians by whom they were Jed,” and giving the Government 48 hours within which to prove that it possessed authority over its own employees and those who were attempting to destroy the nation. “ On the expiry of this delay Fascism will assume full freedom to supplant the State.” Serious conflicts between Fascists and Communists occurred at Milan, Ancona and other places, but the strike rapidly collapsed, and on the 2nd the Alleanza del Lavoro ordered it to cease; by the 4th all disturbances were over.

During the strike

agitation the Fascists delivered an attack on the Communist-

566

ITALY

Socialist municipality of Milan, which had for years ruled the city, bringing it to the verge of ruin and indulging in the most scandalous graft; the deficit was 375,000,000, there were bills for 101,000,000 lire overdue, and the richest city in Italy could obtain no credit anywhere. The Liberal Corriére della Sera, as well as the Fascist press, had been conducting a very vigorous campaign against the administration, but the Government did not interfere. On Aug. 1 the tramwaymen, electricians, sweepers, employees of the waterworks and firemen of the city, all struck, but the Fascists and other citizens took their places; on the 3rd the Fascists succeeded in getting into the town hall and expelling the few assessors present, and for the first time since 1914 the tricolour was raised on Palazzo Marino amid scenes of great popular enthusiasm. The Fascists withdrew on the 4th and handed over the building to the prefect’s commissioner. On the 27th, after the disastrous results of the inquiry into its financial administration, the coun-

cil was dissolved and a royal commissioner placed in charge. At Genoa the Fascists led a similar operation against the port consortium, which was largely under the influence of the Red dockers’ union. Under Fascist pressure the consortium was dissolved and a royal commissioner appointed. The Fascists extended their action against a number of Socialist, Communist and Popolare town councils and institutions, forcing the administrators to resign; sometimes violence was resorted to, but in most cases the administrations resigned from sheer fright; very frequently evidence of embezzlement was discovered. Another operation was carried out against the provincial administration of Trento, and the Governor, Sig. Credaro, accused of being under the influence of the anti-Italian Pan-German elements of Bolzano, was recalled by the Government on the initiative of the Fascists. All these actions were of course illegal, but public opinion approved of them because it considered that the Fascists were doing what the Government should have done before.

The Fascist Programme.—Facta’s position was daily weakening, and indeed the whole machinery of government was obviously breaking down. At the Socialist congress held on Oct. 3 the party split into two groups, the Unitari or collaborationists and the uncompromising Afassimalisti; as a result of this split the G.C.L. broke off its alliance with the Socialist party and declared itself a non-political body, but many of its adherents had already gone over to Fascism. The Partito Popolare was also divided by conflicting tendencies, and the Pope enjoined on the bishops and clergy to abstain from partisan political activity. The moment was now ripe for a bold Fascist move. Sig. MussoJini considered that it was not enough to crush Bolshevism, and that if Italy was to become a really great nation the whole body politic must be reformed on Fascist lines, and the national finances re-established by eliminating extremist legislation and extravagance.

Although many Liberals approved of the Fascist programme, the Fascists themselves were convinced that it could not be carried out under normal Parliamentary conditions. They now demanded of the Government either a dissolution or the resignation of Facta and the formation of a new Cabinet comprising five Fascist Ministers; but the Premier rejected both alternatives. At a Fascist gathering at Udine on Sept. 29 Mussolini made an important declaration in favour of the monarchy, thereby securing the support of many non-Fascists.

His hints at a revolution,

however, were still regarded as figures of speech, but he was now entrusted by the party directorate with a mandate to conduct a political and even military action to bring Fascism into power. On Oct. 24 another Fascist congress was held at Naples, where 40,000 Fascists in military formation paraded the streets. In his speech at the San Carlo theatre Mussolini said that ‘‘ what we have in view is the introduction into the Liberal State, which has fulfilled its functions . . . of all the forces of the new gener-

ation which has emerged from the War and the victory.” In another speech he declared that ‘ either the Government will be given to us or we shall seize it by marching on Rome.” March on Rome.——That same evening the Fascist Quadrumvirate was formed, composed of Michele Bianchi, general secre-

tary of the party, Italo Balbo, commander of the armed squadre, Gen. De Bono (ex-commander of the IX. Corps), who had organised them, and the deputy C. M. De Vecchi, while Dino Grandi, an authority on labour problems, was entrusted with the political functions of the enterprise. The congress broke up and Salandra and Orlando, acting on behalf of the Quadrumvirate, called on Facta to resign, which, after some hesitation, he did on the 27th. In the meanwhile the general mobilisation of the Fascists had been ordered, and they proceeded to concentrate on Rome in four columns. Both the Fascist leaders and the Army oflicers were anxious to avoid any conflict between the squadre and the troops, and the news that martial law had been proclaimed caused deep consternation. Facta had indeed drafted and issued the decree, but the King refused to sign it as it would have meant civil war, and it was immediately withdrawn. Sig. Salandra was now entrusted with the formation of a Cabinet, and he offered portfolios to De Vecchi and Grandi; but Mussolini on being consulted rejected the proposal, for the formation of a Cabinet of the old parliamentary type was now impossible. On Salandra’s advice the King sent for Mussolini. The Fascist columns began to enter Rome on the morning of Oct. 30 1922 and the'city was peacefully occupied; the only regrettable incidents were the murder of a Fascist at Valmontone by Communists and the murder of some Communists by Fascists in the San Lorenzo quarter of Rome. Mussolini reached Rome from Milan the same day, and at once presented himself to the King, with his Cabinet Hst already prepared, which the King at once accepted. As the presence of the squadre in Rome was no longer necessary, and might lead to trouble, Mussolini ordered them to depart; this they began to do on Oct. 31, after paying a tribute of honour to the tomb of the Unknown Soldier and homage to the King; by Nov. 2 all had left the capital. The new Cabinet was composed as follows: Mussolini, Premier and Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Interior; Gen. Diaz

(War), Adm. Thaon di Revel (Marine), Prof. Alberto De Stefani (Finance), Prof. Tangorra (Treasury), Duke di Cesarò (Post Office), Federzoni (Colonies), Prof. Gentile (Education), De Capitani (Agriculture), Carnazza (Public Works), Count Teofilo Rossi (Industry), Cavazzoni (Labour), De Vecchi (Under-Secretary for Pensions). Although predominantly Fascist, the Cabinet comprised members of all the chief groups except the anti-national parties; Rossi was a Giolittian, Cesaré a Social Democrat, Gentile? and De Capitani Liberals, Tangorra and Cavazzont Popolari. Sig. Mussolini dìd not have a Parliamentary opinion for the ment of

majority, but he was supported even outside Fascist circles. He cessation of all acts of violence, the town councils which had been

by the mass of public gave stringent orders and for the reinstateforced by the Fascists

to resign after Nov. 1. Occasional conflicts still occurred, but on the whole order was restored with surprising rapidity. On Nov. 16 the Premier informed the Chamber that for the second time the Italian people had given themselves a Government independent of any Parliamentary designation,? that he

might have closed Parliament and formed a purely Fascist Cabinet, but that he preferred, at all events in the first phase, to form a coalition with all the national parties. He undertook to balance the budget, provide for the working classes, but not in accordance with any extravagant theories, and conduct the foreign policy

of Italy with firmness and dignity.

He finally asked for full

powers for a year to carry out the necessary reforms, and these were granted by 275 votes to 90. The Nationalists were now

absorbed into the Fascist party. The Defictt—The most urgent problem before the new Government was finance. The estimated deficit for 192 2-3 was 6,500 million lire and Sig. De Stefani at once proceeded to adopt drastic economies, reorganise taxation and encourage economic activity

without hindrances to production.

Prof. Tangorra having died

on Dec. 21 De Stefani took charge of the Treasury as well. The Ministry of the Liberated Territories and several under-secretary-

ships were abolished, and by the decree of Jan. 23 1923 the Gov1 Gentile afterwards became a Fascist.

2 The first was in May 1915.

ITALY ernment was enabled during one year to place on the retired list all officials who were too old or otherwise incapable of fulfilling their duties, and to revise all appointments made under special war legislation since May ro15. The Guardia Regia, which had not answered its purpose on account of defective discipline and organisation, was disbanded. The Fascist and other armed squadre were also disbanded, and the Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza nazionale (see FASCISM), composed of ex-squadristi and

officered by ex-army officers, was created in Jan. 1923 to assist in the maintenance of order. In the administration of justice the four courts of cassation were reduced to one, and many minor courts suppressed. The railway staff, which amounted to 225,000 when the Fascists came into power, was reduced to 170,000. A large number of abuses were eliminated; the eight hours’ day, which had been reduced to five or six hours of real work, was restored; railway thefts and damage to property were brought down to trifling proportions, the system of equalising wages, so that a linesman or engine-driver was paid as highly as, or more than, an important official, was done away with; the free passes issued to the leaders of the revolutionary sindacato ferrovieri and many other persons were withdrawn, discipline was re-established and bonuses for economy reintroduced. These reforms, which were largely the work of the special high commissioner for the railways, Sig. Edoardo Torre, resulted in improving the service out of all recognition, and converting the railway deficit, which in 1921-2 amounted to 1,400 million lire, into a surplus of 176,000,000 for 1924-5. A similar transformation was effected in the postal and telegraph services, where insubordination and disorganisation had reached incredible proportions under the previous governments; here too a deficit of some 500,000,000 was converted into a surplus of 43,000,000. Originally the Government intended to restore the railways and some of the postal services to private enterprise; this has been done for the telephones from July 1 1925, but not for the railways. Reforms of a similar nature were introduced into many other departments, and everywhere the number of officials was reduced. The Yannina Murders.—Soon after coming into power Sig. Mussolini attended the opening of the Lausanne conference on the peace with Turkey, and there he first came into contact with his British and French colleagues. On Aug. 27 1923 the Italian General Tellini, president of the inter-Allied commission for the delimitation of the Graeco-Albanian frontier, and four of his staff were murdered by Epirote bands near Yannina on Greek territory, as a result of a violent campaign in the Greek press against Tellini, who was accused of unduly favouring the Albanian claims. On the 2oth the Italian Govt. presented an ultimatum to Greece demanding immediate satisfaction and an indemnity of 50,000,000 lire. As the Greek Govt. rejected some of the conditions, and denied responsibility for the crime, an Italian fleet was sent to Corfu to occupy the island. The Greek commander having refused to lower the flag a few shots were fired on the fort, one of which killed or wounded a number of refugees,! who, unknown to the Italian admiral, were lodged in it. The island was then occupied. On Sept. 1 Greece appealed to the League of Nations Council, but as the Conference of Ambassadors had also been invested with the conflict, the Italian delegate to the League Council, Sig. Salandra, maintained that the Conference alone was competent to deal with the matter, whereas the British delegate, Lord Robert (now Viscount) Cecil; the Greek delegate, M. Politis; and the delegates of the small Powers insisted on the League’s right to intervene. After arranging that an inquiry should be conducted by the four Great Powers? the Conference of Ambassadors finally decided that Greece should make full satisfaction in the most solemn form to Italy and pay the indemnity of 50,000,000 lire. Italy declared that the occupation of Corfu had no other object than that of 1 Colonel Lowe, of the Near East Relief Organisation, deposed that the casualties amounted to 100, including 20 dead, of whom 16

were children. 2For full details of the incident see the article by ‘ Verax” in La Vita ttaliana for Dec. 15 1923; and for text of report see The Janina Murders and The Occupation of Corfu, George Glasgow (London, 1923).

567

obtaining satisfaction for its demands. On the 13th the Conference announced Greece’s acceptance of its decision and Italy’s undertaking to evacuate Corfu by the 27th, which was done. As a result of the conflict Italo-Greek relations were much improved, but there were controversies in the League Council between Sig. Salandra and Lord Robert Ceciland the delegates of Sweden and Norway. The next important action of the Fascist Govt. in the field of foreign affairs was the settlement with Yugoslavia. As Sig. Mussolini had long recognised the difficulty of fully carrying out the Rapallo and Santa Margherita agreements, he had suggested, as early as Nov. 1922, to M. Ninchich the advisability of a more complete agreement. The Santa Margherita convention was ratified on Feb. 21 1923, and Italy proceeded to evacuate the third Dalmatian zone,’ but the existence of the Fiume Free State was the chief obstacle to a real understanding. Sig. Depoli, head of the government, had resigned, as he could not continue to rule the town, which was threatened with starvation, and Sig. Mussolini sent Gen. Giardino to Fiume in Sept. 1923 to take charge of the administration, and provided him with adequate funds. Negotiations with Yugoslavia were then resumed, and on Jan. 27 1924 the various agreements were signed in Rome. By the first of these the two Powers undertook to collaborate in maintaining the conditions established by the peace treaties

and to assist each other politically and diplomatically in case of a conflict. By a second convention Italy recognised Yugoslavia’s full sovereignty over Porto Baros and the Delta, while Yugoslavia recognised that of Italy over Fiume; a free customs zone was also established comprising Fiume and Castua (the latter ceded to Yugoslavia). Ratifications were exchanged on Feb. 22, and subsequently a series of commercial agreements was concluded. Mussolini and Parliament.—One of the main considerations of the Fascist party was the relation of the executive to the legislature. Parliament in Italy had long been degenerating, and after the War conditions had become worse than ever. Sig. Mussolini was determined not only to eliminate certain evils, but to prevent their recurrence, and above all to give stability to the government. In the summer of 1923 he drafted a bill whereby the country was divided into 15 constituencies, each voter to vote for the party list which he preferred, the party securing relatively the largest number of votes to be entitled to two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber, while the remaining third was divided among the other parties on a proportional basis. The bill encountered much opposition among the Socialists and the Popolari, and also among some sections of the Liberals, but it was admittedly only a temporary and tentative measure, and it was voted by a large majority in the Chamber in July and by the Senate in Nov. 1923. At a Cabinet Council on Dec. 31 the government renounced the full powers granted to it by Parliament a year previously, and on fan. 25 1924 Parliament was dissolved. Sig. Mussolini stated that he now wished to appeal to the country for a verdict on the work accomplished, but that, while recognising the value of the elective Chamber, it must not be accorded absolute predominance over the other organs of the State—the Crown, the Senate, the Executive—all of which have their allotted functions. He rejected the idea of electoral and political alliances with other parties, but decided to include in the government electoral list men of all parties or no party who might be counted on to render services to the country. He approached certain leading Liberal and Democratic statesmen of Southern Italy, where Fascism had less hold than in the North, in order to include them in the Government list. Salandra, Orlando, De Nicola and De Nava accepted. The Duke of Cesarò, Minister of Posts and Telegraphs, having quarrelled with the Premier over the latter’s refusal to contract an alliance with the Social Democratic party, and also because he disapproved of certain influential Fascists, resigned and presented an opposition list of his own, chiefly in Sicily. The Government list was prepared by the Fascist representa* The port of Dalmatia assigned to Italy by the Treaty of London and ceded by her to Yugoslavia at Rapallo had been divided for the purpose of evacuation into three zones.

568

ITALY

tives in each constituency, passed by the ‘ Pentarchy ” (Finzi | Alessandro Casati, Carnazza (Public Works) by Gino Sarrocchi, Corbino (National Economy) by Cesare Nava. Most of the Michele Bianchi, Giunta, Acerbo and Cesare Rossi) and finally under-secretaries were also changed, and many undesirables submitted to Mussolini for approval. In four constituencies there were extra lists for government supporters for whom there expelled from the Fascist party. was no room in the government list proper. The government candidates comprised 200 ex-combatants, and a number of men eminent in science, literature, business, agriculture and industry. The opposition groups competed for the 179 seats reserved for the minorities. The elections were held on April 6, and, except in a very few cases, went off without disturbances.

In all 7,628,-

859 votes were recorded (73° of the registered voters, a larger percentage than at any previous election).

Of these 4,693,690

were for the government, 7.€., 65-25°5 of the recorded voics, not including those in favour of minority candidates who had declared themselves supporters of the Government; the Government thus would have been entitled to two-thirds of the seats independently of the new law. The supporters of the Government were 355 (Sig. De Nava having died), of whom 260 were Fascists and 114 members of other groups. The opposition groups were distributed as follows: Constitutional Opposition 12, Liberal Democrats 17, Social Democrats 11, Popolari 40, Massimalists 22, Unitari Socialists 27, Communists 17, Republicans seven. Of the ex-Premiers, Bonomi was not returned; Nitti and Facta did not stand, but Facta was raised to the Senate soon afterwards. The Matteotti Murder —Parliament was opened by the King on May 241924. After his overwhelming victory at the polls Sig.

Mussolini held out the olive branch to the Opposition parties, and everything seemed to point to a return to normal political conditions; on June 7 the Chamber gave the Cabinet a vote of confidence by 361 to 107. But on June ro the Socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti, Secretary of the Unitario group, mysteriously disappeared, and a day or two later it was discovered that he had been kidnapped in a motor-car by Dumini, Volpi and other Fascists of shady antecedents and carried off to an unknown destination. The kidnappers, suspected of complicity in attacks on other anti-Fascist leaders, were caught at once, and four prominent Fascists—Marinelli, the administrative secretary of the party; Filippelli, editor of the Corriere italiano; Cesare Rossi, head of the official press bureau; and Naldi, the editor of the Nuovo Paese—were also arrested as accomplices. The body of Matteotti was discovered on June 13 buried in a lonely spot 20 km. from Rome. The affair created a sensation, and the Ganoadon deputies and press seized on it to indulge in the gravest accusations against all the leading Fascists. On June r5 the Opposition deputies withdrew from the Chamber, stating that they would not return until the Matteotti mystery and the so-called ‘‘ moral question ’’—that is, the supposed complicity of the Government in the affair—had been cleared up. The Opposition by this so-

called “ withdrawal on to the Aventine ’’! thus hoped to render Parliamentary business impossible and to exploit the consternation aroused by the crime to upset the Fascist Government. Among the persons more directly accused was Aldo Finzi, UnderSecretary for the Interior; he immediately resigned, and his resignation was accepted by the Premier as he had not proved equal to his duties, but when he brought libel actions against his accusers they were unable to prove their case by evidence. - The Chamber was now adjourned, and on the 16th Gen. De Bono, whose activities as chief of police had appeared faulty, was replaced by Sig. Crispo Moncada, prefect of Trieste. The same day Sig. Federzoni was transferred from the Colonial Ministry to that of the Interior: he immediately cleared the department of the doubtful elements who had taken advantage of their connection with it for purposes of their own. On the

goth all the Ministers hands, and he effected had become Minister of Ministry by Prince di

placed their portfolios in the Premier’s the following changes: Federzoni, who the Interior, was replaced at the Colonial Scalea, Gentile (Œducation) by Count

“After the withdrawal of the Roman plebs on to the Av rentine Hill as a protest against the aristocracy, Opposition deputies did not, as has often been reported in the sorig pe actually meet on the Aventine. ye Uaioe, Aaa ge oc, a

Opposition Tactics-—The Opposition saw in the Matteotti affair a chance of mobilising a part of the nation against the Government, and secured the support of many who had adhered to Fascism only as long as they had believed it to be invincible, and were ready to abandon it the moment they thought that its days were numbered. Orlando, who had been elected on the Government list, and Giolitti, who had declared himself benevolently independent, joined the Opposition, professedly on constitutional grounds, but did not withdraw from the Chamber. The “ Aventine ”? groups on June 27 confirmed their abstention from Parliamentary activity, demanded the disbanding of the Milizia nazionale, the repression of all acts of violence by Fascists (without mentioning those committed by non-Fascists) and formed a committee for joint action; their unofficial leader was Giovanni Amendola. The conduct of the constitutional Opposition, in allying itself with the revolutionary Socialists and the Popolari extremists, was much criticised even in nonFascist circles. Various new Opposition associations were now formed, such as the Lega italica, the Italia libera (with which Gen. Peppino Garibaldi was connected), the Unione nazionale, etc. The directorate of the ex-combatants’ association also assumed an attitude of veiled hostility to the Government, and as this created a sharp division within its ranks the Government dissolved the directorate and placed a temporary board in charge. The press campaign now reached an unparalleled degree of violence, Don Sturzo’s Popolo vying with the Socialist Avanti! and Amendola’s Mondo, and was a direct incitement to many acts of violence committed against Fascists.? Sig. Mussolini therefore decided on July 8 to call into force the decree of July 12 1923 drafted by the Duke of Cesarò, and the prefects were ordered to apply Art. 3 of the Communal and Provincial law, whereby in the interests of public order they were empowered to confiscate issues of papers containing seditious matter or incitements to violence, and in the case of repeated offences temporarily to suspend their publication. This measure was afterwards completed by the royal decree of March 4 1926. Several Liberal and Democratic organs which systematically attacked the Government were acquired by pro-Fascists. The Crespi family, who were the chief sharcholders of the Milan Corrière della Sera, bought out Senator Albertini and his

brothers, who had for many years edited the paper; it then became more favourable to the Government in its outlook. The Milan Secolo, the Rome Gtornale d'Italia and the Naples Mattino, as well as some other papers, have undergone a similar transformation; many of the members of the staff remained with their respective papers under the new conditions, while those who refused to do so received large indemnities under the very liberal provisions of the Italian law on journalistic contracts. Several opposition papers continued to exist, including the Democratic Mondo, the Voce Republicana, the Avanti’, etc., but can exercise little iniluence. These measures were admittedly of a temporary character, enacted in view of the transition from the old to the new régime. An important reform was carried out in the Milizia nazionale; the decree of Aug. 4 provided that its members

should swear allegiance to the mane On Oct. 28 the Milizia took the oath. In the field of iaren ae a reay was concider with Britain whereby the Transjuba territory was ceded to Italy. There had been’ a previous agreement to that effect, but the British Foreign Office had raised difficulties, claiming that the question should be settled together with that of the Dodecanese; the Italian Govt. persuaded Mr. Ramsay MacDonald that the two questions were wholly unconnected, and the treaty was signed on July 15 1924, wherchy Italy secured a larger area than had been at first contemplated. Ratifications were exchanged on May 1 1925. 2 Since the Matteotti murder 65 Fascists kate D

ae

thcir opponents; among the victims was the deputy Casalini.

ed a

ITALY Mussolini’s

Skill—-The

Goverriment’s

509

position had been— Ġoverriment and officials from mia

undoubtedly shaken by the Matteotti affair, but no evidence was produced implicating any of its members in it, and Sig. Mussolini parried the attack with consummate skill. The Fascist party, except for an insignificant number of defections, rallied round him solidly, and after the first bewilderment nonparty opinion continued its support of him. ‘The country tended to calm down, in spite of occasional regrettable incidents provoked by both sides, of which the most serious was the murder of the Fascist deputy Casalini by a Communist on Sept. 12 1924. The Chamber opened on Nov. 12, Orlando and the Communists being present, while later Giolitti’s attack on the Government for its unconstitutional methods caused some surprise as coming from a statesman who while in office had proved a past-master in the art of violating the Constitution. The Premier had come to the conclusion that the electoral law enacted in 1923 had not proved satisfactory, and on Dec. 20 he presented a bill to Parliament providing for the re-establishment of the old one-member constituency system, eventually passed by 307 votes to 33, and approved by the Senate on Feb. 10 1925. This measure divided the “ Aventine,” as the Democrats and Liberals were in favour of it while the Socialists and Popolari were proportionalists. In his speech in the Chamber on Jan. 3 1925, Mussolini reaffirmed the uncompromising policy of Fascism, rejecting all alliances, and stated that the Government was determined to Fasctsitizzare the state, and that if the Opposition did not abstain from factious violence severe repressive measures would be resorted to. These declarations induced Salandra to withdraw his support, although, like Orlando and Giolitti, he did not retire on to the “ Aventine; ” a part of his group (the Liberal Right) broke away and formed the pro-Fascist National Liberals. In March Sig. Roberto Farinacci was appointed general secretary of the Fascist party, which he proceeded to reorganise, giving it a rigidly intransigent character. His speeches and articles represent the extremist attitude of Fascism. . National Defence.—The bill presented by the Minister of War, Gen. Di Giorgio, for reorganising the army on the basis of a reduction of the peace-time effectives, the sums thus economised to be devoted to material, encountered much opposition in military circles and in the Senate. On April ır the Premier proposed the adjournment of the debate and appealed to the generals in the Senate to collaborate in improving the nation’s defences. Gen: Di Giorgio felt called upon to resign, and Sig. Mussolini himself took charge of the War Ministry ad interim, with Gen. Cavallero as Under-Secretary; Gen. Badoglio was appointed chief of the staff and entrusted with the co-ordination of the army, navy and air force. On May s Adml. Thaon di Revel resigned, and Sig. Mussolini took over the Ministry of Marine and the newly created Air Ministry as well, with Adml. Sirianni and Gen. Bonzani as Under-Secretaries. This arrangement is regarded as leading the way to a future Ministry of National Defence. A great manifestation in honour of the King’s jubilee was held on June 7. It was generally recognised that the

prestige of the monarchy had been greatly strengthened by the Fascist régime.

The Government was rapidly regaining the ground it had lost in consequence of the Matteotti affair. The decision of the Senate judicial committee, rendered on June 12 1925, on Sig. Donati’s charges against Gen. De Bono, acquitted the latter of guilt in connection with the Matteotti affair and of the other more serious accusations, only certain minor counts being declared not proven. At the municipal elections of Palermo on Aug. 2 1925 the anti-Fascist list was supported by Orlando, who had mobilised his adherents in its favour, but the Fascist list secured a large majority. In consequence Orlando resigned his seat, declaring that there was no longer a place for him in Italian political life. His withdrawal from politics made very little impression, as he had already to a very large extent lost his political influence. The findings of the prosecuting section of the Court of Appeal on the Matteotti case in Dee. 1925, while committing Dumini and four accomplices to trial for murder, excluded premeditation and exonerated members of the

Cesare Rossi, yp:

nelli and Filippelli were consequently set free. The trial of the five men accused of having caused ihe Jah

of Sig. Matteotti was ended on March 24 1926, at Chieti.

Du-

mini, Volpi and Poveromo were found guilty of non-premeditated unintentional homicide extenuated by the subnormal physical resistance of Sig. Matteotti and by other circumstances; Viola and Malacria were found not guilty. The sentence on Dumini, Volpi and Poveromo was 5 years 11 months and 20 days penal servitude of which 4 years are remitted under the recent amnesty and one year and g months were already served in awaiting trial. They had therefore to serve only 2 months and 20 days imprisonment. Financial Reform.—lIn the spring of 1925 financial difficulties had arisen resulting in the serious depreciation of the lira, which fell from a little over roo to the £ to close on 150; this was partly due to the heavy excess of imports over exports in consequence of the bad harvest of 1924, but also to speculation initially promoted by certain members of the Opposition who hoped to break Fascism through a financial disaster and the consequent panic in a part of the public, which believed that the Government intended to reduce the currency to zero after the example of Germany. The measures enacted to restrain speculation aroused much opposition in stock exchange circles and caused a temporary suspension of operations. Prof. De Stefani subsequently modified the regulations, but the Premier felt that a bold treasury policy was now necessary, requiring the services of a practical financier. De Stefani’s great task in reorganising the fiscal system and balancing the budget was accomplished; for ig24-5 a surplus of 209 millions was announced, which eventually rose to 417 millions. In July he resigned and was replaced by Count Giuseppe Volpi, Governor of Tripoli, and formerly a business man of wide experience. : The American Debt.—After enacting new regulations,w Bich effectively restrained illicit speculation and improved the currency (the lira rose to 120 to the £) he undertook the settlement of the War debt to the U.S., which was weighing heavily on Italian finance. On Oct. 22 he sailed for Washington, accompanied by Dino Grandi, Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs, the manufacturer Pirelli, the banker Alberti and the diplomat Count Bonin Longare; on Nov. i4 an agreement was concluded whereby Italy’s debt, originally $2,148,000,000, was reduced to $2,042,000,000 to be spread over 62 years, which, calculating the interest at 5%, teduces the actual value of the debt to $360,000,000 (a reduction of 82%); as the interest to be paid amounts to $773,000,000 the total to-day (1926) is 433,000,000. Five

millions were to be repaid in each of the first five years, thereafter $20,000,000 till the 3oth year, and $50,000,000 for the remainder. The agreement was ratified by the U.S. senate on April 21. A loan floated by the American banks for $100,000,000 to enable the Government to stabilise the exchange was subscribed several times over, while other loans for public works and the railways were also successfully floated in New York. On Jan. 27 1926 Count Volpi signed with Mr. Churchill an agreement in settlement of the Italian War debt of £610,000,000, whereby Italy contracted to pay an annual sum of £4,500,000, slightly reduced at first, over a period of 62 years. The first payment of {£2,000,000 was made in March 1926. The Government undertook several important reforms in the field of internal legislation with the object of giving a more essentially Fascist character to the state. In order to bring Southern Italy up to the standard of the more progressive North a series of measures were enacted for co-ordinating agricultural land reclamation, drainage, the building of roads and railways, etc., for which adequate funds were provided and a suitable civil service organisation created. The wheat crop of 1925 had beaten all records, amounting to 64,000,000 quintals (the preWar average was 49,000,000), but Mussolini was determined to spare no efforts to increase the output until the 75,000,000 alinually required by the population could be grown at home, thereby avoiding heavy payments abroad; all forms of encouragement

to producers

were adopted and various agricultural

ITALY

570

measures enacted, constituting what was known as “ the battle for wheat.” Fascist Legtslation.—Of the political Fascist measures the follow-

ing are the most important :— In order to eliminate the influence of Freemasonry in the administrative and political life of the country often inspired by foreign interests, a law was enacted in Dec. 1925 whereby all associations are obliged to communicate their statutes and their membership lists to the authorities,

and, should secret societies continue

nevertheless to exist, civil servants are forbidden to belong to them on pain of dismissal. The law of Jan. 31 1926 provides that Italians living abroad who commit acts calculated to promote sedition in Italy or injure Italian interests shall be deprived of Italian citizenship, and in the graver cases even of their property. The Government 1s empowered up to Dec. 31 1926 by the law of Nov. 1925 to dismiss from the public service officials who commit overt acts against the state and existing institutions or attempt to prevent the enforcement of the laws or to frustrate its policy. The conditions of certain municipalities also called for reform. That of Rome, owing to the heavy charges entailed by the fact that it is the capital, could not defray expenditure out of the local revenues alone and constantly had to call upon the Government to make up the deficit; moreover it appeared desirable that the city should not be the scene of political wrangles and party conflicts. Consequently by the law of Oct. 28 1925, instead of an elective mayor and town council, a governor of Rome was created, to be appointed by Royal decree, assisted by two vice-governors, Io reffort and an advisory council of 80 consultort to be selected from lists presented by the various economic, professional and educational bodies and certain other associations. The law of Feb. 4 1926 provides that communes of less than 5,000 inhabitants, where municipal affairs were often run for the benefit of the mayor and assessors and their families, shall be administered by a Podestà appointed by royal decree, assisted by an advisory council of consultori; a podestà can also be appointed for five years

in larger communes where the elective council has been dissolved twice in two years. The authority of the prefects is strengthened with a view to co-

ordinating the various provincial services (law of March 1926), while the advisory provincial economic councils are created (law of March 1926) to assist the prefects and the Government in all matters of an economic character composed partly of ex-officio and partly of elective members. The law of Dec. 24 1925 conferred greater power of Parliamentary initiative on the Prime Minister and otherwise extended his authority; it also provides for the infliction of penalties for committing offences against him.

Labour Tribunals.—The most important measure of all is the law of April 3 1926, whereby the labour corporations are recognised and invested with the right of legally representing the various categories (employers, workers, employees, professional men, landlords, peasants, experts, etc.), and all labour conflicts are referred to the labour tribunals attached to courts of appeal; strikes and lock-outs are declared illegal and persons promoting them or participating in them are liable to penalties; the original draft of the bill provided that recourse to these tribunals should be voluntary in industrial conflicts, and obligatory only in those concerning agriculture, and Sig. Benni, president of the Industrial confederation, supported this distinction, whereas Sig. Rossoni, president of the labour syndicates, insisted that such re-

course should be obligatory in both cases.

Sig. Mussolini in-

tervened in the debate with a powerful speech. After he had taken a day for reflection, he decided in favour of Rossoni’s view, which was then accepted even by Benni himself, who withdrew his objections. Although most of the ‘ Aventinians ” continued to remain absent from the Chamber, the groups led by Salandra and Giolitti were present, together with Orlando’s followers and the Communists and a few stray Aventinians who had begun to drift back and the Communists; the latter took part in the debates and an amendment proposed by one of them was adopted. The unity of the Aventiniani was gradually breaking up through internal dissensions and personal jealousy. The general internal situation continued to improve, although affrays between Fascists and anti-Fascists occurred from time to time. The most serious of these was the attack on Sig. Amendoli, (qg.v.) near Montecatini, in the summer of 1925, and the outbreak in Florence on Oct. 3, when as the result of the murder of the Fascist pro-

vincial secretary Luporini by a leading Freemason, the latter and two Communists were murdered by Fascists, and the shops

and offices of several persons supposed to be Freemasons were wrecked. The affair was most regrettable, but it had been provoked by the anti-Fascists, and the persons responsible, whether Fascists, or opponents, were all apprehended, and while those charged with murder were awaiting trial before the assizes, the lesser offenders had already been tried and condemned. The prosperity of the country and the absence of unemployment have greatly weakened the Oppositions, many of whose members as well as many dissident Fascists have shown a tendency to abandon their uncompromising attitude, and not a few are applying for the Fascist tessera, but the party directorate are rigid in their refusal to readmit them. In March 1926 Farinacci, who had been counsel for the defence of Dumini in the Matteotti trial, resigned from the secretaryship of the Fascist party, and was succeeded by Augusto Turati; the party directorate was also changed at the same time, and on April 23 it decided to admit no new recruits to the party until 1927. The object of these various measures and of the general policy of the Government is to give an essentially Fascist character to

the state and its institutions, so that the main principles of Fascism, notably the idea of the duty of all citizens toward the state and the necessity that all should co-operate under the guidance of the government and of the men best suited for the task in every field of activity, for the common good and the dignity, prosperity and greatness of Italy, should come to be taken for granted by the nation. It is a policy similar to that of the men of the Risorgimento who succeeded in getting the then novel ideas of the unity and independence of Italy accepted by the mass of the people, who had until that time been indifferent or opposed to them. The gradual elimination of the Opposition was based on the view that an opposition in the sense of a reasoned criticism of the Government’s policy, which the Government itself would have welcomed, did not exist; there were only the survivors of groups belonging to a dead past, who hoped by a policy of factious scandalmongering, in alliance with the avowedly anti-national groups, to reconquer their old predominance. Hence the lack of interest on the part of the mass of the public at their disappearance. The Plot against Mussolini.mA sensation was caused on Nov. § 1925 when it was announced that a plot had been discovered to murder Sig. Mussolini. The Socialist ex-deputy Zaniboni, was arrested in a room in a hotel commanding the Palazzo Chigi, armed with a rifle with which he intended to shoot the Premier while he was taking the salute during the march past of the patriotic societies on Armistice Day (Nov. 4). Gen. Capello (g.v.} ex-commander of the II. Army, an active Freemason and a bitter opponent of the Government, was arrested for complicity in the attempt. Mussolini was greeted with enthusiastic

demonstrations in consequence of on his life was made by the Hon. demented Irishwoman, on April 7 ture for Tripoli. —The Premier was

his escape. Another attempt Violet Gibson, an apparently 1926, on the eve of his deparslightly wounded in the nose,

but proceeded nevertheless on his journey to visit Italy’s North African colony. In the field of foreign affairs a treaty with Egypt was concluded, whereby the Jaghbub oasis was ceded to Italy, who in exchange ceded to Egypt es Sollum. The oasis is important both as the headquarters of the Senussi sect and because it dominates the caravan routes between Egypt and Cyrenaica; by possessing it Italy will be able to prevent the contraband of arms from Egypt to the rebel tribes. The question had been long debated between Britain and Italy, and although Jaghbub

had been promised to Italy, Lord Milner had informed Senator Scialoja in April 1920 that, as in the case of Transjuba, the agreement would only become effective after a general settlement of all the problems before the Peace Conference, thus coupling the Jaghbub question with that of the Dodecanese. As we have seen, this connection was rejected by Italy, and Britain had ended by accepting the Italian view, but with the concession of independence to Egypt in 1922 negotiations had had to be renewed with that country, and were concluded on Dec. 6 1925.

ITALY The policy of the Fascist Govt. to enforce the teaching of Italian in the schools of the Alto Adige, and otherwise to give an Italian character to this district inhabited by 180,000 to 200,000 Germans, aroused irritation in Germany, and the panGerman elements voiced by Herr Held, the Bavarian Premier, promoted an agitation against Italy, advocating a boycott of Italian goods, and accusing the the population. Sig. Mussolini orous speech in the Chamber warning the German Govt. that

Italian authorities of terrorising on Feb. 6 1926 delivered a vigdenouncing this campaign and unless it ceased Italy would not

hesitate to adopt strong measures.

This outburst caused wide-

spread excitement abroad, but it achieved its object. Herr Stresemann replied in a very minor tone, admitting that the charges of persecution and terrorism were untrue, and this was confirmed by a part of the German Press, although the Italianisation of the district was deplored. In Italy Sig. Mussolini’s conduct received general approval, as it was believed that he had spoken to the Germans in the only language which they understood. The anti-Italian agitation in Germany in fact died down, and relations between the two countries had become

better than they had been for a long time. The Italian Govt. attached particular importance to a good understanding with the Balkan States, and on the occasion of the visit to Rome of M. Ninchich in Feb. 1926 the question of Italo-Yugoslav relations was gone into once more, the conclusion arrived at being that in view of the general state of Europe, a yet closer collaboration between the two countries than had heretofore been realised was desirable. The visit to Rome of the

Greek Minister M. Roufos, while not leading to any definite result, was an indication of the cordial sentiments of Greece towards Italy. The year 1925 was proclaimed by Pope Pius XI., an Anno Santo, and over 1,000,000 pilgrims flocked to Rome from all parts of the world. The Italian Govt. and the Rome municipality collaborated with the Vatican in organising the transport of the pilgrims and in making arrangements for their stay. Imposing ceremonies were held in St. Peter’s and the other churches, undisturbed by any untoward incident, in spite of the attempts of the anti-Clericals and the Freemasons to discourage the pilgrimages. Relations between the Church and the State continued to improve in spite of occasional misunderstandings, the Facsist Govt. attaching particular importance to conciliating the Vatican. ! i BIBLIOGRAPHY. —U. Angeli, Guerra vinta, pace perduta, Scritti politici, 1910-20 (Rome, 1921); F. Meda, Ii Partito socialista italiano, dalla prima alla terza Internazionale (Milan, 1921); B. Mussolini, Discorsi politici, ete. (Milan, 1921); and La Pace sociale et l'avenire d'Italia. Discorst pronunciati dail’ ottobre 1923 all’ aprile, 1924 (Rome, 1924); J. Alazard, Communtsme et ‘‘ Fascio"’ en Italte, etc. (Paris, 1922); U. Foscanelli, D'Annunzio e il fascismo (Milan, 1922); G. Gallavresi, Italia e Austria 1850-1914 (Milan, 1922); P. Gorgolini, Il Fascismo nella vita italiano. Con prefazione di Benito Mussolini (Torino, 1922); The Fascist Movement in Italian Life, trans. by M. D. Petre (London, 1923); and La Rivoluzione fascista .. . Discorsi olitici di Benito Mussolini (Torino, 1923); V. Grasso, I} Fascismo e 'nuomo- Mussolini (Palermo, 1922); G Herron, The Revival of Italy (London, 1922); A. Rudman, Mazzint, patriot and prophet (London, 1922); G. Salvemini, HZ Partito popolare e la questione romana (Florence, 1922); T. Tittoni, Modern Italy: its intellectual, cultural and financial aspects (Williams College Publications, London-New York, 1922);G. d’Annunzio, Perl’ Italia degli [taliani (Milan, 1923); L. Bis-

1 In the autumn of 1925 Mussolini made speeches of an unmistakably imperial nature. After the Locarno conference he said in the Chamber at Rome that ‘* while the words of peace glisten on the horizon I must recognise that the skies have become populated with prodigious airplanes and that new and deadly weapons are appearing within the sea.” Early in 1926 he went to Tripoli, where he addressed the Colonial Agricultural Congress, saying “‘ We are hungry for land because we are prolific and intend to remain so. There is no doubt that my journey is destined to have profound repercussions on_the spirit of the Italian people, repercussions which will be beneficial

since that is our indestructible will.” On July 23 he delivered another speech, breathing the same spirit. Although Mussolini has thus been very outspoken in his addresses to his own people, he has been conciliatory in his relations with other European powers, and is very ready to deny any thought of aggression by force, trusting rather to friendly agreement to secure his ends. (Ep. E. B.)

57/1

solati, La Politica estera dell’ Italia dal 1897 al 1920.

Scritti e discorsi

(Milan, 1923); E. Corradini, Discorsi politict, 1902-1923 (Florence, 1923); P. Hazard, L'Italie vivante (Paris, 1923); O. Por, Fascism, tr. .

by E. Townshend (London, 1923); E. Ciccotti, Crondche quadriennali dt politica ed estera, 1919-1923, etc., 2 vol., (Milan, 1924); G. Ferrero, Four Years of Fascism... tr. from Da Fiume a Rome, by E. W.

Dickes (London, 1924); L. Gangemi, La Politica economica e finan-

ziaria del Governo Fascista nel periodo dei pieni poteri (Bologna, 1924);

H. Joly, Les Crises sociales de l'Italie (Paris, 1924); C. Pellizzi, Problemi e realta del Fascismo (Florence, 1924); F. Schotthoefer, J/ Fascio. Sinn und Wirklichkeit des italienischen Fascismus (Frankfurt,

1924); Count C. Sforza, Pensiero e azione di una politica estera italiana. Discorsi e scritti (Bari, 1924); L. Villari, The Awakening of Italy. The Fascista Regeneration (London, 1924); M. G. Sarfatti, The Life of Benito Mussolini, trans. and abridged by F. White (London, 1925); and A. Solmi, The Making of Modern Italy (Il Risorgimento italiano) (London, 1925). See also annual Almanacci italiano Ben-

parad (Florence),

(L. V.*)

ll. THE PROBLEM OF DEFENCE No country, with the exception of India, is protected by nature in the way that Italy is protected by the formidable barrier of the Alps, which not only affords a defence against invasion by land, but also protects her, to a great extent, from attack from

the air. By the treaty of peace signed at Vienna in 1866 Italy was denied the full advantage of her natural strategic frontier and Austria was allowed to retain a foothold south of the Alps in the north and east of the province of Venice; throughout the Great War Italy was never able to overcome the advantage which this adjustment conferred on Austria. As the result of the Treaty of St. Germain Italy, for the first time in modern history, has secured as her political frontier the line that must always be her strategic frontier. The Italian frontier now follows the high Alps from end to end. This frontier, fixed by nature, has been strengthened by diplomacy, for one-third of it is bounded by the neutral and buffer State of Switzerland. The ethnographical frontier, however, is not identical with the strategic frontier, and Italy now suffers the disadvantage of including within her boundaries about 250,000 Austrians in the Trentino and 250,000 Slovenes in Istria. As an offset to her strong land frontier Italy suffers strategically from a very extended coastline, though with the former great Austrian naval base of Pola now in her hands the Adriatic may almost be considered as a purely Italian sea. The Military Forces.—The importance which pad attaches to her military forces is best indicated by her military budget, which for 1924-5 and 1925-6 in millions of lire were as follows:— Army

Navy _ . Air Force Colonial troops

1924-5

1925-6

1,990

2,130

925 399 195

980 449 252

The above forces are under a Minister of War, a Minister of Marine

anda Minister of Air. After the World War, Italy followed the British example in establishing an air force distinct from the army and navy; at first this was under an under secretary responsible to the Minister of the Interior, but in 1925 a Minister for Air was created on an equality with the Minister for War and the Minister of Marine. The three offices were, however, temporarily in the hands of Sig. Mussolini, the Prime Minister.

In 1925 also the appointment of a chief of the general staff was

created: this officer, who will be a marshal or general of army, will

be responsible to the Minister for War for the army and to the President of the Supreme Commission of Defence (Prime Minister) for everything relating to the execution of the Supreme Commission of Defence and for the eventual operations of war of the three services.

|

The Regular Army.—The army is now organised in 10 army corps

stationed as follows: I. Turin, IT. Milan, IH]. Verona, IV. Bologna, V. Trieste, VI. Florence, VII. Rome, VIII. Naples, IX. Bari, X. Sicily. It will be seen that five of these army corps are stationed in or about the valley of the Po. These 10 army corps consist of 30 divisions, three of three brigades each, 16 of two brigades each, and rt of one brigade each, making a total of 52 brigades. In addition to the 30 divisions there are three cavalry brigades, three groups of Alpini, each of nine battalions, 12 regiments of Bersaglieri, a tank corps. The length of service in the army is for 18 months. The numbers called up each year are about 180,000. The recruits are called up in May; so between May and Sept. there are therefore

ITALY

572 two classes with

the colours,

less the number dismissed

after

12 months’ service (about 60,000); the maximum strength in these months is therefore about 300,000. The Colonial Army.—-The colonial army consists of both Italian

and native units, the latter with Italian officers and a proportion of native N. C. O.s.

In 1925 the colonial garrisons consisted of 12,350

Italians and 23,000 native troops, of which all except 8,500 were in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. 3 The National Militia.—The national militia is the development of the Fascisti militia. In Oct. 1924 this force by decree was declared to be part of the armed forces of the state, took the oath of allegiance to the King, and became subject to the same disciplinary and penal regulations as the regular army. In peace the national militia is directly under the orders of the Prime Minister; on mobilisation such members as are liable to join as reservists are drafted into the army,

navy or air force; other militiamen

come

These auxiliary air forces, although working under the orders of the

other services, will depend on the air force in regard to technical matters, administration and promotion.

Munition Factories.—During the World War Italy was handicapped to an extent unknown by other Powers by her lack of raw materials and by the limited capacity of her munition factories, and was largely dependent on the Allies. Her home resources in coal and oil are extremely limited (see Economic History, below), and she has only very limited quantities of iron ore. During the War she developed her metallurgical industry with great energy and determination; the great works of Ansaldo and Fiat are a remarkable testimony of this development. In the manufacture of aeroplanes, airships and mechanical transport Italy is now in the forefront of manufacturing nations, whilst in regard to armament she is now self-supporting. Although her lack of raw materials must always present an

almost insuperable difficulty to Italy, she has remedied this deficiency as far as is possible by exploiting her limited resources and by the development of electrical power. In regard to man power, Italy has no difficulties; her population of 40,000,000, which increases at a rate of 500,000 a year, is ample for her purposes. (J. Du.)

AND

FINANCIAL

HISTORY!

Population.—A remarkable increase of the Italian population took place between 1910 and 1925. The losses due to the

War, to epidemics and disasters and to the decrease of births in the years 1916-9, failed to check the increase, since they were balanced by the return of a number of emigrants (estimated at about 1,000,000) while comparatively few, about 363,000 have

since left the country.

Thus, it is estimated that the 34,600,000

enumerated in the rg11I census, giving a density of 121 to the sq. km. had increased at the end of 1925 to 40,500,000 or 131 to the sq. km. (including the restored territories, which are more sparsely populated than the peninsula), and this in a country two-thirds mountainous or very hilly, poor in minerals and with a soil exploited by some 3,000 years of cultivation. The birth-rate, like that of most countries, shows a continuous decline since the ’seventies, but infantile mortality has also t Note should be taken of the varying value of the lire. Expressed in lire the annual average value of sterling was: 1914

25.35

I9I5 1916 1917 1918

27.90 31.27 33-93 30.31

TO20)

1925.4: a S 50.08 The parity value of the lire is 25.22. IgI9g

2"

92k. 1Q22 6 1923 1924-4,

The increase in the number of marriages has com-

under the control

of the Minister of War. The members of the national militia are all volunteers. The functions of this force embrace co-operation with the army and public security services in the maintenance of internal order and the defence of Italian interests throughout the world. The militia is divided into two battalions. In 1925 the strength of the Ist battalion was 175,000 and of the 2nd battalion 120,000; the Ist battalion is composed of men who by reason of their occupation or domicile are liable to be called up at any moment. A general calling up of the national militia can only be ordered by the Prime Minister himself, : The Air Force.—This force, which is under a Minister for Air, is subdivided into four portions: An independent air force, which will consist of 78 squadrons; the army air force, which will consist of 57 squadrons; the naval air force, which will consist of 35 squadrons and six airships; the colonial air force, which will consist of 12 squadrons.

Ill. ECONOMIC

diminished.

pensated for the decrease during the War, but the birth-rate pet marriage is only at the pre-War level. | a This rapid increase has resulted in the flooding of the labour market. The number of workers between the ages of 16 and 25 is probably about 24,000,000 as against about 20,500,000 in Io1t. The difficulty of absorbing this mass of labour would have been even greater than it has been were it not for improvements in industrial equipment, factory organisation, agricultural technique and also the extension of Italian territory. The pressure, however, is increased by the great number of war victims, who are unable to contribute their full share of work.

&

4

ae

4

99.79

. 2 «© «

. . ee 2 e «wa

. e. «a 4

93.91 IOTECO 99.75 TO2QcT4

«

&

>

>

121.54 |

T Period

Marriages | Births Deaths oe 4 Per r000 | Per 1000 | Per 1000 | pee tooo | of pop. of pop. of pop. of pop.

1908-10. 8-01 Normal pre-War! period 7°53 War period ? 3-43 Post-War period? | . 10-31 Average of years IQII-24 . 7-40

33°30

20-07

I1-40

31:86 20°53 30:00

19:61 22:99 17-60

12-14 1:83 12-60

27°80

19-60

8-25

1! 1909-15 for births, 1909-14 for all other columns. ? 1916-19 for births, 1915-8 for all other columns. 3 1919-24 for births, 1920-4 for all other columns. 4 Excess of live births over deaths.

Emigration.—In 1911 the Italians abroad numbered 5,500,000, including those who had emigrated long before that date but had retained their nationality, and whose children had declared themselves Italians. As the result of a special investigation, Savorgnan found that in the go years 1872-1913 emigration had effected a reduction of at least 3,800,000 persons in the natural increase of the population of Italy. During the War the movement naturally slackened. Conscription, and the intense

demand for manpower at home removed alike the possibility of and the incentive to migration. The total number of emigrants in the four years was, in fact, barely three-fifths of the pre-War annual average. With the return of peace began a feverish race

abroad, which was at its height in 1920 when those who had returned from the United States during the War realised that

if they delayed they might not be able to get back at all. The numbers of those repatriated since 921 have amounted annually to about half the total number of emigrants. In all probability the proportion was formerly greater, since nearly all of those in Europe and about 55° of those overseas returned for the winter. Nevertheless, when a census of Italians abroad was taken in 1921, it was found that there were 7,500,000 of them scattered about the world. For statistics of the movement of population and the restriction of migration to the United States see MIGRATION. The present stream of emigrants differs considerably from that of 1909-13 in respect of quantity and quality, countries of destination and districts of origin. The restrictions introduced by the United States and other countries have not only reduced the total number of emigrants, but have tended especially to exclude the Southern Italians, whose need for an outlet is greatest. The average of Italian emigrants to North America was about 209,000 for the years 1919 and 1920, and for the years 1921-5 about 50,000; whereas the yearly quota allowed in 1926 was under 4,000. so Percentage Distribution of Italian Emigration From Cen-

From N.

Destination

o tral kaly

Italy

1909-13! 1922-4 Europe

1909-13] 1922-4

From

South

Italy

|1909-13] 1922-4

and

the Mediter-

ranean basin} Countries overseas

30

46

.

|

7

6

4

a -

6

ITALY In 1924 France took 201,71g5 Italians, mainly from North Italy, and since the Armistice the annual average has been 126,ooo, or nearly double the number employed there in 1914. This state of things is, however, unlikely to continue; the reconstruction of the invaded districts is practically complete, and the demand for agricultural workers in the Gironde and the Garonne has now been almost satisfied. In the near future Italians will only be wanted in the industrial regions of Northern France. After France, the largest market for their labour is the Argentine Republic; Switzerland, Germany and Austria will assuredly not need them as they did in the past. This slackening in the flow of emigration has not, however, checked the tendency to an increase in the proportion of skilled workers among the emigrants, and a lessening of the former prrpendr rence of agriculcarat labourers.

Percentage of Emigrants l

.

Penod

IQIQ

1920

Iaa-

32

30

I2

I2

3

II

16

13

9

17

17

21

cul- |bourers turists

1909-13 .

i

.

|

Indus-

| Agri-

26

20

yt . | Brick| trial

. tic

Other

layers | Work| vante Serers

10

22.

|OCSupations

12

9

PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY

Agriculiure—Despite

considerable

fluctuations

| from

ro11

onwards agriculture has afforded a profitable occupation to 52 per cent of the population, t.e., to ıı millions over ro years of age. Besides food for direct consumption, the products included

the raw materials of more than half the total of the country’s manufactures, indirectly providing occupation for 27-8% of those employed in industry. In the years immediately preceding the War the average annual production was valued at about 7,800 million lire. Soil and conditions vary greatly, ranging from the rich fertility of some parts of Campania and Sicily, which will grow all kinds of luxury produce, to the moorlands of

the north or the chalk-hills of Tuscany and the Lucan clays; from the plains of Lombardy and Venetia, where the “ special ” crops (tomatoes, sugar-beet, hemp, rice, vegetables, fruit) give a good return to energetic and prudent cultivators, to bare pastures scorched by the sun all through the rainless summers, and marshy lands where the farmer is handicapped by malaria and the poverty of the soil. Regions of the most intensive and extensive cultivation border on one another; the large estates situated on the gentle slopes which rise from the sea shore to the hills adjoin land divided into thousands of tiny holdings. Next to miserable marshlands with neither houses, trees, shade nor water, may be seen fertile oases with olives, oranges and lemons. These various agricultural regions do not all permit of the utilisation of large capital in the form of machinery, selected seeds, pedigree stocks, proper buildings and skilled workers. Where

climate and soil are favourable the owner can create a garden; elsewhere the struggle is long and hard and the return extremely small. In such areas capital is not the chief need, but the Government can do valuable work in preventing the damage done

573

by erosion in the antamansa regions and by making roads anc aqueducts, Progress in these des is Jo being made, though it suffered a set-back during the four years of war, when, owing to the requirements of the army, labour, fertilisers, machinery and means of transport, were all difficult to obtain, and produce was requisitioned at fixed prices which were far too low to compensate for the many months of laborious toil. Faced by all these difficulties and by the necessity of slaughtering large numbers of cattle and cutting down the forests for military requirements, Italian agriculturists have achieved a great feat in surmounting this troubled period without experiencing an excessive diminution of crops, cattle and forests. The greatest difficulties, however, came in the next years, 1919-22, when the effects of the great deterioration of the soil during the War period were felt; the supply of fertilisers was still very scarce, and cultivators suffered from the uncertainty of prices, the constant disputes with the wage-earners, and the high costs of transport. But these troubles ended at last, and the abundant harvests of 1923 and 1925 made ample amends for the former privations. The increase in production has been obtained with scarcely any increase in the area under cultivation. Much is due to the intensification of effort, to a more generous use of fertilisers. The efforts and sacrifices of the small proprietors, above all the new settlers, were specially meritorious, for the acquisition of the land had often deprived them of most of their savings, with the result that they had to reduce their standard of living to a very low level in order to scrape together their working capital.

Superphosphates, nitrates, basic slag, potash and other fertilisers, supplics of which were heavily reduced during the War, are all now being used in greater quantities than in 1913. The import figures of agricultural machinery do not, owing to the changes in the tariff, give a correct index of the increase or decrease in the purchase of farm machinery; it is certain that the home manufacture increased after the War. Irrigation is also making progress, and year by year new schemes are being started; at the same time water-logged areas are being drained by means of electrical power with the result of abolishing malaria as well as improving the fertility of the land. In 1to11 Italy was nearly self-supporting as regards agricul-

tural produce, except in wheat and timber, and the amounts of these imported were almost entirely paid for by the exports of other agricultural products, so that the agricultural balance is really about even. Morcover, the industry is highly profitable; at the average prices current, the gross value of the total produce of the soil is estimated at 41,700 million lire. The total value would probably have to be increased by several hundred million lire if the whole of the peasant production could be brought into

the account, for it must be remembered that no less than 87% of the rural proprietors cultivate very small holdings, most of which are less than half a hectare, though 6/7ths of the total agricultural land is being held by 214,000 “ large ” and “ medium sized ” and 500,000 ‘‘ small” owners. But even excluding this supplementary amount, the figure of 41,700 million lire represents an average of 3,180 lire contributed by each agricultural worker over ten years of age; and an average value of 1,467 lire

Principal Agricultural Products (in thousands of Quintals)

Wheat

Maize Rice ; . Potatoes : Sugar-beet Grapes , à : Wine. ; Olives . ; ; Olive Oil i . Oranges and Lemons or Citrons and other fruits Hemp

49,270 ICO 25,680 100 4,870 100 16,560 | 100 17,240 100 70,420 100 45,520 100 10,770 100 1,810 100 Atte 7,890

92 85

61,190 ) 22,660

124 538

97

5,210

107

97 79

26,990 83,340

156 11g’

1,850

104

6,180

78

45,510 23,000 5,320 14,310 12,580 55,400 35,800 12,980 2,180

2 gO 109 87 73 7 7 120 120

45,400 21,800 4,700 13,650 16,800 56,600 36,200 11,300 1,900

79 105 105

7,330

93

6,430

80

83

7,960

53:950 11,420

108

II8 106

|

100 Too

ITALY

574

of heavy produce for each hectare of agricultural or forest land, the lowest regional average being Sardinia with 460 lire and the highest, Lombardy with 2,580 lire. Indusiry.—Of the 5,000,000 adults shown by the census of 1911 as occupied in industry, probably not less than a third were

not employed in factories; and it must not be forgotten that anumber of women and children entered as domestic workers actually help in the manufacture of articles of daily use or in making the numerous local products which reflect Italian artistic traditions, good taste and native skill, and which enter largely into the export trade. Such wares are embroidery, lace, carved furniture and terra cottas, wrought iron and chased metal work, decorative glass, spun glass and mosaics, stamped leather and illuminated vellum, all of which give ample opportunity to skilled workers and are mainly fashioned in small workshops. The multiplicity of such workshops and the extent of the sales to the public show the importance of these crafts. Evidence of industrial development is generally sought for in the progress of large undertakings where thousands of workers are massed together, and certain branches of heavy industry are usually looked on as providing the best indices of the aggregate national activity. In Italy, however, the scarcity of fuel and of minerals, the difficulties of land transport due to the mountainous nature of the country, and also the special qualities of the working classes, who are not excessively robust, though quick, industrious and intelligent, have led to a preference for the working up of food products, textiles of various kinds, delicate machinery and housing accessories. The census of industries which was taken on Jan. 10 1911 showed a very large number of undertakings (243,926), distributed throughout the country, the larger units being concentrated in North Italy, the smaller spread over the other parts of the peninsula. The larger units were comparatively few

(only one-tenth

of the total

number—22,413

607,000, fell in the summer to half that figure and did not rise to any very great extent in the following winter. At the end of 1925, the number of unemployed was still reduced to the very small figure of 122,000. Certain undertakings which had been over-capitalised failed, and this directed attention to the necessity of reducing costs of production, which became of vital importance when active competition was renewed. Price Level —The recovery was brought about by the closing of the gap between internal and foreign price levels during 1924 and by the diminution in the violence of fluctuations. Prospective costs and profits could then be estimated with less uncertainty. Another contributory cause was the halt in the upward course of wages; in 1921 these were five and a half times higher than the pre-War level, but they fell in 1922, and throughout 1923 and in 1924 remained at barely five times the pre-War figure, t.e., the rise was a little less than that in the cost of living, which was nearly six times the pre-War level. But in 1925 statistics show a very marked upward trend of the level of wages, caused by the ever-increasing cost of living. Imports of raw materials increased, and the mining industry almost entirely recovered. Heavy Industry.—The production of pig-iron rose to only about a tenth below the 1910-4 average, and less was imported, since scrap was being more and more utilised for the manufacture of steel, both by the Martin and electric processes. Imports of Principal Raw Materials (thousands of metric tons) Annual

National Production (thousands of metric tons)

I ron and Stee]

average

to be exact—

employed more than 10 persons each), but this tenth possessed three-quarters of the aggregate mechanical and labour power. The distribution of the women, who constituted a third of the total number of persons employed, indicates the importance of the textile industries. These have been traditional for centuries in Italy, and were to be found in every valley, while domestic production had not yet disappeared. Next in importance, in respect of numbers of undertakings and employees, came food manufactures, while the steel and engineering industries were making but slow progress. The War stimulated nearly every branch of industry, and the introduction of the shift system led to the expansion of plant and to new kinds of manufacture in which by-products, formerly neglected, could be utilised. The extraction of iron ore, pigiron production and steel showed great increases. In addition to arms and munitions the requirements of the army included a vast number of commodities ranging from cloth to canvas, from shoes to motor-cars, from rubber to paper and from chemicals to naval dockyards. All these shared in the boom which followed the cessation of hostilities. Employment.—After the Armistice a crisis was brought about by the necessity of substituting other industries for those of the War period, and the difficulties of forecasting demands were intensified by the shortage of raw materials, and by a fierce struggle for the control of associated or subsidiary products. With the assistance of industrial exhibitions organised at Milan, Padua and Naples, and of vertical combines which were formed on an extensive scale, the very difficult period of 1919-20 was at length surmounted. The workers’ desire for a “ new order ”’ which should give them control of the factories, provoked a number of vast conflicts and strikes. In the first year after the Armistice 1,600,000 workers ‘‘ downed tools,” and 2,300,000 in

the following year.

of unemployed, which in Jan. 1922 had reached the maximum of

In the two succeeding years the world crisis

made itself felt, and the effects were intensified because, owing

to the bad harvests, the spending power of the poorer classes was greatly reduced and the demand for manufactured goods thereby lessened. But in 1922 conditions began to improve; in

that year there were less than 448,000 strikers, and the number

A still greater expansion of the steel industries was hindered by the scarcity of minerals and of coal, the inferior physique of the workers and the difficulties both of organising vertical combinations and of maintaining their efficiency. Hence the preference of the Italians for industries where these drawbacks are not felt in the same degree; such are the building industry, the making of cement blocks and the preparation of foodstuffs for which there is abundant demand. Tanneries and stocking factories have greatly increased in number and capacity, and their products, like those of automobile works, are very largely exported. The film and armament industries have fallen to a very low level, the results of which are especially felt in the redeemed provinces where they were formerly of great importance.

On

the other hand, beet sugar is being produced in 53 factories as against a little over 30 in rotz, and the production, which averaged 1,700,000 quintals in the five years preceding the War, has lately reached 2,750,000 quintals; it is true that in r925 the amount fell to the rgro level, but the set-back is merely temporary. As soon as the stocks accumulated during the boom period have been sold off, the beet area will certainly be extended both in Emilia and the Veneto, where four-fifths both of the cultivation and of the manufacture are carried on. In Campania about half of the preserved vegetable foodstuffs are made, of which the annual value is about 368,000,000 lire, and three-fifths are exported. Texttles.—As regards textiles, the woollen branches of the industry seem on the whole to have made most progress; larger quantities of raw material are being consumed, and certain processes are being undertaken which were formerly not attempted in Italy. Washing and combing are no longer done almost entirely abroad, thanks to the improvements in machinery and equipment which have been made since 1915, especially in

ITALY

579 Production

Exports

“Annual

average

Raw silk

of

production

vay cite?

of

cotton, spun and woven

EC

(kilogrammes) | (kilogrammes)

(quintals)

1910-4 Žž. 1915-8 I19I19-2I

4,780,000 2,492,000 3,600,000

7,193,400 4,720,000 4,740,000

538,800 586,000 575,000

1922

3,990,000

4,410,000

390,600

1923

5,233,000

5,180,000 5,440,000 6,370,000

587,900 775,500 800,000

5,563,000

Imports of

of

of

electric power

f

lignit eee

Poan

J l cpa |

(tons)

2,300 3,200 4,100 4,300

5,400

benzene and residual products

a

| IMIMeeeħħniĖiħŘŮĖinIn

(tons)

654,000 1,540,000 1,335,000 946,000

1,133,000

6,000

petroleum,

(quintals)

9,940,000 682,000 645,000 8,838,000

1,387,006 2,260,000 2,310,000 2,911,000

9,134,000

3,489,000

10,500,000

4,250,000

11,221,000

1,048,000

7,600

o IMMM

3,767,000

1 The whole year. 2 Considerable quantities of cocoons are imported—hence the excess of export over home production,

Number and Amount of Capital of the Principal Jotnt Stock Companies at the Beginning of Each Year

Piedmont and the Vicentino. The silk and cotton manufactures are also expanding; better qualities of raw materials are being

used (e.g., Egyptian cotton) and equipment and processes have been modernised and improved. In fine, owing to the cheapness of female labour the textile industries have passed beyond the

stage of catering for the home demand and for the poorest of the foreign markets, and the exports are no longer confined to the coarser kinds of fabrics, but include grades of medium fineness. The manufacture of mixed fabrics has been greatly facilitated . by the increasing development of artificial silk, for which until a few years ago Italy depended largely upon foreign countries. Motive Power.—An index of the manufacturing capacity of Italy is afforded by the figures of consumption of fuel and motive power; although the Italian mines yield only one-twentieth of the country’s industrial requirements, the amount of hydroelectric energy (leaving out of account the periods of interruption due to the exceptional drought) is almost three times as

great as in 1913 and takes the place of at least 7,000,000 tons of

Year

Number

Total capita | Amount per society (million lire) (m illion lire) 1,870 2,090 35340 3,160 3,020 3,160 31459

5,506 79257 20,249 21,293 23,421 28,261 36,278

Stock-exchange quotations of securities reflect the judgment of the market as to the resources,

prospective profits, etc., of each under-

taking. When grouped together for each industry the figures provide an index of the general financial forces influencing the different branches of economic activity.

coal. In addition, the imports of coal are about the same as in 1913, while those of petroleum and benzene have nearly trebled

Index Numbers of Stock-Exchange Quotations for the Principal Joint Stock

in quantity. Savings.—During the I5 years 1911-25 various set-backs, especially in the form stitutions and investments at fixed rates monetary depreciation have been felt by

Aggregate capital, calculated on the basis of 1913 purchasing power of the lira (million lire)

Companies and State Securities Calculated by Riccardo Bachi. Basis roo for 1913

savings have experienced of deposits in savings inof interest. The effects of those who did not wish or

1918 | 1922

1923 | 1924

did not know how to transfer their holdings of fixed interest bearing

securities into industrial shares or real estate. on bonds

has risen from 4% to 6% and over.

The rate of interest It is questionable

whether the 35:7 milliard lire deposited in various credit and savings institutions in the middle of 1924 represented an equivalent purchasing power to the 7:6 milliard lire similarly deposited in June 1914. In view of the rise of prices and diminution in the purchasing power of the lira, the deposits in the middle of 1924 were probably equivalent to about 5:5 milliard lire (pre-War values), a it should be observed that current savings.are more often invested directly instead of through the medium of credit institutions. The issue of both long and short dated treasury bonds, the total of which rose from a few hundred millions in 1914 to 30 milliard lire over a period when the consolidated public debt also trebled in amount, indicates one of the many new avenues for savings which formerly found their way into banks and savings institutions. {A still larger field is now offered by industry, for example, the resumption of building after the War has absorbed a considerable amount of savings.) It has been estimated that new savings in 1925 amounted to 15 milliard lire, equivalent to about 23 milliard lire (pre-War values). The accompanying tables show the amount deposited in savings and credit institutions, the official discount rate, and the number and capitali‘sation of joint stock companies:—

Amounts deposited in the Postal and other Savings Institutions, banks, credit banks and peoples’ banks, Monti di pieta, etc. eve (in millions of lire) Official rate of discount . : i Rate of interest on the public debt (from annual averages) i ; Index numbers of wholesale prices of commodities (R. Bachi) (from annual average) . . . —.

Credit Institutions . Inland Transport Maritime Transport Cotton i Mining. Tron and Steel Engineering Automobile Electricity Chemical . Sugar. Food . : Real Estate General Average State Securities

Bankruptcies.—The third during the War following three years, As the population has and eae more normal,

number of bankruptcies, after falling to oneperiod and to less than one-seventh in the rose tn 1924 to the level of 10 years previously. become denser and those engaged in industry numerous, this figure may be regarded as

7,595 5-5-50

12,231 5-5-50

20,659 5-6

28,316 6-5°50

32,334 5°50

35,698 5:50

36,000 5:50-7

3°62

5:66

6-62

6°55

5:97

5:28

5°44

100

409

624

562

575

585

690

ITALY

576

Sales of Property.—The sales of fixed property, which increased in the period of social upheaval and threats of expropriation, continue to be somewhat numerous, owing to the profitability of small holdings and to the break up of the large estates, The very small valucs of the average transfer indicate a new reduction in size of properties transferred. Allowing for a certain amount of evasion it is possible that this reflects an increase in the number of transfers of small properties for building purposes. ae : | | Number of Annua Bank-

AVeTARE

ruptcies

1912-4

7,170

1915-8 I9Ig-21 1922

1923

1924 1925

ae

x

|

al

1914-5

2,520 1,007 3,562

TRADE

AND

1,006

1913 | 17,649

5,064

hae

i ’

|

TRANSPORT

Balance.—The adverse annual balance of trade, which was 1-1 milliard lire in 1909-13, rose in 1925 to about 8 milliard lire; against this must be set the expenditure of foreign visitors and the remittances of Italian emigrants, the former being probably of the larger importance. Movements in the values of total imports and exports are given in the following table:— ‘Foreign Trade roro-25 (Special Trade)

Amount per head

of lire

in lire

.

1910-14

3,381

of pop

of lire

in ee

of po

a

b.

97

2,281

8,700

236

9,302

238

20,123

546

105

1922

15,765

404

72

1924 1925}

19,388 26,254

17,189

Amount per head

97

I9I19-21 1923

Total

millions

436

486 648

76

11,056

83 | 14,318 73 | 18,277

a

b

65

359 451

45

42

49

OI 48

The whole year, | . : (a) In lire. (b) In lire on the basis of purchasing power. | Transport.—The demands made by the War on both railway lines and rolling stock were very heavy; the length of railways was increased by 1,000 km., while another 1,000 km. were taken over in the restored provinces. On the state-operated lines the number of passengers increased during the last decade by 7°4, and since 1922 the volume of goods carried has shown a considerable increase, following on the improvement in railway material and greater security of delivery. The charges both for passengers and for goods have been increased, while the personnel has been reduced and the price of coal has fallen from the excessive level of 1921, hence the deficit which arose during the years immediately succeeding the War has disappeared. The net tonnage of the mercantile marine registered in Italian ports doubled between 1912 and 1924. The losses from submarines and mines were more than replaced by the shipping taken over in Trieste and Istria, and the ships as a whole are faster and more modern than before the War. Though the total weight of goods carried to and from Italy shows no appreciable increase compared to pre-War, a larger proportion is carried in Italian vessels, in spite of the obvious preference of importers from overseas to employ their own vessels.

| Goods loaded

nageol? and unloaded

IE

Mer-

m Credit

Clear-

|at Italian Ports | p58

cantile: |2 mM

Marine}

oe

Italian | Foreign] Figures

7008

Flag | Flags

(mil- | (mln. | (mln lions) | tons) | tons)

(mln. | (mln. | (mids. tons) | tons) | of lire)

1918 | 19,066 1922 | 20,904

65 95

94

37

0-87 | 164 | 154 0-70 1-50

7°4 13:8

9-4 9-7

188 588

1923 | 20,907 1924 | 20,907 1925 | 20,907

100 100 IIO

45 57 64

1-63 1-63 bead

15-4 18-2 21-0

10:2 13-4 13-2

830 914 1030

29 36

6I

National Finance.—The revenues of the state were about 2,400 million lire in 1910-1. This was the last of a series of years, beginning 1898-9, in which there was a continual surplus of revenue over expenditure; from then onwards, first the Libyan War and then the World War occasioned a long succession of financial deficits. The period 1911-25 falls naturally into four divisions. a

I. IQII-2 to rọ13-4.—0Owing to the Libyan War expenditure rose

by 152 million in I911-2, by 250 million in 1912-3, and by 181 million in 1913-4, resulting in deficits for the three years of 111-8, 257-5 and 163:9 million lire respectively. These deficits do not include sums borrowed by the Treasury, as a result of which the National Debt increased from 15,746-5 milliard lire to 17,0802 milliard lire. | a 2. I1ọ14-5 to 1ọ18-9.—The War years thus began with a budget which could have been balanced with a very slight effort, and with a public debt of about 17:5 milliard lire. The following table shows the increase in public expenditure due to the War:— Military) Civil War Year | Expen- | Expen- | Penditure | diture mill lire

mill. tire

1914-5 | 3,296 | 2,099 1915-6

8,317

2,307

1917-8 | 19,142

6,002

1916-7 | 14,069 | 3,497

Total | Revenue|

Deficit

sions mill lire

L I

30

154

229

mill lire

mill, lire

5,395

2,560 | 2,835

10,62

17,595

25,299

32,452

3,734

mill. lire 6,892

5,345 | 12,250

7,533 | 17,766

9,676 | 22,776

68,104

65

28I

a

1918-9 | 23,280 | 8,942

Exports

Total

millions of

of the

ear | Riys.

sengers|

-= The development of Italy’s foreign trade has been affected both by the depreciation of the currency and by the increase of her population; allowing for the reduced purchasing power of money, the average value per head of the population was less in 1925 than in the period immediately preceding the War, but was tending to increase. Directions of Trade—The directions of both imports and exports show considerable changes, compared with pre-War. Imports from the United States and the Argentine increased by 10 times, only surpassed by Switzerland with a 12-fold increase, while imports from France, England and Germany increased only from three to five times. The extension of Italian exports has been greatest to England, France and Switzerland, followed by Germany, the Argentine and the United States. |

f Year

Length

Shipping Ton 2

Pas- | Good

4,158 4,731 5:490

462,700

Imports

y

j SiTN

508,433 498,700 465,367

1923-4

227 7,218

Railways

Nii

343,332

1920-1 1921-2 1922-3

5,691

Number

milliards or by 16 times.

Kni

Transfers of Fixed Property =:

reflected in the figures of the credit clearing-houses. The clearings, which in 1913 amounted to 63 milliard lire, rose in 1925 to 1,030

All this economic development and also the emergence of Milan as a centre of importance in international trade could not fail to be

The expenditure during the War years would have appeared much greater had it not been that many items remained in suspense and burdened the budgets of subsequent years. The increase of civil expenditure was due partly to the rapid rise in the cost of living, which necessitated increased salaries and bonuses, partly to allowances to the families of soldiers and to the refugees from invaded districts, partly to the taking over by the state of the administration of the mercantile marine, and partly to the interest on the

National Debt, which rose from 530 millions in 1913-4 to 2,624 millions in 1918-9. It was impossible to raise revenue to within measurable distance of such expenditure. A part of the increase in revenue was automatic, arising as it did from the depreciation of money, and the consequent increase in the receipts from indirect taxation. The resources of the financial administration were greatly strained by the withdrawal of men for the army, by the dislocation caused through inflation, and by the task of collecting the new taxation imposed during the War, such as new monopolies (matches, playing cards, coffee); a 5 %o tax on the letting of houses; the War centesimo on incomes above

10,000 lire; the tax:

on War profits, etc. None of these new taxes brought in any considerable sums to the exchequer, with the exception of the tax on War profits. Framed on lines somewhat similar to those of the excess profits duties of the United Kingdom and the United States, this tax was at first levied by the Royal Decree of Nov. 21 1915 on all profits of the War years in excess of 8°, the rates varying from Io to 30%, this latter rate being applicable to a!l profits in excess of 20°% on the capita! invested in the undertaking. The growing feeling against War

profiteers caused the rates to be raised to from 12 to 35%% (decree of Aug. 31 1916), and shortly afterwards to 20 to 60% (decree of Nov. 9 1916). The yield of the tax increased from 108-2 million in 1916-7 to 451-6 million in 1917-8, and 805:8 million in 1918-9. 3. 19to-20 to 1921T~-2.-—The following table shows that the highest expenditure was reached, not during the War, but during the period

of liquidation immediately after the War.

Po

ITALY Miary

Civil

Ex H eae an i tee

| _

rr

Total War ' Pensions

|this has been developed by Signor de Stefani with the result that

F TOE Fae.

kerene MERRET

Denci eae

figures are now published relating to all the various aspects of the economic life of the country. It has not merely been neccessary to

re, | ee

f null. lire | mill. lire | mill. lire 1919-20! |1920~-1

8,085 9,212

13,85) | 25,769

mull. lire | mill. lire | mull. Hre

I,15% 1,236

23,093 36,229

| 15,207 | 18,820

7,885 17,409

[1921-2 | 6,798 | 27,114 | 1,549 | 35,468 | 19,701 | 15,760 i Total

|

i for 3

l

| ycars|

gan

24,095 | 66,745 | 3,943 | 94,783 | 53.72

Of the civil expenditure 13 milliards were reguired for the service of the debt, 5-1 miliiards for exchange transactions, cte., 315 milliards for the cost of the merchant shipping services, 5-3 milliards for food supplies, 3-1 milliards for deficits on the state railways, 3-9 milliards for War pensions, and 6-8 milliards for the reconstruction of invaded or restored territories. The costs of all these services were greatly enhanced by the depreciation of the currency. Fortunately, the fall in the value of the lira also increased the public revenue, which during the War had varied from 2-6 ta 9-7 milliards, and which rose in 1921-2 to 19-7 milliards. Part ol this increase was due to confiscatory legislation passed under the influence of the socialistic and demagogic tendencies which prevailed after the War. A levy was imposed on increments in the values of property, which ranged from Io to 80° of the War gain remaining to the taxpaper after the payment of the War profits tax. Before this had come into foree it was increased by the liw of Sept. 24 1920,

which involved a tax of 100°% on all the War profits of industrialists

and traders. [In no country was so high a rate imposed, and during the three years of liquidation the yield of the tax reached over 4,796 rauliion lire. Further, an extraordinary levy on property was

cut down expenditure, but also to make provision against the disappearance of abnormal War revenues, in particular the tax on War profits and on property. Many relatively unproductive War-taxes were abolished tn 1923 and 1924, and the remainder were simplified and given a permanent place in the tax system. Being convinced that certain taxes had been raised to an excessive height, he carricd through important modifications and reductions: thus he abolished the inheritance tax on property passing within the family, and reduced it largely in other cases. Again, he reduced to half or less the taxes on land anc! on factories, and decreed a gradual modification of the rates of tax on incomes from other sources. But at the same time he instituted investigations into taxable incomes in such a way a3 to bring the taxpayers’ returns nearer to the real incomes and to reduce evasion to a minimum, Jt may be noted that in 1918 the manufacturers, traders and professional persons subject to tax numbered 543,154, and that the aggregate revenue from this source was over 704 milion lire, while in 1924 the number rese to 762,137, and the tax vicld to about 2,793 million lire. There were also added to the number of direct taxpayers 1,260,090 agriculturists, proprictors, cultivators, and metayers, who in 1923, for the first time in the history of Italv, were subjected to an income tax, the resulting yield being 2,081 tition lire, — Publie Debt.—TVhe series of heavy deficits during the ro years 1914-23 Inevitably affected the public debt of the state; moreover, the method of partly mecting the deficit by the issue of paper money was, in its turn, a powerful cause of the increase of expenditure and

of indebtedness,

much ol which would not have existed but for the

disturbing influence of the issue of paper money. Below is a summary statement of the movements of the Italian State debt since Igii, in mélions of Ere:—

Italian State Debt (in millions of lire) |

i

E Perpetual and long term debt . i Preasury bonds 3, 5, 7and g years”. Treasury Dills 3, 6, ọ and 12 months Current accounts bearing interest.

f :

l

| June 3¢ i LOT |= | Si | LJO . 380 GI

June 30 FOILI

|

i

i

; ; , :

é

i

;

13,972

15,281

| 49,920

| 82,432

| Notes issued by the Government cr on Government © account : ; : i . : : ; :

436

490

10,293

10,316

19,206

21,015

“yn

|Total interest bearing debt

S

a

+

`

g

O 13,833 ya 52 S7

7

| June 30 { June 30 | | WO1Q | 19223 ej a | ' + : 7 r ~ | 26,581 | 49.505 ;i SoA p23? | | 15,054 | 25.495 | ! 450 | 415

|

|Foreign debt at par

imposed, which was desizned to be a progressive tax on capital, levied at rates varying from 5 to 50°, but owing to the impossibility of collecting the whole tax in a single year, it was necessary to spread it over a period of years, fixed, first at 30 and then at 10 to 20 years. Among taxes already in existence the succession duty especially appealed to the new socia: theorists, and by means of various technical modifications and by changes in the method of assessment, this was raised to 30, 50, 80, and, incredibie as it may seem, to 103''5 of the amount inherited. At the same time it must not be forgotten that credit is due for the abolition, on the initiative of Signor Giolitti, of the disastrous policy of regulating the price ef bread, which for political reascns was sokl below cost and threatened to send the Italian lira into the abyss after the German mark. 4. 1922-3 to 1924-§.— Expenditure and receipts and the eventual balancing ot the budget are shown in the following table:— Difference berey:

| : i

Year Ca

“ee

Military, Civil |Expend-| Expend-| oy

r

is

iture

a

a

ao

igure

,

*

+

’

rye

War Ven3

S19Ns K

Total | Expend

ar

|

z

7

trf-

iture -

tween

pR

eceipts| at

tol

ico oe al Ex eccip

S

pendi-

edili

t

a

et

tare

|

(-+ or —) Siae A acinar 4a

ee als Se wealoes He al Sak oe 7

! mill. ire | mul. lire | mill. lire | mill. lire | mill. lire | mill. lire l 1922-3 ,248 16,979 1,608 21,523 13,803 | —3,029 1923-4 | 3,704 15,820 1,475 21,600 | 29,581 418

1924-5 | 3,286 | 15,284 | 1,453 | 20,023 | 20,440 | +

417

Except for the frst four months, the period of transition from large deficits to the budget equilibrium of 1924-5 took place under the control of Signor de Stefani, head of the combined Ministry of Finance and the Treasury. He contrived to restrict expenditure within the limits of revenue by gradually eliminating abnormal expenditure and by a return to the sound conditions of Treasury control and supervision of accounts which had been largely abrogated during the troubled War years. The Italian Treasury has always been accustomed to publish monthly statements of its position, but `

t

la

s

I

x

June 30 1923

4

4

“ y 490317 107 I8 24,835 351 m

i

E

Th

,

June 30 | 1925 IM ~ -~ | 50,847 j E2411 | 17,583 | 832 {

N

Dec. 31 1925 = 50,901 12,223 13,307 942

§5,221

| 81,673

82,373

10,192

9,168

9,163

22,187

23,404

aS

Fhe foreign debt is not comparable with the internal debt, as it was contracted in dollars and sterling, and is here converted into lire at par, ¿e., gold lire, which are very different from the paper lire of the rest of the debt. The internal debt reached its maximum on June 30 1923, which marked the end of extraordinary War expenditure. From then onward the amount decreased, and by Dec. 31 1925 the internal debt had contracted by 2-85 milliard lire. This affords the most significant

proof of the improvement in economic conditions, of the growing yield of the ordinary taxes, and of the restriction of expenditure which

characterised the long period ef Signor de Stefani’s control of finance. tlis successor, Signor Volpi, continued the process of financial reconstruction, and in particular settled the War debts with United States and Great Britam. The agreement concluded with the United States in Nov, 1925 reduced the debt froma nominal value of $2,042,000,000 to a present value at 5% of $430,000,c00, distributed over 62

annuities rising from an initial minimum of $5,000,000 to a final maximum of $82,000,000. The agreement concluded with Great

Britain in Jan, 27 1926 was set on payments distributed in 62 ycars, with yearly payments from £4,c00,0co and £4,250,000 in the first six years, to £4,500,000 a year from 1931 to 1087. Considering that

the national wealth of Italy was estimated at the beginning of the War at 100 milliards lire, and the national iucome at 20 milliards, it has involved a tremendous burden to maintain War expenditure which in the heaviest vears reached

35

milliards, though reckoned

in a currency which was continually decreasing in purchasing power. Currency.—It is not surprising that the Italian economy should still bear the marks of this economic effort, of which the deepest is the decline in the value of money. The table on p. 578 shows the note circulation, the average circulation per head, and the average alue of the lira in terms of gold. , During the period of actual fighting, when there was a deficit of 62-5 million lire, which could not be covered by internal loans amounting to 34-6 milliards, and foreign loans of 19-2 iilliards, the state was forced to obtain advances from the banks, to the sum of 10-3 milliards, and the lira in consequence depreciated. In t920 the value of the lira had fallen to 22 gold centesimi, and the total circulation had attained its maximum of 22 milliards. In terms of gold the circulation per head of the population increased only from 76-18 to

IVORY

COAST—IZVOLSKY Circulation

(in millions of lire)

Bank Dec. 31 1911 Dec. 31 1912

Dec. 31 1913 Dec. 31 I19I4

2,193 °4 2 2124

«@

Dec. 31 1915. Dec. 311916 . 7°

meet ti æ boom in industry resulted in the establishment cf over 250 foundries before the close of 1919. In 1914 the output of pig-ircn sounted to 302,000 tons and of steel materials to 283,000 tons. In spite of the slumn in the iron industry which occurred after the Armistice, 613,000 tons of pig-iron and 553,000 tons of steel materials were produced in rg1g. The total investments in iron foundries at the end of 192t amounted to 350,000,000 yen. In the same vear the working capacity of the ironworks was 1,412,000 tons of pig-iron,

1,033,C00 tons of stech, and roughly 1,450,000 tons of steel materials; while the actual output amounted to less than one-half the capacity, 1.2., 550,531 tons pig-iron and 557,826 tons steel materials, Machine aid Tocl-Making.—At the end of 1922 about 6,720 factories were cneaged in various forms of machine-making; and also in many branches of metalwork and metalware,. The manufacture of machinery for the production of electric apparatus and lamps, as well as the construction cf dynamos, telephones, railway signals and measuring instruments, are practically new growths of the iron and steel industrial activity. Dyestuffs — The manufacture of dyestuffs was an untried industry in Japan prior to the War, and in 1913 no fewer than 6,000 tons of dyestuffs, valued at 8,000,000 yen, were Imported for use in the cotton and silk industries. After the outbreak of the War the cessation of foreign supplies, chiefly derived from Germany, compelled Japan to make an cffort to become, to some extent, self-supporting. In 1915 certain dyes were produced, the largest quantity being sulphuric black, then alizarin, ackl blue and aniline salt. These were followed by yellow, red and blue acid, yellow and red direct, and purple, blue and brown basic colours. Early in 1916 the Government started and subsidised the Japan Dvestuff Manufacturing

Co., which later suc-

ceeded in producing an artificial indigo, though only on a laboratory scale. By 1918 they were in a position to export Japan-made dyes, but within a short time foreign dyes reappeared on the market, apart from the German indemnity dyestuffs which arrived in May r921. Though the ad valorem duty was raised to 35 “4 in 1920, these foreign products almost strangled the infant industry. In 1923, 23 factories, with a capital of 13,565,500 yen, Were in existence, Chemicals—The manufacture of chemicals in Japan does not owe Ships launched its inception to the War, but its great development and the many innovations introduced were the direct result of War-time conditions. Steamships Sailing Vessels Total There was, however, a sharp decline in the prosperity of the chemical No. | Tonnage | No. | Tonnage | No. | Tonnage | industry immediately after the Armistice. In 1916 the Government me | ee a a set up a subsidised company for the production of glycerine, and as Igl3 115 51,525 659 | 43,598 774| 95,123 the result of extensive investigations at the industrial institute into IQIS ; 443 540,531 1,804 161,964 | 2,247 | 702,495 the qualities of seaweeds and vegetable ash, the production of basic 1921 : 69 | 226,081 IŻ 1,711 GL | 227,792 chloridised alkali increased from 2,000 tons in 1913 to 10,000 tons 1922 57 71,076 14 2,167 7I 73:243 in 1917. The match industry, which formerly derived chlorate of potash from European sources, by the end of 1917 was able to de1923 Žž . 56 74,284 I 2,500 57 | 76,784 1924 ; 39 71,440 6 1.006 45 72,416 pend on the home supply, and gained an important place in export trade; but of late, owing to the advance in price of raw materials, and With regard to her merchant flect, Japan advanced during June also the rise in wages at home, the industry has been beaten, chiefly 1914 to June 1920 from sixth to third position among the world by the Swedish match industry, especially as regards exports. Powers, since at the latter date she possessed) 2,996,000 tons as The soda industry, although it existed as long ago as 1880, did not against 1,708,000 tons in 1914, thus emerging after the War with an reach a high standard of technical perfection before the War, and also increase of 1,288,000 gross tons. failed to satisfy the total annual requirements in caustic soda, Raw Silk and Silk-\Weaveing.—The manual dexterity peculiar to amounting to about 25,000 tons. During the War, however, the Japanese women is a factor which ensures the lasting prosperity of number of factories increased to about 20, and the annual production Japan’s raw-silk industry, and when full advantage has been taken ‘ rose to 14,000 tons In 1918 and 20,000 tons in the following year. of the various modern processes of production in silk filatures enSome of the chief products in the chemical industry are: sulphuric, hanced benefit should accrue. Japanese silk goods have made great hydrochloric and nitric acids, sodium sulphate, carbonate of soda, progress, and particularly silk pongee, which has now practically caustic soda, iodine, potassium iodine, potassium chloride, ammodriven the Chinese product from the markets of the United States. nium sulphate, acetic acid, acetone and wood spirit. At the end of 1922 there were 2,563 factories engaged in the silk industry, employing 23,893 male and 262,732 female operatives.

Cotton Spinning. —In spite of the difficulties during the World War of importing from Great Britain and the United States sufficient machinery to mect the enhanced demand for cotton yarn, the spinning-mills of Japan prospered exceedingly. The paid-up capital invested in the mills at the end of June 1920 was 248,180,000 yen, equivalent to an increase of 288°) over the pre-War figure; whilst the number of spindles in use in 1918 was 3,384,800, and in June 1920 3,689,000, compared with 2,409,900 in 1914. At the end of 1918 there were 6,710 factories, with 65,316 male and 218,041 female operatives,

Japan’s FOREIGN TRADE The rapidity with which Japan’s forcign trade had developed, both in volume and extent, during the half-century preceding 19253 provides a remarkable record in commercial history. The total value of exports and imports, which jn the’ first year of Meiji (1868) amounted to the insignificant total of 26,000,000 yen (£2,650,000), increased ro-íold in 1895, too-fold) in 1917, and 167-fold in 1920; and though

JA PAN in the three following years it had shown a great decrease, the trade for 1924 again ones to 4,260,623,000 yer Favourable Balance.—The most striking progress was mac le during the World War, when Japan’s foreign trade leapt from 1,362 millica yen (£139,000, 000)iIn 1943 to4,254 million yen (£438,000,00Q} in 1920; alihiough 4 it should be remar ked that these figures do not corres tly represent the proper rate of inerease in the volume of trade, owing to the inflation of prices. In the very beginning the War re: eted prejudicially upon foreign trade, as well as upon other branches of the country’s commerce and industry, and the first appreciabfe effect of the War in increasing trade showed itself in the returns for 1915, when the adverse balance which had obtained for 20 vears-— with the exception of the years 1906 and 1909 —was superseded by a favourable onae. This favourable tendency was accelerated until the excess of exportsover imports attained 371,0¢e,000 yen (£38,000,006) in 1916 and 567,000,000 yen ({58,000,000}) In 1917, The sudden expansion of trade due to the War was occasioned both directly through the great demand by the Alhed belliverents for munitions of war; and “also indirectly through the temporary retirement of the great industrial Powers of Europe from the arena of world commerce and trade. Soon after the outbreak of the War Japanese goods ~ chicfy consisting of semi-manufactured and finished articles, such as ‘colton fabrics, leather goods, watches, Sitrhe tissues and so forth —found their way in large quantities not only to the established markets in the Par East, but also to various m of the worid hitherto but little explored hy Japanese traders, namely

597

tinued to increase, duc to the abnormal increase in the demand for wool, woollen yarn, ete. Also, in order to facilitate the supply of goods after the carthquake, an linperial ordinance wa s promulgate: providing for the suspension until March 36 1924 of import cuties on rice, be: Y etc., and for the suspension or reduction of import duties on certain other necessarics of life, tools, machinery

chase of materials

year to the substantial amount

Gl 316,966,900 yen ffa4,8o0,009)

the

goods purvhased consisting mostly ‘ol raw silk, “ habutai ” (silk piece goods) cotton yarns, cotton fabrics and tea. Dritish America m alsa Mexico ingreased their orders from Japan, and the south American trade showed su cn prospects as to induce Japanes a ies to open shipping facilities to Brazil through the Strat its of Mz ageh. The imp: yt trade, which had been on the wane in the early day 3 of the War, commenced

to revive in 191G, owing to larger purchases

af raw materials and semi-manufectured goods, such iron, wool, crude caoutchoue,

tlax and jute.

By far

raw cotton,

the Inreest vol-

ume of raw colton came from D: itish lndia, but the United State had doubled her exports of that article to Japan as well asof ironina twelvemonth. Australia supplied ion largely with wool. An Adverse Balance — The War was the cause of scrious vicissitudes in 917, and in a measure núlitated against the expanding trend of Japan’s conunerce. The entry of the United States of America into the War, with its attendant embargo on stec), iron amd

cold,

temporarily disturbed the eésnomic eq:uipoise of the Far Eastern empire. “The Russian revolution ana the subsequent repudiition e all foreten Jiabilities by the Bolshevik commissaries introduced: fresh factor of discouragement in the export trade of Japan. Tho internal political feuds in China would als:» have dismayed japanese exporters but for the tremendous appreciation in the price cf silver, which resulted in maintaining an abundant demand for Japanese articles. Lut in spite of all, Japan’s foreign trade made progre 55 more or less on the lines previously indicated, until a complete change tn the situation was brought about by the conclusion of the Armistice in the autumn of 1918. The demand for munitions of war naturally came to an end, but the rate of exchange on Europe continued at a high level. At home the cost of production had greatly increased owing to the advance in wages and the higher prices of industrial materials, while the enriched public demanded a higher propertion of the necessaries of life. An anti-Japanese boycott was proceeding in China to add to the curtailment of Japan’s exports. All these circumstances, reinforced by the [mperial ordinance of Nov. 1919 for the regulation of the price of commodities, temporarily exempting certain foodstuffs and industrial materials from import duties and

restricting the exportation

of cotton yarns,

re-

versal the balance of foreign trade, w hich had been favourable to

nee for the preceding four years. This unfavourable tendency continued in succeeding years, showing an adverse balance of trace in 1920 as high as 387,780, 170 yen. Lhe Goverament had under consideration several suggest ions as to the best method of bringing about

an improv ement in forcign trade, but, though no special steps were

taken, there were prospects of improveme nt, owing to the certainty that the economic condition of the«country was ac Îvanci: ag little by little, and in view of the fact that the adverse balance of 1922 was only 242,456,414 ona decrease of 135,000,000 yen compared with the year

1920.

Unfortunately, however, the great carthquake of 1923 y dissipated these anticipations, for, on the one hand, the expert trade declined sharply owing to the burning of large stocks of raw silk, silk fabrics, etc., Aand ihe ‘partial destruction of the productive capacity of cotton yarn, cotton fabrics and other ce usually so prominent among the exports; while, on tne other hand, the volume of imports con-

nec essary

for reconstruction.

Foreign trade prospects in 1925, however, were co: asiderably brighter, owing to the fact thatffewer reconstruction materials were boing imported, while the econo nie conditions of,yipan were becoming normal again, and the © Buy Japanese goods slog:an was having cifect. In the latter part of the year 1925 each an excess of exports over imports shown woul! counteract to a great extent the excess of imports ever exports shown during the first six months or that year. The following table vives the foretun trade of Japan for 1913-25, and the movement of coin say and bullion:— kina

Fore! va Trede

|

the South Seas, South America andey en Africa. ‘The mest consnic ious expansion, however, was cfected in the exports to C kina and India, and, until the outbreak of the Russian revolution in T917,

large ships rents of munitions of war and foodstuffs to Vladivostok for use in European Kussia assisted to augment the volume of trade with Asia. ‘The United States began to buy heavily in 1916, when the figures advanced from 204,000,000 yen (£20 90,000) hy the preceding

and materials

for construction and civil engineering, with the result that imports were stimulated, Thus the excess of imparts over exports in 1923 reached the huge amount of534,479,050 yen. [n 1924 the tendency became even more pronounced —the amount being 646,157,000 ven—and this in spite of the expiration of the ordinance just A and the introduction of a tax of 100 °% imposed from June 1924.0 the value of certain luxury articles. The excess of imports was chiefly due to the pur-

ooo

T ANiere

eS

(Gn 1,009 ¥eir)

mee

| Gold and Silver Bullion

) a

IHS

ba a

__ixporis

ee e

P

sad apecie a

l O E Xports i

L913;

632,460

|

229.455

ory | sorter |

rors

708,307

|

jiinnnorts —

—

27,093

1,021

§08736 | 29,6530

9,107

|

532.450

441500

1QIO

1,627,403

|

756,125

23,079

101,030

IOI

1,60005

j

153,736

392,225

IDIS 1919

1,952,161 2,098,873 ov

1970

Ty

LC

-

wrr

on

| 2,664,144 | 2,1783400

sey

~

af

938 5:954

7

mo,

oe

1,252,039

1,949,393

|

| LOM 55

Of

1922 1923

1,637,452 aol

1 1,699,305 | 1,902,237

|

1,807,25KR

2,453390 AA‘

Pa "3 192a

o

GIG l, aS,

L.: ©

SG GF,

203

3.453

| |

31997

;

24,297

"~

5,016 327477 as

-

mt

pO4L,7 27

135,622

2,130 5,400

1,672 196

5

4,099~

oi Loos

l Up to cnd of Sept. Exchange. -—TVhe dollar rate, ee dropped to $38.50 por ron ven at the end of 1924, rose by the nude of April 1925 t9 Shl. 50, this being the highest noure during the urst half of 1923. At the end of Nov. 1925: it stood atahout $42.00.

In the sterling excha ize steady

Lmiprovemient was a:so perce iptible, the rate having risen from 1gtd. in Jan, 1925 to 21; cd. per yen in the middie of Nov. 1925. Distribution of Forreien Trade—TVhe geographical distribution of

Japan's rem: irkable expansion continents is as follows:—

in foreign commerce

according

to

Exports by Continents (in 1,000 yen) To

I9I3

Asia

America europe. Australia. Africa ;

L .

; ;

27002

OD 251 147,225 3,638 t940

|

1920

1923

995,374

5575397

632,245 195,590 5: 3

634.2142 79,838 32,63

757,061

732,882 175,051 40,907 41,202

Imports by Continents (in 1,060 yen) From

ASIN

America. Europe Australa Africa

1973

-|

;

1520

192

| 1924

349,0553 | 942,547 | 814,470 | 998,603 127,035 220,20¢

14,943

Tales

010,648 393,318 €2,459 83,449

516,832 £37,457 90,023 22,716

721,325 581,091 I1Q,971 | 22,072

In receipt of exports from Japan the United States of America (q0°.) has always headed the list, the zenith cf purchase being reached in 1919—828,097, 021 yen; China oe ding Kwantung Province) follows with 23°); and thea come British India (7%Yo) France (5%), Hongkong (4%). The a refer to Japan’ 5 export trade in 1924. Notable, also, are the advances of Australia, the Philippine Islands, Germany, Italy, Peru, Belgium and others ia the scale of dk ‘mand for Japanese goods. As regards imports into Japan, British India, which had been the chief supplier for several years precedent to the World War, yielded her place to the United States in 1916. The import trade of Toa in 1924 was shared by the United States of ne (27%), China (17%). British India (16°), England (13%), Germany (6%), Australia (5°,5), Dutch Tndies (4 any. Canada (2°).

JAPANESE

598

LITERATURE

The following tables show the development of Japan’s foreign trade in the more important commodities :— Principal Exports (in 1,000 Yen)

IQI4 Silk (raw, waste, floss) Habutai Silk tissues . 2. 7k, Cotton yarn Cotton tissues Woollen tissues Hosiery Braids

Matches Copper .

Coal

.

. :

;

Potteries

Paper . Aquatic products Tea

p

Refined sugar

;

f ‘ ;

: : ‘

: :

;

:

.

:

I9IQ

161,797 | 623,618 30,890 | 101,289 162,476 34,022 114,232 78,554 280,311 34,840 1,198 I1,124 = es 14,355 20,014 11,052 2,968 28,467 25,889 23,914 FTTR 5,913 22,629 2,826 25,402

13,416

16,191

12,709

18,402

12,382

1924 706,220 57,368 125,842

109,537

328,750 2,401 22,024 9,170

212 2,366

22,396

Principal Imports (in 1,000 Yen)

IQI4 Raw cotton Wool .

.

Woollen and worsted yarns

Woollen tissues Oil cake Iron

Sulphate of ammonium Coal Timber i

Paper

M achinery Rice Sugar

W heal s

Beans and peas

.

218,974 14,783 4,140 10,225

34,864

36,319 15,145 6,690 1,490 4,886 24,494

24,823

21,678 8,488

13,320

Postal Service

End of fiscal year

12,301 135,188 227,797 27:435 18,588 10,889 18,386 89,221 162,070 58,183

38,530 35,302

COMMUNICATIONS

Railways.—The first railway line in Japan was opened to traffic in 1872, subsequent development of the railway being chiefly in the hands of private companies. In March 1906 the railway nationalisation law was passed, and in the next two years the Government gradually assumed control of some 17 leading railway companics. On the completion of nationalisation the Government possessed 4,371 m. of railway, representing a capital of 700,000,000 yen. By the end of 1917 the process of absorption was practically complete. In the decade 1913-23 the mileage of the state railway system increased fron 5,473 m. to 7,013 m., and in the same period the number of passengers carried increased from 167,773,143 to 512,754,754. A marked advance was seen in the financial year 1918-9 in the receipts, which amounted to 104,135,074 yen, while in 1922-3 the receipts were 199,877,464 yen. A railway tunnel between Moji and Shimonoseki, under the Shimonoseki Straits, has been projected and its construction is expected to be started in 1927. This tunnel, which will be completely under the sea for one mile, will connect the island of Kiushu with Honshu on the mainland. Posts —The postal service of Japan has developed steadily, both in extent and efficiency, since 1908. There are three grades

of post-office, known as first, second and third class. The first class is confined to the larger citics, such as Tokyo and Osaka, and these offices not only act as supervising offices for those of lower category, but also control maritime affairs in their re-

spective districts. The great majority of the post-offices belong to the third grade, and are conducted on a contract system, which has proved eminently satisfactory. The post-offices in Japan include in their operations such diverse matters as the carrying, within limits as to size and weight, of every kind of freight, the collection of taxes and hills, the distribution of advertisements, and the paying of pensions and annuities on behalf of the national Treasury. The post-offices also undertake the business of state life insurance by a simplified process for the benefit of the middle and working classes. The expansion of the postal services is shown in the following table:—

1909-10 IQII~2 1913-4

Number of post-offices

Number of messages

Number of parcels

6,946 7,166

1,464,557,721 1,634.423,611

20,281,822 23,178,936

7,358

1,588,002,293

1,798,716, 674

25,370,165

1917-8 1919-20 1920-1

7:647 7,900 3,025

2,362,802,401 31359,758,218 3,815,527,979

33,243,648 41,308,098 43,322,650

1922-3

8,477

4,126,958,030

51,355,991

1915-6

Ig21-2

.

7,268

8,230

4,001,517,560

26,128,093

48,936,915

The post-office savings bank was first He Sy in 1875, and the rate of interest was raised from 4:2% to 4-8% in April 1975. The number of depositors increased ee 11,882,069 on March 3I 1913 to 27,057,867 in 1¢22, the deposits having advanced in the same period from 191,122,853 yen to 994,076,008 yen. Telegraphs.——Since 1879 Japan has belonged to the International Telegraph Conv ention, and in June 1908 she ratified her membership of the International Wireless Union. The expansion of her home telegraph service has been noteworthy. In 1910, with a total of 3,951 telegraph offices, 101,500 m. of wires were in use and 28,205,032 messages were sent; in 1923 there were 6,460 offices, 156,662 m. of wires in use, and 71,592,928

messages were transmitted. IWireless.—Japan associated herself with the International Wireless Union in 1908. In addition to the main wireless station of Funabashi, erected in Nov. 1916, Japan has 11 other Government stations, with a daytime transmission distance varying between 300 and 6oo nautical m., the night distance being between 1,000 and 1,800 nautical miles. Two of these stations, Choshi and Osezaki, have been reconstructed and have a daytime transmission power of 1,500 nautical m., with 3,000 m. at night. In the twelve months ended March 31 1914 there were 36,313 wireless messages, and 172,853 in 1922-3. Telephones.—When first inaugurated in Dec. 1800 the tele-

phone service failed to attract many subscribers, but its popularity gradually increased. The authorities started in 1909 a system of giving preference for an installation in consideration of a payment varying between 150 and 285 yen, according to locality, and this system, which has been very successful, still obtains. ‘The maximum annual charge for the telephone service is 66 yen and the minimum 36 yen, according to locality, and at the end of the fiscal year 1922-3 there were 415,058 subscribers and 3,988 telephone offices, besides 1,538 fitted with automatic apparatus. In the same period the length of telephone lines was 14,526 m., the length of wires 1,197,861 m. and the number of messages in the year was 1,033,750,123. See Japan

Fear Book (annual, Tokyo); reports of the American

Bureau of Commerce and of the British Department of Overseas Trade. (K. M.) JAPANESE LITERATURE (see 15.168). The Taisho Era.— The glory of Meiji was, alas, not to be sustained. Whether the mistake lay with the old giants of the Meiji era or in the insuf-

ficiency of their sons it is impossible at this close range to decide. In the later years of the Meiji period it became obvious that the spirit animating the intellectual and literary leaders was dying; some of the old magic still clung to the name of the dynasty, but nothing more. The new writers lacked the capability for sustained effort, their works were spasmodically produced, and were often completcly without style. There was an unrestrained crudeness about the new literature which horrified those who still remembered the early Meiji period. The change was almost complete when the young men began banding themselves together into various associations, such as the “‘ New Romanisation Society’ (Shin Romaji Kai), the “ Foreign Language Research Society’? (Gaikokugo Kenkyu

Kai), the “ Japanese Script Society ” (Nipponji Kai), ete. These unofñcial organisations achieved very little, except of positive harm. Americanisms, cant and slang terms, undistinguished from “ standard English,” were imported freely and incorporated into novels, belles lettres and even scientific treatises.

The free-

verse writers of England and America must be held responsible

JAQUES-DALCROZE for a peculiarly unpleasing form of composition which, while entirely foreign to the genius of the Japanese language, was adopted by the writers of this period in place of the tanka and hokku as the only possible style of poetic composition. The actual result of these liberal importations from foreign fields was the flood of ineffective and often vulgar books offered to foreign students as Japanese contemporary literature. While bookproduction was never so ample, it was never so uniformly devoid of merit. The Meiji era translations of European classics and contemporary works, though marred by many faults of inexperience, are still to be preferred to later versions. Bacon, Shakespeare, Macauley, Milton, Byron, Shelley, Keats, Victor Hugo, de Maupassant, Dante, Heine, were all retranslated under this dynasty. The new translations are, however, far from being reliable. In many cases, whole sections of the original are left untranslated at the whim of the editor. Despite this, the character “ zen ” (complete) is found on the back of the book and on the title-page. This renders such versions useless for class-work or even for purposes of reference. In other cases, scenes which are purely national in the original work are recast, details being altered to suit Japanese surroundings. Thomas Hardy’s novels suffer particularly in this unnatural transmutation: in one or two popular translations now in vogue Hardy becomes merely a mediocre Bakin leading some dull puppets over dreary Japanese marshes. Russian Influence —The outstanding literary feature of the Taishé era is the inundation of Japan by Russian works. Tolstoi ceased to be fashionable; Andreyev, Balmont, Sologub, Pushkin, Zinaida Hippius, Lermontov, Gogol, Tchekhov and Turgeniev held the imagination of youthful Japan during these years. Although no further impulse was needed, it was supplied by the signing of the Russo-Japanese Treaty early in 1925, when numerous societies for the encouragement of research into Russian literary and philosophic fields sprang into existence. Russian plays were hastily and imperfectly translated into Japanese (The Cherry Orchard was a noteworthy exception), and produced by Japanese actors at the Little Theatre in Tsukiji, Tokyo. The modern native literature borrowed most of its colour and much of its form from Russia. Gogol, in his more dreary moods, was freely translated into novels of social life, and the sentimentality so characteristic of the true Japanese novelist becomes tinctured with a despair imported from the Siberian steppes. Arishima Takeo, an idol of the young reader in modern Japan, demonstrated this phase not only in his novels, but in his life and death. He was a married man, drawn by “ misunderstandings ’’ into an intrigue with a woman journalist (the “new woman ”’ of his later novels).

never mour in an it can

The truth of the affair was

revealed; in true dramatic fashion, Arishima and his paracommitted ‘ s#izju’’ (double suicide for love), in a house unfrequented country place. This happened in 1922, and be safely asserted that Arishima was more loved after his

well-staged exit than he was during his lifetime. Obituary notices drew parallels between this successful writer and such dimly envisioned figures as Gogol and Andreyev. That the points of contact were more imaginary than real did not deter editors from flights of the wildest fancy as to the effect Arishima’s

death would have on Russia and the world generally. The new-world treatment of women engaged the attention of writers of all classes, and political writers condemned the drastic changes proposed by the novelists. Women in Japan began to assert themselves, they emerged from the obscurity of feudalism into the open highway of competition with men. Journalism, government departments, politics, municipal undertakings, social work, all claimed the attention of intelligent women. Foremost, perhaps, not only of modern woman-novelists but of all since the days of Murasaki Shikibu is Mrs. Yayoi Nogami, wife of Nogami Toyoichiro, the greatest living Japanese authority on the classical drama (Nō), and translator of Bernard Shaw. A later novel of hers, Kuaishin Afaru (The Seagod Ship), is justly esteemed above all contemporary works.

599

Notable Writers —No account of modern Japanese literature would be complete without reference to certain writers who, in spite of their lack of real merit, have captured and held the popular imagination. Natsume Sdseki is chiefly remembered for his Wagahai wa Neko de Aru (1 ama Cat) and Botchan (The Boy). He died before the full force of change induced by indiscriminate importation had been felt, and his work was modelled rather on the later Meiji style. “ The Two Kikuchi,” as they were familiarly called (Kikuchi Kan and Kikuchi Yuhd), devoted themselves to the writing of novels in which women’s problems are discussed and advanced views of social life are set forth. Kume Masao, Satomi Ton and Akutagawa Ryunosuke, also, in some measure gratified the current passion for original styles and exotic scenes. Kurata Hyakuso is regarded as the leading spirit of modern Japanese drama; one of his plays, The Priest and his Disciples, has been translated into English and published with the original text by Glenn Shaw (Tokyo, 1923). The sex-novel of Europe has its imitations in werks by Tanigaki Junichir6 and Morita Sohei. Tanizaki writes very colloquially on the subject of hysterical women, psychoanalytic studies in the West providing him with unlimited material. Morita Sohei was once considered a very brilliant writer, his Baten (Sooty Smoke) being an exceptional success. It is an autobiography or diary of the new woman, and, from the Japanese point of view, Morita has solved the problem of woman definitely and finally. At the time of the issue of Baien, Morita’s style became settled and followed closely the best traditions of mid-Meiji; this no doubt accounted later for his lack of popularity. He afterwards turned his attention to translations of Ibsen’s plays, but his “ originals ” were English versions, and it readily appears from the Japanese that Morita frequently failed to understand the text he was translating. Ibsen’s Dois House (Morita’s Japanese translation) was performed at the Imperial Theatre in Tokyo in 1923. Matsuura Hajime was the only literary man of this period who remained true to the best traditions of his country’s literary history. Unaffected by the many new movements for the development of art, letters and the drama, he is the foremost poet and essayist of modern Japan. In 192s he resigned his professorship at the Imperial University in Todkyé, “ as a protest against the insincerity and shallowness of modern academiclans, artists and writers, who would profane the shrine of pure art by setting up base images of foreign clay.” He published two volumes of his university lectures on literature among his other writings, and it is probable that his works will be ranged alongside the best productions of the Meiji era by the literary historian of the future. In his Bungaku no Byakké (The Pure White Light of Literature) Matsuura displays a sensitiveness and purity of ideal which had been lost to Japan since the close of the Nara period. The

constitutional

ban on

revolutionary

and socialist

doc-

trines resulted in the issue of a complete Marxian library and a series of handbooks purporting to be short cuts to Bolshevism. Imperfectly conceived dogmas were presented in attractive guise as the European panaceas: for all Japan’s troubles there exists a very simple melting-pot, and this is a weird communism in which the state should be a machine very far removed from the activities of daily life. ‘ Freedom”? became the slogan of Young Japan, but the “ freedom ”’ publications are very pale shadows of their European parents, and even omit to define the freedom to which they relate. (A. N. J. W.)

JAQUES-DALCROZE,

EMILE

(186s—-

), Swiss composer

and teacher of musical eurhythmics, was born at Vienna July 6 1865, of French-Swiss parents. He went to Geneva in 1875 where he attended the college and the university, and followed the courses at the Conservatoire. He then studied (1887) at the Conservatoires of Vienna and Paris and completed his musical education under Délibes. In 1886 he accepted the post of chef d'orchestre at Algiers. We then returned to Vienna and studied composition under R. Fuchs and A. Bruckner. After the death of Hugo de Senger, he directed the sol-fa and harmony courses at the Conservatoire of Geneva (1891). He has written

600

JASPAR—JAURES

many charming songs, including Chansons populaires, Chansons du cocur qui vole, Chansons de ronte, etc. These are written in the simple form of the folk song and have obtained great popularity, not only in Switzerland, but in other countries. His other musical compositions are very numerous, and include three string quartettes, two violin concertos and several orchestral suites; also symphonies and choral works on a large scale such as La Veillée (1893) and Le Festival Vandois (1903). Among his other descriptive compositions may be mentioned: Le violon maudit (1863), Janie (1803), Sancko Pansa (1807), Le poème alpestre (1896), Le bonkomme jadis (1005), Les jumeaux de Bergamo (1908), Eeho et Narcisse (1912), La fêle de Juin (1914), Les premiers souvenirs (1018), La fêle de la jeunesse (1923), etc. His great work has been the development of the eurhythmic Instinct, particularly in children, and since 1915 he

has been the director at Geneva of the fustitut Juques-Dalcrose, which he originally founded at Hecilerau in Bavaria. His method consists of a development of the instinct for rhythm in close

educator

of her children.

To conform to this aspiration, economics were seen te turn more and more towards Socialism, Socialism, according to Jaurès, should seek reform to bring about to which, at the close of 1890, he at last publicly announced his a less contradictory social order, whose institutions would be adhesion. At the same time, public life claimed him again. On less exclusive, less bitterly egotistic, less mischievous, which July 27 18900 at a local election, he was chosen municipal counwould cease to perpetuate strife, hatred and want; which would cillor of Toulouse, and his colleagues appointed him forthwith permit men to pass from a state of brutal competition and condeputy mayor, in special charge of public education. He took flict to the state of co-operation; which would transform the thus an important part in elevating the school of medicine into cconomic passivity of the masses into initiative and responsia faculty. After the strike at Carmaux, in the course of which bility, In which social energies, instead of being wasted on sterile he defended the claims of the miners, Jaurès was elected deputy, and insane conflicts, would be co-ordinated for common action. in 1893, at a local election, and his term of office was renewed at To uphold these convictions, Jaurés, after the Amsterdam Conthe general elections of 1894. Defeated again in 1898, he was gress in 1905, struggled alone against the entire International re-elected in 1g02; and his electorate remained faithful to him for a share of power and for the preservation of the democraticfrom that time on. socialist bloc. He violently attacked and denounced as impotent In Parliament, as soon as he returned, he assumed a position the German Social Democracy which dominated the Congress of great authority in politics. He took a large part in the debates and was supported by the old French Socialist organisations. on the Panama and Boulangist crises, in discussions of agrarian On April 17 r904 Jean Jaurés, with Aristide Briand, founded and colonial questions, on fiscal policy and protectionist measHumanité, which has become the daily organ of the Socialist ures, on syndicalism and the separation of Church and State, party. His daily leading article in it was written for the most on military laws and electoral reform. In the Dreyfus affair his part from his seat in the Chamber. energetic intervention captured the Socialist party, which hesiJaurès carly discerned the danger which threatened the world. tated at first to take part in a conilict which seemed not to conHe foresaw that the unstable equilibrium of the Triple Alliance cern the proletariat. He carried on a formidable campaign in and the Triple Entente was bound to end in a catastrophe, and favour of the condemned and innocent man, a “ living witness he wished to avert it by the simultaneous international action to military lies, to political cowardice, to the crimes of authority,” of the proletariat. A passionate lover of France, he sought to nor did he cease until Drevfus was definitely rehabilitated. His spare his country the horrors of devastation by war. While he speeches and his articles on this affair are collected in one volume maintained that a democracy should not have an aggressive calicd Les Preuves, a masterpiece of analysis and eloquent logic. policy, he did net deny the duty of every nation to defend itself. Led by the logical development of his metaphvsical and reli- To prevent misunderstanding between socialism and patriotism gious ideas to social conceptions which obliged him to accept the he wrote: “ A nation which could not count, in days of crisis or Socialist teaching, Jaurès adhered closely to the Socialist party, when its life is in danger, upon the national devotion of the which at each new election gained a larger number of representyorking class, would be a wretched thing indeed.” Te supported atives in Parliament. But he realised at once that the fragmenthe policy of arbitration and all measures to secure international tation of Socialists into groups and sects would be a source of peace, but at the same time, in the name of the workers of Prance, political weakness and an obstacle to the ideals of social justice he insisted “that the nation organise all its military forces, and the liberation of humanity which he wished to attain. Vor irrespective of class or caste, for the sole purpose of national him the “sublime joy of leading all men towards the fullness defence.” Against Germany, militarist and absolutist, stood of humanity,” lay in the effort to achieve these ideals. The France, a nation in arms, practising “a policy of supreme nasocialism of Jaurés difiers essentially from the Marxian doctrine, tional defence which would lead not only to peace but to the the principle of which is pseudo-scientific. ‘‘ Our socialism,” assurance of peice.” Jaurès expounded and developed his ideas writes Jaurès, “is French in origin, French in inspiration, and on the organisation of “ a nation in arms ” in his book, L'armée French in character.” His ultimate aim was harmony founded nouvelle. on justice. Social harmony implies the disappearance of an Fhe policy of world-wide solidarity which Jaurès proclaimed injustice which provokes conflicts, hatreds and their horrible was of no avail against the blind forces which precipitated the consequences, an injustice originating in capitalist ownership. War, but Jaurès continued to strive for peace. On July 28 1014, Jaurès was a socialist because ‘‘ the domination of one class Is an before the outbreak of war, he, and some of his most eminent outrage against humanity.’ Into this doctrine he breathed his Socialist colleagues, went to Brusscls to confer, in the name of own glowing and generous ideas and, at the same time, drew the French Socialist party, with representatives of international! from it the strength with which he animated it. “ No sericus labour on the best means of averting the threat of war, which he social programme can be realised without a definite social doc- still thought ceuld be avoided. But he was none the less full of trine,” he wrote, and for him the whole socialist ideal must anguish over the fate of France, compelled to defend herseli Inspire organic reformatory action and thus establish a socialism, against aggression. On this subject, he certainly felt no hesitademocratic, republican and lay. tion, for he had always been animated by the purest patriotism. All socialist sects have the same social ideal, but their differ“Ilya un groupement historique qui s'appelle la France, qui a ences in tactics and methods paralyse common action. Jaurès été constitué par des siècles de souffrances communes, d'espérances strove to bring about unification. At the Congress of 1901, a communes; les lentes formations monarchiques en ont peu a peu section of groups rallicd to him under the name of the parti juxtaposé ct soudé les morceaux, et les ardentes épreuves de la socialiste frangais, while the others formed the parti socialiste de Révolution lont fondu en un seul métal. C'est la patric française ... Oui, il y a des lattes, des antagonismes profonds de classe. Mais France! After the Amsterdam Congress in 1905, the two groups quels que soient ces luttes politiques, ces divisions économiques, ces coalesced and Jaurès became, in fact, their moral and intellectual antagonismes sociaux, ils ne peuvent pas porter atteinte à l'idċe même de la patrie. .. . Si notre patrie est menacée .. . nous serions chief. Thereafter his political activity was bound up with that of the uniñed Socialist party, whose parliamentary activity he des premiers à la frontière pour défendre la France dont Je sang coule dans nos veines, et dont le fer génie est ce qu’il y a de menleur en directed wiih great skill. He drafted most of the resolutions at nous.” Socialist congresses and defended them in an admirably conThese noble words leave no doubt as to the attitude which ciliatory spirit. His philosophy of history, unlike that of Marx, did not hold Jaurès would have taken, or of the rôle which he would have that the development of human society is subject to a blind played in the “ holy war for our beloved Trance if ever she were determinism; he pestulated for it an intelligent directing force attacked.” But on the very eve of mobilisation, in Paris, on and an ideal wisdom. “ History,” he wrote, “ although a phe- July 3 tora, at o:4o, Jaurés succumbed to the bullets of an nomenon which develops according to mechanical laws, is agsassin—e wretched half-wit, impelled to this stupid crime by His nevertheless an aspiration to realise itself according to an ideal the calumnies of the adversarics of the great tribune. obsequies were celebrated on Aug. 4 in the midst of an immense law. . fre universe ts but an immense, a vague, aspiration

_ JEBAVY—JELLICOE

602

popular gathering, and his body was interred at Albi. In 1925 his mortal remains were brought back to Paris, and, borne on the shoulders of his faithful miners of Carmaux, deposited in the Panthéon. (ED. He.) JEBAVY, VACLAV (1868), Czech poet universally known as Otakar, Bfezina, was born at Počátky, Bohemia, Sept. 13 1868. After an education in science he became a secondary

of the new commander-in-chief, Admiral Sir Michael CulmeSeymour. After a three years commission in that ship he was

school teacher in Southern Moravia, where he lived a life of contemplative seclusion, declining the honours and material advantages offered him by the Government. His published works consist of five books of poetry: Secret Distances (1895); Dawn in the West (1896); Polar Winds (1807); Temple Builders (1899) and Tke Hands (1901), and a volume of prose essays, Music of the Springs (1903); besides a number of poems scattered in various literary papers. Březina is admittedly the greatest modern Czech poet, and is even judged by some foreign critics to be the greatest mystic

the legations in Peking during the Boxer rising in 1900. During these operations Captain Jellicoe was badly wounded. He was subsequently awarded the C.B. for these services. Service alt the Admiralty—HHe returned to the Admiralty in 1902 to be the naval assistant to the controller (Third Sea Lord). Here he acquired an insight of the work of that department which was to be of great value to him later. In Aug. 1903 he went to sea again to take command of the fine armoured cruiser “ Drake ” for a year. The year roos saw him in the responsible post of director of naval ordnance at the Admiralty. During his period of office he did much to further the advance of long range firing and to assist the development of naval gunnery on lines which more closely approximated to the real conditions of war. Towards the end of his time he reached the top of the captains’ list and was promoted to flag rank in Feb. 1907. In Aug. of that year he hoisted his flag afloat in H.M.S. “ Albemarle ” as rear-admiral in the Atlantic Fleet. The appointment was for

poet of all nations. His development as a mystic philosopher and religious visionary passed from the subjective pessimism of his early poems, through a transcendental revelation of mystic realities, to an evolutionary optimism and a joyful belief in cosmic brotherhood. His art manifests an analogous development from an intimate lyrical impressionism through ecstatic incantations of a high-priest and a seer to an impersonal, super-personal, dythyrambic poetry of the elements, suns and stars, and of human effort, suffering and mystic destiny. His diction is so concentrated and pregnant with thought that it presents considerable difficulty at first reading; but this is more than compensated for by the superlative beauty and entrancing music of his verse, the remarkable wealth of his imagery and the extraordinarily human and personal appeal of his philosophy which has its roots in the mystic tradition of the medieval Czech religious sects. He brought Czech poctical language to a stage of perfection which it had never before attained and which is difficult to surpass. See Paul Selver, Anthology of Modern Slavonic Literature Modern Czech Poetry (1920), and A Study in Czech EGAS

(1919); ( Aa

ER JELLICOE, JOHN RUSHWORTH JELLICOE, 1st EARL (18509), British Admiral, was born Dec, 5 1859, the son of J. H. Jellicoe, a captain in the mercantile marine. His great-grandfather was Sir James Whalley Smyth Gardiner, the third and last baronet of that name. Educated at Rottingdean, he entered the navy as a Naval Cadet at the age of thirteen. He obtained his commission as sub-lieutenant in 1880, and his hard work and marked ability won him three first class certificates in his three examinations for the rank of lheutenant. He soon developed a strong interest in gunnery and joined the Royal Naval College in 1883 for the theoretical part of the course for gunnery lieutenant, where he distinguished himself by winning a special £80 prize. The following year he spent in H.M.S. “ Excellent,” and became

a fully qualified gunnery officer.

From

now

onwards

gunnery was his speciality, though his interests were by no means confined to this branch. His first sea-going ship as a gunnery lieutenant was H.M.S. “ Monarch,” in which he served from 1886 to 1888. During his first year on board he went to the rescue of the crew of a stranded steamer, taking charge of a gig, manned by volunteers. The boat upset in a heavy sea and he and the crew saved themselves with difficulty. He received the Board of Trade silver medal for his plucky effort. After two years on the senior staff of the Gunnery School, he was appointed to the Admiralty as an assistant to the director of naval ordnance. In 1893 he was promoted to commander, and shortly afterwards was appointed to H.M.S. “ Victoria,” flagship of Admiral Sir George Tryon, commander-

in-chief of the Mediterranean Fleet. When the “ Victoria” was rammed and sunk by the “ Camperdown,” Commander Jellicoe had to take to the water. As he was seriously ill at the time he would have fared badly but for the support he received from a young naval cadet, Mr. P. D. Roberts-West, until rescued. Commander Jellicoe soon recovered and two months later was appointed to the battleship “ Ramillies ” which flew the flag

promoted to captain on Jan. 1 1897, and served on the Ordnance Committee. In 1898 he was appointed to the command of H.M.S. “ Centurion,” where he became flag captain to Admiral Sir Edward Seymour, commander-in-chief of the China Station. As

the latter’s chief of staff he took part in the expedition to relieve

a year’s duration only, when once morc he returned to the Ad-

miralty, this time to become a member of the Board as Third Sea Lord and Controller of the Navy. In Dec. roro he was appointed acting vice-admiral in command of the Atlantic Fleet, being confirmed in that rank in the following November. At the end of the year he transferred his flag to H.M.S., “ Hercules,” on appointment to the command of the 2nd Division of the Home Fleet. in 1912 important gunnery experiments were carried out by two battleships of this division, the “ Thunderer ” and “ Orion,” the former being fitted with this system of director firing which Sir Percy Scott had been perfecting. The trials culminated in competitive firings which took place under Admiral Jellicoe’s personal supervision. It was as a result of these practices and largely due to Admiral Jellicoe’s insistent pressure that this most valuable system was adopted as the primary one for laying and firing the guns of practically all classes of H.M. ships. The event may be regarded as yet another milestone on the path of that gunnery progress for which he was greatly responsible. After a year in this command he returned to the Admiralty to rejoin the Board as Second Sea Lord. The War Period — He left Whitehall temporarily in 19r3 to become commander-in-chief of the “ Red ” fleet during manoeuvres, flying his flag in H.M.S. “ Thunderer,” but had returned to the Admiralty, when, on the eve of War, he was sent to join the Home Fleet at Scapa as second in command. The period of command of Admiral Sir George Callaghan was due to expire in a few months and Vice-Admiral Jellicoe had already been designated as his successor. When war could no longer be averted, it was considered desirable that the change in this most responsible naval command should not be delayed and Sir John Jellicoe was appointed commander-in-chief with acting rank of admiral. He had to perform a peculiarly difficult and trying duty in relieving his former chief, who was trusted and respected in an unusual degree throughout the fleet. That he achieved it so successfully was due to the chivalrous attitude of these two flag officers towards each other and to the very high reputation and strong personal regard which Sir John himself enjoyed. Admiral Jellicoe was confirmed in his rank in March 1915, and for two years bore the exceptionally heavy burden of organising and training the Grand Fleet and keeping it ready for battle. His great command was put to the test at the baitle of Jutland. Now that the full details of that action are better understood, the skilful handling of the British forces against an elusive enemy in conditions of low visibility and approaching darkness, is being increasingly appreciated. The German fleet escaped at night and took refuge in harbour with many ships severely damaged, and such was the impression left by Jutland that Germany

| JELLINEK—]JERUSALEM never again risked a meeting with the Grand Fleet. The fruits of Admiral Jellicoe’s leadership on that day and of his incomparable services throughout his period of command were seen in the historic surrender of German ships at the end of the War.

1923.

603

The average number of wage earners in factories for the

same years Was 25,4543 36,981; 30,026; 33,264.

sketches, essays and letters of travel and some volumes of poetry.

The most important new industry is the manufacture of radio apparatus and supplies, for which several plants were established in 1924 and 1925. The population in 1910 was 267,779; in 1920, 298,103, including 8,000 negroes and 76,294 foreign-born (a slight decrease), of whom 14,855 were Italians, 12,451 Irish, 12,145 Poles and 11,113 Germans. In 1925 the official estimate was 315,280. A development plan, prepared about 1920, provides, among other engineering improvements, for the construction of a bulkhead across a part of Newark Bay, by which one square mile of territory suitable for industrial sites will be added to the area of the city. By improvements in the fire department, the city secured a rating in class A for fire insurance. Boyle’s Thirty Acres, widely advertised as the largest arena in the world, was opened in 1921. The opening of the Hudson Tubes (1909) gave some impetus to building in the residence section on “ the hill,” which was thereby brought within eight min. of the financial district of New York. The completion of the double-tube vehicular tunnel in 1926 makes the connection still closer. The commission form of government was adopted in 1913. JERUSALEM, Palestine (see 15.331), is now the seat of the Government of Palestine under the mandate given to Great Britain in July 1922 and the chief town of its province. A large hospice outside the Jaffa Gate, which was built and endowed by the German Impress in ro1o, is used as Government House. The population in 1922 was 62,678, of whom 33,971 were Jews. An Armenian Patriarch was elected in 1921 with the formal approval of King George, and the position of the Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem has been confirmed by a commission appointed by the British administration. On Dec. 9 1917 Gen. Allenby made an unostentatious entry into Jerusalem. Military administration was carried on until 1920, when a civil administration with an advisory council was set up. Since 1917 much good work has been done in the city, which under the Turkish régime was squalid and filthy. ‘The streets are scavenged and thoroughly cleaned, and work has been begun on a drainage system. The old and inadequate water supply from Solomon’s Pools has been replaced. The ancient aqueduct leading from the springs of Birket-el-‘Arub, 14 m. distant, to Solomon’s Pools has been cleared, and is used in part to lead the water to a large reservoir, whence it is distributed by gravity to Jerusalem. There is a second reservoir at Lifta, giving a total supply of 150,000 gal. daily. Since the completion of the installation the amount of water used in

Jensen belongs to the new school of Danish

Jerusalem has increased tenfold.

In the latter part of 1916 Admiral Jellicoe was invited to become First Sea Lord and regretfully left his last and greatest command afloat to take up that appointment. It was largely due to his tireless labours and wide experience that the grave danger of the German submarine menace was eventually overcome, although others reaped where he had sown. He left the Admiralty at the end of 1917. After the Armistice he was sent on a special mission to visit the Dominions and advise on the postWar organisation of their navies. On this tour he flew his tlag in H.M.S. “ New Zealand.” He was promoted to Admiral of

the Fleet in rg1r9 and the following year was made Governor oi New Zealand. During his four years in this high office he greatly endeared himself to the people of that Dominion. For his services in the War Admiral Jellicoe received the thanks of Parliament and a grant of £50,000, and at the end of 1918 he was raised to the peerage as Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa, subsequently taking the additional title of Viscount Brocas of Southampton. On his return from New Zealand and in recognition of his services as governor he was, in 1925, created an Earl. He received the K.C.¥V.O. in 1907, G.C.B. in rg1g and G.C.V.O. in 1916; he also holds a number of foreign orders. He married, in 1902, the daughter of Sir Charles Cayzer, Bart., and has four daughters and a son and heir, Viscount Brocas, who was born in 1918. Earl Jellicoe possesses in remarkable degree the power of inspiring others with his own loyalty and singleness of purpose. Few naval commanders since Nelson’s time have enjoyed such devotion and confidence as he did as commander-in-chief of the greatest fleet that ever set forth to do battle. (E. A.*)

JELLINEK, GEORGE (1851-1911), Hungarian jurist (see 15.315), died at Heidelberg, Jan. 12 i911. JENA, UNIVERSITY OF (see 15.315).—In ro1o the number of students was 1,946 and in 1925 it had risen to 2,153, when it had 271 foreign students, of whom 69 came from Latvia and 49 from Russia. The faculty of medicine is specially attractive to forcign students. The university library possesses 325,000 volumes and a large collection of pamphlets. JENSEN, JOHANNES VILHELM (1873), Danish author, was born at Fars6, North Jutland, Jan. 20 1873, of a family of peasant extraction. [fe studied at the University of Copenhagen and afterwards travelled extensively, writing 2 number of novels,

came into being about r900.

literature which

Influenced by Whitman, Kipling

and H. C. Andersen, he repudiated the Brandes school with its imitation of French literature and wrote of nature and outdoor life. Among his novels may be mentioned: A ozgens Fald (18991902), a historical novel of the 16th Century; Madame d’Ora (1904); and Den lange Rejse (tgo8—-21) describing the evolution of the Northern race from the glacial epoch to the time of Columbus. In Himmerlandshistorier (1898-1910) ; Skovene (1904); Eksotiske Noveller (1907-15) and Myter o$ Jagter (1907—24) he described life and scenery in his native country and abroad with brilliant imaginative talent and mastery of language. Jensen, who became a firm believer in evolution, adopted in later years a purely atheistic and biological view of life. See Otto Gelsted, Johannes V. Jensen (1913). JENSEN, WILHELM (1837-1911), German author (see 15.321), died near Munich Nov. 24 torr. His last work was Fremdlinge unter den Menschen (1911). See W. Barchfeld, Wilhelm Jensen als Lyrtker (1913). JERSEY CITY, N.J., U.S.A. (see 15.331), produced 5,000 different kinds of articles in its 1,325 industrial plants in 1925. Because of the diversity of its industries and the staple character of their products, Jersey City was less affected by the War than some manufacturing cities, and suffered less in the succeeding depression. The aggregate value of manufactures rose from $1 25,775,000 in 190g to $374,183,000 in 1919; and then, after falling to $289,796,274 in 1921, rose again to $313,999,142 in

A town plan and civic survey

have been made and several garden villages in the neighbourhood designed. The houses have been numbered and the streets named; some roads have been widened, and in 1924 King George V. avenue was opened. Laws have been promulgated against large shop signs and advertisement boardings, a chamber of commerce has been formed and a telephone system installed. Roads fit for motor traffic all the year round have been made to Jaffa, Jericho, Hebron and Damascus. There is, however, no longer through railway connection with Cairo, as the swing bridge over the Suez Canal at El-Qantara was removed in 1920 at the instance of the Suez Canal Co., and the canal has to be crossed by ferry. The Government department of antiquities, founded soon after the establishment of the British administration, has the archaeological schools of the different nations under its control, with the assistance of an advisory board of representatives from the schools. [Previously all antiquities found their way to Constantinople, but over 6,000 specimens have now been catalogued as a nucleus of a Palestine museum at Jerusalem. Excavating is only permitted to recognised scientific bodies. Much good work nas recently been done by the Palestine Exploration Society. The citadel has been cleared of débris and modern accretions, as also the Cotton Bazaar; the ornate clock tower on the Jaffa Gate has been removed and re-erected, shorn of its trimmings, in Allenby square, and the walk on the ramparts in part reinstated. Important excavations on Mount

604

JERUSALEM,

UNIVERSITY

Ophel have also been recently carried out by the society, following earlier efforts on the site in 1gog-11r and 1913-4. Remains have beer found of the north wall and tower of the Jcbusite fortress, which was conquered by King David and formed the site of his city; and it is hoped to discover his tomb. In 1920 the ruins of a 4th-century church of much interest were discovered by Franciscan friars in the course of digging foundations for a church in the Garden of Gethsemane, and its excavation was completed by the Dept. of Antiquities. In 1921 the ancient school of St. Etienne, founded by French Dominicans, became the headquarters of the French Archacclogical Society. The foundation stone of a Hebrew university was laid in 1918 on Mount Scopus, but until 1924 there was no teaching organisation.

An institute of Jewish studies was started in that vear, and in Avril 1925 the university was formally opened by Lord Balfour. The foundation stone of an institute of physics and mathematics was laid the day after the opening of the university. JERUSALEM, UNIVERSITY OF.—The idea of creating a university in Jerusalem was first put forward in 1882 by Dr. Schapira, Privatdozent in mathematics in Heidelberg. After preliminary steps it was approved by the rrth Zionist Congress in 1913, and a committee of the congress purchased a site on Mt. Scopus (near the Mount of Olives) in ror4, the foundation stone was laid in 1918 by Dr. C. Weizmann, the president of the Zionist organisation, and the university was formally opened by Earl Balfour on April 1 1925. The object of the university was twofold; to carry out research in all departments, and teaching especially in the departments of Jewish and Oriental Studies, for which the university should be a world-centre. Departments of chemistry including physical chemistry, microbiology and Jewish studies are in existence, and there is an important agricultural research institute at Tel-Avio in connection with the university. The library already contains over 120,000 volumes and the estimated recurring expenditure for 1926 is £45,000. The scientific research is especially directed with a view to the material development of Palestine. See Tre New Palestine (New York) for March 27 1925. JESPERSEN, JENS OTTO HARRY (1860), Danish philologist, was born at Randers, Denmark, July 16 1860. Ife graduated in modern languages at the University of Copenhagen in 1884 and gained his doctor’s degree in r89t by a thesis on English laws. In 1893 he was appointed professor at the University of Copenhagen. From t1go9g-10 he lecture at Columbia University, New York. He produced a number of books on Englis! grammar, the history of language, general phonetics and the philosophy of language, many of which were written in English. A practical philologist, Jespersen’s view of the development of language was influenced by Herbert Spencer and Wilhelm Ostwald. His most important works are Progress in Langucge (1894); Phonetics (1897-9); Growth and Structure of the English Language (1905, Prix Volney, 1906); Lehrbuch der Phonetik (1913); Language, ils Nature, Development and Origin (1922); Philosophy of Grammar (1924). JESUS CHRIST: see BIBLICAL CRITICISM; CHRISTIANITY. JEWISH LITERATURE: sce HEBREW LITERATURE. JEWS (see 15.371).—The Jewish population of the world on the outbreak of War in 1914 may be estimated at about 14,900,ooo. Of these, two-thirds were concentrated in eastern and southeastern Furope, including (in round figures) just under 7,000,000 in Russia, 2,250,000 in Austria-Hungary and nearly 250,000 in Rumania. Of the remainder, about two-thirds lived in the United States, which had a Jewish population of close cn 3,000,000, leaving a balance of about 1,500,000 for other parts of the world. There were about 600,000 Jews in Germany, and about 500.000 in the British Empire, including 250,000 in Great Britain and Ireland.

I. THE PRE-WAR PERIOD Events in Russia—In the years immediately preceding the World War, the condition of the Jews in Russia went from bad to worse. The legal restrictions by which the Jews were harassed were vigorously enforced and in some respects made still more

OF—JEWS

burdensome. In roro there was a round-up of Jews in Kiev. Jewish houses were systematically raided by the police, and hundreds of families, who were unable to prove their right of residence, were abruptly expelled. The expulsions continued in rort—2 and were extended to other cities in which only privileged Jews were permitted to reside—notably Moscow, St. Petersburg and Kursk—as well as to a large number of villages in various parts of the pale of settlement, where the government’s policy was to confine the Jews to the towns. During the same period further disabilities were imposed on the Jews in the sphere of education. In 1910 the percentage rule, which limited the number of Jewish pupils to a fixed proportion, was extended to schools of surgery and dentistry and to the schools of painting and architecture in the St. Petersburg Academy of Fine Arts. The percentage rule was even applied to the Jewish secondary schools, which had hitherto been exempted as private institutions. As a result promising young Jews and Jewesses, who found higher education out of their reach in Russia, began to leave the country in increasing numbers to pursue their studies abroad.

,

20%, m

the two of the XXV. Res. Corps and the 3rd Guard Div. and his two cavalry divisions, with instructions to pass round the right flank of the II. Army and encircle Lódź from the south. A corps formed from the Breslau garrison, which had now come up from the west, was to turn the left wing of the Russian IT. Army, pinned in front by the attacks of the German XI., XVII. and XX. Corps. Ludendorff was aiming at a second Tannenberg, in which Scheidemann’s army was to fill the same rôle as had the unfortunate Samsonov’s. The I. Res. Corps meanwhile

was by persistent attack to prevent the I. Army from intervening.

By Nov. 18 the position of the Russian II. Army seemed wellnigh desperate. It was being driven into a narrow semi-circle round Lódź with both flanks turned, and was becoming exhausted and dispirited. But help from the V. Army was now close at hand. Plehve, its commander, on receiving orders to turn back to the assistance of the II. Army, acted promptly and with resolution. He attempted to rail one division north to Skierniewice but only one regiment got through before Mackensen’s cavalry cut the line. The rest of the division came into action on Nov. 19, south of Lódź against the turning movement of the German XXV. Res. Corps. The whole of the remainder of

the V. Army marched north on the 18th, the gap it left on the

LODZ-CRACOW, BATTLES OF IV. Army’s right being filled with cavalry.

727

That same night the

Div. on Nov. 23. Ludendorff had owed much to Rennenkampf’s

Siberian I. Corps relieved the pressure on Scheidemann’s left by a successful attack on the German XI. Corps. Next day the XIX. Corps routed the Breslau troops. This restored the situa-

passivity for his victory at Tannenberg; here again Rennenkampf’s inefficiency and lack of the will to victory saved him from the loss of Schaffer’s force which his rashness and obstinacy had exposed. Yet Rennenkampf had been accounted a dashing leader of men before the War. The Grand Duke himself, Ruzski (the commander of the Northwest Front), and Plehve, who hid an iron will in a weak and wizened frame, all acted promptly and with determination to take advantage of the opportunity. Second Battle of Lédg: Dec. 1-15.——At the end of Nov. Hindenburg received reinforcements of four corps from the west, released by the termination of the first battle of Ypres. He now advanced again and captured Lódź on Dec. 6 and Łowicz on Dec. 15. The Russians fell back to the Bzura-Rawka river line in front of Warsaw, which they were to hold until Aug. rors. Meantime an attack by the Austrian II. Army towards Piotrkéw in the first week of Dec. had been repulsed. Batiles round Cracow: Nov. 15-Dec. 25.—While the fighting round Lódź was taking place in the north, fierce battles were being waged in southeast Poland and western Galicia between the Austrian main armies and the Russian left wing. These battles were indecisive in their results and have less interest, strategically and tactically, than the battles round Lódź. After the fighting on the San and round Deblin (Iwangérod) in the latter part of Oct. the Austrian I. and IV. Armies fell back gradually on Cracow, followed up slowly by the Russian IV. and IX. Armies. The Austrian II. Army (two corps), was railed north to fill the gap on the left of Woyrsch’s force caused by the withdrawal of the German IX. Army for Hindenburg’s counterstroke in north Poland. The front of the II. Army was taken over by the III. Army, which now held the line of the Carpathians as far east as the Uzsok pass. The eastern Carpathians down to the Bukowina were guarded by Pflanzer-Baltin’s group. To defend western Galicia between the fortress of Cracow and the Carpathians, a group consisting of the XI. Corps and some cavalry was formed and took up station on the line of the middle Dunajec. The Austrian plan was to meet the expected attack towards Silesia of the Russian V., IV. and IX. Armies with Woyrsch’s army and the I. Army, while the H. Army from the north and the IV. Army from the south wheeled against the enemy’s flanks. The Russian advance was slower and more cautious than had been expected; their V. Army had to turn about on Nov. 17 to rescue the II. Army at Lódź; while the IV. and IX. Armies on approaching Cracow halted for the HI. Army in Galicia to come forward and invest the fortress. On Nov. 17, therefore, as soon as the Austrian II. Army had completed its detrainment and come up into line, the Austrian armies north of the Vistula took the offensive. A week of attack and counter-attack followed with little advantage to either side. Radko-Dimitriev’s ITI. Army had meanwhile come up to the Dunajec; he passed one corps over to the north of the Vistula to enable the IX. Army to parry the thrust at its left flank of the Austrian IV. Army; with the remainder he drove back the Austrian XI. Corps to a defended position east of Cracow. Final Encounters of 1914.—Conrad, the Austrian chief of the general staff, now planned a new combination. He passed part of the IV. Army over by rail to the left wing of the Austrian ITT. Army near Limanowa for a counter-stroke at Radko-Dimitriev’s left. This was made on Dec. 3, and the fighting soon became general along the whole front between the Vistula and the Carpathians. Brusilov’s VIII. Army, facing the Austrian III. Army along the Carpathians, sent a corps by Nowy Sacz to the assistance of Radko-Dimitriev, but was thereafter itself heavily attacked. On Dec. 15, after the loss of Lódź and Łowicz in the north, the Grand Duke issued orders for a general withdrawal in South Poland and Galicia to winter lines. The V.,IV. and IX. Armies fell back to the Nida line, and the III. Army to the Dunajec. Brusilov’s VIII. Army, however, on the extreme left, counter-attacked the Austrian III. Army between Dec. 18 and 25 and drove it back to its former position in the Carpathians (battle of Jasto). This brought to an end the campaigns of 1914.

tion on the west side of Lódź; but to the east and south of the

town Schaffer’s XXV. Res. Corpsand 3rd Guard Div. were still advancing. By the evening of Nov. 20 they had completely turned the right of the Russian II. Army and were attacking Lódź from the south. During Nov. 21 Ludendorff persisted in a last effort to accomplish the destruction of the Russian II. Army, but the attacks definitely failed. By the 22nd the tables had been turned, and Schaffer’s force was itself completely surrounded. While part of Plehve’s army, after rescuing the left of the II. Army, turned to attack Schaffer’s group south of Lódź, Rennenkampf, the commander of the I. Army, had been ordered to despatch forces from owicz and Skierniewice to gain touch with the II. Army and close the German line of retreat to the north. The Lowicz force, which consisted of 33 divisions, started on Nov. 20 and by the evening of the 22nd, in spite of three changes of command and indifferent staff work, had captured Stryków and Brzeziny, and had apparently sealed the gap between the Russian I. and II. Armies. The Russians actually ordered up 18 trains to remove the anticipated harvest of prisoners. The Skierniewice column of a division and a regiment accomplished nothing. Escape of Schafer’s Force.—In the evening of the 22nd, Schaffer, heavily engaged with part of Plehve’s army, south of Lódź, received a wireless order from Mackensen to cut his way out by Brzeziny. During the night of Nov. 22, in intense cold, he succeeded in slipping from the grasp of the enemy opposing him and concentrating his weary tlivisions to make their bid for release. Unknown to him, the Russians had already opened a breach. The centre columns of the nowicz force had marched on to LédZ, leaving the left column, the Siberian 6th Div., isolated west of Koluszki on the Warsaw-LédZ railway. This division fought gallantly during Nov. 23 and repulsed all efforts of the XXV. Res. Corps to escape. Further west, however, the 3rd Guard Div. moving through the Galkéwek forests, found the gap in the Russian net and captured Brzeziny in the early hours of Nov. 24. Encouraged by this success, the XXV. Corps renewed its efforts against the hapless Siberian 6th Div., whose appeals for help were disregarded by other Russian formations within easy reach of the battlefield. Finally, the division, with both flanks turned and overborne by weight of numbers, broke and left the way open for the XXV. Res. Corps to rejoin the 3rd Guard Div. at Brzeziny. Schaffer’s line of retreat was now clear, and on the 25th his whole force, moving by Stryków, rejoined Mackensen. He brought with him several thousands of prisoners and a number of captured guns. Efect of the Battle.—Ludendorfi’s bold stroke had stopped the grand duke’s intended invasion of Silesia as effectively as Sir John Moore, by a similar move, had halted Napoleon’s incursion into Spain a little more than too years before. Never again during the War were the Russians in a position to threaten German territory. The campaign shows well the value of mobility as a strategical weapon. On Oct. 26 the IX. Army was engaged opposite Warsaw during Hindenburg’s first offensive. During the next fortnight it retired 120 m. destroying the communications as it went; reorganised and repaired its losses; was transferred by railway across the enemy front; and deployed in complete fighting trim for its new offensive on Nov. 11. This shows German organisation and efficiency at its highest. The quality of German leadership was also well-displayed, and was in strong contrast with the irresolution and inertia shown by some of the Russian commanders. Schaffer’s exploit was a masterly one; within a few hours of receiving his orders to retire, he had succeeded in breaking off action and setting his columns in motion to seek a way to safety, which his determination and the fine fighting spirit of his troops was to win. Compare this with the inaction of many of the Russian commanders, particularly the failure of the numerous bodies within reach to come to the rescue of the Siberian 6th

LOEB, JACQUES—LOGIC

728

The Russian “ steam-roller,” which the Allies in the West had so confidently expected to see smashing over its foes with irresistible, if deliberate, momentum,

had come

to a standstill

for want of fuel. The Grand Duke’s decision in the middle of Dec. to break off battle and retire was occasioned mainly by the shortage of munitions and the impossibility of keeping the ranks filled with trained drafts to replace the heavy wastage due principally to that very lack of a sufficiency of shells and other material of war. But the Russians had most loyally done their best under great disadvantages to live up to the expectations which their allies had formed of them. It was the machine, antiquated and behind the age, that fell short of the stern requirements of modern war. Brni1ioGRaAPHy.—C. von Wulffen, Schlacht bei Lody, rorg (1918); Sir A. W. F. Knox, With the Russian Army, 1914-7 (1921); FE. Ludendorf, My War Memories (1922); J. Daniloff, Russland im Weltkriege, 1914-5 (1925). (See also WORLD WAR: EASTERN FRONT with map.)

BIBLIOGRAPIIY: and s.

the

various

arithmetical

as had been conjectured

progressions

am+1,

am+2,

long before by P. G. Lejeune

integer # in the form a@+a,+

Hilbert in

number

...

es J. L. Lagrange

is the sum

of 4 squares,

+@s, where

the a's are num-

(1774) proved that g(2)=4 (any ` and some

numbers

not of

less),

and E. Wieferich (1909) that g(3) =9 and g(4)S37. Only a finite number of numbers (probably only 23 and 239) require more cubes than 8 (E. Landau, 1908), while an infinite number require 4 at least; and only a finite number of numbers require more than 19 fourth powers (G. H. Hardy and J. E. Littlewood, 1924), while an infinite number require 16 at least; and asymptotic formulae for the number

of representations

have been found.

But our knowledge

of this

field is still extremely incomplete. The ‘empirical theorem” of Chr. Goldbach, that every even number is the sum of two primes, has also received a considerable amount of attention, but is still unproved. Among other unsolved problems of the same character may be mentioned that of proving the existence of an infinity of primes of the form m?+1 or (more generally) am?+-bm+e. This problem is not to be confused with the

problem of primes am?+-bmn-cn?, solved by de la Vallée Poussin.

(c) Miscellaneous Investigations.—The work of Dirichlet and L. Kronecker on the approximation of irrational numbers by rationals has led to extensive investigations lying on the border line between arithmetic and analysis, developed above all by H. Minkowski under the titles of Diophantische Approximation and Geometrie der Zahlen. The central idea in this theory is that of the lattice (Gitter). A lattice point (Gitterpunkf) in space of any number of dimensions is a point with integral co-ordinates, and most difficult and Peete problems arise when we consider the number of lattice points whic lie within a volume of specified form in #-dimensional space. Thus Minkowski proved that any convex figure in space of two dimensions with symmetry about a centre, its centre at a lattice point, and of area 4, includes other lattice points besides its centre; with a whole series of corresponding theorems concerning more general configurations. Another class of lattice-point problems is exemplified by the

MATHEMATICS “ circle ’’ problem of Gauss and W. Sierpinski, that of determining

approximately the number of lattice points inside the circle x? +y? = when n is large. A first approximation is naturally given by rn, the area of the circle, but the estimation of the error is a problem of exceptional difficulty. This problem and the analogous problem for the hyperbola xy=n (Dirichlet’s divisor problem) were connected with the theory of t(s) [see (a) supra] by Faida: These problems also are susceptible of manifold generalisation. And in all these problems, we observe the dominating and irresistible tendency of modern higher arithmetic, the tendency to abandon its ancient tradition of isolation and assimilate itself so far as possible to the theory of functions, in order to utilise the immensely powerful weapons which the latter theory alone can provide. There is one famous problem in which no such reduction of arithmetic to analysis has been effected. ‘‘ Fermat’s last theorem ” asserts that there is no integral solution of x>+y"=2"

(other than

the trivia) solution x=z, y=o) for any value of » greater than 2. It was the attempt to prove this theorem that led to the whole development of the theory of algebraic numbers; but, in spite of the wide-spread attention which it has excited, and the extreme importance of the general theories of which it has been the starting point, the theorem itself remains unproved, though important additions have been made recently to our knowledge by A. Wieferich, D. Mirimanov, L. E. Dickson, and H. S. Vandiver.

Thus Wieferich proved

that the theorem holds for odd prime values of n, and values of x, y, z, not divisible by n, unless 2"°~“!—1 is a multiple of n?. One old conjecture has been definitely disposed of. Mersenne asserted that 2"—1, where n is a prime not exceeding 257, is prime when, and only when, »=I, 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 67, 127, 257. This statement contains at least four errors, relating to the values 61, 67, 89, 107; and it need no longer be taken seriously. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—An indispensable work for the serious student of higher arithmetic (on any of its sides) is L. E. Dickson, History of the Theory of Numbers, 1920. This work is not, however, specially concerned with the analytic theory. For general accounts of the theory of primes see the article ‘‘ Die neuere Entwicklung der Analytischen Zahlentheorie ” by H. Bohr and H. Cramer in the Encyklopidie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften (2C8); E. Landau, Handbuch der Lehre von der Verteilung der

Primzahlen (1909), and Einführung in die elementare und analytische Theorie der algebraischen Zahlen (1918). For the additive theory see P. A. MacMahon, Combinatory Analysis (1915-6), and An Introduction to Combinatory Analysis (1921); P. Bachmann, Niedere Zahlentheorie: 2. (Additive Zahlen-

theorie) (1910); G. H. Hardy, Some Famous Problems of the Theory of Numbers (1920). For Fermat’s last problem see P. Bachmann, Das Fermatproblem (1917); L. J. Mordell, Four Lectures on Fermat's Last Problem (1921).

Comparatively little of recent work is accessible in a connected form, and the study of the original memoirs is indispensable,

II. THEORY

OF SERIES

The most striking modern developments in the theory of series (see 24.668; 10.753; 12.956) have also been suggested by

the development of the theory of functions. The theory of functions of a real variable has been revolutionised by the ideas of E. Borel and H. Lebesgue, and this has inspired a corresponding revolution in the theory of Fourier’s series and ‘ series of orthogonal functions ” generally. A system of functions ¢n(x~)(m=1, 2, 3,...) Is said to be a (xJbulx)dx =o(ni xn (1) orthogonal if The simplest examples are obtained by taking ¢m(x) to be cos mx or sin mx and the interval (a, 6) to be (0, 27); or ém{x) to be Legendre’s polynomial Pm{x) and (a, b) to be (—1, 1). There is then a simple procedure by which we may endeavour to expand an arbitrary function f(x) in the form of a series Sam¢m(x}, viz., by multiplying this series by ¢m(x) and integrating over the interval (a, b): the formula thus suggested is

F(a) = Zana), am=(_[ Aileen (x) dx) /(fota dr) @) i

A more accurate analysis of this procedure raises a multitude of profoundly interesting and difficult questions. On the one hand we may start from a series with arbitrary coefficients am, and inquire whether there exists a function which stands to it in the relation expressed by the equation (2). In particular, given a trigonometrical serics Zancosmx or Lbasinmx or, more generally L(a,cosmx +bmsinmx), with arbitrary coefficients, we may ask whether it is a Fourier's series, that is to say, whether there is a function f(x) such that dm and bm are given by Fourier’s integral formulae. On the other hand, we may start not from an arbitrary series but from an arbitrary function f(x), form the coefficients (€m or bm) by Fourier’s formulae or the more general formulae (2), and then inquire whether the forma! development thus obtained is convergent, and whether, if convergent, it represents the function f(x) and so forth. The problems thus raised are among the most difficult of modern mathematics; and a very cursory examination of them is enough to

833

show that the methods of the older analysis are not sufficiently

powerful for their solution. It is essential that we should enlarge our conceptions, on the one hand, by taking account of the modern generalisations of the notion of an integral, and, on the other, by adopting

a broader view as to what is meant by the “ sum ”’ of an infinite series. The modern theory of functions of a complex variable (see 11.301) points to the same conclusion. A function f(z) of the complex variable z, regular for z=29, is defined throughout a certain circle whose centre is zo by a power-series Lan(z—29)"; but the region of existence of the function is very generally more extensive than the circle of convergence of the series; and this fact has led, during the

last generation, to a mass of work on the problem of “analytic continuation.” This problem is that of discovering analytic representations of the function, whether by integrals, or by continued fractions, or by series of a different form, which are valid throughout a wider region than that in which it is represented by the original power series, Here also we are confronted by the need for a scientific theory of divergent scries. There are passages in the older analysts (e.g., in L. Euler) which suggest a half-conscious anticipation of modern ideas. But it is roughly true to say that they did not concern themselves with the precise meaning of the infinite series of which they made such effective use. A. L. Cauchy and N. Hl. Abel were the first to give a precise definition of the “sum ” of a series aote ta:+ ... or Lan, Viz., asthe

limit of Sn=8+481+ ...

+4, when

n tends

to

infinity (n->œ). Such a series as 1—-I+1—... has then no sum, for sn is alternately 1 and 0; and it was the tendency, for many years after Cauchy and Abel, to banish such series from analysts entirely. A school of mathematicians survived, among whom one may cite A, de Morgan, who viewed this tendency with obvious discontent,

but there was no escape

from the conclusion

that the

followers of Cauchy and Abel were right. It is impossible to say ‘the sum of Ya, is so-and-so ’’ except after framing an accurate definition of ‘‘ sum ”’; the definition of Cauchy and Abel was the only definition; and, until some

new

and wider definition

was

offered,

that was the end of the matter. We may define the meaning of a mathematical word or symbol as we please, provided only that the definition is free from contradiction, Given a sequence of numbers a, a2,... we may associate with the sequence a number s in any manner that we please, and we may say,

if we like, that s is the * sum ” of the series. We might say, for instance, that the “ sum ” of every infinite series is, by definition, zero.

This definition would be perfectiy legitimate but futile, because it would reduce all equations involving infinite series to the trivial form 0=0; and confusing, because it would conflict with Cauchy's definition. Cauchy’s definition is only one among many, but it is admittedly the most important, and a new definition is only likely to be of value if it is consistent with the standard definition. It must satisfy what is called the condition of consistency; it must apply to all convergent series, and give a “sum " equal to their sum in the ordinary sense. Its value for analysis will then be measured by the extent and importance of the class of non-convergent series to which it attributes a “sum.” The simplest and most important of the definitions which have been given is that of the “ first arithmetic mean.” Suppose that Sn=Aotayt+ ... Han and on=(Sotsi+ 2... +5n)/(n +1), the arithmetic mean of the first #-+1 values of sn. If sp tends to a limit, on tends to a limit also, and the two limits are the same; but ca may tend to a limit when s» does not. For example, if da=(—1)*, Son =1 and Song1 =O, and s, does not tend to a limit; but on tends to

the limit 3. If now we agree to call the limit of on, whenever it exists, the ‘sum ” of the serics Zan, our new definition is in perfect accord with Cauchy’s definition, but is applicable to an extensive class of series for which Cauchy’s definition fails, It therefore fulfils the conditions required for a theory of divergent series. The most striking illustration of the importance of these ideas is to be found in the theory of Fourier’s series (see 10.753). The Fourier’s series of a continuous function f(x) is not necessarily convergent; further conditions on f(x), of a much more artificial character, are required to ensure convergence. It was, however, shown by L. Fejér that the Fourier series of any continuous function is ‘“summabie " by the procedure indicated above; that is to say, that the arithmetic mean ox tends to a limit equal to the value of the function; and this fundamental result has been the starting point of a mass of modern research. Another important definition attributes to the series as “sum” the value of the limit of the power series Laux" when x tends to I through positive values less than 1. A third (of particular importance p

in complex function theory) was advanced by Borel; and all of these

definitions have entailed a host of still more general definitions, BIBLICGRAPHY.—--For the general theory of divergent series sce E. Borel, Leçons sur les séries divergentes (1901); T. J. L'A. Bromwich, Introduction to the Theory of Infinite Series, ch. x. (1908); G. H. Hardy and M, Riesz, The General Theory of Dirichlets Series (1915). For the theory of Fourier’s series, H. Lebesgue, Leçons sur les séries trigonométriques (1912); Ch. J. de la Vallée Poussin, Cours d'analyse infinitésimale, 2nd ed., vol. 2 (1916); E. W. Hobson, The Theory of Functions of a Real Variable (1907, 2nd ed., 1925). The general theory of series of orthogonal functions is, for the most part, still only to be read in the original memoirs, or in works on the theory

MATHEWS of integral equations.

A very

important generalisation of the con-

cept of a Fourier’s series has been developed recently by H. Bohr in a series of memoirs in the Acta Mathematica.

IV. THEORY

OF FUNCTIONS

The theory of functions (see 11.301, 14.53) has two great branches, the real and the complex theories. Recent advances in the complex theory, important as they are, have been of too technical a character for rapid summary. The real theory, on the other hand, has been remodelled from its foundations. The older form of the theory was cumbrous and unattractive. The modern theory has the aesthetic character required of a firstrate mathematical science, and its development has been perhaps the most striking achievement of modern analysis. 1. Sets of Points.—The theory of functions of a real variable is based upon the theory of aggregates (see 19.847-850) and in particular the theory of ‘‘ sets of points.’ A set of points S is an aggregate

of real numbers x, such as the aggregate of rational numbers, or of irrational numbers, in the interval (0, 1). A number £ ts said to bea “ limit point ” (Häufungstelle) of S if every ‘ neighbourhood ” of &, that is to say every interval (E—e, &+e) including £, contains points

of S other than é itself. A limit point of S may or may not belong

itself to S. Thus every number of (0, 1), rational or irrational, is a limit point of the set S of rationals of (0, 1). If every limit point of S belongs to S, S is closed. If every point of S is a limit point, S is

compact or dense.

A set which is both closed and compact is perfect.

The continuum, the aggregate of all real numbers, is perfect. An idea of dominating importance in the theory of functions is that of the content or measure of a set of points. Suppose, for simplicity, that the set S in question is contained in (0, 1). Then Cantor defined the content of Sas follows:—Divide (0, 1) in any manner into a finite number of intervals ô, and these intervals ô into two classes ô

and 6., according as they do or do not include points of S; and let c(ô) be the sum of the lengths of the intervals 6,. Then the content of Sis the limit of c(ô) when the intervals ô tend to zero, if this limit should exist. There is a striking defect in this definition, the full implications of which were first perceived by E. Borel. The content of the sum of two sets is not generally the sum of their contents. Thus the rationals of (o, 1) have content I (since every 4 is obviously a 6,), and Itkewise the irrationals. The sum of the contents is 2, whereas the content of the sum is I. The rationals of (0, 1) cannot be included in a finite set of

intervals whose aggregate length is less than 1. If we abandon the restriction that the set of intervals must be finite, the situation is completely changed. Thus Borel observed that we may include the rational p/q in the interval

(2-4,

£45), and that the sum of all

these intervals may be made as small as we please by choice of ¢; and this simple remark has revolutionised the theory of functions. The first step was to frame a satisfactory definition of measure, and this concept, which has entirely superseded Cantor's“ content," is now defined as follows. We consider sets S included in (0, 1). Let S be enclosed, 1 any manner whatsoever, in a system o of intervals ô; let m(c) be the sum of the intervals of o; and let me be the lower bound (or “inferior limit ’’) of the aggregate of values of m(c). Then me is the exterior measure of S. The interior measure mj; is 1— M'e, where m'e is the exterior measure of S;, the set complementary to S, t.e., the set of points of (0,1) which do not belong to S. If Me =mi, the set S is measurable, and its measure is m, the common value of me and mj. This definition (due to H. Lebesgue) is of ex-

treme generality, and no example of a non-measurable set is known. Measure, thus defined, has the properties which measure ought to have, but which Cantor's content lacked. In particular the sum of two mutually exclusive and measurable sets is measurable, and its measure is the sum of the measures of the component sects. The measure of any enumerable set, and in particular of the rationals, is zero. The definition may be extended to sets in space of any number of dimensions. 2. Integration — The new theory of measure has led to new theories of integration, in the light of which the older theories are of historical or didactic interest only. The most important of these theories are due to H. Lebesgue and W. H. Young. (a) Lebesgue's definition of an integral is as follows. A function f(x), defined in an interval (a,b), is measurable if the set of points

S(A) for which f> A is measurable for every A. All known functions

are measurable. We now suppose that f is bounded, so that (say) h of manganese and about 0-5 °> of magnesium. As rolled, this material has a tensile strength of about 18 tons per sq. in., but if heated to a temperature of 480° C. to 500° C. and quenched, it gradually acquires much greater strength—rising to about 26 tons per sq. in., the ductility remaining the same at about 16 to 18%% elongation on two inches. Such a material, possessing the strength of a very mild steel combined with a density as low as 2-8, constituted a remarkable advance in wrought aluminium alloys. At quite an early stage in its history this alloy was employed for the construction of Zeppelin airships. The manufacture of the alloys was taken up in England under licence from the German patentee, and the alloy has been extensively used in the construction of British rigid airships. Its use has, however, not been free trom difficulties and disadvantages, and great efforts have been macle to arrive at better alloys by research in Great Britain. As a result, a series of new aluminium alloys for use in the wrought form have been developed. The most important of these 1s one developed at the National Physical Laboratory and known as “ Alloy Y,” having the composition: copper 4°, nickel 2 6 and magnesium 14°20. This alloy, when quenched from a temperature of 530° C. after previous cold-rolling, can be made to attain a tensile strength of 28 tons per sq. in. combined with an elongation of 20°, on two in.; its density is 2-8, and it possesses two very important further properties, viz., remarkable resistance to corrosion, and a relatively very high resistance to fatigue (repetition stresses), particularly at slightly elevated temperatures. Forgings of this alloy have heen successfully used as connecting-rods in high-speed internal combustion engines, and it is finding a constantly widening range of engineering uses. More

recently, a German

alloy—“ lautal ’'—in which

ments are copper and silicon, has been produced

is not superior to alloy Y or duralumin,

the alloying eleindustrially.

It

Aluminium Alloys——Important as are theresults achieved with the wrought alloys just described, results of more immediate importance have been achieved with casting alloys of aluminium. At first these were employed mainly on more or less subsidiary castings, such as crank-cases, and for that purpose an alloy containing from 12 to 14% of zinc and about 23 °% of copper (generally known by the number of the British Air Board Specification as “L 5”) was very widely used. Efforts were soon made, however,. to employ light-alloy castings for more important parts in aeroplane engines, viz., cylinders and pistons. Here the value of these materials lies not so much in their specific lightness as in their high thermal conductivity. In the case of the cylinder castings of air-cooled engines particularly, this is valuable in preventing distortion arising from unequal cooling of the windward and lecward sides, while in the pistons it reduces the temperature of the compression space and thus increases the density of the indrawn charge, and at the same time allows of the employment of higher compression ratios. The effect of these advantages is to increase very appreciably the power output of an engine of given size and weight, while also reducing the petrol consumption (see AERO ENGINES). The alloys first and most extensively used were those of aluminium with copper, a 12'% alloy being particularly popular. Another widely used alloy contains 7°, of copper with 1% of zinc. These alloys, although initially not as strong as some of those containing zinc, do not lose their strength so rapidly when heated, so that at the working temperature of an aluminiumi-alloy piston (about 250° C.)

they are stronger than such an alloy as however, are relatively very weak when strength of about six to seven tons per Recently, researches at the National

“ L5.” Even these alloys, hot—they register a tensile sq. in. at 250° Centigrade. Physical Laboratory have shown that the alloy already referred to above as ‘‘Y "---containing copper 4%, nickel 2°,, magnesium 13 %—is particularly strong at high temperatures, even in the cast state.

It is, further, amenable to

hardening by quenching and ageing even in the form of castings, and when thus treated attains a tensile strength as high as 26 tons per sq. in. at the ordinary temperature and 13 tons per sq. in. at 250° Centigrade. Many important applications are opened up as the result of the remarkable properties of this alloy.

An important development in aluminium alloys is the advent

of the “ modified ” alloys of aluminium with silicon, known as “alpax,” “silumin,” ete. It has been found that an alloy of aluminium with from ro to 14% of silicon solidifies with a rather coarse, nearly eutectic, structure containing some primary crystals of silicon.

If, however, just prior to casting, the alloy is

treated either by the addition of a small amount of metallic sodium or by reaction with a flux containing sodium compounds, such as the fluoride or the hydrate, the resulting structure is profoundly altered; the eutectic structure becomes exceedingly fine and the alloy now shows primary aluminium—1.e., the eutectic concentration appears to have been altered. The “ modified ”?” alloy shows physical properties much superior to the untreated material, particularly in regard to an exceptional degree of ductility. The alloy yields castings having very good, clean, bright surfaces, although the avoidance of internal unsoundness is not always easy. For castings in which good appearance, ductility and absence of porosity is important, while strength is a lesser consideration, these aluminium silicon alloys offer great advantages. Important progress has also been made in improving the soundness of aluminium alloy castings and ingots by the recognition of the fact that gases, and particularly hydrogen, dissolved in the molten metal give rise to pin-holing and unsoundness in castings, particularly when cooled at moderate rates. It has been shown (Archbutt) that most of the deleterious gas escapes from the metal if it is allowed to solidify very slowly, as for instance by cooling in the furnace. Subsequent rapid remelting does not allow it to reabsorb much gas, and castings can then be made from it of exceptional soundness. Similar observations in regard to copper were made simultaneously by Edwards and Prytherch. A less expensive method of removing hydrogen or other deleterious gas is that of bubbling nitrogen through

the molten metal prior to casting (Rosenhain). This process has proved as successful as presolidification and is coming into use.

An important process for the electrolytic refining of aluminium was worked out in 1925 by Edwards and his collaborators in America. Molten aluminium, to which copper has been added to raise the density, lies at the bottom of the bath; upon it floats the molten cryolite electrolyte, and on this again floats the pure aluminium. The lowest layer is anode and the top layer cathode, and by electrolysis the top layer of high purity metal increases at the expense of the bottom layer. Aluminium has in this way been obtained of more than 99-95% purity, and the properties of this high purity metal are distinctly different from those of the purest commercial metal previously obtainable (99-7 °%). Muagnesium.--During the latter part of the period under review, this metal began to acquire technical importance. High price and great corrodibility had formerly prevented its use, but the price has been much reduced and, if the demand increases sufficiently, this may become lower than that of aluminium, as satisfactory raw materials are plentiful and the reduction process could be rendered equally economical. As regards corrosion, the production of metal of higher purity, and especially free from chlorides derived from the electrolyte, shows much better resistance to atmospheric corrosion than the older material. The mechanical strength of magnesium and its alloys never approaches that of the better aluminium alloys, but their greater lightness offers some advantages. Magnesium and some of its alloys have been successfully used, particularly in France, for pistons of internal combustion engines and for other special purposes. The thermal conductivity of these materials, however, is decidedly inferior to that of aluminium alloys, and this is likely to lessen the advantages to be gained from extreme lightness. As further improvements are made, however, magnesium alloys are likely to prove of increasing technical importance.

Berylium or glucinum metal has been produced in reasonable quantities, although still at a very high laboratory cost. The combination of great lightness, considerable resistance to corrosion, high strength and high melting point found in this metal may render it technically interesting provided that the cost can be made reasonable and that it can be produced in a malleable form. The latter has not, so far, been done. Nickel.—This has received a wide range of new applications, partly as the result of the need of the nickel industry to find new uses when the principal older use—for armament purposes— came practically to an end after the Washington Conference.

METALLURGY Among the more important developments are the alloys for use at

very high temperatures. Alloys of nickel and chromium containing various amounts of iron and manganese have been known for a considerable time as “ Nichrome,’’ and proved valuable for such uses as electric resistance heaters for temperatures not much above 1,000° Centigrade. More recently these have been improved upon by a high-purity alloy consisting solely of nickel and chromium (80% Nt, 20% Cr.), and this alloy also exhibits remarkable strength at high temperatures (up to 800° Centigrade). In this respect, however, it 1s not appreciably superior to the best of the special “ steels ” which

have been developed for use at very high temperatures. These usually contain large amounts of both nickel and chromium, to which tungsten is sometimes added, the proportion of iron in some cases falling as low as 54°. The increasing use of very high temperatures in engineering practice lends special! importance to these materials. Other Metals.—Developments in the remaining metals are mostly of a minor nature. Progress has been made in connection with cobalt. Its use in steel and in certain special alloys has already been mentioned, but it has also been shown to give a more adherent and more durable electro-plate coating than nickel, and it is important to note that its resemblance to nickel is not nearly so close as was previously supposed. In regard to lead and its alloys, a remarkable development has been that of alloys with the rare-earth metals, particularly calcium and barium. These confer a remarkable degree of hardness

on lead, and a special alloy of this kind is finding application as a bearing metal.

V. PHYSICAL

METALLURGY

Side by side with, and to a great extent furnishing the basis for, the development in the treatment and use of metals and their alloys, there has been a very great development of metallurgical science in the direction of ‘‘ Physical Metallurgy.”

Alloy Svstems—A very large amount of work has been devoted to the further and more detailed study of the constitution of alloy systems. A number of the somewhat rough preliminary determinations of the equilibrium diagrams of most binary alloy systems previously made, have been revised and rendered more accurate. In ferrous alloys, the iron-carbon system has received much further study, particularly in regard to the critical points of iron itself. Important work at the Bureau of Standards, U.S.A. (Burgess and Crowe), has firmly established the three wellknown critical points, Ai, Ae and As, and has shown that previous attempts on the one hand to discredit the very existence of A. (Carpenter), and on the other to show that it was a double

point (Arnold) were based on experimental error. On the other hand, German investigators (Ruer, Hanemann) have established the existence of a higher critical point, which in pure iron occurs at a temperature very close to 1,400° Centigrade.

In connection with the critical points, considerable attention has been devoted to the whole question of allotropy. A Dutch school of investigators (Cohen) have sought to show the existence of numerous allotropic transformations in many metals, but their conclusions are based on extremely slight evidence derived from determinations of minute irregularities in density changes. On the other hand, the Japanese school (llondo) seek to show that the A: transformation in iron is not allotropic in character, and this view is confirmed, to a

certain extent, by strong evidence that the passage through this point does not involve any change of crystallisatton—evidence which has recently been confirmed by X-ray methods. The matter, however, turns upon the definition of allotropy. In addition to the iron-carbon system, the iron-nickel, iron-

chromium, the manganese-carbon and nickel-carbon systems have been carefully investigated. The systematic study of the alloys of iron, in the first place free from carbon, has been begun at the National Physical Laboratory under the auspices of a special committee.

The

production

of iron, chromium,

manganese and silicon

in a very high state of purity and a study of the iron-oxygen system are some of the results already obtained. Jn non-ferrous alloys, considerable attention has been given to the alloys of zinc, a portion of the ternary system copper-aluminium-zine (alloys rich in zinc) having been very fully worked out (Haughton, Bingham). The allotropy of zinc itself has also been very thoroughly studied (Benedicks, Bingham) and the reality of the transformations established. Great advances have been made in the knowledge of the equilibria of several of the important alloy systems in which aluminium is the predominant metal. The ternary systems aluminiumzinc-copper, aluminium-iron-silicon and aluminium-magnesiumsilicon (lanson, Gayler) have been fully worked out so far as the alloys rich in aluminium are concerned. For the representation of the results of such investigations a new type of model has been devised

(Rosenhain) in which the various equilibrium surfaces are represented by systems of wires coloured to indicate the phases concerned in each transformation.

885

The Aluminium-magnestum-silicon System.—The study of the aluminium-magnesium-silicon system has proved particularly important, throwing light on the age-hardening properties which are found in many aluminium alloys containing magnesium. The magnesium in these alloys is present as a compound Mg,Si, which is more soluble in solid aluminium at high temperatures than at the ordinary temperature. Quenching such an alloy from a temperature just below its solidus retains the compound in solid solution and in this state the alloy is soft. Gradually, however, at the ordinary temperature and more rapidly at slightly higher temperatures, this super-saturated solid solution deposits the excess of dissolved compound in an extremely finely divided condition, accompanied by a gradual hardening of the alloy. This process is strictly analogous to that which can be brought about in certain alloy steels which can be rendered (or kept) completely ‘“‘ austenitic’? (homogeneous solid solution) by quenching; they are then soft and ductile, and do not undergo hardening while at rest at the ordinary temperature. If the temperature is raised so as to bring about “ tempering ”’ the solid solution breaks down in precisely the same way as indicated above and the steel becomes hard (and also magnetic). It would thus seem that hardening as the result—direct or indirect -—of quenching is due to the separation from solid solution, in a state of extremely fine division, of a phase the formation of which had been suppressed by quenching. According to the theory of amorphous metal (see below) each of the minute crystallites of the phase thus separated will be surrounded by a zone of amorphous metal, which is itself very hard. If the minute crystals thus separated are sufficiently small and numerous, the result will be that a considerable proportion of the whole alloy will be thrown into the amorphous state, extreme hardness resulting. On this view, the martensite of

hardened steel should consist mainly of minute crystallites of alpha-iron embedded in an amorphous matrix consisting of iron and carbon (or carbide) in solution in it. This suggested constitution of martensite readily accounts for its hardness and for the fact that 1t is magnetic, ancd—in view of the intimate manner in which the minute crystallites of alpha-iron are embedded in unyielding and un-magnetisable amorphous metal—accounts also for the magnetic hardness of the martensitic steel. This view is further confirmed by the observation that the chemical behaviour of quench-hardened steel is in certain respects closely similar to that of the same stecl hardened by cold work and thus rendered partially amorphous (Whiteley). Finally, it has re-

cently been shown by X-ray methods that the space lattice typical of alpha-iron is present in martensitic steel (Westgren). Theory of Amorphous Metal-—The theory of amorphous metal just mentioned has played an important part in scientific metal-

lurgical thought during the period under review. The conception that metal could be rendered amorphous by mechanical disturbance of its crystalline structure was originated by Beilby, in the first instance, to account

for the phenomena

ob-

served by him and others in connection with the polishing of metals and other substances. Beilby further applied the conception to explain the hardening which metals undergo as the result of plastic deformation (cold work) by suggesting that layers of amorphous metal are formed on the surfaces on which internal slip occurs during plastic straining. Both these theories are widely but not universally accepted in england and America, but find opposition on the Continent. More recently Rosenhain has brought forward a conception which has already been present in the minds of many other inves-

tivators (notably Osmond) in a less definite form, that a film or thin layer of amorphous metal exists in the inter-crystalline boundaries of all metals, quite apart from any effects of strain. This view has been vigorously contested, but experimental evidence in its confirmation has been steadily accumulated. The most striking series of facts supporting the ‘“ amorphous cement " theory is connected with the behaviour of the inter-crystalline boundaries under stress. In normal circumstances these boundaries are stronger than the crystals themselves, so that fractures of metals generally occur by breaking through the crystals and not by pulling them apart. It has, however, been shown that at a high temperature near to, but definitely below, the melting point, pure metals can be easily caused to break with a perfectly inter-crystalline fracture (Rosenhain and Ewen). This is ascribed to the greatly decreased viscosity at such temperatures of the inter-crystalline amorphous metal, which is regarded as possessing the properties of a

886

METALLURGY

viscous under-cooled liquid. The actual viscosity, however, depends very much upon the nature of the metal and upon the temperature — the farther a metal is below its normal melting-point the higher the viscosity of the amorphous phase. Accordingly, in some of the softer metals and alloys the amorphous material is sufficiently mobile to allow of sensible movement in relatively short times. Thus, an alloy of zinc with copper and aluminium has been discovered which, in the cold-worked state when it is partially amorphous, behaves very much like pitch; it will bend to any desired extent if allowed to do so gradually, but breaks short if rapid bending is attempted. Similarly, the inter-crystalline cement in certain metals and alloys, although it proves stronger than the crystals when the metal is loaded at any normal rate, appears to be capable of giving way by some form of viscous or visco-elastic movement under very prolonged loading such as that due to internal stresses.

Season Cracking.—Much attention has been devoted to the study of fractures occurring in various metals as the result of the application of internal or other prolonged stresses. In brass these

phenomena have become known by the misleading term “ season cracking,” but strikingly similar phenomena have been found in a number of other metals, including certain alloys of alu-

minium, platinum and steel (Rosenhain and Archbutt). In the case of brass, steel and aluminium alloys, certain types of chemical reagents which act preferentially upon the material in the crystal boundaries contribute to the occurrence of such fractures, which are typically inter-crystalline (Moore and Beckinsale). At the same time in the case of the aluminium alloys at all events such chemical action serves to accelerate the fractures, but is not essential to it since it occurs, although more slowly, in high vacuum or in an atmosphere of pure dry hydrogen (Rosenhain and Archbutt). In the case of brass it scems probable that “ season cracking ? can occur without the intervention of any chemical action. Similar types of cracking which have been discovered in mild stecl, however, appear to be very closely associated with the

large single crystals of aluminium have been produced (Carpenter and Elam). This has opened the way for the study of single crystals under strain (Taylor and Elam) and under fatigue (Gough and Hanson), (see FaTicur oF Merats). It has also given the impulse for the production and study of single crystals in other metals (Davey, Bridgeman, Czochralski). The general result emerges that in most respects single crystals behave very much like aggregates, but possess greater ductility and, in the case of copper, have an appreciably higher conductivity. Their mode of deformation under strain and fatigue is found to confirm the original theory of deformation by slip on crystallographic planes (Ewing and Rosenhain), but extensive research on fatigue phenomena both in single crystals and crystal aggregates (Moore, Jasper, McAdam, Gough, Jenkin) has as yet failed to produce a satisfactory explanation of fatigue failure. The fatigue range, however, has been dissociated from the “ elastic limit ” and found to be related rather to the ultimate strength.

The application of X-ray methods of crystal analysis to the study of the atomic structure of metals has received much attention. The normal crystal lattices of almost all the known metals have been worked out, as well as those of a number of alloys (W. H. and W. L. Bragg, Hull, Bain, Wyckof, Westgren, Debye, Scherrer, Wever, Owen and Preston and many others). (See CRYSTALLOGRAPHY; X-RAY.) The majority of metals have either a face-centred or body-centred cubic lattice; a few (zine cadmium,

etc.) have a close-packed hexagonal structure, while

the more brittle metals show structures of lower symmetry. The lattice structures of solid solution alloys are found to be those of the parent or solvent metals often either expanded or contracted by the addition of the dissolved metal. On the basis of this structure a general theory of the properties and behaviour of solid solutions has been worked out (Rosenhain) which affords

effects of certain chemicals, such as concentrated solutions of alkalis, fused ammonium nitrate, etc. While there are still some metallurgists who refuse to think in terms of an amorphous inter-crystalline cement (Hatfield, Tammann), the great majority of investigators are agreed that, directly or indirectly, this conception serves to explain the occurrence not only of intercrystalline fractures under prolonged loading but also a number of other phenomena associated with the crystal boundaries.

satisfactory explanations of their behaviour on melting and freezing, their hardness and electrical conductivities and the power of different metals to form solid solutions. X-ray methods have also been used, as already mentioned, in very important work on the behaviour of metal under strain and fatigue. The effect of cold working on the atomic structure has

Intimately connected, also, with the nature of inter-crystalline

rolling, not only elongates the crystals of a metal and sets up disturbances of the lattice structure, but sets the crystals in an orientation which tends to place one of their axes in the direction of rolling. Annealing, although it rapidly brings about recrystallisation into equi-axed crystals, does not necessarily abolish the oriented structure, probably because the newly formed crystals tend to assume the orientation of their predecessors. The directional structure—called by German workers the “ fibre ” structure of cold worked metal—is completely removed only by annealing at very high temperatures.

boundaries are the important phenomena of recrystallisation and crystal growth, which are of fundamental importance with all annealing and heat-treatment operations, and have been studied

in great detail. One of the most striking features is the relatively rapid formation of large crystals in certain conditions. Thus in an oblong piece of metal which has been severely strained, and is then heated in such a way as to be well above the usual tempcrature of recrystallisation at one end and well below it at the other, a zone is found in which very large crystals are formed; this may occur either as the result of a temperature-gradient being applied to a uniformly strained piece of metal or of the application of a suitable uniform tempcrature to a piece of metal in which there is a strain-gradicnt. The explanation appears to be that for a given degree of previous plastic strain there is a temperature most favourable to rapid crystal growth (Jeffries). An interesting practical application of the ideas derived from the study of these phenomena is the production of wires of certain metals, notably tungsten, which have been so treated as to consist, for considerable lengths, of single long crystals. This result is achieved by drawing the cold-worked wire into an annealing furnace at a suitable temperature, at precisely the right rate. The tungsten wire thus produced is particularly valuable for the manufacture of electric lamp filaments (see ELECTRIC LIGHTING), and it has also been shown to possess interesting elastic properties (Wartenberg) which are readily accounted for by the absence in such material of any amorphous inter-crystalline material the viscous or viscoelastic properties of which affect the behaviour of the wire. Much study has also been devoted particularly to the recrystallisation of aluminium after cold-working, and as a result very

been

particularly

fully investigated,

and

it has been

shown

(Polanyi, Mark, Körber, Sachs) that cold working, such as cold

VI. ORGANISATION

OF THE

INDUSTRY

Certain institutions and organisations have attained importance as factors in metallurgical progress. The Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau, merged in the Imperial Institute, has published a large amount of information, mainly in regard to the mineral resources of the British Empire. The continued progress and growth of the Institute of Metals has been a marked feature of metallurgical activity; this body has now attained a membership of over 1,700. In America an Institute of Metals has been formed on different lines, as part of the Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers.

The British Engineering Standards Association, formerly the Engineering Standards Committee, exerts a powerful influence on the metallurgy of those metals which form the materials of engineering. The issue of standard specifications for a large number of non-ferrous metals has been undertaken. In connection with the British Government Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, a Non-Ferrous Metals Research Associa{ion has been formed and has carried out important researches, particularly in connection with copper, brass, aluminium, the

METALS— METEOROLOGY jointing ot metals, die-casting, etc. The British Cast Iron Research Association has been mentioned. This brief summary of the developments of metallurgical science deals only with a few points of outstanding interest. BisLroGRAPHY.—For iron and as scientific, the Journal of the should be consulted for original cover the literature of the whole

steel metallurgy, industrial as well Iron and Steel Institute, London, publications and abstracts which world on this subject. In addition,

excellent abstracts will also be found in the metallurgical section of the journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, and in such journals

as Stahl und Eisen, the Revue de Métallurgie and The Metallurgist (supplement to The Engineer). In addition The Iron Age, the Iron and Coal Trade Review and similar journals may be mentioned. For general metallurgy, see the annual volumes of Afineral Industry and The Journal of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. For the non-ferrous metals, see The Journal of the Institute of Metals (abstracts as well as original papers), Revue de Métallurgie and several German journals, Zetischrift fiir Metallkunde, Metall und Erz, Zeischrift für Anorganische Chemie, and the appropriate section of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical engineers (American Institute of Metals). The publications of the U.S. Bureau of Standards (Washington) and of the National Physical Laboratory (Teddington, England) are important. The Faraday Society (London) has published in its Transactions several “general discussions,” including particularly one on The Fatlure of Metals under Internal and Prolonged Stress, another relating to metallurgical microscopy, one on the application of X-rays and one on The Physical Chemistry of Steel Making. (AY. Rx.)

METALS:

see ALUMINIUM; ANTIMONY; COPPER; FATIGUE

METALS; LEAD; MANGANESE;

OF

MICA; NICKEL; TIN; ZINC.

METCALF, WILLARD LEROY (1858-1925), American artist (see 18.257), died in New York City March 9 1925. METEOROLOGY (see 18.264).—Since 1910 considerable advances in meteorological knowledge have been made both on the observational and the theoretical sides. The Upper Atmosphere—During the years before the War observations on the temperature and humidity of the air strata were rapidly accumulating, more particularly from a network of stations spread over Europe, and since the W. and N. of Europe is subject during the winter to the passage of many deep cyclonic depressions, the conditions of temperature in cyclones

and anticyclones up to a height of some 20 km.(123 m.) had become

known.

The brief tables which were

all that were

available to Cleveland Abbe in rg09 had been supplemented by much information, drawn up and arranged for the European results by Lt.-Col. E. Gold C(AL.O.No. 210e, Geophysical Memoirs,

No. 5), by Dr. Wegener for the Continent (Die Temperaturverhältnisse in der freien Atmosphäre, III. Band, Heft 2/3, Leipzig, rọ09) and for Russia by Dr. Rykatchew (Meteorologische Zeitschrift, Jan. 1gt1). In 1916 a summary of the information available about the upper air was drawn up for the Meteorological Office but not published. It quoted frecly from Gold’s

paper but included the results of observations up to 1916. This summary together with certain theoretical matter was published in rọrọ under the title “ Characteristics of the Free Atmosphere ” (M.O. 220c, Geophysical Memoirs, No. 13), and from it the following abstract summarising our present knowledge of the strata from o to 20 km. is mostly taken. Temperatiure.—As the surface of the earth is left the temperature of

the air decreases with increasing height, and when the great varia-

tions of climate and of the conditions prevalent in different parts of

the earth are considered it is remarkable how uniform is the fall of temperature, now commonly called the lapse rate. The height to which it extends is variable, but in all places in which observations have been made, the lapse rate up to 8 km. has been found close to 6°C. per kilometre. This holds between 2 and 7 km. not indeed

exactly but approximately, for summer and winter and for places as far apart as the equator and the Antarctic in lat. 78°S. Thus in Batavia the lapse rate up to 8 km. is 6-1° per km.; at Petrograd it is §-8°. In England in the winter it is 5-8°, in the summer it is 6-0°, These are means,

but the rule holds quite well even for the individ-

ual case, for if in one part of the 8 km. the lapse rate is small this is usually compensated for by its being large in the other part. The

only important exception that has been found so far is in regions and at times where the temperature ts extremely low, as in Siberia or Canada or the Antarctic in the winter. In such instances the bottom layer is unduly cold and the lapse rate 1s negative over the first 2 km., so that the rule would make the upper air temperature too low. Also it must be remembered that the daily variation of temperature

does not extend upward more than one or two km., so that the mean

887

for the day rather than the precise temperature at the moment

should represent the surface temperature. This layer, in which temperature falls with increasing height, is called the troposphere. At a certain height, which varies with the latitude, with the barometric conditions, and with the season, the fall of temperature ceases, and the air up to the greatest heights that have been explored remains at a nearly uniform temperature in the vertical direction. This upper part in which there is no lapse rate is called the stratosphere. The boundary between the two parts is found at about 16 km. near the equator and at 10 km.in northern Europe. Over England its mean height is 10-5 km., falling to rather below 10 km. in the winter, and rising to over II km. in the summer, In the centre of a deep cyclone the value may casily fall to 8 km.; in an anticyclone it may exceed 12 km. The temperature of the stratosphere is below 200° A. over the equator and in tropical regions; itisabove 220° A. in northern Europe. In Canada it seems to be lower in the summer than in the winter. These anomalies are roughly expressed by the rule that the mean temperature of the air column taken with regard to height from oO up to 19 km. is approximately the same in all parts of the earth. There is probably a physical reason for this, and it explains the unexpectedly low tempcrature above 14 km. over the equator and the curious reversion of temperature between summer and winter over Canada (Toronto) where the seasonal range is very large. The annual range of temperature in the troposphere does not differ very greatly from the range at the surface; in island and coastal climates like England it is rather greater in the upper parts than at the surface; in continental climates the surface has the greatest range. In the stratosphere the range is much reduced and, as already stated, appears in Canada to be reversed although enough observations are not yet available to make this absolutely certain. Whether or not there is any regular diurnal change of temperature above 2 km. height is uncertain; all that can be said is that if there be

any its amplitude is certainly less than 1° Centigrade. The mean annual temperatures are given in the accompanying Table I. In Europe the probable error of any value is about 1°C.; for Canada and the equator owing to paucity of observations it is greater, especially above 15 km., where it may reach perhaps 3° Centigrade. Over Europe the mean temperature does not change from 14 to 20 km. and does not change much over Toronto. Ovcr the equator the lowest temperature, which is about 193° A., is not reached under 16 or 17 kilometres, TABLE

I. Mean Atmospheric Temperature

The values are in the Absolute scale with the first “2” 273:0° =0°C, = 32°F.

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171-0/75:3177:0176°8)} 78-01 78-51 78-21776/80 -7/76-8178-3195-0

Pressure and Density.—The temperature of the air having been found by observation, the pressure and the density are easily found up to the height to which the observations extend. In the same way the mean pressures and mean densities can be determined from the mean tempcratures without appreciable error provided the mean pressure at the surface is known. In the lower strata the pressure at any particular height is naturally most dependent upon the surface pressure, but since the air is lighter, bulk for bulk, when it is warm

the pressure decreases less

rapidly than usual in a warm area, and the pressure at any given

height depends more and more upon the temperature of the under-

lying air as that height increases.

Thus it comes to pass that in the

hot regions of the carth, say in the belt included between

the two

tropics, the pressure at the height of g km. is very much greater than it is at the same height over temperate latitudes, and the pressure gradient which causes the prevailing westerly winds of the cirrus level is thus produced. Ata height of 20 km. the surface pressure has ceased to have much effect, and it requires a rise of nearly 20 mb. 1 The average pressure of the atmosphere at sea-level being reckoned as 1 bar=1ooo millibars (mb.). 1 mb.=0-0295306 in. mercury at 32°F. in lat. 45°.

METEOROLOGY

888

in the surface pressure to produce a rise of 1 mb. at 20 km., whereasa change of 1-5°C., in the temperature of the air column will produce

that effect. It has been stated that the mean temperature of the air column up to Ig km. is much the same in all parts of the world, and it follows that the same level is one of nearly uniform pressure. The pressures are given in Table I]. at various stations for heights up to 20 kilometres. The values for Canada and the equator at heights above 15 km. are not very reliable owing to paucity of data. ‘The densities are given in Table IIT. The variations in the density became of great consequence during the War on account of their influence on the range of projectiles; they depend on the connection which has been found to exist between temperature and pressure.

Statistical Methods.—Statistical methods have been much in vogue of late years, and it is necessary to indicate how the method of correlation has been used for forecasting and for elucidating meteorological problems. A large number of correlation coefficients have been determined between various meteorological events, and the values of many of them are given in the Computer’s Handbook, M.O. 223, Section V.—Tables, published by the Meteorological Office. The advantage of a correlation coefficient in estimating the connection if any between two events, is that it expresses the connection as a decimal, which must lie between 1 and —1, and

The application of the method of correlation to forecasting can hardly be looked upon as very successful. Two highly correlated events are required happening with a definite time interval between them. A correlation coefficient may be high accidentally if it be founded on too small a number of instances, but genuinely high coefficients between meteorological events occurring with more than a few days’ interval between them are hard to find. The most successful instance is perhaps the forecast of the monsoon rain of India by Sir G. T. Walker from the correlation between it and sundry other events occurring in the spring this case the correlation coefficients have values of about -50; if values very much greater success would

of the same year or earlier. In on which the forecast is based of -80 or -go could be obtained be secured. There are a few

coefficients of from -70 to -80 between the rainfall at various periods and the subsequent yield of sundry crops. Thus in the eastern counties of England if April and May be wet it is a practical certainty that there will be a Jarge hay crop, and if the autumn be dry there will almost certainly be a large crop of wheat the next year. Mr. R. IH. Hooker has calculated a most interesting set of figures relating to the correlation between the weather and the crops, and the problem has been re-analysed by R. A. Fisher and W. A. Mackenzie, Quart. Jour, R. Meteor. Soc., July 1922. Similar work has been done for the potato crop in America by J. Warren Smith, and many correlation coefficients relating to agricultural matters are available from Sweden and elsewhere, The case is different where correlation is resorted to for the purpose of elucidating some physical process in the atmosphere; here a

TABLE II. Mean Pressure of the Atmosphere (Millibars)

Height ka.

Petro grad

20

55:0

55:0

18

74°5

74°8

19

64:0

17 16 15 I4 13 I2 If 10

9 8

Manchesa

55:2

64-2

64-6

87:0 IOI 118 138 161 187 218 255

87:3 102 118 138 161 187 219 256

297 346

299 348

Berlin

England, Cr

54°8

56-0

750

76-6

64:1

88-0 103 120 140 164 192 224 261

87-4 103 120 140 164 102 225 262

302 352

305 354

754

748

87:5 102 120 140 164 192 22; 261

89-6 105 123 143 167 195 228 266

87:6 {02 120 I4I 165 193 226 263

303 352

309 357 412

307 355

410

409

473 541

472 540

471 539

796

794

408

407

6 5

46I 529

464 532

468 537

470 538

469 538

2

737

787

793

I

8596

TABLE

Height km.

894

IH.

8O8

614 699

795

goo

615 699

795

goo

617 7O1

|

Density, Grammes per Cubic Metre

England, S.E.

Europe

Canada

Equator

20

|

ie 14 13 I2

If

IO

goo

748

616 700 goo

PLA NRW Om DOW AN

thus renders the connections between different pairs of events

comparable with each other. The velocity of the wind and the steepness of the barometric gradient may be taken as an example. The actual connection is obvious from the daily weather charts;

on some it is well marked, on others badly, but the fact that there is a connection is quite apparent from even two or three charts. The correlation coefficient is about 0-70.

) Pavia

54°8

54°9

Equaie

53

64:0

64-1

88-0 103 121 142 165 193 226 263

87:6 103 121 142 165 194 227 264

87:8 102 120 140 164 192 226 262

sa 120 142 167 195 228

90 107 128 152 178 209 244

266

283

306 354

307 356

412

305 353

408

309 358 413

430

474 542

470 533

475 543

491 558

797

794

75:2

|

Mean Europefor | Toron-| he

615 700

795

goo

750

618 703

|

gor

63

750

614 699 899

75

OIB 703

798

9903

327 376 632 713

803

903

small coefficient is just as likely to give information as a large one But the interpretation of the meaning of the coefficient is often difficult, ancl in many cases the value obtained is quite different from that which most meteorologists would have expected. Sir G. T. Walker in addition to his statistical work on the mon-

soon rain has published several sects of correlation coefficients, and

amongst them a set of roo showing the correlation between the sunspot number and the temperature at 100 stations well distributed over the earth’s surface. The correlation is negative and small, but it is large enough to be significant and to prove that during the 40 or so odd years considered the temperature of the earth as a whole was lower at the time of the sunspot maxima than at the time of the minima, It is commonly supposed that the sun is giving out most energy when its surface is most disturbed, and this idea has been confirmed by direct observation of the radiant heat. A perfectly satisfactory explanation is at present wanting. Walker also correlated between

|

530

64:4

407

613 698

54°7

. Vienna

64-0

402

608 694

| Strasbourg

65-6

400

606 692

Paris.

54°9

64:0

7 4 3

|

Scotland

sunspots and rainfall, and found the coefficient

too small to be significant. Hlowever, in none of these cases has the work been wasted, since important conclusions have been established. For high correlation coefficients one must take data relating tothe upper air. The relation between pressure and temperature is so remarkable and has such a close relationship to the theory of cyclones and anticyclones that it will be treated separately. The correlation coefficients between the thickness of the troposphere, a height commonly denoted by lle, the surface pressure, the temperature of the stratosphere and other variables often exceed 0-70, and the generally high values show quite plainly that there is an ordered sequence in the processes going on above, which is strikingly absent from the surface phenomena. Cyclones and Anticyclones.—\n a cyclone the troposphere is cold and the stratosphere warm, in an anticyclone the reverse is the case; in a cyclone the tropopause is low, in an anticyclone high.

Thus as an area of low pressure passes across the map the following changes occur in the various air strata above. The deficiency of pressure is about the same

from the surface up to some

10 km.,

METEOROLOGY above which it falls off rapidly until the normal value for the height is reached at about 18-20 kilometres. The temperature from about 2 to 8 or g km. falls, and from to to 20 km. it rises. The height at which the lapse rate ceases, the limit of the troposphere falls. These statements are based on the very high correlation coefficients that are found to exist between pressure and temperature. It will be seen from the accompanying Table IV. (which gives the correlation

coefficients) that close to the surface the correlation is low, but it is very high from 4 km. to 8 kilometres. There are probably two reasons for this. The surface temperature is governed by many considerations—the time of day, the state of the sky, the strength and direction of the wind; higher up these disturbances do not apply, for, as

has been already stated, the diurnal variation is very shallow and the correlation between the components of the wind and the temperature is surprisingly small above a few km. height. Secondly, it may well be that the chief item in determining the temperature is the recent vertical motion of the air, and a systematic vertical flow of air either up or down is plainly impossible quite close to the surface. The Height, km. Jan.-March April-June July—Sept. Oct.-Dec. Means

.

O — -02 “14 —-02 -33 -II

I -54 -28 “31 -56 -42

|

TABLE

IV.

2 -82 -49 -56 -76 -66

3 79 79 -72 T7 77

Correlation 4 86 -89 -75 -83 “4

tions made in Europe at a time of really low barometer in which He has not been found well below its average value. The dependence of the temperature of the stratosphere on the barometric conditions is not so close, the correlation being only -50; but based on some hundreds

of observations as these correlation

coefficients are,

-50

is amply significant. Still the importance of a correlation in general depends upon its square rather than upon itself, and the significance of +50 is very different from that of -90 or :85. One noticeable result of this high correlation between pressure and

temperature is that the density is not subject to much variation save close to the surface, for a high pressure and a high temperature

act upon the density in opposite ways, and since they occur together

the density remains comparatively unchanged. Meeting of Air Masses from Different Climates.)

round the thermodynamic cycle from A vta the adiabatic to B and back by the observed curve. Then, from the known properties of the entropy-temperature-diagram, the mechanical energy will be proportional to the area enclosed between the curves, and will be consumed or given out according as the observed curve lies below or above the adiabatic. Actually two diagrams are employed, in order to represent humidity as well as temperature and pressure.! Radiation in the Form of Electromagnetic Waves.—Just as a point has no parts and no magnitude, so a single direction contains no radiant energy. To mark off a definite flux of energy we must have two areas not In the same plane. For simplicity let us think of two square centimetres placed one metre apart and both normal! to the line P Q joining their centres P and Q.

Between 5 85 ‘89 ‘81 87 85

rise and fall of the tropopause (He) and the regularity with which it occurs is shown by the high correlation, -84, between it and the pressure at 9 km. height. There is hardly a single instance of observa-

(See also below, The

889

Pressure and Temperature 6 7 8 9

10

"84

“35

2 83

85

-86

87

QI

‘87 -87

81

“81 -87

85

“45 -88

86

86

7

86

II

tgs],

12

13

2938

-20 43

—-I2 | —-24 —-08 | —-4!

32

—19 | —-36

‘29 | —'24 | —:34

-72

We are now able to define the “ intensity of radiation ”’ in the direction P to Q as being 10! times the amount of energy that goes through both square centimetres in the order P to Q in one second.

The intensity of radiation K,dv in the range of frequencies of vibration between v and y+dyv has been shown to have the fol-

lowing value inside a black enclosure at a uniform temperature @absolute centigrade, 3

Kidy=

wv

ol) tay

wherec is the speed of ight, 4=6-55 X10 27 erg sec, k= 1-34 X 10718 erg degree™!. (Planck, Vorlesungen iiber die Theorie der Wärmesirahlung, Barth, Leipzig.)

This is known

as the “ full ” radia-

Stability for Vertical Displacements; Available Energy —The rate of decrease of tempcrature with height is normally less than the 10°, C. per km. by which clear ascending air is cooled by adiabatic expansion. Consequently a small portion of air, if forcibly raised or depressed, usually tends to return to its original level. The periodic time T of its vertical oscillation, if undamped, has been calculated by Väisälä (Soc. Scient. Fennica, Comm. Phys. Math. IT., vol. 19, p. 38) to be

L[=

an|Ce g(yo— y)

where @, is the absolute temperature of the air in the equilibrium

A

Adiabatic

Tor Clear Air

level, g is the acceleration of gravity, y is the actual decrease of

temperature per unit increase of height, y. the adiabatic value of y., Thus at a height of three km. T is normally about ten minutes, while in the stratosphere T is about five minutes. Any energy that there may occasionally be in a vertical column available for producing thunderstorms or other local disturbances has been made conspicuous by Sir Napier Shaw, who has plotted upon a special chart observations of temperature against those of pressure at thesame height, so as to produce, without calculation, the entropy-temperature-diagram familjar to engineers. Fig. 1 is a simplified sketch of it showing the observation for Benson, Oxfordshire, on July 5 1923, 7 P.M. He regards the dry air as the working substance and calls its entropy the “ realised entropy,” while the moisture he regards as merely a reservoir of latent energy. Let Aand B be two points where the curve representing the

observations cuts the same adiabatic for cloud.

If a sphere of

unit mass of cloud at A is pushed up it will follow this adiabatic. If we may assume that the surrounding air, in descending to take the place of that which has risen, does so by a very small displacement spread over a large horizontal area, and in such a

way that unit mass descends across each level surface, then what has occurred will apparently be indistinguishable, as far as energy changes are concerned, from the passage of a unit mass

Realized Entropy Mass per

Temperature

Fıc. 1.—Diagram of " air” entropy.

tion. Further it was proved by Kirchhoff that if a portion of air absorbs a jraction a oj the energy in a ray of frequency v then that portion emits in the direction of that ray the same fractiona of the full radiation, Kdy, corresponding to its temperature 6. Through any sphere of one centimeter diameter in the atmosphere radiations of various frequencies are passing simultaneously in all directions without blocking each other’s paths. ax Oe — i ot + Ox + ay

Ro OX ae

cfayet ax ex) eh ax? ays az"

where v, y, z, f are rectangular co-ordinates and time; 7, ? and W are the components of the mean velocity, and K is the diffusivity. This view of the process has led to K being observed under a variety of circumstances, by the increase of wind aloft, by the rate at which water vapour finds its way upward to the clouds, by the scattering of smoke or of balloons or of volcano ash. It has thus become known that K is of the same order of magnitude whether the diffusing substance be momentum, dust, moisture or potential-heat. It has further appeared that in the first three kilometres K is roughly proportional to the speed of the mean wind, and is decreased when the static stability of the atmosphere increases. But the variation of K which overwhelms all others is that dependent on the size of the portion of atmosphere which is observed. Thus if the air is confined to a capillary tube, K is about 0-2 cm.? sec. 1, if the portion is a few metres across K is of the order of 10°, if a few hundred metres K is about rož, if a thousand kilometres across K is of the order of ro!' in the same units (Defant). We may explain this by saying that diffusivity is a compensation for neglect of detail, and that the amount of compensation increases as the things neglected include in succession molecular motion, gusts, squalls and cyclones. In other words, the mean-velocity %, 3 and W takes on a new sense whenever the size of the portion of the atmosphere under observation is enlarged, and this enormously affects K. See a paper by L. F. Richardson in the Roy. Soc. Proc., A, 1926. A vertical gradient of mean wind tends to produce eddies, statical stability tends to damp out eddies. The condition in which these effects just balance has been formulated by L. F. Richardson (Phil. Mag., Jan. 1925). Rayleigh’s theory of unstable temperature gradients has been brought into meteorology by D. Brunt (Meteor. Magazine, v. 60, 1925, p. 1). The Heat Balance of the Atmosphere—Gold (Lond. Roy. Soc. Proc., A, vol. 82, 1909, and simultaneously Humphreys (A sirophys. Journ., vol. 29, 1909, p. 14) showed that the existence of the stratosphere could be explained if it were in radiative equilibrium. The discussion as to the atmosphere generally has been continued by Emden (Silz.-ber. d. Akad. Wissensch. Wien, 1913, P. 55), W. H. Dines (Quar. Jour. R. Meteor. Soc., April 1917), W. Schmidt (Akad. Wiss., Wien, Mat.-Nat, Kl., 127-75, 1918), Chapman (Quar. Jour. R. Meteor. Soc., April 1925) and others, and has joined with theories of radiative equilibrium in stars. (Sce E. A. Milne, Phil. Mag., Nov. 1922. It is, however, doubtful whether the horizontal transport of heat can be neglected in

comparison with that in the vertical.

There are seemingly four methods by which an appreciable vertical flux of heat energy is produced in the atmosphere: (1) Convection, which carries heat upwards from the earth’s surface; its action does not extend beyond the first few kilometres. (2) The latent heat set free by the condensation of aqueous vapour, which carries upwards to the regions where clouds are formed the solar heat which has evaporated the water from the sea or wet land surface; this acts in just the same region as convection. (3) Radiation, which mostly carries heat upwards from These three methods present no a lower to a higher stratum.

difficulty, but it must be pointed out that “convection”

here

METEOROLOGY means local convection, t.e., heat carried by an ascending current that is produced by local warmth, not heat carried by an air current or by eddy motion due to the general circulation. This distinction, however, is difficult to maintain, because even frictional eddies behave as thermodynamic engines. (4) Stirring by eddies in the wind /.c., turbulence. W. Schmidt has made an estimate which shows that the amount of heat carried downwards across the 2 km.-level in Europe by this cause to be 50 gm. calories per sq. cm. per day. An important conclusion follows. Since above the region of the formation of heavy clouds neither convection nor the supply of latent heat by condensation is efficacious, the actual lapse-rate there must represent the balance of two opposing tendencies, one radiation, tending toward an isothermal condition, and the other mixing, tending to an adiabatic lapse rate. Dynamics of Wind.—In the upper air it has been shown by Gold that the wind velocity approximates to the ideal “ geostrophic wind ”?” which is imagined as blowing parallel to the isobars with a speed v given by v.2wp Sin @ = Op/dx where w is the earth’s angular speed,p is the air density, œ is the latitude, p is the pressure, and x is horizontal distance normal to the isobars. In the first kilometre this simplicity is modified by eddy-viscosity. Elaborate theories on the dynamics of wind

8QI

has worked them up and discussed various problems left in a more or less uncertain condition by previous expeditions. He has greatly extended our knowledge both from the observational and theoretical sides. Amongst other matters Dr. Simpson has established the anticyclonic character of the weather in the Ross Sea area, and has shown that the blizzards are not parts of the circulation about the centres of cyclones moving from west to east over the Antarctic Ocean. New Methods of Observation Upper wind was observed during the War (r) at night by pilot balloons carrying candles, (2) by shell bursts observed by two mirrors, (3) by sound-ranging Gi Stra e22

x “aA Sth.

Cold air

es

=

aS

=f

Warm air Ea NiTTT ee

UOT EOE,

ih

Sigrar

Cold air

`

GMM itd VLE

Mit ie

Wty

htfy

5e

continue to develop.!

The Meeting of Air-Masses from Different Climates——Dr. J. Bjerknes writes as follows:— Cold currents in the temperate zone can be traced back, more or less directly, to polar regions; in winter also to cold continents. On their way they are heated by contact with the ground and become unstable, provided that no adequate heating takes place in higher

Jayers. Polar currents in temperate latitudes therefore frequently have cumulus or even cumulo nimbus with showery weather, Warm currents in the temperate zone can be traced back to subtropical regions; in summer also to warm continents. On their way northward they are cooled in contact with the ground and become stable. If the cooling continues to the dewpoint then stratus clouds or fogs are formed. Where cold and warm currents border each other, in typical depressions or elsewhere, precipitation is usually formed. In cases where the warm current gains terrain (warm front) it climbs upwards ona gently inclined wedge, say 1/100, formed by the underlying cold current. Impervious cloud-sheets are formed in the climbing warm current, low clouds close to the warm front and higher clouds farther forward. Precipitation is usually falling from the whole extensive cloud system, but that falling from the higher parts evaporates before reaching the ground. In cases where the cold current displaces the warm {cold front) the precipitating clouds are likewise formed in the rising warm air. The advancing cold wedges are frequently so steep that violent ascending motion and correspondingly strong precipitation results. On the other hand, such precipitation is mostly confined to a narrow belt along the cold front. Extratropical cyclones examined individually show a great variety of types. Usually the young cyclones consist of two oppositely directed currents, one cold occupying a little more than the half of the area and one warm current covering the remaining area—the “warm sector.” During the development of the cyclone, air from the warm sector ascends and is replaced at the ground by the cold air. This motion transforms potential energy into kinetic energy, which appears in the increasing windsand deepening of the depression. After a couple of days all the air from the original warm sector is lifted off the ground, but can still be found aloft (occluded cyclone). During the ascension the warm air is cooled adiabatically, and finally it reaches a level where it finds surrounding air of its own temperature, so that the buoyancy can lift it no farther. Having reached this stage the cyclone is maintained merely by the inertia of the circulating air masses. If no new energy is supplied the cyclone decays gradually,

Original papers on this subject will be found in Oslo, Geofysiske Publikationer, and elsewhere.

For the relation between the

source of air and its temperature see C. K. M. Douglas, Quart. Jour. R. Meteor. Soc., July 1925. Antarctic Meleorology.—Great additions to our knowledge of the meteorology of the Antarctic regions were made by the publication of the results of Scott’s Antarctic expedition of rọro to 1912. The observations were taken mostly by Dr. Simpson, who 1See papers by J. Bjerknes, Oslo, Geofysiske Publikationer; Brunt, Phil. Mag., Feb. 1926; Jeffreys, Quar. Jour. R. Meteor. Soc., Jan. 1926;

and books by Exner, Richardson and Shaw.

AEE

%$-a

.

(fent)

e eee og Cater air A >

ve

ACu

OPEL,

LEE

PF

ENT

at

teen

TO,

P

Ash

ay }

a (0 to Colda oa

eel ey |i

foe

bf

es

IN

~

STE eu

=

y

A

ca7Okm

Fic. 2.—Diagram of idealised cyclone (young). (From “Life Cycle of Cyclones, and the Polar Front Theory of Atmospheric Circulation.” J. Bjerknes and H. Solberg, Geofysiske Publikationer, Vol. rrr., No. x.)

on a balloon that exploded. Subsequently a method has been developed for observing wind above fog by shooting spheres upward. Particulars of such things will be found in the Computers’ Handbook or the Professional Notes of the Meteorological OMce. Clouds can be photographed by moonlight (Oslo, Geofysiske Publikationer, vol. 3, No. 12). The amount of water in thin clouds can be measured (Quart. Jour. Roy. Meteor. Soc., Jan. 1025). The upgradient of temperature near the ground can be measured by thermocouples (Phil. Mag., Jan. 1925) and by an optical method (Quar. Jour. Roy. Meteor. Soc., April 1925). Upper air temperature is regularly measured from aeroplanes, and can also be observed by balloons that explode at a prearranged temperature (M.O. Prof. Note rg). For radiation instruments see Dictionary of Applied Physics, vol. 3. Weather Forecasts Forecasts for one or more days ahead continue to be made by the process of drawing a map to represent weather observations reccived by telegraph from an area some thousands of km. in diameter. The accumulated and classified experience of what usually does follow such a distribution of pressure, temperature, cloud and wind is then employed to form the forecast. The Smithsonian Institution is progressing in its studies looking toward weather forecasts based on solar radiation observations. Organisations.—The International Meteorological Committee and its subcommissions in 1925 reattained their fully international character, which was destroyed by the War. A post-war restricted organisation known as the International Union for Geodesy and Geophysics has a section for meteorology which is active. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Sir W. N. Shaw, Forecasting Weather: The Air and its Ways (1923); Willis L. Moore, Descriptive Meteorology (1911); C. J. P. Cave, The Structure of the Aimosphere in Clear

METER:

892

ELECTRIC

Weather (1912); Dr. Julius v. Hann, Handbuch der Kitmatologie (ard ed., 3 vol, 1911); Lehrbuch der Meteorologie (3rd. ed., 1915); V Bjerknes and others, Dynamische Meteorologie und Hydrographie (Carnegie Institute of Washington, 1912); Ii. N. Dickson, Climate and Weather (1912); Dr. Alfred Wegener, Thermodynamik der Atmosphäre (1911); M. W. Campbell Hepworth, National Antarctic Expedition 1901-1904 (London, Roy. Soc., 1913); Ice Observation, Meteorology, and Oceanography in the North Atlantic Ocean, Report on the work carried out by the S. S. “ Scotia " (1913); C. G. Abbot, F. E. Fowle and L. B. Aldrich, ‘‘ New Evidence on the Intensity of Solar Radiation outside the Atmosphere,” Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 65, No. 4; Sir Gilbert J. Walker, * Correlations in Seasonal Variations of Weather,” Memoirs of the Indian Meteorological Department, vol. 20 and 21; Anders Angström, “ A Study of the Radiation of the Atmosphere,” Smithsonian

Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 65, No. 3 (1915); G. C. Simpson, British Antarctic Expedition 1910-1913, Meteorology, 3 vol.; W. J.

Humphreys, Physics of the Atr, Franklin Inst. (1920); F. M. Exner, Dynamische Meteorologie, 2nd ed. (1925); R. G. K. Lempfert, Meteorology (1920); L. F. Richardson, Weather Prediction by Numerical Process (1922) (the Geephysical Memoirs, pub. by the Meteorological

Office); the Meteorological Glossary (fourth issue, M.O. 225.11, the Meteorological Office); The Dictionary of Applied Physics, vol. 3.

AND

GAS

solution of a mercury salt is hermetically sealed in a container, at the top of which are arranged a mercury anode and a cathode. During the operation of the meter, mercury is liberated at the cathode and collects in a syphon tube in the container; this tube, when full of mercury, discharges into the lower part of the container. Close to the right limb of the syphon tube is a vertical scale which registers the mercury level; in one form of the meter, this scale reads from o to 200 units. Below the scale is another which registers the level of the lower mercury column; this scale may read from o to 4,000 units. When reading the meter, both scales are read and the sum of the readings is taken. The Reason single-tube meter has one vertical mercury tube, which is read like a thermometer. In both forms, the mercury can be used repeatedly, the meters being re-set by tilting; the container is ilexibly mounted to facilitate this operation. In the Bastian electrolytic meter, acidulated water is decomposed by the action of the current, and the amount of water decomposed is read off on a vertical scale.

For original papers see the Bibliography issued by the Royal Meteorological Society, the bibliography published monthly in The Monthly Weather Review (Washington), also references in text. (W. H. Di; L. F. R.)

dry meters.

METER: ELECTRIC AND GAS (sce 18.291) —-Meters are used to measure the amount of electricity or gas supplied to the customers of the company concerned. In the case of electric meters these register the number of units supplied for light, heat or power.

water, which is normally at a definite level called the “ water line.” Inside the case is a rotary drum divided into compartments and mounted on a horizontal spindle geared to a vertical spindle operating the registering train. The drum is rotated by the un-

These meters

I. ELECTRIC METERS include induction-motor, mercury-motor

and

commutator meters, which register the revolutions of a disk or other armature caused to revolve, by the action of the current, at a speed proportional to the amperes or watts passing through the meter, and electrolytic meters in which the current or a shunted fraction of it passes through an electrolyte and decom-

poses it, the rate of decomposition being proportional to the current employed. Induction-moter Type.—In the Ferranti alternating current watt-hour meter, a series coil of a few turns of thick wire carrying

the main current is arranged below, and a shunt coil of many turns of fine wire is arranged above a horizontal rotary disk of aluminium. This disk is situated in the gap between the poles of a permanent magnet and the lower bearing of its vertical spindle is a sapphire carefully selected to reduce friction to a minimum. The magnetic fields due to the shunt and series windings produce a resultant rotating or shifting field which interacts with eddy currents, induced in the disk so as to exert a driving torque proportional to the watts. A retarding torque is produced by the action of the permanent magnet also caus-

ing the speed of the disk to be proportional

A wet gas meter has a strong iron case containing

balanced elastic pressure of the gas admitted to each compartment in turn on the surface of the water. After leaving the drum, the gas passes to an outlet pipe which delivers it to the burners. In order to maintain the level of the water, when lass occurs through evaporation or other causes, most wet meters are provided with means for automatically making good the loss; these are called compensating meters. In most of them, the water to make good the loss is delivered from a water reservoir within the meter case and communicating with the main body of water. Dry Meters.—In an ordinary dry gas meter, the upper part of the meter case forms the registering chamber in which are situated the registering train and the valve box, which is shut

off from the registering chamber and contains gas inlet and gas outlet valves. The registering chamber is separated by a horizontal partition from a lower and larger chamber, which is divided by a vertical partition into two equal chambers. In each of these a bellows of concertina shape, with flexible leather sides, works to and fro horizontally; the vertical partition forms the

to the watts.

A worm on the spindle drives the registering train; the registering

dials are of the clock pattern, or of the cyclometer pattern. To read the meter is a simple operation. In the clock pattern, starting from left to right, the figure last passed by the thousands pointer in its revolution is written down and the same procedure is followed for the hundreds, tens and units pointers in succession, the tenths registered on the small lower dial being read only when testing the meter. In the cyclometer pattern, the figures are written down just as they appear on the register. The cyclometer figure wheels are actuated by a falling weight; thus, the changing of the figure wheels does not throw any extra load on the meter.

Mercury-motor Meters—In

Il. GAS METERS There are two main types of gas meters, viz., wet meters and

the Chamberlain and Hookham

direct current ampére-hour meter, a copper disk is caused, by the action of the current, to rotate in a mercury chamber subject to the influence of a magnetic field due to a large permanent magnet. The vertical spindle of the disk, arranged to rotate with the minimum friction, is connected to the registering train with its series of clock dials. The peripheral wall of the mercury chamber is formed by a leather-lined metal band which is readily removable to permit inspection and refilling with mercury. Commutator Meters——Commutator meters have a wound armature connected in parallel with a shunt and arranged to rotate in the field of a permanent magnet. Electrolytic Meters——In the Reason syphon-tube meter, a

CUBIC

\2

OY Se

FEET OVISIOn 2o,

Fic. r.—Diagram illustrating the registering dials of a ro-light dry gas meter.

fixed base of each bellows. Arrangements of levers and cranks transmit the motions of the bellows to the valves in the valve box and also to the registering train. When the meter is in operation, gas from the main supply pipe enters one of the bellows and inflates it, while the gas in the corresponding chamber is expelled through a delivery pipe to the burners; at the same time, gas is

being expelled from the other bellows by the pressure of gas admitted into its bellows chamber. Working in this way, the meter supplies gas continuously to the burners, and the valves in

the valve box are opened and closed at the proper times required by the flow of the gas. At the same time the registering train is operated continuously.

METHODISM Automatic or Prepayment Meters —Prepayment gas meters are fitted with a box containing mechanism which operates when a coin is passed through a slot in the box and controls the supply of gas to the meter. The value of the inserted coin or token determines the automatic cutting-off of the gas supply.

New

I. IN GREAT

pointer in its revolution is written down and the same procedure is followed for the tens of thousands, the thousands and the hundreds pointers in succession; thus the reading in fig. 1 is 1,459 hundreds. Assuming that this was the reading at Michaelmas and that 1,356 hundreds was the reading at the preceding Midsummer, then the

amount of gas consumed during the summer quarter would be 145,900 minus 135,600 or 10,300 cubic feet. , The small upper dial is not usually read. It records the flow of small quantities of gas and can therefore be used for ascertaining whether all pipes and gas fittings are gas-tight, or what amount of

gas is consumed by any of the burners. (T. E. L.) METHODISM (see 18.293).—The official returns of worldwide Methodism presented to the oecumenical conference at

Toronto in rg11 showed that there were 55,808 ministers; 98,121 lay preachers; 8,768,616 church members; 99,497 churches, worth over roo million sterling; 90,124 Sunday schools, with 898,722 officers and teachers and 8,273,809 scholars. The detailed table below shows the position in 1925. The numerical strength of Methodism is not to be gauged by the number of members. To the members must be added a very large body of communicants and worshippers. About 10% of the population of Great Britain are Methodists. In Canada Methodists are 11°% of the population; in Australia, 12°93 in fas eee nes

Wesleyan Methodists :— Great Britain Ireland . ; Foreign Missions French Conference

South African Conference . Primitive Methodists United Methodist Church Wesleyan Reform Union Independent Methodist Churches Australasian Methodist Church New Zealand Methodist Church . United States:— Methodist Episcopal . , Methodist Episcopal, South Methodist Protestant African Methodist Episcopal (coloured) ; ; ; African Methodist Episcopal Zion (coloured) : i : Coloured Methodist Episcopal Free Methodist. ; : i Wesleyan Methodist . Primitive Methodist Congregational Methodist New Congregational Methodist Union American Methodist Episcopal (coloured) ; African Union en Protestant (coloured) . i , Reformed Zion Union Apostolic (coloured) ; . : i Reformed Methodist Union Episcopal (coloured) British Methodist Episcopa (coloured) . i ; Coloured Methodist Protestant African American Methodist

Episcopal. . . . Canadian Methodist Church Japan Methodist Church

Totals

Ministers i

25a -> 183 748 33 277 1,107 755 2 391 1,083 199

Lay Preachers

6%; in South Africa, including Rhodesia,

7°;

and in the United States, 20%.

Reading a gas meter is a simple operation. Fig. 1 represents the registering dials of a 1o-light dry gas meter. The registering train is geared so that the hundreds pointer revolves Io times while the thousands pointer revolves once, the thousands pointer revolves 10 times while the tens of thousands pointer revolves once, and so on; also, adjacent pointers revolve in opposite directions. Starting from right to left, the figure last passed by the hundreds of thousands

D

Zealand

893 BRITAIN

British Methodism has faced with courage and with a large measure of success the new problems of the 20th century. It has consolidated its sections and, tn addition to its ordinary routine of work, has given special attention to three great issues—the reunion of Methodism, temperance reform and foreign missionary enterprise. At least 450,000 officers and men of the Wesleyan, the Primitive, and the United Methodists fought in the World War, of whom 40,000 fell. Methodism cared for its people and materially assisted its members by its war emergency and sustenation funds, for augmenting ministerial allowances and helping circuits suffering from the higher cost of living. In spite of the serious effect which the War has had upon the spending power of the people, the incomes of the Methodist church funds have largely increased. In all the churches the salaries of the ministers have been considerably advanced. There are no unemployed Methodist preachers, and no dearth for candidates for the ministry. Missions.—The British Foreign Missionary Societies working under the direction of the three Methodist Conferences also have a record of expansion and success. The Wesleyan Missionary Society has erected and equipped r2 colleges with 5,031 students, and also 36 high schools with 6,068 scholars, in addition to 16 theological and normal training institutions for native preachers. Important Medical, agricultural and industrial hospitals and schools have also been established in West Africa,

South India

and China. These societies work in close co-operation with other branches of Christendom by adopting the apportionment of regions of missionary enterprise. They develop a missionary

Church Members and Probationers

Sunday Schools

ae T $ h AERA

Sunday Scholars

Churches Etc.

18,651 599 10,343 69 5,198 13,634 5,602 456 a 8,218 766

515,139 29,137 255,753 1,607 163,541 216,597 187,405 9,871 10,384 160,911 24,214

7,318 322 2,802 13 1,107 4,020 2,236 194 166 3,680 396

119,596 2.217 10,200 106 3,253 55,230 38,171 2,410 3,183 25,887 3,129

840,205 22,929 161,152 736 44,982 407,571 264,796 22,770 24,758 204,174 31,008

8,580 410 4,750 116 4,673 ' 4,593 3,055 203 165 4,706 880

21,406 8,076 1,356

15,914 5,403 pi

A,7II,994 2,478,623 186,275

36,893 17,570 1,965

414,175 162,439 18,970

4,847,735 2,053,173 191,270

29,487 17,615 2,379

7,000

6,330

650,000

7,200

20,996

320,000

7,500

412,315 366,315 34.751 21,000 9,956 21,000 1,256

2,092 2,543 1,346 521 87 182 27

16,245 18,884. 9,648 3,442 1,524 1,146 143

193,000 193,000 103,67 30,133 16,807 8,785 1,298

2,716 3,824 1,259 75 86 352 24

18,812

67

321

2,531

267

141

58 ? 58

3,962 3,039 1,483 666 85 500 27

205

2,590 1,673 cd 73 i

105

260

3,750 10,000

7 36

212

3,088 ? 1,508

79 52

2,126

18

204

1,792

29

1,016

2I 26

934 351,633 44,000

27 4,797 S:

20 33

6

700 1,967

18 24

125

35 2,475 Dot

te 1,946

5,811 414,047 29,000

25 3,807 oY

Y 13.463 a

58,330

97.576

10,954,287

96,7

984,425

a

10,359,452

103,331

894

METHODISM

spirit among the native Christians and the creation of a native ministry.

Thus, there is a large number of native preachers and

gencrous financial support is given to their missions by the native churches. In 1913 the Wesleyan Missionary Society held its centenary and raised £280,000 as a special fund for development. The women’s auxiliary of the society has largely increased, and a plan is being developed for realising closer co-operation with the parent society. Educational and Social—The decline in the number of Sunday school teachers and scholars has given serious concern to the conferences. Efforts have therefore been made to increase the efficiency and the attractiveness of the Sunday schools, the work of which is not limited to Sunday, nor to school methods. The boy scouts, girl guides and life brigade movements, summer

schools and Bible study circles supplement the work of the Sunday schools. The Wesley Guild and Christian Endeavour societies in British Methodism, and the Epworth League in America are doing much to consolidate the work among young people. The Wesleyan Church has largely transferred its day schools to the county education authoritics under the Acts of 1870 and 1902, and has now only 392 day school departments, with 32,847 scholars. But the same Church has largely developed its higher and secondary educational work. The two Wesleyan training colleges for teachers—for men at Westminster and for women at Southlands (Battersea) have attained a very high standard of efficiency. An increasing number of the students take university degrees. The teachers thus trained hold many of the most important posts as headmasters and mistresses in the London and provincial day and secondary schools and also in the British Dominions. In addition to a number of important educational institutions, the three British Methodist Churches have six theological colleges for training candidates for the ministry, which are being more

and more

brought

into line with the curriculum

of the

various universities. In 1926 Oxford celebrated the bi-centenary of the election of John Wesley to a fellowship of Lincoln College, and, to honour the occasion, conferred the degree of Doctor of Divinity upon the Rev. John H. Ritson, the president of the mother

conference,

a scholar and graduate of Balliol College,

and the first Oxford man elected to the chair of John Wesley. Another department of British Methodism is its home missionary work in the villages and city centres. Wesleyan Methodism has its connectional and lay evangelists. Open air evangelistic services are regularly held, and in many places the theatres and public halls are utilised for extra services. New central halls take the place of down-town churches. The London Mission of Wesleyan Methodism is doing a great work at Westminster, Kingsway, Clerkenwell and other centres. Primitive Methodists have four halls in the poorest parts of London, the principal ones being in Whitechapel and Southwark. The British Methodist churches have been impressed with the economic and social results which have followed prohibition (g.v.) in the United States. Each of the sections has an active temperance and social welfare department. In 1920 the Wesleyan Conference declared that the sale of intoxicating liquors as a beverage was “ definitely opposed to the best interests of the State and to the Kingdom of God,’’? and recommended the Methodists everywhere to work and pray for the total and permanent prohibition of the common manufacture and sale of alcoholic drinks. The three Churches have adopted a progressive temperance policy—first of local option, secondly, the complete extension of magisterial licensing authority to all political and social clubs, rich and poor alike; and, thirdly, the entire Sunday closing of all drinking bars in England and Wales. The Methodist Brotherhood works in unison with the Dominion agents in London, who assist emigrants to the United States, Canada, Australia and South Africa, arrange their passages, and secure them employment. The Brotherhood embraces all Methodist churches, and it has met with conspicuous success in assisting the Methodist emigrant and maintaining his association with Methodism in his new country.

Methodist Union —Methodist union transcends in importance all other movements in Methodism at the present time, and it is probably fraught with more momentous issues to the churches concerned than anything since the death of Wesley. A great impetus was given to this movement by the decennial gatherings of the Methodist Oecumenical Conference, which, instituted in 1881, meets alternately in London and America. It consists of 600 delegates from all parts of the world, half of whom are ministers and half laymen. Each assembly has been followed by some decisive step forward along the path of union, and in all cases the ministry has loyally accepted the decisions of the majority. The results of union have far exceeded the anticipations of the churches, and there has been a great increase in the membership and tinancial resources. In 1913, the Wesleyan Methodist Conference appointed a committee to collect information on the subject of union and to report to the next Conference. A final scheme of union was submitted to the yearly conferences of the three Churches in 1925 and was adopted by a very large majority. The scheme, which has presented no serious difficulties, will be again presented to the three conferences of 1926 together with the drafts of the proposed Parliamentary Enabling Act of Union and of the proposed Chapel Model Deed of the new United Methodist Church of Great Britain. If these are approved an application will be made to Parliament, and there is every prospect of the union of the three Churches in one British Methodist Church being effected in 1928. BrBLioGrapuy.—N. Curnock, Journal of John Wesley, 8 vol. (1909-16); J. W. Laycock, Methodist Heroes in the Great Taworth Round 1734-84 (1909); J. Robinson Gregory, Students’ Ifistory of Methodism, 2 vol. (1911); Oecumenical Methodist Conference Reports (Toronto, 1911, London, 1921); G. Fayrs, Letters of John Wesley (1915); British Methodism (1920); J. S. Simon, John Wesley and the Religious Societies (1921); J. A. Sharp, Cutelogue of Weslevana Belonging to the Wesleyan Methodist Conference (1921); E. H. Sugden, Wesley's Standard Sermons (1921, etc.); J. Elsworth, rev. ed. of Summary of Methodist Law and Discipline (1924); rev. ed. of Order and Form of Business tn District Synods (1925); J. S. Simon, John Wesley and the Advance of Methodism (1925). See also Proceedings and Publications of Wesley Historical Society; Minutes of Conference (annual). . R, W. P.*; J. E.*)

II. IN AMERICA The noteworthy changes in American Methodism since 1909 include (1) the steady growth of all its major branches; (2) movements toward the organic union of various units within the Methodist group and with other evangelical churches; and (3) educational advances resulting in liberalising tendencies in theology, a higher appreciation of non-Christian religious groups with a consequent new approach to the problem of world evangelisation, the further democratisation of Episcopal Methodist Churches and an increasing zeal for social justice, interracial understanding and the application of the teachings of Jesus to all human relationships and affairs, in politics and sociology as well as to purely personal conduct and belief. Church Union.—The year 1925 saw the consummation of the Union of the Methodist, Presbyterian and Congregational Churches of Canada in the United Church of Canada. The Methodist Church, as the largest of the three denominational units, went into the United Church with 1oo% of its constituency, which at the time of the merger included 2,475 ministers, 1,946 lay preachers, 414,047 members, 451,636 church-school pupils, with 43,333 officers and teachers. In the United States a plan for the organic reunion of the Methodist Episcopal Church and the Methodist Episcopal Church South failed (1925) by a narrow margin of the combined votes of lay and ministerial members

of the southern church. The vote in the Methodist Episcopal Church at the same time was overwhelmingly in favour of the union. The vote of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, while rejecting the specific plan submitted, did not close the issue, which was to be considered again at the next session of the respective General Conferences of the two bodies. In Great Britain the union of the Wesleyan Methodists, the Primitive Methodists and the United Methodist Church was also nearing its consummation.

MI’ PROLOGY—MIEXICO Educational Advances.—The educational advances to which must be attributed certain tendencies already summarised include the following (1) an increase, commensurate with the growth in church membership of, in the number, enrolment and financial support of secondary schools and colleges; (2) a rapid rise, especially in the United States, from the previous low average educational preparation and professional training of ministers, together with a corresponding advance in the curriculum standards for collegiate and theological institutions; (3) increasing attention to religious education through the churchschool with the extension of the programme of religious education to include week-day instruction; (4) the widespread distribution and use of religious-educational literature in text-book and periodical form, the total regular circulation of which exceeds the combined total membership of all Methodist Churches. Episcopal Methodist Churches—The coloured Methodist Episcopal Church, an offshoot from the Methodist Episcopal Church South, leads all branches of Episcopal Methodism with increases of over 60°% in membership and over 100% in churchschool enrolment in rs years. The Methodist Episcopal Church in 1916 adopted the Episcopal area system with a flexible limit on the residence of a bishop in any one area. A World Service Commission since 1924 acts as an overhead co-ordinating agency for all benevplent boards. The educational activities of the Church have been consolidated in one board of education with separate departments for colleges, negro education, churchschools and the Epworth League. During 1920-5 the centenary of the organisation of the foreign missionary enterprise was celebrated by Episcopal Methodist Churches, notably the Methodist Episcopal Church and the Methodist Episcopal Church South, by a five-year financial campaign, which has quadrupled the annual missionary offerings of the participating churches. See Methodist Year Books; Disciplines, Proceedings of Conferences, General Oecumenical Conferences; Methodist periodical literature. (H. H. M.)

METROLOGY: see MEASUREMENTS. MEUSE-ARGONNE: sce VICTORY, ADVANCE TO. MEXICO (sce 18.317), a federal republic of North America, has an area of 767,198square miles. In1tgor2theestimated population was 15,501,684, 0f which about 20% were whites. Political disturbances have resulted in a movement towards the cities for safety, and across the frontiers for employment and political asylum. This is reflected in the 1921 census, which gave a population of 14,234,852. The population of Mexico City, the federal capital, was 633,367; Guadalajara, 119,468; Puebla, 96,121; San Luis Potosi, 85,000; Monterey, 85,000; Vera Cruz, 48,633.

I. POLITICAL HISTORY On Sept. 27 roro Porfirio Diaz was re-elected president for a seventh term. The closing years of his rule were marked by economic depression, crop failures, excessive importation of

foodstuffs and political restlessness, ill-concealed by the festivities of the Centennial of Independence. Since ro08 various political activities had indicated a demand for a change in the presidential office. Conspicuous in this demand was Francisco I. Madero, who supported a nationalistic programme. Tis sucesion presidencial en roto attacked the administration mildly; but as his adherents increased in number, he became more outspoken. He was arrested on charges of sedition and was imprisoned at San Luis Potosi. Escaping to San Antonio, Texas, he issued the Plano de Sun Luis Potosi demanding electoral reforms, division of agrarian property and the resignation of Diaz. Armed revolt was planned for Nov. 20 roro, but there were numerous premature outbreaks. Against these a reign of terror was initiated, but resistance spread. By Dec. there was armed revolt in a dozen states. Diaz attempted to meet disaffection by promises and belated reforms. After minor reverses the northern rebels took Ciudad Juarez May ro torr, thereby showing the military impotence of Diaz. This success, with others at Pachuca and Cuernavaca, induced Diaz to assent to the demand for his

895

resignation, It was agreed that Francisco de la Barra should assume a provisional presidency and call a new election. Diaz resigned May 25, and left the country next day. On June 7 Madero entered Mexico City in triumph. He really controlled the country, De la Barra having scant power. The ensuing election resulted in an overwhelming majority for Madero, who was inaugurated as president on Nov. 6 fora term to end Nov. 30 1916. Fle soon found himself opposed by reactionary politicians, several of whom he had appointed to his Cabinet. His government was characterised by neglect of the demands of the revolution, by financial blunders, by quarrels with State governors, and by weakness towards the opposition. Revolt by former supporters began at the time of his inauguration. Emiliano Zapatas in Morelos, Bernardo Reyes in the north, Pascual Orozco in Chihuahua, and other rebels were in the field. In the fighting, many foreigners were killed. Conditions were chaotic in 1912. On March 14 President Taft prohibited shipment of arms to Madero’s opponents. Americans, advised to leave the country, departed by thousands. The north generally was in antiGovernment hands. Huerta Seizes Executive Power—On Oct. 12 Felix Diaz rcvolted in Vera Cruz; he was captured and was confined in Mexico City. On Feb. 9 1913 he and Reyes (who also had been imprisoned) were set free by disaffected soldiers. Gen. Victoriano Huerta, head of the Government troops, turned traitor and imprisoned Madero and Pino Suarez, forcing them to resign. Huerta on Feb. 19 seized the executive power through constitutional forms. Three days later Madero and Pino Suarez were executed. President Wilson rebuffed Huerta’s efforts to obtain recognition, believing that he did not represent the will of the people, and that he was responsible for the political executions; President Wilson demanded a general election in which Huerta should not be a candidate. The demand was rejected. On Oct. 10 Huerta seized the legislative and judicial power, arresting 110 members of Congress for inquiring into the mysterious death of Senator Belisario Domingues, who had harshly criticised him. Meantime revolt, led by Governor Venustiano Carranza of Coahuila, appeared in both the north and the south. In the Plano de Guadalupe the rebels declared Huerta a usurper. They won numerous successes, among them the capture of Torreon in March 1914. Following the outbreak of revolution, American war vessels had been observing events in Mexican harbours. At Tampico a boat’s crew from the * Dolphin ”’ were arrested on a military reserve. The American commander demanded a salute to his flag for the incident and was supported by President Wilson. Huerta refused unless the Mexican flag were similarly saluted, and the Americans seized Vera Cruz on April 21. Huerta had been embarrassed by the mission of John Lind, whom Wilson sent as a personal representative to induce Huerta to assent to his own elimination, ‘Though unable to effect foreign loans or to make peace with the Carranzistas, and in spite of advice by the foreign diplomats to yield to Wilson, Huerta ended diplomatic relations with the United States on April 22. Argentina, Brazil and Chile proffered their good offices; representatives of these nations met representatives of Huerta and the United States (Carranza holding aloof) in conferences at Niagara Falls, Canada, but the representatives failed to agree on a provisional president. Huerta was finally forced to resign July 15 ror4, and was succeeded by Francisco Carbajal, who held ofñce less than a month. Carranza, though he did not support the Zapata programme, and quarrelled with Villa, still headed the Constitutionalists; after obtaining control of the capital, he set in motion plans for a presidential election. He was unable to control the generals summoned to a nominating convention, and they moved from Mexico City to Aguascalientes, where they nominated Gen. Gutierrez, an adherent of Villa, as provisional president. Villa drove Carranza out of the capital, the latter occupying Vera Cruz as the Americans evacuated that port Nov. 23. Villa and Zapata alternated in control of Mexico City and no fewer than four factions claimed the executive power in 1915. In that year Villa, who had shown strength in the north, was defeated by

896 Gen. A. Obregon.

MEXICO A conference of Argentina, Brazil, Chile and

other American Powers, seeking’ to stabilise the situation on Oct. 19, recognised Carranza as de facto president. Villistas Murder Americans.—Villa ignored the settlement, and on Jan. 101916 a band of his adherents assassinated 18 Americans taken from a train near Santa Ysabel. On March g he raided Columbus, N.M., killing 17 Americans. A punitive expedition of 12,000 United States troops, led by Gen. Pershing, invaded Mexico. It penetrated to the vicinity of Parral, but failed to capture Villa, who was reported dead. Carranza had grudgingly acquiesced in the invasion, but now protested, stating that the movement of American troops in any direction other than northward would provoke attack. On June 20 American negro cavalrymen moving eastward were attacked at Carrizal; several were killed and about a score were captured, but were released upon a sharp demand by the United States. The expedition was finally withdrawn Feb. 5 1917. In Sept. a commission attempted to make an agreement for policing the international line, but failed because Carranza denied the right of the United States to pursue raiders into Mexican territory. In 1917 a new constitution was proclaimed. It incorporated in Art. 27 the principle of nationalisation of subsoil resources, chiefly as a means of controlling the petroleum industry. Decrees attempting to force the oil companies to observe the constitution were protested by foreign powers as confiscatory and subversive of rights acquired under the prior constitution of 1857. During roro the controversy was bitter. The companies, threatening cessation of production, forced Carranza in Jan. 1920 to concede the privilege of operating without compliance with the decrees but without prejudice to the final adjudication of the difficulty. During 1919 rebel activities against Carranza were widespread, and many acts of violence were committed against forcigners and Mexicans by both Government and rebel] partisans. A conspicuous case was the abduction for ransom of W. O. Jenkins, U.S. consular agent at Puebla, Oct. 19. He was alleged by the Mexican Govt. to have been implicated in his own abduction, but was released Dec. 5 1920. During the World War Mexico’s “ rigid neutrality ? was highly pro-German. The famous Zimmermann note, by which Germany tried to align Japan and Mexico against the United States, was intercepted and published in March 1917. Obregon Elected President-—The presidential campaign began in rg1g, Carranza’s power then reaching its zenith and afterwards rapidly declining. There was corruption in the army, banditry throughout the country and non-enforcement of the constituion. Amid widespread unrest two generals, A. Obregon and P. Gonzales, conducted presidential campaigns, while Carranza supported a civilian candidate [. Bonillas, who had been Mexican minister to Washington. When Carranza’s efforts to control state administration for the election of Bonillas led him to attempt a military invasion of Sonora, the home of Obregon, armed revolt broke out. On April 9 that State declared its secession until it could be assured of its sovereignty. The defection spread quickly through the north and west. By the end of the month Carranza was isolated in Mexico City. Adolfo de la Huerta was set up by the rebels as provisional president. Carranza attempted to move his Government to Vera Cruz, but his trains were broken up, and when he left them to make his way over the mountains to a Gulf port, he was murdered on May 21 at Tlaxcalantongo. Obregon entered the capital May 8. On May

2s de la Huerta was made substitute president for the unexpired term by the reassembled Congress. In Sept. Obregon was elected president with only nominal opposition. His inauguration Dec. 1 1920 was attended by large delegations from the United States, but by no one representing the Government though many Latin-American and European diplomats were present. Recognition by the United States was delayed by the non-solution of the petroleum controversy and the general spirit of labour unrest. The distinguishing features of Obregon’s presidency were his efforts to obtain recognition and to carry out the revolutionary programme. The two policies were in direct antagonism at many points. The Association for the Protection of American Rights in Mexico demanded that American vested interests, menaced

by the new constitution and subsidiary legislation, be protected by a special treaty. The demand was grounded on the realisation that congressional legislation was subject to reversal and that the decisions of the Supreme Court were more in accordance with political exigency than with the principles of jurisprudence. The Obregon Govt. remained firm in its determination to do everything compatible with national integrity to restore harmonious relations, but refused to enter into the proposed treaty. In pursuance of this policy Obregon on July 13 1921 invited the European nations having claims against Mexico to send representatives to a permanent Mexican Claims Commission. This invitation was accepted in Nov. by France, Great Britain, Italy,

Spain and the Netherlands. In Sept. of the same year negotiations were begun with a committee of international bankers looking toward a refunding of the national debt. In June ro21 the U.S. Secretary of State (Hughes) described the fundamental issue as resting on a construction of the confiscatory enactments, which would declare that recognised American property titles must not be invalidated. The decision of the Mexican Supreme Court in 1922 that Art. 27 was not to be construed retroactively, paved the way for a presidential decree to the same effect. Secretary Hughes announced an informal commission composed of Charles B. Warren and John B. Payne, to confer with Ramon Ross and Fernando Gonzales Roa concerning agreements preliminary to recognition. The conferences, begun May r4 1923, were facilitated by promulgation, on April 26 preceding, of a new petroleum law recognising the validity of concessions made prior to May 1 1917, although it required concessionaires to revalidate their claims within three years. Elimination of land difficulties was attempted by legislation increasing the size of individual holdings exempt from partition, and relieving from expropriation large irrigation companies with colonisation contracts. But the provision that land expropriated should be paid for in bonds threatened a deadlock. The Mexican position was weak on this point, as the old legislation had prescribed compensation prior to expropriation. Despite all difficulties, however, the commission reached a final agreement on Aug. 15. By its terms subsoil mineral rights acquired and developed before May 1 1917 were recognised as valid, and the provisions of Art. 27 of the Mexican Constitution, it was agreed, should apply only to later acquisitions. American properties expropriated by the Mexican Govt. in carrying out its agrarian policy were to be paid for at their equitable value. The U.S. Govt. reserved all rights to which it was entitled under international law in respect of titles acquired by its nationals before May 1917 to properties which were supposed to be petroleum yielding but which had not been developed and proved. Provision was also made for a Special Claims Commission for the settlement of American claims created since 1910, and a General Claims Commission for settlement of American and Mexican claims since 1868. The conventions calling for these commissions were ratified in Feb. 1924. The special commission was composed of Ernest B. Perry, Fernando Gonzales Roa and Dr. Rodrigo Octavio of Brazil, and the general commission of Nathan L. Miller, Aquiles Elurduy and Dr. Cornelis van Vollenhoven of Holland. Thespecial commission held preliminary meetings in Mexico Citv in Jan. 1925, but postponed regular sessions until September. Claims must be presented before it within two years from the date of its first meeting, with a possible grace of six months. The general commission held preliminary meetings in Washington in 1924. Claims were admissible before it within one year, with six months’ possible grace. Following the agreement upon these conventions, the United States extended formal recognition to Mexico, Aug. 31 1923. France shortly followed suit, Great Britain showing reluctance because of the indefinite status of her oil interests. Papal Delegate Expelled.—The general plan for refunding the Mexican debt, agreed upon in Paris in April 1922, was concluded in New York in May by Secretary of the Treasury Adolfo de la Huerta and the bankers’ committee. Mexican rebels, headed by Felix Diaz, made unavailing efforts to prevent consummation of the debt agreement. Mexico assumed full obliga-

MEXICO tion for all the foreiga debt principal, about $500,000,000, for some $200,000,000 interest, and for certain internal debts held outside Mexico. Payments were to begin Jan. 2 1923. The bandit Villa, who had been bought off by the Provisional Govt. in 1920, was assassinated in 1923. Another outstanding incident of the year was the expulsion of the papal delegate Mer. Filippi, who had incurred the displeasure of the Government by assisting at the open-air dedication of a shrine at Cubilete Tuanajuato. Open-air religious exercises were prohibited by a State law, though the dedication took plaice on private property. The episode evoked protest from the Vatican and from Catholic societies throughout Mexico and the American continent. Preliminary manoeuvring Jn anticipation of the presidential election set for July 6 1924 began in’ 1923. The president is constitutionally barred from succeeding himself, and there had been a ‘ gentlemen’s agreement’ by the Sonora triumvirate, de la Huerta, Obregon and Calles, that Calles should succeed Obregon. Nevertheless there was decided opposition to this programme in the Co-operatist party, which had been formed by the triumvirate and had a majority in the Chamber of Deputies. On Sept. 24 de la Huerta, possessing wide prestige because of the success of his financial negotiations, resigned from the Cabinet to conduct a campaign on his own behalf. Meanwhile Calles, as the friend of Obregon, was canvassing for the Co-operatist nomination. This, however, went to de la Huerta, on a programme promising the extension of Co-operatist ideas in industry, prior indemnification of landholders for expropriations, and guarantees of munici-

pal autonomy. Calles, disappointed at not receiving the Cooperatist nomination, was put forward by the radical National Agrarians, pledged to carry out their programme and protect the rights of labour. The campaign became exciting when Obregon and the new Minister of Finance, Alberto Pani, accused de la Huerta of extravagance in office and of misrepresentation concerning arrangements whereby a bank of issue was to have been created and a loan secured. Recriminations were mutual. The de la Huerta faction alleged that Co-operatist adherents in Congress were menaced with massacre by troops under Gen. Arnulfo Gomez. Meantime the state elections, coloured by the national campaign, caused numerous frays.

On Dec. 5 the de la Huerta movement resorted to a plan of campaign called the Plane de Vera Cruz. The military forces of five States rebelled under the leadership of gencrals Estrada and Guadalupe Sanchez. At least six additional States speedily joined the movement, the conservative clements, the labourites and the agrarians gencrally supporting de la Huerta. Obregon took the field, conducting a campaign on three fronts. Rebel successes soon showed that the Government was in a precarious condition. Its chief weakness was lack of war materials, of which Mexico produces none. Application was made to the U.S. Govt. for the purchase of arms, munitions, airplanes and war vessels. Arms, munitions and airplanes were supplied. President Coolidge by proclamation forbade export of arms to the rebels, and their attempts at blockading and mining ports were in Jan. 1925 forbidden under threats of naval action. American assistance thus turned the tide. During the closing days of Dec. Government forces had retaken Puebla and driven back the

opposition lines which had been concentrating on the capital. During Jan. honours were even, but in Feb. large hostile areas were retaken by the Government. Several rebel armies dispersed and their leaders sought refuge in exile. The direct intervention of the United States was given in this case because of the recent recognition and a desire to protect the visible agency of the international agreements. The stand

of the American Govt. was justified by Secretary Hughes on the ground that it protected constitutional procedure; he added that it must not be hel! to constitute a precedent, as every instance of intervention must be decided by its individual circumstances. It was in all essential aspects a continuation of the policy initiated by Woodrow Wilson in 1913. The Aguila (British) oil interests were accused by Obregon of assisting de la Huerta; on the other hand, E. L. Doheny, an American oil prospector, announced that he had advanced a loan of $5,000,000 to Obregon.

897

Election of Calles.—In the presidential elections Calles emerged successful. His Conservative opponent, Gen. Angel Flores, who fell ill during the campaign, received relatively few votes. Rumours of his prospective rebellion were not realised. The announced programme of Calles was to obtain for Mexico the economic and social advantages enjoyed by the American people. From the time of the inauguration of Obregon the labour situation had been steadily growing worse, but a firmer attitude toward labour was seen when Calles federalised the railway service, reducing the likelihood of strikes. Recurrent street railway strikes in Mexico City had marked the rule of Obregon; the first of them to occur under the presidency of Calles demonstrated the precarious position of capital under the existing strike legislation. During the spring of 1925 Calles ruled illegal a strike by the Tampico Federation of Labour Unions, whose members were emploved by the Huasteca Petroleum Co., because the difficulty was between unions, not between employers and labour. Firm presidential action prevented a national sympathetic strike. The Union of Bank Clerks in May 1925 made such demands on the banks that they threatened to close their doors. The Labour leader, Luis Morones, refused to support the Union. ‘The Labour party under the leadership of Morones definitely split with the Agrarian party in May because the Labourites declared that the Agrarian programme was injuring not only agriculture but business and industry as well, and hence the labouring people. Church and State-—The hostility to the Roman Catholic Church became evident with the promulgation of the constitution of t917. During 1925 a separatist movement by means of an organisation known as the Mexican Apostolic Church was attempted. During March Separatists and Catholics came into conllict in Guadalajara, Aguascalientes and Queretaro. In Mexico City the Separatists seized the church of La Soledad and ejected its priest. Calles declared the act unconstitutional, but closed the church to worship and declared the Catholic parishioners rebels. Foreign priests were debarred, March 19, from preach-

ing in Mexican churches. cause of disorders.

Numerous churches were closed be-

The constitution

provided that ministers

practising religion must be of Mexican birth, and limited the parishioners of each to 1,000. The troubles between church and state were accentuated by events in 1926. On May 15, George Caruana, the papal delegate, was ordered to leave the country, and on July 3, the Government issued a decree to enforce and strengthen the orders against the clericals. Heavy penalties were specified for any infringement of the regulations. Many Roman Catholics declared their intention to resist and Pope Pius XI. declared Aug. 1 1926 as a day

of prayer for intervention in Mexican affairs. Conditions on the American border, never satisfactory, grew worse after the passage of the law limiting immigration into the United States.

In May 1925 a treaty was negotiated covering

smuggling of drugs and aliens, migration, deportation, hunting, fishing, and health problems. The terms facilitated the disposal of American undesirables who had infested the Mexican side of the boundary. The treaty controlled also the movement of labourers into the United States. It was estimated that 500,000 Mexicans entered California in 1924. Public interest was aroused in June by the declaration of Secretary of State Kellogg, made public through the Press, that conditions in Mexico were not entirely satisfactory, and that the United States would support the Government of Mexico only

so long as it protected American lives and rights and complied with its international obligations. ‘The statement referred to seizures of American property at the unreasonable demand of Labourites, and was felt in some quarters to have been inspired by friends of Calles himself in order to strengthen his hand against the demands of his radical supporters. The unusual character of this announcement called to public attention the existence of a new treaty between Japan and Mexico which permits settlement of Japanese from California on the west Mexican coast, and concedes special status to Japanese vessels in Mexican

waters. It also accentuated the fact that American diplomatic protests concerning land seizures had met with scant attention.

MEXICO

898

On Aug. 28 1925 relations with Great Britain, severed because of difficulties culminating in the assassination near Pucbla of Mrs. Rosalie Evans, were resumed and accredited representatives were

exchanged.

.

Defence.—Military service in the active army or in the National Guard is compulsory. The normal strength of tne army has been settled at 50,000. A school for the training of aviators has been established and progress has been made towards organising an airforce. The five gunboats, which comprised the Mexican navy, have been reinforced by the addition of a small coastal defence boat bought in 1924. Education.—Government education in Mexico is compulsory and secular. In 1923 there were 14,231 primary schools with 1,187,407 pupils. A number of private schools conducted by religious societies of the Roman Catholic Church were obliged to close in 1926. In 1925 the National University in Mexico City,

which was refounded in roro, had a student body of more than 6,000.

The expenditure on education in 1923 was $24,500,000.

IL. ECONOMIC

AND

FINANCIAL

HISTORY

Finance —On July 1 1922 the public debt of 1,056,073,713 pesos (1 gold peso = $0.4985) included 583,280,887 pesos of prerevolutionary debt and 473,692,826 pesos of post-revolutionary debt. Revenues and expenditures 1921-5 were, in pesos:—

1925.

1924 1923

19220.

1921

2

s

‘

i

e

‘ào

2

«le

+

Revenues

Expenditures

145,000,000!

143,199,686!

278,110,300!

347,006,719!

289,959,500! 277,567,019

279,832,932

C)

267,137,468

258,312,774

! Estimated. 2 No estimates of 1924 expenditures were published. The Federal Govt. derives its largest income, outside of petroleum production and mining, from import duties: second in importance is the stamp tax: and third, taxes collected in the Federal district and territories.

The income tax was introduced in 1924 in face of marked and widespread opposition.

Production and Industry —Mexico possesses 30,027,500 ac. of cultivated lands well suited for agriculture. The agrarian reforms, begun in 10915, whereby lands of large estates have been expropriated are responsible for a noticeable decrease in agricultural production. In April 1925 President Calles reaffirmed his campaign pronouncements on the agrarian and labour problems, asserting that land distribution would be continued legally, but that it must not move in advance of means of development. In Aug. 1925 it was announced that one-third of the Government’s land division programme had been fultillecl. It was estimated that since 1915, 12,000,000 ac. had been given to small farmers. The grazing lands of the republic are estimated at 120,444,200 ac.; and forest lands at 43,933,200 acres. stimates of chief crops of 1924 were: corn (maize), 106,293,000 bu.; wheat, 13,962,000 bu.; raw cane sugar, 186,964 short tons; cotton, 138,000 bales (of 478 lb. net). Other important crops are beans, coffee, tobacco and henequen. The census of 1923 showed livestock as follows: horses, 512,336 valued at $20,455,109; mules, 300,960, valued at $18,713,476; cattle, 2,363,427, valued at $05,622,494; sheep, 1,196,098, valued at $5,777,605; goats, 2,106,044, valued at $7,714,330. The decrease in livestock since

the enumeration of 1902 was 60%. Petroleum.—A new petroleum law, published July 20 1925, was pending before Congress during September. It had received presidential sanction as adequately interpretative of Art. 27 of the constitution. It gives the chief executive sole and complete authority to concede and regulate rights to explore for and exploit oil-fields; it confirms leases and concessions as well as titles perfected, if dated prior to May 11917. The petroleum industry is defined as a public utility, and the principle is reasserted that the nation exercises direct and permanent ownership of the subsoil. The total production of petroleum from 1901-23 inclusive was 1,055,257,562 barrels valued at $828,241,710. The peak of production, attained in 1921, was 193,307,587 barrels, about 28°

of the world production and worth $182,936,817. In 1922 there were produced 182,278,457 barrels, about 21% of the world production, worth $167,397,872; in 1923, 149,529,088 barrels worth £142,916,885, 14:7% of the world production; in 1924, 139,557,000 barrels, 13:8°% of the world total. In 1923 Mexican production was second to that of the United States. Some 15,000 ac. were under exploitation. In May 1925 it was estimated that foreign investments in petroleum concerns totalled £3 50,000,000. Consistent progress was made in the exploitation of the petroleum-bearing areas, which are known to be more widely distributed than the present development would indicate. During the first 10 months of 1924, 247 new producing wells were brought in with an initial daily production of over 800,000 barrels. At the end of Oct. 1924 there were 1,016 producing wells, their initial daily production running more than 3,344,000 barrels. Most of the producing wells were in the Panuco fields. From Jan. 1 to March 25 1925 new wells numbered 74; their maximum daily production was 364,367 barrels, exceeding the amount produced by new wells during the first three months of 1924, which was 218,596 barrels. In March 1925 the petroleum companies agreed to an added tax of one cent per gallon on gasolene the proceeds from which, estimated at 8,000 pesos daily, are being applied to road construction.

Production of light and heavy crude oils for the first six months of 1925, totalling 65,369,987 barrels showed a decrease of 8,911,376 barrels from the corresponding period in 1924. All the loss was in heavy crude oil, the light crude oil showing an increase of 2,145,172 barrels. Continued salt-water intrusion in the Toteco holding of the Mexican Seaboard diminished their production In 1925; salt water also reduced preduction in the Cacalilao fields. Afining.—There was marked resumption of mineral production in 1918 and 1919. Practically all the established mining companies operated continuously during 1924, some of them extending mining and milling facilities so as to increase production and improve metallurgical recoveries. Prospecting and development work increased, notably in Chihuahua, Sonora and Zacatecas. The de la Huerta revolt did not seriously interfere with the operation of established mines. Taxation continued upon the 1923 basis, being so high that the average mine paid as much in taxes as it produced in net profit. Freight rates were approximately so% higher than those of ro years earlier. Labour conditions were chaotic because of numerous State laws, and caused much misunderstanding belween companies and employees. These conditions discouraged new mining investments, but good prices for lead and silver offset them, and earnings for 1924 were good. Productions of the chief minerals for 1922-4 was (in kgm.) :— 1924 Gold Silver .

Copper

Lead Zinc

i

24,647 2,844,104

1923 24,162 2,824,599

1922 23,276 2,521,832

49,113,194 | 53,371,482 | 26,977,786

164,140,830 | 155,720,342 | 110,455,912 18,936,336 18,481,271 6,141,937

Antimony, tin, tungsten and arsenic are produced in considerable quantities. For the first time in several years quicksilver was exported in June 1925; there was promise of continuous increase. The movement was of 600 kilos shipped from Tampico and produced by a cinnabar mine in Zacatecas. Numerous filings of claims in Chihuahua for gold and silver locations, reopening of old workings in the Santa Barbara district of that State, and the development of electrical power in Durango for mine operations, indicated in 1926 that mining prospects continued good, in spite of the political unrest. Commerce and Industry —Notwithstanding political and economic difficulties, trade showed gratifying stability. Mexico sold to the United States in the first 10 months of 1924 products to the value of $167,087,305, or 19°2°> over the figures for 1923, and bought from the same source goods worth $135,076,703, an increase of the same percentage. Increased production of lead, copper and silver, with greater shipment of vegetables to Ameri-

MEXICO can winter markets, permitted purchase of larger quantities of automotive vehicles, agricultural implements, mining machinery and railway equipment. For the year ending June 30 1913 Mexican imports were $95,857,000, and exports $149,752,000. For rọ21 they were respectively $178,775,221 and $203,273,450. Imports from the United States in ro2r were 74-6% of the total, and exports to the United States 88-3%. In 1923 Mexican exports of all classes were: animal products, $2,019,486; vegetable products, $32,782,061; minerals except petroleum, $80,213,217; petroleum $237,213,698; miscellaneous, $2,109,872. Petroleum constituted 67% of the total exports. Minerals reached 22-5°%, constituting with petroleum 89-5°% of the 1923 exports. Agricultural exports to the United States were 14° of the trade with that country,

petroleum 38%

and

other mineral products 45%.

Canadian

exports to Mexico were in 1920, $410,825; in 1921, $1,086,197; in 1922, $1,197,597, and in 1923, $3,291,098, and in the year ending March 31 1925, $2,856,409. Imports from Great Britain, high in 1920 and 1921, dropped to pre-War level in 1922-3. The movement of trade has been steadily away from the Gulf ports towards towns on the American border, which in 1923 handled over 42% of the volume. There were 108 mills operating, employing 38,232 hands. The annual production of boots and shoes was over 700,000 pairs. In1923, 235sugar-mills produced 121,000 metric tons. Labour.—Conditions in labour have been disturbed since the revolution began. Strikes and financial losses have been as follows:— No. of Strikes

No. of Strikers

1922

197

63,000

1924

138

29,244

1923

146

54,396

Financial Loss

To Employers

To Employees

$4,134,680 | $2,983,610

3,694,324

4,627,385

1,479,055 1,805,191!

Labour troubles at Vera Cruz caused the chambers of commerce to transfer their business to Tampico in Nov. 1924. In March 1925 a federation of land and sea workers, comprising 17 Vera Cruz unions affiliated with the Mexican Federation of Labour, gave up political activities and agreed not to strike without federation approval. Communications.—In the de la Huerta revolt the railways in rebel hands were badly depleted in stock. In March 1924 an official report of the ownership of railways showed that the National Railways (51% of whose stock is held by the Govern-

ment) had 13,205 km.; Government railways, 517 km.; private lines 7,529 kilometres. The total in operation was 21,251 km. or 13,197 miles. The Mexican Railway, a British concern, has 520 m. between Mexico City and Vera Cruz; it wasin Government hands from 1916-20. The Tepic-La Quemada line of the Southern Pacific was completed April 1926. It connects Mexico City with Nogales. During 1925, 45,000 men were employed on the 100 m. of the road, 17 tunnels having been constructed before June. The new wireless station erected on the Island of Lobis, near the coast of Tampico, affords facilities to the petroleum companies to communicate with ships at sea. There are wireless stations at Mexico City, Tampico, Vera Cruz and on the Pacific Coast at Mazatlan. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Mexico, compiled by Pan American Union

(1911); P. Terry, Mexico (1911); F. I. Madero, La sucesión presidencial en rọr0 (1911); M. de Perigny, Les Hiats-unis du Afexique (1912); H. Baerlein, Afexico, The Land of Unrest (1913); H. H. Fyfe, The Real Mexico (1914); R. J. McHugh, Modern Mexico (1914); W. E. Carson, Mexico, The Wonderland of the South (1914); E. L. Bell, The Political Shame ef Mexico (1914); L. Gutiérrez de Lara and E. Pinchon, The Mexican People: Their Struggle for Freedom (1914); R. de Zayas Enriquez, The Case of Mexico and the Policy of President Wilson, translated by A. Tudon (1914); H. H. Bancroft, A History of Mexico (1915); E. O'Shaughnessy, A Diplomats Fife in Mexico (1916); L. Spence, Mexico of the Mexicans (1917); M. Bustamento,

Petróles en la República Mexicana (1917); L. S.!'Hasbrouck, Mexico from Cortez to Carranza (1918); E. D. Trowbridge, Mexico To-day ‘and To-morrow (1919); J. L. McLeish, High Lights of the Mexican Revolution (1919); S. G. Inman, Intervention in Mexico (1919); Mono-

CITY

899

grafias Mexicanas de Arte, 2 vol. (1919); M. Torrente, Historia de la Independencia de Mexico (1919); Handbook of Mexico, Naval Intelligence Division, British Admiralty (1920); G. H. Blakesley, cd., Mexico and the Caribbean (1920); Wallace Thompson, The People of Mexico (1920); C. L. Jones, Mexico and its Reconstruction (921); E. J. Dillon, Afexico on the Verge (1921); H. J. Prisolley, The AMfexican Nation (1923); C. Beals, Afextco—An Interpretation (1923); E. A. Ross, The Sacial Revolution in Afexico (1923); G. McBride, The Land Systems of Mexico (1923); R. G. Cleland, Tke Mexican Year Book (1924); R. McA. Ingersoll, Zn and Under a pr (H. L P.

MEXICO CITY, capital and metropolis of the Republic of Mexico (see 18.344), had a population of 615,367 at the census of 1920 (271,956 males and 343,411 females) of whom 23,668 were foreign-born; estimate for 1924, 880,000. Between 1910 and 1925 several new residential suburbs (colonias) were created, which grew rapidly by the cutting up of adjacent estates (/actendas) into building lots; many squat buildings of colonial days in the business districts were replaced by sky-scrapers; new streets were cut; dirty squares were transformed into neat flower-decked plazas and the magnificent National Theatre begun in 1900 was partially completed, 12,000,000 pesos having been expended on it up to 1922. The Legislative Palace, however, was still unfinished in 1925, and was about to be torn down instead of completed. In 1923 the area of the city was about 15 sq. m., divided into eight sections (cuarteles or demarcaciones), and sub-divided further into about a thousand squares (manzanas). There were over 200 m. of tramways, and the tram service, furnished by an English company and managed ty English and Canadians, was efficient. At different times the official names of many streets were changed, either to commemorate recent events and heroes, or in the interest of convenience; c.g., all the streets in one section received names of trees and flowers, in another names of foreign cities, so that the character of the name of the street would give a general idea of its location. Industry and Commerce.—Manufacturing, still relatively unimportant, was represented in 1925 by some 2r5 establishments, with an annual output valued at 10,000,000 pesos, and employing about 10,000 workers, most of whom were Indians and halfbreeds (mestizos). The leading products were tiles, cigars and cigarettes, textiles, drugs and chemicals, oils and extracts, shoes and other articles of clothing, various articles of food, beer and other beverages, furniture, iron and steel, mosaics and jewelry. Of greater importance were trade and finance. In Mexico City are the headquarters of most of the business carried on in the country, and it is the principal distributing centre of the republic. Deposits in the banks on Oct. 31 1923 (64,278,804 pesos) were 53°% of the total for the country. About 30°% of all the imports into the republic are received in the capital. The annual sales of the commercial establishments of all kinds were estimated in 1925 at over 230,000,000 pesos. The textile industry was largely in French hands; hardware, cutlery, chemicals and drugs, in German hands; the oil and mining interests were chiefly English and American; banking, predominantly Canadian; retail trade, predominantly Spanish; but both banking and trade were shared by French, Spanish and Americans, and by 1925 there was a successful National Bank of Mexico. The National Railways of Mexico were returned to private management on Jan. 14 1926, under the so-called Pani-Lamont agreement. Social Conditions —An increasing number of automobiles, higher wages, and a decreasing number of bare feet, indicated some advance in prosperity; and a brighter outlook for public health was given by President Calles’s firm support of clinics, dispensaries and similar improvements. But the general standard of living of the population was still very low; beggars were exceedingly numerous and very importunate; business was “ nervous ”; and foreign capital was not available in the amounts needed. The organisation of labour advanced rapidly after the foundation in 1918 of the Confederacion Regional Obrera Mexicana (usually referred to as “ CROM ”) by L. N. Merones, an electrician, who became Secretary of Industry and Commerce in the Calles Administration. In the demonstration of May 1 1025, in Mexico City, 93 unions, with 100,000 members, took part.

goo

MEYER,

KL DUARD—MEYNELL

By 1925 collective bargaining was the rule, and it was claimed that ‘‘ CROM ” had effected an increase in the average weekly wage from 50 centavos to 3 pesos. Education, etc.—By the constitution of 1917 elementary education was made free, compulsory to the age of 15, and secular, but pending the provision of enough secular schools many of the

old schools under religious auspices continued to function. The national university, which had been suspended for half a century, from the time of Maximilian, was re-opened in 1910. A summer school was established in 1922, designed especially to attract foreign students for the study of Spanish. The World War increased the interest of Mexicans in reading, and as a result several new periodicals, of a superior quality, were established in the city, which had the first printing press in the new world and the first regularly issued newspaper. Mexico City was the scene of riots during the revolutionary disturbances of 1910 and tort. On June 7 1911, the day on which Madero made his triumphant entry into the city, there was a severe earthquake, which cost many lives. In Sept. ro21 the centennial of Mexican independence was celebrated with great pomp. MEYER, EDUARD (1855), German historian, was born at Hamburg Jan. 25 1855. He was educated at Bonn and Leipzig, where in 1879 he qualified in ancient history. He afterwards became professor of ancient history at Breslau (1885), Halle (1889) and Berlin (1902). Meyer realised the great importance of folklore, historical monuments and numismatics as aids to the study of ancient history, and the value of his original methods in treating the subject was recognised by the universities of Oxford, St. Andrews and Freiburg from which he received honorary degrees. Meyer’s principal works are: Geschichte des alten Aegypten (1887); Forschungen sur alten Geschichte (1892-9); Wirtschafiliche Feniwicklung des Altertums (1895); Die Entstehung des Judentums (1896); Zur Theorie und Alethodik der Geschichte (1902); Geschichte des Altertums (3rd. ed. 1909); Caesars Monarchie und das Principat des Pompeius (2nd ed. 1919); Preussen und Athen (1919); Ursprung

und Anfänge des Christentums (3 vol. 1921-3).

MEYER, MARIE PAUL HYACINTHE (1840-1917), French philologist (see 18.349), died at St. Mandé, near Paris, Sept. 8 1017. MEYERHOLD, VSEVOLOD EMILIEVICH (1873}, Russian theatrical producer, was born in Moscow and from 18981905 was well known as one of the most distinguished actors of the Moscow Art Theatre. He then began to produce plays, adopting a new convention in opposition to the “ true-to-life ”’ ideas of Stanislavsky, in which the actor and the stage setting presented a complete harmony. After the Revolution he carried these methods to an extreme, using no curtain and a bare stage with purely formal scenery. He managed the Revolutionary Theatre, Moscow, and also acquired a theatre of his own, and in both produced political propaganda plays. His views are set

forth in his book, The Theatre (St. Petersburg, 1913). MEYNELL, ALICE (1849-1922), British poetess. By her marriage in 1877 Alice Thompson became Alice Meynell. She had the fortune to find herself in that mid-Victorian era which still held freshly to its heritage from Keats and Shelley, from Wordsworth and Coleridge. It felt its heart torn by the griefs of the Brontés, stirred by their glories; and almost clung to the hand of Elizabeth Browning. Eagerly awaiting every recurring sign of Tennyson’s fertility, it yet respected the long pause of Patmore; and took for its own the volumes of Dante and Christina Rosetti, warm from the press. With these two women of song, Elizabeth and Christina, Alice Meynell’s name is now commonly tripled. But it was not they who moulded her thought ot her expression. Her aloof independence was proof against all precedents; and of her prose it may be noted that, notwithstanding her love for Lamb and Landor, only the American, James Russell Lowell, is mentioned by her as in any way her master in style. She was her very own spiritual and intellectual self as both woman and writer. That was the secret of the singleness of her personal influence while she lived, and secures an enduring freshness and originality in the work she bequeathed.

Mistress Anne Killigrew had been told by Dryden “ thy father

was transfused into thy blood.”

That girls alike with boys,

inherit from fathers as from mothers, was the theme of a verse

where Alice Meynell, after the desolations of the European War,

gave the comforting signal:— The crippled world! Come, then, Fathers of women with your honour in trust, Approve, accept, know them daughters of men, Now that your sons are dust.

Her own

father, having

left Cambridge

and

unsuccessfully

contested two costly elections for Parliament as a free trader, became very much a citizen of the world. After his marriage with Christiana Jane Weller, a beautiful and accomplished girl to whom her adoring friend Charles Dickens fitly introduced him, he made his home much in Italy, devoting himself to the liberal learning of the two daughters: Elizabeth, the elder, afterwards Lady Butler, famous as a war painter; and Alice, who early began to put her rhymed thoughts shyly upon paper. Despite the affectionate appreciativeness that ruled her home (usually an English one) her composition remained mostly her own secret until an American friend, to whom they were confided, encouraged her to show, and then print, them. The volume of Preludes was issued (for the girl what an association) by Tennyson’s then publisher, Mr. Henry S. King, on the word of his “ reader ’-- later his successor-—Mr. C. Kegan Paul, who, not trusting his own judgment all the way, read same of them aloud to George Eliot, receiving her deciding approbation. The critics were mostly silent; and even those who praised hesitated. But the volume made its own quiet way, Ruskin in all ways first in his soaring praises: ‘ The last verse of that perfectly heavenly ‘Letter of a Girl to her own Old Age,’ the whole of ‘San Lorenzo’s Mother,’ and the end of the ‘Sonnet toa Daisy,’ are the finest things I have yet seen or felt in modern verse.” Rossetti, too, spread the news of the young poet’s advent, reciting “‘ Renouncement ” by heart to his friends, and saying that it was “ one of the three finest sonnets ever written by women.” Browning, having read a brief quotation buried in a halting press appreciation, “‘ conceived the desire to read the rest for myself,” and found its beauty “‘ even beyond what the indifference of the reviewer should have prepared me for.” The volume brought her many a fricnd—-and more. For the reviewer in The Pall Afall Gasette—a paper to which she was later to be a conspicuous contributer—quoted the sonnet “‘ My Heart shall be thy Garden,” and found for it a reader whom it reached revealingly. A consequent introduction to the sonneteer by a common friend was followed by a marriage that fulfilled for him Crashaw’s “ heaven-on-earth ” for 45 years. On Mrs. Wilfred Meynell, as she then (1877) became, fell a long silence as a poet. The muse does not ordinarily leave cards on the happily and busily married; the domesticities and the “sweet sense of providing’ are not the fashioners of those “sweetest songs” that breed from “ saddest thoughts.” Fight children were born, one of whom died in infancy: a grief that put into poetry the dread reminder that the giver of life is also the giver of death: “‘ and she who slays is she who bears, who bears.’ A like sensitiveness to life’s cruelties put her, for all her reticence, on political platforms, and marched her in multitudinous processions, in favour of the granting of votes to women and the opening of long closed professional doors. Compassion

was the companion of all her walks abroad, for the over-burdened man and animal; for the beggar-woman to whom she cried with her gift, in Portuguese fashion, ‘‘ Have patience, little saint ’’; for the underfed in London slums which she at one time sedulously visited; and for the beast in the shambles, in shame for whose martyrdom she refused to eat meat until, after persuasion, she sought by more impersonal methods to further laggard reforms.

Her married life matured her vigilance as a mistress of prose. In W. E. Henley of The Scots Observer and The National Observer, she encountered an editor who heartened her by his boisterous welcomes: “ That woman’s taking her place at the steering wheel ” was one of his recorded acclaims. Later, in The Pull

Afall Gazette of Harry Cust’s editorship, she was accorded

a

MIAMI—MICA weekly column which left hera large range in the choice of subjects. George Meredith, reading here her “ princely journalism,” sought with her an acquaintance that soon became a ‘ dearest friendship.” In a magazine—those were still the days of the magazines—he spoke of her words as having the “ living tremor in them,” just as he had before said that Carinthia’s had the “throb beneath them.” Of her essays, he wrote: “ The surprise coming on us from their combined grace of manner and sanity of thought is like one’s dream of what the recognition of a new truth would be. They leave a sense of stilled singing on the mind they fill. The writing is limpid in its depths. ” Coventry Patmore, too, her yet warmer admirer, published, when Tennyson died, his unavailing plea for her succession to the laureateship. Her close friendship for such seniors coincided with that for her contemporaries, and for her juniors, chief among whom was Francis Thompson, who addressed to her his exquisite sequence of poems Love in Diun’s Lap, of which, Patmore said, Beatrice or Laura might have been proud. Of the homage paid to her, another chosen friend, J. L. Garvin, has well said: ‘ Alice Meynell was in herself a person of her age, sure, as I think, of perpetual remembrance, even if half a dozen of her shining contemporaries had not competed in vain to spoil her with praise. It was what no one could do: recognition only made her humble.” And these contemporary praises notwithstanding, G. K. Chesterton predicts: “ She was deservedly famous; but I will venture to prophesy that her fullest fame is yet to come. The whole modern world must immeasurably enlarge itself before it comes near the measure of her mind.” She died in London on Nov. 27 1922. Alice Meynell’s Preludes (1875), long out of print, re-appeared in a volume of Poems (1893) including new ones; and these, together with yet later verses separately issued as «Ll Father of Women (1917) and Last Poems (1923), are all assembled in the complete volume of Poems (1923) now in circulation. Of her prose, several small volumes of essays in the eighteen-nincties

The Rhythm of Life (1893), The Colour of Life (1896) and The Spirit of Place (1899)—were followed by Ceres’ Runaway (1909), by Hearts of Controversy (1917), by The Second Person Singular (1921) and finally by the standard volume of selected Essays (1914)—the selection being her own. Other books were John Ruskin (1900), The Children of the Old Masters (1903), Afary, the Mother of Jesus (1912) and London Impressions (1898). Two anthologies give her choice among poems—Tve Flower of the Mind (1897) and The School of Poetry (1923), the first including Notes and the second Commentaries. She prefaced editions of The Sonnets from the Portuguese and Christina Rossetti’s Poems (1910), as well as a decade of volumes “The Red Letter Library ”; she introduced in 1903 a volume of reproductions of Sargent’s Portraits; and she made for English readers a Selection from the Poems of J. B. Tabb (1906). BIBLtIOoGRAPHY.—Reference may also be made to the critical chapters concerning her in Alfred Noyes’ Some Aspects of Modern Poetry (1924), in John Drinkwater’s The Muse in Council (1925), and in Katherine Brégy'’s The Poets’ Chantry (1912); as well as to such notable articles appearing at the time of her death as J. L. Garvin's in The Observer, J. C. Squire's in The London Mercury and G. K. Chesterton’s in The Dublin Review; articles that quickened the desire for the authorised biography now (1926) in preparation. (W. ME.)

MIAMI, Fla., U.S.A. (see 18.354), in the centre of the 200-mstrip of the “‘ East Coast ” which is dotted with winter resorts: was a focus of the rush to Florida which began about 1922. The population in 1910 Was 4,571; iN 1920, 29,571; IN 1925, according to the state census, it was 69,754. In Sept., after annexations of territory, It was estimated at 100,000 within the corporate limits, and at 150,000 within six miles of the court-house. Between 1914 and 1924 bank deposits increased over 3,000%; post-oflice receipts and property valuation each over 600%; the value of buildings for which permits were issued, over 2,500%, and the total of such permits for 1924 was doubled in the first eight months of 1925. At the opening of the winter of 1925-6 all kinds of shelter were at a premium, and tent colonies sprang up until they pre-

QOI

sented a serious sanitary problem. For the moment, speculation in land was the leading occupation (a third of the members of the Chamber of Commerce were dealers in real estate), but there were solid foundations for future prosperity. Though later in 1926, the value of land fell to some extent. The Federal Govt. had begun work on harbour improvements. Draining of the Everglades by the state was opening to agricultural settlers thousands of acres of rich swamp land, forty-five varied industrial plants were already in existence, and a sugar-mill and refinery were in operation 16 m. out on the Miami canal. Miami Beach, across Biscayne Bay, one of the most luxurious winter playgrounds of the country, was a mangrove swamp in r910. Coral Gables, a separately incorporated residential suburb adjoining Miami on the south, was developed in Spanish and Moorish architecture with six miles of Venetian waterways. This was created in a few years by the magic of immense investments of capital, modern engineering and far-sighted planning including a tract for the University of Miami, chartered April 5 1925 which had in view an endowment of $15,000,000. MICA (see 18.355).—The three main contributors to the world’s supply in order of importance are the United States, India and Canada. After the outbreak of the War the stoppage of the mica imports to Germany had a depressing effect on the mica industry; but, on the other hand, the large amount of mica required for munition purposes, gas-masks, etc., caused both the Allies and the United States to import increasing quantities of sheet mica from Argentina and Brazil. In the United States the mica mined is mainly muscovite, occurring as irregular masses, sheets and lenses in pegmatite veins traversing metamorphic rocks. The principal producing states are North Carolina and New Hampshire, but Virginia, South Dakota, Georgia, Alabama, [Idaho and Colorado also produce considerable amounts. The chief mining centres in India are the great Bihar mica belt, about 6o m. by 12 m., traversing the Menghyr, Hazaribagh and Gaya districts in the province of Bihar and Orissa; and the Nellore district in the Madras Presidency. Less important areas occur in Ajmer Merwara in Rajputana. The Canadian mica is almost entirely phlogopite. The deposits occur chiefly in Quebec to the north of Hull, and in the townships of North Burgess

and Loughborough in Ontario. The World’s production figures in long tons for 1913, 1918 and 1923 were as follows:— India (exports) Canada

Other U.K. countries

í

United States semelly sc

Madagascar Argentina (exports).

Other foreign countries

;

1913

1918

1923

3,124

2,998

3,948

g&6

667

2,331

5,511

2,780

8,112

118

. i

; :

6 6

5I

4 169

190!

12

162 100

5872

' Including Brazil 112 tons. 2 Including Japan 424 long tons. BIBL IOGRAPHY.— Å. L. Hal, “ The Geology of the Murchison Range e District,” Mem. Geol. Surv, Union of S. Africa, No. 6 (1912); H. S. de Schmid, Mica, Tts Occurrence, Exploitation and Uses, Mines Branch, Canada (1912); D. B. Sterrett, ‘“Some Deposits of Mica in the U. S,” U.S. Geol. Survey Bull, 580, pp. 65-125 0914); A. F. Caivert,

Mineral Resources

of Minas

Geraes

(1915);

lI.

lolland and L. L. Fermor, “ Quinquennial Review of the Mineral Production of India,” Rec. Geological Survey India, vol. 46 (1915) and vol. 52 (1921); P. G. Morgan and J. A. Bartrum, * The Geology and Mineral Resources of the Buller Mokihinue Subdivision, Westport

Division, 7 N.Z.

Geol.

Surv.

Bull,

17 (1915);

S. Kawasaki,

‘Mica in © hosen (Korea),” ' Chosen Min, Survey Bull., vol. 1, pt. 2 (1916); W. Robertson, * Development of Argentina Mica Industry, Coie Reports, No. 190, p. 599 (1918); P. G. Morgan and J. Henderson, “ Chromce-lron Ore, Mica and Tungsten Ore in

New Zealand,’ N, 'Z. Jour. of Science and Technology, vol. 2 (19189); W. OP. Schaller, “ Our Mineral Supplies, Mica, ete.,’? U.S. Geological Survey Bull, No, 666, pp. 153-8 (1919); acd. Hall, ‘“ Mica in the Eastern Transvaal,” Afem. Geol. Surv. Union of S. Africa, No. 13 (1920); H. B. Mafe, “The Geology of the Lomagundi Mica deposits,” Ceol. Surv. S: Rhodesia, Short Rep. No. to (1920); “ Occurrence of Mica in $.E. Madagascar,” Afin. Jour., vol. 131, p. 790 (Oct. 16 1920); “ Etude succinte sur les mines de Madagascar,” Bull. Econ, (Madagascar, 1920). Seealso Mineral Resources of the U.S. (annual). (N. M. PE.)

MICHELSEN—MICHIGAN

902 MICHELSEN,

PETER

CHRISTIAN

HERSLEB

KJERSCHOW

(1857-1928), Norwegian statesman, was born at Bergen March

1s 1857, the son of a prominent merchant and shipowner. After completing a university education in 1879, Michelsen settled in Bergen as a lawyer and at the same time entered the shipping

business in which he achieved considerable success. Known as an administrator, he entered the city council of Bergen and later the Storting where he took his seat in rSor and quickly became one of the most prominent members. In 1894 he withdrew from politics, returned to Bergen, resumed his activity as a shipowner and re-entered the city council of which he became the chairman. The general elections in 1903 by which he returned to the Storting as a member for the country district outside Bergen initiated the crowning period in Michelsen’s public career. Appointed Prime Minister in the spring of 1905 Michelsen played a leading part in the events which resulted in the dissolution of the union with Sweden and the establishment of the new kingdom of Norway. In 1907 he definitely retired from politics and died near Bergen June 29 1925. MICHELSON, ALBERT ABRAHAM (1852j), American physicist, was born in Strelno, Germany, Dec. 19 1852. His parents moved io San Francisco, Cal., where he studied in the public schools. He graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in

inhabitants or over: Detroit (993,678); Flint (91,599); Grand Rapids (137,634); Lansing (57,327); and Saginaw (61,903). A special census of Detroit on May 31 1925 gave its population as 1,242,044 on that date. Education.—In tg20 there were in the state 1,048,390 persons

of school age, of whom 710,341 (67:890) were attending school. The illiteracy rate was 3° in 1920 as against 3:3% in Igto. In many of the public schools vocational courses were added in recent years. At the institutions of higher education, attendance greatly increased. Some of the colleges with church connections shared in this growth; but the chief enlargement was at the University of Michigan (see MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY or) and the Michigan Agricultural College. To add to the facilities for higher education, “‘ junior colleges ” with curricula covering two years of college work, were established in Detroit, Grand Rapids, Muskegon, Pontiac and Highland Park, in connection with their secondary school systems. Agriculture—In 1925 there were 192,334 farms in Michigan, a decrease of 14,626 as compared with roro. During the 15 years all farm

land

decreased

from

18,940,614

ac.

to

18,036,700.

1873, and was instructor in physics and chemistry there during 1875-9. He was then for a short time in the Nautical Almanac office. From 1880 to 1882 he studied in Berlin, Heidelberg and Paris. He resigned from the navy in 1881. In 1883 he was appointed professor of physics at the Case school of applied science, Cleveland, O., and six years later accepted a similar position at Clark University. In 1892 he was appointed professor and head of the department of physics at the University of Chicago. He early directed his researches to the velocity of

During the same period the average acreage per farm increased from ot-s to 93:8. The average value of land and buildings per ac. in r925 was $71.41. In ig2s a total of 9,671,670 ac. was under cultivation, on which crops valued at $268,674,000 were raised. ‘he farming area of Michigan continues to be concentrated mainly in the southern part of the lower peninsula of the state. Ta the upper peninsula, farms comprise less than 10% of the land area. The area nominally in woodland, including farm woodlots as well as forests and cut-over lands, comprises nearly twothirds of the state; but of this area rot more than about 5,000,000 ac., nine-tenths of which lies in the upper peninsula, now bears timber worth cutting. Most of the rest has come to be stump

light, and while in Cleveland invented his interferometer (see

lands, on which the recurrence of fires prevents any spontaneous

14.693), which enabled him to measure distances by means of the length of light-waves. His researches enabled him to revise and improve upon the achievements of Tizcau in respect of the velocity of light. Ile perfected the methods for experimenting, and determined the rate at which light travels, with an error not exceeding jy of 1% of the quantity measured. Through one of his experiments it was demonstrated that the speed of light is the absolute superior limit of the rate at which matter can move, because the mass of a body depends upon its velocity —mass diminishing as velocity increases—and a body would vanish completely if it exceeded the velocity of light. Michelson measured a metre in terms of the wave-length of cadmium light for the Paris Bureau Internationale des Poids et Mésures. The consequence is that the metre bar, hitherto carefully safeguarded in Paris, can easily be replaced, since its length is known in terms of an absolute unit. In 1892 he was a member of the Bureau Internationale des Poids et Mésures and in 1897 of the International Committee of Weights and Measures. He was made president of the American Physical Society in 1901 and of the American Society for the Advancement of Science in 1910. He received medals and prizes from many learned societies, and in 1907 was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics. During the World War he rejoined the naval service and devoted his entire time to new devices for naval use. His range-finder was adopted as part of the U.S. Navy equipment. In 1920 he was able to demonstrate by means of light-interference that the diameter of Alpha Orionis was 260,000,000 miles. This was the first computation ever made of the size of a star. He was the author of Velocity of Light (1902); Light Waves and Their Uses (1903), and numerous papers contributed to scientific journals. In ro21 he was awarded the gold medal of the Society of Arts, London. (For the “ Michelson-Morley experiment ” in interference of light, with its bearing on the Einstein theory, see RELATIVITY.) _ MICHIGAN (see 18.371).—The population of Michigan in 1920 was 3,668,412, an increase of 30°5% over 1910. The estimated population as of July 1 1926 was 4,395,651. Of the total population in 1920, 1,670,447 were of native parentage; 1,204,545 of foreign or mixed parentage; 726,635 were foreign-born and 60,082 were negroes. The following cities in 1920 had 50,000

reforestation. The barrenness of the sandy soil and the shortness of the growing season have hindered the reduction of land to cultivation, and some 10,000,000 ac. (more than one-fourth of the total surface of the state) are thus a deforested desert. Several thousand acres of it revert to the state each year in default of taxes. These reverted tracts, comprising 566,850 ac. in 1918, are administered by the Public Domain Commission (created in 1915) with a view to the sale of such as can be used as

agricultural homesteads and to the setting aside of the rest as forest reserves. ‘These forest reserves (648,000 ac. in 1923) are under state forest management for the prevention of fires and for systematic reforestation. Afinerals—In mineral production no new resources of importance were developed during the period rọro-25. The mining of iron-ore continued vigorously, that produced in 1923 amounting to 14,069,938 tons. The production of copper was pushed to the fullest capacity during the World War; but the severe decline of the market after the Armistice caused a sharp reduction of output. The amount of copper produced in 1923 was 138,304,680 pounds. Manufactures —The manufactured products in 1923 were valued at $3,870,434,000, as compared with $685,109,000 in 1909, an increase of nearly 465°. This advance was mainly due to the extraordinary growth of the automobile industry and its concentration in the state. The value of automobiles manufactured increased from $7,996,534 in 1904 to $96,651,451 in 1900, and to $1,351,990,000 in 1923. In more recent years this industry has continued its rapid expansion. It is estimated that more than two-thirds of the automobiles manufactured in the United States are made in Michigan. The number of wageearners engaged in the making of automobiles and their parts in Iorg was 67,538, constituting 24:9% of the total number of wage-earners in the state; these were increased to 149,296 in 1923, their proportion to the whole being 29-:6% >. Foundries and machine shops with an average number of 34,080 wage-earners in 1923 produced products to the value of $165,736,521. Furniture ranked next, with 20,665 wage-earners and products valued at $93,030,416. Other industries, including logging and sawmill operations, engines and water-wheels, paper and wood pulp,

MICHIGAN,

UNIVERSITY

substantially increased. Michigan led all other states in output of chemicals, drugs, engines, threshing-machines, furniture and refrigerators. Finance.—In 1923 the assessed value of property in Michigan was $5,920,615,241, on which the state levied $25,880,702 in taxes ($6.58 per capita). In the same year the funded and floating debt of the state amounted to $70,613,011, with a net debt of $65,655,186, or $16.69 per capita. Appropriations by the Legislature, $5,920,306 in 1909, advanced steadily to $9,610,553 in 1915, and then much more rapidly, standing at $28,302,639 for 1926-7. The volume of the general property tax, which comprised nearly all the state’s revenue, lagged behind the appropriations at the close of the decade 1910-20, and the prospect of a treasury deficit in r921 caused the passage of a law for a tax on corporation franchises as an emergency recourse. In 1921 accounting and purchasing were centralised under the state Administrative Board. The result of these measures was that a deficit of approximately $6,000,000 in 1921 was replaced by a surplus on July 1 1925 of $2,292,411. Legislution and Administration —Amendments added to the revised constitution of 1908 provided for popular initiative and referendum on constitutional amendments and in legislation (1913); for the recall of elected officials (1915); for prohibition (1916); for woman suffrage (adopted in 1917 after having been successively rejected in 1912 and 1913), and for the issue of state

bonds to the amount of $50,000,000 for the improvement of highways (1917). The provisions for initiative, referendum and recall have as yet found little utilisation, but the issue of highway bonds facilitated a marked Improvement in roads. An increase of the licence charges on automobiles has also increased the road funds, the application of which is largely determined by an Act of the Legislature (1915) establishing a system of state trunk roads. A further increase of road funds resulted from placing in 1924 a tax of two cents per gallon on gasolene. This yielded a substantial sum. Among other noteworthy enactments by the Legislature are the Judicature Act of rors, consolidating and revising the laws of civil practice and procedure; the “ blue-sky ” Jaw of 1913 and the creation of the Michigan Securities Commission in 1915 to regulate the sale of securities; the provision for juvenile courts (1911); the creation of a Board of Mediation and Conciliation to deal with labour disputes (1915); a Dept. of State Police (191Q); a budget commission (1919); and a state Administrative Board, consisting of all the elective state officials (1921). This board was entrusted with a general supervisory control over the functions

and activities of the administrative departments, cach of which, as reorganised and consolidated, continued to operate separately with an appointive official at its head. The preparation of the budget and matters of state expenditure were placed directly under the control of the board. Michigan ratified the Eighteenth (Prohibition) Federal Amendment Jan. 2 1919. Political Histery—Since roro there generally have been large Republican majorities in state and national elections, without appreciable representation of any other parties in the state Legislature. In the presidential election of 1912, however, Michigan gave its electoral vote to the Progressive ticket, and in r912 and ror4 it elected a Democrat as governor and in 1923 elected the same man to the U.S. Senate. The governors of Michigan, rg1i-25, were: Chase S. Osborn (Rep.), ro11-3; Woodbridge N. Ferris (Dem.) 1913-7; Albert E. Sleeper (Rep.), 1917-21; Alexander J. Groesbeck (Rep.), 1921-5 and 1925- . In a conspicuous contest in 1918 Truman H. Newberry (Rep.),

was elected to the U.S. Senate by a narrow majority over Henry Ford (Dem.). Charges of excessive expenditures in this campaign were brought against Senator Newberry and numerous associates, and they were convicted in the U.S. District Court (1920) and were sentenced to two years’ imprisonment. The U.S. Supreme Court set aside the conviction May 2 1921; on Jan. 12 1922 the U.S. Senate decided by a vote of 46 to 41 that Newberry was entitled to his seat. In the ensuing senatorial election, however, he was decisively defeated at the polls, where-

upon he resigned the seat.

(U.B.P.)

OF—MICROPHONE

903

MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF (sce 18.378), has continued the promise of its earlier period as the first conspicuously successful state university. The faculty increased from 350 in 1907-8 to 797 in 1925-6, while the student enrolment grew from 5,013 to 12,312 (6,010 in the college of literature, science and the arts; 1,716 in the colleges of engineering and architecture; 536 in the medical school; 541 in the law school; 85 in the college of pharmacy; 358 in the college of dental surgery; 483 in the school of education; 23 in the school of business administration; 758 in the graduate school; 190 in the training school for nurses; and 3,147 in the summer session). On July 1 1925 there were 36,500 living graduates. Among the buildings erected between 1910 and 1925 were Hill auditorium (1913) bequeathed to the university by Regent Arthur Fill, of Saginaw, seating 5,coo persons; the Natural Science building (1916); the university library (1919), containing approximately 400,000 vols.; the Michigan Union (1919), a student club-house, costing $1,250,000, the gift of students and alumni; the engineering laboratories (1923); the Wm. L. Clements Library of American History (1923), containing one of the three largest collections of Americana in the United States, the gift of Regent Wm. L. Clements, of Bay City; the Yost Field House (1923); James Burrill Angell Hall (1924); the Lawvers club and dormitories (1924), the gift of W. W. Cook, of New York; the physics building (1924); the university high school (1924); the medical building (1925); the university hospital (1925), accommodating joo patients. Four dormitories for women students were also erected during this period as well as a home for nurses, the gift of Senator James Couzens, of Detroit.

A new building for the College of Architecture is in course of construction and a new museum will be built in 1927. A stadium, seating 70,000, will also be completed in 1927. The income of the university in 1925 was $12,465,160. Of this amount $3,000,000 was derived from the state from the 5.¢ mill tax; $2,683,855 was appropriated by the State of Michigan for buildings, and $1,240,889 was received from student fees. Over 12,c00 graduates and students of the university were enlisted in the U.S. Forces during the World War. Of these, 237 lost their lives. Upon his resignation in 1909, President James Burrill Angell was succeeded by Harry Burns Hutchins, dean of the Law School. President Hutchins resigned in 1920 and was succeeded by Marion Leroy Burton, who had been president of Smith College (1910-7) and of the University of Minnesota (1917-20). Upon his death in 1925, Clarence Cook Little, formely president of the University of Maine (1922-5) was inaugurated sixth president of the university. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A Memorial of the Seventy-fifih Anniversary of ihe Founding of the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor, 1915); also Wilfred Shaw, The University of Michigan (New York, 1920); and A. LL. Cross, “ The University of Michigan and the Training of her Students for the War,” Afichigan History Magazine (Lansing, Jan. 1920); also Annual Reports of the President (1922-5). (W. B. S.*)

MICROBE: sce FILTER-PASSING MICROBES, MICROPHONE.—The term microphone, originally used by Hughes to describe a loose contact device extremely sensitive to vibration, has been generalised to mean any piece of apparatus for converting rapid vibrational energy into electrical energy with similar vibrational characteristics. A number of such devices are now known; some are of scientific interest only, others are used very extensively in industry. Microphones Proper.—A loose contact between any two conductors is microphonic—that is to say, when subjected to vibration there is no sharp definition between compietely open circuit and completely closed circuit. In between these two states there is a condition where varying pressure alters the resistance, and if one or both of the substances making contact are subject to vibratory pressure, the vibration is reproduced as a varying current. The characteristic between pressure and current is only linear over small limits. The action at the point of contact is not exactly known. When the current passing through the contact while in the microphonic

MICROPHONE

904

condition is examined it is found not to be absolutely constant, and this lack of constancy makes itself evident as a hiss in a telephone receiver. The discharge through a vacuum valve has a very similar sound when amplified. The change of resistance with pressure varies greatly with materials used. Carbon in one form or another is universally rec-

-arttacres eterce s certo

Damping Plate Terminal

block such as marble, being held in position by some material such as silk or thin rubber. The current response is obtained at right angles to the direction of application of pressure. The carbon granule-air system of a thickness of about 2 mm. forms a system of a very high natural period in depth, also damped by the natural friction of the carbon. The resulting

Screw for Stretching \Diaphragm

Stretching

5

CPS i

apoi

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a

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E k

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N

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nae

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nee

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as

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Terminal Screw

Terminal Stretching Screw | Screw

3

‘i

.

ia

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ADSS

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AN

=

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ree

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Securing Screw Securing Collar Mook for attachment in Transmitter Housing

8

3

Deri

7

ENRE 7

7 a

E ia SIY

S

r f

s

sC

K

y

~,

K, CHT

S ES l ism eee Ring for — Stretchin Spacin Black Wire Gauze\ \fr ANA Ring i t; Rin a f Pate Shield Cover vaphragm urafu ubber anner 1

ai

oi

Diaphragm

Diaphragm

Fic. 3.— Diagram

‘ i

Fic. 1..—Western Electric carbon Microphone.

ognised as the best material, in that the transitory stage between open and closed circuit is more marked than with other materials. This does not mean, however, that it gives the greatest change of resistance for a given change of pressure. A contact between gold electrodes by delicate adjustment can be put in a sensitive condition, and in the adjustment gives greater changes than carbon for the same change of pressure. A considerable amplification can be obtained with microphonic contacts, the output vibratory electrical energy being many times that of the input mechanical energy. . To Edison, Berliner, Hughes and many others we owe the introduction of the contact microphone and its development as a practical device, and microphones to translate noises and music have been produced in many forms. The inventive drift has been towards multiple contacts, and practically all contact microphones are now formed of prepared anthracite granules, the sound pressure being applied in various ways, usually by means of a diaphragm. In later years a more accurate study of the response of microphones to sound pressure has been made, and two modern forms in which the response is practically independent of frequency have been made. In the first form, the Western Electric carbon microphone (fig. 1), a diaphragm of duraluminium is stretched to a natural

period well above the frequency it is required to reproduce.

fole

Fl ant Coes

; pecuring Screw

of the E.S. Microphone.

response is similar to that of the stretched diaphragm type described in the last paragraph. Lowering the period of the diaphragm or thickening up the layer of carbon granules in these two types has similar results. These high quality microphones are not sensitive and have to be used with a valve amplifier. In commercial telephony this amplification is not usually permissible, at least to such an extent, so that it is usual greatly to increase the sensitiveness by forgoing some of the accuracy of response. Fortunately the human voice can be considerably distorted without lack of intelligibility, and by giving the diaphragm of the microphone a natural period in the middle of the important frequency ranges (about 800 cycles) amplifiers can be dispensed with owing to the increased response; music, however, cannot be reproduced with anything like fidelity. These microphones are also used well outside their range of linear response. Granule microphones all suffer to some extent from ‘* packing ’”’—that is, a tendency for the carbon to set itself in a hard contact condition where change of resistance with pressure is least, and much time has been spent in an attempt to overcome this difhculty. The commercial solid back microphone is one of the best forms, but occasional shaking is still necessary. Other Response Devices-——The best known of non-contact devices is the E.S. microphone, developed into an instrument of precision by the Western Electric Co. Ltd. (fig. 3). Here the same principle is used as in the carbon microphone. A high

A

eT oS

Carbon Electrodes

from Coil to Terminais

Carbon

Marble

Powder

Coil Diaphragm

Thin Rubber

Cotton Woal Fads for

Block

Terminals

film

Ebonite Front

supportin

Kai

mir

Magnetising

cu i EEE

Terminals

f

=Aon

i E TE

iii

Fic. 2.—Diagram of the Reisz Microphone.

Fic. 4.—Diagram of the Sykes Microphone.

type of air damping is applied to the diaphragm, and it is allowed to rest on carbon granules. The resulting currents are practically independent of frequency. In a second form, known as the Reisz microphone (fig. 2), a diaphragm is practically dispensed with, and a layer of carbon granules is laid on a heavy non-conducting

natural period diaphragm, air damped, forms one plate of a condenser, the other being a solid insulated metal piece spaced a few mils from the diaphragm. The chief use of this instrument is for measurement and for broadcasting. The amplification required is large. Various magnetic microphones have been

MICROSCOPY constructed; in fact, the first Bell microphone was practically the present receiver. The response with frequency is, however, a complex curve, although it is more linear with amplitude than a contact device. Moving coil devices have been produced by Sykes, Siemens-Halske, etc., the later forms of instrument being constructed so that the moving coil is the diaphragm. In the Sykes microphone (fig. 4) an annular ring of aluminium foil or wire is suspended in a magnetic field, and the response is sufficiently large to enable the method to be used for broadcasting. The law of response with frequency, although not nearly so correct as the electrostatic instrument, can largely be corrected for in the amplifier. Thermal Devices —Iot metal wires have been used for microphone purposes. The response is, however, small except for very low frequencies, which property has been used by Tucker for vun-ranging usually in connection with a resonance chamber. Gas Discharge Devices —D)r. Thomas, of the Westinghouse Electric Co., and others have investigated the use of point discharges, but these devices have not come into general use. A ilame carrying a current is sensitive to sound, but the effect is too small for practical purposes. The piezo electric effect has also been used, but not with much success, except for very high frequency work. See ff. M. Dowsett, Wireless Telephony and Broadcasting (1923). (H. J. R.) MICROSCOPY (sce 18.302)..— The modern microscope is essentially a working tool used in every form of scientific and

industrial

research.

Specialised

applications have led te the

evolution of instruments designed for robust usage as factory appliances, and at the other end of the scale we have the new type of biological research microscope initiated by Mr. J. E. Barnard, F.R.S., F.R.M.S., and manufactured by Beck. In both types there is a marked tendency to forsake the older portable form of stand used in normal laboratory practice and make use of a massive optical bench or lathe bed type of stand. This gives enormously increased rigidity, and freedom from vibration, enables the accessory lighting and condenser systems to be permanently adapted to the optical axis of the instrument, and permits quick change from visual observation to photegraph recording without disturbance of adjustments. Denne AMicroscope—In the microscope designed by Mr. M. T. Denne, F.R.M.S., for photomicrography, the whole system of iluminant, condenser, filter, substage condenser, stage and objective are all mounted on a triangular optical bench. This in turn is carried on a carriageway or lathe bed on which it is free to move. No conventional coarse or fine adjustment is fitted to the microscope, and the place of the body is taken by a camera. The coarse and fine focusing are operated by crank handles driving screw rods in the bed. These control handles are situated at the focusing screen end of the camera, For visual observation the whole optical system is brought up to the camera, which is telescoped, the focusing screen is swung to one side and an cyepiece is inserted in its place. The complete apparatus is mounted on a wheeled pedestal carriage, and the operator manipulates the whole from a chair at the focusing screen end of the bench. Optical Problems—Iin biology research has been directed to extending the limits of microscopic resolution by the use of monochromatic light of short wave-length. The limit of resolution—that is to say, the power to see a body composed of two dots as two separate dots in ordinary white light—is reached with standard apparatus, when the distance separating the two dots is reduced to half a wave-length of ordinary light (say o-2 u). Bodies far smaller than this can still be perceived as vague disks of light, but the eye cannot distinguish form or structure.

‘There is in theory no limit to the smallness of a body which can be made visible, provided that enough Jight falJs upon it, but the image we see of it is simply a scrics of dilfraction disks, and can give us no further information than that something is there. A reduction in the length of the wave-length of light employed may be looked on as increasing the separation between the two points in a body. Thus an object easily visible, but just too small to be resolved, by ordinary light with a proportion of the long red rays in it, may be resolved and seen by monochromatic light

905

from the blue end of the spectrum. As we pass toward the violet end we find that the eye is not sensitive to the violet, and that both distinct vision and accurate focusing become increasingly difficult. This band of light is, however, suitable for photography, and, although visual observation may be imperfect, photographs taken with this light reveal unseen detail and structure (see PHOTOGRAPILY). In 1904 Dr. Kohler of Jena experimented with the use of ultraviolet light. This band of light is of very short wave-length— 275up—and. possesses great resolution, but is invisible. He employed an optical system of quartz lenses, as glass stops these rays, and projected the image on a tlucrescent screen where it could be examined with a glass eye lens and focused for photography. Ultra-violet Ray IHumination—In Great Britain the use of ultra-violet ray illumination has been applied by Mr. J. E. Barnard, F.R.S., and the technique simplified and developed. In the Barnard instrument quartz lenses, slide and coverglass are used, but in place of the older method of focusing on a fluorescent screen the object is first focused visually by means of a special form of dark ground illumination. Dark ground illumination is entirely different from the normal illumination by transmitted light, in that the object is illuminated solely by rays of light so oblique that they cannot enter the objective of the microscope. The only light which enters is that reflected or scattered by the object itself. Objects viewed in this manner appear self-luminous against a dark background, and extremely tenuous and transparent material which would display no structure and be almost invisible when examined by transmitted light reveals material detail. Mr. Barnard’s method was to focus the object first by means of visual examination against the dark ground. ‘This focusing was necessarily crude, as the smallness of the ebjects only allowed them to be seen as disks of diffusion, not as distinct objects. It then becomes necessary to adjust the focus for photography with transmitted ultra-violet light. ‘To effect this, the fine adjustment screw of the microscope Is fitted with a disk head graduated in wave-lengths. Visual focus having been determined in light of known wave-length, rotation of the graduated head to the degree indicated for light of any other wave-length automatically adjusts the focus. The eyepiece is replaced by a camera bedy and dark slide. The dark ground illuminator is so contrived that it can be instantancously changed over to a direct light condenser without disturbance of adjustment, and the lighting arrangement is arranged so that a beam ef ultra-violet light of 275uu from a cadmium are can be directed into the optical axis. The photograph taken of the objects indistinctly discerned shows them in actual ferm and with considerable detail. Special Difficultics —Many difficulties have had to be met in this new technique. Bacteria are killed by exposure to ultraviolet rays, and search has had to be made for bands in the invisible spectrum whose effect is not Immediately lethal. The most important published results to date are those connected with filler-passing organisms associated with cancer research (y.v.) by Dr. Gye, but the normal application of the apparatus may find fuller scope in the exploration of the structure of known bacteria of larger size. These are usually only visible under dark ground illumination when alive, and in order to render them visible for examination by transmitted light they are stained with aniline dyes. Staining kills the bacteria and alters structure. With ultra-violet ight methods it becomes possible to cxamine the structure of living bacteria, for the different elements composing the cell present different degrees of absorption or transparency to the rays, and are as well differentiated on the negative as stained preparations (see BACTERIOLOGY). The standardised model of the Barnard microscope will be approved and available as a commercial product for scientific workers. In the meantime experimental work is being done on the utilisation of even shorter wave-lengths in the Schumann region of the far ultra-violet. These rays have little penetrative capacity through air, and apparatus is being constructed to work in vacuum which may lead to a still further advance in our

906

MICROSCOPY

means of photographically investigating minute structure beyond. our present human range of vision with the best of microscopes. Use in Applied Science —The extension of microscopic resolution by the use of light of short wave-length and quartz optical systems has not yet found application in other than biological research. The tendency is, however, to apply high power examination to crystal structure in metallurgy, and branches of research dealing with opaque material which cannot be examined by transmitted light. Modern design has endeavoured to simplify the problems of the illumination of metallurgical and similar specimens. Devices embodying a parabolic mirror surrounding and integral with the ordinary objective have proved to be too cumbersome and heavy to be satisfactory in practice. In the same way the claims for the nominal ‘‘ super microscope ” devices, which consist of a primary low power microscope coupled to a second microscope of lower power whose function is to magnify the image given by the first system, have not received general endorsement. The results have been in accordance with optical theory, and have not yielded any increase of resolution. For the observation of incandescent bodies or micrometric measurements at a distance, an achromatic lens of short focus carried in a tube fitting the substage is useful. It acts as a short range telescope, producing an image in its focal plane which can be examined by a low power objective of the microscope, with satisfactory magnification, and gives a convenient depth of focus useful in the examination of large objects with uneven surfaces. Use in Metallurgy —For routine metallurgical work the inverted microscope with duplicate tubes for simultaneous visual and photographic work has largely superseded the older types of instrument. With the inverted microscope the specimen of metal is viewed from beneath. Light from an arc or “ Pointolite ” lamp is Jed into a vertical illuminating system beneath the objective and projected on to the specimen. The principle is the same as in simpler metallurgical microscopes, but in the newer type a very wide variation of illumination method is possible. Plain glass reflectors, silvered circles, half circles or strips or even parabolic mirrors can be used in the vertical illumination system of the inverted type of microscope. In addition to this convenient command of illumination, the focusing system has only to carry the weight of the objective and is relieved of the conventional tube. This enables a very fine and precise adjustment of focus to be simply obtained. The change from visual observation to the camera is attained by pushing an intercepting prism out of the optical axis of the apparatus. Use in Engincertne Work.—As the microscope is increasingly used as a purely workshop tool in mechanical engineering practice, there has been a demand for simple robust devices consisting of a low power objective and an eyepiece with a simple scale or graticule in its focal plane. These tools have a linear magnification of X16 or X20, and enable the tool maker and mechanic to achieve a very high standard of precision. In general, no focusing device is provided for the simpler types, the instrument simply being placed on the flat surface under examination. More complex devices are available for the study of fine screw threads, and the more elaborate types of workshop microscope are fitted with an electrical vertical illuminating device in permanent adjustment. In general these simplified tools may be looked on as precision measuring devices rather than instruments for microscopic investigation. The use of the high power microscope for the examination of the microstructure of metal has led to a realisation of the basic fact that the mechanical properties of metals and alloys, such factors as hardness, ductility and tenacity, are inter-related with the microstructure. The microscope alone does not afford an explanation of many of these properties, but when microscopical examination is used in conjunction with equally accurate chemical and thermal analyses, the behaviour of individual constituents can be determined and information of the greatest possible value has already been gained. Other Indusiries.—In the textile industries the microscope is used from the first to the last stages. It is the weapon of the economic botanist studying the insect and fungus pests which attack the plants furnishing the raw material, and it is used by the

dye chemist studying the ultimate detail of the decoration of the finished product. Each industry evolves its own particular detail of technique, but, in general, the normal research does not involve special apparatus and the conventional microscope com-

mon to all laboratories serves. Colloid Chentisiry—The research chemist who deals with colloids, a subject of increasing importance, has to meet problems concerning suspensions of ultra-microscopic particles. For this, the apparatus known as the ultra-microscope is used. In this the power of resolution is neglected and the design is to make visible rather than to define extremely small ultra-microscopic particles. The ultra-microscope is essentially a dark-ground illuminating device, employing an intense illumination system and using magnifications up to X 1500, and the particles are seen as difusion disks. The simplest form is the Siedentopf ‘‘ Cardioid ”’ condenser, which is a paraboloid dark ground illuminator applicable to the ordinary microscope substage. It is, however, used with special quartz slides, as the intensity of the illumination is so high that glass tluoresces and destroys the darkness of the background. In order to estimate the quantity of particles present in a given volume, the quartz slides used with the cardioid condenser are similar to those used in the haemacytometer. A central table surrounded by a groove is ground down to a lower level than the surface of the slide, so that a known depth of liquid can be enclosed between cover and slide. A more precise form of ultra-microscope is the SiedentopfZeismondy slit ultra-microscope, in which a beam of light from an arc is passed through a condenser and focused on an adjustable slit, similar to that used in a spectrometer. The image of the slit is reduced to a quarter size by a second condenser, and focused by an independent microscope objective on a small quartz windowed tank containing the liquid under examination. As the length and breadth of the slit can be adjusted and the reduction is known, the volume of the illuminated portion of the liquid under observation can be accurately estimated. The area of the illuminated zone observed is controlled by an eyepiece stop, and

it is possible to count the number of particles in a known volume of solution. Ifa larger known volume of the solution is evaporated and the residue weighed, the total mass of particles can be calculated and the mass and, if its density is known, the volume of a single particle is estimated. The limitations of the ultra-microscope are those of the refractive index of the objects observed. Cellulose, starch and other low refracting bodies can only be observed in relatively large particles, but metallic colloidal solutions of high refractive index have given extremely favourable results. Colloidal gold particles as small as 1-7x 107? cm. in diameter can be observed as separate entities. Modern A pparaius—-These more recent types of research apparatus, the ultra-violet ray microscope, the inverted metallurgical microscope, and the ultra-microscope, are specialists’ instruments and will not supersede the standard instruments for ordinary work. The design of the latter may be looked on as stabilised, and no great advance has been made. The modifications introduced in practice are those of detail and convenience rather than material alteration of type. The increasing use of microphotography as a recording device has made the narrowbodied microscope of Continental design relatively obsolete. The best modern instruments have body tubes of two inches or more in diameter. Improvements in binocular microscopes have now reached a point where binocular eyepiecing can be used with the highest powers and oil immersion objectives. The advantages of the binocular system are a stereoscopic effect and a great relief from ocular fatigue. In the past, the old-fashioned Wenham prism type binocular was the only satisfactory system, and it was only applicable to very low powers and to the old “ long tube ” stand. Attempts to adapt a binocular prism system to the higher powers were not successful, and various shortcomings such as unequal light distribution in the tubes have hitherto proved insuperable. The new eyepiece systems have now been adopted by the leading

MIDD LESBROUGH— MIGRATION British and American makers and have proved satisfactory in practice.

Monocular

and binocular bodies are detachable

and

interchangeable on the same stands. Eyepiece focusing for disparity of vision between the eyes and interocular width adjustment are provided for. As a result of research, and in a measure as the outcome of wartime needs, Great Britain is producing the highest grades of optical glasses according to tests carried out by the National Physical Laboratory. This mastery of material (see OPTICAL Grass) has reacted on the microscope manufacturers, and British microscope objectives are being adopted for the most critical research work. Birrtrocraruy.—C. Beck, The Microscope (1923); R. H. Greaves, Introduction to Microscopic Metallography (1924); H. Freundlich, Elements of Colloidal Chemistry, Eng. trans. (1925); W. E. Gye and T. E. Barnard, The Lancet (July 18 1925); the Jour. of the Royal Microscopical Society can be consulted for particulars of new apparatus and progress in biological and industrial research.

(H. B. C. P.)

MIDDLESBROUGH, England (see 18.412), with an area of 4,159 acres, had a population of 131,070 in 1921. The town was given a separate court of quarter sessions in 1910. The efforts of the corporation to deal with the housing shortage have been notahle: in addition to 1,283 houses contracted for, of which 877 were finished in 1925, two large buildings were converted into flats, and a number of hutments were erected at Marske-by-the-Sea for the accommodation of Middlesbrough families. The corporation purchased the omnibus and tramways undertakings in 1921. Marton, an estate of 136 acres, was presented for use as a public park in 1924. The sum of £40,000 was given by Mr. J. Constantine for a technical college in 1916, but, owing to the War and the rise in costs, the work could not be proceeded with until a further £40,000 was given by his widow and family. The Constantine Technical College was under construction in 1925. Docks for small vessels and a landing stage were being built in 1926, and an area prepared for extensions of the docks. MIDLETON, WILLIAM ST. JOHN FREMANTLE BRODRICK, \, British politician (see 18.419), did not IST EARL OF (1856—remain long out of Parliament after his defeat in the general election of 1906, as in the following year his father died, and he entered the House of Lords as'gth Viscount. He took a considerable share in the work of that House, and played an active part behind the scenes in Conservative politics, without returning to office. He had meanwhile become especially prominent as leader of the southern Unionists of Ireland, in virtue of his position as a landowner in County Cork. In the Irish Convention of 1917-8 he and a band of Southern Unionists separated themselves from the Ulster standpoint and expressed a readiness to concede a unitary Home Rule Government for Ireland, subject to provisions for safeguarding the minority of loyalists. At the beginning of 1920 he was created an earl. MIGRATION (see 18.427).—The general characteristics of the movement of population between 1909 and 1924 were:—

907

Migration has diminished, since the supply of emigrants does not tally with the demand in respect of nature and quality (race, sex and age). The one-sided interference with immigration by the opposing groups of states results in social conflicts within those states and friction between their respective governments. A peculiar characteristic of recent years is the increasing impor-

tance of continental migration within Europe. The social problems arising in the countries concerned are regulated in many cases by inter-state treatics (Migration Treaties, properly so-called, going beyond the International Labour Agreements) and if possible international agreement. This is the only way to avert dangers which threaten peace, and to further the social policy of the world in positive fashion. *

The immediate problem is that of successfully settling Europe's

surplus urban industrial population in the colonial agricultural areas of overseas countries; the lasting and general world problem is, however, how pcoples of different habits and different standards of living and of radically different race (white and coloured), may be distributed evenly over the earth without endangering the peace and progress of mankind. It is no longer enough to treat immigration purely as a demographic phenomenon occasioned by the decision of those immediately concerned. In order to understand the causes and effects of this phenomenon it is necessary to include in our survey the national and international measures which have been taken in the interests of the community.

I. PROGRESS

OF STATISTICS

As early as the first International Labour Conference in Washington in 1919 the International Labour organization ([.L.0.) created under the treaty of Versailles passed various “recommendations ’ dealing with equal treatment of alien labourers and with collective recruitment of foreign workers, and appointed an international emigration commission, which produced a systematic programme of action at its session in Geneva in 1921. The 4th International Labour Conference of 1922 adopted a “ recommendation ” relating to the collection and improvement by the I.L.O. of statistical and other information on migration. In addition to current monthly publications of the most important data, the I.L.O. issued in 1925 a first annual report on the statistics of 6o countries and territories, Migration Movements 1920-1923 (Geneva, 1925). This report embodies the results of exact and uniform statistical inquiries and provides an international co-ordination of statistics. The numbers and details of the migrants (sex, age, profession, nationality, country of last and future permanent residence) have been classified for the first time, in eight homogeneous groups: (t) oversea emigration of nationals, (2) continental emigration of nationals, (3) oversea immigration of nationals (repatriation I.), (4) continental immigration of nationals (repatriation II.), (5) oversea emigration of aliens (generally returning to their country of origin), (6) continental emigration of aliens (generally returning to their country of origin), (7) oversea immigration of aliens, and (8) continental immigration of aliens. In giving these figures the report explains the very frequent variations in the method of compiling them, and definition of the Since the opening of the 20th century most states had begun to “ migrant ” and also draws attention to the gaps and deficiencies of international comparisons. Migration movements during the exert a positive control in questions of migration; its enormous increase made state regulation of overseas migration unavoidable. periods 1909-1913-19014 had a transitional character, but With the improvement of communications, many migrants have those during the periods 1915-9 and 1920-4 can be illustrated overnaturalised becoming and no intention of settling permanently comparatively. The tables on p. 908 show the overseas emiStates United the from repatriation of seas. The annual figures gration and immigration (repatriation I.) of nationals in the have frequently amounted to more than half of those of immigration, This is no longer due solely to the difference between conditions of chief European countries and the overseas immigration and living in the countries of emigration and immigration; rather, and emigration (repatriation II.) of aliens in certain countries of the in increasing degree, to the more or less conscious efforts of the world. countries of emigration to preserve their nationals’ love of their homes, or those of the countries of immigration to assimilate the new clements. The countries of emigration encourage, as far as possible, temporary migration, to which, however, even before the War the countries of immigration raised economic and social objections. During and after the War, in addition, national and political points of view began to influence migration policy decisively. In the countries of immigration, especially the United States, legislation governing selection became more stringent, and later a numerical limit was imposed on immigrants. The European states were no longer able to divert their surplus population overseas so copiously as before; even in the case of racially kindred nations, or the British

self-governing Dominions. These Dominions too, under the pressure of economic depression, seek to retard immigration,

Il. CHARACTER OF MIGRATION MOVEMENTS Overseas migration has perceptibly declined since the War. As regards the European countries of emigration the annual average (before the War 1,349,25t and 669,574 after the War), so far as proper statistics are available has decreased by 50-38%. In the countries composing the former Austro-IIungarian monarchy emigration has sunk to 70-4°% of its pre-War figures: emigration from Italy 58-8°5, emigration from Finland, 56-8 %, and Portugal, 51-6 % is less than 23 of what it was; the percentages for Great Britain are 43-6, for Spain 39-6, for Sweden 38-3, for Norway 34-7, for Belgium 31-6, and fur Denmark 29-5°., Emigration has increased

MIGRATION

908 TABLE

1. Overseas Einigration of European Nationals

(With Repatriation Figures for Great Britain and Ireland, Italy and Spain) l

Austria-] Hun.

`

E

-

ary

Bel| Den-|: . ni

ae

Fin- | Ger- | Great Britain "w.

`

s

.

\mi- | Emi- | Emi- | Emi- | Emi- | ee eee) eel eee

Emi- |

tion

tion

.

tion

ee

ae

|tion

te

. $

tion

tion

Ne

Italy

and Ireland | eee

ee

| gium | mark j land | many

ee er-

.

S

lands |Sand

|Norway

D

Port-

|

ugal

|H

Spain

Emimia - | aEmiMeelis etap aSmi- | ||

Emi-

tion

tion

triation|

*.*

triation|

.

*.°

gra-

i

tion

tion

tion

|

tion

Switz-!

Sweden

erland:

Re-

Emi-

patria-

gra-

tion

tion a 2

1909 | 259,145] 3.650 | 6,782 | 19,144) 24,921) 288,761 149, 068"! 399, 282] 134,210] 2,939 | 16,152 | 38,146 e ,055]t 8,804 IgIo 258,816] 5,550 39, 457 | 160,936 24, 8,890 : 19, 007 | 25,431 307,848} 164,139, 402,779] LOL, 148) 3,220 | 18,912 ! 647

IQIL | 165,522]

4,586 | 8,303 | 9,372]

I9I2 | 251,743|

4,402

1913 | 313,621]

7,590 | 8,846 | 20,057)

Average

o

22,690; 454,52

8.63 6 | 10,724)

25,543) 389,304,

|

2,155 | 9,105 | 88,592 | 194.443

85,709, 559,506; 188,975] 2,330 | 9,876 |771227 prot 000 |

|

| 5,162 | 8,291 | 15,661;

IQI4 | 73,067! oe IgI5

6,203 | 6,474] 3,302 | 4,041

1916

4,265 | 5,325

326]

1920 | 60,308]

1921 | 76,031)

72,110)

10,004) 10,621 3,22 3, 146,935)

927 | 4,094}

85,381)

2,635)

9,194| 285,102

9,384 | 6,300 | 5,595

2,200 | 5,309 | 3,557]

52,926

9|

328 | 3,253 | 3,600}

|T91479

23,506; 371,498] 130,263] 405,542]

5,715!

57.931

74.140)

£2,254) 13,013; orol 8,772] 93,023) 105,833)

61,471)

O8, 026, 121,410;

1923 | 75,717| 2,256 | 7,608 | 13,835] 115,416 269,680] 192 41,831) 2,922 | 6,319 | 5,429) 58,637) 174,451]

58,143) 177,853] 68,614 130,779

3,538 | 5,925

6,826 48,498

ee

Seat

167,118

4,558

ry m

55

14.6389 Ly 22

| 5,178

3

5.5

5,151

5,6

4,917

6

E

hola? 4

18,445 | 4,876 |5:533 10,006 | 4,864 | 3,869

QIU}

5,212 | T4, 957

02,247

43,051 20,108 DAT

867| 16,885) 2,518 9,025] 1,160 | 1,226 89,833) 2,439 | 2,432 | 21 6I A}:

1,437 | +080 | 14,871 | 55982

78, 498, 5.978 | 5,581 | 46,410 | 150,566

24.135) 190,477] 71,307, 194.320, 92, 212, 3200

36,527

|

4,7355

16,770

2,174 | 8,522 | 29,806 | 66,506 4,572 | 22,848 | 50,359 1o74]

2,656 | 13,304 | 60,564

39,039]

82,785] i

56 055| 211, 1227]

174,096]

65,061}

177,265]

11,803] 214,393 Bes 462/ 233,274] 219,175] 528] 76,911! 92,385) G6, 517|167,925|

LOLA F 2,773 bk 793 | 1,900 1,967 | 3.340 | 1,085

IQI7 1918 Igtg Average

Average 1920-4]

182,990]

18,545, 326, 950° 59,681") 403,306]

13 | 249,769]

1922

192,718] 262,779 218,998 2,038 | 12,477 | 59.399 | 139,683

| 4.958 1 4,915

|

4,627 | 17,915 | 62,479

4,672 | 3,223 | 1,976

7,458 | 3,159 | 1,464

2,571 | 2,478 | 656 1,498 | 1,630 | 304

4,008 ) 3,873 |3,063 |

5,040

|3,154

| F, 889

|

7,093 | 5,601 | 9,276 | 5,881 | 4,605 | 7,1 2¢

8,985 | 3.237 | 5,787 | 93,246 = 559 | 2.433 | 8,006 39,680] 5,648 | 18,287 | 30,792 60,676] 3,306 | 8.492 |22,279| 86 1920 8,401 | 2,539|| 4,140 | 54,282] 2,158

ee

6,456 | 29,037 | 64,119

4.087 | 8,689

| 29,287 |e91,466

!t Hungary only. 2 The figures for the years 1909-11 refer to British passages: the figures after 1912 are for true British emigrants. 3 Including the figures for the Irish Free State (13, 396 in 192 3).

4 The figures for the year I912 refer only to the last ntne months (April to December).

TABLE

H.

Overseas Immigration into Certain States

(With Figures of Repatriation of Immigrants [Emigration] in Certain Cases) United States

| Canada!

Brazil

Argentine

i

Years

Australia

New Zealand

South Africa

aa

Immi- | Emigra- | [mmiImmi- | Jmmi- | Emigra-]| gration tion gration | gration | gration tion

Immigration

Sr

lt: migra-| tion

Immigration

1909 | 683,594, 195,035 | 03,255 | 84090 | 231,084 | 94,644 | 83,609 | 54.676 | 38,650 | 33.931 1910 | 966,324) 167,879 | 178,489 | 86,750 | 289,640 | 97,854 | 95,692 | 58,145 | 35,769 | 32,301

IQII | 801,863]

245,530

1912

299,151 | 255,661 | 177,837 | 323,403 | 120,260 | 166,958 | 53,217

1013

Aver-

758,944)

219,260

l “is |

133,575 | 225,772 | 120,799 | 141,909 | 72,609 [ 41,359 | 37,1890 44,660 | 35,733

34,296 | 19,839

1909-

13 | 864,579] 233,623 | 209,956 | 134,527 | 274,380 | 118,059 | 126,015 | 71,156 | 41,011 | 33,917 | 2,850 269,796

180,198

LOTO

Aver=| age

1914-9}

ORSR

|

|

IATL 13,194 |

37,646 | 32,506 | 9,047 5,158 25,551 | 22,470]

25,911 | 6,187 32,795 | 4,297

46,471 7,700 | 30,277 | 15,064 | 50,995 | 53.030 41,900 | 16,987 | 19,793 | 13,708 | 24,075 | 33,018

15,049 | 13,869 | 2,079 1,906 | I1,660 | 3,044

57:007'| -0425 37.321 | 5.231

-O70060

S002]

Pueg

302,338/ 124,447 | 33,837 | 37,818 | 44,444

1920 | 287,615)

|

|

85.010 | 79,232 | 115,321 | 178,684 | 110,701 11,600 | 30,333 | 45,290 | I11,459 | 70,436

1916 | 178,850) 113,521 | 13,985 | 31245 | 32,090 | 73.348 | 59,140

| 1917 | 172,135! 1918 | 59,642]

274.041

98,636 | 69,042

Je

cor

21,799 | 21,163 | 3,846

9,900

20,931 | 19,877 | 9-038

64,385

66,647 | 20,258

55.121 | 6,472

r

pee |

7,032 | 57,187 | 85,237 4 77,0f2 | 44,062 | 32,924 | 22,095!

80,488 | 8,437

45,122 | 6,675 9,846

1174,221 | 12,309

1921 | 702,153! 236,557 | 67,840 | 58,476 | 98,086 | 44,638 | 80,316 | 63,105 | 41,882 | 28,559 | 20,933 | 13,476 | 58,945 | 19,763 1922 oe 187,047 | 46,690 | 63,007 | 129,263 | 45,993 | 92,054] 55.490 | 35,233 | 28,389 | 13,235 poe: 25,993 | 15,956

1923

1924

Average

1920-4|

o

16.8

76OITJ | II7.OI3 | 84,549 | 195,063 | 46,819 | 92,859 | 55.319 | 36,488 | 29,668 | 11,641

72,262

108,122 | 96,052 | £59,939 | - 46,105 | 103,667 | 59,918 | 39,815 | 30,593 | 16,409 |

|

43.507 | 17,805 | .

lI 117, 727|

a

38,053 | 16,939

[1,112,164] 260,218 | 303.087 | 190,333 | 302,047 | 156,829 | 141,906 | 87,131 | 44,588 | 30,369 | 14,251

1915 | 232,445)

! Me xico

31,286 | 37,764

os

age

ror4

! Cuba l=

Emi- | Immi- | Emi- | fmmi- | [mmi|gration | eration grationA gration ation

2,666 | 75,461 | 19,827

13.445 | 85,288

ae

398,395| 169,364 | 87,660 | 74,625 | 133,677 | 48,147 | 90,827 | 62,169 | 39,496 | 30,027 | 16,863 | 12,422 | 83,962 | 16,986

MIGRATION since the War by 107:5% in Germany, 33:9 in the Netherlands, 24-1 % in Switzerland. Thus the proportion supplied by each country to the total of emigrants has altered. Before the War the proportion of the total overseas emigration from different European countries was: Italy 30-05" the United Kingdom 28-86%% Austria-

Hungary I8-51 o Spain I1-22 “o, Portugal p48 °a, Germany I:74 "o,

Sweden

1°36%,

Finland

1-16%, Norway 0:98°%, Denmark

0-61 °.,

Switzerland o-41°%, Belgium 0-38", Holland o-1g°,. It now runs: United Kingdom 32-94%., Italy 24-95%, Spain 13-66%, territory of the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy 9-71 °%, Germany 7-29"0, Portugal 4°37 %o, Sweden 1-7 °%o, Norway 1:30 °, Switzerland 1:03 °», Finland 1-02°%, Denmark 0-88 °%, the Netherlands 0-60 a, Belgium

0°53 “0. The statistics of immigration show the annual average immigration as falling from 1,720,703 in 1909-13 to 942,711 in T1920 4, five vears after it, a decrease of 45-21%, falling to 46-15 of pre-War figures in the U.S.A., 41-75°, in Canada, 40-76", in Argentina, 55:47 °o in Brazil, 87-50°, in Australia, while the figures for Mexico (6-6) and New Zealand (3-69 °,) remained practically unchanged, immigration into Cuba rose by 122-29°5 and into South Africa by 18-335. Formerly the United States took the largest proportion ot immigrants with 50-25 “i, of the total, Argentina had 15-5 “o, Canada 12-20%, Brazil 7:82 a, Australia 7:33 %6, New Zealand 2-38 °%, Cuba 2-20% Mexico 106%, South Africa 0-8306. Now the list runs: U.S.A. 42-26%), Argentina 14:20 %4, Australia 9:63 “o, Canada 9:30 n, Cuba 8-9126, Brazil 7-82%, New Zealand 4:19%%, Mexico 1-80 %o, South Africa 1-79 °%.

Differences of direction (nationality of immigrants and country of last and of future residence) are even greater than those of the total volume. This is shown by the following table for the U.S.A., which is still the most important country of immigration. Immigration of aliens into the United States by principal countries of origin, 1913-4, 1920-1 und 1922-3.

909

14-6: in Argentina it was only 10-4%, in Cuba only 6-3 %o. In the British Dominions the proportion rises to 22-5") (New Zealand 23:2 %o)Jewish immigration into Palestine has a more family character children in 1922, 26-9 “a in 1923). Of able-bodied adults, the (26-7 young are more numerous than the elderly. ; The countries of emigration and immigration complain even more of the alteration in distribution of occupations. Before the War up to two-thirds of the overseas emigrants from [Europe were engaged in agriculture, in 1922 and 1923 only 14-6 % and 14-0 % respectively of the total emigrants from 14 European countries were of this class, Even if domestic servants and dav labourers are counted in, this class hardly amounts to a third of the total. The statistics of countries of immigration place the percentage but little higher. i In consequence of the difficulties and restrictions on tmmigration and unfavourable economic conditions in Europe, repatriation home of previous overseas emigrants has decreased greatly (according to Table II. with 31-96°5) and ever more rapidly. In the five years after the War repatriation to Great Britain was 18-3 %, less than before the War; to Sweden 24-5 °, less, to Italy actually 63-3 "o less. The loss of population through migration per 100,000 inhabitants, arrived at by calculating the difference between figures of immigrants and emigrants, gives the following table for European countries (1920-3): Portugal —1,936, Great Britain and North Ireland —1,429, Italy —1,135, followed at a distance by Spain, Sweden, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Rumania. The figures for the five overseas countries which

have recorded both emigration and immigration show that the gain in population through migration per 100,000 inhabitants is highest in New Zealand (3,906), followed by Argentina (1,826), the United States (758), South Africa (116).

Il. RESTRICTION

OF

IMMIGRATION

The universal depression consequent on the World War could not of itself have brought about, except in a certain degree, the Per cent of Numbers of | f decrease of emigration and its change of direction. The history total Countries of | immigrants admitted origin SRE N E of migration movements, especially in the United States, shows 1913-4 | 1920-1 | 1922-3 |191 3~4|1920-1|1922-3 || that for a century past periods of economic depression have | coincided with the lowest figures of migration. The supply of i Northern and i western Euemigrants in the European countries remained greater than the ' rope . | 164,133] 138,551] 156.4291 13-4] 17°72 | 29-9 overseas labour markets, especially those of the United States, | Southern and could have absorbed. ; eastern EuUnited States —The depression which set in after a brief pasti rope . . | 915,974/ 525.5480 153,074) 752| 05-3) 20-4 British North War boom, in the United States as elsewhere, in t920~1, and the / America 86,139) 72,317) 1E7,O11 7-I 9-0] 22-4 great increase in immigration in 1919-20 increased the appre! Mexico ; 14,614) 30,758] 63,768) 1-2 3-8] 12-2 hension with which organised labour, in particular, had come to !Other countries 37,620| 38,054) 32,037) 3-1 47 6-1 regard unregulated immigration even before the War. MorcTotals 1,218, 480] $05,228 522,919) 100-0 | 100-0 | 100-0 | over, during the War American objections on national grounds to immigrants from south and eastern Europe, who are only The table above shows two tendencies. First, there is a reduction, already considerable before the new system came into force, of total assimilated with difficulty, acquired decisive importance, and immigration into the United States as compared with 1913-4, becompublic opinion was converted by motives of patriotism to a policy ing more marked in the year 1922-3 under the intluence of the new of restriction. The clause in the consolidated Immigration Law of Quota law. Secondly: in 1922-3 less than one-third of the immigrants Feb. g 19617 under which persons over 16 years of age who are came from southern and eastern Europe, as against three-fourths in 1913-4. The number of immigrants from northern and western unable to read are not admitted, proved ineffectual in reducing Europe, which was formerly about one-eighth of the total, became the undesired element and emergency legislation for the renearly one-third. striction of immigration combined with national discrimination in the year 1923-4 the number of immigrant aliens increased to was finally approved on May 19 1921, and came into force 706,896. The proportion of northern and western European t peoples ” increased from 20-8 %, of the whole in 1913-4 to 55:7 °o on June 2. The number of alien immigrants, in the case of each in the year 1923-4 and the proportion of southern and eastern nationality, was limited to a maximum of 3°, of the number of European ‘“ peoples ” decreased from 75-6%. of the whole in 1913-4 foreign-born persons of that nationality who were resident in the to only 27-2" in 1923-4. United States at the time of the census of roro. Certain cateNot only the volume and direction of overseas migration movements, but also the character of the migrants has changed greatly. gories of persons were, however, exempted from these queta. Family migration is on the decrease, outside the British Empire. This emergency law was to operate until June 30 1924 when The preponderance of males is greater than before the War. Accordthe Immigration Act,’ 1924, came into force. The earlier law ing to statistics from 13 countries of emigration, males composed had already reduced the proportion from southeastern Europe 35:6 °% of the total in 1922, 63:7 ĉo in 1923. The samce increase in the preponderance of males may be scen from the statistics of the chief of the total immigrants by one-third. ‘The effect of this recountries of immigration (54-2 ° and 62-4.,).. This increase isdue to duction was, however, partially annulled because such persons the fact that in 1922 the states of western and northern Europe were allowed to immigrate from the countries bordering on the still made little use of their quotas of immigration to the United |

States, while recently the southeastern states, where family emigration was most common, have not been able to send the wives and children to join the heads of their households so frequently as before. (Percentage of male immigrants to the United States was 48-4 29 1n 1922, 58-8 °% in 1923.) Even emigration from the United Kingdom was affected as regards the general proportion of the two sexes (51:9 °% of males in 1922, 59:65 in 1923). The sexes of immigrants were most evenly distributed in South Africa and New Zealand, most unevenly in Cuba, the Argentine and the other South American states, owing to seasonal migration and the greater risk in settling. The decrease of the percentage of child migrants from 1922 to 1923 similarly points to a decrease in family migration. In the United States the percentage of immigrant children dropped from 20-6 to

United States and unaffected by this law (Mexico, Canada) even of alien origin, if they had been settled there for two years in the one case, five in the other. Thus the total immigration from Canada and Mexico rose from 66,361 for the financial year of 1922 to 290,026 for 1924. ‘The total of immigrants had therefore not decreased. Economic depression also forced the countries of northwestern Europe to make full use of their high quotas. Clandestine immigration of southeastern Europeans by

land and sea is estimated by the best authorities at 150,000 _1See Immigration Laws and Rules of Feb. 1 1924, issued by the U.S. Bureau of Immigration (Washington, 1924).

QIO

MIGRATION

annually.

Public opinion, at one with Albert Johnson, Chairman

of the Committee òn Immigration of the House of Representatives, in the opinion that “ the melting pot was to have a rest,” welcomed the new law.

The law distinguishes three categories of persons:— 1. The old emigration

is wound

up under the first group; un-

married children under 16 and wives of previous emigrants, now naturalised, and certain other individual desirable types are allowed

to immigrate outside the quota. Immigrants from the American continent do not come under the law at all. Persons who were not born there can no longer, under any circumstances, be accepted outside the quota of the country of origin. _ 2. As regards immigrants on the quota, the law adopts the following drastic principles for the first three years of its validity. The annual quota of any nationality shall be two per centum of the number of foreign-born individuals of such nationality resident in continental United States as determined by the United States census of 1890. After July 1 1927 the total number of immigrants is to be fixed at 150,000, the quota of each nationality being determined by the relationship between the number of inhabitants having that national origin to the total population of the United States in 1920. es this basis the annual quotas from the principal countries are as ollows:—

E North and West Europe Belgium . í i ; i Denmark . :

France

;

Germany

;

‘

:

i

:

Great Britain and North Ireland Trish Free State . : F 5 Netherlands $ Norway , ‘

Sweden ‘ Switzerland

South and Czechoslovakia Italy : Poland . Rumania . Russia . Yugoslavia

. N

; d

. 3 ‘ ‘

East Europe ; ;

1921-2

1924-5

1,563 5,694 5729

512 2,789 3:954

68,059

51,227

Paa ist 3,607 12,202

34,007 238,567 1,648 6,453

20,042 3,752

9,561 2,081

14,282 42,057 25,827 7,419 24275 6,426

3,073 3,845 5,982 603 2,248 671

3, Finally, persons ineligible as citizens of the United States fall into a separate group. This provision excludes the Japanese, the only Eastern Asiatics who had not already been excluded from the possibility of immigrating by the earlier special “ Law of Exclusion ” (China), or by the clause on the " barred zone ” of Asia adopted into the law of 1917.

The most important result of the new immigration legislation, as compared with the period before the War, is that immigration from the most important European countries of emigration (Italy, the territories of the previous Austro-Hungarian

Mon-

archy and Russian Empire) had been reduced by nine-tenths. The quotas from Sweden, Norway,

Denmark

and Switzerland

have also been reduced by half; those for Germany and the Irish Free State remain practically unaltered. AH other countries of emigration, including Great Britain, whose annual quota is now only 34,007, must now in increasing measure seek their outlet in other overseas countries. Other Countriés—But South American and other countries have adopted similar restrictions on immigration for similar reasons. Before the War these countries—Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina—and others still encouraged white immigration, but they can no longer alford to do so. Not only have they paid more attention to selecting the right class of immigrant, but at times immigration has been suspended altogether. The bad conditions have led to some outbreaks of the proletariat in several ports, these being aggravated by the failures who drifted back from up-country. So in Seuth America too only settlers with capital and able-bodied country labourers are welcomed. No state still grants free land. The minimum capital required, even by Brazil and Argentina, is too high for the unemployed of Europe, and they cannot make their way as unskilled labour in hot countries against the compctition of the native coloured population (the North of South America, North and Central Africa, Asia Minor, etc.). Especially intellectuals

who have tried their luck in these districts have very often come to grief, IV. MOVEMENTS OF POPULATION IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE | Great Britain has long endeavoured to divert her surplus population from the United States, and has tried where possible to find it an outlet in her own Empire. The motives and results of these efforts, prosecuted with increased zeal since the War, may be regarded'as typical of the migration crisis, since the Empire contains countries of emigration and immigration which are naturally complementary, and the official interpretation of the term “ migration ” denotes internal movements from one of these territories to another. Empire Settlement Act—The importance of the settlement question for the maintenance and consolidation of the British Impire was strongly emphasised by the Dominions Royal Commission, 1911-7, but although since 1890o the theory of state subvention has often been mooted, it was not until 1921 that a scheme for state-aided imperial settlement was adopted by the

Imperial Conference of that year. The Empire Settlement Act, passed by the British Parhament in 1922, implemented the scheme. An Overseas Settlement Office was set up under the supervision of a Colonial Office Committee, and in 1925 a new Under-Secretaryship of Dominion Affairs was constituted, with complete charge of migration and settlement policies. Emigration departments were opened by the Dominion Governments in London. England's share of the cost of carrying through any one measure was not to exceed soa, and the obligation to grant subsidies was not to extend beyond 15 years. The total which might be expended in one year under this was £3,000,000, exclusive of receipts from interest or repayments in later years. ‘Che scope of the law could be extended to other parts of the Empire, but in 1926 this had not yet been done. As shown by Table IL, emigration to the Dominions was still less than before the War, when the broad, thinly-populated expanses of the overseas portions of the Empire had already begun increasingly to attract the stream of emigration from Great Britain in default of other labour markets. Between 1891-1900 only 28° of English emigrants went to the Colonies, the majority to the United States; between 1901-12 63° went to the Colonies, 1919-23 64°5. When the American quota was reduced in 1921 84,261 out of a total of 91,262 overseas emigrants from Great Britain and Northern Ireland went to parts of the Empire. The comparatively small financial part taken by certain Dominions in carrying through this scheme is due to economic and social difficulties. These districts need mostly agricultural settlers and labourers and female domestic servants willing to live in the country. Great Britain is, however, rather short of these classes, while the Dominions object to the immigration of the superNuous skilled industria] labourers, in view ef the unemployment in their own industries and the necessity of protecting the standard of living of their own population. Objections are also raised to agricultural settlement, on the ground that this increases the agrarian losses provoked by the considerable fall of prices of agricultural produce. Then it is feared that most of the former urban elements will soon leave the land again and increase the over-preponderance of the towns which is already very great. The first step should be to settle the urban unemployed of the overseas districts on the land, since they are already used to local conditions. And so all these states, although some have had satisfactory experience with immigration, have imposed strict conditions of selection of human material from the mother-country, or insist on suitable preliminary training for settlers. Families and juvenile emigrants are much preferred. New Zealand and Canada haye been comparatively accommodating. Canada, however, has not an exclusively Anglo-Saxon

population to increase and makes efforts to attract agricultural labour from other European states as well. South Africa is in general opposed to all European immigration, as she is suffering particularly from unemployment and has native labour to spare.

MIGRATION The British Problem.—The school of Mr. J. M. Keynes holds that the present unemployment in Great Britain is intensified by the fact that 1,000,000 persons remained in Great Britain during the War who would otherwise have emigrated, and considers that the maintenance of the standard of living in the mothercountry could only be ensured-- imperfectly—by increasing emigration, or more safely, by reducing the birth-rate; but other experts (Sir William Beveridge and Professor A. L. Bowley) are more optimistic—they calculate that after 1931 the decline in births during the War will result in a shortage of productive labour in England, on the assumption that emigration again reaches its pre-War dimensions, the death-rate remains unaltered and the participation of women in the work of the community remains constant. The Overseas Scttlement Committee think that it will be possible to secure an adequate outlet by emigration within the Empire for the surplus industrial workmen of the mother-country, although used to a high standard of living and the state unemployment allowance, as soon as world conditions have got back to normal and the agrarian crisis has been surmounted. The financial assistance of emigration by the mother-country should, in any case, further the industrial development of the Dominions and help the overseas portions of the Empire to become self-supporting.

V. LEGISLATION ABOUT EMIGRATION Before the War freedom of emigration was almost general. Judging by the legislation of the most important countries of emigration, such as Italy, the general character of emigration policy was as follows: emigration was only restricted in the case of persons who had to be kept in the country on account of military service, criminal records or immaturity. Further, persons were prevented in their own interests from emigrating if they did not fulfil the conditions of the countries of immigration, if they possessed insufficient means or ran the risk of getting into an unfavourable position by paid passages or other concessions. In order to protect the emigrants only such shipping companies were allowed to carry them as were under supervision, so as to avoid the activities of secret agents. A special emigration fund was maintained out of various sources which created an emigration authority with local and foreign branches and established or supported special welfare institutions in the ports and elsewhere (emigrants’ homes, labour registries). But according as the character and social spirit of the government was more or less democratic, so, in practice, there was more or Jess hostility towards emigration. These principles of emigration policy were upheld in post-War legislation, and supplemented

by fiscal measures and by various restrictions in the recruiting of emigrants.

The impoverished countries of the continent of Europe encountered even greater difficulties than did the British Empire from the attitude of the countries of immigration. In spite of the great and constantly recurring unemployment, it was impossible to let millions emigrate, as had been generally expected after the War. The governments of the emigration states were themselves at first swayed by contradictory motives. Where the military motive no longer weighed in the balance, they were anxious not to increase the price of labour through emigration, so as not to hamper their export trade, or they wished to settle their surplus population at home by agrarian reform. People were mistrustful, and expected, too, a great economic wave of prosperity. Soon, however, certain countries were forced by their great surplus of population to give direct state encourage-

ment and assistance to emigration, but everywhere they found doors shut against them. The example of conscious national emigration policy is Italy. So long as she is forced to place her labour at the service of foreign economic systems, she tries generally to get a suitable return for it (policy of valorisation), to increase the value of her labour by suitable training, in particular not to permit collective recruiting of emigrants except under conditions dictated by the state, to protect the interests of the emigrants against the transport companies and other agents during and after emigration, to preserve the sense of nationality

QII

by suitable organisations in the country of immigration (policy of schools, clubs and voting) and finally to place the whole organisation of emigration under a state general commissariat for emigration and its organs.

A whole series of countries of emigration have copied Italian legislation more or less closely since the War in their new emigration legislation. As passports and visas are still compulsory, it is possible to regulate emigration policy towards the different states. All European countries are endeavouring more or less to get their own unemployed industrial labour out of the country where possible, and to shut themselves off from foreign labour at the same time. Statistics show that countries of emigration have been able to divert their surplus population overseas most easily where the movement is favoured by racial kinship and political interests. Most of the Germanic and Nordic states of Europe were still able to turn to the United States up to 1924 even in greater measure than before the War. The Latin and Slav countries, being almost excluded from North America, compensated themselves mostly in the South American states. So, to take 1924 as an example, 52°5°o of the Italian, 44-7°4 of the Spanish, 37-4 °% of the Czech emigrants went to the Argentine. The attempts of the Italians and Greeks to get a footing in the British Dominions and South Africa had, however, very little success.

VI. MIGRATION OVER LAND FRONTIERS Overseas emigration would never have succeeded in satisfying the urgent demand for emigration.

Fortunately the European

states were able to find an outlet in a few European countries, especially France, Belgium and Luxembourg. Immigration tito France—France was impoverished in man power, and her labour market, in consequence of the work of reconstruction and the increase in her export industry resulting from the fall of the franc, was able to absorb foreign labour to an extent which varied, but on the whole increased. Statistics of continental migration are still very imperfect, but show great changes since the War. Before the War Germany received about a million continental immigrants, France comparatively very few. This immigration to Germany was almost entirely agricultural and mostly seasonal and non-permanent. In 1924, however, Germany admitted no foreign industrial labourers and only 29,196 agricultural workers, while French national statistics, taken on the frontiers and certainly some 50° too low, show the figure of continental immigrants at 262,877 in 1923 and at 223,405 in 1924. The great majority came from Italy, which now sends two-thirds of its emigrants to France; but there is hardly a country in Europe which has not sent labourers, mostly industrial, in large numbers to France in recent years. Continental migration has the advantage for the countries of emigration that it easily alters its character and often helps to

increase technical knowledge. Reguiation.— But the countries of immigration are confronted not only with difheult economic and social problems, but also with problems of national health and security arising out of these mass immigrations. It has proved especially necessary to regulate the national labour market as elastically as possible, so that at any given moment

only so much foreign tabour as is barely necessary remains in the country. It has proved possible to adapt collective migration to the needs of the present labour markets by means of state treaties, and to regulate the legal and social position of those concerned in a proper way. But the good results thus attained have been largely nullihed by the insullicient regulation and supervision of individual migrants. ‘The pressure of unemployment has also caused the Central European countries to put severe limitations on the entry and settlement of

foreign labour. Certain countries even expel labourers who have long been resident in the country. The resultant insecurity and the rise of prices increases the difficulties of reconstruction caused by tariff policy, ete. Continental emigration, for example, into undeveloped Russia, is only permitted to agricultural settlers with capital ready to form model settlements in the north. On the other hand, emigration out of European Russia into Siberia has assumed extraordinary dimensions since the War. The chances of normal continental exchange of labour would have been much greater but for the emigration to Western Europe of Russian refugees. Japan and China are now themselves largely reduced to continental migration within Asia, since their only overseas outlet is now South America. Continental migration

MIHALACHE

QI2

in the interior of Africa has also assumed very great importance, and in South Africa especially, the various states have regulated it from a one-sided point of view. There must be general state regulation for crossing of frontiers and settlement of foreigners. Great Britain, thanks to her insular position has been most successful in this since the introduction of compulsory passports. The German “ Labour Centre,” which works by compelling foreign hired labour to obtain permission and register, has been muck less successful. France is only now beginning to attack the problem by a more exact control of identification cards, unification of the administration (Commission de la main et l'oeuvre Ctrangére 1924) and a long-promised legal regulation of conditions of immigration.

VII. GENERAL

INTERNATIONAL

REGULATIONS

The recognition of the necessity of reconciling conflicting interests in migration has led those European states which are subject to continental exchange of labour to make a beginning and conclude comprehensive migration treaties (France with Czechoslovakia, Poland and Italy). But the experience so gained is not enough to allow one simply to apply these methods of regulation internationally to world migration. The development appears here to overlook the regulation of social-political questions of detail. The International Labour Office, which has been entrusted with this task, has declared in principle for equal treatment for foreign labourers in all respects, and in detail has

begun by regulating for equal treatment of foreign workers as egirds

(t924).

workmen’s

compensation

for

accidents

during

work

The social-political regulation touches on many other

questions, notably protection of migrants (especially women and juveniles) and the regulation of the labour market. The programme worked out by the International Emigration Commission 1921 was widened and revised in many respects by the technical Interstate Conference summoned in ro924 by the Italian Govt. and attended by delegates from 57 governments.

The Protocol of this conference shows the great number

and variety of these problems. The agenda dealt mainly with technical matters; the transport of emigrants, hygiene and sanitary services, assistance at the ports of embarkation and disembarkation, assistance for women and children, information on

employment in the countries of emigration, and the principles to which migration treatics should conform, etc. The actual conditions of emigration and immigration in the different states touch the sovereignty of the states so nearly that most governments at present refuse to admit international regulation. This was shown very clearly by the United States louse of Representatives when passing the Immigration Law of 1924. Even the different international federations of Trades Unions have not succeeded in arranging mutual co-operation.

It may, however, yet prove possible to secure the collaboration of the states whose interests conilict, and thus eliminate dangers to the peace of the world. Private leagues for the protection of the emigrants are already doing good work towards bringing about a rapprochement of public opinion in different countries on questions of migration. These leagues joined in a common international conference held at Rame in May tg24.

The increase of open and secret emigration from Canada and Mexico

into the United

States shows

that unless continental

migration be regulated, the intentions of legislation regarding overseas migrants will merely be paper regulations. Either America must make up her mind to establish an effective frontier police, to register and keep continual track of foreigners, or she will not be able to stop the impulse of the peoples to im-

migration.

In the former case her attraction for the already

assimilated elements of Canada and Mexico will grow and the number of territorial disputes over this question will increase; in the latter there will be an intensification of the shortage of labour and high wages. The Oriental Question.—The problem of Oriental immigration into the United States is of special urgency. Under the ‘‘ Gentleman’s Agreement ” of 1907 freedom was given to the Japanese yovt. to issue passports to Japanese labourers who had been resident in the United States before the conclusion of the agreement and were seeking re-entry, and also Lo parents, wives

and minor children of Japanese already resident in the country, but the Japanese Govt. pledged itself not to issue passports to all other Japanese nationals seeking entry into the United States as labourers. This pledge appears on the whole to have been loyally observed by the Japanese Govt., but in practice it afforded certain loopholes for evasion; the number of Japanese residents continued to rise steadily and the agitation in California against their entry increased. The Gentleman’s Agreement was superseded by the Immigration Act of r924, which declared that no “ alien ineligible to citizenship ”?” should be admitted to permanent residence in the United States with the exception of certain specified categories, comprising approximately the classes contemplated under the Gentleman’s Agreement. It was decided by the Supreme Court that all aliens who are not white and of European origin or black and of African origin—.e., essentially all Asiatics—are incligible to citizenship, excepting those specifically exempted by the Act itself. The political effect of this measure was profound. It substituted a unilateral action based on domestic legislation for

an international agreement, and Japanese national honour was wounded by an action which directly discriminated against the Oriental races. The Japanese Govt. protested strongly and proposed that Japanese immigration should be regulated like that of other foreign countries by the quota system. ‘This proposal was rejected by the United States Senate, and the discrimination was upheld. After a brief period of acute agitation in Japan excitement subsided, but the problem remains. | In British Columbia, Japanese immigration is still regulated by a Gentleman’s Agreement, but there has grown up an agitation in favour of legislation on the model of that passed in the United States. The British Empire is thus acutely concerned in this question. The British Empire had its own very delicate inter-Imperial problem arising out of the attitude of the populations of certain Dominions towards Indian immigration. Australia views any settlement of Asiatic peoples with disfavour, while in South and East Africa the discrimination in the treatment of Indian nationals under domestic legislation has seriously prejudiced political relations between these countries and India. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Jnternational Emigration Commission (International Labour Office, Geneva, 1921); Emigration and Immigration Legislation (international Labour Office, Geneva, 1922); Monthly Record of Migration, Jan. 1922 to Dec. 1923 (International Labour Office, Geneva, 1924); Hearings Before ihe Committee on Immigration and Natlionalisution (U.S. House of kep., 1924, ctc.); Migration Movements, 1920-3, Studies and Reports, Series O (Migration) No. 1 (International Labour Office, Geneva, 1925); Z. Documenti prepara-

tori e considerazione generali sui Problemi del emigrazione e dell immigrazione. II. Lavori della Conferenza. IH. Atto finale (Conferenza Internazionale dell’ Emigrazione e dell’ Immigrazione, Rome,

1925).

se

See also: E Ferenczi, Rapport sur Le Chémage et les Migrations internationales des Travailleurs, presented to the Comité internationale de Association internationale pour la lutte contre fe chômage (Ghent, 1912); also Die Arbetilosigkeit und die internationalen Arbeiterwanderunsen (Jena, 1913}; also Pre internationale Wanderungfrage uid die Statistik (1913), D. Schafer, Kolantalgeschichte (1921); A. Girault, Principes de colonisation et de législation coloniale, 4th ed. (Paris, 1921, etc.); A. H. Snow, The Question of Aborigines, etc. (New York-London, 1921); J. W. Jenks and W. J. Lanck, The Immigration Problem (New York, 1922); T. Chen, Chinese Migrations, with Special Reference to Labor Conditions (Washington, 1923); G. Pertile, La rivolusione nelle leggi dell’ enn‘grazione (1923); C. Cesari, Colonie e possedimenti coloniali. Cenni storici e geografici, 2nd ed. (Rome, 1923); P. C. Campbell, Chinese Coolie Emigration to Countries within the British Empire (1924); "“ Emigrant,” “ Indian Emigration,” India of To-day, vol. 5 (1924); Hl. Key, European Bankruptcy and Emigration (1924); E. Pittard, “Tes Races et I’Histoire,” J’ Evolution dhumanité, Sec. 1, vol. 5 (1924); L. Saavedra, Trattés internationaux de type social (1924); J. W. Gregory, The Menace of Colour (1925); Sir L. Chiozza Money, The Peril of the White (1925); A. M. MacLean, Modern Immigration (Philadelphia-London, 1925); M. Paon L’imuiigration en France (1926).

MIHALACHE, ION born March 3 1882, village school teacher of the Village School

(I. Fr.)

(1882j), Rumanian politician, was of a poor peasant family. He became a and distinguished himself as an organiser Teachers’ Federation, of which he was

MILAN—MILK eventually appointed president.

AND

In ror4 he entered politics, and

after the World War founded the Peasant (Tsaranist) party first in Bessarabia, and then extended its organisation to the rest of the country. In the first elections held after the War in 1910, the Peasant party won 70 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and Mihalache was appointed Minister of Agriculture in the VaidaVoevod Cabinet, which office he held until March 1920, when Vaida-Voevod resigned with the entire Cabinet. Mihalache distinguished himself during the World War in which he served with the rank of captain. In addition to the highest Rumanian military decoration (Michacl-the-Brave) he was awarded the Legion of Honour, the Order of St. Stanislas and other foreign decorations. MILAN (sce 18.437), the second largest town in Italy and the most progressive commercially and industrially, had a population of 712,844 in 1921. The old quarters are giving way to blocks of new buildings, and the circumference of the city in 1926 was about cight miles. Barracks have been erected and exercise grounds made outside. The manufacture of motor-cars and artificial silk are growing industries. A free university was opened in 1924. In 1918 the royal palace to the south of the cathedral was presented to the municipality by the Crown. The Home of Rest for musicians, established by Verdi, has been transformed into a Verdi Museum, and a statue of the composer was unveiled in front of itin 1913. The Museo del Teatro, opened in the building of the famous Della Scala theatre in 1913, contains a collection relating to its history. A larger station, fronting the Piazza Doria, to replace the central railway station, was under construction in 1926.

MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839-1025), American (see 18.442), died at Washington, D.C., May rg 1025. MILFORD

HAVEN,

LOUIS

ALEXANDER,

soldicr

ist MARQUESS

OF

(1854-1921), British sailor, was born at Gratz May 24 1854, the eldest son of Prince Alexander of Hesse, by his morganatic marriage with the Russian Countess, Julie Thérése von Haucke. As Prince Louis of Battenberg he was naturalised as a British subject in 1868 and entered the royal navy in the same year. In 1884 he married Princess Victoria, daughter of the Grand Duke Louis LV. of ITesse. From 189t to 1894 he was naval adviser to the inspector-general of fortifications and in 1900 was appointed

assistant director of naval intelligence at the Admiralty, being made director in 1902. In ro04 he was promoted rear-admiral and after serving as second in command in the Mediterranean was made vice-admiral in r908. After commanding the Atlantic and Home Fleets, he was in ror2 appointed First Sea Lord of the Admiralty, but in Oct. 1914 he was compelled to resign from this position owing to public resentment at his German origin, which persisted in spite of his fine record of service. In 1917 he relinquished his German title, assumed the surname of Mountbatten and was elevated to the peerage as marquess of Milford Haven. In the following year he retired from the active list of

the navy.

He became an admiral of the fleet in 1921 and died

on Sept. 11 of the same year. MILITARY RAILWAYS: see LIGHT RAILWAYS, MILITARY. MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS.—The dairy industry is in many countries the chief agricultural industry and in all countries is of the utmost importance to agriculturists. The fact that this is recognised by agriculturists themselves is evident from the rapid expansion in some countries of the dairy herds. The following statistics give some indication of such expansion and of the state of the industry in various countries:— Tue

PRopucTION

or

MILK

Great Britain.—In 1924 the total milk production was approximately 1,300 million gal. (less milk used for calf rearing), Of this, 600 million gal. were consumed as liquid milk; 500 million gal. were consumed in the manufacture of butter and cheese; 35 million as condensed milk and 61 million as cream, etc. The dairy herd numbered 3,111,000. Australia —In 1921, 267 million Ib. of butter and 323 million Ib. of cheese were produced. The dairy herd numbered 2,343,221, with an average production per cow of 343 gallons. Canada.—In 1921, 2363 million Ib. of butter and 149} million tb. of cheese were produced. The dairy herd numbered 3,736,832.

DAIRY

PRODUCTS

913

New Zealand.—In 1924, 713 million Ib. of butter and 161 million Ib. of cheese were exported. Vhe dairy herd numbered 1,291,000. fnited Stutes.---In 1923 the total milk production was 109,736 million Ib., of which 54.614 million Ib. were consumed as liquid milk. 39,306 million lb. were consumed in the manufacture of butter, anil 12,714 million tb. in the manufacture of cheese, condensed miik,

ice cream, etc. Phe dairy herd on Jan. I 1924 numbered 24,675,000, but this number had decreased in 1925 to 20,965,423.

Argentine.— In 1918, 41,863,000 lb., of butter and 14,177,000 lb. of cheese were exported. The dairy herd numbered 2,375,000.

Denmark Denmark is the main European exporting country of dairy products. In 1921, 199,500,000 lb. of butter were exported;

the dairy herd numbered 1,184,268. Tue

CONSUMPTION

OF MILK

The consumption of milk and dairy products varies as much as production. Ina survey of 68 American cities which have populations of over 100,000, the consumption of tluid milk was found to be -66 pt. per head daily. In re24,in the New York Metropolitan district, where there is a population of about 8-7 million the consumption per head was -75 pt. daily, an increase of 85° during the preceding 30 vears, due largely to improved quality. The following statistics collected by the United States Department of Agriculture give the annual average consumption per head of liquid milk, butter and cheese in various countrics:— Annual Consumption per head of liquid milk (in American Gallons). Denmark in 1914 68-5 gal. America in 1925 Canada in T916 . ; ; United Kingdom in 1918.

i :

; ; :

;

’

; ; ;

. . .

53 26 22

gal gal gal

277 Beebo BP I9 97 16 1-8

Aly. lly

Annual Consumption per head of butter. Canada Jnin IYI Australia in I913 : : . À . New Zealand in 1914 : ; > Denmark in 1914 ; United Kingdom in I19t4. ; s United States in 1919 f ; : . . . Argentine! in 1915. : : A : $ Annual Consumption per head of cheese. Denmark, ; . ; . United Kingdom United States Australia ; : : : : . : i Canada . : ; ‘ ‘ f New Zealand . : i ; : ; Argentine ! Factory butter only. Production and Consumption tn Great Britain.—It from the figures given above of the consumption of

Ib. tb. Ib. Ib.

12:3 Tb. 11-2 lb. 42 1b. 3:63 Íb. 3 lb. 3 lb. 2-9 lb.

will be seen milk in the various countries that Great Britain’s consumption 1s low com-

pared with that of other nations. In 1918 the returns of the consumption of liquid milk were obtained through the local food control committees and it was found that these varied from as low as o-10 pt. in Inverness to 0-31 pt. in London, an average for the whole area being 0-25 pint per head per day. Actual consumption would be above these figures as milk produced and consumed on farms does not appear, whereas the figures include the total population. The London figures would be approximately correct but the production of milk in Great Britain in recent years has not kept pace with the increase in the human population nor with the demand by the latter for milk products. This is shown by the following table extracted from the report of the Astor committee:— 187I

1914

Increased Percentage

Population. . ; . 26,100,000 | 41,700,000 Numbers of cows and heifers 2,091,000 | 2,937,000 WWeight of cheese imported; cwt.| 1,216,400 | 2,373,091 Butter imported; cwt. Margarine imported; cwt. Condensed milk imports; cwt. Dried milk imports; cwt.

Total weight Imported 1! No separate 2 No separate

of Dairy produce -cwt .

3,882,116 1,501,520 771,239 30,601

60 40 95 304 he 128 o

2,903,515 | 8,558,567

235

1,334.783'| oe 252.3327 P

statistics for butter and margarine before 1888. statistics for condensed or dried milk before 1588.

MILK

914

AND

DAIRY

The relative consumption of milk in Great Britain is much lower than is desirable in the national interest. This is probably due to the fact that it is known that the quality, as regards cleanliness, has been gravely defective and there is no doubt that the larger consumption in other countries is primarily due to a cleaner supply. During the past few years, however, there has been a distinct improvement in the methods both of production and distribution in Great Britain, and as a result it is safe to say that the consumption of milk is gradually increasing and there can be little doubt but that the educational work which has been carried on since 1915 is beginning to have its desired effect. Imports of Dairy Produce Into Great Britain.—The value of dairy produce imported into the United Kingdom has also steadily risen for the last 50 years until in ror4 it reached a total of £38,000,000. Of this over {27,000,000 was paid to Denmark and Russia for butter and Holland for cream, cheese and condensed milk, whilst the balance, amounting to over £10,000,000, was paid to Australia and New Zealand for butter and to Canada and New Zealand for cheese. It will therefore be seen that Great Britain is anything but self-supporting in its dairy industry whilst many other countries have an exportable surplus. The reasons for the relative importance of dairying probably dilfer from country to country but in addition to any particular reasons which any country may have there has undoubtedly been a widespread recognition in most lands of the great value of the dairy cow as a producer of human food. As land, labour and feeding stufis have increased in price, the dairy cow has more and more displaced the strictly meat-producing farm animals as an economical agent for the conversion into human food of those field crops which are not suitable for direct human consumption. PURITY OF SUPPLIES

Importance of Afilk as a Food.—Most dietetic authorities are satisfied that milk is the most important individual foodstuff and that an abundant supply of milk of good quality is an important factor in the health of a nation, and especially of city dwellers. Milk contains all the nutritive constitutents required by the body—proteins, fats and carbohydrates—in a readily assimilable form, and possesses special properties which promote growth and maintain the body in a healthy condition. It is therefore a valuable food for all classes of the community and especially for children. These special qualities in milk were first

made known by Prof. F. G. Hopkins of Cambridge and have since been the subject of research by numerous investigators, notably Professors T. B. Osborne and L. B. Mendell of Yale University and Prof. E. V. McCollum of Johns Hopkins University. The exact nature and composition of these growthpromoting substances or vitamins is at present unknown, but their existence is inferred from the effects produced in respect of growth and health by feeding animals on special and carefully controlled diets. Investigations into this subject indicate the existence of at least three vitamins, all of which are present in milk. These have been termed: (1) The ricket-preventing vitamin (or fat soluble A) which is necessary to promote growth and to prevent rickets in young animals.! The fat of cream and butter are amongst the richest known sources of this vitamin. (2) The anti-neuritic vitamin (or water soluble B) which is also necessary to promote growth, and in addition is essential to prevent the occurrence of the disease known as beri-beri. This vitamin is found in the germ and in the bran or outer layers of certain grains and in milk. (3) The scurvy-preventing vitamin. This vitamin is found in fresh, untreated cow’s milk and in fresh fruits and vegetables. There is no evidence that heating of milk destroys the vitamins described in (1) and (2), above. The scurvy-preventing vitamin (3), above, is however sensitive to exposure to heat, and therefore dried, pasteurised, boiled or condensed milk may be regarded as inferior in varying degrees to raw milk in scurvy-preventing properties. Skimmed or separated milk is deficient in the ricketpreventing vitamin referred to in (1), above, and the development 1E, Mellanby, Jour. Lancet, March 15 1919.

Phys. Proceedings,

52, 11 and 12, 1918;

PRODUCTS

of rickets may follow from its extended use in the feeding of young children unless the deficiency be made good. Attention may here be called to the inferiority in this respect of margarine to butter as a source of fat in the diet of growing children. Margarine is, as a rule, manufactured largely from vegetable oils. These are deficient in the ricket-preventing vitamin and the nutritive value of margarine made from such oil is therefore inferior to the nutritive value of butter. Although vegetable fats and oils are deficient in this vitamin which is also essential to growth, yet the green parts of plants are the chief ultimate source of this vitamin. For this reason the diet of cows, especially of those whose milk is to be used for infant feeding, should contain an abundance of the green parts of plants and there is evidence’ showing that the milk given by cows in the summer, when the diet consists of fresh, green pasture, is richer in vitamins than in winter when the chief foods are hay, straw, roots and concentrates.

Need for Healthy Cattle —Healthy cattle are the first requisite for a safe milk supply. Physical inspection by a competent veterinary surgeon will go far towards the elimination of those cows suffering from obvious disease but cannot be relied upon for anything like complete protection. The tuberculin test is more searching with reference to this particular disease. There are only two practical ways in which tuberculosis may be eradicated from a herd, namely, (1) the slaughter of all reactors; (2) the isolation of reactors and the separation after birth of calves born of reacting cows. Both methods raise many practical difficulties and it is therefore worth noting that the English Ministry of Agriculture has reintroduced the tuberculosis order giving compensation for cows slaughtered when suffering from this disease. Although it is admitted that a “ considerable amount of tuberculosis of childhood is to be ascribed to infection

with bacilli of the bovine type transmitted to children tn meals consisting largely of the milk of the cow,’ at the same time it is not desirable to create unnecessary alarm by exaggerating the extent of human tuberculosis due to bovine infection. There can be little doubt that much infantile debility, leading te susceptibility to many diseases, including tuberculosis, is due to inadequate milk consumption. All reacting cows do not necessarily give tuberculous milk, and risk from tuberculous milk may be negatived by efficient pasteurisation (see Lancet, Jan. 30 1926). Milk Grading Rules —There is no question that the adoption in America of the principle of grading milk has resulted in a great improvement in the general supply. As supplied under the regulations of New York City four grades of milk are permitted. Grade A Raw includes the so-called certified milk which is produced under permit and certification by the county medical association. It also includes any other milk meeting the requirements, the principal requirement being the tuberculin test. The other grades do not require tuberculin tests and have progressively less stringent requirements as to bacteria] content (taken as a measure of general cleanliness), cooling and age. Grade B is not recommended for children but is considered safe for adults. Grade C is sold to bakers and others for use in cooking. The effect of the grading rules, under which the producer receives more money for the higher grades, has been to raise the general standard of the city supply without arbitrarily cutting off the lower grades from their proper market.

In England the grading of milk has also been adopted, and table on p. or5 gives the standards required under the terms of the Milk Special Designations Order, 1923, for the various designations which it is illegal to use in connection with the sale of milk except under licence granted by or under the authority of the Minister of Health. The clean milk competitions which have taken place in Great Britain have had a very great influence in improving the production of milk and the standard of production is probably as high in Great Britain as elsewhere. The first clean milk competition was held in Essex in 1920, and in 1925 no fewer than 33 counties 2 Barnes and Hume, and the Lancet of Aug. 23 1919. 3 Report of the royal commission appointed to inquire into the relation of children to animal tuberculosis, 1911, p. 39.

MILLAY

915

British Definitions of Grades of Milk Bacterial content

Maximum number of bacilli per cubic centimeter

Designation

Herds

Certified

‘ | Puberculin tested and

physically examined Grade A Tuber-| at regular intervals culin Tested 9 |———_________ Cuberculin tested and physically examined at regular intervals

Absent

30,000

L100 Absent in cubic centimeter

Physically examined at regular intervals

Pasteurised |

|

in riro cubic

centimeter

200,000 Grade A

Other conditions

Coliform bacillus

i Bottled on the farm, name of farm, day of production and word “ Certified '’ on each battle cap :

a

ce

Delivered to consumers in (a) the bottles or the sealed containers as received from the farm; ($) suitable containers of not less than two gallons capacity; (c) bottles with the name of the dealer by whom the milk was bottled, the address of the licensed bottling establishment, the day of production and the words ‘‘ Grade A Tuberculin Tested ” or “ Grade A” on each bottle cap

r

Mik

TPasteurised

Grade A milk that after pasteurisation, as required by the Minister of Health, contains not more than 30,000 bacilli per | cubic centimeter and no coliform bacillus in 1/10 cubic centimeter. All other conditions as required for Grade A milk |

Pasteurised

Any milk that after pasteurisation, as required by the Minister of Health, contains not more than per cubic centimeter, No requirement lor boitling

Grade A

undertook such competitions.

More would have done so had

it not been for the outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease.

TuE DISTRIBUTION or MILK While improvements in production have taken place during the last few years methods of distribution have also shown progression, and this has been due mainly to two factors—pasteurisation and bottling. Pasteurisation.—No reasonable amount of inspection or laboratory control over a raw milk supply can provide a suficient safeguard against the transmission of discase through milk. This fact is emphasised by milk-borne epidemics which have their sources in carriers or unrecognised cases of disease—hence the use of pasteurisation. Pastcurised milk has now been defined by the Ministry of Health as milk which has been heated to a temperature of not less than 145°F and held at that temperature for at least 30 min. and afterwards immediately cooled. The American cities, however, have adopted a minimum temperature of 142° F for 30 minutes. If milk be overheated the line of demarcation between the cream and the milk becomes indefinite and the milk is then less attractive to the consumer. Pasteurisation must never be regarded as a substitute for clean milk production and cleanliness in handling milk, which are the most important of all conditions affecting the milk supply, yet it does give an added safeguard to the consumer in protecting him from hose diseases which may be milk-borne from human sources. Botiling.—The second most important advance made in distribution is the delivery of milk in sealed bottles. The improvement in delivery resulting from this method will be still more marked when the present draft order, made by the Minister of Health under the powers of the 1925 Milk and Dairies Act, forbidding the bottling of milk elsewhere than in a properly equipped dairy, becomes law. There is still room for the education of milk producers, milk distributors and consumers, and the continuance of clean milk competitions is of the greatest importance as a means of educating the farmer to the necessity of (a) healthy and clean cows, (6) healthy and clean milkers, (c) properly sterilised equipment and (d) covered milking pails. The need for the provision of free instruction to the general public of the value of milk as a food, the influence of a good or bad supply of milk on the life and health of children and the community as a whole, and the best methods of handling and

storing milk in a consumer’s home, is still urgent. Had the general public been educated in the past in this respect there would now probably be a greater demand for milk, produced and handled under better conditions, and, with the demand, a willingness to pay for milk of guaranteed cleanliness. Such educational work should be on the principle of enlightening, and not frightening the general public.

100,000

baciili |

Condensed and Evaporated Alilk—Sweetened condensed milk, the condensed milk of commerce, is officially defined in the United States as the production resulting from the evaporation of a part of the water from whole milk. Jt must not contain less than 28°% of milk solids, including not less than 8% of milk fat. It usually contains about 40% of added cane sugar. Evaporated milk or unsweetened condensed milk must contain not less than 25°5°% of total solids including 7-8°% of fat and no added sugar. In Great Britain, under statutory rules and orders made by the Minister of Health, full-cream unsweetened condensed milk must

contain 31% of milk solids including not less than 99% of milk fat. Full-cream sweetened condensed milk must contain the same percentage of milk solids and of milk fat. Skimmed unsweetened must contain 20%) of milk solids and skimmed sweetened 26%, while all skimmed milk must be labelled “ unfit for babies.” The amount of imports of condensed and evaporated milk into Great Britain has increased from 26? million pounds in 1888 to 251 million pounds in 1925 and, unfortunately, a very large proportion of this increase is due to the importation of condensed skimmed milk.

Dried Milk or Milk Powder—Dried milk or milk powder is a dehydrated product of milk containing about 5% of moisture. It is used as a substitute for milk in the kitchen and extensively by bakers and confectioners. Either whole milk or skimmed may be desiccated, but the skimmed milk powder will keep almost indefinitely, whereas the whole milk powder has a tendency to

become rancid.

It is reported that in most processes of manu-

facture this difficulty has been overcome. The milk is evaporated upon revolving metal drums, internally heated, or by being sprayed into a chamber through which hot air is blown. The

drum processes are carried out however at normal atmospheric pressure or in partial vacuum. In Great Britain dried milk is subject to the following requirements: milk described as dried full-cream milk must contain not less than 26°, of mulk fat. Milk described as dried #-cream milk must contain not less than 20%, milk described as dried 4-cream milk must contain not less than 14% and milk described as dried ł-cream milk must contain not less than 8%. BIRLIOGRAPHY.— International

Crop

Report

and

Agricultural

Statistics (Rome, monthly). See also the official statistics of Great Britain, the United States, Australia, Canada, Denmark, ete. (E. B. Pu.; A. D. A.)

MILLAY, EDNA ST. VINCENT (1892-

), American author,

was born at Rockland, Me., Feb. 22 1892, and was educated at Vassar, graduating in 1917. Her work, distinguished by delicacy of sentiment, placed her in the front rank of American contemporary poets. She was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1923 for her poem The Harpwearer.

MILLER, JOAQUIN—MILLERAND

QIO She published

Renascence and Other

Poems

(1917),

Figs from

regard to the application of the Treaty of Versailles; and in order to force Germany to fulfil her obligations, he ordered the provisional occupation of Frankfort. He was present at the inter(1923); Lamp and the Bell (1923); and Disiressing Dialogues (1924). allied conferences at San Remo and Spa, in April and July 1920, MILLER, JOAQUIN (1811~-1913), American poet (sce 18.464), and in Aug. of the same year he met Mr. Lloyd George at died at Oakland, Cal., Feb. 17 1913. In compliance with his last Ilythe. The situation in regard to Poland, who had been atwishes his body was cremated and the ashes taken up into the tacked by the Bolsheviks, now became grave, and M. Millerand Sierras and cast to the winds. therefore sent to Warsaw a contingent of French officers under MILLER, OSKAR VON (1855), German engineer, was General Weygand. With this assistance the Poles gained a combornin Munich May 7 1855. After studying electrical technology plete victory over the Bolsheviks. M. Millerand about this time he became director of the Deutsche Edison Gesellschaft (German officially recognised the anti-Bolshevik government of Gen. Edison Companv) from which developed the Allgemeine ElekWrangel, who was soon after completely defeated. In France trizitits Gesellschaft (the A.E.G., or General Electric Co.). itself, in May 1920, he frustrated various attempts, especially He advocated the full utilisation of electricity by means of by the railwaymen, to organise revolutionary strikes. propaganda in connection with long distance cables, and wrote In Sept. 1920 M. Deschanel, President of the Republic, was articles on the supplying of towns with electricity (1896-1903). forced by ill-health to resign. M. Millerand was elected as his He was director of the electrical exhibition, Frankfort-on-thesuccessor, and out of 892 votes cast, no fewer than 605 were Main, held in 189r when the first high tension alternating given in his favour. During his candidature, he made it known current power-transmission apparatus was installed. The transthat if he were elected, he intended to exert a more powerful inmission was accomplished over a distance of r80km. Grom Lauffen fluence on the policy of the Government than his predecessors on the Neckar to Frankfort) and with only 25% loss. These had dene. He refused to admit that his office of President forced exneriments were of the highest importance in the development | him to comply with a tradition of which he disapproved, by reof modern electric-technology. He promoted the development maining absolutely neutral in politics. He made it clear that he of Bavarian water power as well as a systematic electric supply intended to watch closely the foreign policy of the Government, for that country, and was the founder and organiser of the and made no secret of his wish to strengthen the power of the German museum for natural and technical science in Munich. President by a revision of the constitution which would modify MILLERAND, ALEXANDRE (i8s59), French politician the conditions of his election; and he put his ideas into practice, (see 18.463). M. Millerand, now onlya private member, threw by frequently intervening in diplomatic negotiations. During himself into his work as a barrister, and appeared in many im- the inter-allied conference at Cannes in Jan. 1922 he despatched portant civil cases. In the Chamber he was a fierce opponent a telegram expressing dissatisfaction at the conduct of affairs, of the Combes ministry, which succeeded that of Waldeckwhich caused M. Briand to return to Paris, and, in fact, brought Rousseau; for he objected to its narrow and fanatical anti- about his resignation. Working on the same lines, he summoned clericalism. In July r909 he became Minister of Public Works in to the Lysée the prefects, or chief administrative officers of each M. Briand’s first Cabinet, his principal achievement at this time department from all over France. In a powerful speech at Evreux being the re-organisation of*the state railways. Together with in the Spring of 1923 he declared that he would not agree to M. Briand he took strong measures to suppress the railway strike the re-introduction of the scrufin d’arrondissement, and showed marked favour to the adherents of the bloc national, who had of Oct. rgr0. In Jan. ro12 he was appointed Minister of War under M. Poincaré. His promotion surprised no one, for he had been in the majority in the Chamber since the elections of Nov. ro1g, and against whom the radicals and socialists were then always taken a keen interest in questions of military organisation; carrying on a campaign of public meetings. and when the menace of Germany increased, he devoted himself M. Millerand’s conception of the rôle of President of the Reto strengthening the national defences. He re-organised the higher command, and by the Act of May 29 1912 he gave a defi- public brought him into collision with the radical and socialist nite status to military aeronautics for the first time. In Jan. majority, which, under the name of the cartel des gauches, was successful in the elections of May 11 1924. He was violently 1913 a personal incident brought about his retirement. On Aug. 25 1914 he was invited by M. Viviani to take the place of attacked by the radical socialist press, which accused him of M. Messimy as Minister of War; and during the terrible situa- having exceeded his powers by intervening in the party struggle, tion which then prevailed he had constantly to take the initia- and called for his resignation. M. Herriot, the leader of the tive, for example, in attempting to remedy as far as possible the cartel des gauches, when asked by M. Millerand to succeed M. shortage of munitions. He was accused, however, of being too Poincaré as Premier, announced that he would do so only on M. Millerand’s resignation. The latter replied that he had been slow in providing the necessary heavy artillery, and he resigned elected for seven years, and that the altcration of the party in with the other members of the Viviani cabinet at the end of Oct. 1915. In rgr8 he was elected a member of the Académie des power could in no way affect his constitutional position nor abrogate his rights. But he made it clear that he had not the sciences, morales et politiques. slightest intention of obstructing the new Government, and A few months after the conclusion of hostilities, on March 21 1919, M. Millerand was appointed commissioner general for that its leader could count on his impartiality. M. Herriot, however, remained immovable; and M. Millerand therefore invited Alsace-Lorraine. The problem of reuniting with the mothercountry two provinces which had been torn from her in 187: the Senator M. Francois-Marsal, who had been his Minister was a most serious one. For so years they had been under an of Finance in 1920, to form a Cabinet. M. Francois-Marsal declared in the Chamber that the attacks on M. Millerand were administration widely different from that of France. A period of transition, therefore, was essential, alike from the point of contrary to the constitution, and that it was in order to uphold the latter that he had agreed to take office. His Government, view of political expediency, administration, economics and however, was immediately defeated; and M. Millerand tendered finance. The first French officials sent to Strasbourg had not been equal to their task; and for this reason it was essential to his resignation, protesting meanwhile against the illegality of the appoint a statesman of eminent authority with power to act, action taken against him. The attitude of the party in power dissatisfied the Senate, which, as a result, voted with the opposiwho would keep in constant touch with the Government. This tion and elected M. Doumergue as M. Millerand’s successor, post was filled by M. Millerand with complete success. In an instead of M. Painlevé, the candidate of the cartel des gauches. important speech delivered in Paris on Nov. 15 1919, on the eve Some months later through a by-election, M. Millerand was of the elections, he outlined the policy of the coalition which, elected Senator for the department of the Seine. He then became under the name of the bloc ational, was returned to power. On president of a group formed to denounce the policy of the cartel the resignation of M. Clemenceau, Jan. 18 1920, M. Millerand des gauches throughout the country. His success as an orator was chosen to form a Cabinet, and became both Prime Minister (P. B.) and Minister for Foreign Affairs. His main activities were in was apparent both in the courts and in Parliament. Thisties (1920); Second April Slatterus and a King (1921);

(1921); Aria da Capo The Larp-Weaver and

(1921); Two Other Poems

MILLET—MILNER MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846-1912), American painter (see 18.466), was drowned in the “ Titanic ”? disaster April 15 IQI2. MILLIKAN, ROBERT ANDREWS (1868y, American physicist, was born at Morrison, IN., March 22 1868, and received his education at Oberlin College CA.B., 1801; A.M., 1893)

But, though he took up a somewhat detached attitude with re-

where he was instructor in physics 1891-3. He then proceeded to Columbia University (Ph.D., 1895), and the universities of

of imperialism were well received. He was roused, however, by Mr. Lloyd George’s budget of tgo9, and he advised the House of Lords to reject the Finance Bill, and, as he said at Glasgow, to ‘damn the consequences.” He made several speeches in the

Berlin and Gottingen (1895-6). In 1896 he was appointed assistant in physics at the University of Chicago, with which institution he continued to be associated for the next 25 years in the

,

1 t

O17

department of physics, being professor from 1910 to 1921. In 192r he became director of the Norman Bridge laboratory of physics and chairman of the executive council of the California Institute of Technology at Pasadena, California. He was vicechairman of the National Research Council, Washington, D.C., in rot7, and chief of the science and research division of the Signal Corps, U.S.A., with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In 1922 he was the first exchange lecturer to Belgium on the C.R.B. Foundation. The best known of his researches were the “ oil drop ” experiments, undertaken with the view of making measurements of fundamental electrical quantity. They proved conclusively that all electrons are alike. He also undertook researches into

photoelectric effect. Later research of his has tended definitely to bridge the gap between light and X-ray phenomena. Jle was awarded

the Nobel

Prize in physics in 1923

for his work

in

isolating and measuring the electron, and in making the first exact photoelectric determination of the hght-quant. In the same year he received the Edison Medal for especially meritorious work in the field of electricity, and the Hughes Medal of the Royal Society in recognition of his determination of the electronic charge and other physical constants. (See Puysics.) Millikan was the author of the following, among other works:— Mechanics, Molecular Physics and Heat (1901); Electricity, Sound and Light (1908); The Electron (1917); Practical Physics (1920); Science and Life (1923); in addition to numerous contributions to technical periodicals.

gard to ordinary domestic politics, he was active on behalf of causes which appealed to him from the imperial side; and he made several speeches in different parts of the country in the next few years on behalf of Tariff Reform and Colonial Preference. He paid a visit to Canada, where he himself and his gospel

next 12 months in defence of the Lords’ position; and when the Parliament Bill came up to the House of Lords in rorz, he was a leading spirit among the * Diehards ”’ who advised resistance to the end. He did not take a very prominent part in the opposition to the Irish Home Rule Bill; but he aptly described the state of affairs in Ireland in the early summer of tors as ‘‘ smouldering war,” and he urged the remodelling of the Amending Bill so as to reassure the Ulstermen. The World War confirmed all his fears as to the disadvantages under which Great Britain and the Empire would labour during hostilities through the practice of unlimited Free Trade by the mother-country for over half a century. He gladly accepted in the summer of rors the chairmanship of a committee of technical experts and practical agriculturists, appointed by Lord Selborne as President of the Board of Agriculture, to consider the means of maintaining and increasing food production in England and Wales. The committee reported that farmers should be encouraged to grow more wheat by a guaranteed minimum of 45 s.a quarter for the four years following the harvest of ro16. Mr. Asquith’s Coalition Govt. did not think the situation serious enough for this drastic remedy. Lord Milner became critical of this “ wait and see” attitude; and especially reprobated on several occasions the policy of concealing disagrecable facts. “Truth all round,” he said at Canterbury on Oct. 30 1915,“ is the most fortifying thing in the world;” Englishmen could not brace their nerves and steel their hearts to win through by cmulating the ostrich. Similarly he did his utmost, in April 1916, to induce doubting ministers to accept the policy, which the country demanded, of universal compulsory service, as absolutely

MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832-1011), American legislator (see 18.475), died at Corsicana, Tex., Sept. 2 191r. necessary under the circumstances. MILNE, SIR GEORGE FREDERICK (1866), British genMr. Lloyd George, when he formed his ministry in the followeral, was born Nov. 5 1866 and joined the Royal Artillery in ing Dec., al once turned to this resolute statesman, the 1885. He served in the Nile Expedition of 1808, and the South only British administrator who before 1914 had directed a war African War (1899-1902). In 1913 he became commander of from the civil side, and constituted him one of his principal colthe artillery of the 4th Div., with which he went out to France leagues in his War Cabinet of four (or five including Mr. Bonar in ror4. le was given, in July rors, command of the 27th Div., Law). Considering the attitude of the two men at the time of the which, three months later, he took out to the Salonika theatre. South African war, the offer and acceptance argued magnanimity At the end of the year he was placed in charge of an army corps ! on both sides. From this time to the cessation of hostilities their there. In May 10916 Milne was advanced to the command of , relations were close, and, after Mr. Lloyd George, Lord Milner the British forces in Macedonia, and he occupied this responsible ' took the largest share in the civilian conduct of the War. In position under the orders of three successive French commandersvigour, resolution ancl readiness to take responsibility they rein-chief until the end of the struggle. During the ensuing two sembled each other; but Lord Milner’s experience, scholarship, years, the situation scarcely lent itself to effectual offensive operasteadiness and somewhat bureaucratic habit of mind supplied an tions, and the British military authorities at home were opposed invaluable complement to his chief’s daring, Impatience of preceto the using-up of resources in this theatre. Milne, however, dent, quickness of apprehension and intellectual agility. In filled a difficult position with unfailing tact and sound judgment, Feb. ro17 he attended, on behalf of the British Govt., a conferand, when a general advance at last took place in the autumn ence of the Allies in St. Petersburg (Leningrad), the object of of 1918, after Bulgarian powers of resistance had waned, the which was to improve the co-ordination in the prosecution of the forces under his personal command contributed appreciably to Var between the Government of the Tsar (then in its last weeks the bringing about of the final victory. He remained in charge of existence) and the Western Powers. of the British forces in the Near Fast and about the Black Sea Tle devoted himself to his duties in the War Cabinet, never makuntil 1920, and on return to England was appointed to the Easting speeches in the country, and seldom in the Ifouse of Lords, ern command. In Feb. 1926 he succeeded Lord Cavan as Chief where his appearances were mostly in explanation of the policy of the Imperial General Staff. Possessed of exceptional strength of the Government in regard to food production and control. of character and decision, an eve so keen in its perception of In June 1917 he announced that ministers had added between weaknesses as to be proverbial in the army, these qualities were 0,000 and 80,000 men to the people available for agricultural blended with a sympathetic understanding of men and a marked work. In Feb. 1918 he vigorously defended Lord Rhondda’s sense of humour. Even more significant, for an era of military administration at the Food Ministry against ignorant criticism, transilion, was his known receptiveness to new ideas. and said that in regard to food Britain was in a better position MILNER, ALFRED MILNER, Viscount (1854-1923), British than any other country except the United States. Except for statesman (see 18.476), occupied himself mainly, after his return what was necessary for the conduct of the War, everything must from South Africa, with business interests in the City of London. give way to food supply. The corn production bill of 1917, and

MILOVANOVIĆ — MILYUKOV

QIS

thesis. On returning home he was appointed professor of interthe acceptance by the Government of the principle of Impcrial Preference, and of the conservation of the raw materials of the national law at Belgrade University and soon acquired the position of one of Serbia’s leading jurists. He was mainly responsible Empire, owed much to his influence and support. He worked for drafting the new Serbian constitution of 1888; and, becoming heartily for inter-Allied co-operation in the conduct of the War, secretary of the central committee of the Radical party, he enand with Mr. Lloyd George attended meetings of the Supreme tered politics and held successively the portfolios of Justice, War Council at Versailles. He was in France as the representaCommerce and Finance during the closing decade of last century. tive of the British Cabinet at the time of the victorious German In 1901 he went to Rome as minister, and retained his post after advance in the last ro days of March 1918; and it was largely the revolution of 1903. In 1907 he represented Serbia at the owing to his influence that Gen. Foch was appointed at Doullens on March 26 Generalissimo of the Allied forces in France. It Second Hague Conference, and was appointed a member of the being vital to have a man of unusual capacity and vigour at the international court of arbitration. In July 1908 he was made loreign Minister in the Vetimirovié Cabinet, and thus had to War Office in this critical spring of t918, Lord Milner was given the seals of Secretary of State for War on April 19; and it was he. guide Serbian policy through the diflicult period of the Bosnian who presided over the Army Council during the succeeding annexation crisis. In rorr he succeeded Pasié as Premier, and, being less of a parmonths of the year which ended with victory. In the reconstruction of the Ministry after the general election, ty man than his old Radical colleagues, was able to bridge many Lord Milner left the War Office and became Colonial Secretary, gaps, and to acquire within a short space of time a unique posia position for which his lifelong interest in the Empire peculiarly tion among the politicians of Serbia. Even in foreign politics he qualified him. In that capacity he attended the Paris Peace Conshowed signal moderation, and though a confirmed Russophd, ference as one of the British plenipotentiaries, and was a signainiliated negotiations for a commercial treaty with Austria-Fluntory to the Treaty of Versailles; and he subsequently helped to gary and actively favoured good relations with Turkey. He was deal with a number of difficult questions arising under the treaty one of the chief founders of the Balkan League, the decisive step out of the disposal of the German colonies conquered in war. But towards the creation of which was taken at a meeting between his colleagues utilised his services also in other directions. His Milovanovié and the Bulgarian Premier, Gueschov, on Oct. 11 financial authority was invoked to defend ministerial finance 19gir. Secret negotiations continued throughout the winter and in the House of Lords; and when a serious revolutionary led to the conclusion of the Serbo-Bulgarian Treaty of March 13 outbreak took place in Egypt in 1919, he was sent there, as the 1912 (see SERBIA). Discussions were still pending between the author of England in Egypt (1892), at the head of a spectal misvarious Balkan capitals for a more precise and comprehensive sion to inquire into the causes, and to report on the form of conproject of alliance when, on July 1 ro12 at Belgrade, Dr. Milostitution best calculated to promote Egyptian peace and prospervanovié died suddenly of heart failure. His removal at so critical ity. The mission arrived at Cairo in Dec. and remained till a juncture was a grave blow to the cause of peace and moderation, March; then in the summer of rozo Lord Milner and his col- and also deprived Serbia of her ablest statesman since the death leagues had long conferences with Zaghlul Pasha, the leader of of Prince Michael. the Nationalists, in London; and ultimately in Nov. they MILWAUKEE, Wis., U.S.A. (sce 18.492), had a population in issued a memorandum recommending the recognition of Egyp1920 of 457,147 (100 males to 100 females); in 1925 the census tian independence. Great Britain was to guarantee the integrity bureau estimate was 509,192. If suburbs within ro m. are inof Egypt against aggression; she would have a privileged position cluded the total for the metropolitan district is over 600,000. in Egypt and would maintain a garrison in the canal zone. The Between toto and 1920 the number of negroes, though still capitulations were to be abolished, and the veto on legislation comparatively small (2,229), increased 127°; the number of affecting foreigners would be vested in the High Commissioner. foreign-born decreased slightly, to 110,068, of whom 309,771 were The new constitution, of which these were to be the principal born in Germany and 23,060 in Poland. Natives of Germany features, had not yet been adopted when Lord Milner, who had constituted only 8-7%% of the total population in 1920, as comonly accepted: office because of the national need, resigned in pared with 18-96 in 1900. Feb. to2r, and his great services were fittingly recognised by the The assessed valuation of all taxable property in the city had Order of the Garter. Before the end of the month he married risen to $810,509,504 in 1925, more than four times the figure 20 Lady Edward Cecil, the widow of Lord Edward Cecil, formerly years earlier. Adding to this the value of property exempt from Miss Violet Maxse. taxation (about $144,000,000) and of public utilities assessed by Lord Milner returned to his business interests in the city, and the Wisconsin ‘Tax Commission (about $102,000,000), a total during the remaining four years of his life, though he took an value for all real estate and assessable personal property of over active part in the work of the Rhodes Trust, and also published 1,000 million dollars was indicated. Ranking 13th in population his views (Questions of the Zour, 1923), he only once showed any among the cities of the United States in 1920, Milwaukee ranked disposition to resume public work. When Mr. Baldwin, in the t2th in the value of its manufactured products in 191g and 11th autumn of 1923, boldly appealed to the country for a mandate to

introduce Protection, Lord Milner accepted the chairmanship of a committee to advise the Government as to the proposed tariff. As the electorate rejected Protection, the committee proved abortive.

In the winter of 1924-5 Lord and Lady Milner

paid a private visit to South Africa, where he renewed old friendships and received a warm welcome from those’who appreciated the great services which he had rendered to that country. Shortly after his return he was attacked by sleeping sickness and died on May 13 1925 at his residence Sturry Court, near Canterbury. His death coincided with his unopposed election to the chancellorship of his old university, Oxford; and funeral services in Canterbury Cathedral and Westminster Abbey gave expression to the public sorrow and respect.

There was found among his

papers, and published shortly after his death, an impressive document containing his Credo (1925). (G. E. B.) MILOVANOVIC, MILOVAN (1863-1912), Serbian statesman and diplomatist, was born at Belgrade on March 2 1863, and was educated there and in Paris, where he was the first Serb to take

his degree as doctor of law and was awarded a gold medal for his

in 1923 ($576,161,000 and $514,501,065 respectively, compared with $208,324,000 in r90q), leading all others in the production of cranes and hoists, large shovels, excavators and dredges,

steam and water turbines, large hydraulic electric units, and ore crushers and many other kinds of machinery, stockings, wheelbarrows and work-shoes. Progress in planning included the preparation of a comprehensive (1917), the enactment of zoning ordinances (1920 and 1924),

rock silk city plan and the acquisition by the city of the greater part of the lake front and of land for a civic centre. Effect of Prohibition.—The large brewing industry was dissipated by national prohibitory legislation. Some of the companies used part of their plant for manufacturing“ near beer,” ginger ale and other “ soft ” drinks, or leased part of it for other industrial purposes, but a large part of the investment in the breweries was still lying idle in 1926. MILYUKOV, PAUL NIKOLAYEVICH (1859), Russian politician and historian, was born near St. Petersburg (Leningrad) Jan. 27 1859. He studied history and humanities at the University of Moscow, and received the degree of master in

MIMICRY—MINELAYING history for a learned work on the State Economics of Russia in the First Quarter of the 18th Century. His liberal opinions brought him into conflict with the educational authorities, and he was dismissed in 18095 after one of the ever-recurrent university “riots.” After the meetings of the Zemstvos in 1905 he became the political editor of an important liberal paper, the Retch, and took an active part in the formation of the Constitutional Democratic party (Cadets). Milyukov became the leader of that party, although he was not elected a member of the first or the second Duma. When the Tsar dissolved the first Duma he was one of ihe principal prompters of the “ Viborg manifesto,” in which the members of the assembly declared themselves ready to follow the people in resisting arbitrary rule. Milyukov did not sign, however, as he was not a member of the Duma, and escaped the persecution which accompanied the Stolypin reaction. He was elected to the third and the fourth Duma, and played the part of a leader of the opposition, systematically criticising the policy of the Government. When the World War broke out he stood for a policy of national union and active co-operation with the Entente, but the corruption of the War Office drove him into an attitude of increasing hostility. Mulyukov took office in Prince Lvov’s provisional government as minister of foreign affairs. Later he strongly disapproved of Kerensky’s policy, and when the Bolsheviks seized power he escaped to Kiev then occupied by the Germans and gave up the cause of the Allies as lost. After the Armistice Milyukov went to London and subsequently to Paris, where in 1921 he directed a journal (Last News) in which he advocated an alliance with patriotic Socialists. MIMICRY: see COLOURS OF ANIMALS. MINELAYING AND MINESWEEPING.—Explosive contrivances were moored and used against ships, asearly as 1800. It was not, however, until the American Civil War that the sea mine became an accepted weapon of naval warfare; nor did it prove a potent danger to the capital ship until it played an all-important part in the siege of Port Arthur some 4o years later. I. MINELAYING

Amongst the decisions of international conferences at The Hague it was agreed, and ratified by the Great Powers (other than Russia), that mining in war should be limited to operations within territorial waters. The unfortunate result of this was to lull the British Admiralty into a false sense of security, and the mining service thus became a side issue. The German Carbonit mine, used by the Germans throughout the World War had been originally offered to the British Admiralty. It was refused on the plea of expense; and, in its place a mine of about onequarter the cost was manufactured and supplied to the naval service. The Hague agreement was torn to pieces within a few hours of the outbreak of the World War, and as the War progressed the necessity for constant minelaying became evident.

Elements of Mining Warfare-—Three factors are necessary for successful mining warfare—the strategic function, the operation of laying the mines and the technical cfliciency of the mine itself. The first of these factors is woven into the main strategy of a naval war. The stronger fleet, in its anxiety to seek out and destroy its enemy, desires a clear sea; and, to obtain this, must insure that such a means of attrition as the mine is reduced to the utmost. On the other hand, the weaker fleet will use the mine profusely in an endeavour, by attrition, to reach an equality of force: and it will also use this weapon against merchant ships, particularly when they belong to a belligerent dependent on its carriage of foodstuff from overseas. This was the initial stage of naval strategy in the World War; and to some extent it explains the pre-War application of the Germans to mining. The second factor is the operation of laying the mines. To be successtul, this must be governed by the element of surprise, and be expeditiously performed; 1t requires for its purpose a ship of exceptional speed, or one which, by disguise or subterfuge, can carry out the work unmolested. The value of merchant ships for minelaying was recognised, and the Germans had such ships ready at the outbreak of war and speedily augmented the number of them.

AND

MINESWEEPING

919

The third factor is purely one of technique. No type of mine that does not meet the following requirements is efficient. It must be safe until it is laid. When laid, it must take up and maintain its required depth, throughout all kinds of weather, for an appreciable length of time. It must be immune from mechanical failure when required to function. In the interest of all belligerents, it must automatically render itself safe should it break from its moorings. Mines that fail in any of these respects may become a greater danger to friend than to foe. The German Carbonit mine answered these tests except in the last requirement. The early British mine was unfortunately only fully efficient in the last requirement. Considerable importance attaches to the design of a minefield. A simple straight line of mines is easily and quickly laid, but presents little difficulty to the minesweepers once it is located. Lines of mines laid in zigzags, particularly when spaces of water are left clear, present the greatest difficulty to removal. On the other hand, such patterns will necessarily cover a larger sheet of water, and will require very accurate plotting, if subsequently the vicinity of the mined area is to be approached by the sea forces of the minelayer. An existing apparatus termed ‘‘ taut wire gear’ proved a great aid to accuracy in positioning a minefield. German Practice—German submarine minelayers usually confined their mines within an area of two or three sq. miles, laying them in groups of four, or even Jess. The position chosen was most frequently near some focal point, buoy or lightship, or at the entrance to a naval base or commercial port. For instance, during the War, over 450 mines were laid by German submarines within a mile of the Shipwash Light vessel, a position necessarily passed by all traffic up and down the east coast war channel, by the convoys to and from Holland and by Com. Tyrwhitt’s destroyer flotillas whenever they left or returned to their base at Harwich. The Germans also allotted to each of these submarines a particular stretch of the British coast. The flotillas working from Flanders covered the coast from Flamborough Head south about to the Clyde, also the northern French coast; the high sea, or large boats, working from the Elbe, were responsible for the rest of the English and Scotch coasts, and the whole of Ireland. Each commander being restricted to work in his individual area, the danger of striking previously laid mines was minimised. The commanders, moreover, by this arrangement, gut quickly into touch with the local movements of the traffic, the method and capacity of their opposing minesweepers and the coastal navigation within their beats. In most cases after some 10 to 14 days a commander would not hesitate to pass over a position where he had previously laid mines. He would be confident that his mines had been discovered and cleared if shipping had been seen in the area. Moored mines could be laid in any depth up to 100 fathoms, or even more in tideless waters, and they could be regulated to lie at any depth below the surface. Deep mines were used against submerged submarines, and shallow ones against surface shipping. In a strong tide, with a long mooring-rope, the mine will bend over to the tide; so that the mines, under strong tidal conditions, always lay too deep to be harmful to surface ships. Ina

position such as the Pentland Firth, mines were in fact only a danger at slack water, a period of minutes only. Again, the difference in height between high and low water was an important matter. If, for instance, the tidal range was exceptionally large, as in the Bristol Channel or Bay of Fundy, all types of ships could pass over a mincfeld at high water in perfect safety, provided no mines had been seen at low water on the surface. British Minelaying Resources —At the outbreak of hostilities in rorg the British Navy possessed seven old cruisers (Latona class) fitted as minelavers. These had a speed of only 14 knots. Shortly afterwards four merchant ships were added; and in the second part of the War a considerable number of submarine minclayers and fast destroyers were used. On Oct. 2 1914 the first line of 1,264 mines was laid by the old cruisers in an area tom. north of Ostend. This had the effect of forcing neutral shipping to pass through the Downs. Unfortunately, the Pritish mines then in use proved so defective that for a lime minelaying

920

MINELAYING

AND

had to cease; and although in 191s, after some technical improvement, some 15 more minefields were laid, it was not until

1916 that attention was concentrated on providing a mine of the calibre of that used by the Germans. British Activities from 1916 Onwards.—One of the principal British minclaying operations of 1916 was a coast barrage, consisting of a double line of deep mines, running for 40 m. from the Belgian coast, at a distance of 12 m. from the shore. It was supplemented by mine nets laid by the Dover drifters. The work took five weeks to complete; but only one submarine seems

to have been accounted for by it. The end of the year saw the institution of a mining school at Portsmouth for research and development. On the assumption that the Belgian coast barrage had been

effective, a similar barrage was completed in Feb. 1917 across

RÉSHETLAND IS

i

SIED

Gu

rt

a

ee

ORKNEY I$ y Be Netra layue We 40 os ae‘ge

a

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a’

-9

a5 Miles

a

7

AMinelaying by the United States—The entry of the United States into the War admitted of a large augmentation in mines and in minelayers; and an attempt was made to close the northern exit from the North Sea by a mine barrage between the Orkneys and the Norwegian coast (see fig. 1). This operation was undertaken by both British and U.S. minelavers. The latter formed a base at Inverness, and supplied ten large minelayers with a total carrving capacity of over 5,300 mines. The United States used a mine of a novel type. It carried the usual charge of 300 Ib. of tri-nitro-toluene, but from each mine there extended

antennae for a distance of 35 ft. which, if touched by a metal ship, exploded the mine. The result was that the danger zone was largely increased. The vast area covered by mines can best be appreciated by a reference to the plan, which gives an idea of the work carried out by the U.S. minclavers. Difficulties were encountered as

wegians closed this coastal lane to both belligerents by minefields of their own. Of the mines laid in the Northern Barrage 56,57£ were American and 13,546 British. All this time the encircling of the Bight had been going steadily on, and some 21,ooo mines were in place by the date of the Armistice. During the period of the War, approximately 160,000 mines were dropped in the North Sea and Channel by the British and American minelayers, the very great majority of which were laid during the last 18 months of the War.

“

ceInvergordon, zus ; :N:

=Noo ne

a fr ll

Channel exit to the German submarines, nine of which were lost in attempts to pass it.

the operation proceeded. A proportion of the American mines exploded prematurely; while a number of British mines took up a shallower depth than intended, and had to be swept up and relaid. The complete operation, however, was finished by June 1918. It must not be supposed that the whole water available for a submarine was effectively covered by this minefield; but the dangerous area was greatly increased and an effect on the morale of the Germans quickly produced. In July German submarines began to creep past in Norwegian waters; but the Nor-

Sii

9

MINESWEEPING

es

S Or drigemout h Tayl

Scale of Miles 50

PiGe 1 -Plan of the great northern mine barrage, consisting of Laid in 1918 by British and U.S. submarines,

63.117 mines.

the Straits of Dover; but the mines dragged and had to be swept up. Lt was, however, rclaid by the end of July 1917. In Jan. 1917 it became essential to encircle the Heligoland Bight and thus to surround all exits from German ports; but the shortage of mines at the time caused the operation to be postponed, nor was the British mine considered suitable for it. However, towards the end of 1917 the “ Abdiel ” and five minclaying submarines had laid nearly 16,000 mines in the German Bight; and these accounted for a certain number of German destroyers and minesweepers. The mine used in the later stages of this operation was the new British H2, which, except for its method of taking depth, was similar in principle to the German Carbonit mine, The German method of depth-taking was for the mine, attached to the sinker, to drop to the bottom, where, after a short interval for the purpose of safety, the mine released itself from the sinker and rose to the depth for which it was set. In the British method the mine did not go to the bottom; it did not, i fact, go below the depth for which it was set. The sinker regulated the depth while the mine was still on the surface; then, in

sinking, pulled the mine down to its required position. An advantage of the British system was that heavy water pressure on the mine-case was obviated; but, on the other hand, it did not obtain the exceptional accuracy in depth-taking which was noticeable in the German method. In due course the new H2 mine was delivered in sufficient quantity for the long-delayed defensive minefields to be begun by the British, and an extensive new barrage in the English Channel was then completed. Between Folkestone and Cape Gris Nez 9,500 mines were laid in

20 parallel lines, the shoals of the Varne and the Ridge dividing

the area into three sections.

This barrage effectively closed the

Il. MINESWEEPING Before the outbreak of War in ror4 the British Navy had, to some extent, realised the possibility of a mining offensive on the part of their enemies; and, largely due to the foresight of the late Admiral Lord Charles Beresford, trawlers had been tested and had proved efficient minesweepers as early as 1907. A trawler reserve purely for minesweeping was instituted shortly afterwards.

Thus, by Aug. 8 1914. 06 hired trawlers had put to sea to

sweep up enemy mines, and ers had been o minesweeper, however, did as il was too slow foresweep

within a fortnight and were fitting not entirely cover the water ahead

another 100 trawlout. The trawler

the requirements, of a moving fleet;

and this had been realised, and to some slight extent, catered for, by training a flotilla of eight old torpedo-gunboats. These ships were capable of towing the sweep at 12 knots, which was double the speed at which the majority of the trawlers could operate. This gunboat flotilla moved north from Dover on July 31 1914, and, with sweeps out, actuaily covered the track over Sich the Grand ITleet passed. They were necessarily much overworked In the first six months of the War, as, whenever practicable, they swept the waters through which the fleet moved, and were also canstantly required to search areas where mines were expected to be laid. Fortunately no mines were laid near the bases of the fleet until much later, when this small flotilla had been considerably augmented. Methods of Sweeping —At the outbreak of War, the British system of minesweeping was for two vessels to tow a stout wire between them, the wire being Kept at the required depth by means of water-kites. The towed wire, termed the sweep, thus came into violent contact with the mooring--rope of a mine, which it generally broke, causing the mine to come to the surface, when it could be sunk by rifle-fire. In some cases, however, the sweep would strike a horn of the mine, and explode it. This occasionally led to the parting of the sweep and consequent delay while a new wire was passed. The most serious drawback was

MINELAYING

AND

if the sweep failed to break the mine wire, when the mine would be towed along, more often than not unknown to the sweepers. This latter trouble caused many of the early minefields to be scattered far beyond the limits in which they were laid, and constituted a serious danger. The eventual safeguard was to heave the sweep slowly in, and to sight the whole wire and water-kites on the surface before slipping it, when a mine holding to the

wire would be seen and reswept afterwards. ‘The innovation of a serrated form of sweep wire eventually reduced the difhculty to a considerable extent. This simple method of mineswecping stood the test of the whole War, and its simplicity had the great advantage of reducing the training period which would have been necessary had a more complicated apparatus been used. The French towed from a single vessel two sweeps, one on either side, each kept out by an otter similar to the usual otter used in trawling, but regulated for depth by attachment to a large torpedo-shaped float, the depth at the other end being regulated by a water-kite. Along each wire was distributed a series of small mechanical and explosive wire-cutters. The “shooting” of these sweeps caused trouble unless the crews were adept, and the speed at which the apparatus could be towed was limited to six to seven knots. The spread of the British system was 400 to soo yd. per pair according to the type of minesweeper, that of the French system not more than 200 yards. In the latter part of the War the Americans adopted the French method, which had by then been somewhat simplified. The German system was akin to the British, excepting that, in order to cover the route of their fleet more quickly, they instituted a very light form of sweep which could be towed at 20 knots. Directly this apparatus met with an obstacle it was automatically slipped, thus giving notice of the obstruction, whereupon the slower type of sweepers were hastened to the spot to clear it. In practice this system constantly led the fast sweepers to report mines when they had only encountered wrecks or some other harmless obstruction, and Jittle confidence was therefore placed in the reports of mines by this fast flotilla. Under ordinary cruising conditions, searches by sweepers

were made whereby only a small percentage of the water was coyered—sufficient, however, to allow a strong probability of

the presence of mines being discovered in good time. The introduction of the “ paravane,” which protected the ship herself, very much reduced the mine danger; but men-of-war were not fitted with this device until r9r7, nor by the end of the War was it general in merchant ships. The paravane is an apparatus which, for assured efficiency, requires skilled handling. There are situations where its use is impracticable, and it has not replaced the necessity for the minesweeper. Early Difficulties-—Vhe War was only a day old when the first mining operation was undertaken by the Germans. An armed merchant ship, the “ Königin Louise,” laid a large minefield off Southwold, at a distance well outside British territorial waters. ‘he “ Kénigin Louise” was sunk, but H.M.S. “ Amphion ” struck a mine after the action. This minefield caused considerable loss to merchant ships, many of which were neutrals. It also led to carly losses of minesweeping trawlers, in which the mortality was heavy. Throughout the War, an average of half of the crew of a trawler was lost when one was mined. For the first two months of the War, for every two mines swept one trawler was lost. Improved method and greater experience

later minimised the losses, until an average of one loss for every 80 mines was achieved in 1918; but the effect on shipping in the early days was such that any form of flotsam was reported as a mine. The outcry for minesweepers became universal, and more trawlers were requisitioned. In Great Britain there was no lack of voluntecrs from the fishermen, nor of officers from the Naval and Naval Volunteer Reserves; but all of these were untrained in minesweeping, efficiency in which was proving so essential. By Sept. 1 1914 little had been done with the Southwold-Aldeburgh minefield, other minefields were suspected, insurance rates were rising, and the situation had become grave. A rear-admiral was appointed as Admiral of Minesweeping on the Last Coast.

MINESWEEPING

Q21

The immediate situation was dealt with by the institution of a channel close to the coast, buoyed adequately and swept continuously. Merchant shipping was instructed to pass close to the line of buoys; but the organisation requisite to insure this information reaching all the ships, and the difficulties of enforcing obedience, were not overcome for a considerable time. The losses were reduced to a slight extent, however; and when this channel was extended from Dover to the Firth of Forth, and the organisation was perfected, the British Fleet no but the situation in for a larger Fleet

losses by mine were the exception. Against mines were laid during the first year of War; mined localities had emphasised the necessity Sweeping Flotilla, and a number of special

vessels, termed sloops, were laid down.

Details of Minefields—The actual minefields laid by the Germans between Aug. 5 1914 and Aug.'5 1915 were as follows:— 1914 1914 1914 r914 1914 1915 1915

Aug. 5 Aug. 26

Aldeburgh-Southwold —. olf Humber . : i ‘ _ Tyne . ; i ; ; Oct. 26 Tory I. (Ireland) . : : Nov. 3 9Smith's Knoll . . . . Dec. 16 Scarborough . ; . April4 Swarte and Indefatigable Banks May 16 E. Dogger Banks . ; :

. . . . . . . .

180 200 I94 200 130 100 360 480

mines mines mines mines mines mines mines mines

These mines were all laid. by surface vessels, and accounted for a heavy toll in merchant vessels and minesweepers. At the entrance to the Dardanelles minesweeping had to be carried out under heavy shellfire. At first only slow trawlers were available, and night clearing was never a practicable operation.

Growth of the British AMfinesweeping Force —In British home waters the augmentation of the minesweeping force was less difficult than abroad. Light-draft excursion (paddlers) were requisitioned in addition to the newly built craft already mentioned, and by April 1915, over 150 vessels purely for minesweeping were distributed as follows: Grand Fleet—6 gunboats, one new sloop and to trawlers. Scotland—47 trawlers. Humber— 6 paddlers, 30 trawlers. Lowestoit—47 trawlers. Harwich— 33 trawlers. Dover—r12 trawlers. South Coast—24 trawlers. West Coast—4 trawlers. Clyde—6 paddlers. In the Dardanelles 8 cross-channel steamers had augmented the trawler force, and destroyers had been fitted for minesweeping. The Submarine Minelayer —Up to June rors all minefields had been laid by surface vessels; but in this month came the first effort of the submarine. A small type, termed U.C. boats, working from Zeebrugge, with Bruges as a mine-depdt, commenced laying batches of 12 mines held in vertical shoots, at first between Dover and Harwich, and later over a wider area. During rors 34 cargoes (648 mines) were laid in this manner. The effect was a serious Increase in British losses by mine, which comprised 5 supply ships, one hospital ship, 2 Trinity House vessels, 34 British steamers, 24 neutrals, 19 fishing boats, and 15 minesweepers, a total of 100 vessels. A useful form of night-sweep came into use against this menace, consisting of a light wire, a depth float kite and explosive grapnel. It was to some extent similar to the German high-speed sweep, and prone to the errors of the latter. No fully efficient minesweep for use in the dark hours was evolved in the War, although this light wire served for searching purposes on several occasions when shipping was forced to arrive at a port at daybreak. In June 1915 the Germans had also extended their minclaying to Archangel, where a unit of six British trawlers was dispatched to assist the Russians. They destroyed 150 mines in this locality under severe conditions of service. Mining Agatust the Grand Fleet-—The first mining offensive against the Grand Fleet occurred in Aug. 1915, when 380 mines were laid in the entrance to the Moray Firth, distributed over lines which totalled nearly 7o miles. A large portion of the fleet was at Invergordon at the time. The results were negligible, the losses being confined to minesweepers and one destroyer. A channel was found to be clear on the northern side of the Firth, which was at once used as an exit for the fleet. On the southern side, however, a channel was cleared, but an area of mines was purposely left to form a defensive barrier and so limit the water necessary for patrol and minesweeping. On Jan, rı 1916 the

922

MINELAYING

AND

area west of Scapa Flow was mined by the “ Moewe ” on her passage into the Atlantic. In this field 252 mines were laid, endangering an area of 40 sq. m., which resulted in the loss of H.M.S. “ King Edward VII.” before the presence of mines was realised. Once located, this area was treated in the same way as the Moray Firth. Progress in 1¢616.—By the beginning of 1016, 14 sloops had joined the Grand Fleet, and 35 hired paddlers were in action. The success of this latter type led to 24 being laid down by the Admiralty, and also a new type of twin-screw sweeper, known as the ‘‘ Hunt” class. The value of these ships lay in their seakeeping qualities and shallow draught. The paravane also passed its test in 1916, and by the end of the year had been supplied to 180 of H.M. ships. Shaped like a torpedo, it contained mechanism for accurate depth keeping at any appreciable speed, and was capable of carrying a heavy wire cutter on the nose, or, when used against a submarine, an explosive charge. As a mincprotection it was towed from a sliding ‘‘ shoe ?” which worked up and down the stem of the vessel. The paravane automatically ran out from a ship under way, stretching the wire rigidly at an angle of about 50 degrees to the fore and aft line of the ship. Towed from the point of greatest draught, the wire protected the whole of the ship from a mine; for, on coming in contact with a mine mooring, this wire deflected the mooring until it entered the cutter on the paravane, which instantly functioned. The mine then came to the surface clear of the ship. A modifed form of this apparatus was fitted in merchant vessels; and, by the end of the War, 2,740 merchant ships had been fitted. Paravanes in I.M. ships cut 55 mine moorings, but the number cut by merchant ships was less. The number of German submarine minelayers increased in 1916, and there were larger boats operating over a still wider area. These carried 18 mines. As further construction improved, the number of mines carried rose to 24, and in 1917, to 36. The larger boats worked from the Elbe, and the smaller from Flanders. On May 29 1916, U75 laid her 18 mines close to Marwick Head, off the northwest coast of Orkney. The operation was

part of the pre-Jutland submarine actions of the enemy.

It is

understood that a mining operation on the western exit from Scapa was intended, with a view to crippling the Fleet should it use that exit. The contour of the coast near Marwick and that off the western entrance to Scapa, a few miles to the southward, are very similar, and a mistake in the landmarks was possibly made by the submarine commander. Jn view of the time elapsing between the laying of the mines and the sailing of H.M.S. ‘‘ Hfampshire ” from Scapa Flow for Russia, it would seem obvious that the position chosen is not susceptible of a tactical explanation. Sixteen mines from this batch were swept up directly afterwards in this position, and one was recovered set for a depth of seven metres. (It transpired, after the War, that all these mines were set for this depth. ) The tide was appreciable, causing sufficient ‘‘ mine dip ” to insure the mines at this depth being innocuous even to a heavy-draught ship, except at low slack water, and with considerable motion on that ship. The period of slack water was extremely limited. The “ Hampshire,” proceeding in a sudden gale, and hugging the shore to obtain Jess sea, struck one of the mines at low-slack water. By this curlous conjunction of all these factors, the career of Lord Kitchener was brought to a tragic close. Except for a determined offensive by the Flanders submarines against the Channel Ports, the mine was not extensively used in the latter part of 1916. It would appear that the Germans were then husbanding their resources for unrestricted submarine and mine warfare. Changes in the British Scrvice-—The reorganisation of the British naval staff in May and June 10917 led to considerable changes in the minesweeping service. The rear-admiral, who had throughout 1916 been very fully employed in concentrating on the paravane and other improvements of minesweeping material, now took over the Dept. of Torpedoes and Mines, which included the technique of minesweeping devices. The control of operations was therefore entirely separated and delegated to a captain on the naval staff, who, in Oct. 1917, became Director of the Mine-

MINESWEL PING sweeping Div. under the assistant chief of the naval staff. The whole of the minesweeping, then so greatly extending in area, was thus co-ordinated under a central control at the Admiralty. The intensity of minelaying and expansion of areas in the first half of ror7 was difiicult to meet with the minesweepers avail-

able; and the climax was reached in April, with a loss of one minesweeper per diem for the greater part of that month. Probably no other service had a more severe strain placed on its personnel during this month and those immediately following. Every available and suitable paddle steamer and motor fishing boat had to be requisitioned; and those incapable of towing a heavy sweep were fitted with a light one, and used for search. Aircraft and motor launches were also used for low-water searches for mines, in order to reduce losses of sweepers; and improvements in traflic organisation and still closer co-operation between adjacent areas were gradually effected. Further protective mineficlds were laid in certain suitable positions, but the opening of new areas was constantly necessary; and, by the end of 1917, the coastal waters of Great Britain and Ireland, over 1,000 m. in extent, were being swept every day for mines. The war channel was also extended to the Firth of Forth, and merchant ships only released from a night shelter when they could proceed in freshly swept water. One hundred new vessels of the “Hunt ” class were laid down, and 300 new drifters put out to contract, so as gradually to replace and release trawlers for patrol and anti-submarine work.

Synchronous mining of adjacent British ports was resorted to by the Germans, which raised many sudden problems in traffic control. The convoy system had now been introduced, and the sweeping of convoys into certain ports often became essential. Particular dithculties arose in regard to Liverpool owing to the shallowness of the channel and narrow entrance; mines swept up, and sunk without exploding, causing serious danger to heavy draught ships by their proximity to the ship when resting on the bottom. The south coast of Ireland was scriously and continuously mined, and even the bays on the west coast of Ireland did not escape. The year closed with a total of 3,989 German moored mines swept up in home waters, at a cost of 170 Allied and neutral merchant ships sunk and 28 damaged. This total of mines for the year exceeded the combined totals for the previous years of the War. Nevertheless, the outlook was more hopeful. Although the intensity of minclaying had become so much greater, the losses had only been increased by nine ships over those of the previous year: and progressive success in the destruction of submarines and their personnel made it evident that the same intensity and efficiency of the minelayers could not be continued much longer. New construction and greatly improved material for minesweeping had already made their mark. The only fear was that the minesweep would be defeated by some innovation of the enemy. This fear, however, never materialised; although a delayed action (intentional or otherwise) for releasing the mine from its sinker some hours after it was laid was observed on several occasions. While minelaying had, in home and Mediterranean waters, now been confined to submarines, the ‘ Wolf,” a surface raider with 458 mines, succeeded in breaking through the patrols into the Atlantic. Her voyage lasted 15 months. Rounding the Cape of Good Hope, she cruised in the Indian Ocean, then proceeded south of Australia to New Zealand and Fiji; and returning by New Guinea, the Dutch East Indies and the Cape, she reached the Cattegat again in safety. Her mines were distributed all over the globe; and, although the losses caused by them were comparatively light, it was very difficult to obtain suitable sweepers in the various areas to locate and destroy them. It was, in fact, not until the Armistice that all the localities were defined. End of ihe Mining Offensive.—The beginning of 1918 saw the defeat of the great mining offensive completed; and by the end of hostilities no more than a dozen efficient German minelaying submarines existed. Their losses had by then completely outstripped new construction, and a well-trained or experienced personnel was entirely lacking. Of the many factors which, taken

MINERALOGY together, finally killed the minelayer, the most important were: (1) the great efficiency of relaid Dover barrage; (2) the deep minefields in localities regularly used by minelayers; (3) improvements in anti-submarine methods of hunting; (4) co-operation between the Intelligence and Minesweeping divisions; and (5) the distribution of information. In 1918 the average time elapsing from the receipt of the news of a new minefield to its distribution to every base, and to all vessels within the area of wireless Communication, was 75 minutes. As a result of these improvements, the total losses by mine during 1918 in home waters were reduced to an average of just two over Allied or

neutral merchant ships per month. Early in 1918, an appreciation of failure led the Germans to concentrate their efforts in minelaying in two directions only. The first was a grandiose scheme, which, commencing in January, was only concluded in late September. Jt consisted of batches of 36 mines, laid at regular intervals of 10 m. apart on a semicircle 45 from. m the Bell Rock, the result being a complete ring round the entrance to the Firth of Forth. This operation fulfilled a two-fold purpose. It menaced the exit and entry of Norwegian convoys, which were then working from Methil in the Firth of Forth; it also menaced every possible course taken by the Grand Fleet when leaving or entering‘its base at Rosyth. The scheme, however, was barren of results to the Germans, although methodically carried out in every detail. It was appreciated and countered after the third batch of these mines was discovered, the result being that each of the successive groups of mines was located and cleared immediately; and this was done without the Germans realising that any of these groups had been removed. The other concentration took the form of a field of 400 mines, also laid gradually by submarines. It was directed against the Dutch convoys, and was laid close to the Dutch coast to cover the approaches to the Maas and Ijmuiden. This position was such that any attempts at clearance exposed the minesweepers to a flank attack from enemy vessels. There were some losses by mine, particularly to destroyers escorting the convoys; but the convoys sailed as before, and the losses, on the whole, were very trivial.

Minesweeping after the Armistice.—When the hour of the Armistice struck, a minesweeping force was waiting at the gate of the Dardanelles; and, within 24 hours, 600 British and enemy mines had been removed to clear the way for the fleet to Constantinople. For one year after the War, mineclearing was continuous in every area where British or German mines had been laid. Under the difficult conditions which immediately

followed the War, a special minesweeping force had to be enrolled. It consisted of some 600 officers and 15,000 men. Over 23,000 Allied mines and some 7o German mines were cleared from the sea by British minesweepers. No loss of a merchant ship by mine occurred during that period; and exactly one year to the day from the institution of this force the seas round Britain, her colonies and in the Mediterranean were reported clear. A fine performance in this respect was the clearing by the Americans of the mines laid between Orkney and the Norwegian coast. The Germans also commenced to clear the heavily mined areas in

the Heligoland Bight, and later in the Baltic; but this work of clearance was not completed until 1923. cleared their own coastal waters.

Other nations concerned

BiBLIOGRAPHY.— Rudyard Kipling, The Fringes of the Fleet (1915); W. MacNeile Dixon, The Fleets Behind the Ficet (1917); L. C. Cornford, The Merchant Seaman in War (1918); W. Wood, Fishermen in

War Time (1918); D. W. Bone, Aferchanimen-at-clrims aara. Pr.) (L.

PR.

MINERALOGY (see 18.509).—During the war period of 1914-8 much attention was given in all countries to the development of home resources of various minerals of economic value, and to meet new circumstances new sources of supply were developed. Further, there was an increased demand for certain kinds of minerals, for example those which yield the rarer metals used in the hardening of steel. Much of the mineralogical literature of the period was therefore of an economic character, and many recent text-books gave prominence to the practical uses of min-

923

erals. Fortunately, however, pure science was not altogether neglected. Many new facts have been recorded, and new methods of investigation have been devised. X-Ray Examination of Minerals —The X-ray method of investigating the internal structure of crystals has been applied with much success to the study of minerals (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). The material for examination has usually been prepared as definitely orientated crystal plates, but it is found that the results can be obtained with a fine powder, 7.¢., an aggregate of minute crystals or fragments of crystals with all possible orientations. The method can therefore be used for the purpose of distinguishing between the crystalline and the amorphous or colloidal states. Since each crystallised mineral gives a more or less characteristic series of bands on the photographic film, the powder method may also be used for the recognition of the minerals present in intimate mixtures, such as fine-grained rocks, ores, clays and soils. X-rays have also been employed in a method of spectrumanalysis for detecting the presence of the various chemical eicments present in minerals. For example, hafnium has been detected, and the amount approximately estimated, in many zirconium minerals. ; Microscopical Hxamtnation of Opaque Minerais. —A method for the investigation of opaque mincrals borrowed from metallography (g.v.), in which polished sections are examined uncer the microscope in reflected light, has proved to be especially useful for the study of metallic ores. It consequently finds an economic application in the valuation of ore deposits. The several mineral species of which the ore is composed can be distinguished, and their relations to one another determined; e.g., the order of their deposition, and whether they are of primary

or secondary origin.! The process of grinding and polishing the sections presents certain difficulties owing to the extreme differences of hardness of the several minerals that may be present. The prepared section is illuminated vertically by means of a right-angle prism placed in the tube of the microscope above the objective. Details of structure can be brought out by etching the section with various chemical reagents. The several characters (colour, hardness, relief) of the minerals, together with their behaviour towards reagents, help in their determination. sut in many cases ordinary simple tests made on fragments detached from the polished surface are more reliable. Electrical tests can be made with quite simple apparatus: for example, the electrical conductivity can be determined with a dry cell and voltmeter using needles as terminals on the polished surface. Certain optical determinations can also be made in rellected polarized light. One result of this study of opaque minerals is to draw attention to the extremely intimate association and intergrowth of many of the ore-minerals; this is well shown in the numerous photo-micrographs published by American workers in economic geology. What to all appearances by ordinary methods is a homogeneous mineral may be found by the new method to be really heterogeneous; and, in fact, several supposed mincral species have been proved to be mixtures, and well-developed crystals have in certain cases been found to contain enclosures of other minerals. The method is thus of use for ascertaining the degree of purity of material collected for exact chemical analysis when the formula of a species is to be established. The long-debated question as to how silver exists in argentiferous galena (lead-ore) has been studied by this method. Galena containing O-fo to 0:35 °5 of silver shows definite spots of tetrahedrite and argentite, whilst specimens containing more silver show evidence of

later addition of proustite or pyrargyrite in the form of veinlets. Mineral Transformations —In synthetical mineralogy a large amount of experimental work has been done, especially in the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution at Washington. Many minerals and allied compounds have been prepared artificially in silicate and salt fusions. The conditions necessary

for their formation and their ranges of stability—either when alone or when in the presence of other compounds—have been studied in detail. One important result obtained by experimenting over wide ranges of temperature has been to show that practically all compounds known as minerals exist in several polymorphous forms. 1 The technique of the subject (called mineralography or mineragraphy) is dealt with in the text-books: J. Murdoch, Microscopical Determination of Opague Minerais (New York, 1916) and W. M. Davy and C. M. Farnham, Microscopic Examination of the Ore Minerals (New York, 1920.)

924

MINERALOGY

The work has shown that silica (SiO) undergoes a remarkable series of changes in its crystalline structure and physical characters when it is submitted to different degrees of temperature. The changes with increasing temperature are:— E

a-quartz (rhombohedral trapezohedral), passing at 575 C. into

8-quartz (hexagonal trapezohedral), passing at 870 C. into

A-tridymite (hexagonal holohedral), passing at 1,470°C. into B-cristobalite (cubic) melting at 1,625°C.

These transformations are reversible, but with falling temperature

they take place very slowly. Molten silica unless cooled very slowly solidifies as a glass. B-tridymite when quickly cooled undergoes a change at 163°C. (@.-tridymite to @:-tridymite), and at 117° C. passes over into a-tridymite, which is optically biaxial and probably orthor-

hombic in crystallisation, being ilentical with the naturally occurring

tridymite. Similarly, 8-cristobalite when quickly cooled changes at about 180°-270° C. into a-cristobalite, which is optically biaxial (pseudo-cubic) and identical with the cristobalite occasionally found in volcanic rocks. Now these and many other similar changes give information as to

the conditions of temperature under which various minerals were formed in nature, thus providing a “ geological thermometer.” For example, the presence of tridymite, or of pseudomorphs of the more

stable quartz after tridymite, establishes that the rock in which they

occur must have been formed at a temperature between 870° and 1,470°C. The quartz of certain veins and that of granite present differences in structure which indicate that the former was formed below 575°C. and the latter above this temperature. Or again, the

presence of orthorhombic copper-glance (6-Cus5) as a pseudomorph

after cubic a-Cu.S proves that the ore-deposit in which it occurs was formed at a temperature higher than 91°C.

Chemical Composition. The chemical composition of many minerals is still imperfectly understood, and even for some quite common species there are doubts as to the correct empirical formulae, especially as to the silicates, a satisfactory classification of which is still wanting. Many attempts have within recent years been made to gain some idea as to the constitution of the silicates; there has been much experimental work and

plenty of speculation,

but with no very definite results. In

certain groups, e.g., the feldspars and the garnets, the composition can be satisfactorily expressed on the assumption of the iso-

morphous mixing of different chemical molecules. But attempts to extend this principle to all silicates often lead to highly complex hypothetical molecules, the existence of which can only be regarded as doubtful. Alternative suggestions have been put forward, such as the “ mass effect” of large molecules and the “ solid solution’ of certain other substances in the main mass of the crystal. Experiments with silicate fusions show that various substances can be taken up, or dissolved, in certain amounts, giving on solidification apparently homogencous crvstals. Radioachivity.—The strong radioactivity (q.v.) of uranium min-

erals affords a ready means of recognising these valuable ores in the search for them by prospectors. The mineral may be wrapped up with a photographic plate, which is afterwards developed; but a simpler and quicker test is that with a quite simple (homemade) gold-leaf electroscope. A piece of the mineral to be tested is placed on the cap of the electroscope, which is then charged with electricity, readily developed by rubbing with glass or vulcanite (say the mouthpiece of a tobacco-pipe): if the mineral contains uranium (and consequently radium), the gold leaves will soon come together. It is always well to make a comparative test, timing the rate of collapse, with a picce of ordinary stone. Determinations of the ratio of the amount of uranium to the amounts of the various products of its decay (radium, helium, lead, etc.) present in various radioactive minerals give (knowing the rate of the decay) some idea of the period of time during which these products have been accumulating. In this way estimates have been made of the age in years of these minerals and even of the age of the earth; but, of course, many unknown fac-

tors must have been omitted from such calculations. Lead of radioactive origin, or isotropic learl—the final product of uranium decay—is found to vary slightly in its atomic weight (q.v.) according to the uranium mineral from which it is extracted. To radioactivity is ascribed the well-known “ pleochroic haloes ’’—tinv spots or borders of deeper colour surrounding microscopic

inclusions—long

ago

observed

in

certain

rock-

forming minerals (cordicrite, andalusite, mica, etc.) when microsections of rock are examined in polarised light. The long and

continued emission of X-rays from zircon or other mineral grains has caused a change in colour of the surrounding mineral for distances varying from 0-002 to o-4 millimetre. A study of these has again given some information as to the age of the minerals. Jn this connection it may be mentioned that much experimental work on the coloration of minerals has been done within recent years by exposing the minerals to the action of radiations of various kinds, including ultra-violet rays, cathode rays, X-rays and the rays emitted by radium salts.

For example, some dia-

monds acquire a green colour and fluorspar becomes blue when placed in contact with radium bromide. Some New Minerals—in descriptive mineralogy a con-

siderable number of new minerals have been named, but unfortunately in many cases not completely determined and described. A few of the more prominent and well-established of these are:— Carnotite.—Hydrated

K026 0} VOLO,

vanadate

of

uranium

and

potassium,

occurring asa canary-yellow crystalline pow-

der impregnating sandstones over a wide area in western Colorado and the adjoining portions of Utah and New Mexico. [n Colorado it has been collected on a large scale for the extraction of vanadium, uranium and radium. It has also been found in South Australia and in Pennsylvania; and an allied mineral (tyuyamunite, containing calcium in place of potassium) is known from Tyuya-Muyun in Russian Turkestan. Germanite.—A_ sulphide ore mineral containing copper, iron and the rare elements germanium (53-8°.) and gallium (4-2%,). Asa

massive, reddish-grey mineral intermixed with tennantite it is found

in some quantity at Tsumeb in South West Africa. Kasolite-—A hydrated silicate of uranium and lead, PbhO-UO4-SiOsHLO, forming radiating groups of small, ochre-yellow, monoclinic crystals. Together with several other new but imperfectly defined minerals, it occurs as an alteration product of pitchblend at Kasolo in Katanga, Belgian Congo. Lorandite.—Sulpharsenite of thallium, TlAsSs, forming transpar-

ent, monoclinic crystals with a carmine-red colour and adamantine lustre. It is found with realgar at Allchar in Macedonia, and is one

of the few minerals that contain the rare element thallium as an essential constituent (Tl 59-5 °°). Mutiite—Recent experiments have shown that the only aluminium silicate that can be prepared artificially is the compound 3ALO-25102, and not AlO3-Si02e=AlbLSiIOs (fibrolite) as formerly supposed. The same compound, as minute orthorhombic crystals, has been found in slates fused by igneous rocks in the Island of M ull,

Scotland, and has been named mullite.

Patronite.— Vanadium sulphide, VSq, forming dark greenish-black compact masses, It occurs abundantly at Minasragra, Cerro de Pasco, Pert, where it is a valuable ore of vanadium. Jt weathers very readily with the production of various highly coloured vanadium compounds;

even

on

material

kept in collections

growth of blue and green efflorescences.

there is a slow

Spencertie.— Hydrated basic zinc phosphate, Zn( PO: Zn(OH). 3ILO, forming pearly white, scaly cleavage masses and small monaclinic crystals. Jt has been found in some abundance forming large stalactites in a cavern near Salmo, British Columbia. Farbuitiié.—Basie zinc phosphate, Zn2(POs )>2:Zn(OH)s, forming colourless, or faintly coloured green or red, anorthic crystals, with a perfect cleavage in one direction. It has been found in considerable quantity at the Rhodesia Broken Hill Mine in Northern Rhodesia. Phortveitite.—Silicate of scandium, yttrium, ete., (Sc, ¥)05-2Si08, occurring as large orthorhombic crystals of prismatic habit in pegmatite in southern Norway and Madagascar. This is the only mineral known to contain the rare element scandium in large ` amount.

BIBLIOGRAPHY,— Details of descriptive mineralogy are collected in

Appendices 1-3 of Dana’s System of Mineralogy (Ñew York, 1899rors}; and numerical data respecting the constants of minerals are tabulated in the international Tables annuelles de constantes ef

données

numériques,

& vol. (Paris, 1912 etc.).

A work of compre-

hensive character 1s C. Doelter, Handbuch der Mineralchentie, 4 vol. (Dresden and Leipzig, 1912 ete.) An advanced textbook on new lines is P. Niggli, Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (Berlin, 1924, with two

more volumes to follow),

A number of clementary textbooks have

been published, e.g. G. A, J. Cole, Outlines of Mineralogy for Geologweal Students (London, 1912); A. F. Rogers, Introduction to the Study

ef Minerals (New York, tgt2); E. II. Kraus and W. F. ilunt, Mineralogy, an Introduction to the Study of Minerals and Crystals

(New York, 1920}; H. Buttgenbach, Les minéranx e les roches (Paris and Liége, 1924). A popular book with coloured plates is L. J.

Spencer, The World's Minerals (London, t911, 2nd ed., New York, t916), Books of an economic character are H. Ries, Kconomie Geology (5th ed., New York, 1925); T. Crook, Economic M ineralogy, a Practical Guide to the Study of Useful Minerals (London, 1921); B. Dammer

and O. Tictze, Die nutsharen Mineralien (2 vol., Stutt-

gart, 1913-4).

Special Reparts on the Mineral

Resources of Great

Britain have been issued by the < ecologica] Survey, London,

since

MINERS’

PH THISIS—MINING

1915; and a long series of pamphlets, The Mineral Industry of the British Empire and Foreign Countries by the Imperial Mineral Kesources Bureau, London, since 1920. New journals are fortschriite der Mineralogie, Kristallographie und Petrographie, issued by the German Mineralogical Society, Jena, since 911; Beiträge cur Kristullographie und Mineralogie, ed. by V. Goldschmidt (eidelherg, since 1914); Schwetserische Mineralogische und Petrographische Afitteilungen, Zürich, since 1921. A review of the recent scientific literature is given in the Mineralogical Society’s series of Mineralogical Abstracts, (L. J. 5.)

MINERS’ PHTHISIS (sce 18.541b).—Almost any dust inhaled in sufficient quantity may cause chest trouble of some kind or another, but certain dusts are related to the occupational disease variously known as miners’ phthisis, pneumonokoniosis, grinders’ rot, potters’ rot, stonecutters’ rot, etc. Phihisis-producing Dusts.—Dusts with this association are often referred to as phthisis-producing dusts because pulmonary tuberculosis plays a more or less important part in this disease and is always associated with a fatal termination and usually with disablement. Prof. E. L. Collis has shown that the phthisisproducing dust of far the greatest importance in industry is dust of free silica (SiO.) and the disease is often known as “ Silicosis.” For a dust to be phthisis-producing it must be comparatively insoluble and inert and the particles must be minute, say from five microns downwards, or about the size of the common pathogenic micro-organisms. Owing to their minute size these particles may be present in air in dangerous concentration without being visible to the eye or in any other way noticeable to the senses, so in a phthisis-producing industry it is expedient to sample the air for dust as one samples for gas in a “‘ gassy ” mine. The Lungs and Dust—The lungs have a very considerable power of ridding themselves of inhaled particles, and some dusts, like coal-dust, are much more readily got rid of than others while, in the case of a phthisis-producing dust, accumulation readily gets ahead of elimination, so quite small quantities of air-borne dust may be dangcrous. It is owing to this cumulative factor that duration and continuity of exposure are of importance as well as concentration in the air. While the average incidence of miners’ phthisis on the gold-mines of the Witwatersrand is under 3°4 per annum of the underground population the incidence rises as high as 10°% per annum in the case of miners of 13 years’ service and over. Dust Cells —A certain proportion of the fine dust inhaled runs the gauntlet of the upper respiratory passages and gets right down into their minute blind extremities, the alveoli. In silicosis as in pulmonary tuberculosis “lesion means arrest ” and the dust particles are arrested by being taken up by certain cells known as dust cells. The dust cells are a variety of the phagocytes of Metchnikoff and, when dust-laden, they aggregate together forming small masses or pseudo-tubercles. These pseudotubercles may be found on the alveolar walls, under the pleura and in the lymphatic channels which they obstruct. The dustcontaining cells forming the pseudo-tubercles tend to degenerate and become fibrous tissue thus forming the fibroid nodules characteristic of the early stage of silicosis. Prevention.—It

is the fine dust that matters

and, in mines

where a phthisis-producing rock is dealt with, the chief sources of fine dust are blasting and rock-cutting with machines. From the point of view of prevention, in industries where blasting is practised, the workers should not return to the working-place until after all dust and fume have been blown away. Ventilation with good currents of dust-free air 1s the great safeguard because, by treating the air-borne dust as a gas, it can be diluted down towards a safe level. What is a safe level? When one has to deal with daily exposure over many years, perhaps about one milligramme of dust per cu. metre of air. The fine dust is only a small proportion by weight of the total air-borne particles, but includes the majority of particles by enumeration. A sample of air-borne dust of 2 milligrammes per cu. metre as determined by the method in use on the Witwatersrand corresponds to about 350 particles of fine dust per cu. cm. of air (counted by Kitze koniometer). The other great safeguard is “ working wet ” and the chief source of the dust associated with machine drilling is

925

“ sludging ” with air. When it is practicable to sludge with water only, machines raise much less dust. Water-sprays should be in continuous use and the roof, walls and floor of the working-place kept wet. All broken rock should be thoroughly wetted before moving (see MINING). A machine may be in good order for rock-cutting and in bad order for dust-control and should be inspected from the latter point of view as well as the former.

A hand-drill is more difficult

to keep in order for dust-control than is the larger machine and it is doubtful if it is possible to secure safe conditions if handdrills are used dry when cutting phthisis-producing rock. In all phthisis-producing industries, apart from working wet, it is wise to think of the fine air-borne dust as a gas and make every possible use of exhaust-hoods and abstractors; while sources of dust escaping to the air should, as far as possible, be located and enclosed. ‘There are two important factors in the severe forms of miners’ phthisis:— (1) The phthisis-producing dust. (2) The tubercle bacillus. Carriers —The modern view of pulmonary tuberculosis as met with in the adult population of civilised countries is that it is related to re-infection by the obvious route of inhalation, Under experimental conditions the presence of dust in the air, together with the tubercle bacillus, renders the susceptible animal much more liable to infection by inhalation. It ison account of this association that, in a phthisis-producing industry, one must strive not only to eliminate dust but also to eliminate the tubercle bacillus. The only practicable step towards the latter ideal is to detect and remove the “ carrier,” i.e., the sufferer from open tuberculosis. For the sake of others as well as for their own, sufferers from tuberculosis should not be allowed to work at a phthisis-producing industry. Tuberculosis, of course, is not a compensatible occupational disease, but it might well be so regarded in a phthisis-producing industry for, although pulmonary tuberculosis is not miners’ phthisis, practically all grave miners’ phthisis is associated with pulmonary tuberculosis.

BrsLioGRAPHy.— Public Tealth (1915), with bibliography; E. L. Collis, Jadustrtal Pnuewmonoconioses, Milroy Lectures, 1915 (1919); Annual Reports of Miners’ Phthisis Board and Miners) Phthisis Medical

Burean,

Department

of Mines

and

Industrics,

Union

of

South Africa; Publications of United States Bureau of Mines, 3132, T.P. 3472, etc. GA. ALAV.)

MINING (see 18.528).—Since roto there has not been much change or development in the methods of working as applied to the extraction of mineral ores and other substances from veins and stratified deposits. This is, perhaps, more particularly the case in regard to coal and stratified deposits than of metalliferous ores occurring in veins. The development in respect of the former lies chiefly in the direction of the machinery used in the mines and its application, more particularly at the working face, and especially that used in the getting and transporting the coal at the faces. | In the working of metalliferous veins, while the standard methods of extracting the ore by overhand or underhand stoping have changed little, a more definite classification than existed formerly has grown up respecting the application of these methods to given local conditions. Comparatively thin veins, with a steep pitch (dip), are developed by a series of drifts (levels), and above each of these overhand stopes are opened for extracting the ore, the working being advanced upward. The broken ore ig run through chutes (mills or passes) to the level below, in which it is conveyed in trams by hand or mechanical power to the shaft or through an adit (tunnel) to the surface. For thicker veins, especially those with a steep dip, underhand stoping is occasionally employed, the advance being forward and downward

toward the haulage level. In the case of flat veins or of bedded deposits breast-stoping is used, the details of which much resemble those of underhand stoping. In all of these methods, the roof of the deposit (hanging wall) is supported by pillars of ore, by props, balks of timber (stulls), by “ square-set ”’ timbering or by masses of waste ore and rock (filling) carried by stulls. Sometimes stopes are completely filled with waste.

MINING

926

Shrinkage Stopes.—There area variety of overhand stopes which have been more widely employed than formerly for both narrow and wide steeply dipping veins. In these stopes the broken ore accumulates until the stope is complete, thus making artificial support for the walls of the stope unnecessary. Since rock when

broken increases in bulk, from 25 to 40°% of the ore is drawn from the stope as it advances to leave room at the top for the miners, who stand on the broken ore while drilling. This method is applicable only to those cases where the inclination and width of the vein are great enough to allow of the broken ore sliding down freely to the stope floor (footwall). Finally, after all the ore has been drawn off, the stope is allowed to cave in or is filled with waste. In principle, the shrinkage stope is identical with the “ battery-breast,” commonly used in fairly thick coal seams, when the pitch exceeds about 35° to the horizontal. Caving Systems.—The prototype of these, long employed in certain British iron mines, is known in the haematite iron ore mines of Lancashire and Cumberland as the caving system. In the United States caving was frst used for the soft iron ores of northern Michigan. More recently, it has been extensively applied to the iron deposits of the Mesabi district, Minnesota, and to some large copper deposits in the south-west of the United States. The chief requisites for the successful application of caving methods are: (1) massive deposits of relatively cheap minerals; (2) ore-bodies of large horizontal dimensions, overlaid by a capping varying in character from earthy soil or glacial drift to firm rock; (3) large-scale work. There are three distinct methods: top-slicing, block-caving and sub-level caving. The salient features of all are: (a) horizontal subdivision of the ore-body into floors; (b) subdivision of each floor into small slices or blocks which are mined separately; (c) delivery of the broken ore through chutes to the haulage-ways below and thence to the shafts; (d) as the ore is removed, the overlying capping must gradually cave in and settle. The period 1910-25 was marked by a wider application of the slicing and caving methods, especially for large low-grade deposits of disseminated copper ore. More deposits of this type have been developed and worked in recent years than ever before, many variations in details being introduced to suit the dimensions of the ore-body, its depth below the surface and the character of ore and of the super-incumbent strata or capping. All this has brought a more definite understanding of the applicability and limitations of the caving systems, as determined

by existing local conditions. Some prominent examples of the newer mines, in which different forms of slicing and caving have been adopted, follow. Insptration Mine, Arizona.—The ore-body is a massive deposit of disseminated sulphide of copper (calcopyrite), containing about 100,000,000 tons of low-grade ore, and overlaid by a valucless capping, 30 to 350 ft. thick. A variation of the caving system is used, known as ‘ block-caving.” The ore-body is intersected at vertical

intervals of I50 ft. by main

haulage levels, connecting

ee, Stee fat LAT ue en

Y “ME

A

SET Dritt holes in drift o

OT

ladgst

with the

ye

oe ayers

FY Haulage drift.

Develapment raises

\o~ Drawing raises v 4 Sat?

AP meg a) ak EEE. {eres a

7

Sublevel development drift

A 100

** 200

blasting drift (driven subsequent to CY ) 300

400

500 feet

FIG. I.

winding shafts (fig. 1). Above

the haulage levels are long chute-

raises, inclined at 50° to the horizontal, from which numerous short secondary raises (‘‘ finger-raises ’’) are driven to a system of sublevel drifts, 35 ft. apart vertically and 50 ft. horizontally. The ore

developed by the sub-level drifts is thus divided into small ‘ blocks,”

which are undercut and broken up by blasting out the supporting pillars between the drifts. ‘he broken ore is drawn down through the branching finger-raises underneath, into the main raises and thence to the haulage levels, the fow being controlled by gates. As the upper part of the ore-body is thus removed, the capping caves in on top of the solid unmined ore below. (For full details, see 7'rans, Amer. Inst. Mining Eng, vol. 55, p. 218: vol. 59, pp. 299, 305; vol. 66, p. 127.) Block-caving, similar to that of the Inspiration mine, is also used by the Ohio Copper Co., Bingham, Utah, and the Nevada Consolidated Copper Co., Ely, Nev.

sL risona Copper Co—AÀ top-slicing method

(fig. 2) is applied to

large bodies of soft ore, carrying 2 to 4% copper. Original Surface eee

Bee NLU

tc menue

A main haulage

7

Ee

7

4 ERENER

PRNG

Z SES ien j

:

Z|: Caved Cappie ILS Milled

Wy

Wabi tertile

he Li sigh

///) 7Uh Waste

fi

4

SSS

RSS88

SS

Mal Hardee Revel REVS ESEES LONGITUDINAL SECTION

LLL VIELILILLALLLLLIIIL £, VERTICAL CROSS SECTION

Fic. 2.

road is driven near the bottom of the ore-body, and above it are intermediate working levels, 50 to 60 ft. apart vertically. These comprise a rectangular system of tramiming drifts and cross-cuts, from which chute-raises are made into the ore above at 25 ta 30 ft.

intervals. Starting from the tops of these raises, horizontal slices of ore, 7 to 15 [t. thick, are blasted out and the broken ore is run down through the raises to the tramming level.

Thence it is conveyed to

the nearest main raise, connecting with the haulage road below. (For details of the slicing operations and the manner in which the overlying capping caves In as the successive slices are removed, see 18.532.) These modifications of top-slicing consist chiefly in making raises from the intermediate tramming levels at short intervals, to minimise the labour cost of handling the ore mined in the slices. In one of the Arizona Copper Co.'s mines a further saving has been effected by omitting the tramming levels and the small raises from them. A main drift is driven longitudinally through the axis of the ore-body, just below the roof or capping, and from it, at right angles, crosscuts, 40 ft. apart, to the walls. The pancls or blocks of ore between the cross-cuts are sliced back from the walls of the ore-body towards the main drift. On each side of the latter a pillar is left; which is finally sliced back from its end, in completing a floor. While one floor is being mined, the next, rr ft. below, is in preparation. This method of panel slicing has recently been adepted successfully in the Herman gold mine, California. The vein dips 45° to 60°, and the panels are laid out at an inclination of 52°, across the ore-body. Topslicing is also used in many massive deposits of low-grade copper ore; for example: Cumberland-Ely, Nev.; Cananca, Mexico; Miami, Ariz.; Bingham, Utah; and mines of the Calumet & Arizona Mining Co., Arizona, At the last-named property, the older caving method has been replaced by a modification called the Mitchell tap-slicing system, found economical in reducing the shovelling required. Oiher Vartations.—In a number of important mines working large ore-bocies, special conditions have been dealt with by combining two or more of the methods referred to above. Examples are to be found in the mines of the Braden Copper Co., Chile; New Jersey Zine Co., Franklin, N. J.; Utah Copper Co. (Boston mine); Ray Consol. Cop-

per Co., Ariz.; Homestake Gold-Mining Co., S.D., and the De Beers Mining Co., South Africa. In most cases, operations begin by shrinkage stoping, after which the intervening pillars are mined by topslicing, block-caving or sub-level caving, the object aimed at being the getting of as high a total tonnage extraction as possible, that is, obviating loss occasioned by leaving ore in permanent pillars or through mixture with waste material.

Stripping Superficial Ore Deposits.—This old mode of attacking shallow deposits of large horizontal area was oftener resorted to in the period r9ro-25 than previously, and was applied to deeper ore-bodies than formerly were considered capable of being mined by stripping. Stundard Methods —Standardisation of methods of working when practicable probably promotes efficiency and economy of

MINING operation. Seams of coal and some regular bedded deposits of the base metals, owing to their comparative uniformity of geological occurrence, can be worked to a greater degree by standardised methods than most metallifcrous deposits, which vary greatly in their physical characteristics. A notable instance to the contrary 1s perhaps that of the Banket deposits of the Rand, Transvaal, which are in the nature of highly inclined beds of conglomerate. (Sce the useful discussion by C. A. Mitke, “ Mining Methods of the United Verde Extension Mining Company, Arizona,” Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Engs., xol. 61r, p. 188.) In the three years 1922-5 a ‘Committee of One Hundred ” of the Amer. Inst. Mining Engs. (comprising 13 sub-committees) collected and published descriptions of the mining methods in the principal districts of the United States. It was planned to classify these data, with a view still further to standardise mining practice for the different kinds and shapes of ore deposit. In many mining operations there is a stronger tendency toward standardisation of details. Thus, some mining companies have adopted standard “rounds” of holes for shaft-sinking, drifting, cross-cutting, raising and stoping. The foremen are furnished with instruction sheets which specify the position, depth and charge of explosive for each hole. The miners are required to follow these instructions instead of doing their work in accordance with their own individual ideas. The adoption of such methods has been assisted by the greater attention now given to what may be termed efficiency engineering. Many large mines have “ efficiency engineers,” who study in detail the performance of both men and machinery, thus improving the quality and amount of work done. In Great Britain too, quite lately, attention is being directed in some enlightened quarters to the psychological side of mining with a view to ensuring greater efficiency. Directed toward this end also are the movements inaugurated by several mining companies to instruct their employees in the best methods of doing their work. Thus, an education department ts maintained by the Phelps-Dodge Corp., of New York, which operates a number of mines in the southwest of the United States. Lectures are delivered to the miners on practical mining topics, followed by examinations. The North Butte Mining Co., of Montana, has also standardised the details of many underground operations, The cost of these education departments is considerable, but is amply justified by the results. A wholesome spirit of rivalry is encouraged amongst the miners and their ambition is aroused; hence, better work is done, the morale of the whole force is raised, and better relations are established between the employces and the mine management. The principles of standardisation have also been increasingly applied to the design of mining appliances and machines.

Blasting —Explosives for blasting rock and ores underwent considerable change in composition during 1915-25, and tests have supplied valuable data respecting the disruptive and propulsive forces and the sensitiveness of the types and grades of dynamite, leading to a better understanding of their suitability for different kinds of service. Explosives for coal-mines, especially those in which dangerous gases occur or which are dry and dusty, must be so constituted that ordinary charges will not produce a flame of sufficient intensity and duration to ignite explosive mixtures of gas and air. These comprise the tested “permitted explosives,” lists of which are published in coalmining countries and revised from time to time, to keep them up to date. In Europe their use under certain conditions—conditions which exist in the majority of the coal mines—is required by law. In the United States the ists appear in publications of the Bureau of Mines. The bureau can only recommend them, though legal requirements exist in some of the states.

‘Permitted

explosives ’ have certain characteristic ingredi-

ents: (a) ammonium nitrate; (b) salts containing water of crystallisation, which, being liberated and vaporised by the heat of explosion, reduces the flame temperature; (c) organic nitrate other than nitro-glycerine, c.g., nitro-starch; (d) nitro-glycerine, mixed with free water or an excess of carbon. It was formerly assumed that nitro-glycerine compounds and other detonating explosives were not suitable for collieries, because, due to market requirements, excessive shattering of coal is undesirable (except for coke-making); but low-strength, ‘ short-flame ” dynamites

927

are now being satisfactorily used. While no explosive can be absolutely safe in gassy mines, those in the “ permitted ” lists are relatively safe. The standard tests vary as between countries; that of the United States, which is now given, is less drastic than that operative in Great Britain. In the U.S.A. an explosive is accepted for the list when a charge of 680 gm. (14 Ib.) does not ignite gas or coal-cust; it is not accepted if a charge of 250 gm. does cause ignition, In 1912 the permitted list of the U.S. Bureau of Mines comprised 96 kinds and grades of safety explosive; in Jan. ro24 the number had increased to r58, many being almost identical in composition. The United States is the largest user of “ permitted explosives ” in the world, the quantity consumed having more than doubled in ror2-25. Blasting methods in the United States have been improved by the introduction of ‘* delay action ” electrical fuses. In work like tunnelling (cross measure or stone drifting) and shaft-sinking, where rounds of charged holes are best fired in volleys, these special fuses save time, as the miners need not return to the working place after each volley to prepare for the next. The entire round is wired, as if all the holes were to be fired simultaneously, and there is but one application of the current. The groups of holes explode successively, in the desired order and at intervals of about one second, by using ‘‘ no-delay ”’ fuses for the first group and “ first-delay ’’? and ‘ second-delay ” fuses for the following groups. In British coal-mining, volley firing of charges is not permitted by the laws regulating the industry. Construction of Delay Fuses —The platinum bridge in the cap shell, between the terminals of fuse wires, 1s not embedded in the fulminating charge itself, so as to explode it directly, but ignites a short piece of slow-burning ordinary fuse, which in turn explodes the fulminate. The delay interval depends on the length of ordinary fuse used. Another new device for the same purpose is the electric fuse-igniter. A special electric cap contains a small charge of fine-grain black powder, beyond which is a piece of ordinary fuse, with a cap on the end to be placed in the dynamite cartridge. For blasting with black powder, no cap is put on the ordinary fuse. Mine Hygiene-—Improvements made in the years 1910-25 were chielly in five directions: (1) better ventilation of mine workings; (2) enforcement of dust-prevention regulations and of regulations requiring the adulteration of coal-dust in the mine by the admixture therewith of inert dust; (3) introduction of new

types of blasting explosives, so constituted as to minimise the quantity of deleterious gases evolved; (4) adoption of precautions with the object of producing more perfect combustion of explosives, and the consequent reduction or prevention of the formation of the poisonous carbon monoxide; (5) study and better understanding of special miners’ diseases and their treatment. (See INDUSTRIAL WELFARE.) Ventilation. — Formerly, artificial ventilation by fans or blowers was provided only for collieries, to dilute and sweep out gases emanating from the coal and surrounding strata. In recent

years, mechanical ventilators have been increasingly applied in the ventilation of metalliferous mines also. About the year 1902 the high mortality amongst the miners of some districts, especially on the Rand, South Africa, began to attract attention. Investigation showed that acute lung trouble (‘ miner’s

phthisis "’ or silicosis) is caused by inhaling dust from drilling in dry

silicious

rock

or ore.

In 1t903 a Government

Commission

was

appointed to study the conditions in the Transvaal gold-mines. Their report led to a demand for better ventilation of the mine workings, and the adeption of water-spraying devices to allay the dust arising from the operation of drilling. Revised and more stringent regulations were enacted in t913. Other governmental investigations were made in Cornwall and the ganister mines of the Midlands, England, Austraha and New Zealand, and in the United States by the Bureau of Mines. In 1911 one of the large gold-mining companies in the Transvaal, the Rand Mines (Ltd.)}, established a

department of sanitation, to deal in gencral with miners’ living and working conditions and diseases. The department's activities now cover a large number of the mines of the district, employing between

55,000 and 65,000 men, and marked benefits have resulted from this important movement, which is gaining in strength.

Tests of the gases from blasting explosives have revealed the extent to which they may vitiate mine air. One pound of

MINING

9028

standard dynamite produces about 10 cu. ft. of gas, which, due to

the coal-dust-laden atmosphere of the gangway, prevent propa-

incomplete detonation, often contains 25 to 30% of carbon monoxide. Since, for safety, this actively poisonous gas should be

gation of the explosion. It would appear that the only really safe precaution to take is the thorough admixture with the coal-dust of the fine stone-dust. It was until quite recently considered that the presence of 30% of inert dust secured safety, but the most recent experiments of Professor Wheeler, of the British Mines Department of Safety of the Mines’ Research Board, shows that this may prove insufficient

diluted to about o-o1 of 1%, it is evident that natural ventilation cannot always be relied upon, and mechanical ventilators have

been installed for many metalliferous mines. Several new types of high explosives have recently been introduced, so compounded that they produce much less carbon monoxide (CO) and methane (CH,) than the standard (“ straight ’) dynamites. They are therefore particularly useful in poorly ventilated mine workings, as headings where, in order to secure ventilation (in coal mines), bratticing or air pipes are necessary. Furthermore, there has

been increased insistence on the use of high-strength caps or detonators, since imperfectly detonated explosives of all kinds produce an excessive amount of carbon monoxide. Explosions 1n Coal Afines.—Advances have taken place in the appliances for fighting mine fires, in the modes of preventing and dealing with gas and dust explosions in collieries and in the design of safety lamps. Coal dust explosions are generally much more serious in bituminous than in anthracite mines. Most explosions in anthracite mines are of gas, sometimes aided by presence of dust. Many investigations of coal-dust explosions have been made tn Europe since 1880, but some of the phenomena attending their initiation and propagation have long been imperfectly understood. Since Professor Galloway (afterwards Sir William Galloway) first drew attention, about 1880, to the dangers arising from coal dust and the brothers Atkinson (Inspectors of Mines) wrote their book on colliery explosives, Sir William Garforth, after the Altofts explosion in Yorkshire, described the arresting effects of stone-dust on the explosive blast, and thereafter the Mining Association of Great Britain established a plant near Altofts for carrying out large scale experiments and did excellent work. Eventually the Iome Office took over the plant and, transporting it to Eskmeals in Cumberland, added to it and extended the scale of the experiments. The results of the elaborate work of the Home Office committees, extending over the period 1910-4, was published before the World War, and after the War a comprehensive set of regulations was established by the British Govt. for the purpose of reducing the accumulations of coal-dust in the mine and rendering such dust as remains uninflammable by reason of the admixture of inert and innocuous dust in stated proportions and of a

specified fineness.

Experiments

were also carried out at the

Liévin testing station in France, commencing in 1907, and later in Belgium and in Germany, and by the U.S.A. Bureau of Mines at their testing plant and Brunton experimental mine, near Pittsburgh (since 1909). Amongst the facts demonstrated are:— (a) The blasting of a single hole, charged with long-flame explosive (gunpowder or high explosive), may cause the ignition of coaldust; (b) respecting the initiation of an explosion, if enough dry coaldust is present, it is immaterial whether the air at the point of origin is quiescent or moving in either direction; (c) quantities of dust as small as 14 oz. per cu. ft. of space (or 1 lb. per linear ft. of an ordinary roadway in the mine) will propagate an explosion; (d) in presence of sufficient dust, an explosion may be produced at will in a roadway, even when the roof, sides and floor are wet to the touch owing to the presence of dry dust on the timbers, etc.; (e) the force of a coal-dust explosion usually increases in violence as it is propagated through a mine working and may reach its maximum atter travelling 500 to soo ft. from the place of origin; (f) pressures as high as 120 lb. per sq. in. have been measured at right angles to the direction of movement

of an explosion, the pressure in the line of advance being doubtless much greater.

Stone-dust Barriers —Stone-dust barriers, for checking or preventing the propagation of coal-dust explosions, were devised by J. Taffanel and modified by G. S. Rice, of the U.S. Bureau of

Mines, but constitute a doubtful safeguard. They consist of series of wide shelves, set across the mine gangway near the roof, each loaded with rock-dust. The shelves are tripped mechanically by the advance force waves of an explosion, being set to operate at certain air velocities produced by the explosion. From two to three tons of rock-dust are thus discharged in a dense cloud, in front of the advancing explosion wave, and, mixing with

with coal-dust of high volatile content, and that as much as 50%

or more may be necessary in some cases. Great Interest in “stone dusting’? is now being manifested in mining circles. See the publications issued by the British Mines Department and the U.S. Bureau of Mines, Bull. No. 225 (1924). Gas Helmets, ete —Gas helmets and oxygen breathing-apparatus, long used in mine rescue work, have undergone considerable improvement in point of construction, though no new principle can be said to have been evolved. Winding Engines. —P Power plants (frequently hydroelectric except in the case of Great Britain) have been established in many mining districts, and supply electric current at cheaper rates than are possible for equivalent steam power. Electricdriven winding engines are consequently used in much greater numbers than formerly and in Great Britatn, though electricity is seldom obtainable from water power, electric hoists have increased in use at collieries which have in some instances established large power plants, e.g., at Powell Duffryn Colliery in South Wales. The control mechanism of electric winders is so perfected that these engines are as manageable as the best steam winding engines. The large variations in load, unavoidable in winding operations, and very disadvantageous for electric transmission of power, are successfully dealt with by the “ equalising systems ” of winding or hoisting, the first of which, the SiemensIlgner, was introduced just previous to 1906. Modifications of it, based chiefly on the mode of control, are the Westinghouse and the Ward-Leonard. The design and operation of all of these devices are based on the principle that, when a motor receives electric current, it will deliver mechanical power; conversely, when driven by mechanical power, the motor becomes in effect a generator and furnishes electric current. The alternating current usually supplied to a mine is first reduced to about 500 volts and then goes to a motor-generator set, comprising a shunt or induction motor, which drives a direct-current generator and a heavy fly-wheel, all on a common shaft. This set is in constant motion, though not at constant speed. From the generator the current gocs to a winding engine motor, which drives a pair of drums on the drum shaft. At the beginning of a winding cycle, the winding engine motor receives current from the motor-generator set; but, after the descending cage has reached a point where the trip can be completed by the weight of the rope, the winding engine motor is driven by the drum, and therefore supplies current to the generator of the motor-generator set. Thus, part of the recovered power is stored in the fly-wheel, while the remainder is expended in driving the induction motor as a generator, thercby causing it to deliver current to the external circuit or power service. The fly-wheel cuts down the peaks of the load curve. Since rors, a number of these plants have been erected; they are costly and suitable only where the hoisting is nearly continuous and high peak loads are heavily penalised in the power service. Linderground Haulage-—Vor locomotive haulage, the electric trolley system was in 1925 still first in importance, though the use of this system is not permitted in gassy and dusty coalmines in Great Britain; next to this were the compressed-air locomotives, very rarely used in Great Britain, if at all. Storagebattery locomotives, though invented many years ago, were rarely used until about torr and in 1925 were employed to a limited extent only in the mines of the United States and the continent of Europe; their use in British coal mines is at the present time under consideration and a prize was recently offered for a safe and practical locomotive. Their construction is simple, and, as they carry their power with them, they have the advantage of being able to operate

MINING wherever a rail track is laid, without the necessity of erecting a trolley wire. They are best suited to short distance haulage and light service, as for gathering individual tubs or cars from the working places and making them up into trains or sets on the main haulage roads, or what is termed “ secondary haulage.” - The maximum speed is about five miles per hour and easy track gradients are necessary. Their chief disadvantage is high first

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REPTILIAN and MAMMALIAN LIFE SUCCESSION in the GOBI DESERT as discovered by the Central Asiatice Expeditions to the end of the year 1925. Left to right, first column: Four periods of mountain uplift. (1) Post-Jurassic mountains of Mongolia, forming by erosion the chief floor of the present Gobi desert; (2) probable Tertiary uplift of the mountains of northern China bordering the Gobi on the south; (3) Uphit, probably culminating in Miocene time, of the Himalaya Mountains bordering the central Asiatic plateaus on the southwest; (4) Upper Pliocene uplift of the Altai Mountains in the middle of the central Asiatic plateau. Second column: Ten Tertiary formations extending from Lower Pleistocene to Paleocene time, also five Cretaceous formations extending from Middle Cretaceous to Upper Jurassic time. Third column: Animals. reproduced to unitorm scale, chicily characteristic of each formation and life-zone, some of which are represented by complete skeletons, others by skulls, still others by highly characteristic teeth (e.g., the giant sauropod Asiatosaurus and the theropod Prodeinodon).

MONGOLIA, PALAEONTOLOGIC DISCOVERIES IN TABLE

941

I. Stone Age, Tertiary and Cretaceous Formations of Mongolia In Descending Order

Regions Altai piedmont Altai piedmont

Geologic Age

Uliassutai trail Uhassutai trail Uliassutai trail

50+ | Upper Palaeolithic 5—40 Middle Palaeolithic Lower Palaeolithic Khunuk 27-120 | Lower Pleistocene Tsagan Nuru BO. a aan Dinistacené Gochu 1000 f Iung Kureh 1000+ Upper Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene Pang Kiang 500° ?NMiocene; age doubtful Loh 100-1000 Middle Miocene lisanda Gol 3000" Middle to Upper Oligocene Houldjin 30°50" Middle to Upper Oligocene “legen o -200 ?Middle to Upper Oligocene Baron Sog 5-30" ? Middle Oligocene Ulan Gochu >'-60' ?Lower Oligocene Ardyn Obo 500° ?Lower Oligocene Shara Murun 200’+/ Summit of Eocene

Shara Murun Basin Iren Dabasu Basin Iren Dabasu Basin, . | Kholobolchi Nor Basin | Eastern Altai Mts. Eastern Altai Mts. . | N. E. of Shabarakh Usu! Iren Dabasu Basin Oshih Basin .

Tukhum Irdin Manha Arshanto Kholobolchi Gashato Djadokhta Dohoin Usu Iren Dabasu Ashile

Tsagan Nor Basin

Ondai Sair

Orok Nor Basin . Tsagan Nor Basin Eastern Altai Mts. Iren Dabasu Basin Eastern Altai Mts. Eastern Altai Mts. Iren Dabasu Basin Orok Nor Basin Uliassutai trail

Human Culture, Mammal and Reptile Life-zones

Probable or Estimated

Formations and Thickness Estimated in Feet

Shabarakh Usu Orok Nor

sœ+| Upper Eocene ?IOO’ Upper Eocene

40-100 ? Middle Eocene 1000’+ | ?Lower Eocene 300°

Basal Eocene (Paleocene)

500° 200' = 10 2000”

Middle Cretaceous

Lower Cretaceous ?Wealden Upper Jurassic

500’

Upper Jurassic

and the “‘ Gobi Series ” of Obruchev (1892-1909), have been subdivided by the American Museum party into from 15 to 23 distinct geologic formations more or less rich in animal hfe, connected with either Western Europe or North America, the Tertiary with a total estimated thickness of from 6,500 to 9,000 ft. and the Cretaceous with an estimated thickness of 3,380 ft., as

?Azilian-Campignian ?Aurignacian-Mousterian ?Acheulean or ?Eolithic

rEquus. ?Afastodon ?Eguus. ?Struthiolithus Hipparion. Camelus zone

Rodents. ?Ochotona Mastodon (Serridentinus) zone Baluchitherium grangeri zone Baluchitherium grangeri zone ? Mammals undetermined ?Large titanotheres ?Large titanotheres Brontops gobrensis zone Pratitanotherium mongoliense zone Amynodon mongoliensis PFitanotheres Eudinoceras, Andrewsarchus zone Lophiadonts, Schiosseria zone Coryphodon zone Prodinoceras zone, Palaeosiylops Protoceratops Andrewsi zone Dinosauria, Crocodilia, Chelonia ?zone Ienuanodont, Ornithomimidae Psitfacosaurus zone Al statosaurus Prodeinodon Profiguanodon zone

shown in Table I. This table includes results up to the end of the season of 1925, in which the most welcome discovery was abundant evidence of the Stone Age in Mongolia, below the Iron, Bronze and the Neolithic, namely, culture levels of Upper Palaeolithic (?Azilian-Campignian), of Middle Palaeolithic (?Mousterian) and of Lower Palaeolithic (?Acheulean) time. No

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Biante lines indicate mountain

MONGOLIA, PALARONTOLOGIC DISCOVERIES IN

942

conceived the plan of a camel caravan for heavy transportation of gasolene and supplies, with light and heavy automobiles for detour and reconnaissance work. The camel caravans, composed of from 1s0 to 250 animals under Mongol drivers, averaged from 12tors m.aday; the automobile trains proved capable of 10 times this speed, carrying an American party of from cight to 12 members, 12 Chinese helpers and an equal number of Mongols. The expedition had the advantage of speed over the work of previous explorers, who had entered or crossed the desert with camels only, namely, Raphael Pumpelly (1864), Ferdinand von Richthofen (1871-2) and V. A. Obruchev (1892-1909). The American palaeontologists and geologists, Granger, Berkey and Morris, also had the advantage of prolonged experience in the fields and geologic formations of the western United States, which between the scth and goth parallels of latitude present conditions remarkably similar to those in the desert of Gobi (see map on p. 943). In the easterly region of the Gobi desert, previously declared unfossiliferous, in which Obruchev found only a single fragmentary “ rhinoceros’ tooth, the expedition, leaving Kalgan April 15 1922, discovered on May 3, 260 m. northwest of Kalgan, rich strata near Iren Dabasu of probably Lower Cretaceous age,

human fossils were found; the industrial levels are not as yet precisely determinable, but the chief anthropological fact is

established that Stone Age tribes spread over the southern Gobi Desert region during Pleistocene time. This accords with the prior discovery (1923) by Licent and Teilhard of the Mousterian

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ANGARA

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Upper Eocene formations of Cuvier in France and similar fossil beds in Utah, Wyoming and Nebraska of the Rocky Mountain region. These Mongolian formations immediately established the Gobi region as a great central life zone, half-way between “urope and the Rocky Mountain region, according to the theory of 1900.

industry in the Ordos region of China. Equipment, Personnel and [ttnecrary.—It was in 1920 that R. C. Andrews first crossed the broad level Mongolian plains and Me

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Fic. 3.--Sketch map of central Mongolia, showing the gencral geology along the routes of the Central Asiatic Expeditions of 1922, 1923, 1925) the main and side routes indicated by long dashes. The arrows west of Baga Bogdo indicate northern routes along the Uliassutat Trail. Finely stippled arcas indicate location of chief Cretaceous and Tertiary formations listed in Table I. Hung Kureh and Gochu lie S.E. of Loh.

MONGOLIA, PALAEONTOLOGIC DISCOVERIES IN Encouraged by this brilliant initial success of 1922, the American Museum party made a 3,000-m. reconnaissance to the north as far as Urga, the capital of Mongolia, and southwest to the Altai mountains where five additional fossil horizons (Ondat Sair, Ashile, Hsanda Gol, Loh and Ifung Kureh formations) of Upper Jurassic, Upper Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene age were discovered; then southeast along the Altai mountains, where in the Djadokhta formation of Middle Cretaceous time the now famous dinosaur eggs were found, together with marvellously preserved series of dinosaur skeletons, chicfly of herbivorous types such as Protoceratops and of small carnivorous types. Thus the 1922-3 expeditions virtually circled the entire desert of Gobi east of the Altai mountains ( fig. 1). On the return, toward Kalgan in north China, three additional Tertiary fossil horizons (Gashato, Ardyn Obo and Shara Murun) were discovered and a few representative fossils from each were brought back. The types of dinosaurs, and of mammals which chiefly characterise these formations or horizons, are diagrammatically

parT

Fic. 4.— Areal map of Mongolia, projected upon map of United Statesof America. Similar 50° and 40° parallels of latitude. A, O,= chief fossil localities of central Mongolia discovered to the end of the year 1925. A, @,=chicf fossil localities of terrestrial dinosaurs and mammals of the United States. This map demonstrates that the Mongolian and North American faunas occupied similar isothermal regions in central Asia and central North America from Upper Jurassic to Tertiary time.

shownin Plate II., which displays the ancient “life zones” of Mongolia as we descend from Lower Pleistocene into Upper Jurassic time. The animals represented in this life zone chart are known either by complete skeletons (e.g., Protoceratops, Protiguanodon, Psittacosaurus) or by complete skulls (e.g., Baluchitherium, Protitanotherium) or, finally, by highly characteristic teeth (e.g., Asiatosaurus, Prodeinodon). In all of the Cretaceous horizons the correlation with Europe and with North America is provisional; in all the Tertiary horizons, excepting the ?Miocene Pang Kuang, the correlation is either absolute or fairly close.! In the season of 1923 the expedition explored intensively the fossil beds visited in 1922, and returned with the camel caravan heavily loaded from the 15 or more horizons extending from the Upper Jurassic (Ondai Sair, Ashile) to the very summit of the Upper Pliocene (Hung Kureh). These discoveries have established Mongolia as a treasure house of the life history of the earth from the close of Jurassic time onward to the close of Pleistocene time, revealing especially the hitherto unknown high continental life ef Cretaceous and Tertiary times. Consequently, the outstanding geologic discovery of the expedition is, first, that GOBZA (fig. 2) since Jurassic time has been a central Asiatic continent extremely favourable to the evolution of reptiles, mammals, insects and plants hitherto known only along the Cretaceous shore lines of Europe and the Cretaceous sea borders of the centre of America, and second, that this now terribly desert region, traversed by the gazelle

1To clearly understand the above description the reader should

carefully examine Plate I., correlation chart, and Table II., faunal succession. :

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Fic. 5.—Irdin Manha Upper Eocene formation of the Iren Dabasu Basin, eastern Mongolia. Rich in titanotheres and other large mammals of American Upper Eocene affinities. (Compare fig. 3.)

Dabasu in 1923, that the ancestors of man occupied this region during Caenozoic time and are likely to demonstrate the central Asiatic theory of human origin. This generalisation was partly verified during the year 1925. TABLE

Oe EXTINCT REPTILES

943

and the wild ass, was certainly luxuriant with life throughout Cretaceous and Tertiary time, sparsely forested, with limited rain supply like the high plateau region of Africa to-day. These upland conditions of Mesozoic and Caenozoic time, also favourable to the origin of the human race itself, led to the further generalisation by H. F. Osborn, on returning from Iren

Il. Human Culture, Mammalian and Reptiltan Life

Zones in Descending Order 1. Mongol graves of early historic time. 2. Iron and Bronse ages represented by monuments and graves in the Gobi desert. è f 3. Neoliühic represented in the upper levels of Shabarakh Usu deposits; pottery, etc., ostrich eggs (Struthiolithus). 4. Uppermost Palaeolithic of Shabarakh Usu. Indurated sands containing flints, resembling those of the ?Azilian and Campignian industries of Europe; eggshell ornaments made of Sfruthiolithus and of fossilised dinosaur eggs. The “ dune-dwellers’’ of prolonged occupation. True Upper Palaeolithic not found. 5. Lower Palaeolithic. Near Orok Nor, 20 m. from Kholobolchi Nor. Flint industry of possible Aurignacian age; flints certainly of Mousterian age, of IV. Glacial and pre-Glacial time resembling those of the Ordos. 6. ?Acheulean or ?Folithic flints of uncertain age. 7. Tsagan Nuru, Gochu. Regarded as base of the Pleistocene. The Gochu, 1,000 ft. in thickness, overlies the Hung Kureh at the foot of the Altai range Baga Bogdo. The sands of Tsagan Nurud contain Eguus and Struthiolithus, 8. Hung Kureh. Lower Pleistocene and Upper Pliocene. Containing in lower levels, a true Upper Pliocene horizon, Iipparion, ?Elephas, Cervus, Castor, Camelus, Gazella, rhinoceros, ?Coelodonta. Compare Plaisancian-Astian of France and Italy. 9. Loh. These gravels and clays, directly overlying the Hsanda Gol, are apparently of Middle Miocene age. Containing a mastodont, Serridentinus mongoliensis, and a diminutive baluchithere, Baluchitherium mongoliense. Compare Lower and Middle Miocene Burdigalian-Helvetian of France. 10. sanda Gol. Great formation 3,000 ft. in thickness, of Middle to Upper Oligocene, or Stampian to Aquitanian. Containing abundant remains of Baluchitherium grangert, a skull having been found in 1922 and a leg and feet in 1925; small rhinoceros; very large small-mammal fauna, several thousand jaws belonging to 30 genera of rodents, creodont carnivores, true carnivores, insectivores related to Tupaia (the tree shrews) and Macroscelides (the jumping shrews). The prevailing affinities of this fauna are with the Quercy Phosphorite of France; there are also distant affinities to modern African rodents and insectivores; relationship to North American and the Middle Oligocene White River fauna is less close, except in the wideranging carnivores like Hyaenodon. The larger rhinoceros Baluchitherium resembles that of Baluchistan (Forster Cooper) and the Indricotherium (Borissiak) of Turkestan, A formation of similar age in the Iren Dabasu basin is the Houldjin, where Obruchev discovered his “ rhinoceros ” tooth, probably a baluchithere. Apparently intermediate between the well-determined Hsanda Gol and the Ardyn Obo formations, there were found in 1925 three other horizons in which the faunas are still to be determined, namely, Elegen, Middle to Upper Oligocene, and Ulan Gochu, Lower Oligocene.

ri. Ardyn Obo.

500 ft. thick.

Baron

Sog, Middle Oligocene

On the Uliassutai trail.

Contains

rich Lower Oligocene (Sannoisian) fauna, chiefly of ungulates, including giant titanotheres (Brontops gobiensis, Menodus mongoliensis) broad-skulled and long-skulled titanotheres similar to those of South Dakota and Colorado; also an amphibious rhinoceros, Cadur-

cotheriumt mongoliense, intermediate in character between Cadurcotheriunt of the Lower Oligocene of France and the American Afefamyhoden. The creodont carnivores include /Iyaenodon and aberrant oxyaenids ancestral to Hsanda Gol forms, Compare Infra-Tongrian, Ronzon, Quercy. 12. Shara Murun. Richly fossiliferous formation on the Uliassutai trail, representing the very summit of Eocene time. Contains

MONITOR

944

imposing titanothere fauna (Prototitanotherium andrewsi, P. mongoliense, Dolichorhinus), quadrupeds extraordinarily similar to those of Utah in the Rocky Mountain region. Here occur the amphibious

amynodonts, also a long-limbed rhinoceros ancestral to Baluchitherium, and numerous smaller odd-toed ungulates suggestive of Tapirus and the cursorial Colodon (Deperetella), all of strong American resemblance. Most important is the pro-ruminant -lrchacomeryx, in all respects ancestral to the higher ruminants (Cervidae, etc.). The carnivores of this horizon (/Zyaenodon, Pterodon) are again of Franco-American affinities. Compare Ludian stage of France, Gypse de Montmartre.

Tukhum is another formation discovered in 1925, which has not yet been fully studied. It directly underlies the Shara Murun. 13. Irdin Manha. 1n this great flood-plain horizon, only Ioo ft. in thickness but of vast horizontal extent, we again observe very close relationships to the Upper Eocene of the Rocky Mountain region. Outstanding types are the titanothcres (Dolichorhinus, Protitanotherium, Afesatirhinus); the giant Fudinoceras, four-horned and tusked, comparable to Dinoceras Marsh of the Rocky mountains; finally, the giant Andrewsarchus, a primitive creodont carnivore named after Andrews, the leader of the Central Asiatic Expeditions. 14. Arshanto. of the total surface in European hands; large farms (over 1,250 ac.), 14°3%. The rest (40-9 °%) varies between 250 and 1,250 ac. (colonisation moyenne), Of the total surface, 179,000 ac. had been given away by the official colonisation system (sales}, and the rest bought directly from the natives. About half the French colonists come from Algeria and Tunisia and are already familiar with local conditions.

The establishment of French power brought about a great change in economic and social conditions in agriculture as elsewhere. Both the soil and the climate are, in many parts of Morocco, far more favourable to settlement than to nomadism. The feebleness of the - central native power (Maghzen) and continual intertribal strife used to render private property (melk lands) almost illusory. But, especially since 1919, in the pacified parts, the natives have settled on the land which was, before, “common ” land (arch), inalienable

according to Mussulman law and custom. It is both wise and just to reserve a part of them (it is estimated that about 5,000,000 ac. can be cultivated instead of being left for sheep grazing) for French and other colonists, who can put them into far better valuc.2. There are also maghzen and habu (religious property) lands that can be better utilised. Land registration has been introduced in Morocco since 1913, and 5,826 titles had been registered at the end of 1923, on which, at that date, 186,000,000 fr. had been borrowed on mortgage. Natives are also beginning to register their lands. The colonists cultivate the same crops as the natives: wheat (durum principally), barley, oats, beans, etc.; the olive tree, flax

(for seed). There have been a few experiments in growing castor-oil seed and in cotton and hemp since the War. Orange culture in the regions of Meknes and Marrakesh is promising. Vineyards only occupy a few hundreds of acres; and for the moment the raising of early vegetables (so successful in Algeria) is confined to the suburbs of a few big towns for their European inhabitants. Stock raising (sheep especially) is also carried on, sometimes in association with natives; the number of sheep was estimated in 1924 at about 10,000,000, of which 7,200,000 paid the tax tertib, and about 100,000

were in European hands. The amelioration of the local breed, both from the point of view of the flesh and the wool,’ is being steadily pursued; as also the study of several other important agricultural problems in the official farms and experimental fields. Budget.—The 1924 budget foresaw 312,629,000 fr. ordinary receipts; of which, customs produced 83,000,000 fr. ; tertib, 66,000,000; taxes

on

consumption

(sugar,

tobacco,

etc.},

60,000,000,

The

312,442,000 fr, of expenses were principally distributed as follows: public debt, 62,000,000; justice and general administration, 72,000,000; services of economic interest (public works, agriculture and

1“ Urbanism ” was a great feature under Lyautey. If Casablanca is certainly an overgrown town, the plans for the extension of the principal towns (drawn up by ME. Henri Prost) are remarkable, and carefully preserve the native quarters.

2 In Tunisia, for instance, in 1921, the 190,000 ac. cultivated in wheat by Europeans produced 68,000 tons, whereas the 1,250,000 ac. in native hands only gave 120,000 tons. In Morocco, where a French colonist loses 7 °% of his sheep stock, a neighbouring Aaid will lose 48 °4—a case of direct observation. 3 Wool of the Aéudia commercial type, of the Beni Hassen, is already of a superior quality; it is perhaps the original merino.

of which were already in operation in 1926, and which will be partly clectrihed when the Casablanca central power station is finished.

Including the Tangier-lez line (310 km.), the new system will have a total length of about 1,000 kilometres. The admirable phosphate

The network of roads consisted (end of 1923) in 2,665 km. of prin-

cipal and 577 km. of secondary roads, and 933 km. more were being constructed or projected. There existed at the same date 12,300 km. of telegraph lines. Besides the sea postal service, Casablanca is in daily postal connection by aeroplane with Toulouse, by Algeciras, Barcelona and Perpignan. The year 1925 marked important progress in the value of Moroccan commerce: 1,754,000,000 fr. (imports, I,189; exports, 565), as against 139,0,000,000 fr. In 1924, and 856,000,000 in 1923. Figures in tons are still more decisive.

1923 Exports [imports

339,236 448,293

1924

1925

815,160 426,572

982,921 569,640

Total (tons) 787,529 1,242,732 1,552,560 The great growth in exports is due to the progress in the exploitation of the magnificent phosphate beds of Wed Zem (finer than those of Tunisia): 720,000 tons exported in 1925. By far the greater part of Moroccan commerce is centred in Casablanca (1,135,600 tons, 1,082,000,000 francs). The two ports ranking next are Qnitra (138,700 tons) and Safi (g0,600 tons). Fdala is last on the list. Commerce by land with Algeria (Taza-Ujda) amounted to 77,860 tons. On Jan. 1 1924 there were 615 industrial establishments in European hands in Morocco, employing 7,223 hands and 22,868 horsepower. The capital invested amounted to 273,600,000 francs. Flectricity heads the list; flour-mills, slaughter houses, lime and cement factories come next. Casablanca comes first (140,000,000 fr. invested). Rabat, Marrakesh, fez, Qnitra and Ujda rank afterwards, in the order named.

BinLloGRAPHY.—Otticial and general publications and periodicals:

Annuaire

Economique

et Financier

(Casablanca);

Archives

Maro-

catnes and ITesporis (Rabat); Bullétin de V Afrique Francaise, with

its remarkable supplements (Paris); La Renaissance du Maroc, Dix ans de Protectorat (Rabat, 1922); Prosper Richard, Le Afaroc (Paris, 1925),

with an English adaptation by C. Heywood,

Islam;

P. Louis

Rivière,

Traités

Codes

Morocco,

et Lots

du

Mysterious

Afaroce

(Paris,

1925, 3 vol.); Victor Pictet, Le peuple Marocain, le bloc berbère (1925); Ali bialelse, Le Collier de Perles, un des discours de politique indigène du Maréchal Lyautey (Rabat, 1925). Special: J. Ladreit de

la Charriére,

Le réve d’Abd ef Kerim

(Paris, 1925); L. Milliet, Les

terres Collectives (blad djemaa) (Paris, 1922); Paul Marty, Le Maroc de demain (Paris, Comité de l’Asie francaise, 1928), important on the vital question of the education of the natives. (H. BrR.*)

II. SPANISH MOROCCO The Spanish zonc in Morocco extends over an area of 18,360 square miles. Accurate returns of the population are impossible. The civil population in the towns in 1923 was estimated at 118,305, of whom the majority were Mahommedans. Tetuan, the capital of the Protectorate, had an estimated population of 23,447 in 1923. Other towns were Melilla, 60,000; Larache, 15,4303 Alcazarquivir, 12,368. Education in Spanish Morocco is conducted under the auspices of the different creeds. Catholics, Mahommedans and Jews

have their own schools. The budget of the Protectorate provides the salaries of professors at the university in Tetuan. There were 175 primary schools, of which 74 were specially for Moorish children. The total number of pupils attending the primary schools in 1923 was 24,670. Administration.--By a royal decree of Jan. 18 1924 the direction of affairs in Spanish Morocco was entrusted to the Premier

956

MOROCCO, CAMPAIGNS IN

of Spain, with the exception of military matters, which were confided to the Ministry of War. The Spanish Govt. is represented in the Protectorate by the High Commissioner, who presides over the Civil Services. A royal decree of March 1925 fixed the limit of the Spanish forces in the Zone at 80,o0o0o—65,000 Europeans and 15,000 natives.

The intermediary between the

neighbouring districts occupied. At the same time Spanish forces marching south and westward from Melilla succeeded in penetrating some distance into the Rif without meeting with serious resistance. Efect of the World War.—The Spanish task was at first much facilitated by the World War, during which the Spanish zone was used by the Germans as a base of active propaganda and action against the French Protectorate. Money was lavishly distributed amongst the tribesmen for the purpose of raising Rif forces for inroads into French territory, and Rifi attention was largely withdrawn from the more imminent danger of Spanish invasion. The end of the war put a stop to this anti-French action and the Rifis, who had received from the Germans large sums of money and no small quantity of arms, turned against the Spaniards. In rọrọ General Berenguer, the Spanish High Commissioner, was forced to open a campaign in the Jibala highlands which led, in the following year, to the occupation of Sishawen (Sheshuan). Raisuli, sherif and ex-brigand, whose influence amongst the tribes was great, facilitated on this occasion Spanish action. ‘Abdel Krim.—Further east ‘Abdel Krim, the son of a Beni

higher command and the Moorish troops is the officer known as the Caid Interventor. The reverse suffered by the Spanish arms in 1921 through the defection of a friendly tribe, when Gen. Silvestre was killed, precipitated a political crisis in Spain, which culminated in the proclamation of the Military Directory in Sept. 1923. The policy of the President of the Directory, Gen. Primo de Rivera, was to establish a single front, to effect which the army was withdrawn from portions of the occupied territory and a number of positions were evacuated. Spanish subjects in the Protectorate enjoy all the civil rights recognised by the law in Spain; foreign residents enjoy the same rights subject to certain provisions. All residents, whether Spanish subjects or not, must conform with regulations relating to the police and public security. The budget for the Zone for 1924-5 was 15,607,500 pesctas. The total trade values, in pesetas, for 1922 were: imports, 4,367,401; exports, 7,080,413—a favourable trade balance of 2,713,012 pesetas. Agriculture in the Spanish Zone has made progress since 1923, and of the 330,000 hectares of land available for cultivation in the eastern zone 120,000 have been taken up for production. Lemons, .

‘This disaster, which began with the fall of the advanced post of Anual and the death of General Silvestre, leading to a subsequent

oranges, olives and many cereals are grown. The Agrupación agraria at Alcazarquivir has inaugurated a new era of agricultural

in several years of campaign and diplomacy.

progress. The Spanish Zone is served by three railways: Ceuta-Tetuan, Nador-Titztutin, Larache-Alc4zar, with a total mileage of 90 miles. Public highways have been constructed in the central, eastern and western regions. MOROCCO, CAMPAIGNS IN.—The colonisation of Morocco has always been attended by violent encounters with the numerous tribes inhabiting that country. Since roro France and Spain, the two protecting powers, have both had to contend

afresh with native hostility, encouraged and assisted to some extent by agents of Germany. The following account of this aspect of Moroccan history is given under three headings, namely, I. Spanish Campaigns; II. French Campaigns; and III. Franco-Spanish Campaigns. The last deals with the combined action of France and Spain against the tribes of the Rif.

I. SPANISH CAMPAIGNS The history of Spain in the Rif has been one of intermittent warfare ever since, at various dates in the Middle Ages, she obtained possession of and occupied her ‘‘ Presidios ” on this coast of North Africa—Mclilla, the Zaffarin Islands (Islas Chafarinas), Alhucemas, Peñon de la Gomera and Ceuta. Confined to the narrow limits of these possessions, it was ever Spain’s desire to obtain more breathing-room so as to be able to put them to a greater utility than mere penal settlements. At various periods, for instance after the Spanish Moroccan War of 1859-60, the Spanish Government had demanded and obtained some territorial expansion at Ceuta and Melilla, but the other points, rocky islands off the coast, remained at the mercy of the tribesmen of the mainland and could only with difficulty be provisioned. As was only natural the relations between the Spanish and the Rifis were difficult. Spanish Expanston.—The loss of her colonics at the end of the 19th century caused Spain to seek compensation in Africa; and the Franco-Spanish Treaty of 1912, to which Great Britain was a consenting party, gave her the opportunity she sought. By this treaty the Spanish zone in Morocco was delimitated and Spain’s hands were freed to undertake its occupation. Already in 1909 she had fought a costly campaign in the Melilla district which had left a comprehensible desire in the Spanish Army for revenge. In 1912 the occupation of various parts of the Spanish zone was begun and tn that and the succeeding years Tetuan, Larache, El Qsar (Alcazar), and Arzila were reached and the

Uryaghel (Ouriaghel) chief, had deserted the Spanish service and was stirring up resistance to the Spaniards in the Rif. In 1921 a Spanish Army of nearly 20,000 men holding the country between

Melilla and Alhucemas

was annihilated by the Rifis.

panic, ended in the loss to Spain of all that had been acquired

At least 16,000

soldiers were killed, after the perpetration upon many of them of every kind of atrocity. Melilla itself was for a time at the mercy of the tribesmen, but for some unexplained reason they did not enter the town. These Moroccan events led to a crisis in Spain and in Sept. 1923 the Constitutional Government was replaced by a Military Directory under Gen. Primo de Rivera. The situation in Africa `

was serious. The outlying Spanish positions, often cut off altogether, were threatened in every direction and the president of the directory recognised that immediate action was necessary if the Spanish garrisons and Spanish prestige were to be saved. Ife decided upon the wise and courageous course of a general withdrawal from the front, including the evacuation of Shishawen. It was not until the autumn of 1924 that this difficult manocuvre was accomplished, after considerable loss in men, in artillery and in arms and ammunition. New lines were occupied, passing from the immediate south of Tetuan to the frontier of the Tangier zone and thence southward to near El Qsar and the frontier of the French Protectorate.

The road from Tangier to Tetuan was

preserved as a couloir, strongly guarded on both sides, through enemy country. The evacuation by the Spaniards of those extensive regions added not a little to "Abdel Krim’s influence and prestige. Raisuli, ill and bedridden, was taken prisoner by the Rifis and died a few months later, a captive at Adir, ‘Abdel Krim’s headquarters. (W.B. H.)

II. THE FRENCH CAMPAIGNS The Fez rising which took place in Oct. roro (see Morocco, was followed by continued trouble in the Fez-Sefru district during the autumn of 1911. A new pretender, Hamed el Hiba, occupied Marrakesh in Aug. r912, but he was expelled in Sept. and therepon fled south. In Oct. Gen. Lyautey occupied Agadir. Fighting in Western Morocco continued for some months; but this district and that of Fez were occupied by the spring of 1913, and the French concentrated their attention on Eastern Morocco. The important strategic point of Taza, which commands communications with Algeria, was occupied in May 1914, Khenifra captured in June. The World War Period.—On the outbreak of the World War, the French commander received telegraphic orders from the Ministers of Foreign Affairs and of War (July 27-28 rọr4) “ to reduce the occupation to the principal points on the coast,’ as

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Lyautey to send all available men and material to the French front. Lyautey immediately dispatched 37 battalions and other troops; but refused to evacuate the interior. The tribes

round Taza, and the Zayan in the west, promptly rose, but the kaids of the Atlas and the baskas of Tarudant and Tiznit in the south near Agadir remained friendly, the latter keeping El Hiba’s forces in check. The Spanish zone was used by the Germans as a basis of active propaganda and action against the French Protectorate. The tribesmen received lavish donations of arms and money from the Germans. Throughout rors

and ror6 chiefs in German pay conducted a campaign along the Wad Wergha. Nevertheless, the small French force more than held its own. In May and June 1917 Abd el Malek was driven from Taza. On March 24 1917 El Hiba was severely defeated at Wijan; his force was finally dispersed in the following spring. The Tafilelt was definitely occupied at the end of 1917. In Aug. 1918 a revolt began among the Aid Atta, which was suppressed by April rorg with the help of El Glawi. French Activity, 1918-2 3—After the War the French continued their operations, taking the offensive, now on one, now on the other, of their four fronts: the Northern (Spanish zone; Djecbala and Rif tribes), the Berber (Central Atlas), the front of the big kaids {El Glawi, M'‘tongi, Goundafi) and the Southern front (Kut Aissa, Tafilelt). In 1919 the 80,000 French troops were successfulin the Bu Dnib territory in the southeast (Jan.-March), on the Wenah (northwest) in April, in the Taza Corridor (JuneOct.). In 1920 the chief activity was in the Central Atlas until Sept., when Wazzan, in the north, was taken, and operations began in Nov. north of Agadir. For to21 the main operations were again planned for the Berber front, but in Feb. the Djebalis, headed by Kacem ben Salah and Abd el Malek, again rose un-

expectedly. Though reinforced by the Beni Mestara and the Beni Mesguilda, they were put down by General Poeymirau in April. General Aubert settled the Beni Waghrain question in June, and Poeymirau once more filled up the Bekrit “ pocket ” in the Zayan country in the autumn. By the end of 1923 the French zone was pacified, 1923 being especially devoted to wiping out the Taza “stain” (la tache de Taza). The last French operations were largely dictated by the need of gaining control, for irrigation and other purposes, of the “ Water Castle ” of the Central Atlas. Meanwhile the anti-French subventions ceased and the Rifi, now well-armed and financed, turned against the Spaniards. (II. BR.*)

II, THE FRANCO-SPANISH CAMPAIGN Until April ro25 the Rifi had been at war with Spain alone; but the gradual occupation by the French of the northern limits of their Protectorate, which reaches as far as the southern borders of the Rif, brought a new factor into the field.

‘Abdel Kerim’s Offensive-— Abdel Krim considered that his country was threatened by this advance and in April he Jaunched a furious attack upon the French front to the north of the FezTaza-ujda road, the great highway between the Moorish capital | and Algeria. Under this unexpected blow the French front col-

lapsed. The Rifi penetrated far behind the lines, forced or persuaded the surrounding tribes to rebel and pillaged and massacred when obedience was refused. The situation became critical. For some reason the French Govt. hesitated to send the rein. forcements necessary until the campaign had taken an importance which might have been avoided had more troops been at once available.

Wazzan and Taza were threatened and Euro-

pean women and children were withdrawn to places of safety.

MORRIS

958

The Sul-

of the Rif, and thus fell directly under Rifi influence, the rest of

tan, in order to give confidence by his presence, arrived there in the latter days of that month. The efforts to save Fez were successful but many of the rich agricultural districts of this northern part of the French Protectorate were overrun and pillaged.

By the end of June, Fez, the capital, was in danger.

Morocco remained loyal. As soon as the French and Spanish troops, on the breaking of

Wherever it was possible the more distant military posts were

Alhucemas was a heavy, but apparently only temporary, blow to his prestige, though itl necessitated the abandonment of his village capital of Ajdir. But he was able to withdraw to a place of surety within the mountains his artillery and stores of war ma-

evacuated, but many, with their garrisons killed, fell into the hands of the enemy with such artillery and arms and ammunition as was in them, immensely increasing the Rifis’ war material. In July the French Govt. decided to send Marshal Pétain to take supreme command of the French Army, which now numbered over 160,000 men. Marshal Lyautey remained in charge of the political and administrative Government. A month was lost in the reorganisation which this new decision necessitated. Meanwhile immense quantities of material, artillery, mechanical transport, acroplanes and all the implements of modern warfare arrived on the front. Franco-Spanish Alliance—Realising the common danger the French and Spanish Govts. held a conference at Madrid and drew up a programme for combined political and military

action in Morocco. Monsieur Painlevé and Gen. Primo de Rivera offered peace to ‘Abdel Krim on generous terms. The Rifi leader refused, demanding in return the absolute independence of the Rif. It was agreed at the conference that while the French Army should advance northward from its base the Spaniards should undertake a landing in Alhucemas Bay and thus occupy the region of Ajdir, which formed ‘Abdel Krim’s headquarters. On Sept. 8 and subsequent days a Spanish Army of 15,000 men was successfully disembarked

while, at the same

moment, French forces marched northward from their base at Taza, via Kifan. A junction was carried out at Syah between these French columns and Spanish contingents advancing westward from the Melilla district.

There is no doubt that the objective of this combined force was to reach Ajdir by land and join up with the Spanish troops which had been disembarked at Alhucemas, but the autumn rains broke and the united columns found themselves in dificulties. The tracks through this inhospitable country became quickly impassable and there was an imminent risk of isolation. The French troops retired 18 m., and all along the front winterquarters were prepared. Pétain returned to France and Lyautey resigned. M. Steeg, who had been Minister of Justice and Governor-General of Algeria, was nominated high commissioner, The active phase of the Franco-Spanish combined action against the Rif came to a close with the advent of winter weather and such French troops as could be spared from the front were sent to more hospitable quarters—I'ez, Meknes and Rabat. The campaign had been marked by no incidents of military importance. The French had succecded at great cost and at considerable loss of life in retaking the districts they had evacuated, but neither security nor tranquillity were assured. The mobility of the Rifis made them largely immune from the results of artillery attack, and long experience in the Spanish zone had taught them how to take cover from acrial bombardment. ‘Their losses were thus comparatively small. The absence of all war impedimenta rendered their mobility most disconcerting to troops educated on the European battlefield. Inshort the methods employed by the French were in many respects quite unsuitable to this kind of colonial warfare, and the hoped-for results had not been achieved when rain put an end to the autumn campaign. The constant penetration of the French lines by groups of natives who, uniting in the rear, became formidable bands, caused constant anxiety. Convoys and posts were attacked; peaceful country was invaded and farms and villages burnt. Rift Activity: Winter r925.—It had been ‘Abdel Krim’s desire and intention, by intense propaganda to raise rebellion amongst the Protectorate tribes further south; but although at one moment

there

were

signs of hesitation,

and

even

of disloyalty,

amongst some of the nearer Berber tribes, the spirit of rebellion was suppressed almost before it had become apparent. It was a proof of France’s admirable administration in Morocco that with the exception of the tribes which inhabited the borderlands

the weather, withdrew to winter quarters, ‘Abdel Krim began the reorganisation of his forces. The Spanish disembarkation at

terial. Only a very few of his guns fell into the hands of the Spaniards on their landing. Moving his headquarters to Targist, south of Ajdir, he set to work to prepare for a renewal of the campaign. His first action was to obtain a moral revenge for the Spanish landing at Alhucemas, and for this purpose he despatched fourcannon to the mountains that overlook Tetuan, the capital of the Spanish zone and the residence of the high commissioner. By almost superhuman efforts the Rifis dragged these guns over the rugged mountains to a spot within nine km. of Tetuan and set them up in caves situated at least 2,000 ft. above the town and valley. From this vantage ground they opened on Sept, 28a

desultory bombardment of the capital, which was still being continued in December. The skill with which these guns had been mounted and could be withdrawn into the caves after every shot protected them from the fire of the Tetuan batteries. To send an expedition to destroy them was considered unduly costly. The moral effect, however, was important and a large number of the civil population left the town. Close of 1925.—In Dec. 1925 the French and Spanish armies were in comfortless and insecure winter quarters, difficult to provision, and very trying to the health of the troops. ‘Abdel Krim was organising his army in preparation for a continuance of attacks upon his enemies during the winter and for a new campaign in the spring of 1926, which appeared inevitable unless meanwhie a settlement by negotiation could be brought about. Peace Negotiations: April 1926—KEarly in 1926, however, the prestige which ‘Abdel Krim had established over the tribes of the Rif began to wane and his position was much weakened by the readiness with which various tribes contemplated the cessation of hostilities. In these circumstances “Abdel Krim, in the first days of April, offered to negotiate with the Franco-Spanish Governments. An unofficial armistice came into being, and a meeting of French, Spanish and Rift delegates was arranged for the third week in April. The French and Spanish Govts. reached an agreement as to the terms on which they were

prepared to negotiate for peace.

(W. B. H.)

On May 30, ‘Abdel Krim surrendered unconditionally at Taza to Gencral Boichut, the French commander in Morocco. In a manifesto addressed to the Rifi tribes, M. Steeg said that his fate would be decided by Mulai Yusef, the Sultan of Morocco. The French losses during the campaign were 2,162, exclusive of the casualties among native troops. The close of the Rif campaign left some questions for solution between France and Spain, and conversations began at once between M. Steeg and the Spanish high commissioner, General Sanjurjo. Apart from the future of the Rif itself, the two tribal federations in the west, in the Djabala and .the Chomara, remained to be dealt with; even the French zone had not been

fully occupied.

(Sec ABDEL KRIM.)

(Ep. E. BJ

MORRIS, EDWARD PATRICK MORRIS, 1st Baron (1850 ). Newfoundland statesman, was born at St. John’s, Newfoundland, May 8 1859. Educated at St. Bonaventure’s College and the University of Ottawa, in 1884 he was admitted a solicitor, and in 1885 was called to the bar. The same year he was elected to the legislature of Newfoundland as the representative of St. John’s in the Liberal interest. From 1890 to 1895 he was acting attorney-general for Newfoundland, and from 1893 to 1906 was

a director of the Newfoundland Savings Bank. In 1898 Morris left the Liberal party and was leader, first of the Independent Liberals and later of the People’s party (1908-19). In 1902 he became attorney-general and subsequently Minister for Justice. He was knighted in 1904. In rooọ he became Prime Minister, retaining this ofice until 1918, and representing Newfoundland

MORRISON—MOSUL at various Imperial and other conferences. In 1913 he was made K.C.M.G., and in 1917 was a member of the Imperial War Conference. He was raised to the peerage in 1918, having been since 1911 a member of the Privy Council. Lord Morris edited an edition of the Newfoundland law reports from 1820 to 1905, usually called Morris’s Reporis. MORRISON, GEORGE ERNEST (1862-10920), British journalist and traveller, was born at Geelong, Australia, and educated at Mclbourne University. From 1882 he travelled extensively in the South Sea Islands, where he studied the Kanaka labour question; in Australia, which he crossed on foot from the Gulf of Carpentaria to Melbourne; and in New Guinea. He took his M.D. degree in 1887 and after journeys to the United States and the West Indies he worked in his medical capacity in Spain, Morocco and Australia. In 1893 he abandoned medical work and sect off on extensive travels in the Far Fast. In 1895 he was special correspondent of The Times (London) in Siam and two years later became Peking correspondent of the same journal. In this capacity he visited every province and dependency in the Empire, with the exception of Tibet, and gained an intimate knowledge of men and affairs. In 1911 at the outset of the revolutionary movement in China he proclaimed his sympathy for the programme of Dr. Sun Yat-sen and the Cantonese Radicals. In 1912 after the abdication of the Emperor he resigned his Times appointment and became political adviser to Yuan Shih-k’ai, president of the newly formed Chinese Republic. Dr. Morrison’s published works include An Anstralian in China (1895). He died at Sidmouth, Devonshire, May 30 1920.

MORTON, LEVI PARSONS (1824-1920), American banker and politician (see 18.882), died at Rhinebeck, N.Y., May 16 1920. MOSBY, JOHN SINGLETON (1833-1916), American soldier (see 18.890), died in Washington, D.C., May 30 1916. MOSCOW (sce 18.891), the capital of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics, called by the Russians Moskva, had in 1925 a population of 1,845,000. The great increase in population was due to the transfer of the seat of government from Petrograd to Moscow after the Revolution. It fell during the famine period, but increased by 716,000 from 1920 to 1924 owing to the return of many who had left the city and to the increase in the number of officials and of traders. The natural increase (the excess of births over deaths) is about 25,000 per annum. The records showed in 1925 270,000 persons engaged in government offices, schools, trade unions and co-operative organisations, etc., 35,000 employees in private trading concerns, 150,000 factory and mill workers, and about 37,000 home craft workers. The great influx of population created a serious and dangerous housing situation, intensified by the circumstances of the famine period when many wooden houses were destroyed for use as fuel, and by the cessation of building and of ordinary repairs. In 1920-1 25% of the already inadequate houses were derclict. Quarters were requisitioned, and the great apartment houses of central Moscow were run by house committees which allotted foor space to occupants, charging only the costs of repairs, lighting, cleaning, etc. The New Economic Policy was followed by a return to a more normal rent system. Houses were put in order, pavements restored, and a considerable amount of new buildings was put In hand in 1923 and 1924. In 1912, with a population of 1,618,000 Moscow had 281,500 apartments; in 1925, with a population nearing 2,000,000 she had 200,000 apartments. The pressure of population led the Soviet Govt. to transfer certain commissariats to Leningrad in 1925. ‘The streets of Moscow, radiating from a cornmon centre, have an excellent tramway system which makes the suburbs easily accessible; in 1925 a certain number of English motor-buses were running. The tramways carried 394,000,000 passengers In 1925 as against 257,000,000 In 1913. Part of the suburban train service is in process of electrification. Power is supplied to Moscow from a power station burning the soft coal of the Moscow district. A new electric power station, the largest in the U.S.S.R., which burns peat fuel, has been erected at a cost of 28,000,000 rubles, and began to supply power to the Moscow industries in 1926. The principal industries

959

of Moscow, textiles, engineering, food, had not recovered their pre-War output In 1925. Moscow has always been an important trade centre, and its position in the home market became steadily more important after the establishment of the headquarters of the various state trusts in the city. The Moscow Goods Exchange, established by the Trade Commissariat registered a turnover of 2,991,000 rubles in 1924-5. Itisstated that only 5 or 6% of this is private capital. Even with the opening of private shops and the repair of streets and buildings Moscow had not recovered its former busy aspect; the general poverty of the people prevented that. Some of the former palaces of the Moscow aristocracy and merchants have been turned over for public purposes, or for the use of foreign legations and missions. Many of the principal streets have been renamed after revolutionary personages. The city still remains an important literary and artistic centre, and the Moscow theatres are still among the first in Europe in the variety and beauty of their productions.

MOSELEY, HENRY GWYN-JEFFREYS

(1887-1915), British

physicist, was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Oxford. As lecturer in physics in Rutherford’s laboratory at Manchester University, and subsequently as John IJTartling fellow, he carried out a brilliant series of researches, proving the existence of a simple relationship between the X-ray spectrum of an element and its atomic number, and establishing a new and valuable method of chemical analysis. He was killed in Gallipoli Aug. ro IQI5. |

MOSLER, HENRY (1841-1920), American artist (sce 18.898), died at New York City April 21 1920. MOSUL (Vilayet) (see 18.904).—This former vilayet of the

Turkish Empire now forms part of ‘Iraq.

It includes the hivas

of Mosul, Arbil, Kirkuk and Sulaimaniya making an area of 35,130 square miles. Its boundaries are Syria on the west, ‘Irag on the south and southwest, Persia on the east and on the north the disputed Brussels Line dividing it from the Bitlis vilayet. As regards the ethnographical details of the population, the estimates provided by a pre-War Turkish census and those compiled by British officials in 1921 differ widely. The total population appears to be roughly 750,000, nine-tenths of the inhabitants being Moslems. In the town of Mosul and the surrounding plain the Arabs are the predominant race; in the mountains, the Kurds. The League of Nations Commission (1925) stated that the district was inhabited by Kurds, Arabs, Christians, Turks, Yezedis and Jews in that order of importance. Upon the corn grown in the plains round Mosul a wide area extending to Lakes Vrumia and Van depends for its sustenance, while the almost impregnable mountain ranges give Mosul a strong strategic position in regi ird to ‘Iraq. The great rivers of ‘Iraq have their headwaters in Mosul, and he who is master in Mosul is also master of “‘Iraq’s most vital necessity, being capable of threatening the safety of the vast oil resources of ‘Iraq.

By the Armistice of Mudros, hostilities were suspended between Great Britain and Turkey from midday Oct. 31 1918. Nevertheless on Nov. 3 General Cassels informed the Turkish authorities that he had been ordered to advance beyond the Armistice line and occupy the town of Mosul. This apparent violation of the Armistice terms was subsequently declared to be justified by £ “dans le cas oú il surgirait une situation qui menacerait la sécurité des Alliés, ceux-ci auront le droit d'occuper tout point stratégique.” The Turks on the other hand maintained that no such menace existed, and

protested strongly against this action on the part of Great Britain. Later on further advances were made by the British forces; on Sept. 30 1924 a provisional frontier, known as the Brussels Line, was proposed by the League of Nations and accepted by both Great Britain and Turkey, pending a final settlement of the dispute. This Brussels Line was at its nearest points no less than 150 km. north of the Armistice frontier. It ran from the Hazil to the Khabur river, then across the mountains north of the valley of the Great Zab and then due east to the Persian frontier. Roughly speaking it runs on the crest of the mountains cut through by the three rivers named.

9060

MOSUL—MOTION

The question of the vilayet figured prominently in the discussions at the Lausanne Conference. Clause 3 of the Treaty of Lausanne provided that the dispute between Britain and Turkey should be brought before the League of Nations unless settled by agreement within nine months; the Turks had agreed to this on Lord Curzon assuring them that ‘‘ the decision of the Council, upon which the Turkish Govt. will be represented, will have to be unanimous, so that no decision can be reached without your consent.” Sir Percy Cox carried on fruitless negotiations in Constantinople (May rg—-June 15 1924); but the Turks refused to abate their claim to the whole of the former Mosul vilayet. In Aug. the matter came before the League, which appointed a commission to study the question. In Sept. the Turks crossed the provisional frontier and drove some 8,ooo Assyrians to take refuge in ‘Amadiya where they were supported by the ‘Iraq Government. Thereupon at a special meeting in Brussels in Oct. the League defined a provisional frontier, the Brussels Line, which Turkey agreed to accept as a status quo. The Commission reached Baghdad in Jan. 1925 and reported in Aug. that the historic right was with Turkey; but suggested that Mosul should be left to Turkey if Britain intended to withdraw from ‘Iraq in 1928, but assigned to ‘Iraq if Britain was willing to undertake a mandate for 25 years. Turkey contended that the League could not give a binding decision; the question was referred to the Hague Court, and was still pending when further military movements by the Turks in the neighbourhood of the Brussels Line in Sept. 1925 resulted in the violent deportation into the interior of Turkey of Christians living immediately to the north, and in some cases even to the south of the provisional frontier, while some 3,000 Chaldeans took refuge in a destitute condition in ‘Iraq. ‘The League appointed a second Commission to examine the complaints on both sides and report any violations of the frontier. This report was presented to the League in Dec. and left no doubt as to the harshness with which the refugees had been handled by the Turks. The ruling of the Hague Court—that an arbitral decision was binding—had already been received; but the Turkish delegate refused to accept the decision of the League and withdrew. Turkey, however, renewed her proposal of a plebiscite of the Mosul population, and further offered (r) a four-

nation Pact (Britain, Turkey, ‘Iraq and Persia) which should guarantee the integrity and independence of ‘Iraq, (2) the cession of the valuable Syale basin containing some of the oil-ftelds

of the vilayet and the main sources of ‘Iraq’s irrigation, In the absence of the Turkish delegate, the League awarded Mosul to ‘Iraq under certain conditions which were accepted by the British House of Commons five days later. The inclusion of Mosul in ‘Iraq was finally agreed by the treaty signed on behalf of Great Britain, ‘Iraq and Turkey at Angora on June 5 1926. By this treaty Turkey accepted the Brussels line with small modifications as the frontier between Turkey and ‘Iraq, the exact line to be determined by a mixed commission an the spot. A pact of security for ten years was

agreed between Great Britain, Turkey and ‘Iraq. Turkey enjoys

a share in the royalties on Mosul oil for a period of 25 years. Subsequently an agreement was reached on the compensation to be paid for Turkish public works in the former vilayct. An exchange of notes following the treaty gave Turkey the option of capitalizing her share of the oil royalties at a present value of £500,000. This was an important event both for politics and oil. (See LEAGUE OF NATIONS.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—La Question de AMfossoul, 1918-25 (Turkish Red Book) Proceedings 35th Session League of Nations (Constable); Reports of Wirsen and Laidoner Commissions (Constable); La Question de Mossoul (Lausanne); G. Gidel, La Frontiére entre ta Turquie et l'Irak (Paris); E.G. Mears, Afoslem Turkey; H. C. Luke,

Mosul and its Minorities (1925). The text of the treaty of June 5 1926 is printed on a white paper (Cmd. 2672 of 1926). MOSUL (City) (pop. 40,000), capital of the former vilayet of Mosul (see 18.904), has acquired importance since the World War.

On Nov. 18 1918 (that is, rọ days after the signature of the Mudros Armistice), the city was occupied by British troops.

PICTURES

The advent of the railway, which now reaches a point only some 7o m. distant, Sharqat, will doubtless help to revive the industrial prosperity of Mosul, which at present possesses practically no industries, not even its once famous manufacture of muslin, deriving its name from the town. The population exhibits an amazing intermixture of races and creeds; butin the city of Mosul the Arabs have a clear preponderance. Several churches of great architectural interest are found amongst those belonging to the various sects, Nestorians, Jacobites, Uniate Chaldeans, Syrians, Catholics (also Uniate)

and that strange remnant of the Gnostics, the so-called “ Christians of St. John.” A promising field for antiquarian research lies in the great mound of Nebi Junus, on the opposite bank of the Tigris, which covers the ruins of Esar-Haddon’s palace. This site, hitherto closed to the excavator, may probably be rendered more accessible under the new Government. The exploration of the neighbouring mound of Tell Quoyunjuk produced under Layard and others the well-known relics of Sennacherib’s palace now in the British Museum. See H. C. Luke, Mosul and its Minorities (1925). MOTION PICTURES (sce 6.37.4c).—This article will deal, first, with the rise and development of motion pictures, second, with the technology of film production and the exhibition of the picture and, third, with the motion pictures as a distinctive form of art.

I. HISTORY While the commercial history of the motion picture covers only 30 vears, beginning in 1894-5, the screen springs from roots which reach into the unrecorded past, with the earliest efforts at the re-creation of events. This effort, guided and controlled chieilly by the facilities and tools available, led variously to the evolution of pantomime, sign languages, rituals, drama and literatures. The motion picture, as the complete visual re-creation of the desired event, came as soon as adequate materials and technology were evolved. Early Investigation of Scientific Principles ——Scientific investigation leading up to the motion picture was definitely begun by Peter Mark Réget, secretary of the Royal Society of Great Britain, who in 1824 investigated the laws of vision with reference to objects in motion. That year he read before the Royal Society a paper entitled Persistence of Vision with Regard to Moving Objects. Several scientifically minded persons were interested, including Sir John Herschel, and among them was evolved a device consisting of a bit of cardboard bearing a picture of a bird on one side and a cage on the other, so mounted on a string that when the card was twirled the bird appeared in the cage. Michael Faraday followed Réget’s observations with a long series of experiments. On the Continent Dr. Joseph Antoine Ferdinand Plateau, at the University of Ghent, and Dr. Simon Ritter von Stampfer, in Vienna, engaged in experiments on the persistence of vision, Simultaneously they arrived at an identical device for viewing hand-drawn pictures representing successive phases of motion. The pictures were mounted in sequence on the rim of a disc and were observed through corresponding slits in a parallel disc revolving on the same axis. This was the first motion-picture machine. Baron Franz von Uchatius, an Austrian artillery officer, in 1853 combined the disc device with the magic lantern and projected the pictures on a screen. William Ceorge Horner, of Bristol, England, built a toy on the principle of Plateau’s machine, mounting pictures on the inside of a cylinder in such a manner that they could be inspected through slits in the opposite side of the revolving cylinder. In 1860 one Desvignes improved upon it and patented a similar device. The Kinematoscope—In 1860 Coleman Sellers, of Philadelphia, a mechanical engineer, attempted to apply photography to the creation of motion-picture effects. He photographed poses of motion and presented the resulting pictures on the blades of a paddle-wheel device, viewed directly by the eye. This machine was patented in the United States as the Kinematoscope Feb. 5 1861. Louis Arthur Ducos du Hauron, in France, April 25 1864, filed a patent application which was in effect an almost

MOTION complete anticipation of the motion picture. Ducos’ ideas were all on paper; he did not achieve material results. The Phasmatrope-—Henry Renno Heyl, of Philadelphia, on Feb. 5 1870 presented projected photographic pictures, made by the Sellers method of posing the figures for the camera, which still required time exposures. Heyl’s machine was called the Phasmatrope. It carried small prints of the successive pictures, transparencies made on glass plates, mounted on the rim of a wheel which presented them, with an intermittent motion, to a beam of light cast by a magic lantern. Heyl used 6 poses, repeated 3 times, giving 18 images, or the equivalent of slightly more than one foot of modern film pictures. Photographic projection had come, but the camera could not yet record rapid motion. Rapid Motion Photographs.—In 1872 Leland Stanford, a railway magnate of California, determined to investigate the gaits of the horse. He engaged Eadweard Muybridge to endeavour to make photographs recording the postures of the horse in motion. Muybridge’s first efforts, made at Sacramento, were unsuccessful, due to the inadequacy of the camera and the photographic materials then available. His labours were interrupted for the time by a domestic tragedy. Meanwhile Stanford, impatient with the unsatisfactory results, had assigned the photographic problem to John D. Isaacs, a young engineer employed on the technical staff of the Central Pacific Railway. Isaacs contrived a system using a battery of cameras with shutter controls actuated by a series of electrical circuits. The shutter mechanisms were improved and the speed of the photographic emulsions increased. His device permitted the making of the first real photographic records of objects in rapid motion. Exposures as brief as one two-thousandths of a second were made. When Muybridge resumed activity he used the Isaacs’ equipment installed at Palo Alto. Subsequent writings and tradition have erroneously credited the method and machinery to Muybridge. Stanford while visiting Paris met Jean Louis Meissonier, the painter, then engaged in a controversy with French academicians over the postures of horses in his pictures. Meissonier found vindication in Stanford's photographs from Palo Alto and prevailed upon the latter to send Muybridge to France. Meissonier confronted his critics with these pictures. He also synthesised the appearance of motion by projecting transparencies made from these pictures on a machine similar to the Heyl Phasmatrope. Muybridge renamed the machine the Zoopraxinographoscope and hastened to Great Britain to deliver lectures. The name suggests a relation to the similar contemporary machine

invented by Emile Reynaud, a French physicist, under the name of the Praxinoscope. Reynaud used hand-made pictures. An era of motion-picture photography on glass plates followed, with slight refinement of methods but no important increase in scope. All motion-picture records, made with serics of cameras, when projected, gave the illusion of the moving object standing still with the adjacent scenery sweeping past. Wallace Goold Levison, of Brooklyn, N.¥., devised a camera which obviated this difficulty by presenting successive plates in one camera, making all the pictures from a single point of view. Edison Kinetoscope-—In 1887 Thomas A. Edison, of New Jersey, having perfected the phonograph, wished to supplement it with an accessory device which should present an optical record together with the sound. The first efforts recorded pictures of microscopic size in spirals upon a cylinder, after the manner of the phonograph record. Later strips of film were constructed of collodion, and experiments were made with strips of heavy celluloid. In Aug. 1889 samples of the first Eastman Kodak film made on a nitro-cellulose base were obtained by Edison. This material resulted in the completion of the motion-picture _ machine. On Oct. 6 1889 demonstrations of the Edison Kinetoscope were madein the laboratory at West Orange. It was the peepshow device for viewing the motion pictures recorded by the Edison camera, named the kinetograph. The film strips were about 50 ft. in length and an inch in width. Each photographic image occupied one-sixteenth of a foot of this film. Forty-eight exposures were made to record each second of action. In the

PICTURES

96I

kinetoscope the picturés were viewed by transmitted light through a magnifying lens in the peep-hole of the machine. Only one person at a time could view the picture. The Edison machine was commercially presented to the public for the first time in New York, April 14 1894. Hundreds of these machines were sold in the open market, and they carried the motion picture to the principal capitals of the world. The first motion pictures made at the Edison plant were records of portions of prize-fights, fencing matches, dances and vaudeville skits. The camera was immobile and limited in its range. The pictures could record only about 15 sec. of action. A demand then arose for a machine which would project the film pictures on a screen, making them available to a large audience. Edison demurred for commercial reasons, believing that screen showings would exhaust the novelty market too rapidly. Meanwhile experimenters in other parts of the world were en-

gaged in the problem of combining the kinetoscope with the magic lantern to produce screen pictures. Edison held dormant the projection efforts of his own laboratories. He failed to patent his motion-picture devices in foreign countries. The Cinématographe.—Fel. 22 1895, Woodville Latham, father of Otway and Gray Latham, kinetoscope exhibitors, demonstrated a projector using a kinetoscopic film in New York City. The device was highly imperfect and was given prematurely to the public, May 20 1895.

| 1,351 | 1,548

73,201 354,962

1,414,069

. . .

; ; :

. j < |

Total

.

l | 10,817

1,911 2,726 910

374,968 459,895 151,043

s 4,278

868,664

Heavy Ordnance. —Only six government arsenals and two private plants had had experience in producing heavy ordnance before 1014; by Nov. 1918 there were nearly 8,ooo plants at work upon ordnance contracts, light or heavy. Up to the Armistice 1,102 guns (from 3-in. to 9.5-in.) and 14,623 forgings (from which the finished guns are turned and bored) were made

in the United States for the Allies. Fifteen additional heavy-gun factories were equipped to meet the American need, and the rate of production for Oct. 1918 was above 24,000 guns per year. In mobile field artillery the French 75-mm. gun was accepted for the standard in quantity production, and its designs, with those for its intricate recuperator, were redrawn to meet American conditions in manufacture. The tolerances, which the French were in the habit of working out in the assembling plant, were reduced to figures and gauges in order to permit the American method of manufacture of separate interchangeable parts. In Oct. r918 464 complete artillery units (guns, carriages and recuperators) were produced and delivered to the army by American manufacturers, with an accumulated total of 2,058 units to the end of the year. But no 75-mm. guns or 155-mm. howitzers of American manufacture were on the front at the date of the Armistice. The French Govt. provided the A..F. with equipment of this sort sufficient for 30 American divisions. Production of Rifles

|

|

(in tons)

10 61 211

| «ok

Toxic | Shell, ete., Grenades, | materials shell, etc., | shipped shipped filled overseas | Overseas

i erea ==a.

!

|

|

1903 1903

1917

| Springfield

IQiy

£28,475

1918 Jan. Feb. March

300,000

Enfield

302,887

31,570 9.370 540

April

153,499 170,857 160,142

2,631

May

167,485

3,970

181,034

|

13,281,666 10,800,000 . 640,000,000

June July

6,759 16,879

191,354 231,193

43,450,000

Aug.

28,617

191,769

Oct. . Nov. (1-9)

39,176 11,308

187,477 56,097

|

2,506,307

|

The policy adopted by the air service was to design a standard type of acroplane engine, put it into quantity production, and have ready for the campaign of 1918 a fleet of 22,000 effective aeroplanes. By July 4 1917 the first experimental “ Liberty Motor,” as the standard engine was named, had been constructed. After further refinement of design it was turned over for production to the manufacturers of automobiles in the absence of large aircraft industries in the United States. The first finished Liberty engines were delivered in Dec. 1917, and

Sept. .

33,583

Total

Machine-Guuns.—An

312,878

American

199,635

gun, invented by Col. J. N.

Lewis, ‘{ was a revelation when it came to the aid of the Allies

early in the Great War,” and capacity for its manufacture was developed in private American plants on Allied order.

1917

the machine-gun

board tested and adopted

In May

two newly

996

MUNSEY—MURAL

designed guns, one heavy and one light, both the work of John M. Browning. During Oct. 1918 the War Department accepted 14,639 heavy and 13,687 light Browning guns. By the end of the year 226,557 machine-guns of all types had been accepted

by the United States.

Naval Ordnance——Much

delicate experimentation

was

done

in search for new rangefinders and submarine detectors, various listening devices being brought forward for the latter purpose. The construction of the North Sea mine barrage called for the development of a new mine and anchor. Orders were placed for 125,000 mines, of which 56,611 were laid in the barrage by American mine-layers operating from bases in the north of Scotland, near Inverness.

The whole barrage included 70,263

mines, of which 13,652 were British laid, covering a zone of sea from 15 to 35 m. in width, and to a depth sufficient to prevent submarines from diving under it. The complete barrier was in place by July 29 r918, although it was much tightened thereafter. The barrage is known to have destroyed 17 submarines and to have closed the North Sea outlet, particularly after Norway announced a determination to mine her own territorial waters adjacent to the barrage.

MUNSEY, FRANK ANDREW (1854-1925), American publisher and newspaper proprietor, was born at Mercer, Me., Aug. 21 1854. He was educated in the public schools and became a telegraph operator in Augusta, Maine. In 1882 he went to New York City and established The Golden Argosy, a magazine for children, later changing this to The Argosy, a magazine for adult readers. In 1889 he founded Afunsey’s Weekly, replaced

two years later by Munsey’s Magazine, the first monthly of its class to sell for the popular price of 10 cents. He also founded The All-Story Weekly (1904) and The Railroad Muan’s Magazine

(1906) and purchased The Baltimore News (1908), The New York Press (1912) and the New York Sux, both morning and evening issues (1916). He merged the Press in the Suz. In 1920 he bought from the executors of James Gordon Bennett’s estate the New York Evening Telegram and The New York Herald, together with its Paris issue. He combined the Herald and the morning Sun as The Sun and the New York Herald, but in Oct. 1920, changed the name to The New York Herald, at the same time continuing the evening paper as The Sun, thus perpetuating intact two names famous in American journalism. He died in N.Y. City Dec. 22 1925. By his will, after providing for relatives, he left the residue of his estate, estimated at $40,000,000 to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. MUNSTERBERG, HUGO (1863-1916), German-American psychologist (see 19.12), died in Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 16 1916. Among his later publications were American Problems from the Point of View of a Psychologist (1910); Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (1913); American Patriotism and Other Social Studies (1913); Psychology and Social Sanity (1914); The War and America (1914); The Peace and America (1915); The Photoplay: A Psychoae Study (1916) and Tomorrow: Letters to a Friend in Germany

1916). MURAL PAINTING (see 19.16).—France more than any other country has maintained a continuous and vigorous tradition of mural decoration in recent years, and this despite economic difficulties and the vagaries of modern art. The annual Salons furnish an index to mural work though the final fruit docs not

PAINTING

houetted monkeys and birds. At the spring Salon of 1911 AmanJean’s exhibit of two more figured panels for the same museum: room was overshadowed by a great section of ceiling decoration for the Théatre-Francais in which A. Besnard gave a monumental presentation of the garden of Eden with various subsidiary figures, genui and writers. Even more admired, because of their simple subjects, lucid composition and idyllic charm, were three decorative paintings by Denis: “‘ Sunny Sands,” “ September Evening,” and “ First Steps.” The following autumn Salon contained two outstanding murals by J. Flandrin, ‘‘ Summer and “ Fountain,” both calm and spacious, and modern in matter as well as manner. The spring Salon of 1912 brought new laurels to Denis and Aman-Jean. The Satter eclipsed his previous works with a decoration for an amphitheatre of the new Sorbonne, ‘‘ The Elements,” elaborate in symbolism, clear in pictorial conception and accomplished in execution. Denis filled his five staircase panels, ‘‘ The Golden Age,” with bathers, lovers, dancers, vintagers and the like in a vague enchanting paradise. In these panels he gave pictorial expression to what he has expressed in words: L'art est la sanctification de la nature. He revealed here his spiritual kinship to St. Francis of Assisi, whose Fioretti he has feclingly illustrated. In the spring Salons of 1913 and 1914 a series of decorations called ‘“‘ Garden Games ”’ drew attention to another able mural painter, J. P. Laurens. In 1913 the Théatre des Champs-Elysées opened. Of its extensive wall paintings the most important are by Denis, though E. A. Bourdelle, E. Vuillard, K. X. Roussel, H. Lebasque, and Jacqueline Marval also contributed. Denis painted the frieze around the dome, consisting of four panels and four medallions. Two of the panels, ‘‘ Dance” and ‘“‘ Musical Drama,” are each more than 50 ft. long, and the other two, ‘“ Symphony ” and “ Opera”? more than forty. While these four panels illustrate both the principal forms of music and the successive stages of its history its technical means are shown by

four intervening medallions, “‘ Orchestra,” “‘ Choir,” ‘‘ Organ,” and ‘‘ Sonata.” Of their relation to the large panels it has aptly been said: ce sont comme des reflexions intimes entrecoupant les grandes affirmations publiques. The crowning panel directly above the stage, “ Dance,” distinctly recalls Ingres. After the interruption of mural painting by the War, the French began again with remarkable precision exactly where they had left off. If any effect of the War on mural painting, other than im-

poverishment, was observable in the Salons of 1919 and succeeding

years, it was a greater emphasis on subject and a greater demand for religious paintings. As before Denis was prominent. In the spring Salon of 1919 he exhibited a glorious “ Annunciation,” and

in the autumn Salon of that year a “‘ Jesus at the House of Mary and

Martha.” Another religious mural prominent in the autumn Salon was the “ Ex-voto to Ste. Geneviéve "’ by G. Desvalliéres. The fol-

lowing spring Salon contained L. Simon’s diptych for the church of Notre-Dame-du-Travail in Paris, conspicuous because it is one of the few successful decorations inspired by the War. The energetic

ascent to Calvary and the touching Mass of the dead soldier are modern, but retlect the grand style of religious painting of the 17th century; this adherence to the traditions of religious painting accounts for the compact composition, which makes the diptych seem

visitors. The autumn Salon of the same year was particularly rich in mural paintings. M. Denis, who had already won with his decorations of the chapel of Vésinet, the position of France’s

crowded to eyes accustomed to the usual loose composition of modern murals. The post-War spring Salons were enriched by the decorations for the Conseil! d'Etat at the Palais Royal by H. Martin. The Paris Exposition of Modern Decorative Art of 1925 occasioned much mural painting, which was, however, not representative of all phases of contemporary work. P. Baudoüin’s Corporation de la Fresque did many frescoes directly on the wall (instead of paintings on canvas attached to the wall, the now all but universal practice), among which ‘‘ The Poct”’ by J. Adler and “ Music ” by L. Toublanc on the Cour Bouchard were outstanding. H. Marret was also represented by two frescoes on the exterior of the Pavillon Ruhlmann, though he commonly works on canvas; his principal contributions among

Alongside these decorations hung four ingenious pancls by P. Bonnard, with dancing figures in fanciful fountained courts and

“Sports,” “Street ” and “Architecture ”) andan “Annunciation” in the village church, to the decoration of which Desvallières contributed a retable and Denis a great Calvary, which served to reaffirm his supremacy. Deserving of mention also were the murals of G. L. Jaulmes and J. Dupas, who with his followers

necessarily appear in them. French Examples.—Nearly every year murals have been among

the most admired works of the Salons. In r910 at the spring Salon it was the “ Luncheon ” by Aman-Jcan, a large panel for a room in the Museum of Decorative Art which attracted all

leading decorator, left vacant by the death of Puvis, exhibited a series called “ Florentine Evening,” in which he combined with the chaste dignity of Puvis a Florentine sensitiveness suggestive of Fra Angelico and Botticelli.

gardens and with fantastic irregular borders ornamented with sil-

many were four large paintings on the Cour des Méticrs ( Trafic,”

decorated the Pavillon du Collectioneur.

MURAL

PAINTING

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VIEW OF THE PORT OF ALEXANDRIA, EGYPT Photographed in colour from the painting by Ezra Winter

MURKLAND—MUSCLE Work in other Countries——Compared with the French, the murals by artists of other European countries represented in the Paris Exposition were of minor importance; this corresponds to the minor importance of mural painting in those countrics. The fervent nationalism throughout eastern Europe has given rise to ambitious patriotic decorations, such as those of A. Mucha for Prague, but not to mural painters of the first rank. East of France the most important figure of recent years was F. Hodler (d. 1918), a Swiss active also in Germany. Among his later works was the dignified “‘ Unanimity ” for the Rathaus at Hanover, exhibited at the autumn Salon of 1913. Thus, while Hodler may be considered an offshoot of the figure tradition of France, Walser seems to be inspired by the luscious sign paintings of the Tyrol. Another interesting eddy somewhat like that of pre-Raphaelitism, is occupied by B. Goldschmitt, who completed in torr a droll cycle of frescoes representing the Tyrolese legend of King Laurin’s rose garden for the Hotel King Laurin at Bolzano. The vigour of modern Spanish painting is attested by its power to propagate itself across the Atlantic whither two of its most representative mural series have migrated; the decorations by D. Rivera for the Ministry of Education in Mexico City and the 14 paintings of the provinces of Spain by J. Sorolla y Bastida for the Hispanic Society in New York. An Anglo-American Tradition.—Britain and America have cooperated to such an extent in mural painting that one may speak of an Anglo-American tradition based partly on preRaphaelitism, and point to the American, J. S. Sargent (q.v.), and the Englishman, F. Brangwyn (g.v.), asits exemplars. This AngloAmerican mural painting is the closest rival to that of the

French school.

It makes less use of landscape and poetry than

the French and greater use of man and his material achievements. It is local and realistic where the French is idyllic. Its abstract figures are usually allegorical rather than mythological.

The last murals by Sargent were those of the stairway rotunda of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

and

The decoration of the Missouri State Capitol is the largest current effort in mural painting in America. The following list of painters besides Brangwyn represented there is an indication of the size of the undertaking and of the number of mural painters in America: R. E. Ball, T. P. Barnett, O. E. Berninghaus, A. Blondheim, F. G. Carpen-

ter, C. Hofbauer, R. Kissack, R. E. Miller, F. Nuderscher, R. Ott, H. Reuterdahl, E. Wuerpel and N. C. Wyeth. The paintings of the Wisconsin State Capitol were undertaken about a decade earlier and represent the work of another group of artists mainly older: the sensitive and distinguished stylist, J. W. Alexander, who died

in t915, H. Ballin, E. H. Blashfield, who has been the most prolific

of American mural painters, Kenyon Cox (d. 1919), I. I. Garnsey, and F. D. Millet. Quaintly illustrative and very personal are the

murals by Violet Oakley in the Pennsylvania State Capitol. (See also PAINTING.) (J. Su.)

MURKLAND, WILLIAM URWICK (1842-09), American divine, was born Nov. 17 1842 in Demerara, British Guiana. When a child he moved with his parents to Petersburg, Va., and later to Richmond. In 1857 he entered Hampden-Sidney College, but on the outbreak of the Civil War enlisted in the Confederate Army. He was captured at Laurel Hill but was paroled, and returned to Hampden-Sidney College, where he graduated with first honours in 1862.

SHOALS

of the summer months.

997

A British flotilla was stationed at Mur-

mansk in ror7, and after the Russian collapse, in order to maintain a hold on the coast, two cruisers and a battleship and 5,000 troops were sent in 1918. In that year N. Tschaikowsky overthrew the rule of the Soviets, and set up a provisional government with the help of the British forces; but after their evacuation in roro Murmansk came again into Bolshevik hands. MURPHY, JOHN FRANCIS (1853-1921), American landscape painter (see 19.38), died at New York City Jan. 30 1921.

MURRAY,

GEORGE

GILBERT

AIMÉ (1866-

__), British

classical scholar, was born at Sydney, N.S.W., Jan. 2 1866, but left Australia at the age of eleven. Educated at Merchant Taylors’ School, London, and St. John’s College, Oxford, he at once established his reputation as the most brilliant classical scholar of his day, winning the Hertford and Ireland scholarships (1885), the Craven scholarship (1886), the prize for Latin verse (1886) and the Gaisford prizes for Greek verse and prose (1886-7). He was elected to a fellowship at New College, Oxford, in 1888, and next year to the professorship of Greek at Glasgow University, a position he held till 1899. In 1908 he was appointed regius professor of Greek at Oxford. In 1889 he had married Lady Mary Howard, daughter of the oth Earl of Carlisle. Professor Murray’s sympathies were always strongly shown on the advanced Radical side in politics. He was parliamentary candidate for Oxford University at the general election of 1918 and at a by-election in i919, but was unsuccessful. During the World War he prominently espoused the cause of conscientious objectors, and later identified himself with efforts to ameliorate economic conditions in the enemy countries. In 1923 he was elected president of the League of Nations Union. He published a History of Ancient Greek Literature in 1897, but is more widely celebrated for his incomparable renderings of the plays of Euripides into English verse. Several of his versions were acted in England and America. He also published The Rise of the Greek Epic (1907; 2nd ed., 1911, 3rd ed., 1924) and Four Stages of Greek Religion (1913). Amongst his works on other subjects are The Foreign Policy of Sir Edward Grey (1918); Faith, Warand Policy (1918); RefigioGrammatict (1918); and Pradlem of Foreign Policy (1921). See GREEK LITERATURE: ANCIENT. MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837-1015), British philologist (see 19.40), died at Oxford July 26 1915, when

The New English Dictionary had reached its roth volume. MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841—1914), British geographer and oceanographer (see 19.42), was accidentally killed near Kirklis-

ton, Scotland, March 16 1914. In conjunction with Dr. Johan Hjort he published in 1912 The Depths of the Ocean. MUSCLE SHOALS.—The section of the Tennessee river, U.S.A., known as Muscle Shoals, extends from the head of Brown’s Island, a short distance below Decatur to Florence, Ala., a distance of 37 m., in the course of which the river falls 134 feet.

Having meanwhile been exchanged,

he again entered the Confederate Army. After the close of the war he entered the Union Theological Seminary of Virginia. After his ordination as a Presbyterian minister in 1869, he was pastor of Centre Church, Cumberland Co., Va. In Jan. 1870, he was called as assistant to the Franklin Street church, Baltimore, Md., and the following June was chosen pastor, which position he held until his death, May 13 1899. In 1890 he was a delegate to the World’s Peace Congress in London. Dr. Murkland was one of the prominent figures in the Presbyterian Church in the United States. MURMANSK, Russia, the Russian port on the Kola peninsula, has been connected with Leningrad (St. Petersburg) by rail since 1917. The line runs across the base of the Kola peninsula and along the coast of the White Sea, joining the Leningrad-Vologda line about 75 m. east of Leningrad. Owing to swampy ground, the line is almost unworkable in some parts

SCALE Go

I

OF MILES. 2

3

4

5

The map shows the twenty-five mile stretch of the Tennessee river immediately above Florence, Ala., embracing the shallower section of Muscle Shoals. (1) the small dam affording a navigation approach to the Wilson dam. (2) the Wilson dam, the largest masonry dam ever built. (3) the contemplated third dam, which, when built, will render navigation for commercial purposes feasible at all times.

The depth of the channel varies considerably, but in places the minimum depth at low water is less than two feet, and commercial navigation at such Jevels has never been practicable. As early as 1827 preliminary surveys were made by the U.S. Govt. with a view to improvement, but nothing of permanent value was accomplished in the roth century. War Development.—Various proposals were made for power

development between 1903 and 1912, but nothing definite was

MUSEUMS

998

attempted till the outbreak of the World War, when the urgent need for nitric acid for use in explosives induced the U.S. Govt. to construct two large nitrate plants at Sheffield near the lower end of the Shoals, to be operated by hydroelectric power. Plans were accordingly prepared in 1916 for a joint navigation-power scheme, involving the construction of three dams on the Tennessee river, and work was commenced early in 1918 on the major feature of the project, viz.: Dam No. 2, officially known as the Wilson dam. The work of construction was started immediately and the dam was completed in 1926. Details of the Dam.—It is located a short distance above Florence and isa monolithic concrete structure, 4,500 ft. in length, 95 ft. high from the river bed to the crest, 140 ft. high from foundation to the level of the operating bridge and 105 ft. thick at the base. The structure contains about 1,353,000 cu. yd. of masonry, making it the largest masonry dam in the world—the Aswan dam on the Nile, its nearest competitor, having 1,179,000 cu. yards. It is equipped on

the north side with two navigation

locks, each having a lift of

46 {t. 6 in. at mean stage, and on the south sicle is the power-house, forming an integral part and continuation of the dam itself. The latter contains a spillway section 2,660 ft. long in the shape of an overfall dam with a heavy concrete apron and 58 stcel floodgates to

discharge excess water.

Each floodgate is 18 ft. high and weighs

about 33 tons. These gates are capable of passing a flood of 900,000 cu. ft. per second. On the top of the structure is a concrete arch bridge, supporting the floodgates and carrying a highway and a standard gauge railway track. Power Installation._-The power-house is 1,250 ft. long, 160 ft. wide, and 134 ft. high, built of concrete with a steel trussed roof and designed for an ultimate installation of 18 hydroelectric units providing 612,000 H.P., the installation in 1926 consisting of cight hydraulic turbines generating 260,000 horse-power. Four units of this latter installation were placed in operation on Oct. 1 1925, the resultant power being leased to the Alabama Power Co. under a temporary contract, terminable on four weeks’ notice. The waterpower, when the full machinery has been installed and is utilising the natural flow of the river, will produce on an average 700,000,000 kw. hours of primary power per annum, 7.¢., power whiclt is available every hour of the year, and 1,490,000,000 kw. hours of secondary power per annum, 7.¢., power that is available a portion of the year only. The total cost of the dam as it stands, including the present turbines, amounted to approximately $51,000,000, and at the peak of construction, 4,500 men were employed on the work. Navigation Problems.—Dam No. 1, a small work also constructed by the Federal Govt., is situated three miles below the Wilson dam. It is 300 ft. long, having a lock with a lift of 174 feet. Its only purpose is to provide a navigation approach to the lower lock of the Wilson dam. These two units of the combined navigation power scheme do not in themselves solve the navigation problem, inasmuch as the Wilson dam only overcomes 96 ft. of the fall of the river at the Shoals, and the navigation pool provided by it only extends about 15 m. upstream. Consequently it does not eliminate the upper stretch of shoal water. To effect this object Dam No. 3 was designed, located 14 m. above the Wilson dam. When constructed it will overcome about 40 ft. of the fall of the Tennessee, provide above it a navigation pool some 84 m. in length and, combined with the Wilson dam, will eliminate the Muscle Shoals as an obstacle to transportation. In March 1926 nothing had been done in regard to this dam beyond some preliminary surveys and borings,

In Nov. 1918, when the Armistice was signed, the nitrate plants had not been completed. Units, however, were realy to start operations in Oct. 1918, temporary power being supplied by the Alabama Power Co. from its plant on the Warrior river, oo m. south of Muscle Shoals, and the first ammonium nitrate was produced a fortnight after the Armistice. By this time the emergency had passed and the final work was not done till the summer of rọrọ. They have not been operated since. Their total construction cost amounted to $83,500,000. The future of the whole project was the subject of much discussion in Con-

gress. Finally bids were asked for by the Government. On July 8 1921 Henry Ford made an offer but no action was taken in regard to it and Mr. Ford subsequently withdrew his offer. No action had been taken by March 1926. MUSEUMS (sce 19.60b).—The normal progress and development of museums in Europe since roro was rudely interrupted and gravely affected by the War. From r914 to r918 no government was ina position to spend much money on acquisitions, and many of the usual channels of supply were cut off. Staffs were depleted by the claims of war service; and although museums continued to play a not unimportant part as an element of re-

freshment in the strain of war, public interest was inevitably diverted from them. In addition, in certain cases, and notably in respect of the great museums and galleries of Londor. and Paris, special measures of precaution had to be taken, which constitute a remarkable chapter in their history. War Precautions.—The record of these precautions would need an article by itself. It would relate the hurried removal from Paris of a portion of the collections of the Louvre and other museums (principally pictures, but including the Venus of Milo) at the critical time when a German occupation of Paris seemed far from improbable; the measures taken to protect those which remained from the risks of bombardment; the further removals at the time of the German advance in the spring of 1918. In London it would have to record the protection by sandbags and by removal to basements of the chicf treasures of the British Museum, the National Gallery, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Wallace Collection and other galleries during the early months of the War; the closing of certain galleries in 1916 by the Govt. on grounds of economy; and particularly the great removals at the beginning of 1918, when the principal contents of all the great London collections found refuge in an underground tube railway, in the National Library of Wales at Aberystwyth and elsewhere. In Italy it would have to tell of extensive removals and protections at Venice and other northern towns. The experiences of Belgium and of the towns of northeastern France would also have to be recorded. Materials exist for such a record, and it is an episode in museum history of no little interest, one remarkable feature of which is the extremely slight injury caused by the hurried process of dismantling invaluable collections of most fragile objects. | Tune

FUNCTIONS

oF

MUSEUMS

Leaving aside, then, the special subject of museums in war time, the purpose of this article is to trace the principal features of the development of the museum service and especially to indicate the progress that has been made in making the museums perform more efficiently the services which they are intended to render to the public. The main objects of museums are threefold: (1) to preserve the historical and artistic relics of past ages —the acquisition of objects; (2) to render them readily accessible to scholars—adequate housing and the publication of catalogues and reproductions; (3) to educate the general public—arrangement, display, labelling, guide-books, cheap reproductions, lantern slices, lectures. Museum LExtensions.—With regard to the first two of these heads there is not much to say. In spite of the grave financial difficulties in post-War Europe, new museums have continued to be built, and old museums have been enlarged. Among the more important may be mentioned the London Museum, opened at Kensington Palace in 1912, and transferred to Lancaster House in 1913; the Museum of Eastern Art at Cologne (1914); the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum in London (1913); the new wing of the British Museum (ro914); the National Museum of Wales, founded at Cardiff in 1912, of which a part has been opened; a new wing of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge (1921); the Museo Petriano at the Vatican and the Museo Nuovo on the Capitol in Rome (1925). A new Science Museum was in 1926 in process of erection at South Kensington, and in the galleries vacated by it the War Museum was temporarily and inadequately housed. Paris has a Bibliothèque et Musée de la Guerre, besides a special Muscum at the Invalides; in other countries more attention appears to have been paid to War Libraries than to War Museums. In Russia several museums and institutions, principally of science but also of ethnology and Russian mediaeval art, have been founded or extended since the Revolution. In America, unhampered by war expenditure and enriched by the munificence of many private benefactors, new galleries have sprung up like mushrooms; and endowments on a large scale have been lavished, of which the most magnificent was the bequest of some {9,000,000 by Mr. Munsey to the Metropolitan Museum of New York.

MUSEUMS Organisation of Expeditions —Meanwhile, whether in new buildings or in old, the acquisition of fresh objects has gone on continuously. It is quite impossible to give particulars of even the most important; but mention should be made of one branch of collecting activity, namely, the organisation of expeditions by the greater museums for excavation and for natural history research. In this branch of museum work America, with its great pecuniary resources, has led the way. The American Museum of Natural History has continued to despatch expeditions to various parts of the world, the most notable being that to Siberia, which made remarkable discoveries of the eggs of dinosaurs. The Metropolitan Museum of New York has continued its very thorough and elaborate work in Egypt; the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania has had expeditions in Egypt, Palestine and Mesopotamia; the Field Museum of Natural History at Chicago has made large collections of natural history and ethnography; the Heye Museum of the American Indian investigated sites In New Mexico and elsewhere. These are but examples of the fruitful activity of American museums in this direction. European museums have not been in a position to do so much, nor has the direct conduct of excavations been a common form of activity on the part of continental museums, though, in accordance with the national laws of antiquities, the museums of Italy, Greece and Egypt have profited largely from the researches undertaken, whether by their own countrymen or others, in the soil of these countries. In England the British Museum has undertaken archaeological excavations at Carchemish in Asia Minor and in Mesopotamia; and the Natural History Museum has taken part, in greater or less measure, in expeditions in Australia, East Africa and elsewhere. This is a form of activity which seems likely to increase, owing to the fact that several areas of great importance, especially for archaeology, have been made more accessible in consequence of the War. It has, moreover, stimulated public interest in such research, and may be reckoned as a contributing cause towards the development of public interest in museums generally, which is one of the notable characteristics of the period under review. It is, in fact, in the relation between the museum and the general public, and in the development of the museum as an instrument in the general education of the nation, that progress has been most marked; and in any consideration of the future of museums this is a point of prime importance. Educational Uses.—The earlier conception of a museum regarded it asin the first place a storehouse of objects of antiquity for the benefit of the student, and in the second as an old curiosity shop for the amusement and edification of the intelligent visitor. Its value as a means of education for the general public was not realised until late in the roth century. In Great Britain the recognition of this function at first took the form of a great improvement in the labelling of the collections and the provision of illustrated guide-books suitable for the intelligent reader who was not a specialist, and serviceable even outside the museum as handbooks to the subject with which they dealt. At the British Museum this reform was mainly connected with the names of Sir Edward Bond and Sir Edward Maunde Thompson; and Sir William Flower at the Natural History Museum was a strenuous advocate and exponent of the popularisation of museums. Afuseum Lectures—In America a new departure was made in the provision of oral instruction in the galleries by official guidelecturers or docents, the example being set by Boston in 1907. It was taken up in England in rort, when the first official guidelecturer was appointed at the British Museum; it quickly took root there (and at the Natural History Museum, which is governed by the same trustees); and thence, largely owing to the strenuous and persistent advocacy of Lord Sudeley, it spread to the other national museums and galleries, until now it can be said that the practice of itinerant lectures in the exhibition galleries by highly educated men and women, to chance audiences who assemble to hear them, is thoroughly established as a recognised branch of museum service. In smaller museums,

999

where the attendance is not sufficient to provide daily audiences for a lecturer, similar work is nevertheless frequently undertaken in the form of advertised courses of lectures. Improved Guide-books and Reproductions —The educational value of museums has also been greatly increased by the development of methods of photographic reproduction. Guide-books can be made more attractive by plentiful illustration; and photographs, especially in the popular picture-postcard form, can be obtained very cheaply. These can be rendered far more useful for educational purposes if issued, as at the British Museum since 1914, and subsequently elsewhere, in sets dealing with special subjects. Fifteen postcards in monochrome, or six in colours, with a leaflet of information, can be sold profitably for a shilling, and furnish an interesting and attractive introduction to a subject. The danger is lest the productivity of a museum should be diverted overmuch into these popular and profitable productions, at the expense of those contributions to learning which every great museum is rightly expected to make. This development of the educational and popular sides of museum work is not by any means confined to the great metropolitan collections. It is characteristic of museum work as a whole throughout England and America. Every active-minded curator is anxious to make his museum a living centre of intellectual interest; and the future of m seum development depends mainly on the answers to be give to the question, How can museums be made more serviceable to the nation? Research and Scholarship—A distinction must be drawn between the great museums of the largest towns and the most important universities and the municipal museums of provincial towns in general. The former, while never forgetting the service which they owe to the general public, must not sacrifice to it their duty to scholars and researchers. For these, quantity is often as essential as quality. It is sometimes supposed that the great museums contain masses of objects with which they could well dispense, and which could more profitably be distributed among, or at least lent to, the smaller museums. It Js, in fact, seldom and to a very small extent that this is true. The scholar who is investigating a particular subject needs to have under his eye, for examination and comparison, a great mass of material. He needs many editions of an author, many examples of the work of an artist, many specimens of Greek vases or Chinese porcelain, of birds, beasts, fishes, insects, fossils, minerals or flowers. His work would be ruined if he had to search for these in many different collections; and it would be exasperating to find that the objects which he had the right to expect to find in a particular museum had been scattered on loan among a score of provincial collections. What the curator of such a museum has to consider is, not whether he has in his collections a finer example of a certain: class, but whether a particular object is needed for the scientific study of the class to which it belongs. At times, no doubt, a specimen once useful may have lost its value and can be dispensed with, but this happens comparatively rarely. Nor is there much danger lest the museum curator should be led away by the lust of acquisition. Purchase grants are not so lavish that he can afford to buy anything that he does not really want; and in most great collections the demands for accommodation are so pressing that he will gladly dispense with anything that is really superfluous. THE

IDEAL

MUSEUMS

The need of great museums, then, is proper provision for (a) the student, (b) the general public. The difħculty here is mainly structural. There was a time—a time when most of the museums in Europe were built—-when there was no great difficulty in putting all the collections of antiquities on exhibition without overcrowding. That time is long past, and what is needed now is to apply to antiquities the method which has always been applied to books and prints and often to natural history specimens, namely, to exhibit only a small selection to the public, while providing facilities for students to examine the mass of the collections in convenient circumstances.

I 000

MUSIC

The ideal museum—an ideal realised in some of the latest— is a succession of public exhibition rooms in which a small number of the best specimens are well spaced out and adequately labelled, and another series of rooms in which students can sit down to the examination of a large number of specimens, or the intensive study of a few, according to the need of their study. The general public will have a better chance of appreciating without fatigue the charms of Greek vases or mediaeval enamels from 50 good specimens well displayed than from 1,000 ranged in serried rows of shelves. What most of the older museums need, and what architects have seldom been asked to provide, is ample storage accommodation. They would then be able to discharge the double duty—each so important—which rests upon them. Provincial Museums.—For the provincial museums the balance of responsibilities is different. Although they can often give important aid to research, their first duty is usually to the general public. Here the educational function is paramount. Few general laws can be laid down, because museums differ so greatly in their possessions and their opportunities. A provincial museum can seldom aim at universality, but it can do much by a wise cultivation of its own particular garden. One duty is incumbent on all, to create interest in, and to diffuse knowledge of, the localities in which they are situated. The history of the town,

the records of its buildings and its eminent citizens, the geology, fauna and flora of the surrounding country, the principal arts and industries of the neighbourhood—these are subjects which all active museums now regard as their proper sphere, and which they strive to illustrate with all the materials that they can acquire. On these subjects they are entitled to aim at being exhaustive. On more general subjects they can only hope to be able to give partial representations, and each must cut its coat according to its cloth. One general counsel can be given—to vary the exhibitions as much as possible, to seize opportunities of giving them topical interest, to add to their educational value by lectures, leaflets and photographs, and generally to cultivate an air of alertness and change rather than sameness and monotony. Loan Collections.—In this connection the question of loans is of importance. It is clear that provincial museums would be much assisted in provoking interest and in spreading education if their permanent resources were reinforced by temporary exhibitions of loan collections. It is here that a gap exists in the museum system which could be filled with great profit. It has already been indicated that not much help in this direction ts to be expected from the great national collections. Local museums might help one another, to some extent, by temporary exchanges of exhibitions on subjects in which each happened to be strong. In some cases also permanent exchanges might be arranged. Central De pository.—But a very real service to the education of any country would be rendered by the creation of a strong central depository of loan collections. In England a service of this kind, designed in the interests of craftsmanship, was a prominent feature of the original plan of the South Kensington Museum. In the department of classical archaeology, experiments in this direction have been made in England, Ireland and America (see H. Browne, Our Renaissance, 1917, pp. 184-281). But a stronger, better supplied, state-supported central organisation is required, which need not be costly, since it would receive subscriptions from the local institutions which had recourse to it. Taking the country as a whole, there will be a great economy in a central circulating collection as compared with a large number of local museums, each trying to add to its permanent collections of non-local objects. The central collection would not need to indulge in expensive purchases, since it would not aim at acquir-

ing objecis of the first rank; and it would receive such objects as the national museums were able legitimately to spare. The main needs of the museum service, then, certainly in England and in varying degrees also elsewhere, are: for the greater museums, restricted exhibition to the public and fuller accommodation for the student and for storage; for local museums, centralisation, co-operation and devotion to the education (in the broadest sense) of the local public.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E. Pottier, Le Musée du Louvre pendant la Guerre 1914-8, printed by the Société des Amis du Louvre: MacColl, The Wallace Collection in War Time (1920); MS. record at the British

Muscum; de Filippi, Italy's Protection of Art Treasures and Monuments during the War (1917); Kerwyn de Lettenhove, La Guerre et les oeuvres d'art en Belgique (1917). . G. KE.)

MUSIC (see 19.72).—The purport of the present article is not that of a catalogue raisonné of modern music; its intention is to put forward certain general principles that seem to have become more clearly manifésted since 1910. Any works and composers that are mentioned will be selected merely as the first convenient illustrations of these principles; and the convenience will be avowedly accidental. This method has, in the past history of criticism, always proved to give results far more interesting than those of an attempt to catalogue and estimate contemporary events and works; nor does the dearth of names and titles detract greatly from its interest. The greatest art takes ample time before its impulses reach the main stream of historic tendency,

so that the contemporary view of the main stream is naturally, and not unjustifiably, preoccupied with work that will not interest posterity; while, on the other hand, future historians will, as often hitherto, have great difficulty in finding any historic importance in the works which prove immortal. But we are on solid ground if we fix our attention on prevalent tendencies shown by large bodies of work and of criticism, and on the conditions in which the work is produced and enjoyed. There are periods of artistic transition in which tendencies are too vague or too involved to be distinguished by the contemporary observer. If perhaps this was so in the beginning of the 2oth century, things had become clearer by its second decade; and it was possible to draw an emphatic distinction between what is real and what is unreal in the music of the day.

I. INTRODUCTION Defects of Contemporary Criticism.—It will be convenient first to deal with the unrealities. The most formidable of these arise from the unnatural conditions on which the modern musician acquires his reputation. At no period in history has an artist been able to make his living solely by his highest line of work; but the hardships of the classical artist’s life were at all events not unnatural. They were average effects of human nature, and not of an inflated self-consciousness among art critics. It has always been hard to struggle against a depressing prevalence of dull or vulgar tastes and pedantic conventions; but such a struggle is life, and victory in it is health. Far less certain is it that life and health can be found in the struggle for musical reputation under modern conditions; especially for reputation as a composer. The grounds on which new music is commonly criticised are no longer grounds of healthy and intelligible discussion. The critics, conscious of the proverbial persecution of genius by contemporary pedants and upholders of convention, are now unanimous in condemning all that is under suspicion of being “ correct,” and are desperately anxious that no soi-disant revolutionary tendency shall miss acclamation and that no dangerous outbreak of normality shall escape damnation. The music that is most written about and talked about is the music about which it is the easiest to say clever things. The clever things must be or scem to be intelligible to the general reader; and this means that they must not be musical facts, for musical facts are involved in musical technicalities. Yet the clever sayings must be impressive. The result is a special psychological jargon, mostly unknown to psychologists, which the general public believes to be a musical jargon. Fhe public finds it fairly amusing, especially when

the critics, having exhausted

their stock of new musical

discoveries and revolutions, are reduced to discussing each other. Butit may be news to the public that the jargon is almost wholly unintelligible to real musicians, and nowhere more unintelligible to them than where it employs musical terms. Meanwhile real music struggles into existence, and even occasionally into recognition, while fashion follows the journalists and awards fame without popularity to times a year to musicians of perfectly respectable character and intellect who are driven to

pose as lunatics lest sanity should earn them the reputation of

MUSIC prigs. In such conditions it is not surprising that there is more genuine musical life in provincial districts than in the metropolitan cities. The musical life of the provinces is their own; the metropolitan public is so anxiously watching the jumping of the critical cat that even the formation of coteries is conditioned more

by diplomacy than by enthusiasm. Popularity and healthily good music are driven to meet on new ground. Theatre music, apart from opera, is in Great Britain still in a state of squalor,

which must remain hopeless as long as British theatregoers maintain the habit of drowning the musical eér’actes in talk. But the cinema produces a remarkably perfect silence in spectators, and in its not always fresh atmosphere many an excellent player finds a livelihood which he can ill afford to exchange for a good position in a permanent orchestra. The London music hall, especially since the advent of the great Russian Ballet dancers, has drawn into its sphere of influence many a serious musician, among composers as well as performers; and the composers to whom it is still a strange environment may sometimes find that more than a pot-boiler impulse and technique are required of them if they are to distinguish themselves there. At all ages there have been heartsearchings as to the border lines of “ legitimate ”’ art, and the origins of the highest classical art forms have far more often been popular tendencies than critical doctrines. The health and fruitfulness of permanently valuable art demand two conditions: first, that artists shall have the inducement of a living wage for producing it; secondly, that audiences and spectators shall be accustomed to receive it so attentively as to induce the artist to refine his style. Art does not thrive in a state of public opinion and critical jargon in which nothing is allowed a right to exist except works of devastating genius; and genius itself stands less chance of recognition in such a state than in any other. A good period of art is that in which the ordinary styles are so good that the sensibilities of a child of genius are not starved or disgusted by them before he has had time to outgrow them as a genius must. Nothing good can be expected for genius or philistine from a state of art in which every style is ostentatiously paradoxical. Between the fruitful and the unfruitful tendencies in contemporary music, the questions at issue are not primarily matters of taste or tradition. It may be assumed that vital art has deep foundations of taste and tradition, even if it professes to revolt from them all; but the signs of its vitality are neither in revolt

nor in conformity, but simply in the variety and the coherence of the art in itself. And the variety and coherence are matters of discoverable fact. Principles which make for them are likely to be sound; principles which destroy them are, if correctly stated or imputed, certain to be unsound. We must, however, bear in mind that the creation of a work of art is an altogether different process from criticism and analysis. The craziest theory may be accepted by a composer as being his method of work, and it will

do him not the slightest harm so long as it keeps his attention so poised that the depths of his mind are free to express themselves. But the same theory will be disastrous to most of his disciples, though some may share his luck with it. The classical art forms were not, in their origin and maturity, crazy theories, but shrewd generalisations from familiar experience. As that experience becomes remote the art forms lose their vitalising expressive power. But there is more vitality in remote experience than in none at all; and a mere arbitrary contradiction of old artistic theories is, one would think, the most obvious sterilising procedure that could be devised for future art.

II. MODERN MASTERS AND THEIR WORK Scriabin’s Harmonic System—The procedure is seen at its worst when it is applied to some all-pervading category of music, such as harmony. Whatever may be the merits or the fecundity of the composer, we may be absolutely certain that when he

explicitly promulgates a new system of harmony he is talking nonsense.

Scriabin (1871-1915) began his career as a brilliant

2oth century Chopin, with an unmistakable power of composition in large and free form, besides a happy vein in the tinicst of

preludes.

In time, certain harmonic

mannerisms

developed:

IOOI

the composer was inspired to write for orchestra; his vigorous talent for composition not only stood the strain of this larger medium but remained traceable in works based each on some single artificial chord of which the original meaning is obviously a Wagnerian progression, but which was expounded to the gasping interviewer as the most perfect chord in music. And so the gasping interviewer went on his way rejoicing in the possession of a profound technical mystery worthy of revelation together with the composer’s theosophic doctrines and other matters of popular interest. There is no reason for doubting the composer’s sincerity either in his theosophy or in his harmony. Artists are seldom also men of science, and even men of science keep some region of their minds in a state of holiday wherein they may be perfectly arbitrary and self-centred. Art originates from such regions of the mind, but it will be stifled, and those regions will be starved, unless it emerges and forages in the wide world of human life. Egocentric as is the nature of art, the confines of one personal life are not enough for sane self-development; and the personal note of the artist who retires into the recesses of his arbitrary domain will not long retain its power. The untimely death of Scriabin left his art just at the point where it was beginning to alienate his enthusiastic supporters. Contemporary enthusiasm and hostility on theories of harmonic style may be left to the theosophists. The important fact is that Scriabin did, while he lived, produce compositions with a large flow and climax: nor do we know that his power to do so was likely to fail him. But the lesson of three harmonic revolutions, distributed over five centuries of musical history, is that wherever a composer becomes preoccupied with harmonic ideas his power of composition is in greater danger of dwindling than when his interests lie in other categories of his art. Scriabin himself complained at last that all his harmonic efforts had not carried him essentially beyond the dominant seventh; and herein history repeats itself, for the complaint is substantially that with which Philipp Emanucl Bach refuted the harmonic theories of Rameau, saying to Burney that he could conceive nothing more childish than this notion of the ‘‘ fundamental bass,’ inasmuch as it “ would reduce all music to a series of full closes.” The truth is that all purely harmonic ideas first become intelligible by gravitating towards a full close; just as all verbal ideas gravitate towards the form of a subject, a predicate and a copula. Nor do harmonic ideas escape their fate by being based on conceptions which deny the aesthetics of classical polyphony and attempt to treat chords as pure sensations without relation to the melodic progression of their individual notes. Sooner or later

the composer will awaken to their possible meaning in a polyphonic scheme. Thus Walford Davies has sealed the fate of the ‘“ whole-toned scale’ (once believed to be the anti-polyphonic backbone of Debussy’s art) by pointing out that it is not a scale at all but a chord, which, properly distributed in different octaves, can resolve in six enharmonically different ways, none of which have anything to do with the sceptical and mechanical train of thought which tries to base harmonic systems on the limitations of the equal-tempered pianoforte with its 12 semitones to the octave. It is not worth while attempting to catalogue the systems of harmony evolved at the pianoforte by composers who continue to imagine that chords can be built up in fourths or in other a priori ways as rhythmless and unmelodic entities. Whatever the reader’s indignation at finding in this article no treatment of the dozens of harmonic and musico-metaphysical topics he hears of to-day, he may comfort himself with the certainty that nobody will have heard of most of them next year. One might as well discriminate between the fashions which dye the hair green and those which dye it blue. In all the chaos of recent experiment with discord and disordered rhythm, two questions alone are capable of permanently significant and truthful answers: the one concerns the composer and the other the listener. To the composer we may address Brahms’ rude query, ‘‘ Do you find this fun?’ Of the listener we may ask, ‘‘ Can you find a sufficient variety of coherent definite elements, events, qualities and forms in this art, quite irrespective of any question of novelty?’ This question must

MUSIC

1002

poser if he concerns himself only with things which he alone can

phonies owe much of their recognition to the personal zeal of their apostle, the eminent conductor Mengelberg. It is improbable that the music-lovers of other countries will ever readily receive these huge volumes of naive sentimentality and boyish grotesqueness. But the works nevertheless demonstrate at least three vital things: first, that it is still possible for a composer to pile up structure of illimitable extent in the most unsophisticated harmonic and melodic style; secondly, that, whereas taste cannot even begin to express itself without some technique, an immense amount of technique may be learnt from work which cannot be said to show any taste at all; and thirdly, that whatever may be objected to Mahler’s taste and form in this direction, he undoubtedly fulfilled his set purpose of working out the pioneer aesthetic and technical principles of music designed for 1,000 performers and upwards. And this is no decadent proposition. Decadence lies rather in the performance of classical music on a scale for which it was never remotely conceived. The real

understand. The Russian Ballet gave to music so long as it dealt intelligibly fable and life; and the young Stravinsky in it inspiration for music that remains

problems of music for 1,c00 performers are, as Mahler perceived, problems for a severely disciplined and accurate imagination; and nothing can be further removed from the world of arbitrary artistic egoism. They are not to be mastered by the methods of

be answered with regard to all the elements of the art from the oldest to the newest, and it is one of the few sound artistic

questions which concerns an artist’s whole output as well as individual works, ¢.g., whatever may be thought of Scriabin’s last harmonic obsessions, his smallest preludes, early, middle or late, could not have been created by a composer who could do nothing else. It is an accident that his work made a new sensation: it is an essential fact that he is a composer. Without the power of composition a new sensation cannot last, even if it can make its mark at all. With power of composition everything in art must some day find wide recognition, if it escapes physical destruction; for no composer attains such power without being driven by strong human impulses. Epigrams are not enough. Human experience vividly presented never loses point. Stravinsky and the Ballet—But the chances of producing permanently living work are heavily weighted against the com-

apart from the ballet.

abundant vital impulses with drama, fairy tale, of L'Oiseau de Feu found brilliant and intelligible

In Petrouchka he still makes rhythmic

and instrumental sounds that faithfully follow and enhance the moods of a fascinating pantomime; but the concert-goer who, knowing nothing of the ballet, affects to be moved by the music in an orchestral concert, is little wiser than the man who would rather say he preferred the wrong end of his asparagus than admit that he did not know which was the right end. The ballet is to the composer an easier and therefore more dangerous art form than the opera; in both cases the listener will always give the music credit for all the qualities of the scenario if the composer only manages not to interfere with them. Self-deception, loss of vitality, decadence and dry-rot set in when the designers of the ballet themselves retire into the arbitrary kingdom of abstractions which they call symbolic, and which common sense calls nonsense. There is a real kingdom of nonsense, and it will have none of your owlish aesthetic solemnity

about morbid twists of mind.

Lewis Carroll, trained logician,

leaves it to later commentators to identify his Snark with the Absolute, or with the company promoter; his and Edward Lear’s wonderland of nonsense is a school of manners in the light of which any explicit social satire and many fantastic flights of modern musical imagination appear almost equally convicted of grossness and heavy incongruity. For music, as for all arts,

the fruitful path, and that which leads even to the sublime as well as the imperishable, is a path of unselfconscious childlike enjoyment of the matter in hand, with no petulant preoccupation with the stupidity of the outsider. Erik Satie is amusing enough with his Vrates préludes flasques pour mon chien, his A perçues désagréables, and all the rest of it; his works are announced with the challenge, as to @es Aplatis, les Insignifiants and other

more Rabelaisian nonentities who will not enjoy them, “ quis avalent leurs barbes! qwils se marchent sur le ventre’? English patriotism cannot but feel flattered by this contrast with the perfect manners, perfect scholarship and perfect art with which Holst has made a fairy tale of all the operatic styles in musical history in The Perfect Fool. Gustav Mahler —Prominent among the eternal questions which agitate the contemporary critics of all arts at all periods is the proportion of means to ends. The modern orchestra grows easily with the demands of the modern composer, for, in spite of local and temporary difficulties, it is to the interest of players that orchestras should increase as well as multiply; but the most extravagant modern composer has never yet faced the problem of designing music for which the band and chorus of a Crystal Palace Handel Festival would really be to the purpose. In other words, the Handel Festival exists; but the music for an organisation of even half that size has never yet been composed. Here, then, is material for a real aesthetic development; and

herein lies the significance of the recent vogue in Holland of the enormous

works of Gustav Mahler.

That great Viennese or-

chestral conductor died almost a generation ago, and his sym-

that kind of extravagance which now and then displays a revulsion in some absurd economy, like Meyerbeer’s old trick of thin and inadequate harmony for one voice supported insecurely by one horn and a spasmodic gurgle on a solo violoncello. With much of Meyerbeer’s ‘‘ best-seller ” qualities, Mahler nevertheless has none of Meverbeer’s worldly wisdom, and in his special field there is as yet no greater and more masterly idealist. In vocal music he often attains great beauty and purity of style. Schönberg.—The main stream of music still flows within the Wagner-Strauss limits, and seldom requires 150 instrumental

players. Arnold Schénberg’s Gurre Lieder (a large vocal and choral cycle, the great success of which is held by his disciples to be a serious hindrance to the spread of his later gospel of a priori harmonic revolution) requires a huge orchestra; but the very fact that the score often employs 50 staves proves that Schönberg

is by no means imagining the aesthetics of an unprecedented scale of performance; the polyphony that requires 5o staves for its notation implies detail rather than bulk. Max Reger and Classicism—The life work of Max Reger presents a strange study of artistic vitality working on methods the reverse of vitalising. At first sight his productivity seems enormous; and since Orlando di Lasso in the 16th century we have had no other conspicuous instance of a composer who seems always able to sit down before a pile of blank music paper with a blank mind and work himself up into genuine inspiration by sheer interest in the weaving of rich musical texture. To the present generation of German musicians Reger is the last of the classics; but there are few things in music less classical than Reger’s art forms, rigidly orthodox though they seem. They are the direct result of extraordinary docility in the pupil of the most systematic musical scholar of recent times, and anyone who has groaned in spirit at the sight of one of Hugo Riemann’s editions of a piece of classical music may easily recognise in Reger the traces of his teaching. Every external feature of the classical art forms is present without any trace of the classical reasons for it. Everything has been worked out from one detail to the next, without any first principles to account for the whole procedure. A facile contrapuntist, Reger writes untold numbers of fugues, all on one mechanical plan, mostly with some combination of subjects, but never a combination between subjects sufficiently contrasted to give it point. His instrumental works are for the most part cast in sonata forms; except for the incessantly modulating and chromatic style, the whole collection of works contains neither an unorthodox procedure nor the slightest reason for its orthodox procedures. Bach wrote great works for unaccompanied violin, and Reger does likewise. But he shows no sense of the principle that Bach’s unaccompanied melody is its own bass; Reger’s melodies cry loudly and ambiguously for harmonic support. You might as well cut out with scissors a full-face portrait of a judge in his wig and expect it to be recognisable as a silhouette.

MUSIC Whatever is to be learnt from Reger, it is not the meaning of classical art forms. And much is to be learnt from Reger. His texture is inevitably thick, for his rigidly systematic completeness vetoes that suggestiveness which is one of the secrets of the greatest art. But it is astonishingly sonorous, and, in its heavy literal-minded way, effects its purpose in the fewest possible notes, numerous though they be. Every instrument is profoundly studied and developed on the basis of its natural technique; and while the player who claims that he can read Reger at sight js probably mendacious, he will enjoy his instrument all the better for playing Reger well. Nor is this the only or the most important non-egotistic reality in Reger’s work. The reality of Reger is that he is a consummate and impassioned rhetorician. His unreal art forms hinder and help him no more and no less than the alphabetical acrostic hindered and helped the poct of the Lamentations

of Jeremiah. He extemporises on paper, and is profoundly attentive to the nature of his instruments and to whatever text he is setting in his vocal music. In the history of art there can be no more conspicuous example of the difference bet ween analytical theory and the practical conditions of creative work. Bantock, Holst and Boughton.—The only things that matter to the composer and to his posterity are the things that help or hinder him in creating his works. Posterity will not inquire whether Sebastian Bach, Granville Bantock, Richard Strauss, Busoni—whosoever you will—were reactionaries or revolutionaries, whether they followed classical forms, misunderstood them or abolished them. Nor will posterity pay any attention to the questions we so often ask as to whether such and such a com-

poser’s work has led to further developments or hindered them. This is a totally different question from that which is often confused with it, the question whether certain principles (such as a revolutionary but disciplinarian theory of harmony) do or do not interfere with a composer’s capacity to write coherent and fluent works. On the sane musician the effect of the achievements of Wagner or Strauss is to enlarge his ideas of the range of his art. He is not obliged to cover that whole range himself; and the musician who, not being Wagner or Strauss, dooms himself to failure by working on their huge scale with inadequate resources, does not thereby show that his artistic balance would lead him to better success on a smaller scale. All great art may be accused of “‘ leading to a blind alley,” inasmuch as its achievements are

always individual and unique. Yet every achievement that lives (and many live, like the works of Domenico Scarlatti and Couperin, that cannot well be called great) is a source of inspiration to right-minded artists. It is not a matter of taste; nor need it be an incitement to handle any particular art form or to imitate the style that has inspired the artist with Correggio’s conviction ‘‘ Anch’io son pittorel’”’? It would be difficult, for instance, to name any composer whose style shows the influence of Granville Bantock; just as it is difficult to trace in his style, otherwise than by merely technical measurements, the influence of Strauss and of the schematic purity and brilliance of Russian orchestration. Yet there is probably nowhere in Europe a more radiant source of musical health. Another striking example of artistic vitality commands attention in the work of Gustav Holst, an English composer whose interest in oriental subjects is (like Bantock’s) no whim for chinoiseries but a true expression of the nostalgia of the West for the East. In every dircction his work is masterly, independent and indisputably real. Savitri is an oriental opera written with the slenderest of instrumental resources and with much singing

that is not only unaccompanied but unharmonised.

Holst has

also produced beautiful songs for the strange combination of a solo voice accompanied only by a violin. At the other end of the scale we have his orchestral work The Planets, in which he shows his full musical freedom. Probably the work in which his design most accurately and tersely fills its space is his setting of the sublime ancient Byzantine Hymn of Jesus. Here the music seems indistinguishable from the text; and its primitive and drastic harmonic logic, which technically could not have been written before the time of Debussy and Ravel, is no more suggestive of the fashions of to-day, or of any day,

than

1003 the awe-inspiring

Eucharistic

text

which

reverberates

through it. No modern music is more utterly unsuggestive of outward and technical resemblance to the classics, and none rests

on deeper foundations of musical scholarship. Among the most significant signs of life in English music we must mention Rutland Boughton’s remarkable musical festivals at Glastonbury, where (until interrupted by the World War) he produced English opera on a small scale, ranging from Purcell to his own and other contemporary works, several of which have since become famous. Strauss’s Later Work.—It is easy to ask what effect the World War has produced on music. The wisest answer is negative. The ascertainable effects of the War upon the arts are blankly destructive. Few, if any, of the works written avowedly to commemorate the War can possibly succeed in meaning what they say oP saying what they mean. And of the losses to music, who shall discriminate between the talents that had been given time just to reveal their promise and those that were cut off yet sooner? What now of Russia, where in 1921 world-famous composers were living in starvation without even paper to write on? If any musical work is destined to impress posterity as a noble expression and reaction of the World War, the choice might fall on Richard Strauss’ Die Frau ohne Schatten. Wis Alpen-sinfonre, which, designed before the War, appeared in 1915, was a great disappointment, amiably commonplace in “ programme ”’ and sentiment, and hardly more than automatic in its characteristic “‘ road-hog ”’ technique. As regards Die Frau ohne Schaiten, the style of Richard Strauss is no longer a new sensation, and it cannot be easily proved to be less automatic here than it is in the -A/pen-stnfonie. The intention of the work as a whole must be ascribed to the poet Hofmannsthal; but this does not minimise the importance of what Strauss can achieve at the height of his power and inspiration. His mastery of composition and texture has never been seriously in dispute, whatever exception may have been taken to the extremes and licences of his style; and as the poet’s intention is noble, the composer has made its realisation vivid as no one else could imagine. From the twilight of roth century and recent erotic art, and from its always selfish and sometimes abnormal sexual preoccupations, Die Frau ohne Schatten breaks away, and its plea for love is nature’s plea for life. Musically it is, more copiously than any of Strauss’ former works, an occasion for beauty; as a dramatic spectacle it is a gorgeous fantastic pantomime, of which the allegorical meaning leaves it hardly less childlike than Die Zauberflöte, which it in some points intentionally resembles. It is altogether a noble and heroic work, unassailable by any cavil that does not condemn itself as ignoble.

II.

THE

FUTURE

OF MUSIC

A New Pianoforte—In the early summer of ro21 a new kind of double keyboard for pianofortes, invented by the eminent Hungarian composer Emanuel Méor, and manufactured by Messrs. Schmitt-Flohr of Berne, was demonstrated in Berne to large audiences. Two things stand in the way of its development as the most important invention in musical instruments since

the pianoforte itself; first the commercial difficulty in promoting an improvement that cannot be simply added as an extra apparatus to an existing pianoforte; and secondly, the tendency to expound it as a device that makes existing feats of pianoforte technique nugatory, a policy which merely infuriates the pianoforte virtuoso. The real importance of the invention lies in its entirely new resources. The principle is simple and might just as well have been discovered when the pianoforte was first invented: in which case Mozart’s pianoforte-technique would have begun considerably beyond the point where Beethoven’s now leaves off. Two manuals are placed, the one so slightly raised above the other that a perfect legato in rapid passages is obtainable between them by one hand. The second manual is an octave higher than the first. Thus the normal stretch of one hand is two octaves instead of one; and with the cultivation of a new set of movements of the hand, backwards and forwards as well as laterally, the possibilities of pianoforte-writing already seem

1004

MUSICAL

limited only by pure musical aesthetics. But this is not all; the two manuals can be coupled together by,a pedal, so that the instrument possesses much of the property of the organ and also of the harpsichord, in the power of doubling a whole mass of harmony or any part thereof in “ four-foot tone.”’ The restoration of harpsichord effects is completed by a lever which operates a kind of sordine, producing a somewhat crudely generalised harpsichord tone which later improvement may make very valuable. There is a vast new technique awaiting long study and exploration; but the merest rudiments of it produce astonishing results in a short time, for the pianist who gave the first public demonstration did so within six days of setting eyes on the instrument. Doubtless it will develop its own vices as well as resources, but it begins by depriving pianists of occasion for four-fifths of their worst habits, and sets a premium upon a Bach-like and Mozartlike cultivation of polyphonic cantabile. Nany composers use the pianoforte in the act of composition far more than they are willing to admit. They know it to be a bad habit, because it tends to cramp their invention in two directions: 1t confines phrasing to the obvious sequences that muscular memory best grasps, and it confines part-writing to the compass and convenience of the hands. The second limitation is now removed, and those composers who suffer from “ pianistic ’ habits may learn from it a greater freedom in their writing for other instruments and for orchestra. Thus there is no region of music unrelated to Emanucl Méor’s duplex coupler pianoforte, and this instrument should become a very important source of interest and inspiration in the music of the future. Wireless and the Future —The development of wireless broadcasting is effecting, in music as in other matters of entertainment and education, changes which only future generations will be able to estimate. The industrial revolution it will create in the lives of musicians will need wise guidance if it is to be beneficial to music. .The function of the large orchestra in the public hall will never become obsolete, for the sounds that reach the ear from the dispersal] sources of an orchestra have an acoustic perspective which no improvement in “ loud-speakers ” can impart to a transmitter or phonographic recorder which emits all sounds from one place. The simple experiment of putting the hands around the ears while listening to an orchestra in a concert-room will convince the listener that a “ gramophone effect ” 1s httle more than the result of cutting off the waves that reach the ear from other than frontal directions. Apart from the improvements of technique that are rapidly making the transmission of timbre and balance of tone more satisfactory, the development of “ wireless ” music is already arousing millions to attention without arousing the inhibitions and excitements of crowd-psychology. The very defects of transmission are stimulating pianists (whose instrument suffers thereby more than most) to the study and broadcasting of intimate early keyboard music in which the plain melodic and polyphonic sense demands almost nothing from the special character of the instrument, but appeals to fireside audiences who would find it unintelligibly thin in the concert-room. Moreover, a new fact in musical aesthetics is the extraordinary beauty of microphonically magnified tones of very faint instruments, such as the clavichord. We may be nearer than we think to a still more subversive revolution by means of the microscopic study of the wave-lines of phonographic records. There is nothing to prevent the possibility of producing music directly in terms of those lines. The limitations of music so produced would no longer be those of instruments, but would be determined solely by the precision with which it may become possible to model any sound-wave required. The composer will imagine and prescribe any producible timbre at any pitch he pleases, and will perhaps have no more to do with the craftsman who models the phonographic wavelines than the violinist has to do with Stradivarius. The crudest beginnings of this new art will be of enormous importance, but its highest development will still leave the human handling of instruments supreme as the inexhaustible source of musical inspiration.

COMEDY BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H.

F. Chorley, The National Music of the World

(1911); O. Keller, L//ustrierte Geschichte der Musik (1911); H. C. Colles, The Growth of Music (1912, etc.); W. J. Henderson, The Story of Music (1912); D. F. Tovey, German Music (1915); D. G. Mason, ed., The Artof Music, 14 vol. (1915); Sir C. W. Stanford and C. Forsyth, A History of Music (1916); D. G. Mason, Contemporary

Composers (1918); K. R. W. Heyman, The Relation of Ultramodern fo Archaic Music (1921); C. Net, Geschichie der Sinfonie und Suite (1921); A. W, Pollitt, The Enjoyment of Muste (1921); G. J. Aubrey,

La Musique etles Nations (1922); R. Lach, Zur Geschichte des Musikalischen

Zunftwesens

(1923),

H. Lambert,

Modern

British

posers (1923); R. H. Myers, Modern Music (1924); C. Survey of Contemporary Music (1924); E. Walker, History tn England (1924); W. S. Pratt, ed., The New Encyclopedia and Musicians (1924); Sir W. H. Hadow, Music (1925);

Com-

Gray, A of Music of Music J. Hol-

brooke, Contemporary British Composers (1925);A. Weissmann,

The

Problems of Modern Music (1925); E. Wray, A Skeleton History of Music (1925). (D. F. T.)

MUSICAL COMEDY (sce 8.533).—Although musical comedy is one of the most popular entertainments of the English-speaking races, it has always been passed over by writers on music as too unimportant for discussion, and books of reference have hitherto maintained a curious silence on its origin and character. Yet musical comedy and its off-shoot, revue, occupy a distinct place in the history of the modern theatre. CHARACTER

AND

ORIGINS

What is musical comedy, and what is its line of descent from the recognised forms of light opera? Clearly it bears no relation to the classical opera buffa of Italy. That had no spoken dialogue and its place was taken by recitativo secco, a formal and rhetorical delivery of the words, supported by the lightest accompaniment. Mozart’s Figaro and Rossini’s I! Barbiéreare good examples of opera buffa. Nor has musical comedy any real connection with the German Singspiel except that spoken dialogue was used instead of recitativo secco. In France the singspiel developed into opéra comique. But the French comic opera was not necessarily comic, but was so called merely to differentiate it from grand opera. It was not considered necessary, indeed, that an opéra comique should include a single comic scene or character, but whatever the style of its drama might be, its dialogue had to be spoken. Since the dawn of the roth century opéra comique has been a favourite form of composition with French musicians, but one may look to the popularity of the vaudeville, after the French Revolution, as being a more direct ancestor of modern musical comedy as far as the style of the play was concerned. But the vaudeville was written in verse, and musical comedy employs only lyrics for musical setting, the play itself being carried on by spoken dialogue. A much closer analogy is to be found in the French opéra bouffe, which is not in any way akin to the Italian opera buffa. In the former, spoken dialogue alternates with light music, and in the play itself there were generally topical or satirical allusions. It was a kind of opéra comique in little. From the opéra bouffe and vaudeville sprang the operetta: at first, as its name implies, a short opera of one act which was employed to lengthen the evening’s entertainment. Gilbert and Sullivan practically founded their operas on the operetta and opéra bouffe, but, except at first, they cast them into two acts of sufficient length to fill the bill. |

On its formal side, the English ballad opera may be considered one of the models for musical comedy. Sentimental songs are introduced with the same irrelevance. The English ballad operas came into being as a protest against the Itahan operas of the 18th century. he English works were even composed in the Italian manner, recifativos taking the place of dialogue. But they did not have much success until Gay wrote The Beggar's Opera, for which Dr. Pepusch adapted the best English and Scottish melodies that could be discovered. The opera had a great success in 1728, and when a modern version of

it was produced at the Lyric, Hammersmith, in 1920, it ran for 1,463 continuous performances, being beaten only by Charley’s Aunt (1,466) and Chu Chin Chow (2,238). The Beggar’s Opera was afterwards revived and did well. The success of The Beggar’s Opera led to the production of Polly at the Kingsway

MUSICAL Theatre (1922) and of The Duenna (1924). This revival of interest in ballad operas suggests that this typically English form of musical entertainment may have a future. A revival of Isaac Bickerstaff’s Lionel and Clarissa at the Hammersmith Lyric Theatre in Oct. 1925, proved fairly popular. All these 18th-century ballad operas have been retouched and to some extent modernised, but the work has been done so well that they have not lost their antique character. But neither they nor the Gilbert and Sullivan operas have anything in common with musical comedy. Their popularity is evidence, however, that there is a large public interested in music of a light character. The genre of musical comedy, then, is in direct descent from the opéra bouffe and the vaudeville of the French combined with our own ballad operas. But it must be remembered that in very few instances is one form of art purposely modelled on what has gone before. Makers of musical comedy have not been at pains to imitate and adapt to present needs former works of light music. Sir Arthur Sullivan is, perhaps, an exception, for the earlier examples of the Savoy operas do show that he had taken the French operetta as his model. Musical comedy, as it is known in London and New York, is an expression of a love of boisterous and farcical humour rather than of the high comedy of the operetta. In its present form it is peculiarly an expression of the English-speaking races. Its humour is broader, more farcical and more eccentric than anything to be found in light French or Viennese opera, and the student will find curious evidence of

this in the change which French or Viennese light operas undergo when adapted to the British or American stage as musical comedies. André Messager’s Véronique, for instance, was first performed in London by a French company (1903) as a light opera. When it was produced, shortly afterwards, in an English version, the comedy part of the florist was developed by Mr. George Graves into an eccentric low comedian. This had the effect of changing the character of the piece, although, of course, the original music remained. Much the same change had happened to the Viennese light operas which, from 1910 almost to the present day, gradually ousted English musical comedy from the London and New York stage. The public patronises musical comedy because it is fond of music, and it soon became fascinated by the finish and skilfulness of the compositions by Oscar Straus, Leo Fall, Jean

Gilbert and Franz Lehar. But to all the light operas of those composers the farce of recognised musical comedy had to be added. This is a relic of the old-fashioned Gaiety burlesque. Those burlesques were more in the nature of what afterwards came to be known as revue in London and New York than of the musical comedy with a plot and sentimental scenes. Gradually the Gaiety burlesque developed into the Gaiety musical comedy, the music written by Lionel Monckton, Howard Talbot, Ivan Caryll, Paul A. Rubens and others. These musical comedies always contained big parts for the low comedians, and in the second half of the entertainment the plot was held in abeyance while the low comedy was developed. The gradual popularity of Viennese light opera, adapted to the London stage as musical comedy, with big parts for the low comedians, swept all before it down to 1914. The plots of the foreign light operas gave better opportunities for sentimental scenes and their composers were able, by superior musicianship, to make the best of their ideas through clever orchestration and skilful ensembles. Occasionally light musical pieces which are neither light operas nor musical comedies are produced on the London American stage. The British Maid of the fountains (1917) is but described as romantic melodrama combined with musical comedy. Lilac Time, first produced in America as Blossom Time (1921), is a light opera founded on Schubert’s songs and instrumental pieces. Such pieces are, however, exceptional. THE

RISE

OF

REVUE

Musical comedy for some years suffered severely from the rivalry of the revue. In Paris the revue had a special character of social satire and topical interest. Very few attempts have been made to acclimatise the French revue to the London stage,

COMEDY

1005

the most successful being Mr. C. B. Cochran's series of intimate revues, beginning with Odds & Ends in Oct. 1914, at the Ambassadors ‘Theatre. The revue, as we have known it, has been a mélange of songs, sketches, low comedy, ballets and pageants strung together without any apparent aim. Many of them have begun with a satirical idea, but the satire has never been carried out. The secret of making a successful revue is known only to those who achieve success. It appears to be based, however, on an instinctive sense of contrast between the different “ turns ”’ of the entertainment.

It is often stated that the haphazard style of disconnected “ turns” was sympathetic to the war-mind. That may be a reason for the popularity of the revue during the World War and immediately afterwards, but it must be pointed out that this form of entertainment had become popular at least a couple of years before the War. Mr. George Grossmith, who had taken such a large part in the Gaiety musical comedies, was the first to adapt the revue from France. In roro he had made a great success in Paris in a Folies-Bergéres revue with /p-t-addy-i-ay from one of the Gaiety pieces. In Oct. 1912, he produced the first English revue at the Alhambra. It was entitled Kil? thai Fly, and the music was written by Melville J. Gideon. This was followed at the same theatre in May 1913 by Eightpence a Mile. In Nov. 1912, we find that a specimen of the new entertainment, From Broadway to Paris, had found its way to the New York stage. Long before the War, the revue was seriously affecting musical comedy in London. Soon after war broke out it became even more the staple musical entertainment in London, for the reason that all the most successful composers of musical comedy were enemies and their works were no longer performed on the stage. Mr. George Edwardes was interned in Germany and could not exercise direct control of the Adelphi and Gaiety theatres. By the end of 1914 only two musical comedies were to be seen in London: A Country Girl at Daly’s theatre, and The Earl and the Girl at the Lyric theatre. Revues became more and more spectacular, and gradually the best of these entertainments included ballets and pageants of great beauty. Ina sense, that type of revue was a throw-back to the masque. With the popularity of revue, syncopated or “ jazz’ music found its way to the stage from the variety halls. From revue it gradually crept into musical comedy, and the long continuance of the War, which automatically put an end to the domination of the Viennese school of musical comedy or light opera, gave this modern musical fashion full scope. How far foreign musical comedy had gradually come to dominate our stage may be seen from the following list of the principal musical comedies produced in London and New York from 1910 to a few years after the outbreak of the War. The nationality of the composer is placed in brackets, but it must be remembered that in all cases the musical plays were very freely adapted for the countries in which they were performed. But however much low comedy may be imported into them, a foreign musical comedy always retains something of its original character. It is impossible to mistake a musical comedy by Leo Fall for one by Cuvillier, although in every respect the “ book” and characters may have been Anglicised or Americanised. The following list is not, of course, exhaustive, but it is suffciently complete to show the different fashions of pre-War musical comedy.

I9IO.

Lonpon: The Balkan Princess (British), The Girl in the Tram (Viennese), The Chocolate Soldier (Viennese), The

Ouaker Girl (British).

NEW YORK:

Tke Arcadians (British), The Girl in the

(Viennese), King of Cadonia

IQil,

Taxi

(British), Afadame Sherry

(American), Our Miss Gibbs (British). Lonpon: Peggy (British), Tke Mousmé (British), Nightbirds (adaptation of Johann Strauss’s Dre Fledermaus (Viennese).

New YORK: The Slim Princess (Pritish), The Balkan Princess (British), A Country Girl (British, revival), The Dollar Princess (Viennese), Girl of My Dreams (American), Gypsy Love (Viennese), Zhe Kiss Waltz (Viennese), Little Boy Biue (German, original title Lord Piccolo), The Quaker Girl (British).

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, MECHANICAL

1006 1912.

1913.

I9I4.

Lonpon: Princess Caprice (Viennese), Gipsy Love (Viennese), The Giri in the Taxi (Viennese), The Dancing Mistress (British), Tke Sunshine Girl (British). ’ NEw York: The Count of Luxembourg (Viennese), The Aferry Countess (Viennese, Die Fledermaus), Oh, Oh, Delphine (British-American}), Peggy (British), The Wedding Trip (American), The Charity Girl (American), Tantalising Tommy (Viennese), LONDON: The Peart Girl (British), The Girl from Utah (British), The Girl on the Film (German), The Laughing ffusband (German), The Marriage Market (Viennese), Oh, Oh, Delphine (British-American). NEW YORK: Sweetheart (American), The American Maid (American), The Beggar Siudent (German), The Doll Girl (Viennese), Lieber Augustin (German), The Marriage Afarket (Viennese), Sunshine Girl (British).

Lonpon: A Country Girl (British), The Marl and the Girl (British), The Cinema Star (Viennese), Toy Ride Lady (Viennese), Af'selle Tra-la-la (Viennese). New York: The Belle of Bond Street (British), The Girl from Utah (British), The Girl on the Film (German),

I9I5.

The Oniy Girl (American). LONDON: The Only Girl (American), Betty (British), Tonight's the Night (British, founded on The Pink Domino), Revivals of Floradora, Véronique, The Arcadians, Chinese Honeymoon, The Dairy Maids and The Girl in the Taxi, Big spectacular revues, produced by Albert de Courville and Wal. Pink. NEw

IQIĜ.

I9I7.

1918.

1919.

York:

Princess Put (American), Alone at Last (Ger-

man), The Blue Paradise (Viennese), To-night's the Night (British), Watch your Step (American jazz musical comedy), Several big American revues. Loxnpon: Chu Chin Chow (British), High Jinks (British adaptation of French farce Les Dragées d'Hercule, Music by various British composers and Rudolph Friml), The Happy Day (British), Mr. Manhattan (British), Afy Lady Frayle (British). At end of the year no fewer than 9 theatres were devoted to revue and only 3 to musical comedy. NEW YORK: Betty (British), Follow Me (American), The Girl from Brazil (German-American), Katinka (Viennese), Miss Springtime (German), Siep This Way (American), Very Good, Eddie (American). LONDON: The Maid of the Mountains (British), The Boy (British), The Beauty Spot (British). New YORK: Canary Cottage (American), Chu Chin Chow (British), Leave Tt to Jane (American), May-time (German), Of, Boy (American). LONDON: The Lilac Domine (French), Going Up (American), Yes, Uncle (American), Very Good, Eddie (American). New York: The Grass Widow (American), Going Up (American), The Maid of the Mountains (British), Oh, Lady, Lady (American), Of, My Dear (American), The Rainbow Girl (American). Lonpon: Who's Hooper? (British), Baby Bunting (British), Ilis Little Widows (American), Afgar (French), Monsieur Beaucaire (French), Revival of Gilbert and Sullivan’s operas. New YORK: The Royal Vagabond (German-American), Apple Blossoms (Viennese), Good Morning, Judge (The Boy, British), La, la, Lucille (American). A number of other musical comedies of American origin were produced.

It will be seen from the foregoing list that after 1914 the stage had to rely for the most part on British and American musical comedies, until peace was declared, but towards the end of the War some works of enemy origin were produced. One of the most successful of these American musical comedies was Trene, produced at the Empire Theatre in 1920. There has been no great change in the type of musical comedy since the War, except that towards the end of 1925 American musical comedies, (of which Vo No Nanette, Mercenary Mary and Rose Murte are the chief examples) with their efficient production and lively syncopated music, gradually took the place of British musical comedies. In Paris, the home of revue, the musical comedy of the Englishspeaking races was always an alien form of entertainment. The differences between the operetta and opéra bouffe and musical comedy are slight, but nevertheless very real. They consist partly of the kind of sentiment expressed, of the general character of the music, and, especially, of the type of humour. The light opera of the modern Viennese school, when adapted as American or British musical comedy, had, and, to some extent, still has a vogue in Paris, but even before the War Parisians had

grown tired of it, and during and since the War it has never regained the popularity it once had. (E. A. B.) MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, MECHANICAL.—In the history of mechanical musical instruments the years rg10-26 are significant chielly because of the remarkable advance made in reproducing the touch of the human performer. Most of these keybeard instruments are known as reproducing or re-enacting pianos, and a discussion of their mechanical details necessarily

concentrates largely upon the field of the modern pianoforte (see

21.573). Tur

PLAYER

PIANO

By toro the foot-pumped player piano had already reached a high point of development, and there were a number of elaborate devices for lending expression to its music. Ways haf been found of emphasising the melody and subduing the accompaniment, at the pleasure of the player. The control of tempo had also undergone various improvements. Some of these devices had brought about an elaborate system of controlling levers, which the human player could operate with considerable skill. But the chief source of expression still rested in the fect, with most of the shading secured through the varying rapidity and suddenness of the actual foot-pumping. The foot-pedalled player piano permits its “ pedipulator ” to enjoy the feeling of being actually an interpretative, perhaps even a creative, artist. The principle of the player piano rests upon the laws of atmospheric pressure. William Braid White, in his authoritative book on Piano Playing Mechanisms, gives a fairly simple explanation of what happens when a mechanical piano is made to play. He first shows how “a state of reduced pressure, or, as it is called, ‘ partial vacuum,’ is induced in a small bellows called a ‘pneumatic,’ one of which is attached in some operative manner to each section of the action of a piano.”’ He continues: “ When some of the air has been pumped out of such a pneumatic, the outside pressure pushes up its moving wall, and the motion of this wall constitutes the movement required to set in motion the corresponding action and hammer on the piano.” He further explains that “ the velocity of motion of the pneumatic in thus collapsing will depend upon the difference between the exterior, or atmospheric pressure, and the reduced pressure inside the pneumatic. The greater the difference between the two, the more effective will be the work of the atmosphere, and the higher the velocity of the pneumatic’s motion. Thus it appears that the power exerted on the piano hammer (corresponding to the work of the fingers on the keys) by the pneumatic varies as the rapidity of reduction of air-pressure inside it. It is therefore plain that if we can keep this process of pressure-reduction under control we can vary our tone-strengths as required. Control of this sort is, of course, essential to the artistic rendering of music.” Refinement of Control —The up-to-date reproducing piano has gone far beyond the ordinary player or pianola in the gradual refinement of such control. The difference is vastly greater than the mere substitution of electric power for foot-pumping. By various methods of controlling pressure-reduction, represented by different instruments, the human touch has generally been approximated, and in a few cases actually duplicated. The ideal of all experimentation with the reproducing piano has been to strike any note at any time with any degree of force used by the actual pianist. Fundamentally this becomes a problem of weight and pressure, which is all that we really mean by “ touch.” But it was discovered long ago that in attaining subtlety of expression and “ tone-colour,” the pedalling (soft, damper and sostenuto) was a very important element, and that certain effects depended not only upon such blending of tone but upon the actual overlapping of the tones themselves, and the smooth passage from one to another, in the course of a “ crescendo ” or “ diminuendo,” with a scarcely perceptible difference in volume. The reproducing piano of the highest type permits the duplication ofevery detail of expression as recorded by the great pianists. (This instrument, however, still allows the amateur to experiment with his own ideas of expression by eliminating the

' MUSICAL

INSTRUMENTS,

mechanical control and substituting the manipulation of levers or buttons under his own control.) With the discovery that the human touch could be duplicated came the invention of various recording machines, so that by 1926 every pianist of note could be heard through his records as well as in concert performance. Recording Processes.—Processes for recording are, by most manufacturers, veiled in absolute secrecy, for obvious reasons. The results, however, depend not so much on the method of recording as on the ability of the reproducing mechanism to

duplicate the effects indicated by the artist. Some records made in Europe in the early days of the reproducing piano have been successfully adapted to the later perfected instruments, and actually give a far finer performance than would have been possible when they were first made. In general the recording pianist simply sits at a regular keyboard and plays in his usual style. Electrically connected with his piano, and invisible to him, is a recording machine carrying an endless roll of paper, on which both the notes and the expression are marked as he plays the instrument. The old player-pianos had their rolls made by mathematically following the sheet-music and with no attempt at variety of expression and interpretation. Some of the newer recording machines also perforate directly from the playing of the artist, but in these cases a careful system of editing is required before the record can be heard in public. The opportunity for editing is offered also in those machines which clo not perforate immediately, but in which the start and finish of each tone are clearly indicated by pencil marks, with the exact action of the pedals and every slight variation of pressure. In fact, the possibility of revision and editing is most important in the creation of completely satisfactory recordings. There are always some mistakes to be corrected, and an artist generally finds various details which he wishes to emphasise or subdue, so that the final recording may truly represent his playing at its best. SoME

The

pioneers

REPRODUCING

in the manufacture

PIANOS

and

marketing

of the

modern reproducing piano were M. Welte & Son, of Freiburg, Germany, and Ludwig Hupfeld, of Leipzig, both of whom were active as early as 1904. The nameof Welte-Mignon, which originated at that time, was by 1926 best known in America through pneumatic actions distributed under a license issued by the owners of the Welte patent rights. The inventions of Charles Fuller Stoddard were developed independently, and the instru-

ment which he perfected put on the market by the American Piano Co., under the trade name of the Ampico. Another type of reproducing piano was subsequently developed by the Aeolian Co. from the pianola, and given the name of Duo-Art. The latter may be attached to the Steinway, Weber, Steck and Stroud pianos, while the Ampico may be had in the Chickering, Knabe, Mason & Hamlin, Haines, Fischer and Marshall and Wendell pianos, besides the Willis in Canada, and the Broadwood and others in England. The Welte mechanism ts used with the Steinway and other instruments in Europe, and (as licencee) in a great number of American pianos.

Features of Mechanism—The mechanism of each of these types deserves separate consideration. All three are alike in the general arrangement of pneumatics and in the division of the keyboard, for convenience, into two halves, treble and bass, each controlled by special expression pneumatics. All three possess a device for automatically rerolling a record, and repeating it by the setting of a lever if desired. They also permit the elimination of recorded expression and the substitution of human control. In every case the piano can be used as such, even while a record is in progress. The Welte-—The original Welte first appeared as a cabinet containing a separate action, operating on the keys of the piano, but by 1926 was generally found as an interior action in grand and upright pianos. The power plant consists of an electric motor and a suction pump. Including “ on” and “off,” 18 holes in the tracker har are devoted to expression purposes, tenon the right side and eight on the left, the rest sounding the notes. The

MECHANICAL

1007

bass and treble sections of the action are controlled by separate expression pneumatics, each closing at two definite rates of specd, slowly for crescendo, and fast for accents. There are also pneumatics to lock the expression pneumatics in a mezzo-forte position and other details for increasing expression. The Duo-Art.—The Duo-Art Pianola differs from other reproducing pianos of the grand type by having its note-sheet driving mechanism and tracker bar placed behind the fall-board, directly over the keys themselves, the case being extended to make the necessary room. Its expression system is divided into a melody or “ theme ” regulator and an accompaniment regulator, with the melody always slightly stronger. Two sets of four pneumatics each, known as the “accordion dynamics,” permit as many as 16 degrees of volume.

The Ampico.—The Ampico has both a crescendo pneumatic system and an instantaneous accent pneumatic system, which it can use in combination to control the air-tension behind the hammers. These systems may be operated independently for their separate effects, or concurrently for their combined effects, thus producing an unusual smoothness in crescendo and diminuendo, as well as a delicate shading. There is also an “ amplifier’ for special effects of volume, and the extended perforations in the music-sheet produce the greatly desired “ singing’”’ quality of tone. Seven holes on each side of the tracker bar control expression, with an extra one on the right for the re-roll. In the Ampico grand, the note-sheet mechanism is in a drawer,

while the electrically driven pump is slung under the body of the piano,

Fheumatie Rewind

Freumatie Stack

Expression Buttons

D

SS

È

y

Bs wa Fic. 1.—Reproducing Piano, showing the principal features of the mechanism, which are described at length in the text. From a drawing by H. S. Smith, C.E. in Piano Playing Mechanisms, by W. B. White, Ed. L. Bili, Inc. N.Y.

“Ampico Upright —A typical reproducing piano (Ampico upright) consists of (a) bass equaliser; (b) bass regulator system, connected by tube with (ce) crescendo pneumatic and (d) soft pedal pneumatic; (e) treble equaliser; (f) treble regulator system, connected by tube with (g) crescendo pneumatic (right side) (fig. 1). The recording sheet is hung in place at k; it has a metal ring at the end of the paper caught by a pin upon the spool, so that the perforations in the note-sheet will pass over the holes in the tracker bar, which is connected by tubes with the pneumatic stack and the expression system. When the pump and motor are electrically started, air is sucked through the holes in the tracker bar, causing the individual pneumatics to set the corresponding hammers in motion exactly as by the touch of the pianist on the keys. At the same time, the crescendo, accents and various pedals are similarly set in operation through special ‘ expression holes ’’ in the tracker bar, corresponding to perforations on the edges of the note-sheet. The expression buttons in front of the keyboard permit the human manipulator to introduce his own ideas of shading. He can also vary the tempo at will, and do his own pedalling, if desired, the automatic expression being in that case temporarily turned off. A small motor serves to keep the note-sheet in motion and to rewind it rapidly when the playing of a record has been completed.

MUSIC

1008

HALL— MUSSOLINI

Research Work.—All the companies manufacturing these instruments publish instruction books for mechanicians, and the mechanically inclined reader is referred to these publications for further information. An elaborate research laboratory has been for some time in operation in New York, under the direction of Mr. C. F. Stoddard, and here the minutest details of musical expression, including dynamics, pedalling, touch, tone quality and tempo, have been scientifically analysed, so that a beauty of mechanical playing is possible that was formerly undreamt of. In this laboratory also have been developed scientific methods of recording the performance of a pianist to a degree of accuracy which permits not only the determination of the audible loudness of every note struck, but shows differences in touch that are indistinguishable by the human sense of hearing. This work has made it possible to measure scientifically the technical ability of a pianist. Practical Uses.—-The place of the reproducing piano is now fully established in the field of music on educational as well as aesthetic grounds. Distinguished artists have used these instruments in public performance, directly comparing their own playing with that of their recordings, sometimes alternating with the latter in most astonishing fashion; and recorded accompaniments have proved most valuable for singers, violinists, etc., in concerts as well as for private practice. Schools, colleges and conservatoires of music are coming to recognise the reproducing piano as an indispensable part of their equipment, particularly for teaching the appreciation of music; and teachers of the pianoforte welcome its authoritative recordings as models for

their pupils. SOME

OTHER

[INSTRUMENTS

Concerning other mechanical keyed instruments little need be said. There are, of course, coin-operated electric pianos, which have proved themselves adequate for entertainment in restaurants and taverns, and often these are reinforced with organ

pipes, drums and other orchestral effects. Essentially they are built on the principle of the player-piano, although the need of expression can practically be disregarded. The Pipe Organ.—The pipe organ itself is thoroughly adaptable to mechanical playing, for its effects have little to do with the human touch, and can be produced at will by the electric control of stops and pipes. All the great organs can be played with the help of rolls, which are either entirely mechanical in their control of expression or permit a human agent to manipulate the stops, while the tones themselves are mechanically produced. In conclusion, no matter how perfect a mechanical musical instrument may be, the fascination of personally producing tonal beauty will never be entirely lost, and human performance will continue to be popular, with its amazing duplication by scientific means in no sense a discouragement to personal endeavour, but rather a priceless ally to the cause of music on those occasions and in those places where individual skill and talent

are not always available (sce also PHONOGRAPH). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—William Braid White, Piano Playing Mechanisms, a most valuable and comprehensive treatment of all the mechanical essentials (1925); Modern Piano hag ©and Allied Arts (1917) and

The Player-Piano

Up-to-date

(1914);Hl. C. Van Atta,

A Treatise on the Piano and Player-Piano PR -Alfred Dolge, Pianos and their Makers (1911); Gustav Kobbé, The Pianolist (1907) and The Aeolian Pipe Organ (1913): G. Å. Audsley, The Organ of the Twentieth Century (1919); G. L. Miller, The Recent Revolution in Organ Building (1913); Manuals of instruction for mechanics issued

by such manufacturers of reproducing and re-enacting pianos as the Aeolian Co., the American Piano Co., the Welte-Mignon Corp., the Auto-Pneumatic Action Co., etc. (S. Sr.)

MUSIC HALL: see VARIETY THEATRE. MUSSOLINI, BENITO (1883), Italian statesman and journalist, was born July 29 1883 at Dovia, in the commune of Predappio (province of Forli). His father, Alessandro Mussolini, was a blacksmith of internationalist revolutionary and antireligious opinions, and played an active part in the local Socialist movement, while his mother, Rosa Maltoni, was a school teacher of deep religious convictions; the views of both parents affected

young Mussolini in different ways at different stages of his career. He was sent to the Salesain college of Faenza, where he showed considerable intelligence but a passionate, insubordinate spirit. Later he went to the normal school at Forlimpopoli, and eventually qualified as a school teacher at the age of 18, obtaining an appointment at Gualtieri (province of Reggio Emilia). As a youth he developed a love of literature and read widely, and soon became interested in the Italian Socialist movement. But he tired of teaching, and determined to go to Switzerland to improve his education. There he earned a precarious livelihood by manual labour of various kinds, but managed to attend the courses at the Universities of Lausanne and Geneva, and secured a diploma as teacher of French. He lived mostly among the working classes, and, born organiser as he was, he founded trade unions and even promoted strikes, with the result that he was expelled from one canton after another, and finally from the Confederation. After performing his military service in the Bersaglieri, he returned to teaching, but found time to improve his knowledge of the classics. In 1908 he was involved in the political agrarian conflicts in Romagna, was arrested, tried and condemned to ro days’ imprisonment, and afterwards was under police surveillance as a dangerous revolutionary. At the end of 1908 he went to Trento, where he had been summoned by the local chamber of Labour as secretary, and he also joined the staff of the local Socialist paper L'Avvenire. But when he realised that the Trentino Socialists, in their loathing for the national idea, took their cue from the Vienna Govt., Mussolini went over to the Popolo, a paper edited and founded by Cesare Battisti, also a Socialist, but above all an Irredentist patriot who was afterwards to serve in the Italian Army during the War, be captured by the Austrians and hanged as a traitor. Here Mussolini took up the study of German literature, and became deeply interested in philosophy, especially in that of Nietzsche. His association with Battisti first inspired him with Irredentist ideas, and after publishing an article stating that “ the Italian frontier does not end at Ala ” he was arrested and expelled from Austria. On returning to Italy he published an essay of Irredentist tendencies on “‘ The Trentino as seen by a Socialist ’’ in La Voce, a periodical printed in Florence which gathered around it some of the most brilliant young /ifférateurs of the day. The Tripoli Cantpaign.—The next period of Mussolini’s life was wholly devoted to Socialist activity. In roro he founded and edited a paper at Forlì called La lotta di classe, but while he vigorously supported the ideals of Socialism, he deplored the materialism, as he considered it, of the bourgeois spirit into which the Italian Socialist party had degenerated. He drew further and further away from Marx and Lassalle, feeling more sympathy with the ideas of Baboeuf, Blanqui, Prudhon, and above all with the syndicalism of Sorel. An opponent of parhiamentarianism, he reproved the Italian Socialists for compounding with the bourgeois parties in order to secure seats in the Chamber and lucrative contracts for bogus co-operative societies; he not only advocated direct action, but also put it into practice whenever he saw a chance of securing real advantages for the proletariat thereby, and, unlike other Socialist leaders, he was ever ready to lead his followers and run personal risks. When Giolitti’s Government decided to send a military expedition to Tripoli, although not rejecting the idea of war in general, Mussolini opposed this policy because, as he said, unlike the Nationalists, who wanted a vast Italy, he preferred an Italy that should be well cultivated, rich and free. On Sept. 25-27 ror11 he therefore organised a popular movement at Forli against the Tripoli expedition, inciting the mob to resist the authorities. He was in consequence arrested and condemned to five months’ imprisonment. At the congress of Reggio Emilia in 1912, when Bissolati and Bonomi were expelled from the party for supporting the Government’s African policy, Mussolini remained one of the

die-hard revolutionaries, and in December of that year was made editor of the Avanti!, the official organ of the party. Under his able editorship the circulation rose from 40,000 to 100,000, and his vigorous leaders gave the paper an entirely new character. He insisted particularly on the necessity for improving the

MUSSOLINI economic and social conditions of the southern provinces, which other Socialist leaders neglected because their inhabitants gave few votes to the party. During the so-called ‘‘ Red Week ”’ in the Marche and Romagna (June 7-14 1914), Mussolini was one of the most active leaders of the outbreak. It wason this occasion that he lost many illusions concerning his fellow Socialist leaders, whom he found ever ready to incite the mob to violence while taking good care for the safety of thcir own persons. He also realised that the masses were anything but ripe for revolution. The World War—The great crisis of Mussolini’s life came with the outbreak of the World War. From the first he strongly opposed Italy’s intervention on behalf of the Central Powers. After Italy’s declaration of neutrality he still hesitated, for the conilict was raging within him between the Socialist and the Italian; but it was as a Socialist that he favoured war in the

belief that it would end war and re-establish the principles of tight and justice, while as an Italian he doubted if his people were ready to enter the fray. In the autumn the tendency in

1009

the Interior, Signor Orlando, and after resuming his editorial chair he uttered warnings which were disregarded, as were those of Gen. Cadorna. After Caporetto he was one of the few who, in the depths of national depression, never lost heart and in the columns of his paper he issued daily messages of encouragement. After the Armistice Mussolini opened a campaign in favour of a dignified foreign policy at the Peace Conference, and of adequate recognition for the services of the demobilised men. In reply to the first manifestations of Bolshevism in which the Socialists indulged in consequence of the relaxation of the censorship, Mussolini founded the first “ Fascio di Combattimento ” on March 23 roro at Milan (see Fascism); and although the first programme of the new group contained many demagogic demands, the patriotic note was predominant, and Mussolini continued to combat Bolshevik doctrines. With regard to Fiume, he insisted that its Italian character must be secured. When D'Annunzio occupied Fiume the Popolo d'Italia lent him its full support.

Mussolini was now bitterly hated by the Socialists, and when at the elections of t919 he stood as a candidate for Milan, he secured only a few votes and was described by the Avanti’ as a corpse to be buried in a ditch. A few days later Nitti had him arrested on a charge of “ armed plotting against the security of the State” (in connection with his support of D’Annunzio), but did not dare to maintain the arrest, and he was soon liberated. Mussolini now worked harder than ever at his paper, whose circulation increased rapidly; his relaxations were writing plays and playing the violin, and he also took to motoring and aviation, before the Socialist assembly at Milan to justify his conduct. The audience howled at him, with imprecations of “ traitor, in which sports he showed the same disregard of danger as in war hireling, assassin!’’; but instead of defending himself he violently and politics. Fascist Discipline —The seizure of the factories by the workattacked the other Socialists for their petit-bourgeois spirit and men in the autumn of r920 did not meet with Mussolini’s disinsincerity. He ended by confirming his belief in Socialism, and approval, as one would have expected; he regarded their action saying, ‘‘ You hate me because you still love me.” as a form of practical syndicalism breaking away from the pusilHe now founded a new paper of his own, Z} Popolo d'Italia, and his enemies spread about the rumour that Mussolini had re- lanimous policy of the official Socialist party. But when the Communists proceeded to organise political murders at Bologna, ceived money from the French Embassy to support the Allied cause, whereas the sole capital of his new venture was 4,000 lire Modena and Ferrara, Mussolini and his Fascists became the nuclei of the national anti-Bolshevik reaction; it is due to him advanced by advertisers. The Popolo d'Italia first appeared on that the whole Communist-Socialist domination collapsed, first Nov. 15 1ọr4, and in the leading article Mussolini asked: “ Do in the Po valley and then throughout Italy. But Mussolini was we wish to drag out a miserable existence under present conditions, content with the stufws quo of the monarchy and the now coming to the conclusion that it was not enough to defeat and disperse the Reds. The Italian people, he argued, were to bourgeoisie, or do we wish instead to break up this wretched be made free to recover, to work and produce undisturbed, to combination of intrigue and cowardice?” He concluded with fulfil their higher destinies; the incompetent governing caste, a stirring appeal in favour of war. The paper led a precarious existence in miserable premises, and was hardly able to pay the ready to compromise on everything, must be swept away and staff. But it gathered around it a number of brilliant young” its place taken by the virile youth of the country who had won the War. Fascism was spreading rapidly, and in Nov. 1921 it writers fired with enthusiasm for the national cause, although was organised into a political party, but its discipline still left many were Republicans and Socialists. Audacity was its keynote, and while the Idea Nazionale and much to be desired. Mussolini now proceeded to reorganise it and establish it on a strictly hierarchical basis, until its discipline D’Annunzio appealed to the older and more intellectual middle surpassed that of any other organisation in Italy. All ranks of classes, Mussolini influenced the younger generation and the workers, and he reached the less educated masses through his society he regarded as necessary, for he did not wish to repudiate friend the Syndicalist Filippo Corridoni (afterwards killed in the past. He was, moreover, becoming ever more keenly interaction), editor of the weekly Battaglie sindacali. But he still ested in foreign politics. ‘‘ I hold that, having broken the pride believed in revolution, and in April 1915 he was arrested for of Bolshevism, Fascism should become the watchful guardian of our forcign policy.” But the movement was extending to advocating his views at a public meeting; ten days later he was every sphere of national life—internal affairs, finance, labour, slightly wounded in a duel with the orthodox Socialist Claudio industry, agriculture. At the elections of May 1921 Mussolini Treves. When on May 24 war was declared he wrote in the Popolo d'Italia: “ From to-day onwards the nation is called to and 37 other Fascist candidates were returned, and together with arms. From to-day onwards we are all of us Italians and only their allies the 10 Nationalists played an active part in the Italians. Now that steel has to meet steel, one single cry issues debates. During the next 12 months Fascist influence consolidated itfrom our breasts, Viva l’ Italia! ” In the Trenches —In Sept. 1o15 Mussolini was called up, and self throughout Italy, and the obvious breakdown of the old served as a private in the Bersaglieri in the trenches along the political parties convinced Mussolini that the time for bold action was fast approaching. At first he thought only of the Isonzo and on the Carso. He did his duty gallantly until he was possibility of a coalition Government comprising Fascist eleseriously wounded by the explosion of a trench mortar on Feb. ments, but by the summer of 1922 he felt that a predominantly 23 1917. He spent many months in hospital, and on recovery Fascist Govt. was conceivable and indeed necessary. The returned to his work on the Popolo d Italia. He wrote a graphic account of his war experiences in his Diario di Guerra. As early strike of Aug. 1 1922, promoted by the revolutionary Alleanza del Lavoro, was broken by the Fascists, and this fact showed the as the beginning of 1917 he realised the gravity of the propaganda increasing ‘weakness of Signor Facta’s Govt., which was no which the Socialists and neutralists were able to conduct owing to the feebleness of the Government, especially of the Minister of longer able to resist any really energetic action from the right

favour of intervention had gained ground, and he wrote that Italian unity must be completed; later he gave his approval to the Government’s military measures, as he realised the danger of keeping Italy alone unarmed amid the general conflagration. But he felt that his views were ever less in harmony with the official creed of his party, and he expressed the hope that if Italy did intervene her international status would be raised and an economic and social revolution promoted. He deemed it necessary to resign the editorship of the Avantz/,and on Oct. 25 appeared

IOIO

MUSTAFA

or from the left. In the meanwhile, Mussolini had been shedding the last traces of demagogic ideas, and at a Fascist gathering at Udine on Sept. 29 he openly pronounced himself an upholder of the Monarchy, thereby securing the sympathy of many nonFascists and of the army. He now made no secret of his intention of seizing power, and said so openly at the Fascist meeting in Naples in October. The march on Rome (sce ItALy, History) was organised and directed by Mussolini, and indeed it shows the Mussolini touch in every phase. When the Facta Cabinet resigned the King first sent for Sig. Salandra, who tried to form a coalition Government, but Mussolini refused to lend the scheme his support, and Salandra threw up his mandate, where-

upon the task was entrusted to Mussolini himself.

He formed

his Ministry within seven hours, a record for Italy, where, especially during the post-war years, every cabinet crisis had lasted for many days and even weeks. He chose several nonFascists as Ministers, but refused to contract an alliance with the parties to which they belonged. His Reforms.—From the moment he assumed office he set to work with his accustomed energy to overhaul and reform the whole administration, to eliminate inveterate abuses, and infuse a new spirit into the State. He himself assumed the portfolios of Foreign Affairs and the Interior, although the work of the latter he left largely to the under-secretary Aldo Finzi. In June 1924, after the Matteotti affair, he appointed Sig. Federzoni Minister of the Interior, but in the following spring, on the resignations of Gen. Di Giorgio and Adml. Thaon di Revel (April 3 and May 5), he assumed the portfolios of War and Marine, and also that of the new Air Ministry; while leaving great latitude to the under-secretaries, he gradually welded the three ministries into a single department of National Defence. He also kept in close touch with all the other departments, and many questions of great national interest, such as the development of public works in southern Italy, for the purpose of bringing that area up to the level of the more progressive north, the so-called “ battle for wheat ’’ engaged to intensify wheat production, the reformed electoral law, the various reforms of a constitutional character, etc., are due to his initiative. Asa Socialist Mussolini was an anti-Parliamentarian, and even later did not regard the Parliament as the sole organ of national life. His object was to make Italy powerful, prosperous and efficient, in as short a time as possible. But in order to make these reforms lasting he determined that the whole body politic shall be imbued with the Fascist spirit—fascistizzare la nazione, as he described it— and he therefore inserted Fascism into every activity of the country.

As a Minister, Mussolini’s activity was prodigious. Even when he was seriously ill in the spring of 1925, he surprised his friends and disconcerted his adversaries by continuing very largely to conduct his business of government from his bed, and by his quick recovery. While he was immensely popular with the great majority of the people who appreciate the far-reaching benefits of his rule, he had many enemies among the members of the old governing caste, the Socialists, Communists and Republicans and the anti-national freemasons, whose influence he destroyed. At the end of Oct. 1925, a plot to murder him was discovered by the police, and the would-be murderer, the Socialist ex-deputy Tito Zaniboni, was arrested in the very act; other persons were arrested in connection with the affair, notably Gen. Capello, a leading freemason. The news of the plot aroused general indignation, and Mussolini received a plebiscite of enthusiastic congratulations. On April 7 1926, as he was leaving the Capitol, where he had inaugurated a surgical congress, an Irishwoman, the Hon. Violet Gibson, fred at him with a revolver, slightly wounding him in the nose. Fhe would-be murderess appeared to be demented. The wound did not prevent him from sailing for Tripoli the following day according to programme. Mussolini is not a finished orator in the classical sense; he has no rounded periods and he seldom introduces apt quotations. But every speech bristles with facts and ideas, each sentence 1s like a hammer-stroke on the anvil emitting vivid sparks, and each phrase, seemingly independent of the others, contributes

KEMAL to build up the central idea which he wishes to assert. On innumerable occasions an apparently difficult, even insoluble, situation has been solved by one of his vigorous speeches. Besides innumerable articles in /? Popolo d'Italia, Avanti!, Gerarchia, etc., he has published Z mio Diurto di Guerra 1915-7 (Milan, 1923), and his speeches have been collected in several volumes. A selection of them has been published in English edited by Baron Quaranta, Mussolini as revealed in his political speeches, Nov. 1914 to Aug. 1923 (1923). His biography was published in English by Margherita Sarfatti (Butterworth, 1925). See also Antonio Beltramelli’s L'uomo nuovo (18).

(is. Ve)

MUSTAFA KEMAL (1880), Turkish soldier and statesman, was born in comparatively modest circumstances in Salonika. His father was a customs officer who afterwards entered the timber trade and died when Mustafa was yet a small child. The boy was brought up and educated by his mother, who appears to have been a woman of character and ability. He completed his primary education in Salonika and entered a secondary school in the same place; but, having been maltreated by his Arabic teacher, he left school, against his family’s wish, and secretly entered the military preparatory school. There he proved to be an exceptional student, especially in mathematics, and attracted the attention of his fellow-students and teachers. His teacher in mathematics, who was also named “ Mustafa,” gave him the distinctive surname of ‘‘ Kemal” (an Arabic word meaning “ perfection”), as a tribute to his unusual ability. The extent to which he won the esteem and affection of his companions while at the military academy is indicated by the fact that, although he already took an active interest in politics and bitterly criticised the despotism of Abdu ’l-Hamid, he was never denounced. In 1904 he was gazetted a lieutenant, but on the same day he was placed under arrest, taken to Yildiz Palace, and detained there for weeks under cross-examination. Finally he was banished to Damascus. In this provincial capital he had an opportunity to observe the deplorable condition into which the civil and military organisation of the Empire had fallen. He also found followers here, and founded in roo5 the secret political society “ Vatan ” (‘f Fatherland”). From Damascus he was transferred to Jaffa, and from there with the help of his friends, he made his way secretly to Salonika in order to organise a similar political movement in the European provinces. The association which he founded at Salonika was afterwards affiliated to the Union and Progress Society. By this time the Constantinople Govt. had got wind of his secret activities, and it sent orders -for his arrest both to Salonika and to Jaffa. With the help of his friends at Salonika, Mustafa Kemal was smuggled on board a steamer sailing for Jaffa, and at the same time the military commandant at Jaffa reported to Constantinople that Mustafa Kemal was on duty on the Egyptian frontier. For a time he was forgotten by the Government in Constantinople. In 1907 he was promoted and sent to Salonika, where he again devoted himself to the work of revolutionary organisation. When the revolution of 1908 re-established the constitution of 1876, Mustafa Kemal found himself in serious disagreement with the leaders of the Union and Progress Party who were now in power. His political views were more radical than theirs and he protested, though in vain, against the participation of the army in politics. In consequence he abandoned politics for the time and turned his whole energy into his military career. From this time onwards, he was appointed to a number of important military posts, in each of which he gave evidence of his ability and his powers of leadership. In 1910 he was sent to France to follow the army manoeuvres. He was loved and respected by the younger officers, but some of his superiors looked askance at him on account of his uncompromising attitude. In rg1r1 he went to Tripoli izcognito in order to take part in the war against the Italians, and there he was promoted to the rank of major. He was still in Tripoli when the first Balkan War broke out in Oct. 1912 (sce BALKAN Wars). He started at once for Turkey, . but the news of his country’s defeat and the fall of Salonika reached him in Egypt. In July 1913, however, during the

MUSTAFA second Balkan War, he was appointed chief of the staff to the newly-organised army corps on the Gallipoli Peninsula, and here for the first time he made a detailed first-hand study of the problem of defending the Dardanelles. After the restoration of peace between Turkey and Bulgaria in the same summer, he was appointed military attaché at Sofia, with the rank of colonel, and held this post until after the intervention of Turkey in the World War in the autumn of 1914. Mustafa Kemal believed that Turkey had entered the War prematurely and that Germany was doomed to eventual defeat. Possibly it was on this account that his desire to return to active service was not encouraged; but, on his insistence, he was appointed commander of the forces at Rodosto, and afterwards (in 1915) at the Dardanelles. He was the moving spirit on the Turkish side in the defence of the straits against the British attack; and it would not be an exaggeration to say that the situation was saved through his personal skill, insight and bravery when the Turkish high command had actually lost hope. During the final British assault he was struck by a splinter of shell right over the heart, but the splinter was intercepted by his watch and he thus escaped with his life.

After the evacuation of the Gallipoli Peninsula by the British, Mustafa Kemal was sent to the Caucasus front, where he was promoted to the rank of Pasha and recovered Bitlis and Mush from the Russians. In 1917 he was posted to the Hejaz, but after stopping at Damascus to study the general situation, he proposed to recall all the forces in the Hejaiz in order to reinforce the Syrian front. This prudent proposal was not carried out, but later in the same year he was appointed to the command of the VII. Army Corps in the force which the German general Von Falkenhayn was organising with a view to the recovery of Baghdad. At this time Germany’s intervention in the internal affairs of Turkey had reached its height, and Mustafa Kemal Pasha put himself at the head of the opposition to it. He sent in a succession of reports adverse to the Baghdad expedition, which he thought would end in another disaster, and when his advice was ignored he resigned. He was then transferred to the Second Army Corps, but abstained from taking up his command owing to his disagreement on questions of principle with General Headquarters. While on leave in Constantinople he was sent on a mission to the German G.H.Q. with the heir apparent Vahydu’d-Din Efendi. There, in the presence of Generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff, he expressed outspokenly his pessimistic views regarding the outcome of the War. In 1918 he yielded to the insistance of Vahydu’d-Din Efendi, who had meanwhile succeeded to the throne as Sultan Mehmed VI., and accepted the command of the VII. Army Corps in Palestine, but by this time all chance of taking the offensive, or even averting disaster, had disappeared. Mustafa Kemal again distinguished himself, however, in keeping together the remnants of his corps on the retreat which followed General Allenby’s great victory, and before the end of Sept. he was appointed Commander-in-Chief of all the corps constituting the so-called Yildirim group. When the Turkish Govt. negotiated the armistice of Mudros (Oct. 30 1918), Mustafa Kemal was opposed to the policy

of complete surrender, and after the signature

of the arm-

istice he retired to Constantinople and began studying the new situation at his leisure. There was nothing to be done in Constantinople, but his opportunity was given to him by two events: the Greek landing at Smyrna on May 16 1919, which reawakened the Turkish nation, and his own appointment by the Ottoman Govt. in Constantinople as Inspector of the IX. Army Corps in north-eastern Anatolia. His mission, as conceived by the Sultan and the Grand Vizier, Damad Ferid Pasha, was to execute the armistice terms by superintending the disarmament and demobilisation of the Turkish army in this remote district. Mustafa Kemal’s intention was to create a nucleus of national resistance against the partition of the country, and he therefore accepted with alacrity the position offered him by the unsuspecting Government. As soon as he landed at Samsun he began to organise his new movement locally at

KEMAL

IOIT

Amasia, Tokat and Sivas, and to correspond secretly with other parts of the country. The Sultan’s Govt., awaking too late to what he was doing, recalled him to Constantinople, but instead of obeying he went on to Erzerum and sent in his resignation to Constantinople. He next convened two congresses, one at Erzerum in July, and the other at Sivas in Sept. roto. Both congresses endorsed his programme of fighting for national existence to the bitter end, and they appointed a standing executive committee under his chairmanship. Thereupon he was outlawed by the Constantinople Govt., and relations between the capital and the interior of Anatolia were broken, but all the efforts of the Constantinople Govt. and the Allied Powers to frustrate Mustafa Kemal’s activities were unavailing. They simply strengthened his conviction, and that of the people round him, that he had taken the right path. The political and military history of the new Turkish Nationalist movement, commonly called the “‘ Kemalist ’? movement, after its founder, is given elsewhere (see GRECO-TURKISH WAR; LAUSANNE, TREATY OF; TURKEY), and in this article it can only be touched upon in so far as Mustafa Kemal’s personal career is directly concerned. Mustafa Kemal was in favour of the Nationalists participating in the general election at the close of 1920, but decidedly opposed to the meeting of the Assembly at Constantinople, and his judgment was borne out after the event by the high-handed action which the British military authorities and the Sultan’s Govt. took in March and April 1920 respectively. On April 23 1920 Mustafa Kemal gathered together at Angora the Nationalist members of the late Parliament who had escaped from Constantinople, and was elected unanimously as president of this new National Assembly. Turing the 24 years which followed, Mustafa Kemal was the heart and soul of the Turkish national resistance, in circumstances in which all but the most determined characters would have despaired. He knew how to make the most of the fact that this time the nation was fighting for its homeland, and not for some distant alien province like the Yemen or Albania. He succeeded in evoking the utmost powers of his followers, and his firm conviction of final victory, his exceptional military ability, his keen intellect and his persuasive oratory carried his countrymen through their ordeal. During the summer campaign of 1921, which was the supreme crisis of the Greco-Turkish War, the Angora assernbly appointed Mustafa Kemal gencralissimo of the Turkish forces, with unlimited power, and he took personal charge at the front during the 22 days’ and nights’ fighting of the battle of the Sakaria. During the battle his horse was wounded and the general broke a mb in falling, but he never left the front. After this battle the assembly gave him the rank of field-marshal and the traditional title of “ Ghazi” (the victorious). | The great events which followed—the destruction of the Greek army, the peace settlement at Lausanne, the abolition of the Sultanate, the declaration of the Republic and the abolition of the Caliphate—were the direct work of Mustafa Kemal. On Oct. 29 1923, the date on which the Republic was proclaimed, the great national assembly unanimously elected Mustafa Kemal as the first President of the Republic. The wide constitutional powers which he thus received were enormously

enhanced by his personal force of character and by the unique hold which he had obtained over the hearts and minds of his countrymen through the astonishing services which he had rendered to the national cause. Indeed, Mustafa Kemal be-

came a dictator in fact, though not in constitutional theory, and this fact dominated the political situation of Turkey as she emerged from the War. In some ways Mustafa Kemal’s virtual dictatorship was advantageous and perhaps even necessary to Turkey, since the period of reconstruction which now began was hardly less critical than the foregoing period of war and revolution. Undoubtedly Mustafa Kemal displayed the same energy, audacity and radicalism in setting out to “ win the peace ” as he had displayed in winning the War. On the other hand, after the external menace to the existence of Turkey had been removed, the internal unity of the nation

IOI2

MUTSUHITO—MYCOLOGY

naturally began to relax, and different parties arose with different policies for securing the national welfare. This was a healthy symptom, and an outside observer would be inclined to criticise Mustafa Kemal, during this phase of his career, for not allowing sufficiently free play to these opposition elements. His somewhat repressive policy towards his political opponents had the unfortunate effect of depriving Turkey of certain talents and abilities which she could ill afford to spare, and there was a perceptible increase of factiousness and embitterment in the internal politics of the country. Nevertheless, at the time of writing, President Mustafa Kemal’s position in Turkey remained substantially unimpaired. (A. J. T.) MUTSUHITO (1852-1912), Emperor of Japan (see 19.100), died at Téky6 July 30 1912. He was posthumously styled the Emperor Meiji, according to the custom of Japan. MYCOLOGY (Gr. yixys, a mushroom; Aóyos, discourse): the scientific study of fungi. The two decades from about 1890 to 1910 were remarkable in the history of mycology, for the many interesting discoveries made in the morphology and physiology of the fungi, especially in regard to their reproductive processes and the problems of sex and nuclear fusions. The results obtained have been since then exhaustively investigated, and have been, in large measure, confirmed, and upon the foundations thus laid our knowledge of the fungi has, during recent years, been extended in all directions. Many new aspects of study have been opened up, life histories

have been more fully elucidated, the study of pure cultures has added much to our knowledge of the physiological activities involved in parasitism, saprophytism and symbiosis; and the physiological effects of light, heat and the chemical and other changes taking place in the substratum during the growth of a fungus are more clearly understood. Knowledge of plant diseases (see PLANT PATHOLOGY) has, especially in the tropics, been vastly increased; and the establishment by the Govt. of an “‘ Imperial Bureau of Mycology ” has already, in conjunction with the valuable mycological work carried on at Kew and the British Museum, profoundly influenced phytopathological research in the empire. Classification.—In the classification of the fungi, although much has been done to elucidate the life histories of a large number of different forms, there are stillso many gaps in our knowledge that anything like a satisfactory natural classification is impossible. Many new schemes have been proposed, but so far the most useful classification is that which maintains the three great classes with their subdivisions: (1) Phycomycetes (Zygomycetes, Oomycetes), (2) Ascomycetes (including Laboulbeniaceae) and (3) Basidiomycetes (Ustilaginaceae, Uredinae and Basidiomycetes proper), together with the Fungi Imperfecti, the members of which are probably stages in the life histories of forms belonging to the Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes, and the lichens, the majority of which are Ascolichens, a few being Basidiolichens. As regards phylogeny, evidence is gradually accumulating that the derivation of the primitive fungi such as the Chytridineae is to be traced to a protozoan ancestry (see PROTOZOOLOGY). Many of these primitive forms, and notably that curiously interesting species Polyphagus eugicnac, have much in common with Protozoa, and we have also to consider, in this connection, the mycetozoa and bacteria, which, although they have some of the characteristics, are not regarded as true fungi. As regards the higher fungi, notwithstanding our increased knowledge of their structure and reproduction, any conclusions as to their algal ancestry, although not impossible, cannot at present be substantiated. Recent Investigations —Among the more generally interesting investigations of recent years are those on the symbiotic relationships of the fungi to higher plants, as exemplified by the endotropic mycorhiza of Calluna vulgaris. Evidence has been brought forward to show that the presence of the fungus is so necessary to the well-being of this plant that no development of the seedling can take place unless it is infected by the fungus, and this infection is brought about by hyphae in the seed coat. Fur-

ther, although seedlings may be satisfactorily infected from artificial cultures, yet, if the culture is too vigorous and the seedling weak, the fungus behaves as a parasite. This raises important problems still under discussion concerning the relations of mycorhiza and symbiosis to parasitism and saprophytism. Many new observations have been made upon the cell contents of the fungi. Among these may be mentioned metachromatin, chromidia, mitochondria, coenospheres or coenocentra and elaioplasts. The distribution and staining properties of these bodies have been carefully studied, but we are still far from a clear understanding of their significance. Some attention has been paid to the colouring matters of the fungi. The orange coloured fatty globule in the zodspores of Chytridineae probably plays the part of an eye spot. Most of the brilliant colouring of the fungi is due to colouring matters in the cell walls, or in the mucilaginous layers of the cell membrane. Many of these when extracted in water and alcohol exhibit a beautiful blue or blue-green fluorescence. The stimuli of light and gravity play an important part in the orientation of the fungi. Light exerts not only a directive but also a formative influence on their growth. Positive heliotropic response occurs in many of the Agaricineae, in the asci of certain Discomycetes and in the sporangiophores of various Mucorineae, by which they are brought into the best position for the discharge of their spores. Response to the stimulus of gravity is shown during the growth of the fruit bodies of the Ifymenomycetes, and is on all-fours with what takes place in higher plants. The perceptive region is located in the stipe, the upper part being the most sensitive. The gills show a very pronounced positive response to gravity. There is very little to add to our knowledge of the sexuality and nuclear fusions in the fungi beyond what was known in 1910. In the Phycomycetes functional sexual organs and the fusion of male and female nuclei have been discovered in many species in which they had not previously been found, and the presence of functional sexual organs has been definitely established in the Saprolegniaceae. In the Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes the significance of the nuclear fusions in the ascus, teleutospore and basidium is still not understood, and the existence of two nuclear fusions in the life histories of certain Ascomycetes is still a matter of controversy. Very conflicting accounts are given of the nuclear behaviour in such classical species as sphaerotheca and pyronema, and until some quite definite agreement as to the facts is forthcoming it seems impossible to arrive at anything like a satisfactory explanation. In that interesting group the Laboulbeniaceae, there is evidence that sexual fusion takes place by a method somewhat similar to that described for the lichens by means of a trichogyne and spermatia. The fusion has not actually been observed, and the fate of the spermatia is unknown. In the Basidiomycetes proper a number of observations have been made to show that the phenomena of heterothallism and homothallism, as in the Mucorineae, occur here also. The criteria for this conclusion are the behaviour of cultures of monosporous mycelia as contrasted with those of bisporous or polysporous mycelia in the production of fruit bodies; and the formation of clamp-connections. Thus, Coprinus fimentarins is stated to be heterothallic on the following grounds: in a monosporous culture no clamp-connections were found, the nuclei remained unpaired and the mycelium was sterile. When two monosporous cultures were brought together clamp-connections were formed, the cells became binucleate and fruit bodies were produced. The presence of clamp-connections is stated to be ‘invariably associated with the conjugation of the nuclei.” It is suggested that this criterion affords a means of determining whether a species is homothallic or heterothallic. These conclusions are so important that the data on which they are based should be subject to the most critical confirmation, especially in view of the facts that contradictory statements concerning them have been made, and that they have been used as a basis for important conclusions upon the Mendelian segregation of sex in these forms. It is essential that we should have definite confirmation of the function suggested for the

MYSLBEK—MYSTICISM clamp-connections, and of the transference of nuclei from one cell to another in the anastomoses that take place in the mycelia, before any satisfactory advance can be made in this new field of study. (H. W.*)

MYSLBEK, JOSEF VÁCLAV (1848-1922), Czech sculptor, was

born at Prague July 21 1848.

He was a pupil of Vaclav Levy

and worked under Trenkwald at the academy of fine arts in Prague. He sprang into prominence when in 1871 he carved two symbolical figures for the exterior of the National Theatre in Prague. The statues are distinguished by a Slav lyricism and delicacy, combined with a masculine strength and a monumental feeling. After a brief residence in Paris he was in 1885 appointed professor at the school of arts and crafts in Prague, of which he became a director in 1893. All Myslbek’s work presents a blend of idealism with a precise and balanced realism and exhibits his endeavour to cope with the fundamental problems of art. His statues “ Devotion” (1884, Modern Gallery, Prague), and “ Steadfastness ” (1884, Vienna Parliament) notably unite a powerful idea with a complete mastery of the material. Jis “ Crucifix’ (1888-9), installed in the Sacré Coeur at Paris, bears comparison with the works of old masters, although it is conceived in the modern spirit, expressing human suffering and divine resignation. The statue of Cardinal Schwarzenberg (1895) is a masterpiece of portraiture, but the highest attainment of Myslbek’s art is the monument to St. Vaclav, a work of 30

years, in St. Vaclav’s Square in Prague, which embodies all his monumental qualities as an artist and attains a level which entitles it to a place among the great works of European statuary. Myslbek died at Prague in 1922. MYSTICISM (see 19.123).— The 2oth century has seen a remarkable revival of interest in mysticism. Several causes have contributed to this. First, the inevitable reaction against 1gth century rationalism, with its excessive emphasis on the ethical and neglect of the transcendental in religion. Next, the disturbance of traditional theology by textual criticism and historical and scientific research, forcing many religious minds to look elsewhere for the grounds of belief. Thirdly, the application of the comparative method to records of religious experience, especially that intensive form which claims direct intuitive apprehension of God (and this is the kernel of mysticism) disclosed remarkable

ence (1902). Although based on material chosen from too restricted a field, the publication of this book revolutionised the attitude of students towards religious psychology. The conception of the subconscious was now first used to provide an explanation and sanction for the ecstatic and other abnormal phenomena found in connection with mysticism, and an attempt was made to distinguish the accompaniments of genuine religious apprehension from their pathological imitations. These researches have continued vigorously, especially in America and France. Pratt’s Religious Consciousness (1921) represents the matured result of the movement started by James. Considerable advance has been made towards the correlation and better understanding of such types as the prophet, visionary and religious revivalist, in all of whom a strong mystical impulse is commonly at work. The hostile study of mysticism from the psychological standpoint has its chief exponent in J. H. Leuba; whilst an approach midway between the philosophical and psychological is provided by Bucke’s Cosmic Consciousness, a curious work which has exercised considerable influence. Realisation of the close correspondence between the abnormal phenomena of mysticism and those connected with other forms of mental exaltation, healthy and diseased, has caused an attempt to distinguish the essence of mysticism—intuitive experience of absolute reality—from the ecstatic states often accompanying it. This may be the line along which the apologetic of the future will move. Characteristic of the revival is the important part taken by French writers. Effective criticism of mystical phenomena has come from experimental psychologists such as Pierre Janet. Delacroix’s sympathetic but penetrating analyses of the evolution of the great mystics have shed much light on the psychological characteristics of religious genius. Valuable studies of the nature of mystical contemplation, and restatement in modern terms of its processes, have been produced by Roman Catholic scholars; the best being those of Père Poulain, S.J. These works have a practical as well as a scientific objective. On the whole, the general result of the application of psychological criteria to mystical experience has been to establish the claim of psychology to explain the special methods and characteristics of the mystic, and disestablish the claim of certain schools of psychology to explain away the reality of his experience.

unity between them; and the development of psychology brought

within the range of that science many “ mystical phenomena ”’ which had formerly been dismissed unexamined, as the products of superstition or of mental disease. The fresh material brought in from the study of Oriental religions has also supported the claim of mysticism to be regarded as a genuine form of human experience. Finally, in opposition to the merely moral and humanitarian view of Christianity popularised by Liberal Protestantism and social reformers, this century has produced a number of records of contemporary mystical experience. Thus there have been both additions to the material accessible to students, and advances in the proper arrangement and understanding of facts. No well-informed person now identifies the substance of mysticism with trances, ecstasies or other psychophysical phenomena, or regards it as necessarily hostile to dogmatic theology. Modern Study.—Modern study of the subject may be said to begin with Dean Inge’s Bampton Lectures on Christian Mysticism (1899). It has since been pursued along the parallel routes of psychology, history and philosophy of religion. These aspects of mysticism cannot rigidly be separated, or indeed understood in isolation; each being of vital importance to the rest. The peculiar triumph of the greatest modern writer on mysticism, Baron Friedrich von Hiigel, consists in the synthesis effected between the historical, philosophical and intuitive aspects of man’s experience of God. THe

PsycHoLocy

or

MYSTICISM

The serious study of mysticism, especially from the psychological point of view, and attempt to discover its relation to other forms of consciousness, originates in William James’s epochmaking Gifford Lectures on The Varieties of Religious Ex pert-

1013

THE

Ilistory

or THE

MOVEMENT

The modern psychological study of mystical phenomena has illuminated many historical problems; especially those connected with prophecy and the origins of religious movements. It has also stimulated interest in the records of empirical religion in its intensest form—-the lives and writings of mystical seers and saints. The contribution of mystical experience to the religious outlook of such apparent intellectualists as, e.g., St. Augustine or Aquinas is beginning to be understood; together with the great part played in religious history by mystics and their articulation to the corporate religious life. The treatment of the subject in such works as Ileiler’s Das Gebet and Der Katholizismus or Brémond’s monumental Histoire du Sentiment Réligicux en France, is symptomatic of the changed outlook. Material available for students of historical mysticism has been much enriched. Good texts and translations of many masterpieces of European mysticism have appeared, with valuable studies such as those of Abbot Butler and Rufus Jones, based on the historical method. Stifi mysticism, once only known to Oriental scholars, can now— thanks mainly to the work of Reynold Nicholson—be compared

with that of the West. Such studies are seen to have an important bearing on the history of ideas; and the substantial identity of experience which they reveal has proved that mysticism must be regarded as an enduring type of human apprehension. = The changed outlook of physical science, the new understanding of its limitations and the marked revolt from roth-century materialism, have brought about a rapprochement between mysticism and philosophy. There is a tendency alike in monists, critical realists and exponents of the “ philosophy of value ” to consider

seriously

the claims

and

findings of the mystic,

which are congenial to the pantheistic temper of modern religious

MYSTICISM

1014

On the other hand, those hostile to pantheistic doctrine

the experiences of the Christian convert Sadhu Sundar Singh

find in the mystic’s intuition of God a warrant for transcenden-

thought.

(born 1889), whose career and personality have made a widespread impression, provide unspoilt examples of first-hand mysticism, and deepen the sense of unity in the spiritual intuitions.

talism; and even show some willingness to reinstate in suitable disguise the ancient concept of Supernature. Inge’s Philosophy of Plotinus (1918) and Otto’s widely discussed essay Der Heilige

(The Idea of the Holy, 1924) show different aspects of the reaction of philosophy to mysticism. But this is also felt in the pure metaphysics of Wittgenstein, and in the inimical attitude of Croce and his school. The greatest and ultimately most influential expositions of the place of mysticism in theistic philosophy, and its limitations and rightful relation with other aspects of knowledge, are Von Hiigel’s Afysticul Element of Religion and Eternal Life. These books have affected all modern religious thinkers, and may provide the starting-point of a critical realism harmonising the mystical, moral and intellectual approaches to reality. In America, Hocking’s Meaning of God in Human Experience is probably the most important philosophic contribution to this subject. | Modern Mystics. —The first quarter of the 20th century saw, especially in France, a revival of genuine Christian mysticism; possibly the beginning of what later historians may recognise as a ‘‘mystical epoch.” Its most impressive document is the Spiritual Journal of the lady known as Lucie-Christine (1844-1908}, a record which bears comparison with the historical classics of mysticism. Its most striking product is the career of the hermit saint of the Sahara, Charles de Foucauld (1858-1916). These stand up

The revived interest in mysticism has had popular results in

several directions. It has seemed to endorse the shallow eclecticism in which many escape the difficulties of belief. Its super-

ficial peculiarities have been exploited by theosophists and other

apostles of eccentric religiosity. It has produced numerous bastard cults, mostly hailing from America though often wearing Oriental disguise; cults mainly compounded of pantheism, quietism and crude autosuggestion, and offering a “ mystical religion” to those seeking a spiritual home full of modern conveniences

and devoid of discipline. On the other hand, its spirit has affected for good the literature and activity of the organised Churches; shifting the emphasis from tradition to experience, and bringing back into focus those mysterious realities which religious symbols and institutions seek to express. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. Delacroix, Etudes d'histoire et de la psychologie du mysticisme

(1908);

F. von

Hügel,

Eternal

Life

(1912); R. À.

Nicholson, Mystics of Islam (1914); H. Brémond, Histoire Littéraire du Sentiment Réligienx en France, 6 vol. (1916-23); W. E. Hocking, The Meaning of God in Human Experience (1918); W. R.

1921), all of whom claim and describe with a conviction and sobriety compelling respect the characteristic mystical experience

Inge, The Philosophy of Plotinus, 2 vol. (1918); F. Feiler, Sections on mysticism in Das Gebet (1920); R. A. Nicholson, Studies in Islamic Mysticism (Cambridge, 1921); J. B. Pratt, Sections on mysticism in The Religious Consciousness (1921); Dom. C. Butler, Western Mysticism (1922); A. Poulain, Des grâces d'Oraison, traité de théologre mystique, 1oth ed. (1922); F. Heiler, Sections on mysticism in Der Katholizismus (Munich, 1923); F. von Hügel, Tke Mystical Element of Religion, 2nd ed. (1923); R. Thouless Introduction to the Psychology of Religion (Cambridge, 1923); R. Otto, The Idea of the

and certitude.

J. H. Leuba,

among a number of more obscure personalities, such as Elizabeth de la Trinité (1880-1906) and Madeleine Sémer (1874-

From

India, the autobiography

of the saintly

Hindu theist Maharshi Devendranath Tagore (1817-1905), and

Holy (Oxford, 1924); Evelyn Underhill, Mysticism, 10th ed. (1924); The Psychology of Religious Mysticism (1925); Evelyn

Underhill, The Mystics of the Church (1925).

(E. U.)

NAIROBI—NANSEN N

AIROBI, the capital of Kenya Colony, British East Africa

(see 19.155). In 1923 the population was: Europeans 3,071, Asiatics 8,356, Africans 12,666, total 24,093. Nairobi is the seat of the Kenya Legislature and the headquarters of most of the European organisations in the colony. Nearly all the whites are British, and the town has most of the amenities of a European city. Both the standard and the cost of living are high. Laid out on a large scale, Nairobi

was still in the transition stage in 1926, but had many fine private and public buildings. The main thoroughfares are Government road, in which numbers of shops and offices are owned by Indians, and Sixth avenue. Parklands is a residential suburb for Europeans. A Natural History Museum, in Kirk road, was opened in 1922. The Indian bazaar covers nine acres. The natives occupy a separate location. A branch railway runs to the foot of Mt. Kenya. Nairobi is governed by an elected municipality, with separate franchise rolls for Europeans and Indians. NAMUR, Belgium (see 19.159), with a population in 1923 of 31,044, has been called the Sheffield of Belgium, because of its large cutlery industry. Tanning and glass-making are also carried on, and the town has a considerable trade, and six lines of railway. An athletic sports ground was laid out and a fine openair theatre built before the World War in the park on the Citadel Mount. Namur was bombarded for two days in 1914, before it was taken by the Germans, and after their entry a number of houses were burnt and looted.

The Place Leopold and Place

d’Armes suffered severely in the bombardment and the town hall was destroyed. The forts were repaired by the Germans after the capture of the town, which formed their cavalry headquarters during the War. The railway station was bombed by the British shortly before the Armistice (see BELGIUM, INVASION OF). NANKING, China (see 19.162), had an estimated population of 380,900 in 1923. Since it became the terminus of a railway line to Shanghai, and the line to Tientsin, terminating at Pukow, on the opposite bank of the Yangtze Kiang river, was opened,

the trade has increased, but the city has little commercial importance. A short railway line has been opened to Hsiakwan, the port of Nanking a few miles to the south. A grand industrial exhibition, the first in China, was held in the city in 1910, and again in 1921. Only a portion of the ground enclosed by the 20-mile circuit of the walls is inhabited, but the area has been opened up by roads and shops, offices and government buildings in Western style have been erected. The city possesses a naval college, an arsenal, an agricultural experimental station, a Government mint and a university. The last was formed by the union of three independent mission schools in 1911, and includes a college of arts and sciences and one of agriculture and forestry; a hospital and library; senior, junior and primary schools, etc. Two-thirds of the surplus from the American China Relief Fund was presented to the university in 1922 for research, particularly in connection with famine prevention. Good work has also been done in the production of silkworm eggs immune from disease. A number of the large silk stores in Nanking were burnt and looted by Chinese soldiery in 1924, and

American marines had to be landed to protect the foreign population. Nanking was the scene of much fighting during the revolution of rg11, and the Tartar city was burnt. It became the seat of a provisional Government, which hoped to make it the capital city, but in 1913 an armed rebellion took place and the city was bombarded for a fortnight by the troops of the Government. Hsiakwan was burnt down, but was rapidly rebuilt with new and wider streets. NANSEN, FRIDTJOF (1861), Norwegian scientist, explorer and statesman (see 19.162). After Dr. Nansen’s return from the North Polar expedition in 1896 a professorship of zoology was established for him at the University of Christiania. Here he was engaged in working up the results of his expedition

IOIS|

and in general scientific research, especially in physical geography and oceanography. In the summer of 1900 he took part in an Arctic oceanographic expedition in the S.S. “ Michael Sars,” headed by Dr. Johan Hjort, and became director of the International Central Laboratory in Christiania for the Research of the Sea. In 1902 he published The Oceanography of the North Polar Basin, and in 1904 The Bathymetrical Features of the North Polar Seas. In 1905 Nansen actively intervened in politics for the first time. He issued a manifesto and many articles in connection with the crisis between Norway and Sweden. His attitude may be summarised by the last words of a short work published later in the year: ‘“ Any union in which the one people is restrained in exercising its freedom is and will remain a danger ” (Norway and the Union with Sweden, London, 1905). On the establishment of the Norwegian monarchy Nansen was appointed minister to England (1906), and in the same year was created G.C.V.Q. In 1908 he retired from his post and returned to his scientific work as professor of oceanography at Christiania University. He devoted all his time to oceanographic research, and in co-operation with his friend Professor Bjorn Helland-Hansen, of the Bergen Museum, wrote The Norwegian Sea, its Physical Oceanography (Report on Norwegian Fishery and Marine Investigations, vol. 2, 1909). In 1910 Nansen made an oceanographic cruise in the “‘ Frithjof ’’ through the northeastern North Atlantic from Ireland to Iceland and back to Norway, and published the results in The Waters of the Northeastern North Atlantic (Internationale Revue der gesammten Hydrobiologie und Hydrogeographie, Leipzig, 1913). In 19t1 he published In Northern Mists (2 vol.) on the exploration of the northern regions from early times up to the beginning of the 16th century. In 1912 he madea further oceanographic cruise to Spitsbergen and the waters to the north in his yacht the Veslemoy,” and described it in Ex ferd til Spitzbergen;

the scientific results of the cruise are contained in Spitzbergen Waters (Society of Science, Christiania, 1915). The following year he made an expedition through the Arctic and the Kama Seas to the mouth of the Yenisei river and through Siberia and the Amur region, recounted in Through Siberia, the Land of the Future (London, 1914). In 1914, jointly with Professor Bjorn Helland-Hansen, Nansen made an oceanographic expedition in the eastern North Atlantic to Portugal, Madeira and the Azores and back to Norway, the important scientific results of this expedition being published by the two scientists in The Eastern North Atlantic (Geophysic Publication, Academy of Science, Oslo). During the World War further oceanographic expeditions—Nansen’s absorbing interest—were impossible. In 1917 he was appointed head of a Norwegian Govt. commission to the United States, and secured a satisfactory agreement with the American Govt. in regard to the import into Norway of essential supplies. After the Armistice (1918) Nansen threw himself with vigor into the work of repatriating prisoners of war, and under him, as Commissioner of the League of Nations, and with the executive assistance of the national Red Crosses, about 500,000 prisoners of war were repatriated from Siberia, China and other parts of the world. This work was financed largely by the governments participating in the International Committee for Relief Credits, Paris, of which Lord Bradbury was chairman. In rorg Nansen conferred with Hoover regarding the possibilities of assisting the Russian people, and suggested to President Wilson and the members of the Supreme Council an organisation for Russian relief on the lines of the Belgian Relief Commission. The Supreme Council supported the proposal on the condition that all hostilities in Russia cease. As this was at the time when Kolchak in the east and Deniken in the south were advancing towards Moscow the project was abandoned. In 1921 Nansen was asked by an international conference in Geneva of delegates of 48 Red Cross societies and 12 governments to put himself at

IO16

NAOROJI—NAREW,

the head of the relief Work for famine-stricken Russia, and on Aug. 27 in the same year he signed an agreement in Moscow with Chicherin, the Soviet Foreign Minister, regarding the method of furnishing relief on an important scale, and visited the areas of famine. In Sept. Nansen endeavoured unsuccessfully to induce the League of Nations to assist the starving millions in Russia by raising, under safeguards, an international governmental relief loan. Failing here, he visited the chief capitals of Europe, and as a result largely of his intensive propaganda the European Red Crosses fed and clothed at one time at the peak of the Russian famine over 1,600,000 inhabitants of the Volga and South Ukraine regions. His publicity campaign undoubtedly had influence in America, which under Hoover’s inspiration and direction fed at one time 10,000,000 Russian sufferers. Nansen’s mission in Russia continued to conduct two agricultural demonstration estates in the former famine areas. In 1923 Nansen published Russia and the Peace setting out the economic position of Soviet Russia. As high commissioner for refugees to the League, he accepted responsibility for the protection and settlement of Russian, Armenian and Greek refugees, and the following is the appreciation of the Assembly of the League of this work:— The Assembly feels it its duty to pay a whole-hearted tribute to the high commissioner, Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, both for his unceasing devotion, of which for more than four years he has given proof, in assisting refugees of every nation, and for the high qualities which he has displayed in the carrying out of his oncrous duties. The Assembly would record the fact that with the very limited means at his disposal Dr. Nansen has saved from misery and often from death hundreds of thousands of human beings, and would render him the grateful thanks due to him as a benefactor of humanity.

In 1923 Nansen was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, which he gave to the furtherance of the Nansen agricultural demonstration estates and model farms in Saratov and Ekaterinoslav Governments, Russia. In his early manhood Nansen was a great athlete, and by his writings was largely responsible for popularising ski-ing in the Alps, and evidence of his enthusiasm for sport is his work on Sport in the Polar Regions and Wild Norway (1925). Nansen, as delegate for Norway to the League of Nations, made an impassioned intervention protesting against the occupation of Corfu by Italy in 1923, and at the Fifth Assembly in 1924 he conducted the first informal negotiations that took place concerning the entry of Germany into the League of Nations. Nansen’s interest In education has been evidenced by his campaign in favour of Russian professors and universities. In 1925 he was elected Lord Rector of Aberdeen. (see POLAR REGIONS; REFUGEES.) (J. H. Go.) NAOROJI, DADABHAI (1825-1917), Indian politician (see 19.167), died at Versova, near Bombay, June 30 1917. NAPLES, Italy (see 19.178), the second largest city in Italy, had a population of 772,405 in 1921. To improve the sanitary condition of the city an opening has been made through the squalid Pendino quarter, and a new approach to the castle from the Strada San Carlo. The quarter of Santa Lucia has grown largely. A fine art collection was presented to the city in 1925, and will be housed in the Villa Floridiana. The museum, which houses the Pompeian collections, shaken by the building of a tunnel, was found to be in danger of collapse; the walls were temporarily shored up pending its repair. Excavations in 1913 led to the discovery of the old port of Pompeli, and further discoveries in Pompeii itself were opened to the public in 1915. The Neapolitan University was closed in 1925, owing to riots between Fascists and non-Fascists. A metropolitan electric railway was opened in 1925, with seven stations, the terminus being at Pozzuoli; another station will be built at Bagnoli. The work on port improvements was temporarily suspended in 1924. Fears were expressed in 1925 lest the Orient Line would cease to use Naples as a port of call, owing to the new regulations for third-class passengers. Naples is now the third port of Italy: the number and tonnage of vessels entering the harbour are greater than at Genoa, though the amount of goods is less. | NAQUET, ALFRED JOSEPH (1834-1916), French chemist and politician (see 19.236), died in Paris March 12 1916,

BATTLES OF THE NARES, SIR GEORGE STRONG (1831-1915), British explorer (sce 19.240), died at Surbiton, Surrey, Jan. 15 rors. NAREW, BATTLES OF THE.—The battles on the river Narew, northeast of Warsaw, in July and Aug. rors, were a part of the great offensive planned by Falkenhayn against Russia. (See EASTERN FRONT and map.) During May and June, Mackensen had driven the Russian armies in Galicia from Tarnów on the

Dunajec to the east of Lemberg (see DUNAJEC-SAN; LEMBERG). In July the group ‘of armies under his command was directed northeast towards Brest-Litovsk against the communications of the Russian forces which still held the Warsaw salient (see Brest-Lirovsk). Hindenburg, who commanded the group of armies on the northern part of the Eastern Front, was now ordered to strike a blow on the north side of the salient. Falkenhayn hoped thus by driving in the flanks of the salient to cut off large numbers of Russians in its apex about Warsaw. The realisation of this hope depended of course on the rapidity with which the flanks could be forced. Rival German Plans—The operation against the Narew line is of interest because of the controversy it provoked between the two men who had most influence on German strategy during the War, Falkenhayn and Ludendorff. The former was at this time chief of the German Great General Staff, and thus responsible for the supreme direction of the War; the latter was chief of staff to Hindenburg. Ludendorff had long cherished the idea of a Napoleonic manoeuvre against the Russian rear by Kovno and Wilno on Minsk, and considered the proposed Narew offensive as timid and ineffectual, Falkenhayn, with heavier responsibilities on his shoulders, mistrusted both the feasibility and the expedience of the Wilno adventure. He could not afford to become so deeply involved in the Eastern theatre as to be unable to withdraw formations to meet the coming offensive in the West. After a discussion of the alternative plans held in the presence of the Kaiser, Falkenhayn’s views were approved; and Hindenburg was ordered to carry out the Narew attack. A formidable water barrier protects Russian Poland against invasion from East Prussia. From Kovno to Grodno it is formed by the Niemen; from near Grodno it is continued by the Bobr, the Narew and the lower course of the Bug to the fortress of Nowo-Georgiewsk (Modlin); thence the Vistula flows northwest to ihe frontier. The Russians had fortified this river line. Besides the fortresses of Kovno and Grodno on the Niemen, Osoweic on the Bobr, Lomza on the Narew and Nowo-Georgiewsk at the confluence of the Bug and Vistula, there were fortified bridge heads on the Narew at Ostrołęka, Rozan, Pułtusk and Zegrze. Though the river was fordable in the summer at many points, marshes along its length increased its effectiveness as an obstacle. The German Altack—Gallwitz’s army, which was to make the aitack, comprised six corps (14 divisions). It extended from the river Szkwa, northeast of Ostrołęka, to the Vistula. Opposite to it, from Jednorozec, on the river Orzec, to near Plock on the lower Vistula, lay the Russian I. Army (Litvinov) with three corps and a cavalry corps. The tactical details of the fighting are not of any special interest. On July 13 Gallwitz delivered his first attack on the approximate line Przasnysz-Ciechanéw, aiming at Pultusk. The Russians, over-weighted both in numbers and heavy artillery at once fell back more than half-way to the Narew line. They were attacked again on July 15, and during July 18 and 19 withdrew across the river, the Russian XII. Army on their right conforming to the movement. Reinforcements had now arrived and resistance stiffened. Though the Germans stormed the bridge-heads of Pultusk and Rozan on July 23, and secured crossings over the river, their further progress was limited by violent Russian counter-attacks, and they were unable to reach the line Wyszk6w (on the lower Bug)—Ostréw, at which they were aiming. An attempt to force a passage further east at Ostroleka on July 30 failed, and it was not until Aug. 4 that this bridge-head fell. Losses were heavy on both sides; but the Russians had secured time and space sufficient to evacuate the Warsaw salient without danger.

NAROCZ, BATTLE Hindenburg and Ludendorff naturally claimed that the result of the battle vindicated their opinion on the mistaken strategy of the Supreme Command. Falkenhayn retorted that the operations would have had the desired effect of intercepting the Russian retreat had Hindenburg used the full force available and given Gallwitz 20 divisions instead of fourteen. It seems doubtful, however, whether the communications would have allowed the effective employment of so large a force. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J. Reed, The War in Fastern Europe (1916); G. Meyer, Durchbruch am Narev, Juli-Aug. 1915 (1919); A. Knox, With the Russian Army, 1914-7 (1921); M. Hoffmann, The War of Lost Opportunities (1924). (See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY.)

(A. P. W.) NAROCZ, BATTLE OF LAKE.—Lake Narocz, in Lithuania, 62 m. E.N.E. of Wilno (Vilna), gives its name to a great offensive by the Russian II. Army in the spring of 1916 (see EASTERN Front and Map). .

OF LAKE

1017

The II. Army was opposed by Von Eichorn’s X. Army, which extended from the river Dzisna to Krewo, south of Smorgonie, a front of some 85 m., and comprised rz divisions and two cavalry divisions. The Germans were aware of the Russian concentration. Just before the attack, Gen. Von Hutier, commanding the XXI. Corps opposite the Lake Narocz front, was reinforced by one division, and other reserves were held in readiness to support him. The Russian Attacks —A thaw set in on March 17, but the offensive was nevertheless begun on the 18th. After a bombarda

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Their main strength was concentrated on the Northern and Western fronts, where it had been decided that the principal efforts of the year should be made. ‘The losses of 1915 in men and material had been made good; guns and munitions were

available on a larger scale than previously, though still insufficient for the requirements of trench warfare. Plan of Operations.—-The general idea of the battle was for the II. Army to attack on either side of Lake Narocz, where the German line formed a slight salient; the two wings were eventually to join at Swieciany and to continue their advance westwards to Panevežys (some 8o m. north of Wilno (Vilna) and 1co m. west of the original line), where the V. Army, which was to attack from the Jakobstadt bridgehead on the Dvina, was to join them. The operation seems to have been planned originally to take place later in the year, when all the Allies proposed to attack simultaneously. But on Feb. 21 the German assaults on Verdun began, and the Russians chivalrously hurried on their preparations and attacked to relieve the pressure on the French,

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at the worst possible time of the year, when the annual thaw, which renders all communications practically impossible for a period, might be expected at any moment.

Description of the Terrain.—Lake Narocz (eight m. by six m.) is the largest of a whole series of small lakes in which the tributaries of the Wilia and the Dzisna rise. It drains into the river Narocz, which flows south to join the Willa east of Smorgonie. The greater part of the trench line between Dvinsk and Smorgonie (over roo m. in a straight line) was protected by lake, stream or marsh, and stretches of dry ground wide enough for a large scale offensive were few. On either side of Lake Narocz, however, were gaps of four m. or so in the water line, where the terrain was comparatively favourable for attack, though communications were poor. The northern gap was ro m. to the north of Lake Narocz, between the villages of Wilejty and Możejki; the southern was between the lake itself and Lake Wiszniew. Dispositions of the Opposing Forces.—The II. Army, which was to carry out the attack, was divided into three groups: the right group, under Gen. Plyeshkov, opposite the northern gap, con-

sisted of three corps and a cavalry corps; the centre group, under Gen. Sirelius, of two corps; and the left group, under Gen. Baluev, of three corps. Four corps were available behind these groups to exploit any success gained. The right and left groups were to attack the north and south faces of the salient respectively, while the centre group assisted by minor assaults and demonstrations. Fhe army commander, Smirnov, went sick just before the battle and his place was taken by Gen. Ragoza.

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ment of several hours, massed infantry attacks were made both by Plyeshkov’s group north of Lake Narocz and by Baluev’s group in the south. In the thickly wooded and enclosed terrain the insufficiently trained Russian infantry soon lost cohesion, and their assaults were ill-timed and disjointed. Though the German first-line trenches were in several cases occupied, they could not be held under the concentrated fire of the German artillery, which was extremely skilfully handled. By nightfall the Russians were back in their original positions, having suffered very heavy casualties without result. After two days of further

1018

NASH—NATHAN

artillery preparation and minor attacks intended to mislead the enemy, renewed heavy assaults were made on the nights of March 19-20 and 20-21. On Plyeshkov’s front no ground was permanently gained, in spite of terrible losses, but Baluev’s group in the south had some measure of success, and made an advance of over a mile on a front of about 23 miles. The weather conditions were by now terrible; it thawed from the 17th to the 22nd, and the whole area of operations became a sea of mud. ‘The battle was, however, continued till March 27, when the Russians at last desisted from their fruitless and costly attacks. In April a German counterstroke retook all the ground gained by Baluev. Meanwhile, the attacks of the V. Army from Jakobstadt, March 21-6, were equally unsuccessful and almost equally wasteful of life. Results of the Operations.—The operations resulted in a complete and disastrous failure for the Russians. Their losses were Over 100,000 and they accomplished nothing. The offensive did not cause the Germans to move a single man from the Western Front, and so brought no relief to the French. The operation was mismanaged in every way. Both time and place were 1ll-chosen; the staff work was bad; and the artillery, in spite of a greater concentration of heavy guns on a narrow front and a more liberal expenditure of ammunition than ever before, failed to give proper support to the infantry, who as usual paid the price in terrible losses. The result was, in fact, a bitter disillusionment to the Russian high command, to the Russian soldier and to the Russian people. BIRLIOGRAPHY.—B. Gourko, Memories and Impressions of War and Revolution in Russia (1918); Sir A. W. F. Knox, With the Russian Army, rorg-7 (1921); E. Ludendorff, My War Memories (1922). ? See also WORLD WAR: BIBLIOGRAPHY. (A. P. W.)

NASH, PAUL (1889-

), British painter, was born in London

May rr 1889, and educated at St. Paul’s School and at the Slade School. His first exhibition was given in 1911, but he was

comparatively little known until an exhibition of his Western Front war pictures (1918), the fruit of his work as an official artist 1917-8; several of these are in the Imperial War Museum, London. He then attracted attention as a landscape painter of individuality and charm, a somewhat mannered technique giving way gradually to a freer expression; he gave an important exhibition in London in 1924. He also produced some interesting woodcuts and book illustrations, such as the wood engravings, * Genesis ’’ (1924). He was instructor of design at the Royal

College of Art, South Kensington. His brother, JOHN NORTHCOTE (1893}, worked on similar lines, and was also an official war artist during 1018. NASHVILLE, Tenn., U.S.A. (see 19.246), had a greater business development between 1910 and 1925 than is indicated by the growth of its population within the city limits: 1910, 110,364; 1920, 118,342 (of whom 35,633 were negroes and 2,412 foreignborn, both of these groups being smaller than in roro); 1925, 136,220, as estimated by the Census Bureau, and probably 150,ooo if suburban population which is a part of the economic unit, were included. The value of products manufactured within the city limits increased from $29,650,000 (1909) to $83,041,583 (1923); postal receipts and bank clearings increased threefold,

savings deposits and the value of new buildings constructed even more. During the World War the U.S. Govt. established the “ Old Hickory’ powder plant in the wilderness across the Cumberland river, constructinga village for 30,000 residents. Plant and village were bought after the War by a local corporation formed for the purpose of salvaging the property for an industrial centre. By 1925 a large factory for the production of rayon (artificial silk) was in operation on this site, and the location of other industries was assured. Vanderbilt University, with grants of $8,000,000 from the General Education Board and the Carnegie Corp. thoroughly reorganised its medical school (191925) and built for it an adequate modern plant, which was occupied in 1925. Nashville, Davidson county, and the State of Tennessee united in erecting a beautiful memorial building in

honour of the men of the state who lost their lives in the War. In 1913 Nashville adopted the commission form of government.

NATAL (sec 19.252), the smallest and most densely populated province of the Union of South Africa. Its area (including Zululand) is 35,284 sq. m. and the population (1921) 1,429,398, of whom 136,838 were whites, 141,649 Asiatics, 1,139,804 Bantu and 11,107 of mixed or other race. Since 1r91z the white inhabitants had increased by nearly 39,0c0; the Asiatics by 8,210, the Bantu (natives) by 186,000. The density of population per

sq.m. was 40.51. The chief towns are Durban and Pietermaritzburg (q¢q.v.). Next in size is Ladysmith with (1921) 6,783 inhabitants (3,221 whites). The change from the status of a self-governing colony to a province of the Union affected Natal politically more closely than any other province, since in it alone were the great majority of the white inhabitants of British descent. The firm attachment of Natalians to the British connection continued an unchanging factor in the South African situation. Provincial administration was, however, largely carried on upon non-party lines. The first administrator, Mr. C. J. Smythe, had previously held office as Colonial Secretary and as Prime Minister of Natal. Mr. Smythe, who was reappointed for a second term in 1915, died in 1918 and Mr. (later Sir) G. T. Plowman succeeded to the post, which he still held in 1926. Revenue, derived chiefly from transfer duties and licences, increased from £118,000 in 1912-3 to £413,000 in 1922-3, the subsidies from the Union Govt. rising from £361,000 to £563,000. About 70% of the total expenditure was on education, the sums spent for that object rising from £169,000 in 1912-3 to £695,000 in 1922-3. Lhe Indian Problem—Natal was deeply interested in the question of Indians in South Africa. Of the 161,339 British Indians in the Union in 1921, no fewer than 141,336 lived in Natal, where they had rendered possible the development of the sugar, tea and wattle industries, as well as provided labour for the coal-mines, railways and other public works. Besides labourers, there were many Indians engaged in professions and commerce. White South Africans in general opposed the further increase of Asiatics in the Union; while, in 1911, the Indian Govt., long dissatisfied with the attitude of Natal to Indians, prohibited the recruitment of indentured coolies. The Indians both in Natal and the Transvaal complained of many grievances, and their cause was championed by M. K. Gandhi, then resident in South Africa. Arising out of the agitation, riots and disturbances occurred in Natal in 1913. In 1914 the Union Govt. passed legislation intended to prevent Indian immigration into South Africa and to prevent Asiatics already in the Union leaving the province in which they lived. The so-called Smuts-Gandhi agreement of the same was designed to guard the vested interests of Indians already in the Union. The attitude of the white inhabitants of Natal was shown by the Borough Ordinance passed by the provincial conncil in Jan. 1924, debarring Indians in future from acquiring the municipal franchise. This ordinance was held up by the Union Govt. for consideration, but in Dec. 1924, assent to its operation was given. The parliamentary franchise was, with a few special exceptions, already confined to whites. In 1925 there were 38,547 parliamentary electors, of

whom only 24 were Indian.

i

A notable element in the progress of Natal has been the development of coal-mining. The output, which in roro first exceeded 2,500,000 tons, had increased to 4,302,000 tons in 1923. Natal coal is of excellent quality. The quantity of coal bunkered and exported in 1924 exceeded 2,700,000 tons. The Offical Year Book of the Union of South Africa ( Pretoria) gives list of government publications dealing with the Asiatic question and provincial administration. See SOUTH AFRICA, UNION OF, (F.R.C.)

NATHAN, ERNESTO (1845-1921), Italian politician, was born in London, the son of an Englishman, Joseph Nathan, and of an Italian mother, Sara Rosselli, both Jews. In 1858 he settled in Pisa with his mother and attended the university there. Soon afterwards they had to repair to Switzerland on account of Sara Nathan’s republican sentiments; it was then that Ernesto Nathan became acquainted with Mazzini, whose views became thenceforth his chief inspiration and cult. A violent anti-clerical,

NATIONAL

DEBT—NATIONAL

PARKS AND GAME

he soon joined the Freemasons and was elected ‘‘ Grand Orient ”’ for Italy in 1899, but resigned in 1905 owing to internal disagreements. He became an Italian citizen, and although he had been a republican in his early years, he gradually accepted the monarchy as the best régime for Italy. He showed great activity in organising the ‘‘ Unione dei partiti popolari” in 1900, a blocco of the various radical and anti-clerical parties in Rome, and when at the municipal elections of 1900 the clerical administration fell, Nathan was chosen as mayor.

Re-elected in roro, he

fell when the blocco broke up in 1913. On the outbreak of the World War, in spite of his 70 years, he volunteered for the army and actually served as a lieutenant of infantry for a time. He was editor of the national edition of Mazzini’s works. Nathan died in Rome April 9 1921. NATIONAL

DEBT:

see DEBTS, INTER-ALLIED;

GREAT

BRITAIN:

FINANCE. NATIONAL PARKS AND GAME PRESERVES.—Under the influence of President Roosevelt’s great interest in outdoor life and faith in the value to the people—moral, physical and educative—of contact with nature, the early years of the present century saw in the United States a wonderful advance in the movement for national parks and nature conservation. The momentum gathered was not lost when the administration. of President Wilson came, but passed into a new constructive period under his Secretary of the Interior, Franklin K. Lane, a man of imagination and high enthusiasm for the public service and under the latter’s friend, Stephen T. Mather, the inspiring head of national park accomplishment in recent years in the United States. The National Park Sermce.—At the creation in 1916 of the National Park Service the separate park units created by the Federal Govt. were gathered into a logical system whose aims were clarified and placed upon the highest basis, and a foundation was established on which the future could be safely built. Its establishment, with the unified control it gave, marks the

most important advance made since rgro in national park development in America, whose influence has been widely felt. Since 1910 a change fundamentally altering the national park problem and incalculably increasing its importance has come into the life of the American people. From being relatively stationary they have become to an extraordinary extent a nation in movement, owing to the automobile, multiplying many times the travel to the national parks and their opportunity for service, but presenting, equally, new difficulties in the organisation and care of motor-camps, the building of roads and the provision for great multitudes of visitors. The aim of the National Park Service as it has crystallised has been to have each recreationally important feature of the country’s landscape typically represented in the national system, so that a traveller visiting in turn the various parks may see the country illustrated through supreme examples and learn of the characteristic life—plant and animal—inhabiting its regions. To this educational aspect of the national parks constantly greater emphasis 1s being given. They form wonderful natural exhibits and outdoor museums,’ illustrating, in each section where they lie, the regional life and landscape. With the wide travel to them which the automobile is causing they are becoming also conservational factors of prime importance in arousing interest In the preservation of the nation’s irreplaceable wild life inheritance and native beauty. Parks Established.—During and since 1910 the following national parks, a magnificent group supplementing in extraordinary variety the earlier units, have been established by Congress in the United States: Glacier National Park (1,534 sq. m.) in Montana in IgIo; Rocky Mountain National Park (397 sq. m.) in Colorado in 1915; Hawaii National Park (186 sq. m.) in the territory of Hawaii in 1916; Lassen Volcanic National Park (126 sq. m.) in California in 1916; Mount McKinley National Park (2,645 sq. m.) in Alaska in 1917, in its present stage a game preserve and mountain reservation rather than a park in the true sense; Grand Canyon National Park (958 sq. m.) in Arizona in 1919; Lafayette National Park (12 sq. m.) upon Mount Desert I. off the coast of Maine in 1919; and Zion National Park (120 sq. m.) in Utah in 1919; while a bill to create two others in the Great Smoky Mountains of Tennessee and North

PRESERVES

roro

Carolina and in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia was before Congress in 1926 and was being strongly urged. National Monuments.—Intimately related to the national parks in the United States are the national monuments, whose first establishment in 1906 was one of the farsighted conservational acts of President Roosevelt’s administration. Created by presidential proclamation for the preservation of outstanding features of historic, antiquarian or scientific interest, their number has steadily increased since rgro, until in 1926 they constituted, supplementing the national parks and administered in connection with them or with the national forests, a trne museum of the out-of-doors, preserving battlefields and historical sites, prehistoric dwellings, fossil forests, rare botanical exhibits and striking geologic features. Parks in Canada.—In Canada the older national parks—the Rocky Mountains National Park (2,751 sq. m.) in Alberta, by Banff; the Yoho National Park (476 sq. m.) in British Columbia; Glacier National Park (468 sq. m.) in the Selkirk Mountains; Jasper National Park (4,400 sq. m.) in northern Alberta; and Waterton Lakes National Park (220 sq. m.), adjoining across the national boundary the United States Glacier Park, have all been extensively added to since 1910, and the following have been created: Revelstoke National Park (100 sq. m.) in British Columbia, dedicated in 1919 and the westernmost in the chain of Canadian Nationa] Parks; and Kootenay National Park (587 sq. m.), created in 1920, on the western slope of the Rockies, adjoining the Yoho and Rocky Mountains National Parks.

In South America.—In South America plans for an international park centring about the celebrated cataract of L’Iguazu

on the boundary between Argentina and Brazil were in 1926 under consideration but had not then been embodied in definite shape. Far to the south in Argentina, near the Chilean boundary in the Andean region, lies the Nahuel-Huapi National Park amid lakes and snow-clad mountains of the Cordillera range, the first of actual establishment south of the United States. In Europe.—In Europe, Switzerland led the way in national park creation by establishing in the years before the World War a national park and botanical reservation among the Alps that lie between the Lower Engadine and the Italian border, in the Canton of the Grisons, rich in alpine flowers and in scenic beauty. Italy, since the War, has followed with the establishment of a national game preserve, I] Gran Paradiso, in the Alps of Piedmont, for the protection of the few remaining ibexes, and of a national park in the Apennines, northeast from Rome: the National Park of the Abruzzi. Originating in a royal hunting park established for Victor Emmanuel when united Italy became a kingdom, it includes the highest mountain in the Apennine range, Il Gran Sasso d'Italia, and ancient woods of beech and ok that also are the refuge of wild life in vanishing species. But it is a park still in the making, for the future to develop. One other area in Europe claims attention as the scene of activity in national and international park creation—the Eastern Carpathian and High Tatra mountains, along whose summits lies the boundary between Czechoslovakia and Poland, where extensive parks were planned in 1926, culminating in the Tatra International Park, cresting the range in a magnificent domain of wild and rugged scenery. In Australia—In Australia no Federal park system has yet been established, but state reservations, notably Centennial Park, Sydney, N.S.W., have been made which the Commonwealth may make the basis for one later, as wealth and population grow. The unique flora and fauna and continental character of the country make the opportunity remarkable. New Zealand, also, has opportunity for the creation of a wonderful park system in the southern hemisphere and is moving fast toward it through the development of her sea-borne tourist trade. Game Preserves.—The swift destruction of wild life now taking place in the United States and Canada through increasing population, the ready invasion by the motor-car of regions till now the secluded habitats of wild life, and the drainage of marshlands, has led to a widespread movement for the enactment of protective Federal legislation and the increased establishment of national game preserves.

NATURALISATION

IO020

To these the United States has largely added, both in extent and number, since 1910, and, national park areas apart, which are absolute sanctuaries, has now the following: Wichita National Game

Preserve (91 sq. m.) in Oklahoma; the Grand Canyon National Game Preserve (1,384 sq. m.)}, co-extensive with the Kaibab National Forest, in Arizona; the National Bison Range (29 sq. m.) in Montana; the Elk Refuge National Game Preserve (41% sq. m.) in Wyoming; the Niobrara National Bird and Wild Life Reservation (25 sq. m.) in Nebraska; the Pisgah National Game Preserve (120 sq. m.) in North Carolina; the Cherokee Federal Game Reserves in Georgia and Tennessee; and an extensive area bordering the Upper Mississippi, in process of acquisition in 1926 under a congressional appropriation, for a national bird and wild life reservation. In Canada since 1910 the following national game preserves, bearing the name of parks, have been established in addition to the one, Buffalo National Park (161 sq. m.), which then existed; Elk Island National Park (51 sq. m.) in northern Alberta; Nemiskam National Park

(83 sq. m.), an antelope

preserve

in southeastern

Alberta;

and Point Pelee National Park (4 sq. m.) jutting out into Lake Erie from Ontario, a bird sanctuary at the most southerly point in Canada, which is an important resting-place for many migratory birds.

Elsewhere, apart from the big game reserves of Africa and seal protection areas, little has been done for game protection through national preserves. Much, however, has been done besides, in Anglo-Saxon Jands, by Federal states and provinces, and much by associations, of which outstanding examples for bird protection exist in Louisiana, administered partly by the state and partly by the National Audubon Society, and in New Zealand, where Stewart I. (665 sq. m.) has been set aside as a sanctuary, while it is to be remembered that all game protective laws, Federal or State, have the effect, if enforced and well conceived, of creating reservations to the extent of the territory they cover and the protection they afford, and are complementary in this sense to special game preserves.

In Great Britain the constant vigilance and activity of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and the Selborne Society have secured legislative and administrative protection for birds. Sanctuaries have been established on properties of the National Trust and in scheduled public parks and commons. The Selborne Society provides nesting boxes for private gardens.

The Farne Islands have been purchased and given to the National Frust as a sanctuary for sea birds. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds has established a Watchers’ Committee which does invaluable work against depredations by collectors, by pollution of the sea by oil, by overhead wires and rat plagues. The bird nests and perches at four selected lighthouses have been the means of saving many migratory birds. The Society keeps constant watch for evasions of the Plumage Act (1921) and develops its propaganda by lectures to schools, by competitions and by the issue of a special journal, Bird Notes and News. (G. B. D.) NATURALISATION (see 19.275).—In the period 1910-26 there were many and important changes throughout the world in the laws respecting naturalisation, owing in part to the growth of national feeling, in part to the World War. The consolidation and amendment of the British law of nationality and naturalisation was recommended in 1901 by a departmental committee of the Home Office, but it was not until 1914, just before the outbreak of the World War, that the principal recommendations of the committee were embodied in an Act of Parliament. This was the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act, r9r4, subsequently amended by Acts of the same name passed in 1918 and 1922, which, while not disturbing the general principles of the Act of 1914, contain important supplementary provisions. These statutes, as their title implies, are comprehensive and deal with the law as to naturalborn British subjects, British subjects by naturalisation and aliens within British jurisdiction. In the second of these categories, the new statutes make three important innovations, viz.: 1. They abolish all legal distinctions between natural-born and naturalised subjects. A naturalised British subject, so long as his certificate remains in force, has the same rights and duties as if he were natural-born. 2. A certificate of naturalisation may be revoked by the Secretary of State upon proper cause appearing to his satisfaction. 3. Without prejudice to the power of the self-governing Dominions to grant local naturalisation on such terms as they may see

fit, the statutes lay the foundations of a scheme of Imperial naturalisation by providing for the adoption of Part II of the principal Act (as amended) by the Dominions.. Part II has (1926) been adopted by Canada, Australia and South Africa.

Grant of Naturalisation.—In respect of the conditions precedent to the grant of a certificate of naturalisation to an alien, the Act of British Nationality and Status of Aliens Acts 1914, 1918 and 1922, do not substantially depart from the provisions

of the Naturalisation Act, 1870. The applicant must satisfy the Secretary of State (a) that he has either resided in His

Majesty’s dominions for not less than five years, or has been in the service of the crown for not less than five years within the last eight years before the application, (b) that he is of good character and has an adequate knowledge of the English language, and (c) that he intends to reside in His Majesty’s dominions or to enter or continue in the service of the crown. The residence required is at least one year’s residence in the United Kingdom immediately preceding the application, and previous residence for four years, either in the United Kingdom or some other part of His Majesty’s Dominions within eight years of the application. These conditions as to residence, however, do not apply to a British-born woman who has become an alien by marriage and who, after the death of her husband or the dissolution of her marriage, seeks re-admission to British nationality; and the Secretary of State may also in his discretion grant a certificate of naturalisation to a minor who has not complied with the prescribed conditions. But a certificate of naturalisation is not a matter of right. The Secretary of State may grant, withhold or postpone it in his absolute discretion and there is no appeal from his decision. A certificate does not come into effect until the oath of allegiance to His Majesty has been taken. The names of minor children of an applicant for naturalisation may be (and in practice usually are) included in the certificate. The children thereby become

British subjects, but on attaining their majority they

may divest themselves of their allegiance by a declaration. Revocation of Certificate —Under the Naturalisation Act, 1870, a certificate once granted was irrevocable, even if it afterwards appeared that the grant had been obtained by fraud. The Act of 1914 cured this defect by giving the Secretary of State a discretionary power to revoke a certificate obtained by false representations or fraud, and the Act of 1918 converted the discretion into an obligation to revoke and considerably extended the principle of revocation. Section 7, as amended, is as follows:— (1) Where the Secretary of State is satisfied that a certificate of naturalisation granted by him has been obtained by false representation or fraud, or by concealment of material circumstances, or that the person to whom the certificate is granted has shown himself by act or speech to be disaffected or disloyal to His Majesty, the Secretary of State shall by order revoke the certificate. (2) Without prejudice to the foregoing provisions the Secretary of State shall by order revoke a certificate of naturalisation granted by him in any case in which he is satisfied that the person to whom the certificate was granted either— (a) has during any war in which His Majesty is engaged unlawfully traded or communicated with the enemy or with the subject of an enemy state, or been engaged in or associated with any business which is to his knowledge carried on in such manner as to assist the enemy

in such war; or (b) has within

five years of the

date of the grant of the certificate been sentenced by any court in His Majesty’s dominions to imprisonment for a term of not less

than twelve months, or to a term not less than £100; or (c) was not the grant of the certificate; or (d) the certificate been for a period of

of penai servitude, or to a fine of of good character at the date of has since the date of the grant of not less than seven years ordina-

rily resident out of His Majesty’s dominions otherwise than as a representative of a British subject, frm, or company carrying on business, or an institution established, in His Majesty’s dominions or in the service of the crown, and has not maintained substantial connection with His Majesty's dominions; or (e) remains according to the law of a state at war with His Majesty a subject of that state; and that (in any case) the continuance of the certificate is not conducive to the public good. (3) The Secretary of State may, if he thinks fit, before making an order under this section refer the case for such inquiry as is hereinafter specified, and in any case to which suhsection (1) or paragraph

(a), (c) or (e) of subsection

(2) of this section applies,

the Secretary of State shall, by notice given to or sent to the lastknown address of the holder of the certificate, give him an opportunity of claiming that the case be referred for such inquiry, and if

NA TURALISATION the holder so claims in accordance with the notice the Secretary of State shall refer the case for inquiry accordingly. (4) An inquiry under this section shall be held by a committee constituted for the purpose by the Secretary of State, presided over by a person (appointed by the Secretary of State with the approval of the Lord Chancellor) who holds or has held high judicial office, and shall be conducted in such manner as the Secretary of State may direct :— | Provided that any such inquiry may, if the Secretary of State

thinks fit, instead of being held as aforesaid be held by the High Court, and the practice and procedure on any inquiry so held shall be regulated by rules of court.

A committee appointed under this section shall have all such powers, rights, and privileges as are vested in the high court or in

any judge thereof on the occasion of any action, in respect of the following matters :— (a) the enforcing the attendance of witnesses and examining them on oath, affirmation, or otherwise, and the issue of a conimission or a request to examine witnesses abroad; and (b) the compelling the production of documents; and (c) the punishing persons guilty of contempt; and a summons signed by one or more members of the committee may be substituted for and shall be equivalent to any formal process capable of being issued in any action for enforcing the attendance of witnesses and compelling the production of documents The revocation of a certificate of naturalisation, however, does not affect the status of the wife or minor children of the person concerned unless the Secretary of State so directs, and no such order can be made against a British-born woman unless the Secretary of State is satished that if she had held a certificate in her own right it could properly have been revoked under section 7. It is to be observed that no distinction is made between minor children who have acquired British nationality through their father’s naturalisation and minor children who are natural-born subjects. The anomalous result follows that the British-born children of an alien are ina better position than the British-born children of a naturalised person. There are other difficulties involved in the construction of the Act of 1918, the language of which is in many places very obscure, but they have never been the subject of judicial discussion. The committee constituted has, however, given certain rulings which have a quasi-judicial force. Thus, it has been held that innocent misrepresentation is “ false representation ’? within the meaning of section 7 (i). Again, the use of the present tense in paragraphs (a) and (e) of sub-section (2) have been interpreted to mean that action under these paragraphs can only be taken during the continuance of a state of war. (D. CA.)

I. THE UNITED STATES In the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States it is provided that “ All persons born or naturalised in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.” This Amendment was proclaimed July 28 1868, but

the method of naturalisation had been prescribed previously. Only a natural-born citizen may become President of the United States, but naturalised citizens may hold every and any other office. The practice in naturalisation isset forth in the Naturalisation Act of June 29 1906 and its amendments; that of expa-

triation in the Expatriation Act of March 2 1907. Naturalisation has two stages. The first is a declaration of intention on the part of the alien to become a citizen of the United States, the second is a petition for admission which.must be filed not less than two years nor more than seven years after the declaration of intention. Every applicant must reside five years within the jurisdiction of the United States, although an occasional absence with intent to return does not break the continuity of residence. The last year of the residence must be in the state or territory in which naturalisation is to be acquired. Two witnesses are required to the fact of residence and of good character. The general statute dealing with naturalisation applies only to white persons and persons of African race, hence the nationals of other races are not held eligible to citizenship under the naturalisation laws of the United States. (United States v, Bhagat Singh Thind, 261 U.S. 204; Osawa v. United States, 260 U.S. 178.) Naturalisation is perfected by the decision of a judge of a Federal or state court of record, the applicant taking an oath of allegiance to the Government and renouncing absolutely and forever all allegiance to the foreign country of which he was a citizen or subject. The advantage of a declaration of intention was supposed to lie in testing the applicant’s devotion to American institutions. The disadvantage is in the disagreeable, if not equivocal position in which he finds himself in the interval between the declaration of intention and final naturalisation. The government of origin naturally loses

102I

interest in such a person, who, if he wishes a passport, must apply to its representative in the United States. Congress, however, has been unwilling to drop the provision, although frequently requested to do so by the Executive Department of the Government. To obviate the disadvantages of the situation, the Secretary of State was authorised by the Expatriation Act of 1907 to grant temporary passports to foreigners who had declared their intention to become citizens, under such regulations as he should prescribe. This portion of the Act was repealed June 4 1920. The Act of 1906 expressly mentions the intention on the part of the applicant to reside in the United States as an essential to legal naturalisation, and the absence of the intention may be proved asa fact in legal proceedings, or presumed from leaving the United States within five years. In the case of Luria v. United States, 231 Reports, 9 (1913), it was decided, however, that the intent was presumed in previous statutes.

The Govt. of the United States persistently maintained the right of expatriation, interpreting it, however, rather as the right of a foreigner to become a citizen of the United States without the consent of his government, than as a right of an American citizen without the consent of his own government to become a citizen or subject of a foreign nation, The first statute of expatriation affecting American citizens as well as foreigners was the Expatriation Act, passed March 2 1907. It provides that an American citizen, natural or naturalised, renounces his American nationality by becoming naturalised in a foreign country, or by taking an oath of allegiance to a foreign state. This became important in the World War when many American citizens enlisted in forcign armies, arrayed against the Central Powers. They had in all cases been obliged to take an oath of allegiance on entering the military service, and upon their return to the United States they were held to have ceased to be American citizens. To remedy this situation a statute was passed on May 9 1918 allowing such individuals to become American citizens upon taking an oath of allegiance to the United States. The United States has been a party to treaties by which it was pzovided that a naturalised citizen might forfeit his American citizenship by residing a certain number of years in the country of his origin. The Expatriation Act generalises that provision by stipulating:— When any naturalised citizen shall have resided for two years in the foreign state from which he came, or for five years in any other foreign state it shall be presumed that he has ceased to be an American citizen, and the place of his general abode shall be deemed his place of residence during said years. The Act also stipulated that an American woman marrying an alien acquired his nationality, and that a foreign woman marrying an American citizen acquired American nationality. It further provided that minor children became naturalised through the naturalisation of their parents. Finally, the Act permitted American citizens who

had returned to the land of their origin to overcome the presumption of renunciation of American citizenship by registering in the American Consulate; and also required that Americans born in foreign parts should register in an American Consulate. The statutes provide easy terms of naturalisation of persons serving in the land and naval forces of the United States, provisions which were amplified during the World War. The great change, however, was made in the law of citizenship by the Cable Act of Sept. 22 1922, which provided that a foreign woman marrying an American citizen did not become an American citizen by the act of

marriage; and that an American woman marrying a foreigner did not, by the act of marriage, lose her American nationality. It facilitated the reacquisition of American nationality by American women who had married foreigners before the passage of the Act, be reducing residence in the United States to one year before taking an oath of allegiance. From this privilege, however, was excluded the American woman who had married a foreigner who could not

become a citizen of the United States under its naturalisation laws. The Act is in accordance with the tendency to recognise the personality of married as well as of single women, but it occasions inconvenience in the absence of treaties with foreign countries in the matter of passports from countries where the nationality of a wife depends upon and follows that of the husband.

HI. GERMANY The German Imperial and State Citizenship Law of July 22 1913 which went into effect Jan. 1 1914 has been much criticised. It contains two sections, 13 and 25, which have been considered generally objectionable to non-German countries. In view of the importance of the articles they are quoted:— Sec. 13. A former German who has not taken up his residence in Germany may on application be naturalised by the state (of Germany) of which he was formerly a citizen, provided his case fulfils the requirements of Nos. 1 and 2 of paragraph 1 of Section 8; the same applies to one who is descended from a former German or has

been adopted as a child of such.

Prior to naturalisation a report

must be made to the Imperial Chancellor; if he raises objections, naturalisation does not take place. (VThe text of section 8 of the law referred to in the section just quoted is as follows: “1, If he is legally

1022

NATURAL

RESOURCES,

competent in accordance with the laws of his former home or would be legally competent in accordance with the laws of Germany; or if the application is made by his legal representative or with the latter’s consent in accordance with the second sentence of paragraph 2 of

section 7. 2. If he has Ied a blameless life...” Sec. 25. Citizenship is not lost by one who before acquiring foreign citizenship has secured on application the written consent of the competent authorities of his home state to retain his citizenship. Before this consent is given the German consul is to be heard. The Imperial Chancellor may order, with the consent of the Federal Council, that persons who desire to acquire citizenship in a specified foreign country may not be granted the consent provided for in paragraph 2.

The only comment necessary on provisions of this kind is the statement that by Article 278 of the Treaty of Versailles of June 28 1919, Germany was obliged to declare the provisions in question as null, void and of no effect.

IV. OTHER COUNTRIES An examination of the laws of other countries dealing with naturalisation shows that there have been many and important changes since roro, because the provisions were either in themselves deemed to be inadequate, or not in accord with the newer conditions of the century. In the next place, new states had come into existence, and as they were without legislation on the subject, it was necessary that laws should be passed regarding the acquisition and loss of nationality. Instead of attempting a summary of provisions which are in their nature local and therefore diverse, the principal constitutional and statutory provisions on the subject since rgro are set forth:— Argentine Republic.—Law of Novy. 27 1911, granting nationality to alien officers, etc., by virtue of lawof July 14 1911; Annuaire,! 1911. Austria.—Law of Oct. 17 I919, Annuaire, 1920:266; Decree of Aug. 20 1920, relative to acquisition of nationality by option, BFS? 113:879; Constitution, 1920, BFS 113:883, 886, Arts. 6, 11 (i). Belgium.—Law of May 26 1914, on renunciation of Belgian nationality by persons who have acquired the same under law of 1909, BFS 107:587; Law of May 11 1918, granting fresh term for acquisition of nationality by descendants of inhabitants of territories ceded in 1839, BFS 111:652; Law of Oct. 25 1919, concerning right of option, BFS 112:989; Law of May 15 1922, concerning acquisition and loss of nationality, BFS 116:643. Bulgaria.—Constitutional amendment, 1911, BFS 107:619, Art. 55; Law of Dec. 8 1911, amending law of Dec. 31 1903, Annuaire, I911:765.

China.—Law of Nov. 18 1912, Annuaire, 30 1914, BFS 114:667.

Costa Rica.—Constitution,

1912:625; Law of Dec.

1917, Arts. 40-44, 60, 99 (10), 105;

La Gaceta, June 13 1917. Denmark,—Law of Nov. 27 1916, providing for naturalisation of persons of no nationality, B/S 110:838; Law of Sept. 5 1920, BFS 114:705; Constitution, 1920, Art. 50, BFS 114:715. Dominican Republic.—Constitution, 1924, Pan American Union, Law and Treaty Series Ne. I (1925), 6, 8, IO, 19, 21, Articles 8, 18, 21, 55, 63; Naturalisation law of Oct. 31 1924, Clunet, 1926:243. Ecuador. —Law of Oct. 18 1921, BFS 114:731. Finland,—Constitution, 1919, Art. 4, McBain and Rogers,? 468. france.-—Decree of Sept. 16 Ig10, regarding registration of citizens abroad, Am. Jour. Sup.’ Vl:92; Law of Oct. 3 1910, to facilitate acquisition of French nationality by Tunisians, BFS 106:953; Decree of May 26 1913, on acquisition of French citizenship by natives of Indo-China, BFS, 107:771; Decree relative to acquisition of foreign nationality by natives in some of French colonies, Nov. 25 1913, BFS 107:776; Law of March 25 1915, BFS 109:922; Law of April 7 1915, on withdrawal of naturalisation decrees with respect to former subjects of enemy states, BFS 109:923; Decree of April 24 1915, concerning withdrawal of naturalisation, BFS 109:925; Law of June 18 1917, BFS 112:1025; Law of July 3 1917, concerning option in case of sons of foreigners born in France, BFS 112:1029; Law of April 9 1920, concerning forcigners resident in French zone in Morocco, BFS 113:1008; Law of Nov. 8 1921, BFS 114:753; Law of Nov. 8 1921, relative to French nationality in regency of Tunis, BFS 114:755; Law of July 5 1925, concerning descendants of foreigners (not Germans) in Alsace-Lorraine, Clunet, 1925:1187. Germany,—Law of July 22 1913, on Imperial and State nationality, BFS 108:473. Constitution of German Republic, 1919, Arts. I, 6(3), 110, BFS 112:1064, 1082. LAnnuatre de législation ¢trangére of the Société de legislation comparée, Paris. 2 British and Foreign State Papers. $11. L. McBain and Lindsay Rogers, The New Constitutions of Europe (1922). 4 American Journal of International Law, Supplement. 5 Clunet, Journal du droit international,

CONSERVATION

OF

Greece.—Constitution, rgt1, Art. 3, BFS 108:483; Decree of Oct. 19 1922, concerning naturalisation of refugees, Annuatre, 1922:314. Haiti —Constitution, 1918, Arts. 3, 6, BFS 112:1113, 1114.

Italy,—Law of June 13 1912, BFS 106:1071; Decree of Aug. 2 1912, concerning enforcement of Law of June 13, BFS 106:1076; Law of June 30 1918, Annuaire, 1918:169; Decree relative to registration for nationality, Dec. 28 1919, Annuarre, 1919:76; Regulations of Dec. 30 1920, Rev. dr. int. pr. 1921:416; Decree of Aug. 21 1921, BFS 114:846; Decree of Aug. 31 1921, authorising aliens to make declaration for Italian naturalisation suspended during the War, Annuaire, 1921:40; Decree of Sept. 10, 1922, Annuaire, 1922:35. Japan.—Amendments of Aug. 1 1916, to Law of Nationality of 1899, BFS 110:920. Mexico.—Constitution, 1917, Arts. 27(1), 30, 37 73(16) BFS 111:787, 792, 794, 804.

Monaco.—Constitution,

1gtr,

Art. § (3), BFS

105:737,

738;

Ordinance of April 13 1911, Annuaire, 1911 :382, 389. The Netherlands.—Law of Feb. 10 1910, regulating status of Netherland subjects of population of Netherland East Indies, BFS 103:600; Law of July 15 1910, amending nationality law of Dee. 12 1892, Annuaire, 1910:321; Law of Dec. 31 1920, modifying law of rs 22 1892, Annuaire, 1920:116; Constitution, 1922, BFS 116:863, rt. 6. Nicaragua. —Constitution, III, Arts. 7-11, 111 (17), BFS 107: 1039, 1051-52. New Constitution of 1913 contains same provisions.

Peru.—Constitution, I919, Arts. 60, 64, BFS 113:1142. Portugal.— Decree of Dec. 2 1910, BFS 103:619; Decree of March 28 1911, amending naturalisation law of Dec. 2 1910, Annuaire, 1911: 366; Constitution, 1911, Art. 74, BFS 105:779. Rumania.—Naturalisation law of Aug. 31 1918, Annuaire, 1920: 305; Decree of Dec. 29 1918, granting certain rights to nationals, Annuaire, 1920:306; Decree of May 22 1919, Annuaire, 1920:310; Law of Feb. 23 1924, Clunet, 1925:838, and 1926:300. Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic—Constitution, 1918, Art. 20, Martin and George, Constitutions,’ 231; Nationality decree of Oct. 29 1924, Clunet, 1925-548. San Marino.—Decree of Jan. 21 Igto, regarding citizenship law of Sept. 12 1907, Annuaire, 1910:236. Serbia,—Constitution, 1913, for annexed provinces of Old Serbia,

Arts. 6, 29, 144 (9); BFS 110:934, 936, 939-40.

Siam,—Law of May 18 1911, BFS 105:793; Decree of Aug. 7 1911, regulating execution of law of May 18 I911, Annuaire, 1911:918; Law of April 10 1913, BFS 108:585. Spain.—Decree of Nov. 6 1916, BFS 110:946. Sweden.—Law of June II 1920, amending law of June I Ig12, Annuaire, 1920:220; Law on acquisition and loss of Swedish nationality, May 23 1924, Clunet, 1925:1192. Switserland.—Law of Jan. 29 1918 concerning cantonal naturalisation (Tessin), Annuatre, 1918: 239; Law of June 26 1920, modifying Law of June 25 1903, BFS 113:1187. Turkey.—Law of April 3 1917, concerning Article 6 of nationality law, Annuatre, 1919:262. Venezsuela.—Law of May 24 1913, Annuaire, 1913: 586; Constitution, 1922, Arts. 10, 11, BFS 116:1038. (JB: S:

NATURAL RESOURCES, CONSERVATION OF.—The term conservation came into common use and was given special significance about r908, when President Roosevelt inaugurated a movement in the United States to check the destructive exploitation and wasteful use of many of the most important natural resources. The underlying purpose of the movement was to make the resources render their highest service in the economic, industrial and social upbuilding of the nation. Productive use of agricultural land, continuous production of forests, economy in the use of mineral resources, skilful development of waters coupled with the protection of their sources, the building up of fisheries, the increase of useful wild life and the proper handling and safeguarding of recreation resources are examples of conservation. Use cf natural resources without waste, economic development to secure from them a maximum service, continuous production of renewable resources and permanence of industries and of community life lie at the basis of the conservation principle. The National Conservation Commission.—The idea of handling all natural resources with a view to their highest economic and public service in the long run was new in the United States. The great destruction of the American forests by fire and wasteful exploitation brought the question to the front, and it was Gifferd Pinchot, then Chief U.S. Forester, who enlisted the interest of the President in this problem and the broader aspects 6 Revue de droit international privé, TC. E. Martin and W. H. George, stitutions (1923).

Representative Modern

Con-

NAURU of conservation of all natural resources. The first important step taken by President Roosevelt was to call a conference of governors of the states, which assembled at the White House in May 1908. This was the first time the governors of the states had met in conference. As a result of the meeting, a National Conservation Commission was appointed by the President, and 42 states appointed state commissions to study the problems of natural resources, to assemble data regarding their quantity and condition, and to formulate a policy for their conservation. In 1909 the National Conservation Commission made its report to Congress. In the same year President Roosevelt invited the governor-general of Canada, the governor of Newfoundland and the president of Mexico to appoint commissioners to discuss, with commissioners representing the United States, the principles of conservation as applied to the continent of North America. Legislative Acttona—The movement inaugurated by President Roosevelt led to a radical change in public policy with reference to the resources owned and controlled by the Government. Not only were the National Forests and Parks placed on a permanent basis of protection and administration, but legislation was later enacted providing for the proper use under Federal control of the lands still under public ownership which contained coal, oil, phosphates or potash or which were valuable for waterpower development. The movement led further to action ensuring the conservation of fisheries, game and bird life. The influence of the conservation movement has spread far beyond the handling of Federal properties. It has been the factor leading to action by many Individual states. The greatest progress has been made by them in the protection of forests from fire, although many of the states are not yet doing what is needed to attain this end. Since the World War there has been increasing appreciation of the significance of natural resources as a primary factor in the industrial strength and prosperity of nations. The older countries have by very force of economic conditions been obliged to give attention to the careful husbanding of their resources. Many of them have already been through the process of wasteful exploitation and have learned the lesson of conservation. The newer countries are still exploiting their forests without proper measures of replacement, still using wasteful methods of developing oil, natural gas and coal, still overstocking the cattle and sheep ranges, still using crude methods of agriculture, still failing to protect their natural supply of useful wild life. Exhaustion of Resources-—In many countries, as the United States, which have been naturally endowed with an abundance of natural resources, the most accessible and most cheaply produced of the raw materials are rapidly being exhausted. Vast resources still remain, but the difficulties and cost of their exploitation are constantly mounting. This situation is of very real importance to those nations which have to look abroad for raw materials. The exhaustion of the accessible bodies of virgin softwood timber in North America will be felt by importing nations which will be obliged to pay higher and higher prices for this class of material or go without. Necessarily there will be in the near future a world shortage of softwood timber of the better grades (see Forestry). In the same way the wasting of oil, coal and minerals in one country becomes a matter of international consequence. Government Action—Since the War the conservation of natural resources has been given larger attention in many countries. Great Britain has embarked on an ambitious plan of reforestation and has already held two imperial conferences to discuss problems of timber supply and forestry as affecting the entire empire. The forthcoming World Forestry Congress at Rome is an event of very great significance in international conservation. Various countries are adopting a liberal policy of developing their water-power resources with a view to greater independence in power for manufacturing, transportation, heat and light, and already there has been an important water-power conference of an international character in London. The In-

1023

stitute of Agriculture at Rome is a vital force in the development of the resource of greatest importance in most countries, and its work is directly in the interest of conservation. Very gratifying also is the increased interest in the conservation of game and other wild life in those countries which heretofore have given little attention to the value of wild life. This is evidenced by the projects to conserve the big game in Africa and elsewhere, the progressive steps in many countries to stock the streams and lakes with fish, and the new interest in European countries to protect the native insectivorous birds which are so important to agriculture. Agriculture—In agriculture it is usually recognised that private ownership of farms is from every standpoint desirable. The objective is to develop a nation of small land proprietors. Government, however, gives assistance to farmers in a great variety of ways—through loans on liberal terms, through aid in co-operative buying and selling, through highway development, through research and education, through help in securing seed at reasonable cost, etc. On the other hand, it is generally recognised that the public should have control of as large an area of forest land as possible, particularly those areas in the mountains where the forests should be well handled in order to protect the watersheds and to conserve the sources of streams. Most countries early in their history adopted a policy of distributing their

forest lands to private individuals, and what they now

own

represents the residue after this policy of distribution was stopped; and most of them are endeavouring to recover by purchase what they once owned and never should have disposed of. In France 345% of the forests are publicly owned; in Germany 52-7%; in Sweden 23-6%; in Great Britain 3-6%; in the United States 21 per cent. Some countries are obliged to impose restrictions upon private owners to prevent public injury to watersheds and to insure productive use of the land. As a rule, also, the public co-operates with private owners in forestry. In some cases, as in Great Britain, a subsidy is actually given for reforestation. The United States has adopted a policy of retaining control of the publicly owned water-power sites, with a view to ensuring full development and use, and of preventing possible abuse through monopolies. The United States is retaining also in public control the coal, oil, phosphate, potash, sodium and certain other resources which are located on the public domain. How far the public will go in regulating the privately owned coal in the United States remains to be seen. The present system results in great wastage, at least in the bituminous fields; and the interruption of service to the public through strikes and other causes has resulted in serious public injury. Other countries, as Great Britain, are facing a similar problem (see Coat). Broadly speaking, government takes part in conservation as far as may be necessary to prevent public injury. Where such control is

not necessary the aim is to secure the desired results by cooperation, education and research. Scientific Research.—A

factor of very great Toui

and

significance in conservation is scientific research. Never in history has there been such a clear recognition of this fact; never has there been such liberal support of research by Federal and State Legislature, by the industries, by the great universities of the country and by contributions from benevolent foundations and private individuals. The foundations of conservation rest upon sound scientific research, and the work now being done holds out high promise for the future. The co-operation of nations in research in matters relating to natural resources is likely to lay the foundations for consideration of the problems of distribution of raw materials and many other problems of mutual economic interest. The countries which adopt an effective policy of conservation of their natural resources are strengthening the foundations of their industrial progress and national strength and they are rendering a service to the whole world. See D. Drake, America Faces the Future, chap. 23 (1922); also COAL; FORESTRY; OIL; etc. (H. S.G.) NAURU or PLEASANT ISLAND, an atoll in the South Pacific,

midway between the Marshall and Solomon Islands, with an

1024

NAVAL

ACADEMY— NAVIGATION

area of about 5,400 acres. The population in 1923 was IIo Europeans, 603 Chinese and 1,296 Nauruans and other South Sea Islanders. The island is valuable on account of its phosphate deposits, which were worked before the War by a German company the rights of which were sequestrated during the War and vested in an English company. A German possession, placed under the German administration of New Guinea, the island surrendered to the Australian Navy in Sept. 1914, and was placed by the Supreme Council under British mandate on May 7 to19. Side by side with the mandate assigning the island to the British Empire arrangements were made for Australia and New Zealand to share with the United Kingdom in the administration and the products of the phosphate industry, which together were to supply the necessary funds for the exploitation of the island resources. The first administrator was to be appointed by the Australian Government. The Nauru Agreement Act was ratified by the three Parliaments concerned, and received the royal assent on Aug. 4 1920, subject to the provisions of Art. 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. The Phosphate Deposits —The deposits were discovered in 1900, and were worked by the Pacific Phosphate Co., which also worked the deposits on Ocean Islands. The deposits in these two islands were estimated at about 100,000,000 tons. The interests of the company in these two islands were bought out in rọrọ by the British, Australian and New Zealand Govts. according to the terms of the Agreement at a cost of £3,500,000 subscribed in the proportions 42, 42 and 16. The deposits are worked by a phosphate commission of three members appointed by the governments and the output is divided in proportion to the investments of the parties. The pre-War output (1913) was 350,000 tons; the output in the first 10 years of the commission's management was over 360,000 tons a year. Though the islands do not compete in quantity with the enormous output of Northern Africa, 2,000,000 tons, or of Florida and other Unite! States yields, 4,000,000 tons, the deposits are of exceptionally high quality See the Reports on the Administration of Nauru issued by the Australian Govt.; particulars of the Mandate are given in the Year Book of the Commonweatth of Australia (1923).

NAVAL ACADEMY (sce 27.736).—The expansion of the Naval Academy in the period roro-25 began before the entry of America into the World War. In 1ror2 the six-year course (including two years at sea as midshipman) was discontinued, and midshipmen were commissioned ensigns immediately upon graduation from the academy. By Acts of Congress in 1916 and 1917, the number of annual appointments to the academy allowed to each senator, representative and delegate in Congress was increased from iwo to five; presidential appointments from to to r5, and appointments of qualified enlisted men from 15 to 100. Thus the total number of authorised appointments reached 3,126; and the number of midshipmen increased from 758 in roro to 1,230 in 1916 and in 1923 to about 2,500. The Naval Appropriation bill of 1924 provided for the pay of three midshipmen for each senator, representative and delegate in Congress in lieu of the five authorised by law. After 1920 physically qualified candidates were allowed to enter either by examination or by certificate from a recognised school. Commencing with 1925 candidates for admission by certificate were required to pass a brief examination in mathematics and English. As a war measure, the class of 1917 was graduated in March of that year, and the class of 1918 in the following June. The course was reduced to three years; but by cutting down examination periods, holidays and reviews, and increasing the academic year to nine months, practically the same work was covered.

In

roro the four-year course was resumed. Between Sept. 1917 and Jan. rọrọ five reserve officer classes, composed chiefly of former enlisted men who were graduates of technical schools, were quartered at the academy for periods of about three months’?

training.

In this way 1,622 officers were added to the service

as temporary ensigns. The post-graduate school for officers, established in ror in the former marine barracks near the Academy, was suspended

during the World War, but reopened in 1919 with about 5o student-officers. These spend a half-year or year at the postgraduate school before continuing their studies in civilian technical institutions. In 1918 two wings accommodating 1,100

additional

midshipmen

were added to Bancroft

Hall, an

ex-

tension to the Marine Engineering building was completed in ro1g and a new Seamanship building in r920. In 1919 the civilian corps of instructors was reorganised with increased pay

and systematic promotion. The staff of the academy increased from 146 officers and civilian instructors in rọro to nearly 300 in 1921 with a subsequent recluction to about 2r8 in r925. In 1925 aviation training was included in the curriculum of the academy. (L. McC. N.) NAVIGATION (see 19.284) has progressed considerably in some departments since 1910, as the result of scientific discoveries and inventions. The advance made in the science of wireless telegraphy has been of considerable assistance to navigators; and it is probable that when directional wireless telegraphy is further developed, the methods whereby the position of a ship can be fixed by this means will come into more general use. Astronomical navigation, that is the fixing of the position of a ship by observations of the heavenly bodies, alters little, and during the period 1910-25 no new methods were introduced. The use of position lines, however, came into more general use, and calculations have been simplified by the compilation and publication of special tables for finding the zenith distance. Old and New Methods Compared.—The accuracy of the posttion of a ship obtained from observations of heavenly bodies depends almost entirely on the accuracy of the time shown by the chronometers carried on board the ship. To enable the exact error of the chronometer to be obtained and the daily rate deduced, it was formerly necessary to obtain the accurate time at ports where a visual time signal was installed, or by a series of observations made with sextant and artificial horizon at places the longitude of which was accurately known. In those ships which are fitted with wireless telegraphy wireless time signals enable navigators to obtain accurate time daily in most parts of the world. At the end of 1925 there were over 50 stations working on various wave-lengths ancl situated in different countries for transmitting the time daily. The majority of these signals are sent by means of an automatic arrangement operated by the pendulum of a standard clock which is electrically connected with the transmitter. Greater reliance can

be placed on the accuracy of signals transmitted in this manner than on those which are sent by hand. The signals are, in many cases, transmitted according to the international system; it is, however, desirable to refer to the relevant publications for details of procedure. The term Greenwich mean time (G.M.T.) is considered to be the standard time of the meridian of Greenwich commencing at midnight and reckoned throughout the 24 hours. Both civil and astronomical time are, therefore, reckoned from midnight instead of from midnight and noon respectively. In the Nautical Almanac (abridged for the use of seamen) for 1925, and following years, the elements which prior to 1925 were given for every 2 hours of the astronomical day, which then began at noon, are given for every 2 hours of G.M.T. commencing at midnight. To avoid confusion a system of time zones for time-keeping at sea is in force in the navies of most countries. This system has been adopted so that vessels at sea, within certain defined limits of longitude, shall keep the same time as that used on land. The world is longitudinally divided into 24 zones of 15° each, the centre of the system being the meridian of Greenwich. This centre division lies between the meridians of 73° East and 73° West and is known as the Zero Zone, or Zone o; the zones lying to the eastward being numbered in sequence with a minus (-) prefix; those to the westward being similarly numbered with a plus (+) prefix. The limits of the zones on land are modified somewhat according to the geographical configuration of the country concerned. By this system the same time is kept whether on land or sea throughout each zone except during the periods

of summer time.

NAVY Directional Wireless —Determining the position of a ship at sea by means of directional wireless telegraphy (see WIRELESS) became of importance during the World War and is of inestimable value to ships in thick weather, when approaching the land. The bearing of the shore station from the ship can be obtained either by means of a directional receiving apparatus carried in the ship, or by the system whereby the bearing of the ship is determined by one or more directional receiving sets on shore; the result being communicated to the ship. Owing to the cost

of the installation and the necessity for great skill on the part of the operator, the former method is seldom used. To enable the latter method to be of use to ships wireless direction finding (D/F) stations are established in many parts of the world. The procedure varies to some extent for different stations and in different countries.

A ship requiring a bearing calls up the sta-

tion or stations concerned and finally receives her bearing from one or more of these stations. The position of the ship can thus be determined. The accuracy with which the bearing can be taken depends on several factors; bearings have sometimes been found to be unreli-

able at night and when the direction runs approximately parallel with the coast-line. Experiments have been made with a wireless beam which revolves in a similar manner to the beam from an ordinary lighthouse, the beam revolving through 360° at a constant rate in a definite time. Wireless waves travel along the arc of a Great circle, this being the shortest distance between any two points on the surface of the earth. It follows, therefore, that the true bearing of the ship from the station, or vice-versa, must be corrected for convergency to obtain the mean merca-

torial bearing which is required if a chart on Mercator’s projection is in use. A simple formula given in text-books enables this to be done. On a chart constructed on the gnomonic projection D/F bearings can be laid down without any correction for convergency, since Great circles appear as straight lines on

this projection. If, however,a compass “ rose”’ is used it is neces-

sary to have one on the chart for cach D/F station, to compensate for the angular alteration of the projection at that station. Other Systems in Use—Sound ranging (see SOUND RANGING) also enables the position of a ship to be determined with accuracy at a considerable distance from the land. The pressure wave generated by the detonation of a submerged explosive charge is received in hydrophones placed along a base line. This distant explosion affects the hydrophones in turn, and with the aid of time-recording instruments the position of the explosion can be deduced. To obtain accuracy at great distances it is necessary for two or more stations to co-operate. Although this method was used with success during the War no stations at the close of

1925 had been installed as aids to general navigation. It was not at that time considered probable that this method would come into common use, partly owing to the expense of installing and maintaining the stations, and partly on account of the

necessity for ships to carry explosive depth charges. The combination of D/F and sound ranging would be of considerable value to navigation, especially when approaching the coast in thick weather. The Leader system assists vessels to enter or leave harbour or to pass through narrow channels in thick weather. A submarine electric cable is laid along the channel, the shore end being connected to a station producing an alternating current. A simple and inexpensive receiving apparatus on board the ship enables the signals to be heard in telephones, or other form of amplifer, placed at or near the position from which the ship is usually conned. Two sets of coils are fitted, one on either side of the ship out of the water, and so arranged that they can each be connected up to the receiving telephones. By connecting first one set of coils and then the other, to the receiving telephones, it is an easy matter, when within range, to determine whether the cable is to port or starboard. With practice the distance of the cable can be estimated with comparative accuracy, because the signals become stronger as the cable is approached, the maximum intensity of the signals occurring when the ship is close to, but not vertically over, the cable.

1025

The same cable enables one ship to enter and one to leave harbour at the same time, provided of course the navigable channel is of sufficient width; it is a simple matter for each ship to steer to keep the cable a reasonable distance away on her port side, so that the two ships pass safely port to port. If space permits it ts possible to lay two cables, one for entering and one for leaving, the signals produced in each cable being distinctive by their note and character. This system, which proved of value during the War, had not come into general use in 1925, Owing presumably to the somewhat heavy initial cost and the cost of maintenance. In channels where frequent dredging 1s necessary to maintain the depth the presence of a submarine cable would of course cause some inconvenience. Echo sounding (see SOUNDING), by which the depth of water is obtained by the acoustic method, is of value in cases where the depth of water, or the speed of the ship, makes sounding by direct measurement unreliable. To obtain an accurate sounding by this method, complete and sensitive apparatus is required. The apparatus consists of two microphones, one of which registers the emission of a sonic signal and the other the arrival of the echo reflected by the bottom of the sea. A specially constructed time recorder capable of reading to one-thousandth part of a second is connected to the microphones and enables the depth to be deduced. Sound travels through sea water at an average velocity of 4,900 ft. per second. Consequently, by the acoustic method, very great depths can be reached in a brief space of time and the depths normally required for navigational purposes will be reached in a small fraction of a second. The Gyro compass (see Gyroscopes) is used in many ships. Owing to the masses of iron and steel used in the construction of modern ships and the presence of dynamos and other electrical machines, the position in which to place a magnetic compass in a ship requires careful consideration, to avoid undue loss of directive force and the consequent large errors which would require correction. The gyro compass does not depend for its action on the earth’s magnetic field, but on gravitation and the earth’s diurnal rotation round its axis. A suitable position below is selected for the master-gyro; and repeater dials, connected with the master, can be placed in any desired position in the ship. ‘These repeaters need not be placed with the dials horizontal, they: can be fixed vertically or in any other desired position. The introduction of the gyro compass has made automatic steering possible. An efficient automatic steering apparatus will keep a ship on a fixed course with greater regularity than can be accomplished by a skilled helmsman. For the navigation of the air see AIR NAVIGATION, BIBLIOGRAPHY.—British Admiralty, Signal Department, Technical Notes on the Leader Cable System (1921); L. H. Walter, Directive Woereless Telegraphy (1921); E. J. Willis, The Mathematics of Navigation (1921); R. heen, Direction and Position Finding by Wireless (1922); Capt. K. Macdonald, Afacdonald’s Tables fer Correcting Wireless Bearings from Latitude 5 Deg. to 70 Deg. North or South (1922); J. W. Norie, A Complete Set of Nautical Tables (1922). (J.E. T. H.)

NAVY (see 19.299).—The most constant factor in naval affairs in modern times has been the predominance of the British Navy in relation to the forces of other maritime countries, as they have successively risen and declined. But in the evolution of national policies a counterpoise has always existed, with the result that the British Navy has seldom been, in fact, supreme. In the closing years of the roth century the balance of power was maintained by France and Russia, while, in the Pacific, the United States and Japan, which were then emerging as naval Powers of the first rank, supplied an additional check on British predominance.

I. GREAT

BRITAIN

AND

GERMANY

German Navy Acts.—These were the conditions which existed when the first German Navy Act was passed in 1808, to be replaced by a more ambitious measure two years later, which became known as “‘ the Navy Act.” This measure introduced a new factor in the situation. It provided for the creation of a fleet of 20 battleships, supported by eight coast defence ships,

1026

NAVY

12 large cruisers and 29 small cruisers, with a second line of older ships. Whereas British policy had always been based on the maintenance of exiguous military forces, but a strong fleet on the two-power standard, Germany already possessed an army, if not larger, at least reputed to be more formidable and efficient, than that of any other country. France and Russia, with frontiers running parallel with those of Germany, were already making the maximum effort their finances and man-power permitted to neutralise the strength of Germany as a military Power, Austria-ITungary, with not inconsiderable military resources, being Germany’s “ brilliant second.” Neither France nor Russia, though each was vitally concerned to keep open its ocean communications and to defend its territories from invasion by sea, was in a position to make an adequate rejoinder to the menace which the German Navy Act suggested; Japan was rendered increasingly nervous as to her position in the Far East, in view of German political and economic activity, while the United States was anxious to avoid any embarrassment in the Pacific, in order that she might watch events in Europe (see

GERMANY: Naval Policy). Effects of German Expansion —In these circumstances

the whole naval situation gradually underwent a complete change. A widespread feeling of nervousness led to “understandings,” or treaties, by which cach country which considered itself threatened by the growing naval strength of Germany re-insured its interests. An alliance was concluded between Great Britain and Japan in Jan. 1902 which was strengthened three years later; Great Britain and France began to draw closer together towards the close of 1903 and eventually these two countries, in association with Russia, formed “a diplomatic group,” which led to discussions between the several naval staffs with a view to the possibility of common action by sea and eventually also by land; and the United States and Japan signed a treaty pledging each country to respect the other’s territorial interests. It thus came about that as amendments to the Navy Act were carried in the Reichstag in subsequent vears, all of them authorising further expansions of the German Navy than had hitherto been provided for, as well as of its resources for repair (of which the creation of the dockyard at Wilhelmshaven, the enlargement

of the Kicl Canal and the development of Krupps’s establishments at Essen, were the most notable), the tendency was for the other naval Powers to pool, in some degree, their naval interests. This movement reacted powerfully on the British Navy. A concentration of forces in the North Sea was begun at the expense of the squadrons in the Mediterranean, the Pacific and other distant seas, and British shipbuilding policy was adapted to the new situation which was rapidly developing; while France withdrew most of her ships from her Channel ports in order to increase her strength in the Mediterranean; Russia at the same time improved her position in the Baltic. Coming of the Dreadnought. By roto the rivalry between the navies of Great Britain and Germany had become the dominating factor not only to those two countries, but to every other country. Since Germany, though not neglecting the building of cruisers, was concentrating her attention on the creation of a great battle fleet, obviously, from the limited radius of action of the vessels, intended for service in the North Sea, the British Admiralty had also for some years turned its attention increasingly to the perfection of battleship design. Germany was rising to a condition of parity in modern ships of the line in 1905, when, on Lord Fisher’s initiative, the all-big-gun ship— commonly known as the “ Dreadnought ”—was evolved, being of two types—the battleship and the battle cruiser. Germany, her policy thrown into confusion, felt herself compelled to follow the new policy, but as dreadnoughts were of greater beam than the ships of about 14,000 tons displacement which she had hitherto been building, she became involved in a complete reconstruction of the Kiel Canal, entailing an expenditure of £11,000,000, while further large sums had to be spent on deepening her shallow harbours. |

The German naval authorities had assumed that the British

forces would continue to be dispersed over the seas and oceans of the world. When that assumption proved unfounded, the German plans for naval expansion were repeatedly varied; the final development taking place in 1912. This amendment of the German Navy Act, providing for a large fleet always in commission, was interpreted by the British Govt. as a direct challenge to British naval power. Mr. Winston Churchill, the First Lord of the Admiralty, made a speech which revealed the anxiety with which the British Cabinet, retlecting public opinion, regarded the situation. He stated that the two-power standard no longer accorded with the conditions at sea which were rapidly developing and that in future the Admiralty intended “to develop a 60°% superiority in vessels of the ‘ Dreadnought ’ type over the Germany Navy on the basis of the existing Fleet Law,” with “ other and higher standards for the smaller vessels.” Ife also let it be known that for every additional keel laid down in Germany, over and above those already provided for, two would be placed in position in British yards. It was revealed later on that the British naval authorities, having already discarded the 12-in. gun, which was mounted in the original “ Dreadnought,” in favour of the 13-5-in., had decided to introduce a new 15-in. gun, firing a projectile twice as heavy as the T2-in. weapon. Germany, which had for many years been satisfied with the rr-in. gun, had in recent designs provided for nothing more powerful than the 12-inch. These and other developments revealed the intensity with which the contest between the two countries was being pursued. Informal conversations in Berlin with a view to a “‘ naval holiday”? had proved fruitless. In the succeeding two years there was consequently no slackening of activities, either in the dockyards or at sea, in anticipation of a war, which Lord Fisher, studying the progress of the enlargement of the Kiel Canal, prophesied would not occur at any rate until 1914. On that calculation, as was subsequently revealed, British plans of naval development rested. The following statement shows the number of ships built and projected from the introduction of the dreadnought design. TABLE

:

I.

Capital | Protected

Year

Ships

Crujsers | Destroyers

1905-6

Great Britain Germany

4

s

18

1906-7

Great Britain Germany

3 2

21

14 12

1907-8

Great Britain Germany

3 3

I 2

17 12

1908-9

Great Britain Germany

2 4

6 2

16 12

1909-10

Great Britain Germany

8 4

6 2

20 2

IQIO-I

Great Britain Germany

5 4

5 2

20 12

IQII- 2

Great Britain Germany

5 4

4 2

20 2

1912-3

Great Britain Germany

4 2

8 2

20 I2

1913-4

Great Britain Germany

5 3

8 2

16 I2

IQI4-5

Great Britain Germany

4 2

2

1915-6

Great Britain

4

Germany

2

1916-7

Great Britain

4

1917-8

Great Britain

4

Germany

2

Germany

3

:

ee 2

2

see 12

: :

2

aa I2

12

:

wee 12

‘Germany also laid down an armoured cruiser—the ' Blücher.” 7 No provision had been made in the programme for protected cruisers or destroyers.

NAVY I. THE

NAVIES

OF

OTHER

COUNTRIES

During the years when the two naval protagonists were strengthening their fleets in feverish haste, the older navies of Europe suffered a decline of relative strength which in the circumstances was inevitable. France, Italy and Russia, even if they had had the will to do so, could not, owing to the necessities of the military situation which occupied the minds of their Governments, keep pace with the rapid and costly developments which were taking place on either side of the North Sea. France.—From the time when, in 1908, Adml. Germinet left the Ministry of Marine, the naval policy of France lacked definite purpose and continuity. There were frequent changes

of ministers, at the rate of about one a year, and each one, being a civilian, became the instrument of one or other of the rival schools of naval thought, while in the Chambers, senators and deputies increasingly lost confidence in the administration of the naval service, both ashore and afloat, with the result that supplies demanded by the expert advisers were repeatedly denied. Gradually the naval policy of the country became more and more based on defensive ideas. The guerre de course gained an ascendancy over the minds of those concerned with naval defence, with the result that the offensive ideal of warfare no longer dominated policy, and attention was concentrated on small craft. The French Navy, which had ranked for many years as second only in strength to that of Great Britain, was consequently surpassed in strength, first by Germany, and then by the United States, although sums had been voted for its support (1896tg11) which were 50% larger than the amounts spent on the German fleet. In 1909, as the result of an inquiry carried out by a Parliamentary Committee, an organic law was at last adopted for the expansion of the French naval forces. But it came too late to change the situation, and on the outbreak of the World War the navy, though inspired by a new purpose, was still suffering from lack of continuity of policy, and in consequence all new construction was frequently delayed by repeated changes of design. ; Russia.—Simultaneously with the decline of French naval prestige, the Russian fleet also suffered. The recently constituted Duma, established in 1905, refused to approve of measures for strengthening the navy on the ground that the Admiralty and all the naval departments urgently required reorganising. When a building scheme was at last adopted, the decision that new vessels, instead of being built in foreign yards as had hitherto been the custom, should be constructed in Russia, and as far as possible of Russian materials, proved a further handicap to progress. In these circumstances, the Russian fleet, which had sustained heavy material losses in the war with Japan, failed to recover either its prestige or its material strength. Though naval expenditure was maintained at a high level, the Russian fleet continued to decline owing largely to the failure to carry out reforms in the naval administration, which were recognised as being essential if a higher standard of efficiency was to be attained. Italy—In contrast with the misfortunes which sapped the strength of the allied fleets of France and Russia, the Halian naval authorities pursued a consistent and methodical policy. The increased attention which the Austro-Hungarian Govt., on the urgent representations of Germany, was devoting to naval affairs, was responsible, in no slight degree, for the energy displayed in Italy, which had ceased to evince any enthusiasm for the Triple Alliance, of which she was nominally a member. Navies 12 1914.—In these circumstances the balance of naval power in European waters underwent a dramatic change as the Anglo-German contest for naval power pursued its course, larger and larger sums being devoted cach year by these two countries to ship construction, the maintenance of bigger fleets at sea, and manocuvres for the training of officers and men. Whereas British naval expenditure had been {26,000,000 in r900, in the spring of 1914 the House of Commons voted nearly £44,500,000. The outlay in Germany over the same period rose from £8,000,000 to over £23,000,000. A new standard of naval

1027

efficiency was set up in these two opposing fleets, and the deficiencies of the French and Russian fleets became more conspicuous in contrast, while Italy, watching with growing suspicion the course of naval events in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, occupied an ill-defined position between the two groups of naval Powers. In 1014 the strength of the fleets in Europe was as follows, the letters G.B. representing Great Britain, G. Germany, A.II. Austria-Hungary, I. Italy, F. France and R.

Russia. The abbreviation Bt. indicates “ built”; the abbreviation Bg. indicates “ building.” TABLE

II.

Battleships:— Modern Battle Cruisers

Older Battleships

.

Fotal Cruisers: — Ist Class .

Light

Total

Destroyers

.

83] ——

|m

[|————

]—

4105|36 |

—

Torpedo Boats :-— Ist and Class

2nd

Submarines

A leading naval authority—Count Reventlow—who was in close touch with the naval authorities in Berlin, afterwards stated that when the War broke over Europe in 1914 the German fleet was*not ready. ‘In 1906,” he stated, “came the dreadnought revolution in shipbuilding which quickly rendered worthless all ships built before that time (pre-dreadnoughts) and compelled tremendous enlargements of wharves, harbours and canals, gigantic extensions of organisations, etc. The work of completing the German fleet would have extended far beyond the year 1920 under these conditions.” British policy in this respect, as well as in regard to the political “ understandings’ with France, Russia and Japan, which enabled the main British squadrons to be concentrated in the North Sea, completely upset all the calculations on which German naval policy had been based in the early years of the rgth century.

Eastern Waters —During these years naval cofiditions in the Pacific and adjacent waters also underwent marked changes. Great Britain and the other European Powers reduced their forces to the lowest level compatible with the naval plans of Germany. While neglecting the Mediterranean and Atlantic, these plans embraced a powerful cruiser squadron in China waters, which, in view of the high standard which it achieved in gunnery, became a considerable factor in the naval situation in the Far East. Public sentiment in Japan and the United States having been somewhat reassured by the treaty of non-interference with each other’s territorial interests, these two countries continued to increase their naval forces, but the movement was marked by no such political unrest as was being exhibited on the two sides of the North Sea., The Japanese Govt., which had placed reliance upon the Anglo-Japanese alliance for the preservation of the stafus quo in the Pacific, slowly adjusted itself to the new conditions which British preoccupation in the North Sea had made inevitable, while the United States, occupying a position of complete detachment from the troubles which were coming to a head in Europe, began to occupy a position of some importance at sea. The world cruise of the American fleet, which had begun at the end of 1907 and lasted 14 months, had given the American people a new conception of their concern with naval affairs. RearAdml. Sperry, when his ships had made their furrow of 45,000 m.

1028

NAVY

in the seas and oceans of the world, had stated that “ this cruise marks an epoch in our naval annals, for the fleet has found itself—being welded into a unity.”’ Events in later years were to supply ample confirmation of this statement.

Ill. THE WORLD WAR AND AFTER During the years of the World War, both the United States and Japan embarked upon schemes of naval expansion. Uiited States—In 1916 Congress adopted an Act “ for the purpose of further increasing the naval establishment of the United States,” which, in its methodical character, somewhat resembled the successive German Navy Acts. It provided for the construction of the following vessels: 10 first-class battleships, six battle cruisers, 10 scout cruisers, 50 torpedo boat destroyers, nine fleet submarines, 58 coastal submarines, three fuel ships, two destroyer tenders, two ammunition ships, two gunboats, a repair ship, a transport, a hospital ship and afleet submarine tender. Provision was also made for improving the Navy Yards at Puget Sound, Philadelphia, Norfolk, New York, Boston, Portsmouth, Charlestown and New Orleans, the work to be completed within five years. This Act provided for nothing less than the construction of a new American fleet and foreshadowed an expenditure far larger than any country had hitherto contemplated. It also contained clauses which attracted little attention at the time outside the borders of the United States, though the words pointed to ambitious hopes for the limitation of naval armaments. It is hereby declared to be the policy of the United States to adjust and settle its international disputes through mediation or arbitration, to the end that war may be honourably avoided. It looks with apprehension and disfavour upon a general increase of armament throughout the world, but it realises that no single nation can disarm, and that without a common agreement upon the subject every considerable Power must maintain a relative standing in military strength. In view of the premises, the President is authorised and requested to invite, at an appropriate time, not later than the close of the War in Europe, all the great Governments of the world to send representatives to a conference which shall be charged with the duty of formulating a plan for a court of arbitration or other tribunal to which disputed questions between nations shall be referred for adjudication and peaceful settlement, and to consider the question of disarmament and submit their recommendations to their respective Governments for approval.

The Act also laid down that, if a conference succeeded in attaining the purposes for which it had been called, the constructive plans might be varied in accordance with any engagement into which the United States had entered. The War in Europe was to continue for upwards of two years after the passing of this measure, and consequently keels were laid in American shipyards in accordance with the terms of the Act, and the United States was definitely committed to this great programme of naval expansion before the Treaty of Versailles had been signed. Japan.—The course of events at sea confirmed the importance of sea-power to an island state. Japan had for several years entertained the project of building 16 capital ships, eight battleships and cight battle cruisers, none of which should at any time exceed eight years in age. On the assumption that such vesscls possessed an effective life of about 24 years, Japan contemplated having at her disposal, in time, 16 capital ships of the latest design and constructions and 16 bordering upon obsolescence, with a similar number occupying a position midway between these two groups. The plan embraced the expansion of the dockyards and other establishments ashore, as well as provision of the necessary trained personnel. With the approval of the Imperial Diet, this programme of expansion was taken in hand in 1916, At that time Japan was spending {15,000,000 annually on her navy; it was estimated that the votes might rise to nearly {60,000,000 by 1920, although the Government declared that whatever other nations might do Japan would not exceed the eight-eight programme, which it was proposed to carry out gradually as the financial position of the country might render possible.

A New Rivalry.—In place of the rivalries in naval armaments which had persisted in Europe for so many years, a new race for naval power had begun between the United States and Japan while the World War was still in progress. Even after the United States had intervened in the struggle, the activities in the government and private yards continued with unabated energy, while, on the other side of the Pacific, the Japanese people settled down to the task of building up their fleet to the elght-eight standard, with all that was implied in cruisers, destroyers, submarines and other auxiliaries. Not only was the American programme really more ambitious than that of Japan, but the United States possessed within her own borders practically all the raw material necessary for the creation of a fleet, while Japan was confronted with the problem of obtaining from overseas no mean proportion of the steel and other material which she needed. On the other hand, the Japanese, in virtue of their conscriptive law, were in a position to obtain all the officers and men which the larger fleet would require, drawing freely upon a seafaring population, but the United States was faced with the problem of competing in the labour market for recruits, which experience had proved were not always forthcoming in adequate numbers. Post-War Siiuation in Europe —When the World War came to an end, the whole naval situation in Europe had undergone a complete change. The German Navy, by the surrender of all its modern units, had been reduced to the status of a third-class sea Power, and denied the possession of either submarines or aircraft of combatant types. The Russian fleet, after the revolutions, had, to all intents and purposes, ceased to be of any importance. France and Italy had been so preoccupied in supporting their armies, tasks which necessitated the concentration of all their industrial activities on the provision of military munitions, that neither country had had either the man-power or the material available for the construction of new ships. The British fleet, which had borne the main burden of the War on the Allied side, had been forced by the compclling circumstances of the naval situation to pursue a policy of expansion embracirg capital ships, cruisers and every type of auxiliary craft. It emerged from the struggle, in spite of the heavy losses which had been sustained, as the only first-class naval force in European waters.

Limitation of Armaments—When President Harding in the year following the signing of the Peace of Versailles issued an invitation to the leading naval Powers to a conference at Washington to discuss the possibility of limiting armaments, the United States was already potentially the leading naval Power of the world. All the battleships, battle cruisers and scout cruisers of the 1916 programme, as well as no mean proportion of the auxiliaries, including five destroyers, five fleet submarines, and 37 smaller submarines, were under construction. The British naval authorities had inherited from the War a great fleet, but, except for the battle cruiser “ Hood,” none of the battleships embodied any of the lessons enforced by the struggle at sea, while the cruisers had for the most part been designed for service in the North Sea, and, owing to their limited radius of action, were unsuited for ocean work. In these circumstances the British Admiralty, urged to economy, had entered upon a vigorous scrapping policy, one firm alone buying 113 war-ships, on the understanding that they shculd be broken up. At the same time provision was made in 1920 for laying down four new battleships, to displace 45,000 tons, as well as a submarine and a minelayer. Janan had in hand three of her new battleships, as well as two battle-cruisers, eight cruisers, 10 destroyers and 15 submarines. A new phase in the competition in naval armaments had bezun, involving the United States, Great Britain and Japan in vast expenditure. The Washington Conference (q.v.) arrested this movement, so far as the principal battle fleets of the world were concerned. The United States Govt. suggested that all the battleships then under construction should be forthwith scrapped. As the result of discussion, the American scheme was slightly varied. Japan made good her claim to retain two

NAVY

DEPARTMENT

post-Jutland ships of the latest design, and the same liberty was accorded to the United States, while freedom was accorded the British naval authorities to lay down two new capital ships of 35,000 tons, which on completion should replace four older vessels. It was stipulated that no other capital ships should be laid down before 1931, and that gradually the British and American battle fleets should be brought to a condition of parity with a standard of displacement of 525,000 tons, Japan being allotted 315,000 tons and France and Italy 175,000 tons, a balance of power calculated on the same proportions applying to aircraft carriers. The treaty also provided that no capital ships built in replacement of older vessels from 1931 onwards should exceed 35,000 tons or carry a gun with a calibre in excess of 16 inches. While no restrictions were placed on the number of cruisers which might be built, it was also stipulated that no vessel of this type should exceed 10,000 tons displacement or mount any weapon of larger calibre than eicht inches. No limits were placed, on the other hand, on the building of destroyers or submarines. Strength of Navies—In these circumstances the Naval Treaty was signed at Washington and was subsequently implemented by the Governments of the United States, Great Britain and the British Dominions, Japan, France and Italy, the French Govt. making sundry reservations. In subsequent years great activity developed in the construction of cruisers, destroyers and submarines in all the shipyards of the world. At the beginning of 1926 the strengths of the fleets in completed ships were as follows (vessels building or projected are shown in parenthesis), the letters B.E. representing the British Empire, U.S. the United States, J. Japan, F. France and I. Italy:— TABLE

HI. Ships Built and Building B.E.

Battleships Battle Cruisers

I8 4

Cruisers

Cruiser Minelayers . , Armoured Coast Defence Vessels and Monitors

i

;

Aircraft Carriers Flotilla Leaders Destroyers . Torpedo Boats Submarines . Sloops , . Motor Coastal Boats ; Gunboats = and Despatch Ves-

sels el River Gunboats Minesweepers .

(2)|

47 (15)]}

U.S. I8 s

32

(8)!

J 6 4

3

|56 34

(1)

I

id

9

3r

(8)] 15

3

sd.

G) | ae

8 17 |172 ;

F

T

I 7 be:

(oO) | ta

(5

2)

p!

és

I (2) snor on MOV i $ 2 (20) | II (2)|309 (12) | 103 (24) | 54 (36) | 52 (24)

(10)}120 (8)| 53 (26) 15 (58)

6

ete

Lt

ete

6

49

I

All the naval Powers were maintaining in 1926 a large measure of secrecy as to the designs of the cruisers, destroyers and submarines which were being built, and everything pointed to a continuation of an active policy of construction. In the summer of 1925 the British Admiralty announced details of a five-year shipbuilding programme (1925-30) embracing nine cruisers of 10,000 tons displacement, seven cruisers of smaller size, 27 destroyers, 24 submarines, five gunboats, four motor launches, two submarine depdt ships, a net-layer and a repair ship, as well as a large floating dock to be stationed at Singapore, on the development of which work had been begun the previous year. BiptroGrApiy.—A. S. Hurd, The Command of the Sea (1912); D. Hannay, The Navy and Sea Power (1913}; P. A. Hislam, The North Sea Problem (1913); A. S. Hurd and H. Castle, German See Power (1913); F.T. Jane, Fighting Ships, Annual (1914); S. Loeche Mittler, Die Deuische Kriegsfloite sechs Monate im Kampfe (1915); M. Cababe, The Freedom of the Seas (1918); Lord Fisher, Records (1919); Memories (1919); British Parliamentary Papers, Conference on Limitation of Armament, Washinglon 1921-2 (1922); H. G. Wells, Washington and the Hope of Peace (1922); Brassey’s Naval and Shipping Annual; E. S. Bellasis, Zhe Fighting Ships and Their Work (1923). A

1029

NAVY DEPARTMENT (see 1.201).—Since 1910 the U.S. Navy Department has been reorganised to some extent in accordance with requirements found necessary to meet fully the demands of the World War, and likewise as a result of lessons learned during that war. On Aug. 29 1916, closely following the U.S. Govt.’s ultimatum of April 18 to the Imperial German Govt. with regard to unrestricted submarine warfare, an Act of Congress established a naval flying corps, a naval reserve force, reorganised the navy on a basis of immediate preparation for war, and authorised the construction of ro battleships, 6 battle cruisers, 10 scout cruisers, 50 destroyers, ọ fleet submarines, 58 coast submarines, 2 gunboats and 12 auxiliary ships. The naval consulting board, composed of leading scientists and inventors, was provided for on the same date. Not directly concerned with the reorganisation of the Navy Dept., but affecting the mobilisation of U.S. military power, was the authorisation by Congress, also on Aug. 29, of the Council for National Defence, with the secretaries of War, Navy, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce and Labour as members, for the purpose of correlating the factors of preparedness for war. The Navy After the War.—Since the World War, the U.S. Navy has been reduced to a peacetime basis. Its limitation as to s'rength was prescribed in certain respects by the Washington Treaty for the limitation of naval armament. The Washington Treaty was ratified by the five great naval Powers concerned on Aug. 17 1923, following a conference of representatives of the United States, the British Empire, Japan, France and Italy, which was convened Nov. 12 1921 at the invitation of the American President in Washington, and which ended on Feb. 6 1922, after the representatives had signed the terms of the treaty. The efforts of the representatives of the United States were directed towards the limitation of total tonnage in each type of combatant naval craft. The treaty as finally ratified limited the total tonnage of capital ships (battleships and battle cruisers) and large aircraft carriers; restricted the individual tonnage displacement of warships; fixed a limit to the size of naval guns; prohibited reconstruction of capital ships and aircraft carriers except as provided by treaty; fixed the status guo with regard to fortifications and naval bases of certain outlying possessions of the United States, the British Empire and Japan; specified the capital ships that each of the five Powers could retain; provided a schedule of replacement of capital ships; and indicated the capital ships which were to be scrapped. (See WASHINGTON, TREATY OF.) Plans of Navy Deparitment.—Certain other changes subsequent to the Armistice in 1918 affected the plans and organisation of the Navy Department. On May 28 1919 the General Board of the Navy recommended that the 1916 building programme for new ships be completed. This recommendation was carried into effect until the restrictions imposed upon new construction by the Washington Treaty were ratified. The joint army and navy board, established July 17 1903, was reorganised to some extent in July 1919. This board, composed of three naval and three army Officers, confers upon and reaches conclusions regarding problems in all matters calling for the co-operation of the two services, and has direct power of approval of reports submitted by the joint planning committee, the joint aeronautical board and the joint munitions board. The bureau of aeronautics was added to the Navy Dept. by authorisation of Congress, July 12 1921. It is of interest here to note that the national advisory committee for aeronautics, which supervises and directs the scientific study of aviation in the United States, was established through the Naval Appropriation Act of March 3 1915. The latest contemplated change of any importance in the reorganisation of the Navy Dept. is the addition of an assistant secretary for naval aviation. Organisation.—The U.S. Navy in 1926 may be considered to consist of the following: the Navy Dept. at Washington, the U.S. fleet and detached naval forces, and the naval shore establishment. The Navy Dept. at Washington is the directing

1030

NEAL—NIEBRASKA

agency, operated, under the direction of the President of the United States, by the Secretary of the Navy. In deciding upon details of naval policy, the Secretary is advised by the assistant secretary of the navy, the joint army and navy board, the chief of naval operations, the general board of the navy, the majorgeneral commandant of the marine corps and by the chiefs of the following technical bureaux: navigation (personnel), engineering, ordnance, construction and repair, aeronautics, supplies and accounts, yards and docks, medicine and surgery. The judge-advocate-general furnishes legal advice. The chief of naval operations is by virtue of his position the senior admiral of the navy (see Starr, NAVAL). The office of naval operations, which was established under Act of Congress March 3 rots, operates the feet and detached

naval forces, develops and maintains the plans for their use in war, and in general co-ordinates under the direction of the Secretary the work of the eight technical bureaux in the development of the navy. The general board makes recommendations on important questions of naval policy. The marine corps Is operated by its major-general commandant. The assistant secretary supervises the preparation of the annual estimates, administers the navy yards and performs such other duties as may be assigned to him by the Secretary of the Navy.

During

the absence of the Secretary of the Navy from Washington, the assistant secretary becomes the acting Secretary, and in the event of the assistant secretary’s absence, the chief of naval operations becomes the acting Secretary of the Navy. Divisions of the Navy.—The fleet and detached naval forces, other than those assigned to naval districts, are organised as follows: the U.S. fleet, the naval transportation service, the Asiatic fleet, naval forces in European waters and the special service squadron. The U.S. fleet comprises the greater part of the naval forces based on home ports. This fleet is divided into four parts—the scouting fleet in the Atlantic, the battle fleet in the Pacific, the control force in the Atlantic and the fleet base force in the Pacific. The duties of the U.S. fleet are confined to training for the development of the flect to its maximum strength as a fighting force. The naval transportation service carries the fuel and other supplies from supply ports to the theatre of operations, where its cargoes are turned over for use or distribution to the flcet base force. The Asiatic fleet is composed of a cruiser acting as flagship, some destroyers, submarines, gunboats and a small air force; this fleet protects U.S. interests in the Far East. The naval forces in European waters protect American interests in Europe and the Near East. The special service squadron pro-

tects U.S. interests in the Central and South American republics. The third component part of the navy, the naval shore establishment, consists of 14 naval districts, each of which has a commandant, who, as a representative of the Navy Dept., has general supervision over all naval activities in his district. These 14 naval districts include in their territory the United States proper and its outlying possessions. Each district has a navy yard, naval base or naval station, where the commandant has his headquarters and staff. These yards and stations carry out such important repairs and alterations to ships as are not performed by the forces afloat. (C. D. WL)

NEAL, DAVID DALHOFF (1838-19015), American painter (see 19.320), died in Munich, Germany, May 2 rg15. NEBRASKA (see 19.323) had in 1925 a population of 1,355,371 (U.S. Census Bureau estimate); In 1920, 1,296,372; In 1910, 1,192,214. The increase from 1900-10 was 11-8%; from 1910-20 8-7%. In the decade rgro-20 the foreign-born whites decreased from 176,662 to 149,652. In 1920 the urban population (in places of 2,500 or more) was 405,306 or 31:3% of the whole; in Igo 310,852, or 26-1%. The rural population in 1920 was 891,066, or 68-7°%; in 1910 881,362, or 73°9%. The drift of population to the larger cities has continued strongly during the period 1920-5. The five cities having in 1920 a population over 10,000 are given in table in next column. In the decade 1910-20, 33 out of 93 counties showed a decrease in total population, and 43 (chielly the older counties) showed

Omaha Lincoln Grand Island llastings

North Platte

1920

I9IO

Increase %

191,601 54,948 13,947 11,647

124,096 43,973 10,326 9,338

S44 25°0 3571 24:7

_10,466

4,793

18-4

a decrease in rural population. The irrigated districts in the Platte valley and the cities of 10,c00 or more have absorbed practically all the increase in population from rg10-25. Agriculture —The number of farms in 1925 Was 127,731; 67,764 were operated by owners, 669 by managers, and 59,298 or 16-4°4 by tenants. The farm acreage was 42,024,129, of which there were 23,109,624 ac. of improved land. The average

acreage per farm was 329. The value of farm land and buildings was $2,523,306,303 in 1925 as compared with $3,712,107,760 in 1920; the average per farm was $19,755 in 1925, $29,836 in 1920. In 1920 Nebraska ranked sixth among the States in area of cultivated lands. It was first in production of hay, second in winter wheat, third in corn (maize), third in combined production of wheat, oats and maize. About 1,000,000 ac. were in woodland, of which half or more had been planted by settlers. Production of principal crops for the years 1920 and 1925 is shown in the following table:

9,100,000 | 236,600,000}

6,699,450 | 160,391,314

Wheat

2,676,000 | 34,150,000]

4,429,156 | 57,843,598

Oats.

2,699,000 | 73,953,000!

2,029,740 | 59,819,545

Barley

Rye

233,000

5,662,000

205,000

2,552,000]

(tons) llay . . | 4,648,000 | Sugar beets 61,000

241,242

4,405,323

359,926

3,259,390

(tons) (tons) 5,867,000] 4,798,363 816,000 } 54.4

(tons) 5,307,702 | 554,646|

Domestic animals on farms in 1925, 1920 and 1910 included the following :—

1920

1925 Horses

Mules

Cattle Swine

|Sheep

863,152

I9IO

961,396

119,874

99,847

971,279 79,652

3,314,342 | 3,154,265 | 2,567,392

4,279,824 | 3,435,690 | 3,435,724 f

a

is

Industries.—Slaughtering and meat-packing, the chicf manufacturing industry, in 1919 employed 10,122 wage-carners In 16 establishments, and the products were valued at $303,840,000. Wage-earners employed in all industries numbered 36,521, as compared with 24,336 in 1909. Minerals.—Of the pumice produced in the United States 97° is mined in Nebraska. Production of limestone, sand and gravel

for cement

industries

and

road

building

increased

rapidly.

Potash is found in alkali lakes in the sandhill region of western

Nebraska. The World War shut out importation from Germany, and commercial potash rose to 10 times its former price, with the result that a new industry sprang up, but died out after the War, when importation from Europe was resumed, Finance.—By Act of the Legislature (1921), assessment of property was changed from one-fifth to full value. In 1925 the assessed value was $3,156,307,123. Total levies for all State purposes (1925) were 2-35 mills. Total State and local taxes for all purposes (1924) were $53,447,375, about $41 per capita. There is no State debt. The total debt of all sub-divisions of the State on Jan. 1 1926 was $107,000,000. The revenue in 1924 was $12,498,432 and the disbursements $12,890,046. Roads and Transportation.—The amount expended on roads from 1920 to 1925 was approximately $8,000,000. In 1925 there were 5,960 m. State roads and 3,514 m. improved State roads. In 1925 farm-owned motor-cars were 122,910, or 40% of the whole number in the State, 301,716; farm-owned motor-trucks

were 16,112, or 43:5°4 of the whole, 37,003.

One of the great

NEBULA— NEGRO changes since 1920 has been the entrance of motor-buses and motor-trucks into rivalry with railways. This began actively in 1923 and has rapidly expanded, and railways have since noted a large falling off in local business. In 1924 there were 6,441 m. of steam and ars m. of electrical railway track. Education.—Nebraska is second in literacy among the States. The 1920 U.S. census found 13,874 persons over ro unable to write in any language. The Nebraska law requires attendance of all children between seven and 16. In 1924 there were 7,120 schools, with 327,417 enrolled pupils; teachers, 14,284; total school expenditure, $32,508,108. Foreign languages in the schools became a political issue as a result of the World War. About 200,000 Nebraskans were German-born or children of parents born in Germany. Through the efforts of the GermanAmerican Alliance, the Mockett law was enacted in 1913, providing for teaching the German language in the common schools upon petition of school patrons. After the declaration of war, the Mockett law was repealed, and the Siman law passed forbidding the use of any foreign language as a medium of instruction. On appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court, the Siman law

was held unconstitutional. History —The chief political issues were the introduction of prohibition, woman suffrage, initiative and referendum and the reconstruction of the State government, all of which were adopted in r920. The Legislatures of 1919-25 granted $9,000,000 for the construction of a new State Capitol. ‘The governors since roro were Chester H. Aldrich (Rep.), ror11-3; John H. Morehead (Dem.), 1913-7; Keith Neville (Dem.), 1917-9; Samuel R. McKelvie (Rep.), ro1g-23; Charles W. Bryan (Dem.), 1923-5; Adam McMullen (Rep.), 1925- . BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Publications of State Historical Society and State Conservation Bureau; Nebraska Blue Book and Historical Register; G. E. Condra, Resources of Nebraska; Addison E. Sheldon,

between tooo and 1920, the population of the country in 2000 A.D. would be over 400,000,000, of which about 20,000,000, or one-twentieth, would be Negro. The rate of increase of each race is likely to fall, but the difference in favour of the white race is not likely to dimni i Areaus.—The region in which the increase of Negroes since 1900 has been greatest is shown by the following facts. The five states with the greatest amount of Negro increase between 1909 and roro were all southern states. The increase in them was nearly one-half (49°3) of that of the whole country. The five states which occupied a similar position between 1910 and 1920 were Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, North Carolina and New York, four of them northern states, and the increase in them was nearly three-fifths (58°35) of the whole. hese four northern states are highly urbanised.

Afigration.—The large amount of Negro migration to northern

cities between 1910 and ro20 and the comparatively migration in tgeo-10 appear from the following table:—

Chicago New York Philadelphia

Detroit Cleveland St. Louis

(À. E:S:

*)

NEBULA: see ASTRONOMY. NEGRO (see 19.346).—The Negro population of the United States as enumerated in 1920 was 10,463,131, an Increase of 635,368, or 6-5°% over roro. The rate of increase was less than in any preceding decade and less than three-fifths of that between 1900 and 1roro, the smallest up to that time. As in the white population the rate of increase between roro and 1920 was less than in any preceding decade, it might be thought that the fall in the increase among Negroes conformed to the trend of population change. But this would be an error. The rate of increase of Negroes in 1900-10 was about -5 and in 1g10~-20 about -4 of that of the whites. That this deviation in the rates of increase had been maintained for a long period appears from the following figures :— Increase 1

Period

Amount in thousands

y

3

Per cent

Negro | White | Negro | White 1800-20 1820-40 1840-60 1860—80 1880-1900] | 1900-20

770 1,102 1,568 2,139 2,253 1,629

3,560 6,32 12,727 16,481 23,289 | 28,012

76-8 62-2 54:6 48-2 34:2 18-4

Increase.——The numerical increase later periods, rising to a maximum toth century. The rate of increase, steadily. At each period the rate than that of the white. Apparently

82-7 80°5 89-7 61-2 53:9 41-9

Ratio of Negro per cent of increase to White (100) 93 a7 6I 79 64 44

of Negroes was larger in the in the last 20 years of the on the contrary, diminished of Negro increase was less the immediate result of the

Civil War and emancipation was to raise the relative rate of Negro increase between 1860 and 1880 from -6 to nearly -8 of that of the whites. But since 1880 the rate of Negro increase has fallen rapidly, and Negroes, who in 1800 were 18-9% of the country’s population, in 1920 were only 9-9%. If each race should increase through the present century as it did

| Negro population in 1900

City

History and Stories of Nebraska (1913), and Nebraska Civil Govern).

The facts suggest a migration to

industrial centres. The conjecture may be tested by computing the percentage of increase of urban population both negro and white. From 1900 to ro1o the whites in cities having 2 Boe inhabitants or more Increased 39:1 So and the Negroes 34:290; from roro to 1920 the percentage of increase decreased for each race, but among the whites it fell by 10-5°% to 28-69%, and among Negroes it fell by 1-6% to 32:6%, so that between 1910 and 1920 Negroes in cities increased at a higher rate than the whites.

ment (1926); New Jilustrated Llistory of Nebraska

(3 vol. , 1926=

1031]

Total

Increase of Negroes 1900-10

1910-20 65,355 60,758

62,616 4,111

5,988 35,516

13,953 31,043 21,846 1,630 2,460 8.444

199,047

79,376

262,877

30,150 60,666

.

slight

49,770 35,097 26,003 25,894

The preceding figures are for the cities in which the Negro population increased by 25,000 or more between 1910 and 1920. All lie outside of the southern states. The Negro population of these six cities increased between 1900 and roro by 39%, and between 1910 and 1920 by 95%. As the increase of Negroes in all northern states between toro and 1920 was 444,635,

nearly three-fifths (59°) of that increase was in these six cities. Births and Deaths.—The remarkable fall in the rate of Negro increase and the rapid distribution of Negroes to other parts of the country than the South, especially to certain northern cities, are the striking changes revealed by the fourteenth census. How is the fall in the rate of increase to be explained? Jas it any connection with the growth of interstate migration? These questions are elucidated by turning from the census figures of living population to the registration figures of births and deaths. The following table shows the registered births and deaths of Negroes in each of 30 states arranged in the order of i increasing proportion of deaths to births:—

States with a Natural Increase of Negroes Period covered by registration

State North Carolina .

Mississippi South Carolina . Virginia New Jersey Maryland Massachusetts Wisconsin New York . Delaware Michigan Connecticut

New Hampshire

Total

:

1917-22

1921-2 1919-22 1917-22 1921-2 1916-22 I9I15-22 1917-22 1915-22 I921 2 I9I 5-22 I9I 5-22

1915-22

N biche SATIS

N Deaths d a to 100 eaths | births

143,367 | 77,758

54

44,940 95,110 119,435 6,779 45,871 8,846 657 34,502 1,248 7,603

| 24,574 | 53,372 | 77:775 4,771 | 40,245 7,870 597 | 32,126 1,200 7,453

55 56 65 70 87 89 gI 93 96 98

3,890

3,868

99

512,334 | 331,694

65

86

85

99

NEGRO

1032

LITERATURE—NEPAL

States with a Natural Decrease of Negroes State

Period covered by registration

jeer Pn

Ilinois Pennsylvania Ohio . i Rhode Island

1922 1915-22 1917-22 1915-9 and

3,704 3,786 45,311 | 48,207 21,719 | 23,940

1921-2

California Indiana ; Nebraska . Kansas Utah . Kentucky Vermont Oregon Minnesota . Washington Montana Wyoming Maine

1,522

1919-22 1917-22 1920-2 1917-22 1917-22 1917-22 1915-22 1910-22 1915-22 1917-22 1922 1922 1915-22

2,688

Total

Deaths ee to 100 eatis | births

102 106 IIO

1,684

III

3,054 10,377 685 ,286 158

II4 119g 122

194

231

132,111

I14

122 123

If Negro deaths had exceeded births in the 17 states of the last table between Ig9to and 1920, and if there had been no immigration of Negroes to this group of states, the number of resident Negrocs would have been less in 1920 than in rgto. In fact, it increased from 852,120 to 1,113,940, or 30-7 %. The total immigration to these states for the decade was probably not Jess than 300,000, There are seven southern states for which we have births and deaths reported, and all but Kentucky had an excess of births over deaths. The Negro population of these states increased between 1910 and 1920 about 1%. On the basis of the figures for 1919 and 1920 there was a natural increase of about 35,600 annually, or 356,000 for the decade. As the decennial increase of Negroes was about 40,000, these states must have lost by emigration more than

300,000. The bureau of the census has supplied figures of Negro births and deaths between 1915 and 1923 in the urban and rural districts. They are as follows:—

Urban .

Rural

.

‘ Births

Deaths

Deaths to fog irtis

266,380

269,631

102

517,945

309,243

60

These show that during these eight years in the cities of the United States for which the facts are known there were 3,251 more

Negro deaths than births, but that in the country districts there were 208,702 more births than deaths. The figures of each class are given separately below for North and South. ; Births Northern Northern Northern Southern Southern Southern

urban rural . total . urban rural total

155,972 33,245 189,217 110,408 _ 484,700 595,108

Deaths

Deaths to soo Births

151,118 40,294 191,412 118,513 268,949 387,462

97 I2I IOI 107 55 68

Conclusion.—These figures show that the rural districts of the North are least suitable for Negro increase, that the urban districts of the South are almost as unfavourable, that the cities

of the North show a slight excess of Negro births, and that the great reservoir for Negro increase is the rural districts of the South.

The cause for the low rate of increase between rgio and

1920 is found in the migration from the country districts of the South both to the North and to southern cities, and to their

exposure to conditions climatic or economic which raised the death-rate and lowered the birth-rate. Urban conditions in the South as well as in the North bear far more lightly upon the whites, who thrive and multiply in American cities. In this regard urban Negroes in the United States are in a position like that of European and American whites living in cities a century or more ago, when citics were parasites upon the adjacent country districts, at whose expense alone they could maintain their population. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Among recent works are those of Booker T. Washington, The Story of the Negro (1909); William Archer, Through

Afro-America, An English Reading of the Race Problem (1910); J. M.

Mecklin, Democracy and Race Friction (1914); T. J. Woofner, Negro Migration (1920); H. J. Seligman, The Negro Faces America (1920); and E. J. Scott, Negro Migration During the War (1920). Important U.S. Govt. publications include the following:

Bureau

of the

Census,

Negro

Population

1790-1918

(1918);

U.S. Labour Dept., Negro Economics Div., Negro Migration in 1916-7 (1919); Report of the hearing before the Judiciary Committee House of Representatives, respecting legislation to create a negro industrial commission and a commission on the racial question (1924); and Report of the hearing before a Senate sub-committee

of the Judiciary, respecting the racial question (1924). (W. F. W.) NEGRO LITERATURE: see AMERICAN LITERATURE; FRENCH AFRICAN LITERATURE.

NENOT, PAUL HENRI (1853), French architect, was born in Paris, and when only 13 years old was placed in the studio of M. Lequeux as architectural pupil, coming there under the influence of J. L. Pascal. Thence, when 15, he went to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. After serving in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, in which he gained the Military Medal, he continued his course at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and in 1877 gained the Grand Prix de Rome. While holding this prize in Rome, he competed for the Victor-Emmanucl monument in that city, receiving for his design the premium of 50,000 fr., the work itself being entrusted to an Italian. On his return to France he entered for the great competition for the rebuilding of the Sorbonne, in which he was successful, and commenced in 1885 a work that was to occupy him for the next 17 years. The building forms a parallelogram of over goo ft. in length by 325 ft. in width, and its plan is brilliantly conceived, taking as its dictating condition the retention of Richelieu’s chapel of the Sorbonne. Nenot relied steadfastly on the assistance of the sculptor and the painter, and the grand amphitheatre gave him the opportunity he absolutely

insisted on of employing for its decoration Puvis de Chavannes, whose mural painting of the “ Sacred Grove” is his masterpiece. The hall itself, used as a salle des conférences, is an admirable example of the D-plan carried by a series of alcove recesses to an ultimate development. His other buildings, mostly in Paris, include the Instttut Océanographique, the offices of (he Compagnie Générale and those of the Compagnie Nationale des Wagons-Lits. He received many distinctions, becoming a member of the Institut in 1895, and being later elected president of the Société des Artistes Français. He was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1917. NEPAL (see 19.378).—The relations between the British Govt. and Nepal were for more than a century regulated by the Treaty of Segowhe of 1815, which, among other provisions authorised the appointment of a British Resident at Katmandu. On Dec. 21 1923 a fresh treaty of friendship was signed between the two countries, confirming the old treaty and making certain fresh provisions, the most important of which (at any rate from the Nepalese point of view) is the recognition by the British Govt. of the complete independence cf Nepal. The old quinquennial mission to Peking has fallen into desuetude. Slavery, which was an institution in the country from the time of the Gurkha conquest, has now been abolished by the Nepal Govt. and all slaves have been manumitted with

the general consent of the slave owners and of the population of the country generally. This liberal measure was due to the initiative of the Maharajah, Sir Chandra Shamsher Jang. Services in the Worid War—During the Worid War, Sir Chandra Shamsher Jang gave signal proofs of his loyalty and friendship to the British Empire. Immediately after the outbreak of the War he placed the whole resources of his country at the disposal of the Allies. From March 1915 to the end of the War a force of some 10,000 men of the Nepalese Army served in India and on the Indian frontier, The normal number of Gurkha battalions (20) in the Indian Army was doubled, and it is estimated that over 200,000 Nepalese subjects left Nepal to serve with the Indian Army during the course of the War. The Nepalese Govt. contributed sums amounting in all to 13,500,000 rupees (nearly £1,000,000) for various war funds, etc. (exclusive of the Maharajah’s numerous subscriptions to

NERNST— NETHERLANDS military hospitals and charitable funds in connection with the War), cardamums to the value of 130,000 rupees; tea to the value of some 32,000 rupees; over 8,000 hill blankets, and other articles of clothing; various gifts of timber, including 200,000 broad-gauge sleepers for the Indian railways, and 3r VickersMaxim machine-guns—a magnificent contribution from a small and poor country. Many decorations were bestowed upon the troops who served with the Indian Army, and upon the various members of His Highness’ family who organised and commanded them. During the short Afghan War in 1919, the Maharajah dispatched a force of 2,000 men of the Nepalese Army, which assisted the Indian Govt. in guarding the Northwest Frontier stations. Route tuto Nepal.—The only portion of Nepal (with the exception of some portions of the tarai country which lies at the foot of the hills), ever visited by Europeans is the Valley of Katmandu, and even this can only be entered by special permission of the Nepal Government. The road to Katmandu starts from Raxaul, a small junction on the Bengal North Western Railway situated close to the fronticr, due south of the capital, in the district of Champaran in Northern Behar. Hence to Katmandu is a distance of 75 m., the first 50 of which lie across the alluvial plain of the tarai and through a sal forest to the foot of the hills, whence the road follows the beds of rivers and across low ridges till the small hamlet of Bhimpedi is reached. Up to this _ point the road is practicable (at least during the cold weather) for wheeled traffic, and it is indeed possible to drive a motorcar over it, and it is gradually being improved and rendered fit for wheeled traffic all through the year. From Bhimpedi there is only a mountain track, which crosses two bridges (elevation about 8,000 ft.), and reaches the valley of Katmandu some seven miles from the city, whence a fair carriage road is available. A ropeway has been constructed from near Bhimpedi to the Katmandu valley, and will be operated by electricity from the power station in the valley, which also supplies electric light to the city. (See INDIA.) (W. F. O'’C.) NERNST, WALTER (1864), German physicist, was born on June 25 1864 at Bricsen, West Prussia. He studied at the universities of Ziirich, Berlin, Graz and Wiirzburg and became an assistant at the University of Leipzig, subsequently going in this capacity to Göttingen, where he later became a professor. In ro0s he was appointed ordinary professor of physics in the University of Berlin. He became known through a technical invention in the sphere of electric lighting, which falls within his Géttingen period. In the glow-lamps named after him, the filaments are made of the rare earths, arsenate of zirconium, thorium, magnesium and others, which, in the cold state, do not conduct electricity (second-class conductors) but do so if heated to a temperature of 600-700° Centigrade. In comparison with the carbon filament lampsthat were generally used at thetimethese Nernst lamps offered the advantage of a considerably lower consumption of current, but the complication of the heating device soon reduced their popularity, especially as it was about this time that Auer succeeded in producing glow-lamp wires out of osmium, which after further development led to the metal filament lamps of to-day. Nernst is further known for the statement of the socalled third law of thermodynamics. In 1920 he received the Nobel Prize for physics. He is the editor of the Jahrbuch der Elcktrochemic, the Zettschrift fir angewandte Chemie, and the Zeitschrift fiir Elektrochemie. Ilis Experimental and Theoretical Applications of Thermodynamics to Chemistry appeared in English (1907). NETHERLANDS (KONINKRIJK DER NEDERLANDEN) (see HorLAND, 13.587), a kingdom of Western Europe. The land area is 12,618 sq. m. and the population (Dec. 31 1924), 7,298,943. I. POLITICAL

HISTORY

Although she did not take part in it, the World War was the greatest event in Holland’s history between roto and 1925. Neutrality —The fact itself of her having succeeded in maintaining her neutrality seems little short of a miracle. Holland’s situation has always been a perilous one, not only because she is

1033

surrounded on all sides by the nations whose wars convulse Europe, but because important waterways, on which her neighbours’

territory.

trade

depends,

flow out into the sea across

her

In the years before the War, when it was already

casting its shadows ahead, more than one acute controversy between the two opposing groups of European Powers had centred round the position of Holland. First, Belgium had been used in an attempt to make Holland give up her attitude of detachment. The Dutch-Belgian rapprochement, which was so

much talked about in those years, did not proceed from the Dutch-speaking Flemings, but from Francophile circles. It never went very far, ancl it was forgotten in the outcry raised over the proposal to fortify the mouth of the Schelde which was submitted by the Dutch Govt. to the Chamber in roro. The contention, however, that Holland was obliged, or even that it had the right, to allow Entente forces to use the Dutch part of that river in case of a German threat to Antwerp was quite untenable. The Entente Governments tacitly recognised the correctness of Holland’s behaviour, and in 1911 and 1912 official visits of President Fallicres to The Hague and of Queen Wilhelmina to Brussels and Paris made it plain to the World that there was no ill-will between Holland and the Entente. Probably, indeed, a desire to allow Germany no possible pretext for an attempt to occupy the Dutch ports in case of an AngloGerman conflict had as much to do with the decision to fortify the mouths of the rivers as any idea that the fortifications might ever actually be used against Great Britain. While English and French newspapers were protesting against this scheme, Holland was also remodelling her system of land defence to excellent efiect. The German general staff were so much impressed with these reforms that they thought it necessary to rearrange their plan of operations for the event of a war with France. From Von Noltke’s memoirs it appears that at the time of his predecessor, Yon Schlieffen, the German staff intended to violate Dutch as well as Belgian territory, trusting that when they rushed their armies westward through the Dutch province of Limburg (which juts out to the south, covering part of the eastern frontier of Belgium), the Dutch Army would remain inactive behind the “water line,” the inundated area, which protects only the western part of the country, the most densely populated part, including the provinces of North and South Holland, in which all the largest and economically and politically most important towns are situated. Von Moltke, realising that the Dutch Army was made mobile and would be used to strike, even if only the outlying province of Limburg were violated, decided to respect Dutch neutrality, although the détour necessitated would delay the German advance from Crefeldl by some precious days, Holland’s attitude, then, in those crucial years was strictly and impartially neutral. The sympathies of the public could less easily be controlled. The memorics of the Boer War had already lost much of their bitterness, largely owing to the grant of selfgovernment to the late Boer Republics and the consequent appeasement in South Africa itself. The economic prosperity of the country was to a certain extent bound up with the tremendous development of the German hinterland since 1870, but the Dutch people felt oppressed by the militarist temper and the blatant imperialism which appeared to possess their powerful eastern neighbour. On the outbreak of war in 1914, it was the violation of Belgian neutrality and the subsequent acts of repression in the occupied territory which made the deepest impression and determined the attitude of Dutch public opinion, Only when the pressure of the British blockade began to be severely felt could the small group of German sympathisers command some attention, without, even then, ever swaying public opinion. The Government at once proclaimed, and rigidly maintained to the end, strict neutrality.

Inevitably there were times when

each group of belligerents felt Holland’s neutrality, however impartially administered, as a burden. The British Navy was able to see to it that Holland did not provide Germany with the food and other materials she wanted from overseas, but the en-

forcement of the blockade gave rise to a good deal of friction. Moreover, Holland’s neutrality undoubtedly had the effect of

1034

NETHERLANDS

covering Germany’s right flank. On the other hand, the closure of the Schelde, once Antwerp had fallen, was all to the advantage of Great Britain, as Germany was thus prevented from using Antwerp as a submarine base. Disputes about particular points were practically continuous, but the sincerity and reality of Dutch neutrality were recognised on both sides, and neither attempted to use violence against Holland. The efficiency of Holland’s defence forces contributed to this. The army, 450,000 strong, had been mobilised without a hitch in the last days of July 1914, and was kept on a war footing, at a great cost financially and morally, till 1918. It had to cope with no serious incidents. Some thousands of Belgian and British troops were interned after the fall of Antwerp. German and British aeroplanes sometimes strayed on to Dutch territory. The naval forces occasionally had to intern a submarine or a destroyer, and to them fell the dangerous work of mine-sweeping along the Dutch coast. The Government carried out its international obligations as a neutral with consistent firmness and moderation. Mr. Loudon, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, had from the first adhered rigidly to international law, and he strove honestly to see that all the Government’s actions in the carrying out of the decree of neutrality were guided by its precepts. The Blockude.—Unfortunately, frequent cases arose in which the vague principles of international law could be variously interpreted. Great Britain, for instance, protested when Holland excluded armed merchantmen from her harbours, contending that the article in Holland’s original proclamation of neutrality to which Mr. Loudon appealed had been drawn up at a time when Germany’s resort to unrestricted submarine warfare could not be foreseen; and it was in reply to those utterly illegal methods that Britain had started arming her merchantmen. In this case Holland maintained her attitude. The sand and gravel dispute, which dragged on throughout 1917 and 1018, was more acrimonious, and at one time endangered Holland's neutrality. The Entente Govts. protested against Holland allowing the Germans to use her waterways for the transport of sand and gravel to Belgium for use in the construction of a new kind of ferroconcrete dugouts. Both belligerents put the severest pressure on Holland, Great Britain penalising her for concessions to Germany, Germany threatening her for concessions to Britain. Mr. Loudon at last consented to ration this tratlic on the footing of pre-War statistics; but in the spring of r918, when Germany was making her final offensive, Ludendorff wanted this arrangement to be used as a pretext to overrun Holland and make a dash for the Dutch ports. An ultimatum was actually presented, and only the determined intervention of representatives of the c.vil power in Germany prevented Ludendorifi from having his way. ‘The most real difficulties, however, were economic; and these bezan to be of the most tragic importance to the Dutch people in 1915. For Holland international commerce is not a luxury but a necessity. It directly supports an important part of the community, Dutch industries are dependent on it for most of their raw materials and their coal, while four-iifths of the grain supply comes from abroad. Seaborne trade was gradually extinguished

as the War went on. The Germans began by laying mines in front of the English ports. The British retaliated by laying a minefield in the North Sea. In order to make their blockade of Germany effective they exercised an ever more stringent control over imports into the adjacent states, regardless of the provisions of the Declaration of London.! They prescribed to neutral trafic a route along the south coast of England, so as to be able to examine cargoes at leisure. The Germans then proscribed the route round the North of Scotland, and declared the Channel arca an area of war. In March rors the Entente Powers did away with all distinctions between legitimate and contraband trade, and prohibited the import into Holland of all goods, whatever their nature, which could be suspected of being destined for transmission to Germany. All goods imported into Holland had to be consigned to an unofficial body (the Netherlands Oversea Trust), which possessed the confidence of the Entente authorities and undertook that they should go no further. tPhis declaration has never been ratified.

The Allies gradually assumed control of the entire economic life of Holland, allowing her the bare necessities of life, withholding anything that could be used to replace goods sent to Germany. Even Holland’s trade with her own colonies was subject to this control. As Holland depends on Germany for certain indispensable articles, e.g., coal, she was driven to export food which she really could not do without, in order to obtain them in exchange. Meanwhile in rors Dutch vessels had begun to fall victims to German U-boats. After the unrestricted submarine war had been proclaimed early in 1017, practically all overseas traffic ceased. Food scarcity became almost as serious m Holland as in Germany itself, certainly more serious than in čngland. Bread was severely rationed. Meat was very scarce, as the lack of imported fodder had necessitated the slaughtering of stock. Factories began to close down in 1917 for lack of raw materials and coal. In the last stages of the War Holland's industrial life was at a complete standstill. Holland greeted the Armistice with relief; but the peace had many disappointments in store for her, and Mr. Van Karnebeck, who had become Minister for Foreign Affairs when a new Government was formed shortly before, was not to have a much easier task than his predecessor, One big surprise was the discovery that Belgium proposed to advance at the Peace Conference certain claims involving Dutch sovereignty. In the first months of the War, when the Germans advanced through Belgium, a stream of Belgian refugees, which swelled to a flood when the invaders reached Antwerp, had sought safety on Dutch soil, where they were hospitably received. At one time their number exceeded 1,000,000, and their support, the provision of food and shelter, was an exceedingly heavy charge. Hundreds of thousands went back to their country when things had settled down under the occupation. Hundreds of thousands remained till the end of the War, and the way in which they were cared for by a nation which was itself soon to suffer very heavy privations is one of the redeeming features of the history of the War. But all this kindness and generosity seemed to have been forgotten, and Holland found herself decidedly unpopular in some of the Allied countries. The firm

refusal

of the Dutch

Govt.

in

1920

to

surrender

the

ex-Emperor William, who had taken refuge there in Nov. 1918, gave rise to excited denunciations of Holland’s alleged tenderness for the Hohenzollerns. Holland's attitude in the War was widely represented in the most unfriendly light.

THE QUESTION OF THE SCHELDE On this matter Belgium declared that Holland's claim to sovereignty over the Schelde mouth, and her action in closing it against the Allied forces, had made the defence of Antwerp impossible, while her possession of the province of Limburg had hindered the defence of Belgium's eastern frontier, which ought to have been based on the River Maas. It has been argued above that Holland’s action in the War had really benefited the Allied cause, but the opposite contention was made by the Belgian “ Comilé de politique nationale,” which advocated annexation of the disputed regions. It claimed that Belgium should be given sovereignty over Dutch Flanders, on the left bank of the Schelde, and over Dutch Limburg, on the ground that the treaties of 1839, guaranteeing the neutrality of Belgium, having lapsed, these territories were necessary for her protection and development. With the same object in view, exaggerated complaints of an economic nature were made against the Dutch régime on Antwerp’s waterway to the sea. The relations between the Comité and the Belgian Govt. were intimate, and Belgium initiated a discussion of these questions at the Peace Conference in Paris, claiming they arose out of the discussion of the treaties of 1839. Holland claimed that this revision should not in any case prejudice Dutch interests, and that any discussion of claims involving Dutch sovereignty was inadmissible, as Holland had not been a party in the War and had honourably fulfilled her

obligations as a neutral.

Mr. Van Karnebeek consented, how-

ever, to go to Paris to explain this point of view to the Supreme Council, who heard M. Hymans on May 20 and Mr. Van

NETHERLANDS Karnebeck on June 3 1919. The Powers created an international commission to dea] with the question, asking them to submit “ proposals which involve neither transfer of territory nor international servitudes.” The question was eventually referred to direct negotiations! between the two countries. These negotiations on new arrangements for the régime on the Schelde, on the Ghent Terneuzen Canal, etc., were, however, carried on in a somewhat unfavourable atmosphere. Dutch public opinion was greatly irritated. The populations of Limburg and Dutch Flanders protested their loyalty to the Dutch fatherland. Meanwhile the annexationist agitation in Belgium went on, and was still supported by the Government, as wa proved when a secret circular, emanating from the Belgian Foreign Office to “ Belgian agents ” in Dutch Limburg, was disclosed by Flemings friendly to Holland. Yet the Dutch Govt. was prepared to go far to meet Belgian wishes. Although not admitting that the régime of 1839 had been harmful to

Belgian interests, and maintaining that she had always administered it in a fair and friendly spirit, Holland declared her readincss to make important economic concessions, which she looked on as the price to be paid for good political relations. Early in 1920 a treaty in which several Dutch concessions were laid down was ready for signature, when a new dispute arose, about the sovereignty of the Wielingen Channel, which connects the Schelde estuary with the open sea. Although that channel runs along the Belgian coast within the three-mile limit, Holland had exercised sovereign rights over it since mediaeval limes, ard the two delegations at the beginning of the negotiations had agreed to leave the Wiclingen ques‘ion on one side. When

1035

with respect to the works for keeping the river in a navigable state are defined afresh. It is feared that Holland may have to spend millions in technically unsound attempts to keep the elusive Schelde channel in the same place. A clause exempting vessels bound for Antwerp, during their transit of the Dutch part of the Schelde, from any examination or delay upon any ground whatever arouses criticism as an infringement of Holland’s sovereign rights. The provision, by which pilots’ fees from the open sea to Antwerp are expressly limited to the amount payable from the open sca to Rotterdam, although the first distance is three times the latter, while nothing is said to prevent the Antwerp fees from being fixed at a lower level, is thought to favour Belgium unduly.

The

second

point

criticised is that

containing

Holland’s

consent to the construction over her territory of canals from Antwerp to Moerdyk and from Antwerp to Ruhrort. These canals are obviously intended to deflect part of the Rhine trade from its natural course down the river to Antwerp; a plan which is naturally deeply resented in Rotterdam, It is argued further

that the treaty would not eliminate all matters

for dispute

between the two countries; but that it contains the germs of endless new quarrels. Furthermore, the Flemings, who play an increasingly important part in Belgian political life, are friendly towards Holland and will, it is hoped, understand her refusal to be bound by arrangements made during the ascendancy of the Comité de politique nationale, although at the same time the interests of Antwerp, the Flemish metropolis, are very par-

ticularly involved.

Certain points were discussed afresh between

the two governments, and at least interpretative concessions on the part of Belgium were expected. Domestic History Since 1910.—In 1907, for the second time tn the century, a Cabinet was formed out of the coalition of the

agreement had been reached on other matters it was arranged that each side was to present its case with regard to the disputed point in order to safeguard its claims for the future, but without parties of the Right, that is, of the two Protestant parties, the any intention of arriving at a solution for the time being. Yet when the Dutch Note embodying the case of Holland with Anti-Revolutionaries and the Christian Historicals, and the respect to sovercignty over the Wiclingen was handed in, the Roman Catholic party. This coalition, which may at first sight Belgian Govt. regarded it as a new and unacceptable claim, appear an unnatural one, sprang from the fact that Catholics and used it as a pretext to break off the negotiations; or and orthodox Protestants were equally opposed to the rulirg such was the view taken in Holland, where it was believed that ‘Liberalism, and in particular to the educational system developed by the Liberals. Orly the State’s own schools, which M. Hymans at the last moment shrank from facing annexationist criticism with a treaty containing nothing but economic con- were strictly “ neutral ? as regards religion, received granis of cessions. When conditions everywhere grew more stable, and the public money. Fhe orthodox Protestants and the Catholics both complained that as taxpayers they had to help in supporting annexationist programme of the Comité de politique nationale looked less capable of realisation, M. Hymans, who had again schools to which conscience forbade them to send their children, become Belgian Minister of Foreign Affairs alter a period out of while as parents they had also to maintain their own private denominational schools. This situation at length, and in spite office, approached Mr. Van Karnebeek, and the treaty of 1920, was, without Holland having changed her attitude towards the of the traditional enmity between the two creeds, led to a coalition of the Calvinist parties and the Roman Catholic party. Wielingen question, signed at The Hague on April 3 1925 In roro Dr. Abraham Kuyper formed the first Coalition GovIts ratification by Holland was, however, delayed by the prolonged political crisis; and meanwhile it was subjected to lively ernment. Tlimself a Calvinist, chicf of the anti-revolutionary party, he succeeded in finding “one root of faith ” from which criticism. In 1919 and 1920 Holland had been willing to make economic concessions to avoid a threat to her sovereign rights; both Catholics and Protestants sprang, and divided the Dutch nation into “ Christians ” and “ Paganists.’? But the political and Mr. Van Karnebeek’s conduct of the dclicate negotiations had been generally admired. When in 1925, however, the situation in 1907, when the second Coalition Govt. was formed, did not permit Dr, Kuyper’s strong personality to be included, treaty was at last published in its entirety, the danger which and when in rg0g the general election led to further disaster loomed so large five years before seemed altogether negligible, and Mr. the proposed concessions were scrutinised entirely on their for the Liberals he nevertheless remained discarded. Ieemskerk was the leading member of this Government, merits. The result was widespread dissatisfaction with the onewhich was somewhat too moderate in its religious policy for the sided character of the treaty. Criticism centred round two main points. Firstly, there are more fanatical Kuyperians, whose zeal for social reform was gratified by the grandiose scheme for state disability and old the provisions for a new Dutch-Belgian régime on the Schelde. The prosperity of Antwerp during the last years appears the age insurance on which the Minister of Labour, M. Talma, best reply to the suggestion that Dutch control of the lower worked strenuously. The scheme, however, had not yet been course of the river threatened Antwerp with ruin. Yet public carried into effect when the defeat of the Coalition at the polls opinion in Holland admits that the machinery provided by the in 1913 hung it up indefinitely. The parties of the Left proved unable, in 1913, to assume the 1839 treaty for carrying into practice the mixed commission’s responsibilities of government. The once powerful Liberal party recommendations is cumbrous. It is greatly disturbed, however, was now broken up into several sections, of which one was really at the provision in the new treaty by which Holland’s obligations tSee H. W. V. Temperley, History of the Peace Conference in anti-clerical conservative, while another was radical. Moreover, Paris, vol. ii., pp. 192 seg. (London, 1920). the Socialist party, which made a big advance in 1913, now 2 In spite of the signature of the Convention, neither side abanclaimed a large proportion of the forces of the Left, and there doned the original contention with regard to the Wielingen Channel, was little sympathy between it and the so-called Old Liberals. the Belgians basing their claim on the three-mile limit, the Dutch An attempt was made, nevertheless, to form a coalition of the on ancient rights of possession. }

r

NETHERLANDS.

1036

Left, under Dr. Bos, the Radical leader, on a programme that included universal suffrage. The Old Liberals agreed to this programme, but the Socialists, although their leader, Mr. P. J. Troelstra, was in favour of accepting, refused to co-operate. In this difficulty an extra-parliamentary Cabinet was formed by Mr. Cort van der Linden. In conformity with the verdict of the electors it bore a decidedly “ Left ’’ character, but it attempted to find final solutions for both the questions which had long paralysed Dutch political life. Mr. Cort. van der Linden

and his colleagues proposed to bring about a revision of the Constitution (for which purpose a two-thirds majority of the Chamber is required) by an agreement of all parties. In it the

Clerical groups would find the solution of the school problem and the Liberals, Radicals and Socialists the final extension of the suffrage.

Although faced with the problems arising out of the World War, the Government persevered with this task, and indeed the quickened sense of national solidarity helped it rather than otherwise. In 1917 its programme was carried out. Universal suffrage and proportional representation were introduced; at the same time, the principle of absolute equality with regard to the public exchequer of “ public,’? undenominational or a religious education and “‘ private ” denominational education, was conceded in full and written in the Constitution. The first elections held under the new suffrage law (June 1918) resulted in further disaster for the Liberal groups. The Cort van der Linden Administration resigned and another CalvinistCatholic Cabinet was formed. The Premier, Mr. Ruys de Beerenbrouck, was a Catholic, a thing without precedent in Dutch history. This Government’s mandate was confirmed by the elections of 1921, when the Coalition parties increased their number of seats to 60 out of the 100 which constitute the Second Chamber. At the elections of 1925 they lost some ground, but

still retained the majority, and when Mr. Ruys retired, Mr. Colin, leader of the Calvinist anti-revolutionary party, formed another Coalition Cabinet. In Nov. 1925 internal disagrceements compelled that Government to resign. Each of these elections since proportional representation came into force meant a further stage in the disintegration of the Liberal parties, of which only the Radical group held its own. The Socialists, on the contrary, made a big advance in rtor8, and although they suffered a setback in 1921 they more than retrieved their fortunes in 1925. They then numbered 24 members and were the second largest party in the Chamber after the Catholics with 32. The i921 election was the first at which women’s suffrage was in full working order. Six out of the roo seats were occupied by women in the Chamber of 1925. The years of Coalition Govt. through which Holland passed after the Armistice can be divided into two very distinct periods. The years 1919 and 1920 were feverish ones, when a fallacious sense of prosperity stimulated enterprise in business and politics alike. It is not perhaps unfair to connect the zeal for social reform which characterised those days with a certain nervousness

which

remained

after the “ November

days”

of

1918. Mr. Troelstra, the Socialist leader, his imagination fired by the spectacle of the German revolution, toyed with the idea of imitating it among his own people. The attempt was a ludicrous failure. The Government took strong measures and the people rallied to them, and after an excited week quiet was restored on Nov. 21 1918. The Socialist party, which had been far from unanimous about this adventurous policy, re-entered the path of constitutionalism, and Mr. Troelstra, who resigned the leadership in 1925 owing to ill-health, never regained his old prestige. Yet the affair probably helped to create the spirit in which the Government tackled social problems. Mr. Talma’s Insurance scheme, of which the Cort van der Linden Cabinet had carried out only a small part, was taken up again, and in Dec. 1919 a comprehensive Disability Insurance Act was passed. Large sums of money were voted in aid of building societies and building schemes of municipal bodies. Not only were housing conditions greatly improved, but as architecture has again become a living art in Holland, and the best architects were called

In, the new quarters of many a Dutch town afford fine examples of modern building, and have been studied and admired by the experts of other countries. A piece of legislation with which Holland was tn advance of all other countries was an Act restricting the hours of labour to 45 a week. But the fictitious prosperity was succeeded by a severe depression. Shipping and shipbuilding particularly felt the effects, and no place suffered more from the occupation of the Ruhr area and from the preference granted by France to her own and Belgian commerce than the great port of Rotterdam. When international conditions Improved in 1924, economic conditions in Holland soon felt the effect. Yet unemployment remained still a drain on Dutch resources. The one really bright spot in the picture was the prosperity of the East Indian “cultures.” Meanwhile, the stress of the times occasioned a radical change in the Government’s policy. Economy came to be the cry. The building subsidies were cut down. In order to enable Dutch industry to compete with the countries with debased currencies, dispensations from the Act restricting the hours of labour were freely granted. On yet another point a revulsion of feeling manifested itself against legislation passed almost without opposition a few years previously. The new Cabinet of the Right had to carry into practice the general provision of financial equality for denominational education which their predecessors had written into the Constitution. It was now felt that the multiplication of small State-subsidised schools, which resulted from Dr. De Visser’s (the Minister of Education 1918-25) measures, overburdened the taxpayer. During the years 1922-4 Dutch politics centred round the financial situation. In the early summer of 1923 the Government strengthened itself with a new Minister of Finance, Mr. Col¥n, who two years Inter was to succeed Mr. Ruys in the premiership. Mr. Col¥n, a strong personality, was expected to carry out a programme of ruthless economy. All salaries paid by the State were indeed cut down by one-fifth, a measure which naturally occasioned a good deal of discontent. Socialist and Radical critics complained that economies in other directions were neglected, while at the same time, by the raising of the general import tariff from 5 to 8% ad valorem, the introduction of a tax on bicycles (which are more numerous in proportion to population in Holland than in any other country), and the raising of the duty on tobacco, the burden of taxation borne by the mass of the community was not inconsiderably increased. The object of Mr. Colin's policy, at all events, was reached: in the course of 1925 the budget was balanced. An improvement in the yield of direct taxation, as a consequence of the economic revival, contributed towards this event. In spite of this success, Mr. Colin’s Govt. soon was unable to carry on. It was freely predicted at the time that the elimination of the education grievance would soon bring about the dissolution of the Coalition, and that thus the way would become clear for a more natural grouping of partics on economic and political lines. In Oct. 1923 it was thought that the knell of the Coalition had been sounded when ro Catholics joined the parties of the Left and the bill for the strengthening of the naval defences of the Dutch East Indies, which the Government, in spite of their zeal for economy, and in spite of the effect which the Washington treaties mizht be supposed to have on the situation in the Pacific, co.usidered indispensable, was rejected in the Second Chamber by 50 to 49 votes (Oct. 26 1923). After a crisis of several months, however, the Coalition was patched up and the elections of June-July r925 were fought on the old lines. Mr. Coljn formed a new Government in July. The new crisis was occasioned by a question of far less intrinsic importance, but more serious as & sign of the progressing disintegration of the Coalition, In spite of the prolonged comradeship in office, one at least of the two Protestant parties, the Christian Historical party, never ceased to look upon the Roman Catholics without a certain watchful suspicion. Of late years, owing to their excellent organisation and also to their constant participation in the government of the country as a consequence of the Coalition,

—

NETHERLANDS the growth of Catholic influence and self-confidence, which started in the 19th century, had been accelerated, inducing a certain uneasiness and irritability in Protestant circles, which the Christian Historical party, for all its loyalty to the Coalition, could not ignore. In those circumstances a motion, introduced by an independent Christian Historical member of the Chamber, to abolish diplomatic representation at the Vatican, which had been introduced during the War by the Cort van der Linden Govt., assumed an importance quite out of proportion to its intrinsic merits. The whole Christian Historical party voted for it, and the motion was carried. The Liberals, Radicals and Socialists, while caring little for the question itself, had voted for the motion in order to show up the unreality of the Coalition. The Catholic Ministers in Mr. Colin’s Cabinet resigned on Nov. 11 1925, and the next day the Premier offered the resignations of himself and all his other colleagues.

Co-operation between the Christian Historicals and the Roman Catholics had now become exceedingly diflicult, but the hopes of those who wanted to see the Coalition give way to a new grouping of parties were disappointed. Radicals and Socialists have long aspired to an alliance with the Catholics, among whom democratic tendencies are strongly, although by no means exclusively, represented. An attempt (Nov. 24-Dec. 1 1925) on the part of the Radical leader, Mr. Marchant, to form a democratic Ministry, however, met with a unanimous refusal from the Catholics, in spite of Mr. Marchant’s offer to rescind the vote against the Vatican legation. The result was that Dutch parliamentary politics appeared to have reached an absolute deadlock. After a crisis of unprecedented duration, Jonkheer de Geer, therefore, on March 3 1926 formed a non-parliamentary Cabinet with a programme of all-round economy, including reductions in the army and navy and productive state works for the unemployed. He announced his intention of resigning as soon as a parliamentary majority had been formed. Bintiocraruy.—J. W. Robertson-Scott, War Time and Peace in Holland (1914); Oorlogstijd (1916); A. AL YL Struycken, Nederland,

Belgié en Europa (1919); C. J. E. Bosmans and M. Visser, Repertoire des traités et des engagements internationaux concernant les PaysBas (The Hague, 1921); N. G. Japikse, Die Stellung Holiands im Weltkrieg (1921); H. Arselin, La Hollande dans le Monde (1921); A. J. Barnouw, Molland under Queen Wilhelmina (1923); G. W. T. Omond, Belginm and Luxemburg, Nations of To-day (1923); G. I. Bousquet, L’Evolution sociale aux Pays-Bas, 1914-22 (1923); P. Geyl, De Groot- Nederlandsche Gedachte (laarlem, 1925); Leon Nemry, Les Pays-Bas après la Guerre (1925): G. N. Clark, ‘' The Great Neth-

erlands Idea,”’ Edinburgh Review (April 1926).

(P. G.*}

The home production was only 154,000,000 kg. of wheat or about 21-8 °% of the total consumption (708,000,000 kg.); on the other hand

32-5 °oof the total output from dairy-farming wasavailable for export. At‘ter the War the export trade recovered quickly. Exports of butter, which had ceased entirely during the last years of the War, attained their pre-War figure in 1924 (£5,500,000); cheese exports actually in-

creased threefulld (46,200,000); whilst meat exports during the same year amounted to £6,300,000 or 30% more than in 1913. Industry. ~A number of new industries are increasing in importance, for example, the chemical and electric lamp industry. The first blast furnace was started at Velzen near the North Sea coast. The coal mining industry, whose beginnings date from the end of last century, now satisfies two-thirds of the requirements of the country. The output of coal rose from 300,000 tons in 1900 to 1,000,000 tons in 1910 and 6,800,000 tons in 1925. An approximate idea of the industrial position in 1923 can be derived from the statistics of production. Yield of the various branches of industry in Holland

Foodstuffs

25,000,000

Metal industry Luxury articles Clothing and boots Wood industry Chemical industry

19,600,000 8,300,000 5,400,000 5,200,000 5,700,000

Textile industry

Population.—The War had little effect on the growth of the population, which increases by approximately [00,000 per annum, a relatively high figure as compared with other countries, the result of a persistently favourable birth-rate (24-1 per 1,000 in 1925) and an extremely satisfactory death-rate (9-6 per 1,000 in 1925). It was only in the influenza year 1918 that the death-rate increased to 17-2 per 1,000. The population was 5,945,115 in 1910; 6,865,314 in 1920;

and approximately 7,400,000 in 1925. Agriculture. —A sound adaptation of the various branches of agriculture and cattle-breeding to the nature of the soil, the advantages

of cultivation by the individual owners and an increasingly marked preponderance of small holdings, favourable market facilities and technical skill stimulated by co-operation and State encouragement

—all have contributed to the development of agriculture.

18,500,000

£108,300,000 The value of the total agricultural output in this year was £87,900,000. The unemployment figures showing the percentage of workers unemployed among trade unionists give an idea of the general economic situation in recent years. Whilst in 1913 the highest figure was 8-8 (Dec.),

the summer

average

4-1 and the winter average

8-0, the

corresponding figures for 1924 were respectively 19-7 (Jan.), 5-8 and 10:5. Generally speaking the highest level was reached in 1923. Since then the figure has fallen, but was still unsatisfactorily high in Dec. 1925—13°8. Trade and Shipping.—Trade statistics were reorganised and improved in 1917. Asa result, however, no comparison of figures of values is possible while even figures of quantities before 1917 can only be used with great reserve. I9I3

1925

kg. Imports Exports

-j

kg.

21,302,000 5,848,000

| |

|

25,500,000 12,336,000

|

The direction of Dutch trade has changed considerably :— |

1

Germany

d

Eng- | United | Bella ndl

States uw

cH

=

®

=

=

paj

bern

nN

ON

| D

Fiet

glum

tt)

oO

Some of these influences

were of a temporary nature, suchas the effects of the crisis of 1920-1 upon Dutch economy. The permanent changes chictly regarded public finance. In the economic sphere the War accelerated the expansion of national industries and the process of banking concentration. The foreign capital holdings of the people were affected by the loss of Russian securities, representing an estimated value of £100,000,000, and by the realisation of a considerable number of American securitics. Against these losses, there was a large increase in the extent and value of the Dutch capital invested in the Dutch Indies, and further a large increase in internal investment within the country.

20,800,000

Miscellaneous

Il, ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL DEVELOPMENT Although Holland remained neutral during the World War, the War itself and the subsequent years left their impress upon its economic and financial development.

1037

| oe

j Ww M

nN ||

|

I

ies

o

ir>

ap

Ww

m

N

r=

c]

la.

Þa

P

oN

=j ——

í

oN

D

oN

R

5QL-3I

Ons 0-8! 4-4) 3°51 5-6 ; FO LOL 4°70 S'S! 74, (The figures represent percentages of the total) The system of virtual free trade—duties of 5°, being levied on a number of “ finished articles ’’—remained practically unchanged during the War and even during the subsequent period of currency disorder in several states of Europe; only in the case of the shoe and cigar industries special temporary prohibitive measures were introduced with a view to restricting dumped imports. The tarif was increased to 8°95 on July 1 1925, and the list of dutiable commodities was somewhat extended, principally on revenue grounds. In 1925 47°% of the total exports of £146,200,000 consisted of foodstuffs and 357°% of manufactured goods. The total imports in that year amounted to £204,200,000, Exports

The importance and development of shipping can be gauged from the following figures for ocean-going shipping in the port of Rotterdam:—

Loaded ships, net tonnage registered: 1900 5,452,000 Loaded ships, net tonnage registered: 1910 8,898,000 Loaded ships, net tonnage registered: 1913 11,638,000 Loaded ships, net tonnage registered: 1925 13,903,000 The amount of Dutch high-seas shipping in 1925 was 1,319,534 net tons registered, so that Holland took the seventh place in the high-seas shipping of the world, being only surpassed by Norway in the tonnage per head of population. In 1913 the tonnage amounted to 687,635, and [folland then also stood seventh on the list.

NEUILLY, TREATY

1038

The Monetary System and Banking.—The show the extent of banking transactions:—

Capital and reserves f

£ 12,600,000

1924

|f 37,700,000

|£ 82,400,000

32,200,000 | 133,300,000 15,600,000 75,900,000

83,200,000 47,900,000

Throughout this period the Dutch guilder (florin), thanks largely to the policy followed by the Netherlands Bank, maintained its position as one of the highest-valued currencies of Europe. The gold standard was officially re-introduced on April 28 1925 when the prohibition on the export of gold was cancelled. On the same day similar steps were taken by Great Britain and by the Netherlands East Indies, The amount of bank notes in circulation at the end of 1925 was £72,900,000, as against {25,900,000 at the outbreak of the War. The gold reserve increased during the same period from £13,000,000 to £37,000,000. In addition to the bank note circulation the “giro” systems of transfer through the intermediary of the Netherlands Bank and of the Post Office are becoming increasingly important. But the cheque and clearing system of the large banks has not developed much in Holland. State Finances.—Before the War the state finances were satisfactory. The total of “ ordinary ”’ expenditure had increased from £12,400,000 in 1900 to {16,400,000 in 1910 and £18,300,000 in 1913. The increase is evidence of the tendency in Holland, as elsewhere, towards increased state activities: but it should be remembered that the general rise in prices during the period 1900-13 amounted to 16°, and the increase in population to 19%. The position of the Dutch public debt was very satisfactory before the War. Jn 1840, after the end of the war with Belgium, it amounted to approximately £117,090,000. By Jan. 1 1914 it had fallen to £95,700,000, although targe public works (railway construction) had been undertaken in the interval. The war and subsequent years made very high calls upon the state funds. Mobilisation cost £101,400,000; the supply of the population with material necessities during the War—the system of distribution involved subsidies from

the public funds—cost

{£47,100,000;

and

the housing

subsidies which were charged against the extraordinary budget cost £54,700,000, The ordinary expenditure also increased considerably as a result of increased state activities and rising prices: the highest figure reached was £52,700,000 in 1924. The deficit for the period of crisis, which terminated in 1924 as far as the state finances are concerned —after deJuction of such exceptional taxation as the tax on war profits —was £183,509,000. Of thisamount £175,000,000 have been funded. Although the sinking fund continued to operate in the interval, the debt rose to a record figure on Jan. 1 1925 with £244,100,ooo, falling to £239,300,000 on Jan. § 1926. The ordinary expenditure for both 1925 and 1926, which can again be regarded as normal years, amounted in round figures to £50,000,000 and is wholly being met out of the revenue. 36-2 % of the total expenditure was met out of the proceeds of direct taxation in 1925 as compared with 23-7 Of% in 1913. The boven increase of expenditure is reflected in the position of the Treasury. Whilst before the War it was very rare for more than £4,000,000 to be required for Treasury needs, the floating debt amounted on Jan. I 1922 to not Jess than £71,500,000 (consisting chiefly of Treasury bills). Against this amount there stood {40,000,000 of claims, composed for the most part of advances made to the colonies. It was only owing to the exceptionally liquid state of the money market that the State was able to raise such sums. The floating debt was reduced by Jan. I 1926 to £25,500,000, owing to various funding operations undertaken in successive years; but against this figure there are claims of the State amounting to £24,100,000, mostly against foreign countries. The burden of taxation —viz.: of all taxes, including those of the provinces and communes—increased from £3 5s. per head in 1913 to Index Numbers Wholesale

Imports £ million for home consump-

Exports { million of domestic pro-

£13 4s. in 1921 (including tax on war profits), but had been reduced

by 1924 to £7 12s. per head of the population. BiBLIOGRAPHY.—Ofhcial Publications: Jaarcijfers van het Konin-

1920

I9I3 Other assets “ Debtors ”

following figures

OF

Netherlands Bank Yearly average Notes in circulation

£ million

Domestic credits

£ million

krijk der Nederlanden, Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (The Hague, yearly); Maandschrift van het Centraul Bureau voor de Statistiek; Department of Overseas Trade, Report on the Economic,

Financial

and

Industrial

Condilions

yearly); Department of Commerce,

of the Netherlands

(London,

Miscellaneous Series No. 91,

B. F. Moore, Economic Aspects of the Commerce and Industry of the Netherlands, 1912-1018 (Washington, 1919). See also J. C. A. Everwijn, Die Beschrijving van Handel en Nijverheid (Che lague, 1913); M. W. F. Treub, Oorlogstijd (Haarlem, 1917); De economische Toekomst van Nederland (Haarlem, 1917); Vragen van desen Tijd (Ifaarlem, 1919); G. Vissering, International Economic and Financial Problems (1920); De problemen van geldwesen en wisselkoersen op de Finantteele Conferentie te Brussel, September-October, 1920 (The Hague, 1920); G. Il. Bousquet, L'Evolution sociale anx Pays-Bas, 1914-22 (1923); M. J. van der Flier, War Finances in the Netherlands up to torS (Oxford, 1923); L. Nemry, Les Pays-Bas après la guerre (Brussels, 1924); G. Angaulvant, Les Indes Néerlandaises, leur rôle dans V Economie internationale (The Hague, 1926).

G. W. T. B.) NEUILLY, TREATY OF.—The Bulgarian Treaty was signed at Neuilly on Nov. 27 rọrọ, and came into force on Aug. g 1920. In the main it is the sameas the Austrian Treaty. But there were important differences in the military and naval clauses, and also in regard to reparation and finance. | As regards the territorial clauses, the only serious changes were to the west and south. The Serb-Croat-Slovene kingdom obtained several strategic ratifications, The two most important are that the Strumitsa salient in the extreme south-west has been flattened out, the western half being ceded to the Serbs; also, and more important, in the Nish-Pirot area the town of Tsaribrod has been taken from Bulgaria and a line drawn whereby an advance on Nish would be rendered more difficult. The frontier, however, confers no offensive advantage on the Serbs, and is thus a sensible one. A loss more serious in another sense is that to Greece of the district of Western Thrace, lying between Xanthi and the Maritsa river. This was ceded to Greece on her obtaining Eastern Thrace and Adrianople. Bulgaria, for ethnic reasons, received a slight extension of territory west of Adrianople. The expulsion of Greeks from Adrianople and East Thrace by the Turks has, however, not caused the Allies to change their minds about Western Thrace, which remains annexed to Greece and is denied to Bulgaria. But, though these losses are humiliating to the pride of the Bulgars, it cannot be said that they seriously injure their strength or prosperity. Dedeagach, which she lost to Greece with the whole of Western Thrace, is really unsuitable as a port and also at a great distance from Sofia. With the view of giving Bulgaria access to the Aegean, Veniselos offered, during the negotiations, to build a railway connecting the fine Greek harbour of Kavalla with the SalonikaConstantinople railway, which now runs to Sofia up the Struma valley, though with a break of gauge. This offer, though doubtless quite sincere, has never been acted upon, though in article 48 the Principal Allies undertake to ensure the economic outlets of Bulgaria to the Aegean Sea. Bulgaria had always asserted claims to that part of Macedonia now in Serbian hands, and also to Eastern and Western Thrace. In the former area her ethnic pretensions are better founded than in the latter. But Serbian Macedonia is in the hands of a formidably armed and militarily strong nation. Greek Macedonia and Thrace are now populated by hundreds of thousands of Greek refugees from Asia, and contain over 80°% of a purely Greek population. It would seem, therefore, that both districts are irrecoverably lost to Bulgaria, and that her strength must rest purely on her own resources. In population, she has only lost some 300,000 persons, of whom some are not Bulgars. Part IV. The military, naval and air clauses have some special

points. Bulgaria is allowed 20,000 regulars, 10,000 gendarmes and 3,000 frontier guards, or 33,000 in all. This number is insufficient to maintain order in a turbulent Balkan State, and the subsequent serious disturbances in Bulgaria are due directly to this fact. It 1s increased by the difficulty of applying the voluntary long-service system of 12 consecutive years to a nation of peasants. In an agricul-

NEUROMUSCULAR tural country it is practically impossible to get men to leave their farms for 12 years, and the army is always likely to be dangerously below strength, and the less regular formations dangerously above it. The naval clauses do not differ from those of the German or Austrian Treaty. All Bulgaria’s navy has now been destroyed, and she is left with four torpedo-boats, of which three are damaged, and six motor-boats, of which four are damaged. Part V. (Prisoners of War and Graves) and Part VI. (Penalties) are the same as in the Austrian Treaty (sce ST. GERMAIN, TREATY OF).

Part VIT. (Reparation). This contains the most novel and interesting feature of the Treaty, and is, in fact, the only serious attempt to get reparation on to a business basis. It contained three features

of great interest.

a

|

(a) Contrary to the practice in the German, Austrian and Iungarian Treaties, there was no attempt made to seize or distribute the Bulgarian commercial fleet on the “ ton-for-ton ”’ or “ class-for-

class " principle. i (b) It fixed the amount to be paid at the lump sum of £90,000,000. (c) It created a Reparation Commission consisting of Drench, British and Italian representatives, with power to reduce this amount by a simple majority vote (not by unanimity as is the systematic rule), on the suggestion of the inter-allied Commission. The general scope and powers of the Reparation Commission are drawn in such a manner as to control the finances of the country sufficiently to obtain reparation, without offensive interference. In the end, the Reparation Commission, after examining the question on the spot, has practically remitted three-quarters of the total of £90,000,000. The annual sum now required to mect the charges on the 550,000,000 gold francs of the debt is well within the capacity of the new Bulgarian State, and is being punctually paid. None of the

remaining clauses of the Bulgarian Treaty have any special features of interest or importance.

Conclusion.—Viewing the Bulgarian Treaty as a whole, it is the fairest and most practical of all the Treaties imposed on the enemy Powers. There has been little diminution of territory or population, and no vindictiveness shown. Bulgaria was protected by the Principal Allies, first from occupation of her territory by Serbs or Greeks, next from the seizure and distribution of her

commercial fleet, and finally from the financial anxicties and confusion consequent upon an unfixed hability, and from the difficulties of a too-powerful and too-obtrusive Reparation Commission. The reason is that the Principal Allies, while not strong enough to withstand the public demand for severity in the German, Austrian and Hungarian treaties, were strong enough to resist the Serb, Greek and Rumanian claims in the Bulgarian Treaty. The result is that Bulgaria is more relatively prosperous than any other ex-enemy state, and has been able to pay her liabilities without making the League her receiver and manager, like Austria and Hungary, or adopting a disguised form of this liquidation like Germany under the Dawes scheme. Bulgaria has shown herself more willing to accept new conditions, and it is not impossible that she may enter ultimately into some form of alliance with the Serb-Croat-Slovene kingdom.

(See BULGARIA; PEACE CONFERENCE; REPARATION, etc.) BrsLioGRAPpHy.—H.

W. V. Temperley, ed., History of Peace Con-

ference, vol. 4 and 5 (1921); Text of Treaty, Parliamentary Papers, Treaty Series, 1920, No. 5, Cmd. 522. (I W. V. T.)

NEUROMUSCULAR SYSTEM (see 19.44).—Briefly, recent contributions have dealt largely with the anatomical nervesupply of the striate (so-called ‘‘ voluntary ”’) skeletal muscular system, the discrimination of the different functions of muscle substance, and the integration of neural and muscular activity. From consideration of the action of the simplest neuromuscular unit, prosecution of the subject leads us by consecutive and logical steps to matters of deep interest and significance in relation to the function of the nervous system as a whole and to ageold questions such as the meaning of “ the will.” The problems of the neuromuscular system may be approached from various viewpoints; it Is natural to commence with that of morphology: Anatomical Considerations. —The striate skeletal muscular system is supplied bv efferent motor nerves from the anterior or ventral horns of grey matter in the spinal cord; the course and distribution of these nerves, and, conversely, the representation of individual muscles in the nerve-cell groups of the anterior spinal horns, are all well known. When a motor spinal nerve enters a skeletal muscle at its so-called “ motor point ” its

fibres divide up and ramify to the various component muscular

SYSTEM

1039

fibres of the muscle, ending on these latter structures by ‘“ motornerve end-plates.” According to the views of Langelaan, each motor nerve-fibril is in communication with the sarcoplasm of the muscle fibril which it is supplying. In addition, however, to this accepted spinal nerve supply, close study has been given in the period under review to the question of a sympathetic nerve supply to the skeletal musculature (apart, of course, from the familiar sympathetic innervation of non-striped, visceral muscles). Suspected long ago by Ranvier and others, and held in more recent times by Fano, Botazzi and Pekelharing, the notion of the duality of nervesupply to the “ voluntary ” muscles has been set on a firm histological basis especially by the work of Boeke, Kulschitsky, Dusser de Barenne, Agduhr, Hunter, Latham and a number of other investigators. Even so, we are still confronted with the question whether spinal and sympathetic motor nerve fibrils endin the same, or in different, muscle fibrils. On the determination of this point much will depend. While Boeke and others claim that both kinds of nerve end in the same muscle fibre, Hunter and his collaborators contend that as there is a double neural supply, so there are two distinct sets of muscle fibres, each having its specific function, and they maintain, in consequence, that each skeletal or “ voluntary ” muscle is anatomically and physiologically a couple, a doubled structural and functional unit, and that by experiment or by disease one of these may be destroyed and the other left. Their theories of muscle function are based on the histological claim that the actual innervation of muscle fibres is single, not dual, the sympathetic system sending its fibrils to muscle fibres vot linked to the spinal motor system, that is, not furnished with spinal motor-nerve end-plates. In his most recent work, on the other hand, Langelaan takes the view that the sarcoplasm of one and the same muscle fibril is reached anatomically from bot% spinal and sympathetic sources, though he distinguishes the function of the two. Since the question has an obvious phystologica! bearing, it may also be approached from that standpoint. Physiological Considerations —Among the problems of the functions of muscle substance one has emerged more definitely in recent years as being of fundamental significance, viz., the relation of the function of contraction to that of maintenance of muscle tone. We owe largely to the work of Sir Charles Sherfington our current conceptions of muscle tone, according to which it is commonly understood as being that condition of contraction of a resting muscle which exists without ‘ voluntary ” innervation and is also present though the limb is passively supported, since the muscles do not then “ sag ” or hang flaccid. Tone gives a shape to muscles, and is in evidence both in resting (static) and in moving (kinetic) states of the musculature. Sherrington has shown that tone is in reality postural contraction, that is, it is a mild contraction of muscle-fibres praduced retlexly by sensory excitations arising in peripheral sensory end-organs substantially those of the muscles themselves, the impulses passing therefrom by sensory paths to the spinal grey matter and back to the muscles by spinal motor nerves. This is he proprioceptive reflex arc of Sherrington, and interruption of it at any point is followed by loss of tone in the muscle concerned. In virtue of this reflex contraction, further, a muscle can adapt itself to its varying length; in other words, whether its fibres are as a fact in a shorter or longer anatomical state the reflex contraction is maintained. This property was described by Sherrington as “ plasticity,” whence the term “ plastic tone.” Plasticity.—The exact sense in which the expression “ plasticity ” is employed is of importance, for others have understood it somewhat differently. When an ordinary nerye-muscle preparation is

taken from such an animal as the frog it must by definition be absolutely toneless, since it is separated from the tone-maintaining proprioceptive arc, and cannot therefore exhibit that quality of tone describe as “ plasticity.” In his recent communications, however, Langelaan states that the preparation, though contraction-less, possesses “ plasticity, signifying thereby a property of having its form modifiable slowly by external force. Most physiologists and neurologists follow Sherrington in regarding “‘ plasticity "' as being a

muscle property derived solely from somatic proprioceptive arcs in a condition of integrity.

1040

NEUROMUSCULAR

Movement and Posture —It is now commonly declared that a distinction is permissible between ‘‘ contractile tone” and “ plastic tone ”; more especially during the last decadea hypothesis has gradually taken shape, to the effeċt that movement can be legitimately distinguished from posture, that these are subserved by different mechanisms, and that whether initiation of movement and maintenance of posture are “ active’? (“ voluntary ”’), or “ reflex ” (“ involuntary ”’), each is the expression of a neural activity different from that of the other. In respect of reflex activity, the form the hypothesis takes (according to the late Irvine Hunter, one of its chief supporters) is that “ postural tone ’’—the mild postural contraction defined above as being of reflex proprioceptive origin—is in reality compounded of two subvarieties, acting together but distinct, viz., “ contractile tone ” and “ plastic tone.” When in response to suitable stimuli a muscle or muscular group in a limb contracts reflexly, that is, -when the limb or a lmb-segment changes from one posture to another, this is effected by the contraction of muscle fibres which are innervated by the spinal (somatic) nervous system; such fibres are considered to be responsible for ‘ contractile tone,” the tone that is in evidence during contraction. When, next, a posture reflexly assumed comes into being at the end of a reflex movement, that posture is held or maintained by the action of a different set of muscle fibres, whose postulated function, in Hunter’s view, is to remain at a given fixed length, once movement of the contractile fibres has ceased, thus immobilising the muscle for as long as may be. These are thought to be responsible, therefore, for “‘ plastic tone.”’ At this point we revert to the considerations in the first section, since Hunter argues that it is the sympathetically-innervated fibres which develop “ plastic tone,” and the spinal fibres which underlie the manifestations of

“contractile tone.” Further, he states that the former are essentially zon-contractile; he assumes their length is passively altered during the contractions of the contractile set. Dual Theory—The dual theory of the neuro-muscular system, as it may be termed, has had in recent years various other exponents whose views by no means harmonise with those of Haunter outlined above. Reference may be made to one or two pertinent considerations. Re-examination by Langworthy of Vulpian’s phenomenon (1862) would seem to show the possibility of muscular contraction via the sympathetic nervous system. Langworthy has found that stimulation of the lingus

nerve (containing bulbar autonomic fibres) leads to slow, wavy contractions of the tongue muscles after complete degeneration of the hypoglossal nerve end-plates by previous section of that nerve. It is more than doubtful, therefore, as regards Hunter’s theory, whether zon-coniraclile, sympathetically-innervated muscle fibres actually exist. Not a little can be said in favour of the view, however, assigning some function connected with the tension of muscular tissues to a sympathetic innervation, seeing that the actuality of a sympathetic supply to striped muscles cannot be gainsaid. Langelaan, for instance, considers that the sympathetic supply to muscle sarcoplasm maintains the latter in a state of appropriate tension such as to facilitate within it the passage of an innervating current of somatic motor-nerve origin. Movement Analysed—Other arguments go to show that a rigorous and schematic differentiation as between movement and posture can scarcely be sustained. Movement is in reality a continuous series of changes of posture, and Sherrington has demonstrated that no clear-cut distinction can be drawn physi-

ologically between reflexes of posture and reflexes of movement. From still another standpoint, experiments with galvanometer have proved that an action-current

the stringexists in a

healthy muscle when at rest and in a state of normal tone, and that no gualitative difference can be detected between it and the action-current when the same muscle is either actively (“ voluntarily ’’) innervated or passively moved (Von Weizsiicker, Wachholder, Mann and Schleier}. Such data favour the view that tone and contraction are identical and that no fundamental or essential distinction is to be drawn between them; and they militate against any conception of neuromuscular activ-

SYSTEM

ity which entails the existence of completely separable neural mechanisms for posture and for movement. Automatic Action.—A second aspect of the problem furnished by the activities of the neuromuscular system concerns reflex or automatic action. Speaking generally, “ voluntary ” action has always been thought, for seemingly cogent reasons, to contrast specifically with “ involuntary ” action. The experimentalist and the clinician have long been familiar with so-called spinal automatisms, with co-ordinated grouping in action of neuromuscular units, forming a “ pattern”? which has an apparent meaning or purpose. In the “ spinal animal,” for example, following transection of the neuraxis at the level of the junction of medulla and spinal cord, numerous reflex activities can readily be demonstrated, of which the ‘ scratch reflex ” is a classical variety. Similarly, in suitable cases in man (of which the War furnished us with many instances) it is quite simple to demonstrate that the isolated spinal cord can live by itself and that it possesses Capacities for activity in a co-ordinated form, primitive neuromuscular mechanisms usually hidden in health but capable of expressing themselves in the form of rclease-phenomena when the cord is separated by disease from higher physiological levels. The apparently purposive character of many of these reflex activities (automatic emptying of the bladder, attempts at spinal walking or stepping, biologically old reflexes connected with the genital apparatus, ete.) is of considerable importance and significance, for they are entirely independent of conscious control and of intelligent guidance, since in the given circumstances (gunshot wounds of the cervical cord, experimentation) the cord with its neuromuscular patterns is physiologically severed from the brain. Thus muscular action of a strictly reflex kind, produced solely by appropriate stimuli at the same low physiological level, may, and does, exhibit outward characters which render the discrimination from “ voluntary ” action not a little arduous—as far, that is to say, as externals are concerned. Neuromuscular Functions at Higher Levels —Pursuing this line of investigation, the physiologist is led to examine the neuromuscular functions of the animal in which transection is performed at higher levels than the spinal. During the last few years a whole series of apparently purposive reactions superficially indistinguishable from combined movements of the order usually called “ voluntary,’ have been demonstrated by Prof. R. Magnus, of the University of Utrecht, and his colleague, Prof. de Kleijn, and other collaborators, to occur in the higher

animals through the agency of mechanisms that are purely and rigidly automatic. Magnus and de Klcijn’s method has been to study the reflexes and reactions of the “ spinal ” animal; then to take the “ midbrain” animal (transection at the level of the

corpora quadrigemina of the mesencephalon) and observe what additional functions it is capable of executing; they next take the “thalamus ” animal (separation from cerebral cortex and corpus striatum at the level of the internal capsule) and investigate its functions. They then argue for the localisation of the mechanisms underlying these respective additional functions within the corresponding limits of the respective additional areas of the neuraxis above the upper spinal cord. They have thus been able to demonstrate with precision that a large group of seemingly purposive movements, by which man and the higher animals balance their bodies, maintain normal postures

and adjust themselves to forces disturbing equilibrium, are as a fact nothing else than reflex actions of ascertained neuromuscular mechanisms, Static and Stato-kinetic Reflexes Under the former are included: (1) Standing reflexes. The head influences the posture of the body by means of tonic neck-reflexes acting on the limbs. When the position of the head in relation to the body is passively altered, specific corresponding changes take place in the attitude of the

limbs. If the head is fixed in its relation to the body, and then its position in space altered, the musculature of body and limbs is correspondingly modified by means of tonic labyrinth-reflexes. (2)

Eye reflexes of compensation. For each position of the head in space there is an appropriate reflex setting of the eves in the orbits, effected beth by tonic neck-retlexes and labyrinth-reflexes, acting on the eye musculature. (3) “‘ Correcting ’’ or ‘righting ” reflexes. Animals

whose midbrain

is intact

are capable

of reassuming correctly a

NEUVE

CHAPELLE,

normal attitude, through reflex action, from which they have been passively deflected. ‘Lhe machinery tor this reflex “ righting ” is complex, there being at least four different sets of reflexes.

The discoveries of Magnus and de Kleijn have made a large addition to the long series of automatisms of which the physiologist has been cognisant. Into them no element of choice enters. Activities hitherto considered intelligent must be relegated to the category of automatisms, of retlexes, almost, indeed, of tropisms. Cerebral Afotor, Cortex.—Finally, in respect of the cerebral motor cortex itself, recent investigations indicate that revision here also is required. Classifying in a general way as belonging to the “ old motor system ” the motor reactions of infracortical physiological levels (cf. supra), the neurologist has been in the habit of regarding as the “‘ new motor system ”’ that comprised in the electrically excitable motor area of the cortex with its corticospinal prolongation to the motor cells of the anterior cornua of the spinal cord. This corticospinal system (with its

analogues) is usually understood to be the “‘ voluntary ’’ motor system and to exercise a controlling influence on infracortical motor centres. In some respects it is unquestionably the master system, yet in other respects this is no more than a façon de parler. The writer has shown (Croonian Lectures before the Royal College of Physicians of London, 1925) that many of the “ involuntary ” movements of discased conditions, e.g., those of chorea, are as a fact identical in all essential respects with “ voluntary ” movements of cortical origin, except that the patients’ “ volition’ neither initiates nor is able to inhibit them. They constitute cortical retlexes, the expression of activity of neuromuscular mechanisms whose anatomical site reaches to the cortex and which are nevertheless outside ‘ volitional ” control. Other recent work points in the same direction. Monakow, for example, has come to the view that the function of the pyramidal areas seems to be in the class of reflex activity. Lashley, who has done much experimental work on cerebral function, concludes that the conception of “ volitional ” activity is too vague to have any scientific value, while years ago Hughlings Jackson taught the neurological world that, in respect of movements, “ voluntary ” and ‘‘ automatic ” were not terms of differentiating quality, that gradations existed between the two, and that the progression is in reality from “ least automatic’ to “ most automatic.” Conclusions —The conclusion from this very brief survey of recent developments in the field of the neuromuscular system cannot, however, be expressed in any definite form. On the one hand, some will hold that these accretions to knowledge widen

the gap between intelligence and automatism, even though they appear to bring that gap higher up in the scale of motility. Others will argue that if some part, at least, of cortical motor activity is shown to be “ non-volitional,” then “ volition ” is driven further back, physiologically, to a transcortical level, and that it can be little else than transcortical inhibition. (S. A. K. W.) NEUVE

CHAPELLE,

BATTLE

OF.—The

German

failures at

Ypres in Oct.—Nov. 1914 had caused them to alter their strategy.

They abandoned the effort to obtain a decision in the west, adopting a defensive attitude there, and concentrated their strength on crushing the Russians, who were isolated, short of equipment and munitions, and in consequence unable to utilise fully their vast resources In men. Jn the west the Germans could profit by all the factors which so greatly favour the tactical defensive in modern warfare, barbed wire and machine-guns in particular; they could hold their lines lightly and yet keep occupied Allied forces much stronger than their own. The Allies, to whom the expulsion of the Germans from France was an urgent necessity, economically as well as politically, were

impelled to pit themselves against the German defences before adequate measures could be devised for neutralising the special sources of the defensive’s strength. In selecting the locality of 1Tt was calculated that in May 1915 the Germans had under 2,000,000 men on the Western Front, a force considerably inferior to the French alone, while the British then numbered nearly 500,000,

BATTLE

OF

1041

their attacks they were directed to Artois by the fact that the German lines in Artois covered the main railways by which the German armies on the Western Front were supplied at their most vulnerable point, the plain of Douai. A break through in Artois therefore oflered special advantages. The Various Plans.—While the winter months saw incessant local fighting, at the Allied Headquarters more ambitious projects were being contemplated. Neither Sir John French nor Gens. Joffre and Foch would admit that the German lines could not be broken, and both entertained hopes of a substantial strategic success. Joffre’s chief project was the recovery of the Lorette and Vimy ridges as a preliminary to an advance in force into the plain of Douai. Sir John French was particularly keen on recovering the Aubers ridge and so getting his right centre out of the water-logged Lys valley; success here, moreover, would threaten the German hold on Lille and might open the way to ellective co-operation with French operations nearer Arras. Actually, owing to the diversion to the Dardanelles of the 29th Div. which had been earmarked for relieving French troops at Ypres, the first serious offensive of 1915 was undertaken by the British alone, the French X. Army being unable to co-operate unless this relief could be carried out. Opening of the Attack The British offensive took the shape of an attack on Neuve Chapelle, where a nasty salient had been driven into the British line when the Germans captured that village in Oct. 1914. To recapture Neuve Chapelle would greatly improve the position tactically, and might lead to gaining a foothold on the Aubers ridge, an indispensable preliminary to any major operation on the I. Army’s front. The attack delivered on March 10 began well. The Germans, far from expecting it, had thinned their forces opposite the British and had only three battalions on the frontage attacked. The bombardment had been effective and, except on the extreme left, the wire was well cut. The centre of the attack reached and captured Neuve Chapelle without much diffculty, but the uncut wire on the extreme left held up the flank of the 8th Div., which only secured its final. objective after several hours’ delay. On the extreme right also one battalion of the Indian Corps lost direction and found itself separated from the rest by a stretch of untaken trenches in which Germans were resisting. Here also there was delay, and the diversion of supports and reserves to help overcome the obstacle. Meanwhile the centre was held up until the flanking brigades could get up level, though had it pressed on at once, regardless of its exposed Hanks, it seems doubtful if there was anything at hand to stop it. But it was considered essential that there should be no advancing with unprotected flanks and the centre had to wait. When at last the flanking brigades came up, the opportunity had gone, for sufficient German reinforcements had arrived to man the redoubts in their half-finished second line. On the right two Gurkha battalions reached the Bois de Biez about nightfall, but being too much in advance of other troops were withdrawn, and on the left the leading brigade of the 7th Div. passed through the 8th, but too late to make much progress before darkness stopped its advance. One main cause of delay had been difficulties in transmitting accurate information from the front line to the higher commanders and in forwarding orders back to the front; another was the holding back of reserves until the situation was accurately known. Second and Tiird Days.—Next day (March 11) saw efforts made to push on, but with little success. Mist hindered the observation of artillery fire, the interruption of communications with the front line hampered co-operation between artillery and infantry and caused much of the precious ammunition to be ineffectively expended. German reinforcements arrived in sufficient numbers to secure the second line and even to counterattack in force early on March 12. There was very heavy fighting, ending in the repulse of the Germans with great slaughter, and the 7th Div. profited by this chance to storm a strong redoubt north-east of Neuve Chapelle. Elsewhere, however, no progress could be made and on March 13 it was decided to suspend the attack. The advantage of surprise was lost, the Germans were

NEVADA—NEVILL

1042 now in force on the front, the ammunition

expenditure

had

exceeded expectations and used up the available supply. Sir Douglas Haig was anxious to renew the offensive without delay and to recover the advantage of surprise by attacking at a new point. Unfortunately, the ammunition shortage forbade this and postponed any renewal till a fresh reserve had been

accumulated, and the delay allowed the Germans to strengthen their defences greatly, and remedy defects in them which the

battle had revealed.

(See WorLD WAR:

BIBLIOGRAPHY.)

(C. T. AL)

NEVADA (see 19.450), a State of the United States of America. The population in 1920 was 77,407, a decrease of 5-5 °% compared with 1910 as against an increase of 93-4°% for the preceding decade. The native white population in 1920 numbered 55,807; foreign-born whites 14,802; Indians, 4,907. The density of population in 1920 Was 0-7 per square mile. The urban population (in places of more than 2,500 inhabitants) was 19:7%) and the rural 80-3 per cent. Reno, with a population of 12,016, an increase of 10:6% over r910, was the only town having more

than 5,000 inhabitants, Agriculture —The number of farms in 1920 was 3,163. The value of farm property increased in I9gto-20 from $60,399,365 to $99,779,606. The value of crops more than doubled between 1915 and 1920, largely owing to higher prices. Since 1919 the

value of agricultural products has surpassed that of mineral production. Sheep and cattle are Nevada’s chief assets. The average wool clip from about 1,000,000 sheep is 7,500,000 pounds. The chief crops are hay, potatoes, wheat, barley and corn. Turkeys are raised, and cantaloupes (melons) are grown extensively on the Truckee-Carson Irrigation Project, while dairyfarming is the chief industry near Reno. The better utilisation of the water supply for irrigation and power is one of the most pressing needs, as the old laws gave vested rights in water to those who used it for irrigation; but marked progress has been made, through court decisions, in the adjustment of water rights for the Truckee, Humboldt, Carson and Walker river systems. The next step is the development of storage projects, of which the Newland Irrigation District is the first unit. The Walker River Irrigation District is a state project which has reclaimed over 150,000 acres. An appropriation was made by Congress in 1925 for the Spanish Springs Reclamation Project, near Reno. Minerals.--From 1907 metal production steadily increased until it reached its peak in 1917, in which year gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc were produced to the value of $54,424,580. From 10918 to 1921 production steadily decreased, the decline of roro being more than 50% of the figure of 1918. A further fall took place in 191g and again in 1921, in which latter year the mineral output was only valued at $12,137,000. Increased operating costs and low prices for metals because of accumulated war stocks, together with exhaustion of ore and scarcity of labour, were the prime causes. The Pittman Silver Purchase Act of Congress kept the silver industry in better condition until the expiration of the Act in June 1923. In 1922 the output increased in value to $18,374,023; in 1923 and 1924 metal production again showed an increase, reaching about one-half the normal output. Production for 1924 was valued at $23,800,000 and the output gradually improved, the production of base metals—coppcr, lead and zinc—becoming the most important. Nevada contains valuable tungsten deposits which were not at first profitably worked because of foreign competition, but which, in 1925, were advantageously operated in several places. Other minerals commercially developed are quicksilver, antimony, manganese and platinum. The production of non-metals, such as gypsum, borax, lime, fluorspar, diatomaceous and fuller’s earth, alum, potash, sulphur and other rock products has increased. Large quantities of pure rock salt exist. A shale-oil plant near Elko produces oil and a large number of by-products. Opals and turquoises of value are mined. Industries —Manufacturing industries are of little importance. The value of all manufactured products increased by 77:5 %

between 1909 and 1919, but the value added by in rọrọ showed a decrease from rot4 of 5-76, decrease in the smelting and refining of copper. The tant works are for grist, flour, dairy products, the repairing of cars and the smelting of ores.

manufacture due to the most impormaking and

LTransport.—Since 19to the Western Pacific Railroad has acquired a part of the Nevada-California Oregon line and has altered it to broad gauge, thus making connection with Reno. In 1923 a new line was completed from the Idaho line to Wells,

where it connects with the Southern Pacific and the Western Pacific. In 1924 there were over 2,000 m. of railway in the State. The Las Vegas and Tonopah Railway discontinued operation from Beatty to Las Vegas in 1918: the Legislature of 1g19 designated the line as part of the State highway system, and the Highway Dept. converted the road bed into a modern highway. Between 1916 and 1925 Nevada expended over $7,000,000 on road building. Government, Education and Finance.—State social service has been extended through numerous commissions and a few new departures, such as the industrial school and the grant to the Florence Crittenton Home. Nevada was one of the first States to have industrial insurance. Counties are permitted to arrange fur mothers’ pensions and old-age pensions. An extensive building programme for state institutions was begun in t917, and included new prison and asylum buildings, a Heroes’ Memorial Building, additions to the Orphans’ Home and the Nevada School of Industry and several new buildings at the University of Nevada. State recreation grounds are being developed on the sites of the prehistoric cities in Clark and Nye counties, at the Chloride Cliffs near Beatty, at the Lehman Caves and other points of interest in White Pine county, and at the Valley of Fire in southern Nevada. Illiteracy, mainly among the Indian population, was reduced from 6-7% in 1910 to §:9% in 1920. In 1924 there were 319 elementary public schools and 46 public high schools in the State. The bonded debt on Jan. 1 1925 was $1,660,000, and state-owned bonds had a value of $3,055,397. The total assessed value of taxable property in 10924 was $201,202,000. History.—In 1912 the Progressive party polled a vote second to that of the Democrats. The Democratic party continued in undivided power until the election of 1920 gave many important offices to Republican candidates. Emmet D. Boyle, Democrat, was elected governor in r9r5 and was re-elected in 1919. James G. Scrugham, Democrat, was elected to the same office in 1923. The most important amendments to the constitution of Nevada were those of 1911 and 1913 for the recall and for female suffrage. A state prohibition law was enacted, pursuant to a direct vote of the people cast Nov. 5 1918. The legislature ratified the 16th Amendment (income tax) to the Federal Constitution in 1911, the r7th (direct election of senators) in 1913, the r8th (prohibition) in 1919 and, in 1920, the roth (woman suffrage). (J. E. W.*) NEVILL, LADY DOROTHY FANNY (1826-10913), British writer, was born in London April 1826, the daughter of Horatio Walpole, 3rd Earl of Oxford. She married in 1847 Mr. Reginald Henry Nevill (d. 1878), a grandson of the rst Earl of Abergavenny. She travelled widely, and had a very large circle of acquaintances, including Disraeli, of whom she was a great admirer, Richard Cobden and Joseph Chamberlain. She was noted for her amusing conversation and powers as a hostess, was a member of the first committee of the ladies’ branch of the Primrose League, and was the author of various volumes of entertaining reminiscences; Reminiscences of Lady Dorothy Nevill (1906); Leaves from the Notebooks of Lady Dorothy Nevill (1907); Under Five Reigns (1910); My Own Times (1912). She died in London March 24 1913. Her daughter, Meresia Dorothy Augusta Nevill (1849-1918), was born Dec. 14 1849 and was also a devoted and energetic worker for the Primrose League. She died in London Oct. 26 1918. The Life and Leiters of Lady Dorothy Nevill (1919), were edited by her son Ralph, author of Sporting Days and Sporting Ways.

NEWARK— NEWFOUNDLAND NEWARK, N.J., U.S.A. (see 19.460), began in to14 to develop its waterfront on Newark Bay as a shipping terminal and industrial centre. About 1,100 ac. of meadow land on the west shore of the bay were bought, an approach channel was dredged from the government channel in the bay, which leads out through the Kill van Kull into New York Bay, and the adjacent land was reclaimed. On the entrance of the United States into the World War in 1917 the War Dept. leased 133 ac. of the newly filled land for one of its largest army supply bases, spending $12,000,000 on docks, warehouses and equipment for handling freight; and the U.S. Shipping Board established here a $30,000,000 shipvard, employing 17,c00 workers, where 150 steel cargo vessels were constructed by the Submarine Boat Corporation. At the close of the War the army base (including nine warehouses with 2,000,000 sq. ft. of floor space) became a commercial terminal, and the city resumed its original programme. With aid from the Federal Govt. the channel was deepened to 31 It. and widened to 400 feet. Additional land was reclaimed, making available over 200 industrial sites. The aggregate value of the products manufactured within the city limits was $201,888,coo in 1909; $577,609,000 In 19103 $336,809,453 in 1921; and $448,172,394 in 1923, when there were 1,863 plants, with 70,056 wage-earners. The leading industries, measured by value of output in 1923, were electrical machinery, apparatus, and supplies, leather, jewellery and chemicals. Ninety new factories were established in the Newark industrial district in the year ending Oct. 1 1925. Important improvements in the city’s equipment include the public service terminal at Park Place, opened for street railway operation April 30 1916; a trunk sewer, consi{ructed in co-operation with Paterson and 13 other municipalities, to collect the sewage of towns in the Passaic valley, carry it across Newark Bay, and discharge it in upper New York Bay; doubling of the water supply by development of the Wanaque watershed, a new public market and a city stadium, seating 12,000. A magnificent group of bronze statuary, “The Wars of America,’ by Solon Borglum was placed in Military Park in 1925. At a special referendum election held Oct. 9 1917 the commission form of government was adopted. Population (1910), 347,469; (1920) 414,524, of whom 16,977 were negroes and 117,549 foreign-born; (1925), according to Census Bureau estimate, 452,513. NEW BEDFORD, Mass., U.S.A. (see 19.462}, took first place in 1919 in the manufacture of cotton goods, as measured by value ($177,058,520), ranking above Fall River. The aggregate value of all its manufactured products rose from $53,238,000 in 1909 to $210,773,000 in 1919; dropped to $110,014,358 in 1921; and rose to $149,998,694 in 1923. The number of wage-carners in factories was 26,566 in 1909; 41,630 in 1919; 37,917 in 1923. The population increased to 121,217 in 1920; but in 1925 was 120,494 according to the Massachusetts state census, indicating that the loss during the period of depression had not yet been recovered. The proportion of women and children employed was exceeded in 1920 only by Washington and Fall River respectively. Housing conditions, severely taxed during the War, were studied by a special commission in 1919. A thorough survey of the publicschool system was made by its own personnel (1921-2) under the direction of an expert, resulting in a programme of “ principles, policies and plans,” which was adopted by the school committee. A state pier, 750 ft. long, with 25 ft. of water on all three sides, was an important addition to the harbour facilities. New Bedford is the spot cotton market of the north. NEW BRUNSWICK (sce 19.464), a province of the Dominion of Canada. The population in 1921 was 387,876, an increase of 38,987 since 1911. Of the total 70% was rural; 30% was of French extraction. The towns having over 5,000 population in tg2t were St. John (47,166), Moncton (17,488) and Fredericton (8,114). The Government consists of a lieutenant-governor and a legislative assembly of 48 members; an executive council consisting of the Premier and eight other ministers is formed from the legislative assembly. The province is represented in the Federal Parliament by 10 senators and 11 members of the House of Commons.

1043

Education.—Primarvy education is free and undenominational, being supported by legislative grants supplemented by Jocal taxation. In 1924 there were 2,195 schools, 2,395 teachers and 72,713 pupils. A noteworthy fact, however, Is that in 1921

12-46°5 of the population were illiterate, the highest percentage of any province in the Dominion. Production and Indusiry.—Agriculture is limited chiefly to the production of potatoes, hay and clover, oats, turnips and buckwheat, this order representing production value In 1924. The area under wheat showed asteady decline between 1920 and 1925. ‘The total area under crops in 1925 was 900,033 ac., as compared

with 1,335,118 ac. in rọrọ, the highest on record. The total value of field crops In 1925 was $25,681,100. Farm livestock greatly decreased during the years 1922-3, the number of horses falling from 70,152 in 1922 to 50,644 in 1923, cattle from 303,115 to 212,901, sheep and lambs from 236,031 to 157,808, and swine from 85,260 to 66,182. From 1923 to 1925 numbers remained steady, The total value of livestock in 1924 was $15,390,800. The production of butter and cheese is relatively unimportant, the total value of both in 1924 amounting to $592,605. The forest area of the province comprises about 15,000,000 ac., one half of which are crown lands. Of the timber cut in 1924, amounting to 362,000,000 superticial ft. 27° consisted of firekilled spruce, cedar and fir, and 20%% of spruce and fir killed by the bud-worm. The average annual value of the lumber output in the years 1917-21, not including wood used by settlers, was $13,235,128: in 1924 lumber production was valued at $12,407,262. Reseeding of the burnt-over lands was commenced in 1924. There were five pulp-mills in 1923, with a production of 111,126 tons valued at $6,986,208. The first paper-mill was put in operation in 1923. The total value of the fisheries in 1923 was $4,548,535, aS compared with $6,298,990 in 1918. The province possesses some mineral resources, coal, gypsum and oil being the most important. ‘The manufacturing industry of New Brunswick has shown sustained progress. In 1922 there were 885 establishments with a capital of $81,789,934, employing 14,199 persons and having a total production valued at $64,614,137. In 1923 the total value of manufactures had increased to $70,114,006. Of the 120,000 II.P. available some 45,000 H.P. had been developed by 1925. The development of Grand Falls, the largest undevelopel water power in eastern Canada, was postponed owing to a change of government. Communications,—There was a marked improvement in the roads of the province during the post-War period: 1,100 m. out of a total of 1,763 m. of main road were reconstructed. The policy followed in 1)24 involved an expenditure of $860,000 or $2.20 per capita on roids. The province had 1,947 m. of railway in operation in 1923, most of which is controlled by the Canadian National Railways. St. John is the eastern terminus of the Canadian Pacific Railway. (See CANADA.) (S. Le.)

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE, England (see 19.472), with a population of 275,009 in rg2r and an area of 8,452 ac. (including the town moor of 927 ac.), maintained a large output of ships,

guns and munitions during the World War, but suffered subsequently from trade depression. Since 1918 the city has returned four members to Parliament. The port is constantly being improved; the channel from Newcastle to the sea has been dredged to a depth of 30 ft., and to 25 Ít. for a distance of rr m. westward from Northumberland dock. A quay extension, providing three berths, was opened in 1924. In 1925 schemes for further quay extensions, for a new road through the centre of the city, for the purchase of the Tyneside tramways, and for lifts from the quay to a new bridge across the Tyne (then in course of construction), were submitted to a vote of the ratepayers, but only the last mentioned scheme met with approval. A large extension of the Royal Victoria Infirmary was opened in 1920, and the Princess Mary maternity hospital in 1923. A War Memorial in Eldon Square, and a monument at Barras Bridge to commemorate the raising of several battalions, were unveiled in 1923. A memorial to men of the 6th Battalion Northumberland

Fusiliers was erected in 1924 (see DURHAM, UNIVERSITY OF). NEWFOUNDLAND (sce 19.478), a Dominion of the British Empire. The area of the Island is 42,734 sq. m., and its population at the census of r921 was 259,259. The total population

1044

NEWFOUNDLAND

of the colony, including its dependency of Labrador which has an area of about 120,000 sq. m., was 263,259.

(¢.v.),

I. POLITICAL HISTORY The inauguration in 1912 of the Fishermen’s Union, which established large trading stores in all the principal outposts and had as its political object the safeguarding of the interests of the fishermen by means of representation in the Legislature, was the outstanding political event of the immediate pre-War period. In the elections of Nov. 1913, although the Government of Sir Edward Morris was re-elected, the candidates of the Fishermen’s Protective Union (F.P.U.} won all the constituencies in the north and northeast. On the outbreak of the War a Newfoundland regiment. was formed and served overseas in Gallipoli, Egypt and France. Altogether some 6,500 men joined up for service during the War. In 1917 the Morris Government was enlarged into a National Government by the inclusion of the opposition, in order to expedite measures dealing with war requirements. At the end of 1ror7 Sir Edward Morris resigned, and was succeeded by Mr. (Sir) William Lloyd, the former

leader of the Opposition. In roro Sir William Lloyd attended the Peace Confe rence as the representative of the Colony. During his absence his Government was destroyed by internal dissensions, and Mr. (Sir) Michael Cashin became Premier. The elections of Nov. rọrọ were marked by extreme bitterness, religious fecling being introduced to a great extent. A considerable turnover of votes resulted, and the Government was defeated by a party led by Mr. (Sir) Richard Squires, consisting of his own supporters and those of Mr. (Sir) William Coaker, the leader of the Fishermen’s Protective Union. The year 1920 was marked by a dispute with Quebec over the Labrador boundary, and the question was finally referred to the Privy Council. = The Government was re-elected in 1923, but shortly afterwards Sir Richard Squires resigned as a result of grave charges preferred against him in the Legislature, including, amongst others, the receipt of money from private corporations and the diversion of Government funds to persons occupying high official posts. Subsequently these charges were investigated by Mr. T. Hollis Walker, K.C., Recorder of Derby, England, who was obtained to act as a commissioner for this purpose, and his finding was adverse to Sir Richard Squires on certain points. Thereupon a criminal indictment was preferred against the latter in the Supreme Court, but the grand jury found “ bill,” and the Crown did not pursue the matter further. The Attorney-General, Mr. William Warren, had assumed the leadership, but on the opening day of the legislative session of 1924 his ministry was defeated. It was reconstructed, but without avail, and then Mr. Albert Hickman, with the backing of the F.P.U., formed a ministry and went to the country. The leading political issues were the reorganisation of the public services and a greater honesty in the Government, and the election resulted in a victory for the party led by Mr. Walter Monroe, which assumed office in 1924.

Il. ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL HISTORY The colony enjoyed considerable prosperity between 1910 and the outbreak of the War. Fishing, mining, paper-making, etc., made marked progress, but after 1o14 the financial difficulties of the European countries in which these products were marketed, coupled with difficulties of transport, brought about a serious depression, which was followed by a financial crisis.

Later the food requirements of Southern Europe sent the price of codfish to a record figure, and the war demands for timber and fish resulted in a period of great prosperity, which continued until 1920. A reaction then set in, with disastrous consequences to the whole commercial community and to the economic stability of the island. In the effort to overcome this, the Government attempted a policy of control over the marketing of colonial fishery products in foreign markets, but it could not be enforced, and ultimately had to be abandoned after severe monetary

losses. Sales of iron ore were likewisc hampered by the economic

poverty of customers, and the depression in the paper market compelled wage reductions, which were followed by labour troubles which seriously affected the output of the mills. After 1923, however, a slow but sure recovery was being made to preWar conditions of industry and trade. Fisherics.—The cod fishery continued to be the chief industry, and the years 1924 and 1925 were marked by fair catches and good prices. The seal-hunt, owing to over-fishing, yielded not much more than 100,0co0 pelts annually, against twice that number annually before ror4. The lobster fishery, for the same reason, suffered such decline that a “ close season ” for three years was put in effect in 1924. The herring fishery considerably improved during the post-War period. The salmon fishery also yielded better returns, and the whale fishery showed a slight improvement. Efforts are being made to improve the curing and marketing of these products, to develop the canning industry and encourage the fishing for other species, heretofore neglected, but which it is believed could substantially augment the annual catch. The total value of the fishery products exported during the fiscal year ending June 1924 was $10,867,406. Forest Products —The development of the forest resources was very marked during the period 1910-25, notably in papermaking. The mills of the Anglo-Newfoundland Development Co., at Grand Falls, first designed to produce 200 tons of newsprint paper daily, were enlarged to produce another 75 tons, the additional mechanical pulp required being pumped through underground pipes from a subsidiary mill at Bishop’s Falls, gm. distant. In 1923 still larger mills were begun at Corner Brook on the Humber river, with a capacity of 400 tons of “ newsprint ” daily, by the Newfoundland Power and Paper Company. These mills were completed and officially opened in Aug. 1925. A third mill of similar capacity, to be located on the Gander river, on the east coast, was projected by the Reid Newfoundland Co. in 1925. Mills for the manufacture of mechanical pulp were also projected, and the island seems destined to develop into a great paper-producing centre. Lumbering on a small scale, entirely for local consumption, is also practised. ‘The total value of the exports of paper, pulp, etc., in 1923-4 was $5,955,725, as compared with $428,459 in 1909-10. Afinerals.—Mlineral development has been mainly connected with iron ore; The mines at Bell Island, which are estimated to contain 15% of the world’s total available supply, were only partially operated during the War years, and during the post-War period, owing to chaotic financial conditions in Europe, suffered considerably in their sales. After 1922, however, the export exceeded 1,000,000 tons annually, four-fifths going to Germany and the remainder to Nova Scotia. The total value of the mineral export in 1923-4 was $1,281,929. Mining otherwise has been on a small scale and without any substantial results. Finance and Trade.—With its population only slightly increased since rgrz, while its burdens have been almost doubled by War outlays and post-War reconstruction, Newfoundland has realised the necessity of encouraging other industries in order to avoid the former dependence on the fisheries. Hence the efforts to stimulate paper-making, mining, etc., and the adoption of tourist and other policies. Substantial success is being attained, so that emigration from the Island, which was very great in the immediate post-War period, had virtually ceased by 1925, while

a surplus revenue

and swelling bank

deposits attested

the

greater prosperity of the resident population. Trade has considerably improved since 1921~—2, as is shown by the table below. The increase in the value of imports for the year 1924-5 was due Year

ae

Po E

Revenue

E

ag

E

Imports | Exports

ee

1919-20 . /43,033,035|10,597, 561] 9,247,005 40,533,388|34,865,438

1920-1

49,033,767)

1922-3

54,957,705] 8,876,772] 9,552,301 19,321,824/20,956,863

1921-2 1923-4 1924-5!

55.0.30, 027| 00, 456,965

. ,68,964.665]

8 AaB, 039|10,949,053 28,909,727|22,441,267

8,269,680; 9,127,542 18,209,853/19,478,417 8,401 ,669]10,022,1 37: 27,677,182 21,071,571 9,783,188]

9.436,185'36,374,.674123,590, 186]

1 This amount includes an issue of $2,500,000.00 in Dec. 1925.

NEW

GUINEA—NEW

to the great demand for raw materials for development schemes, including the Corner Brook paper mill, the extension and repairs to the dry dock at St. John’s, and the re-laying of a section of the railway. Communications.—The railway system, over goo m. in length, with ro subsidiary steamers covering In-bay and coast routes, proved a great boon to trade during the War, but ceased to be

profitable after hostilities ended because of the increased cost of commodities and services. Annually recurring deficits, in some cases exceeding $1,000,000, proved too great a strain for the resources of the Reid Newfoundland Co., which was operating the entire system under a 50-year contract of which about 20 years had expired, and in 1923 the Government bought out the Reid interests for a payment of £2,000,000 and took over the railroad and the steamers. Since then, these public utilitics have been operated under direct Government control. The telegraph system, which is being gradually extended all over the seaboard, is similarly operated, and the wireless service has also been extended. The ocean steamship services have been gradually improving, and in 1925 the Government constructed a new steamer for the service which connects the Newfoundland railway system at Port-aux-Basques with the Canadian National Railway system at North Sydney. In the same year the Government decided on a policy of constructing modern highways, suitable for motor traffic, to link up the best scenic and sporting areas in the Island, and also secured the construction of a new modern hotel in St. John’s. BIRLIOGRAPHY.—H. M. Ami, North America, vol. 1; Canada and Newfoundland in Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel (London, 1915); J. P. Howley, The Boethucks or Red Indians, the Aboriginal Inhabitants of Newfoundland (Cambridge, 1915); Lord Birkenhead, The Story of Newfoundland (London, 1920); see also The Fisheries of Newfoundland; The Mineral Deposits of Newfoundland and The Forests of Newfoundland (British Empire Exhibition, 1924); Colonial Office Reports (annual); Colonial Office List (annual); Feur Book and Almanac of Newfoundland (annual, nO gt

NEW GUINEA: see PAPUA. NEW HAMPSHIRE (sce 19.490); a State of the United States of America. The population in 1920 was 443,083, a gain of 12,511 since 1910, or 2:9%, as against 4-6°% in the preceding decade. The urban population was in 1920, 279,761, or 63:1 °o of the whole, as against 59-2°9 in rgro. The estimated population in 1925 was 450,175. The population of the cight cities having more than 10,000 inhabitants was:— i i

i

I9IO

1920

|

IOIO

1020

Manchester | 70,063 | 78,384 | Portsmouth | 11,269 | Nashua 26,005 | 28,379 | Dover 13,247 | Concord 21,497 | 22,167 | Keene 10,068 Berlin 11,780 | 16,014 |} Laconia 10,183 |

Agriculture—-The statistics for farm property, changes from 1910 to 1920, are as follows:— 1910 Number of farms À . Value of farm property . } . Average acreage, all land Average acreage, improved land Av. value per ac. (farm property) .

| 27,053 |$103,704,196 120-1 i3 $31.91

13.569 13,029 11,210 10,897

showing

the

1920 20,523 $118,656,115

126-9 342 $45.57

Farms of from roo to 499 ac. constituted 42:9°% of the whole: farms of 20 ac. or less had the greatest proportion of land improved, 67-4°%5, and farms of over 1,000 ac. had the least— 13°3%. Of all farms 90-6°% were operated by owners, 2-7°% by managers, and 6-7°% by tenants, these percentages being without substantial change from 1910. Native farmers decreased from 24,347 in I9L0 to 20,509 in 1920. The table at top of next column shows the increase in agricultural production between 1909 and rot9. In 1925 Livestock included 32,000 horses, 121,000 milch cows, 32,000 other cattle, 18,000 sheep and 28,000 swine. . Forestry, Highways and Motors —The biennial report of the

forestry commission for the period ending June 30 1924 shows

HAMPSHIRE ce a

1045 a

ee

1909 Dairy products sold .

$5,130,057 12,112,260

All crops

Cereals i Hay and forage . Vegetables .

; . Potatoes . ‘ : Miscellancous crops . Orchard fruits and grapes Maple sugar and syrup .

; .

879,631 7,847,148 2,276,176

; i

1,204,620

200,845 730,703 182,341

19I9 $9,627,286

| |

23,509,665

1,456,623 13,616,378 5,228,489 2,952,351

480,804 2,420,837 440,250

a total of 47 state reservations containing 20,538 acres. The estimate of forest-bearing land in the State is 4,434,793 ac., of which the Federal Govt. owns 9-42°% and the state 46°%%. The total acreage of tree-bearing land is valued at about $95,000,000. The legislature of 1925 provided for the purchase of Franconia

Notch,

and

its dedication

“as a memorial

to

the men and women of New Hampshire who have served the nation in times of war.” The policy of establishing and maintaining state highways has been continued with increased scope. During the year ending Dec. 31 1924 the number of motor registrations was 71,929.

In 1923 there were

1,239 m. of steam

railway in the State: electric railways totalled 261 m. in length in 1Q24.

AManufactures.—According to the census of 1919 the nine leading industries, according to value of products, were: cotton goods, boots and shoes, paper and pulp, woollen goods, boot and shoe stock, lumber and timber products, worsted goods, foundry and machine shop products, and leather (tanned), ranging in value from $85,986,000, for the products of the first of these industries, to $7,309,000 for the last. The number of wageearners increased, 1914-9, from 78,993 to 83,074; female employees from 23,115 to 83,074; workers under 16 from 485 to 859; wage-earners in the group “ 48 hours and under” from 5°7°% to 65:6°%5. Manchester has the most wage-carners in the State, 25,512, Hillsborough county, containing Manchester and Nashua, has 44:6° of the total and manufactures 45-1°% of the products. The tendency noticed in 1914 toward the diminution of the number of small establishments and of the number of wage-earners In them continues. The following table shows the development from 1909 to 1919:— 1909 Establishments . Employees . Salaries and wages Value of products

1914

1919

1,961 1,736 1,499 84,191 55,013 90,332 % 40,391,440 | 46,523,733 |$ 92,538,743 164,581,019 | 182,843,863 | 407,204,934

Legistation.— Important Acts were those establishing a state Board of Conciliation and Arbitration; providing employers’ liability and workmen’s compensation; regulating child labour and hours of labour; providing for medical and surgical devices in factories; for safety and health of employees; and for reporting cf occupational diseases. The legislature of 1917 enacted a law prohibiting the manufacture and sale of spirituous liquors. The law took effect May 1 1918, superseding local option. Finances and Taxation.—The following figures show the increase in expenditures:— 1910

Revenue Payments | Debt . l Bonded Debt

.

|

1920

1924

. |B1,694,636.54)54, 344,322.20 95,176,948.75 1,662,694.07] 5,198,534.62 4$,296,724.69

:

1,203,20).33| 1.071,070.00|

3:040,524.17 2,580,500.00!

181,966.65

T,619,500.06

The increase in expenditures was on account of increased cost of maintaining public institutions and for highways. The iacrease in the bonded debt was nearly all due to the World War. In 1918 the State issued $500,000 of bonds to assist the Federal Govt. in the War; and in 1org it issued $1,489,000 in order to increase the war service recognition from $30 to proo for those who served. The total valuation of property for purposes of taxation in 1924 was $585,422,877; amount of taxes assessed was $14,599,100. The average rate was $2.49 per $100. Poll taxes assessed were 235,765 in number. The total valuation

1046

NEW

HAVEN—NEW

of all public utility companies was $51,252,200. The tax on the income of intangibles for two-thirds of the year was about $220,000.

Education.—Important work was done in 1918 by the state committee on Americanisation. In the parochial elementary schools the principle was established that instruction in designated branches and in administration should be exclusively in English. In the large industrial plants the plan was largely carried out by evening schools for adults. The system of public instruction was reorganised by the legislature of 1919. In the bill “ the work of Americanisation is hereby declared to be an essential part of public-school education.” The legislature of 1923 changed the name of the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts to the University of New Hampshire, and the legislature of 1925 provided for it a stable annual revenue of one mill on every dollar of assessed valuation. History.—The Ninth Constitutional Convention, held in 1912, submitted to the voters r2 amendments, of which four received the necessary two-thirds vote, namely, defranchisement for treason, bribery and deliberate violation of the election laws; the substitution of plurality for majority vote in the election of governor, councillors and senators; extension of the Jurisdiction of police courts; the substitution of a basis of population for that of property in the election of councillors. In 1915 the office of assistant attorney-general was created, and the number of bank commissioners was reduced to three, and in 1925 to one, and their term of office was made six years. The Railroad

Commission became the Public Service Commission in rgit, its powers were enlargel, and the term of office of the three members was made six years. In 1913 the lish and Game Commission was reorganised, and the number of commissioners reduced from three to one. The Department of Public Instruction was reorganised in 1913, so that the superintendent holds office indefinitely; it was again reorganised in rọrọ. In 1913 the Department of Agriculture was reorganised with a commissioner instead of a board, and in 1915 it was further In rorct the name Board of Nqualisation was reorganised. changed to Tax Commission; the members were reduced from five to three, and the tenure of office was extended from two to

five years. The Bureau of Labour was reorganised In rorr, and in r9£3 a Board of Arbitration and Conciliation was organised to work with it. In 1913 the License Commission was reorganised, in rots it was again reorganised and its name was changed to Excise Commission. The Highway Department was reorganised in 1915 with a highway commissioner at its head appointed by the governor for five years. A Department of Institutions was created in 1913 and reorganised in 1919. The State institutions were managed by seven trustees, consisting of the governor and one member of the council, ex officio, and five appointed trustees. The institutions governed by the department were the prison, the hospital, the sanatorium, the industrial school, and the school for feeble-minded children. The legislature of 1925 vetoed bills to abolish the direct primary, and to limit the working hours of women and children to 48 per week, and permitted

absentees to vote for President of the United States, made examination of the finances of the state institutions, and revised the salaries of state officers. The governors after 1910 were: Robert R. Bass (Rep.), 1911-2; Samuel D. Felker (Dem.), 1913-4; Rolland H. Spaulding (Rep.), 1915-6; Ilenry W. Keyes (Rep.), 1917-8; John H. Bartlett (Rep.), 1919-20; Albert O. Brown (Rep.), 1921-2; Fred H. Brown (Dem.), 1923-4; John G. Winant (Rep.), 1925- . (E. J. B.) NEW HAVEN, Conn., U.S.A. (see 19.499), enlarged its boundaries to include 22:4 sq. m. by 1925. Its population grew to 162,537 in 1920 (of whom 4,573 were negroes and 45,686 foreign-born), and was estimated by the Census Bureau at 178,927 in 1925. The varied output of its factories was valued at $50,870,000 in 1909; $125,455,000 in 1919; $113,924,862 in 1923, when there were 483 establishments, employing 26,108 wage-earners. The Cedar Hill classification yard of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Co., covering 1,160 ac.,

JERSEY

had a capacity of 11,000 cars in 1925. Additions to the park system, including a large acreage with a bathing beach at Lighthouse Point, brought the total area to 1,549 acres. There were 59 public grade schools, a manual training school, two high schools (one for commercial training) and two junior high schools, with a total enrolment of 34,315 pupils. New construction included hotels, industrial and commercial buildings, a railway station, and buildings for Yale University (g.v.). NEW HEBRIDES: see OCEANIA. NEW JERSEY (see 19.501), a State of the United States of America. In 1920 the population was 3,155,900, as against 2,537,167 in I910, an increase of 618,733, or 24-4°%. The population in July 1925 was estimated at 3,506,428. The density of the population, exceeded in the United States only by that of Rhode Island and Massachusetts, averaged 426 to the sq. m. in 1925. The proportion of people living in places of 2,500 or more inhabitants increased from 75-2°% in 1910 to 78-7% in 1920—the urban population in 1920 being 2,482,289; the rural, 673,611. The ro largest cities, with populations in 1925 as estimated by the census bureau, are as follows: Newark, 445,606; Jersey City, 312,157; Paterson, 140,637; Trenton, 129,705;

Camden, 126,399; Elizabeth, 106,251; Bayonne, 86,582; Hoboken, 68,166; Passaic, 68,045; and East Orange, 58,284. Agriculttre.—TVhe State is steadily developing its industries, and is tending towards specialisation in agricultural production,

particularly the production of fruits and vegetables.

Between

tore and 1925 the number of farms decreased at the rate of about 1:5% per annum. Vocational training in agriculture in the public schools was made possible by Acts of ror4 and 1917. County farm demonstrators have been established since ro13 in 18 of the 21 counties in the State. The years 1920-5 witnessed a rapid extension of the highway systems, and the motor-truck has developed into the chief transportation unit for agricultural products. In ro25 there were 39 farmers’ co-operative organisations in the State. The dairy industry is confined mainly to the production of milk for consumption in New York, Philadelphia, and other large cities. The variation in the number of the chief farm animals from 1920-5 was as follows:— Livestock Swine Dairy Cows Horses and Mules

1925 No.

1920 Value

113,000 |S 1,978,000] 153,000 | 11,475,000] 73,000 | 8,035,000]

No.

Value

139,000 |4 3,503,000 148,000 | 18,944,000 79,000 | 12,201,000

Livestock products were worth about $20,000,000 in 1920, and approximately $15,000,000 in 1925. There are about 2,750,000 chickens on farms, and considerable numbers in urban districts, producing nearly 15,000,000 dozens of eggs each year, worth about $6,000,000. Poultry products other than eggs bring the total value up to about $10,000,000. ‘The State ranks among the leaders in the commercial production of many crops, viz.: peaches, sweet corn for market, sweet potatoes, asparagus, string beans, lima beans, tomatoes, early Irish potatoes, peppers and egg-plants. The most important single crop is hay, although it is not raised for sale to any extent, being largely used for feeding livestock on the farms. The total value of the tame hay crop in 1925 was $8,584,000. ‘The corn crop of 1925 was worth over $7,820,000 and was produced on about 206,000 acres. ‘he value of the wheat crop in 1924 exceeded $2,100,000. The oat crop is gradually declining in importance, the climate being too warm for the highest yields; in 1924 the crop occupied approximately 67,000 ac., and the product was worth about $1,372,000. Rye, grown on 65,000 ac., was valued at $1,286,000, and buckwheat at about $250,000. The total net value of New Jersey’s agricultural production each year is nearly $100,000,000, as compared with manufactured and mineral products worth over one and three-quarter billion dollars. Mining —The output of zinc ore in 1923 was 584,891 tons. The iron-mining industry, which from about too mines attained a maximum output of nearly 1,000,000 tons in 1882 and then

NEW

1047

MEXICO

declined, has revived, and the post-War annual production was about 400,000 tons. Eight iron mines were actively operated in 1923. Raw clay production in 1923 was 375,854 tons: the total value of clay and clay products in 1923 was $47,618,171, of which $23,836,455 was for pottery. The State possesses in the green sand (marl) deposits vast stores of potash, 10,656 tons of which, valued at $131,123, were mined in 1923 and used chielly

for softening water. Manuf icturing —About 17°% of the population is actively engaged in manufacturing. It ranks first in the list of States in the smelting and refining of copper, in the refining of oil, in shipbuildiaz, in dyeing and finishing textiles, and in the manufacture of paving materials, phonogranphs and = upholstering materials; second in the manufacture of linoleum and silk goods;

thirt in the manufacture of iron and steel, pottery and electric fixtures; and fourth in the manufacture of electrical machinery and paper goods. In 1923 the value of the products of ths State’s 8,766 manufacturing establishments was $3,321,301,524; wages pul to 417,918 employees amou ited to $578,999,234Educ ufion.—The Russell Saze Foundation, after an exhaustive

examination of the public-school systems of the various States, ranked New Jersey in ro20 first anmonz the States east of the Mississippi river, and fourth in the whole country, and added that it was “ the only State in the eastern division that has gainel in relative rank during a period of 28 years, 1890-1918.” The State Board of Education, which had consisted of eight menbers, was enlarzed in ro2r to ro, of whom at least two must be women. In 1923-4 the total enrolment of pupils was 715,877, an increase of 136,9146 over 1916. The number of teachers was 22,693; of school buiklings, 2,210. Nearly 310,000 pupils receivel manual or industrial training of some sort, and 16,099 son2 form of vocational training. The current expense for op2riting the schools during the year 1923-4 was $63,528,320, an increase over that of ro18-9 of $38,077,241. Of this total more thin $38,500,000 was for salaries of teachers, superin-

tendents and principils, the averarze salary being $1,757. The Catholic parochial schools numbered 201 in 1924, with about 91,009 pupils. A lezislative Act of ror7 designated the State colleze (Rutgers) which in 1923-4 had 2,653 students, as the * State University of New Jersey.” A collere for women afiliated with it was opened in Sept. r918. Stevens Institute of Technolozy in r924 had an attendance of 529; Princeton, of 2,446 (sce PRINCETON UNIVERSITY). Legist uwion.—For more than two generations New Jersey had sedulously fostered the agzrezation of capital in corporate form, but this policy was reversed by the passage in 1913 of the seri23 of Acts widely known as the “ Seven Sisters,” the purpose of which was the elimination of the power of trusts to create monopoly, limitation of production, price-fixing and restraint of trade. In 1920 the lezislature proposed and the people ratified

an issue of bonds to the amount of $28,000,000 for the construction of a bridge across the Delaware and a tunnel under the Hudson river. Bonds subsequently authorised for the highway systen and water-supply conservation brought this total, in 1925, to $76,000,000. The laws governing elections were radically changed in rorr and subsequently, by provisions extending the application of the direct primary law and providing the blanket ballot and safeguards azainst frauds. In igri also, the commission form of municipal government was introduced. The Practice Act of 1912 is noteworthy as simplifying procedure in the courts. The legislation of this period further embraced the following subjects: the regulation and control of public utilities; jury reform; employers’ liability; workmen’s compensation; conditions and. hours of labour; labour of women and children; juvenile courts; sanitary and safety conditions; motor vehicle control; a State system of highways; inheritance and bank stock taxation; regulation of insurance; water supply; food laws and storage of food; civil service in state and municipalities; state administration of municipal sinking funds; and the establishment of a police force. Political History.—Woodrow Wilson was elected governor in Igo as candidate of the Democratic party, receiving a plurality

of 49,056; in 1912 Wilson secured a plurality of 24,873. He lost the State to Hughes in r916 by 57,964 plurality. In 1924 Coolidge (Rep.} received 675,162 votes; Davis (Dem.) 300,743In the elections for the State executive the Democratic party was successful from roro~25 with the exception of the election

in 1916. From ror4 the Republicans controlled both branches of the Legislature. In 1925, of the 21 Senators, 18 were Republicans, 3 Democrats; in the Assembly there were 13 Democrats; the other 47 were Republicans. Despite the predominantly Republican complexion of recent New Jersey politics, no Republican governor was elected later than 1916, a fact largely due to the anti-prohibition stand of the Democratic party in the state.

New Jersey’s James P. Fielder James P. Fielder, Runyon (acting),

governors were: Woodrow Wilson, 1011-3; (acting), r913; Leon R. Taylor (acting), 1914; ror4-7; Walter E. Edge, 1917-9; William N. t9t9-20; Edward I. Edwards, 1920-3; George

S. Silzer, 1923-6; A. IIarry Moore, 1926- . (W. N. R.) NEW MEXICO (see 19.520), a State of ihe United States of America. The estimated population in 1025 was 379,074. The population In 1920 Was 360,350, as against 327,301 In Iolo, an increase of 33,049, or 10-1%. The urban population (in places of 2,500 inhabitants or more) in 1920 was 18% of the total. ‘The average number of inhabitants per sq. m. in 1920 was 2:9. The following table shows the growth of the principal cities for the period 1910-20:— City

1920

IQIO

Increase

15,157 7,236 7,033 5,544 4.90]

11,020 5,072 6,172 4,539

375 42°7 13:0 22-1] 50-7

o

Albuquerque Santa Fé Roswell . Raton . Clovis .

. i

; ; i

; ; ;

À ; i

cLgriculture.-—During the period rg10-25 the number of farms decrease:l from 35,676 to’ 31,087. Farm-land increased from 11,270,021 ac. in 19ro to 24,400,653 ac. in 1920, or 116:6; improved land from 1,467,191 ac. to 1,717,224 ac. or 17%. The value of farm property rose from $150,447,000 in Irọro to $325,185,099 in 1020. The average acreage per farm in 1920 was r719; in roro it was 315-09. The average value of land per acre decreased [rom $8.77 in 1910 to $8.04 in 1920. Of the 29,844 farmers in 1920, 25,756 were owners, 433 managers and 3,655 tenants. The figures in respect to the chief agricultural products

in the years 1999 and 1924 are shown in the following table:— Crop

Corn Wheat

Beans

Year

Area

Production

| |

7

Value In >

1924 | 210,000 ac. | 4,200,000 bu. | 4,620,000

1909 | 85,999

1,164,970

984,052

1924 1909

2,551,000

3,188,000

163,000

32,341

1924 | 110,000 190) | 20,766

Hay and forage | 1924 | 175,000

1909 | 370,596

499,799

559,000 55.795

508,726 2,090,000 232,023

309,000 tons}

4,759,000

433.504

4,493,918

Of livestock on farms Jan. 1 1925 it was estimated that there were 167,000 horses, valued at $6,179,000; 21,000 mules, valued at $1,218,000; 1,009,000 beef cattle, valued at $21,604,000; 47,000 dairy cattle, valued at $2,115,000; 60,000 swine, valued at $660,000; and 2,360,000 sheep, valued at $18,172,000. The production of wool in 1924 was estimated at 12,408,000 lb., as against 15,076,000 Ib. in toro. In 1920 the number of farms irrigated was 11,390; the area irrigated was 538,377 ac., or 31-4°% of the improved land in farms. The capital invested in irrigation enterprises was $18,210,412 In 1920, as against $0,134,807 in roto. Manufactures —Between 1914 and roro the capital invested increased from $8,984,000 lo $15,226,000, or 69°5°6; and the

value of products of manufacturing

establishments

increased

NEW ORLEANS—NEW

1048

from $9,320,000 in I914 to $20,422,126 in 1923, or 119%. The operation of steam-railway repair shops is the leading industry, as measured either by the number of wage-earncrs or by the value of the products. Transportation.—In 1923 the railway mileage of New Mexico was 2,959, excluding switches and sidings. The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé railway owned almost half of the total. Mineral Producis.—The total value for 1922 was $18,038,022, as compared with $40,631,024 in 1918. The chief products in 1922 were: coal, 3,100,000 (in 1924, 2,550,000) short tons; copper, 31,037,207 {in 1924, 78,145,629) lb.; silver, 752,240 (in 1024, 783,338) oz.; gold, 19,964 (in 1924, 24,207) 0z.; also zinc and lead. In addition, granite, marble, limestone and sandstone are quarried. Education.—On June 30 1924 the total school enrolment was 80,368. The number of school houses was 1,551, made up as follows: 1,358 public elementary schools, 164 public high schools, 26 Indian schools and three public normal schools. ‘The University of New Mexico, at Albuquerque, founded in 1889, had in 1923 457 students and 23 professors. The Museum of New Mexico, established at Santa Fé in 1909 in the historic palace, built about 1630, of the governors of the old Spanish province, contains a notable library of works on general linguistics and a remarkable collection illustrating American archaeology. The Archaeological Institute of America maintains there a special

school of American research. Finance.—For the first seven years of statehood—Dec. 1 torr to Nov. 30 1918—the aggregate State expenditure was $15,573,017, and county expenditure $34,227,143, making a total of $49,800,960. State receipts amounted to $16,520,448, and county receipts $34,235,224, making a total of $50,755,672. At the end of that period the bonded State debt was $3,385,500; county, $2,972,335; city, town and village, $3,250,000; school, $1,800,000, making a total of $11,407,835. The total assessed valuation of property was $360,961,891. In 1923 this total valuation had fallen to $313,065,248, upon which taxes were levied amounting to $1,493,625, being $7.03 per capita of the population. At the close of 1923 the funded debt amounted to $4,035,500, the net debt being $3,047,875, or $10.61 per caupiia. Legislation —In 1917 a workmen’s compensation law was enacted. In 1org legislative acts included the establishment of State mounted police; a child’s welfare bureau; an annual franchise tax on corporation; state inheritance and income taxes; provisions, on petition, for the teaching of Spanish in high schools; and the establishment of night schools for illitcrates. In r918 an amendment to the constitution prohibited the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors after Oct. 1 1918 (28,732 for, 12,147 against). In rọrọ the State Legislature ratified the prohibition amendment to the Federal Constitution, and in 1920 the amendment extending the right of suffrage to women. History—The most important historical fact concerning New Mexico during the period 1910-25 was its admission into the Union, Jan. 6 1912, as the 47th state. Following the Enabling Act, passed by Congress June 20 1o10, the territorial governor ordered an election of delegates to frame a constitution. The election was held Sept. 6 roro; the convention, consisting of 71 Republicans and 29 Democrats, assembled Oct. 3; and the adopted constitution was approved by the people Jan. 31 1911. The vote was 31,742 for and 13,300 against. The chief opposition came from the voters who favoured the inclusion of state prohibition. In 1916 the Elephant Butte Dam, under active construction since 1910, was completed by the United States Reclamation Service at a cost of about $5,000,000. It is situated 12 m. west of Engle, Sierra county, and, built across canyons of the Rio Grande, governs the entire flow of the river and is one of the largest storage irrigation reservoirs in the world.

The

average

width

of the reservoir

is ri m.;

maximum length 45 m.; area of water surface when full, 40,080 ac.; shore line, 200 m.; average depth, 66 f{t.; and maximum depth near the dam, 193 feet. When full it holds 115.498 million cu. fl., or 862,200 million gallons. It irrigates 185,000 ac. of lani! lying in New Mexico, Texas and Mexico.

SOUTH WALES

The last territorial governor was W. J. Mills (Rep.), 1910-2. State governors were: W. C. McDonald (Dem.), 1912-7; Ezequiel de Baca (Dem.), Jan. 1-Feb. 18 1917; W. E. Lindsey (Rep.), 1917-9; A. Larrazolo (Rep.), ror9g-21; M. C. Mechem (Rep.), 1921-3; James T°. Hinkle (Dem.), 1923-5; A. T. Hannett (Dem.), 1925- . NEW ORLEANS, La., U.S.A. (see 19.526), increased in population 14-2% in the decade after 1910, reaching 387,219 in 1920 (of whom 100,930 were negroes and 25,992 foreign-born), and 414,493 in 1925 according to the Census Bureau estimate. Foreign commerce grew from 3,754,705 net tons in rgr1 to 9,239,546 in 1923; coastwise

commerce

from

733,021

net tons to 4,385,166;

and the Mississippi-Warrior river Federal Barge Line, established in 1918, handled 849,503 tons of cargoin 1924. Harbour facilities and equipment were muchimproved. Thestate commission which administers the port had by 1925 built wharves, steel sheds, public cotton warehouses, a grain elevator, a coal and ore tipple and a bulk commodity handling plant, along six miles of the 41 m. frontage on the Mississippi river. Railway terminals, U.S. Govt. wharves and the private wharves and warchouses of over 30 industries, brought the total improved frontage to about nine miles, with berthing space for 90 vesscls 500 ft. long. The board of port commissioners constructed (1918-23), at a cost of about $20,000,000, the Inner Harbour Navigation canal, commonly called the Industrial canal, 5$ m. long, which crosses the city from the Mississippi to Lake Pontchartrain, serving as an inner harbour with still water, a navigation artery with advantageous industrial sites on its banks and on the banks of its proposed laterals, and which will eventually, after the construction of the necessary channels, provide a shorter route to the sea. The output of the manufacturing establishments within the city limits was valued at $135,184,088 in 1923, as compared with $78,794,000 in 1909. For the entire industrial area, with some 1,200 factories instead of 648, the value would be perhaps double that amount. By 1925 about $39,000,000 had been expended on the water drainage and sewerage system begun in 1903; there were 661 m. of water mains and 547 m. of sewers. The death-rate, though still high (17-7 per 1,000 in 1923), had decreased appreciably. Enrolment in the public schools (1924) was 59,954; in Tulane University, 2,605; 1n Loyola University, established in 1911, 870. Public improvements and important new buildings under construction in Oct. 1925, or planned for the immediate future, represented a valuation of about $200,000,000. The cost of living is relatively low (93-2°> of the average for 31 American cities, Dec. 1924). The commission form of government was adopted in 1912. The governing body is the commission council, consisting of the mayor and four other commissioners, elected for four years.

NEWPORT,

Monmouthshire,

England (see 19.533), with an

area of 5,020 ac. and apopulation of 92,369 in 1921 has developed into one of the chief ports of Great Britain. Over 7,000,000 tons of goods were dealt with in 1913, and trade is now again expected to increase. A number of large factories have been erected in recent years on and near the Usk, and the national cartridge and box repairing factory was established here during the World War. Shipbuilding has increased in importance. A sea lock, with a length of 1,000 ft. which gives direct access to the Bristol Channel and brings the port 13 m. nearer to the sea, was opened

in 1913, and has resulted in the calling of an increased number of large ships. The town has grown rapidly under a townplanning scheme, ancl extensive building has been carried out at Somerleyton and St. Julian’s. The electricity and water services are being extended. The diocese of Monmouthshire formed in 1921, has the church of St. Woolos, Stow ITill, as its pro-cathedral. The parishes of St. Matthew, St. Julian and St. Andrew have been formed, largely out of that of Maindee. In 1924 it was decided to remodel the town market. The ruins of a castle on the Usk were given to the corporation in 1924, on condition that they should be restored and preserved. NEW SOUTH WALES (sce 19.537), a state of the Australian Commonwealth. Its area of 309,432 sq.m. had in 1925 a popula-

1049

NEWSPAPERS tion of 2,271,944, 67:8% of which was urban, an increase of 625,210 since IgIt. Political History —In 1910 the first Labour

Government of the State was returned, with Mr. J.S. T. McGowen as Premier, followed by another Labour Government in 1913-14, with Mr. W. A. Holman as Premier. In the latter year the Liberals and Moderate Labour formed a coalition Government which held office until 1920. Between 1920 and 1925 power alternated between Labour and the Nationalists supported by the Progressive party. Industrial legislation passed after 1918 included provision for a basic wage and a 44-hour week. The Lang Labour Government in 1925 was the first Government in Australia to carry a measure providing pensions for widows. An attempt in 1926 to abolish the Legislative Council was defeated by the Council. A movement for the formation of new States within New South Wales gained much prominence during the post-War period. The movement aims at decentralisation from Sydney by the opening up of deep-sea ports north of Sydney served direct by railways from the producing centres. Production.—New South Wales produces nearly one-half of the wool, one-fourth of the agricultural products, two-thirds of the minerals and some 45°% of the manufacturing output of the Commonwealth. Whilst wool was still the principal product in 1925, agriculture had made great progress. A vigorous Stateaided migration policy between r910 and 10914 brought large numbers of settlers from Great Britain for work on the Jand. The area under wheat increased from 2,128,000 ac. in 1g1r to 3,543,000 ac. in 1925 and the yield from 27,913,000 bu. to 59,785,coobushels. Bulk handlingof wheat was introduced in 1920. Dairy production also steadily increased, and in 1921 the output was more than 100,000,000 pounds. The industry is highly organised, the butter factories being’ run on a co-operative basis under the strict supervision of Government experts. Trrigation.—Irrigation schemes carricd out by the New South Wales Govt. are playing a big part in the development of the State. The Murrumbidgee Irrigation Scheme, the main feature of which is a storage dam across the Murrumbidgee river at Burrinjuck to retain the flood waters, will ultimately serve water to an area over 200,000 ac. in extent devoted to fruit and vegetable growing, dairying and stock-raising: the district

is one of the greatest fruit-producing centres of the State and has a large output of fresh, canned and dried fruits. A fruitcanning factory has been erected and is operated by the Government, which processes fruit grown by the settlers. The Government is also co-operating with the Commonwealth, Victorian and South Australian Governments in the scheme to lock the waters of the River Murray. Minerals and Manufactures —Broken Hill is the great centre of silver production in Australia. In 1913 the output of ore from its mines amounted to the record figure of 1,744,000 tons. In 1923 the production of ore was 878,537 tons, from which 7,233,236 oz. of silver, 124,570 tons of lead and 41,153 tons of zinc were produced. New South Wales is the principal coal-producing State, the output in 1923 exceeding 10,000,000 tons, and is the centre of the iron and steel trade. In 1923 the Lithgow Iron Works produced from local ores 94,350 tons of pig iron. The Newcastle Iron and Steel Works, established by the Broken Hill Proprietary Co. in rors, produced in 1924 327,809 tons of pig iron and 302,384 tons of steel ingots. The works are capable of producing from 8,oco to 10,000 tons of ingot steel weekly. The total value of the manufacturing output of New South Wales in 1924 was £146,359,260 of which metal works and machinery accounted for £38,121,000, food and drink, etc., £40,789,000 and clothing and textile fabrics {13,684,c00. In 1924 there were 11 woollen and tweed mills in the State, besides a large number of hosiery and knitting mills. In 1923 the first up-to-date mill for the manufacture of cotton goods was erected in Sydney for the treatment of Australian-grown cotton. In ro24 the value of the output was £361,773. Besides undertakings of a national character, such as the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Works and the Walsh Island Dockyards, the State has engaged in various industrial enterprises

since r191r, when the brick works at Homebush and metal quarries were established. In 1913 the State took over the Monier Pipe Industry. All three enterprises were operating profitably in 1925. Other enterprises, such as the state bakery, state timber yards and state trawlers, were established but ultimately abandoned as unprofitable. Sydney, the capital and principal port, had at Dec. 31 1924 a population of 1,012,000, 45% of the total for the State. Other towns of importance are Newcastle, the coal-mining centre; Broken Hill, silver Zinc and lead mining; and Tamworth, Bathurst, Goulburn, Wagga and Albury, pastoral and agricultural centres. (Sce AUSTRALIA.) NEWSPAPERS (see 19.544).—The outstanding feature of the newspaper world during the years 1910-25 is the remarkable change that has come over the Press in Great Britain during that period by the formation of great newspaper trusts and amalgamations, the elimination of the financially weaker journals and the enormous expansion of the popular illustrated newspapers. I. PRESS

ENTERPRISE

IN GREAT

BRITAIN

At the beginning of 1910 there were 2,331 newspapers in the United Kingdom, distributed as follows: London, with the postal area, 414, of which 23 were morning dailies and 7 evening dailies; the English provinces, including localised issues, 1,342, of which 46 were morning and 76 evening dailies; Wales, 118, including 4 morning and 4 evening dailies; Scotland, 258, including 8 morning and to evening dailies; Ireland, 183, including IO morning and 7 evening dailies; the British Isles, 16, of which 5 are dailies. After 26 years the newspapers, in spite of the addition to the population, had decreased owing to amalgamations and cessations, to 2,r49 in Great Britain and Ireland, distributed as follows: London, 406, of which 23 were morning, including specialist papers (Jewish Express, in Hebrew, Jewish Times, Lloyd's List, and Lloyd’s Daily Index), and three evening dailies (and the Jewish Evening News, published in Whitechapel). The newspapers in the English provinces and Wales, including localised issues, numbered 1,330, of which 37 were morning and 79 evening dailies; Scotland, 235, including 7 morning and 9 evening dailies; Ireland, 166, including 8 morning and 6 evening dailies; the British Isles, 16, of which 5 were dailies. While the number of newspapers has decreased, the sales in the period have more than doubled. Up to the year of the World War the halfpenny newspaper gained in popularity and prestige. [Following upon the unprecedented success of The Daily Mail, which had become a national newspaper, with simultaneous publication in London and Manchester begun during the Boer War, other newspapers had come down to a halfpenny, including the old established Daily News and Daily Chronicle. These papers appealed to a new and wider public and were made interesting to the masses. The new class of readers included women and young pcople, who had hitherto been only occasional patrons of the daily Press. Space was devoted to social news, personal gossip, magazine features and scrial stories, which had a stabilising effect on sales. The late Lord Northcliffe was the first journalist to see the significance of women readers. Not only did the attraction of women readers mean a wider public, but it stimulated advertising. The remarkable success of The Daily Mail was due primarily to the intlux of advertisements which appealed specially to women. The introduction of the half-tone pictures to illustrate the news of the day was another new element in extending the sphere of the daily Press and in popularising it. The continued journalistic and commercial success of the halfpenny newspaper had created a revolution in the newspaper world and made it increasingly difficult for the old-fashioned provincial newspapers to prosper.

The World War brought other changes. At first, like all other industries, except those concerned with the production of munitions or In some way associated with catering for the

NEWSPAPERS

1050

forces, the Press was disorganised. The Government recognised that the Press was an essential element in national effort, and facilities were granted to newspapers, both in regard to obtaining materials and in retaining man power. For the first time also, war correspondents became more than camp followers, were granted uniforms and became officially attached to armies. Many papers suffered losses in the earlier years of the World War, but adapted themselves to the emergency, and made up in profits on sales for what they lost in advertisements. In the boom period after the War their prosperity increased amazingly. The post-War period brought more amalgamations and organisation of syndicates.

Picture

Papers.—Encouraged

by

the

support

which

he

received from women readers of The Daily Mail and of his many weekly variety papers, Lord Northcliffe issued a newspaper which was to be edited by women for women. He produced Lhe Daily Mirror, intended to be a higher type of paper than The Daily Mail, and to appeal more to the interests of seriousminded women. It was stillborn. It was Lord Northcliffe’s greatest failure. It was a lucky failure. The paper which was intended to be the women’s Times was transformed into the first illustrated daily newspaper, and became, with its offshoot, The Sunday Pictortat, as great a financial success as The Daily Mail. A new type of paper was thereby added to daily journalism. Other picture papers were started, and every newspaper was by-and-by led to introduce half-tone illustrations. The Times, The Daily Telegraph and The Aforning Post were the last to adopt the new feature. Press photographers became as indispensable as reporters; photo-engraving was a new big industry associated with the Press. The first phase in the popularisation of the Press was the growth of the halfpenny paper which began with The Morning Leader in 1892, followed by The Daily Mail in 1896. Next came the establishment of the illustrated paper beginning with The Daily Mirror in 1903. Another development has been the introduction of features specially for children, which, in the case of the illustrated dailies, has become a big factor in circulation. There has been a general adoption of a system of insurance, the object of which is to keep up sales, and, for the same reason, cross-word and other puzzles and competitions are introduced, including competitions in connection with sport. The Evening Press—One of the more remarkable developments of the post-War period has been the great progress of the evening Press in its earning capacity and its circulation. In these respects it has gone ahead in the provinces. The average man in provincial cities has little time to read the morning paper, but devotes his leisure to the evening sheet when his day’s work is finished. Thus it comes about that the conditions of modern life favour the evening Press, which is accordingly in a state of increasing prosperity. The local evening paper is not subject to the competition from national newspapers from which the provincial morning papers suffer. Some of the latter have gone under, others are kept alive by evening papers issued under the same ownership. The trend of events indicates that before many years there will not be in England more than a dozen provincial morning newspapers run on a commercial basis. The demand for net sales forced by Lord Northcliffe, and taken up by the Association of British Advertising Agents, has had a prejudicial effect on country morning newspapers with small sales, although the value of publicity cannot always be measured by numbers. Much depends on the class of paper and the nature of the goods advertised. London has fewer evening papers per head of the population than any city in the world. There were once nine evening papers in the metropolis. In ro1g there were six. In 1926 there were three. The old-established Globe was absorbed by Tre Pall Mall Gazette which in 1924 was taken over by The Evening Standard when the latter was acquired by Lord Beaverbrook, while The Westminster Gazette retired from the evening field, in which it occupied a distinctive and influential position, and joined the morning newspaper journals among which competi-

tion was intensely keen. The three existing evening papers, which have a monopoly of circulation in a population of over 10,000,000 living within ro m. of Fleet street, are The Evening News, belonging to the Rothermere Press, The Evening Standard, controlled by Lord Beaverbrook, but in which Lord Rothermere has a 49%, interest, and The Star, issued by The Daily News. Glasgow, with a population of a little over 1,000,000 publishes three evening newspapers—two belonging to The Glasgow Heraid—which contain far more news than the London evening Press. Indeed, the provincial evening newspapers, as a rule, contain more reading matter than their London contemporaries. Phe Sunday Press.—The colossal growth in the sale and prosperity of Sunday newspapers since the World War is of particular significance in the light which it throws on the changed outlook of the nation towards its duties, moral and ethical. A few of these journals show continual improvement in make-up and matter; but the big circulations are practically monopolised by those which pander to the more sordid tastes of the masses. The Sunday newspaper is a national paper. By special trains it is circulated all over the country. In order to reach the uttermost parts early editions are printed on Friday night. Sunday newspapers represent almost the best, and certainly the worst, of English journalism. If we exclude the Sunday illustrated papers, which are of a special type, the less creditable productions have the largest sales. Te Observer and The Sunday Limes are in a category by themselves and consist chiefly of

Saturday’s news home and foreign and special features.

Fol-

lowing upon these, but of a more popular type, come The Sundiy Express, The Weekly Dispatch and The Sunday News, while the large sellers give more space to the news of the week, or of the world, selecting the most sensational stories of crimes, and serving up the reports of unsavoury law cases, although several days old. The majority of the Sunday papers give such full accounts of Saturday’s news and sport that they make inroads into the former news province of the Monday paper. On April 16 1926 a bill was introduced by Sir Evelyn Cecil and supported by the Government for restricting the publication of the reports of judicial proceedings “in such a manner as to prevent injury to public morals.” The second reading was carried by a majority of 222 to 3. The General Strike and the Press.—A development of the coal dispute in England, which came to a head at the end of April 1926 was a general strike organised by the General Council of the Trades Union Congress. It began on May 3, being precipitated by the action of members of the National Society of Operative Printers and Assistants in the office of the London Daily Mail, who objected to the opinions expressed in an editorial article. As the editor refused to accept their dictation, the men left work, although other sections of trade unionists, including the compositors, process engravers and telegraphists employed in the office did not then join the strike. Stoppages of other newspapers, before the general strike was formerly declared, followed, and for the same reasons, viz.: that the National Society of Operative Printers and Assistants objected either to opinions expressed. or to certain items of news. The strike developed quickly and paralysed newspaper production. It was the direct cause of the break off tn negotiations by the Government for the settlement of the coal dispute. Interference with the freedom of the Press was considered by the Government to be an overt act and they called upon the Trades Union Council to withdraw the strike notices, as a condition precedent to the resumption of the negotiations. The trade union leaders did not accept this suggestion and the strike became general. The policy adopted was not consistent in regard to newspapers, nor was the suppression of the Press complete. While Tke Daily Mail of Monday, May 3, was suppressed in London it was permitted to appear in Manchester and was circulated throughout the country. In some towns the employees of newspapers were not in agreement with the general

strike policy and resumed work. Newspapers began to appear in the first instance mostly by photographic processes, but in two or four diminutive pages

NEWSPAPERS which were gradually increased in size as voluntary labour was obtained. Yhe Limes appeared as a four-page paper two days after the strike took place. The Government issued an oficial paper, The British Gazelle, containing all news relating to the strike, describing the action of the Government to meet the national emergency, and appeals to all classes to help in maintaining the supremacy of Parliament and constitutional action, The Trades Union Council, which was placed in charge of the strike, produced an official organ entitled Tke British Worker by trade union labour. The newspaper and periodical business probably suffered more by the strike than any other industry, as a considerable proportion of the stafi had to be retained and heavy general expenses incurred. The general strike was called off under the Government’s original conditions, on Thursday,

May 13, and after negotiations the newspapers resumed normal publication on Tuesday the 18th. One condition of the settlement was that “ there shall be no interference with the contents of newspapers owned by members of this association ” (7.e., the association of newspaper proprietors), and other conditions were agreed to by both parties which considerably reduced the powers hitherto exercised by trade unions without, however,

modifying the policy of collective bargaining. THE

ERA

OF AMALGAMATIONS

The great change in the British Press was begun by Lord Northcliffe in promoting limited liability companies to take over Harmsworth Bros., and afterwards The Evening News. Amalgamations and groupings of papers followed. Referring to this phase of newspaper development Sir Robert Donald, in an address at York, as president of the Institute of Journalists in 1913, said: “ combination has been the chief characteristic of industry all over the world, and the Press could not remain outside this tendency. One company sometimes owns or controls a series of newspapers. There have been absorptions, amalgamations and alliances, with the result that vast aggregations of capital have been built up in which thousands of shareholders are interested. These agglomerations, piling up power and wealth, are controlled by the same forces which operate in

other fields of industrial activity.” He also predicted that the future would see combinations increase; there would be fewer newspapers and “ colossal circulations would continue to grow.” The newspaper run as a luxury and for a mission, and not as a business enterprise, would be squeezed out of existence. There would, therefore, be fewer newspapers, but the total circulations would be greater. i These predictions, made a year before the World War, have been fulfilled; but no one foresaw that the Press combinations would reach such gigantic proportions, or become so immensely ‘profitable. The War expedited and facilitated the rise of the Press syndicates. The movement for consolidation received its chief impetus since the War, and more especially since the death of Lord Northcliffe. The Daily Mail Trust, Ltd., was incorporated on Sept. 27 1922 to purchase the 400,000 deferred (controlling) shares in Associated Newspapers, Ltd. sanctioned by the court. The price paid was £1,600,000, which was met by an issue of 7°% first mortgage debentures. Early in 1923 the Trust purchased 49° in the Lendon Express Newspaper, Ltd. A little later it purchased the large newspaper business of E. Hulton and Company, Ltd., and paid for it by a second issue of {8,000,000 7°% debentures, liquidating out of the proceeds the former issue of £1,600,000 debentures. At the same time the Trust acquired 49% interest in The Evening Standard. In the same year the Trust sold the greater portion of the Hulton Press to the Berry brothers for more than the original purchase price, while retaining possession of The Daily Sketch, The Sunday Herald and new printing works; these three assets being subsequently promoted and sold for £1,600,000 under control of Lord Rothermere. The Trust paid £4 for the deferred shares in Associated Newspapers, Ltd. They appreciated almost as much again. The Trust in two years discharged a debenture obligation of £0,000,030. Its financial success enabled it to benefit by premiums and to issue bonuses. The marketing price

IO5I

of one share (2/- paid in 1925) was £2 ro-o. A bonus of 5/6 per share was allotted out of reserves to the ordinary shareholder in Nov. 1925. The capital was £810,450 and £1,158,779

debentures but these were being redeemed. The Rothermere Group.—The Daily Mail Trust is controlled by Lord Rothermere through The Daily Mirror and The Sunday Pictorial, which in turn control Associated Newspapers, Ltd. In 1925 Lord Rothermere sold the Glasgow Daily Record and The Sunday Mail to the Berry group. The chief combinations at the end of 1925 were Associated Newspapers, Ltd. (capital of £3,000,000 increased by the gilt of bonus shares and capitalisation of reserves), proprietors of he Daily Mail, The Evening News and The Weekly Dispatch; Daily Mirror Newspapers, Ltd. (capital f1,110,000); proprictors of The Daily Mirror, associated with which is The Sunday Pictorial, Ltd. (capital £1,370,000); and The Daily Sketch and Sunday Herald, Ltd. (capital £1,710,000). The above newspapers form the Rothermere group. Debentures are included in the capital. The combined sale of the daily papers in the group in 1925 was about 3,500,000 and of the weeklies nearly 3,000,000. In addition to these newspapers the Rothermere group, through the Datly Mail Trust, owns 49“, of the ordinary capital in The Daily Express, The Sunday Express and The Evening Standard, Lord Rothermere’s companies also own very large paper-making works in

England and Newfoundland.

He is also proprictor of The Continental

Daily Mail,

The Berry Group.—Then there is Allied Newspapers, Ltd., capital £8,157,015, and Allied Northern Newspapers, Ltd., capital £4,000,o00, including £3,000,000 debentures. These companies form the Berry group, so called because Sir William Berry and Mr. Gomer Berry are the controlling shareholders, and consist of a large number of properties including the following daily and evening newspapers: The Financial Times, The Duily Graphic, The Daily Despatch, Manchester, The Evening Chronicle, Manchester, The North Mati, Newcastle,

The Glasgow Daily Record, The Newcastle Evening Journal, The Glasgow Evening News. Vhey also own The Sunday Times, The Sunday Chronicle, The Empire News (Manchester), The Sunday Sun (Newcastle), The Sunday Mail (Glasgow). The Berry group have also acquired a large interest in The Sheffield Daily Telegraph, The Sheffield Evening Telegraph, and Star, Weekly Telegraph and associated publications. Among the other properties of the Berry group may be mentioned Kelly’s Directories, a group of technical and trade papers, fashion journals, the old publishing business of Cassell, the weekly Graphic, The Bystander and large printing works. The Beaverbrook Group.— The Beaverbrook group, in which Lord Rothermere has a minority interest, consists of The Daily Express, The Sunday Express, owned by London Express Newspapers, Ltd. (capital £539,439), and The Evening Standard. The policy of Lord Beaverbrook has not been to distribute dividends on the ordinary shares, but to extend plant and building, reduce capital and organise a future impregnable position. United Newspapers (10918), Ltd.—This company (capita! {2,000,000) owns Tke Daily Chronicle, the northern edition of which is printed in Leeds, The Sunday News and The Edinburgh Fvening News. It also controls The Yorkshire Evening News, and The Doncaster Gazette, The Cowdray Growp.—A widespread association of newspapers is described as the Lord Cowdray, Sir Charles Starmer, and Rowntree

group. Its nucleus was the Northern Echo of Darlington. It expanded rapidly and includes the following morning and evening newspapers: The Birmingham Gasette and The Evening Dispatch, The Nottingham Journal and The Frening News, The Shefheld Independent and The Sheffield Mail, The Northern Echo and The Northern Evening Dispatch

(Darlington),

The

Swindon

Evening

Advertiser

and

The

is due

partly

to

Islington Daily Gazette. Lord Cowdray, who had for some years been supporting the group, added The Westminster Gazette as a morning newspaper to the combination. At least 12 weekly papers throughout the country are under the same control, and also a Sunday paper, The Sunday Mercury and News (Birmingham). The foregoing represent the national owning syndicates. There are a number of other combinations among newspapers. The Glasgow Herald owns two evening papers and one morning paper in Glasgow. The Liverpool Daily Post and The Echo have acquired interests in The Liverpool Daily Courter and The Liverpool Evening Express, There have been a number of local concentrations as in Aberdeen, Dundee, Plymouth and other cities, where, in each case, all the morning and evening newspapers are under one proprietory.

The

increased

prosperity

of newspapers

improved organisation, but chiefly to the fact that the selling price has been doubled and the rates for advertisement trebled, which more than covers the extra cost of production. The weekly literary and political reviews have lost ground, and so have the monthlies. On the other hand, the illustrated weekly press shows a remarkable vitality. The six chief illus-

trated newspapers,

Zhe Illustrated London News,

The Sphere,

1052

NEWSPAPERS

The Sketch, The Tatler, The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News and Eve, all belong to Sir John Ellerman, the shipping magnate.

Organisations.—A net-work of organisations exists for employers and workers. In the newspaper business collective bargaining is the rule. On the employers’ side, there is the Newspaper Proprietors Association, which represents the London Press, the Newspaper Society for the provincial Press, the Scottish Newspaper Proprietors’ Association, and the Irish Newspaper Society. There is also the British Trade and Technical Trade Journals Organisation. Since 1913 the position of the working journalist has been vastly improved by the continued activities of the Institute of Journalists, ard more especially by the influence exercised by the National Union of Journalists, which is organised on trade union principles and was the means of raising the standard in the lower ranks of newspaper workers and of establishing the principle of the minimum weekly salary to all ranks of journalists. On the side of the manual workers there is also a complete net-work of organisations. The chicf federated socicties are the Typographical Association, representing compositors throughout the country; the London Society of Compositors; the National Society of Operative Printers and Assistants and Printing Machine Managers. Press telegraphists; correctors of the press; electrotypers and stereotypers; pressmen; paper-makers and others engaged in connection with newspapers, all have their unions. Beyond the federated Societies is a large number of

affiliated federations covering Great Britain. Advertisers have organisations also, including advertising managers, circulation managers, and, indeed, every one associated with the production and distribution side of the press. Newsagents combine chiefly in the Federation of Wholesale Newsagents and the National Federation of Retail Newsagents. Another organisation which represents not only the Press of Great Britain but of the Dominions, is the Empire Press Union, which was the outcome of the first Imperial Press Conference held in 1909. It represents newspapers, either by proprictors or responsivle members of the staff. It has branch sections in the overseas Dominions and keeps a permanent supervision over such questions affecting cable services and charges, and matters of common interest to the Press as a whole. The second Imperial Press Conference was held in Canada in 1920, and the third in Australia in 1925. The first president of the Empire Press Union was the first Lord Burnham, and he was succeeded by his son, the present Lord Burnham, who is also president of the Newspaper Proprietors Association. The Chairman of the Council from 1915-26 was Sir Robert Donald, who was succeeded by Mr. J. L. Garvin. The Empire Press Union has insisted continuously on better and cheaper communications with the overseas Dominions and has devoted particular attention to the promotion of Empire wireless. After many years delay the first Empire wireless station began to operate in Jan. 1926 in the super-station at Rugby. A series of stations was erected, which began to operate in the same year for communication to and from the Dominions. Cheaper Communications —Cheaper and quicker means of communication and distribution of news is always in process of evolution. What are known as “ loaded cables” have been laid down, increasing enormously the capacity and speed by which messages can be transmitted by cable, the advantages of which newspapers will share. In the address to the Institute of Journalists in 1913, to which reference has already been made, Sir Robert Donald visualised a time when news would be collected by wireless telephone and the reporter would always have a portable telephone with him, with which to communicate with his paper without the trouble of going to the tclephone office, or writing out a message. The competitor, he said, to the national newspaper would not be another national newspaper, but a method of circulating news by means of some scientific mechanism for transmitting the spoken word. He predicted that all the news of the day would be laid on to houses and offices,

just like gas and water. During the years 1924 and 1925 the development of broadcasting brought this vision within the region of realisation. Newspapers look on this development with a watchful eye, lest it should, in addition to supplementing their functions, arrest their progress.

Subordination of the Editor -—Compared with 50 years ago, the most marked change in the personal side of British journalism has been the ascendancy of the proprietor and the subordination of the editor. This is reflected in the now prevailing habit of referring to the Northcliffe Press, the Rothermere Press, the Beaverbrook Press and the Berry Press. There are now only a few well-known editors whose personalities are impresse.! on the public mind. First, there is Mr. C. P. Scott, the veteran editor of The Manchester Guardian, who is also controlling proprietor of his paper. Mr. Scott represents the finest type of editor-proprietor in England, while his journal, distinguished for its honesty and consistency, stands for the highest ideals of journalism and has acquired a great international reputation and influence. It has been under the control of Mr. Scott for over half a century. On the occasion of the centenary of The Manchester Guardian in May 10921, King George congratulated Mr. Scott on his 50 years’ association with the paper which, ‘‘ under your courageous and high-minded guidance, has secured for itself a position of such eminence and esteem in the world of journalism.” The other great personality in English journalism is Mr. J. L. Garvin, editor of The Observer, who is pre-eminent as a writing editor, brilliant and independent. He is a recognised authority on foreign affairs, who has exercised an influence on world politics for many years. In 1926 Mr. Garvin took on new responsibilities, becoming editor of The Encyclopedia Britannica and chairman of the Empire Press Union. Four editors of London papers who were controlling policies before and during the World War lost their posts, partly through proprictorial changes. Mr. H. W. Massingham, who had been editor of two daily newspapers and, afterwards, of The Nation, died in 1924, soon after he was displaced from the editorship of that journal; Mr. A. G. Gardiner, of The Daily News, Mr. J. A. Spender, of The Westminster Gazetic, and Sir Robert Donald, of The Daily Chronicle, who had all for many years been controlling editors, left their positions during these years. The proprictor who pushes himself before the public occasionally prints signed articles in his papers. He uses them as vehicles for expressing his personal views. One effect of the change, accentuated by thc syndication of newspapers, js that consistency ts not so well maintained and editorial responsibility is very much weakened. The old conception of an anonymous entity, who regarded a newspaper as a public trust and took responsibility seriously, has been dispelled. One individual may be in financial control of several or many newspapers; but as organs of opinion they either become a ‘‘ gramophone [ress,”’ or different interpretations are given to the same policy in papers under the same ownership. The mass production of public opinion does not carry weight. The changed system of ownership has unseated most of the old newspaper dynasties. The Press families no longer in power include the Lloyds (Daily Chronicle, etc.); Hulton (Daily Dispatch, etc.); Ingram (Illustrated London News); and Borthwick (Morning Post). The Walter association with The Times is maintained, but the family control has gone. There remains, however, The Daily Telegraph, in control of the second Lord Burnham, representing the third generation of the Lawson family. The Times has reverted to its traditional policy, as the first newspaper in the world, occupying its place with easy dignity. Its scholarly editor, Mr. Geoffrey Dawson, maintains anonymity, while the controlling proprictor, Hon. J. J. Astor, M.P., maintains the reserved tradition of the Walters. The change has, however, assured Tve Times the position of independence as a national newspaper. When Tke Times Holding Company, Ltd., acquired Lord Northcliffe’s controlling interest in the newspaper, special restrictions and conditions were intro-

duced, which provided that none of the shares may be transferred

NEWSPAPERS to any person other than Major Astor or Mr. John Walter, unless or until such person shall have been approved as a proper person to hold ordinary shares in the company by a resolution of the committee which the articles of association appointed. The same restriction applies to a corporation. The committee consists of the persons who for the time being are Lord Chief Justice of England, Warden of All Souls College, President of the Royal Society, President of the Institute of Chartered Accountants and Governor of the Bank of England. The decisions of this committce must be by a majority of votes, the chairman to have a casting vote. In exercising their decision in regard to the transfer of shares the committee must have regard to the importance of maintaining the best traditions of The Times newspaper, and national rather than personal interests, and eliminating as far as reasonably possible questions of personal ambition and commercial profit. Sir William Berry and Mr. Gomer Berry carry on their vast and varied interests in a business spirit without bringing their personalitics before their many millions of readers. An arresting personality in the British Press is Lord Beaverbrook— controlling proprietor of The Daily Express, The Sunday Express and The Evening Standard. He wentinto the newspaper business during the World War and it wasnot long before he showed striking gifts for the particular kind of journalism which he took up. He has the news and the political sense highly developed and if he frequently annoys he always interests. Popular Weeklies.—The popular periodicals during the last 30 years attained great sales, pushed up artificially by means of prizes, competitions and the insurance system. The period, which may be described as the era of popular journalism, was begun by the late Sir George Newnes over 40 years ago with Tit Bits. Two men who had been contributors to his paper followed his example. Alfred Harmsworth started Answers, and C. Arthur Pearson, Pearson’s Weekly. These three little weekly papers were the foundations upon which arose three great publishing and newspaper businesses. The George Newnes publishing business expanded in several directions. Sir George Newnes himself made excursions into newspaper journalism. He founded as a political organ The Westminster Gazette and other papers which did not survive. C. Arthur Pearson (afterwards Sir Arthur Pearson), besides building up a big periodical business, also entered the newspaper world, but was not commercially successful. The Newnes business is now amalgamated with Pearson’s, and publishes a large number.of popular information and entertaining weekly papers. The one man who attained unprecedented success, both in the periodical and newspaper ficld, was Alfred Harmsworth (see

NORTHCLIFFE,

Viscount).

His creation, Amalgamated

Press

Ltd., is to-day the biggest business of its kind in the world. Its publications appeal to all classes, and in recent years it has been expanding and appealing to a higher class of reader, publishing a number of very useful encyclopaedias, histories and reference works of various kinds, issued in very attractive form.

Il. THE BRITISH DOMINIONS Trish Free State-—Newspapers in the Irish Free State are settling down to Dominion conditions, but it cannot be said that the new political freedom has stimulated newspaper enterprises. The Dublin morning papers are now The Irish Times and The Trish Independent, and the evening papers, The Herald and The Dublin Evening Mail. In 1910 there were four morning papers and three evening papers in the Irish capital. The historic Freeman’s Journal passed throu,h many vicissitudes, and finally disappeared in 1923, after 160 years of existence. There are two morning papers and one evening paper in Cork. British newspapers, daily and weckly, have a considerable sale in the Trish Free State. Canada.—There are no more independent newspapers than those published in the British Overseas Dominions. They are comparatively free from Government influences, and are not subject to the domination of syndicates or trusts. The Press of each Dominion has its own characteristics. Canadian news-

1053

papers not unnaturally reflect the style and appearance of American newspapers, while retaining some of the more sedate qualities of English journalism. There are no Sunday newspapers in Canada, although American Sunday newspapers are sold at railway stations and at hotels throughout the Dominion. The evening Press is more important than the morning Press. Such evening papers as the Montreal Star and the Toronto Globe have very large sales and are second to none in enterprise. The Canadian Press publishes a great deal of British news and carrics American magazine features. There are no national newspapers in Canada, as the Dominion is too vast for papers to circulate beyond the area of one province, but there are several newspapers of national reputation and wide political influence, such as The Manitoba Free Press, The Montreal Gazette, The Toronto Globe, The Vancouver Daily Province, and The Halifax Chronicle. In merit, such newspapers stand high, and Canadian journalists are continually being tempted to cross the border to fill important posts on the American Press, and in recent years have been drawn in greater numbers to London. In some towns, such as Ottawa, the same papers have morning and evening issues. There is a healthy French Press in the Quebec province. La Presse of Montreal claims to have the largest sale of any newspaper in Canada, French or English. Every town in Canada, even if its population does not exceed 5,000, has a daily newspaper, as is the case in most communities in other British dominions. The trade and technical Press of Canada compares well with similar papers in other countries. Monthly publications are at a disadvantage because of competition from the excellent cheap magazines and Sunday supplements from the United States, which regard the Dominion as a dependency for periodical literature. The small town of St. John’s, population 38,645, in the large island Dominion of Newfoundland, prides itself in having one morning and three evening newspapers. Australia and New Zealand.—In Australia, two-thirds of the population are concentrated in cities. The evolution of the Press in Australia has led to the building up of very prosperous newspaper properties. There are not many newspapers per 1,000,000 population. Competing newspapers and cable agencies send a very full service of news from Great Britain, and the place occupied by an Australian newspaper is determined chielly by the volume of British news which it contains and by the literary quality of its editorial articles. The Australian daily Press combines the dignified appearance and solid qualitics of British papers like The Times, The Daily Telegraph, 1 he Manchester Guardian and The Glasgow Herald. Without exception, they are prosperous and are efficiently equipped mechanically. In Melbourne, which with its suburbs has a population of nearly 1,000,000, there are only two morning newspapers—The Age and The Argus—a pictorial paper, founded in 1922; and one evening paper, The ITercld. The selling price of each is rd. In Sydney, the parent city of Australia, with 1,000,000 inhabitants, there are four morning newspapers and two evening newspapers. Sydncy has the cheapest newspapers In the world. The Morning Herald anil the Sydney Daily Telegraph are larger than The Times or the London Daily Telegraph, and are sold at ıd. Brisbane has two morning and three evening papers, all ad. each. Adelaide has two well-known morning newspapers, The Advertiser—“ from 96 to 252 columns daily,’’—and 7 Ae Register, sclling price 13d. There is one evening newspaper. Australia possesses a healthy weekly Press which devotes

snecial attention to the farming industries and several national journals, notably “he Sydney Bulletin, which is read throughout the island-continent, and Truth, described as “ the most virile orzan of democracy.” There are Labour daily and weekly papers in Australii. Aa Act has been in operation for some time in Australia, which provides that during a Federal electoral campaign all articles on reports or news dealing with political matters must be signed by the writer. A similar law has been

adopted in South Africa. Wealth is well distributed in New Zealind among its population of 1,000,000 and the trade statistics per head is excep-

1054

NEWSPAPERS

tionally high. This state of things is reflected in the prosperity of the New Zealand Press. The daily Press is even more characteristically English than are the Australian newspapers. The capital, Wellington, with a population of less than 100,000, has three daily newspapers. South Africa.—With a white population of 1,350,000 divided racially between the British and the Dutch, the Union of South Africa makes a good showing in the matter of the Press. All branches of the newspaper business are well organised. The leading English papers are well known outside the Union, such as The Cate Times, The Cape Argus, The Rand Daily Mail and The Star of Johannesburg. There are four well-conducted daily papers in Natal. The Friend of Bloemfontein and The Diamond Field Advertiser of Kimberley are also influential organs. The leading Dutch papers are Die Burger and Ons Land of Cape Town and Volkstem of Pretoria. It is customary for many newspapers in South Africa to be sold by subscription. There are newspapers in the smaller towns throughout the Union and in every British settlement of a few thousand people in all African colonies. India.—The part played by English newspapers in India cannot be measured by the copies which they sell. In Calcutta, with a population of nearly 1,500,000, is published the oldest newspaper in India, The Englishman, and also the most popular, Phe Statesman. The Times of India (Bombay), Tke Madras Weekly Mail, The Pioneer of Allahabad, The Civil and Military Gazette of Lahore, are the best-known papers and organs of opinion. There are quite a number of official journals in India. The vernacular papers are growing in number and in influence, and some of the Nationalist organs are published in English— as, for instance, the Amrita Bazar Patrika of Calcutta. Some papers are published in two languages, in English and vernacular. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— Mitchell’s Newspaper Press Directory (1910-26); The Newspaper World (1913); H. Simonis, Street of Ink (1917); Robert Donald, The Parliament of the Press and the Work of the

Empire Press (1920); W. Il. Mills, The Manchester Guardian. l Century of History (1921); J. Saxon Mills, The Press and Communications of the Empire (1924); The Romance of the Daily Mirror 1003~24 (1925); Printers and Stationers Year Book and Diary (1926). Sce also Walling’s Press Guide (annual); Sell’s Dictionary of the World's Press (irregular); T. B. Brown, Tke Advertisers A.B.C; (annual). (R. D.)

II. THE UNITED STATES AND S. AMERICA The newspapers in the United States tend with the passing years to become more and more economic products. They offer two things for sale: to the reader they sell news, editorials and other interesting reading matter, and to the advertiser they offer white space at so much per inch. Economic complications are numerous because these two joint products must be marketed in the same container—the white paper on which the news is printed and on which the advertising is displayed. The Economic Side.-—In other economic products the cost of the container is relatively small in comparison with the cost of the product itself; the paper which wraps a cake of soap may well serve as an illustration. In the newspaper business the cost of paper is the largest bill the publisher must pay. The increase in the cost of newsprint paper, especially during the World War, forced an increase in subscription price. During certain war years this high cost necessitated a curtailment of the privilege of returning unsold copies, compelled some newspapers to limit the number of their pages, required editors to present news in condensed form and reduced in many instances the

size of headlines. Those publishers who, having during this period a liberal supply of white paper from their own mills, were able to maintain pre-War sizes, often printed issues nearly as valuable for waste paper as for news media—from the financlal point of view. Since the War the increased subscription price has for the most part been maintained. After the outbreak of the War economies in newspaper production were secured through pools and combinations. Pools in cable tolls came with the advance in rates for trans-Atlantic messages. London sewspapers resold their news to American newspapers, and obviously, after the declaration of hostilities,

news from London was wanted more in detail. Consequently when the New York World, the New York Times, and the New York Tribune pooled their interests and let one cable dispatch serve all, each saved two-thirds in tolls. | The War Period —When the United States, after entering the War, made preparations to send troops overseas newspapers combined to save expense in war correspondence. Such combinations are seen in the accredited correspondents who were permitted to accompany the first Expeditionary Force to France and who represented the following: The Associated Press, The United Press, The International News Service, The Associated Papers, The Newspaper Enterprise Assn., the Philadelphia Ledger syndicate, the Munsey group of newspapers, the New York Times and group of newspapers, the New York Herald syndicate, the Chicago Tribune and group of newspapers, the New York JVorld and group of newspapers, the New York Tribune, the Philadelphia North American and group of newspapers, the Denver Post and Collier's Weekly. The Hearst string of newspapers was represented by The International News Service. It will be noticed that most of these newspaper combinations were headed by either a New York or a Philadelphia newspaper. American troops overseas soon had their own newspaper, The Stars and Stripes: its publisher was Richard H. Waldo, formerly business manager of the New York Tribune. The Stars and Stripes was run as a commercial proposition, was entirely self-supporting, and, mirabile dictu, had, when it ceased publication, a large surplus. Press censorship in the United States during the War may be dismissed with few words. A Committee on Public Information, appointed by President Wilson, consisted of the Secretary of State, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy and one civilian, George Creel. Its two principal purposes were first, to be a clearing-house for the news of the various departments at Washington; second, to act as censors for war intelligence received from overseas. In practice it limited its activities principally to the dissemination of information. But it did publish a pamphlet, similar to that issued by the Press Censor of Canada, to aid American newspapers in voluntary censorship. (See CENSORSHIP.) ` The War favoured the evening papers in the presentation of the news and the reason may be found in the difference in time between Europe and America. If correspondents filed their cable dispatches promptly and if they wrote their accounts so that little, if any, work was required by the official censors there was time enough to record the hostilities of the day before the late editions of the evening newspapers went to press. Previous to the War there was a marked tendency on the part of the evening papers to present the day’s news more or less in bulletin form and to devote most of the contents to special features, to regular household departments and to comic strips. There were notable exceptions to this tendency, but they were the exceptions which prove the rule. War, for the time being at least, put the news back in the evening papers. The editorial page, which had been steadily declining in influence since the days of Greeley of the New York Tribune, Dana of the New York Suz, Godkin of the New York Post, Medill of the Chicago Tribune, Waterson of the Louisville Courter Journal—to mention only a few—came to be a necessity for thoughtful readers. To them the news from overseas needed not only presentation, but also interpretation. This interpretation, plus the tremendous increase in the amount of foreign news, gave an international character to the American newspaper never found before. Facts and Figures—Census figures collected by the U.S. Govt. about newspapers, while technically accurate, are somewhat misleading. Among daily newspapers, for example, they include the dailies published by undergraduates at various universities, such as The Daily Californian, the Yale Daily News, the New York University Daily News, The Harvard Crimson, The Columbian Spectator, the Wisconsin Daily Cardinal, etc.—to say nothing of the daily trade bulletins issued in the interests of various industries. The statistics compiled for The Interna-

NEWSPAPERS tional Year Book by The Editor and Publisher are more reliable. Its figures for 1925 show that there were in the United States 427 Morning newspapers with a daily circulation of 12,440,387;

1,581 evening newspapers with a daily circulation of 21,208,982; and 548 Sunday newspapers with a weekly circulation of 23,354,622. These figures mean that there was one and onethird (13) newspapers for every family in the United States and one Sunday paper for nearly every home. The number of weekly newspapers has cleclined almost steadily every year from toro to 1925. At the close of the latter year the United States had 13,176 community weeklies. Of these a little over 11,000 might be considered as small town newspapers. ‘The number of weekly newspapers serving special sections of cities has increased and doubtless will continue to do so as cities expand. Since the War country newspapers have shown a decrease of something like 3,000. But what rural newspapers have lost in quantity they have made up in quality. The Associated Press, the great co-operative news-gathering organization, in 19ro was furnishing its service to 826 papers; at the close of 1925 it had on its Hst r,2r1. During this period its annual cable tolls increased from $87,187.46 to $147,912.18. Facts and figures about The New York Times illustrate from the business side the making of a leading metropolitan newspaper. The paper consumption increased from 24,421,082 lbs. in 1910 to 160,230,367 Ibs. in 1925. Advertising, measured by lines, grew from 7,550,650 to 28,200,444. The average number of pages for a daily issue In 1910 was 18:6 and in 1925 was 40-5. For the Sunday edition the average number of pages was 74-6 (1910) and 173-0 (1925). The 646 employees in 1910 were

distributed as follows: business, 158; editorial, 159; mechanical 329; the 2828 in 1925 were thus divided among the various departments: business, 7573; editorial, 418; mechanical, 1,633. To visualize these figures it may be said that if all the printed matter, including advertisements and illustrations, of an entire Sunday edition of The Times could be pasted on a ribbon a column wide this ribbon would circle the globe twelve times. Amalgumations——The movement in the American Fourth Estate is unquestionably toward consolidation. Space does not

permit mention of the amalgamations of smaller papers, but important changes in metropolitan fields may be noted. Frank A. Munsey before his death in 1925 had in New York City merged The Press with The Sun in 10916, later in 1920 he purchased the New York Herald and The Evening Telegram. Discontinuing The Aforning Sun he transferred that title to The Evening Sun with which in 1923 he merged The Globe. At about the same time he purchased The Evening Mail which he consolidated with The HKvening Telegram. He then sold

(1924) The Herald to the New York Tribune, now published under a joint title. In Boston The Herald (morning) took over (1912) The Traveler (evening) and continued it as its evening edition. Later (1917) The Herald absorbed Phe Journal (morning). In Kansas City W. S. Dickey bought (1921) The Journal (morning) and (1922) The Post (evening). He continued The Journal as a morning paper and Tke Post as an afternoon, with joint publication on Sunday, with a flat subscription price for both papers. In this he followed the example of The Star which since 1901 has been printing The Times as its morning issue, with both papers going to the same subscribers. In Philadelphia Cyrus H. K. Curtis became on Jan. 1 1913 the publisher of The Public Ledger which he purchased from Adolph S. Ochs. On Sept. 14 ror4 he started The Evening Public Ledger with which he united (1918) The Evening Telegraph. ln 1920 he purchased The Press to unite with The Public Ledger and in 1925 he did the same with the Philadelphia North American. In Chicago The Record-HWerald purchased (1913) The Inter-Ocean and appeared as The Herald which later was purchased by W. R. Hearst and united with his Chicago Examiner. In Cleveland Tke Plain Dealer absorbed The Leader and in St. Louis Tke Globe-Democrat purchased The Republic, one of the oldest daily papers in Missouri. New Developments —Newspapers showed in 1ọ2 5 a most marked improvement over those of 1910 in mechanical make-up.

I0O55

Especially has the change for the better been noted in the arrangement of material on the first page, where attempts have been made to give that page something like an artistic balance. A few papers have conducted expensive experiments to determine the kind of type that is casiest for the reader. Headlines, eyen during the World War, were kept within legitimate bounds and did not, even in the case of accounts of big battles, approach the streamer monstrosities printed in the days of the SpanishAmerican War. Illustrations, especially for Sunday supplements and for special Saturday issues, were by the more influential newspapers grouped together and printed on a finer grade of paper by the rotogravure process. Seventy-seven papers have (1925) rotogravure photographic supplements as a part of their Sunday or other editions. Improvement in speed of production may be seen in the modern Unit-Type press of 12 units which can print 180 m. of paper in an hour. Radio has, at least up to 1926, supplemented rather than supplanted the newspaper. In almost every daily newspaper it has created a special department to list the attractions of broadcasting stations. In some it has created a special section— occasionally printed in tabloid form as a supplement. People hearing over the radio, like the people in the audience, have wanted to see what the press printed about the address. News broadcast in condensed form has awakened an interest for details to be found in the paper of the morrow. Pictures by radio, still in their infancy, promise much by way of making

newspapers more timely in illustrations. In 1925 the United States had 68 newspapers owning or operating a radio station or studio. Tabloid Newspapers.—The introduction of tabloids may be explained, in part, by the passing remark of Lord Northcliffe, “If some American does not start one I shall have to come over to do it.” The first in the field was The Illustrated Daily News, established in New York City June 26 to19g by the Chicago Tribune, At the close of 1925 it had the largest circulation of any American newspaper, over a million copies daily. Its success doubtless led W. R. Hearst, publisher of the New York American and the New York Evening Journal, to establish (1924) The Mirror and make over his Boston Advertiser (est. 1813) into a tabloid. The third tabloid in New York is The Graphic (1924). Philadelphia has two tabloids. The first, the Philadelphia Daily News, was started March 31 1925 and is as sensational as any in New York. ‘The second, the Philadelphia Sun, came two months later and, under the ownership of Cyrus

H. K. Curtis, has followed more after the London tabloids. Others are The News of Washington, D.C.; The Post of Baltimore, Maryland; The Daily News of Los Angeles, California; The Ledger of Newark, N.J.; The Daily Tab of Miami, Florida; and The News of St. Petersburg, Florida. Pictures, features

and contests constitute the stock in trade for tabloids which, together with motion pictures, doubtless put picture pages into conservative newspapers of standard size. Adless Newspapers.—Los Angeles, California, attracted some

attention in rgr2 when it made an attempt to publish a weekly municipal newspaper. without cost at every

Zhe News, a copy of which was left home regardless of the wishes of the

tenant, was controlled by three municipal newspaper commissioncrs appointed by the mayor. Any political party polling 3% of the vote of the city was entitled to a column in each

issue.

A space of half a column was available for the mayor,

or any member of the city council in all issues. After the appropriation set aside by the city had been expended the paper was discontinued, A publicly owned daily newspaper, however, may be one of the papers of to-morrow.

Two advertisement-less daily newspapers have appeared. Chicago, on Sept. 28 1911, saw the first appearance of The Day Book which printed no advertisements. Its circulation increased until in 1916 it was averaging over 20,000 daily. The latter year witnessed its suspension because of the increased cost of white paper.

The News-Post

(1912-4), an adless newspaper in

Philadelphia, was edited by Marlen E. Pew. Adless newspapers, lacking the bargain sales of department stores, will never be

1056

NEWSPAPERS

popular with women. Adolph S. Ochs, publisher of the New York Times, once remarked that a full page advertisement of a department store was more extensively read than an address by the President of the United States, when both appeared in the same paper. The foreign language press has shown the largest decrease in number of papers, especially those printed in German. The stricter immigration laws have doubtless reduced most materially the audience to which such a newspaper addresses itself. Consequently numerous papers have begun to insert departments printed in English and possibly have in mind the time when still more space, if not the entire paper, must be given over to material in English. The decrease in foreign language papers has been most marked in New York and Chicago. Legal Enactments.—Two government regulations, both of Aug. 24 1912, need passing mention. The first provided that all periodicals should “ file with the Postmaster-General and the postmaster at the office at which said publication is entered, not later than the first day of April and the first day of Oct. of each year a sworn statement setting forth the names and post-office addresses of the editor and managing editor, publisher, business managers and owners, and, in addition, the stockholders, if the publication be owned by a corporation; and also the names of known bondholders, mortgagees, or other security holders; and also, in the case of daily newspapers, there shall be included in such statement the average of the number of copies of each issue of such publication sold or distributed to paid subscribers during the preceding six months.” The other Act provided that “ all editorial or other reading matter published in any such newspaper, magazine or periadical for the publication of which money or other valuable consideration is paid, accepted or promised shall be plainly marked ‘advertisement.’ ’’ These two regulations have made circulation statements more truthful and have made American newspapers more ethical from the advertising point of view. Incidentally, it may be said that the most remarkable change in American journalism from roro to 1925 may be found in the advertising columns where truth in advertising has been promoted both by state statutes and by support of the Associated Advertising Clubs of the World. The Association of National Advertisers has gone definitely on record as being opposed to black squares, circles, sweeping curves and the follow-the-arrow lines—all of which smudge the typographical appearance of newspapers. |

Advertising, the economic background of the newspaper, has with slight fluctuations steadily increased in volume since 1010. A remarkable fact is that newspaper advertising in 1925 was double that of r914 and 5% more than that of 1924. Advertising rates for newspapers in metropolitan cities have advanced with increases in circulation. But carefully collected statistics indicate that in smaller cities and towns the increase in advertising rates have been in proportion to increased operating expenses. Mention has already been made of the ethical advance in adver-

tising copy. An unusually high standard has been set by the New York Times in order to prevent the printing of fraudulent and misleading advertisements. Where advertising offered has exceeded the space available, The Times and other newspapers have favoured advertisements that had news value. Overseas Newspapers.—A postscript paragraph may be inserted about American journalism overseas, the Paris edition of the Chicago Tribune and the European edition of the New York Herald. The latter, the first in the field, was started in Paris in 1887 merely to gratify a whim of the late James Gordon Bennett. It was the only newspaper in English and one of the few in any language to publish in Paris when the Germans were practically battling at the gates. In the latter half of 1918 and the first half of rọrọ this Jerald reached its largest circulation (400,000). Tne sale of the New York Herald to Mr. Munsey included its Parisian namesake; he put in charge of it as managing director Laurence Hills, who remained in control when the paper in 1924 was again sold to the New York

Tribune.

The

Paris edition of the Chicago Tribune was something of a war

enterprise and was started on July 4 1917 with Joseph Pierson as editor. As the number of American troops increased the circulation grew and at Armistice time it numbered around 100,000. The managing editor (1926) is Bernhard Ragner. Afagazines—New York City has, if anything, strengthened its claim of being the publishing centre of the periodical press, except possibly for agricultural publications and religious journals. To be more exact, the eclitorial offices are in New York City, but the periodicals themselves are being printed in plants often outside even of the State of New York. While technical journals have not experienced consolidations to the extent found in the newspaper field, they have tended to drift to the larger publishing corporations to save overhead charges and permit economy in composition and in the purchase of paper. In technical and trade mapazines the improvement in the literary quality of material and in the mechanical make-up of pages has been especially noticeable since roro. Industrial journalism is yielding greater profit than ever before in its history— profits that have come for the most part from increased advertising. Popular magazines have seen a much more radical change than newspapers. Dime novels have taken on a new dress and now appear nicely printed as magazines with three-colour covers. Clean and wholesome for the most part, these magazines of adventure have done little harm compared with the sex-story magazines of which the United States has had enough and to spare. The epidemic of questionable magazine fiction must be left for explanation to the pathological expert. Fortunately, the decline in questionable fiction seemed at the close of 1925 to be in sight. Three magazines now published consist almost entircly of reprints of short story classics; they are The Golden Book, The Famous Story Magazine and Ainslee’s Magazine. The first two are new publications and the last was formerly a short story magazine which had done much to develop new writers. It introduced O. Henry, for example, to America. Tecling the competition, some of the popular magazines changed their editorial policy and limited their contents exclusively to fiction. Everybodys Magazine and Munsey's Magazine, at the close of 1925, illustrate this change. Of the literarv trio, Harper’s, The Century and Scribner’s, the last only has remained unchanged. Harper’s and The Century now appear without illustrations for their special articles and have materially changed the character

of the fiction which they print. It must be frankly admitted that news stands do not offer purchasers the same quality of goods In 1926 as they did in roro. The brighter side of the picture for 1926 may be found in that The National Geographic Magasine of Washington has a circulation of nearly 1,000,000 and that The Atlantic Monthly has the largest circulation in its history. Te North American Review has become a quarterly and now competes with The Yale Review which was started in r911. Current History Magasine, started by the New York Times in 1914, presents each month an intelligent discussion of public affairs. The World's Jvork, though a trifle more popular in its mode of treatment of articles, has not departed from its hich standards. The sophisticated reader is having his needs met by The American Mercury. Tre Nation has chanced from a conservative to a somewhat radical organ and The Independent after several ups and downs cnielly the latter—has moved from New York to Boston where it seems to be regaining its old popularity. The Weekly Renew and The Freeman are no longer published. They disappeared

about the same time as The Unpopular Review. The periodical having the largest circulation in the United States (2,436,734) is The Saturday Evening Post of Philadelphia which, both in its fiction and special articles, is addressed to men. Publications designed to anpeal.primarily to women have since roro witnessed a remarkable growth in circulation. Th: Ladies’ Home Journal of Philadelphia, The Pictorial Review oi New York and AfcCall’s Magazine of New York have each a circulation exceeding 2,000,000, while The Woman's Home Companion of New York has one nearly reaching that figure and The Delineator of New York has a circulation of over

1057

NEWSPAPERS 1,000,000. Mr. Hearst has purchased The Cosmopolitan, Good Housekeeping and Harper’s Bazar. With the first mentioned he combined in 1925 Hearsts International Magazine. Radio and motion pictures have added to the periodical press numerous technical and popular journals. The introduction of the magazine section into the Sunday newspaper explains to some extent the disappearance of articles from popular magazines. The pictorial and rotogravure sections of the Sunday newspaper account, in part, for the disappearance of Harper's Weekly and Leslies Weekly and the changing in contents of Collier’s Weekly. The suspension of The Bellman of Minneapolis was deeply regretted by its readers. Among the new periodicals the success of Liberty, edited in New York and published in Chicago, is somewhat startling. Established in 1924 it had at the end of 1925 a circulation of over 1,000,000. In conclusion, it must be frankly said that the average American reader Is seeking entertainment and amusement rather than education and enlightenment in his periodical literature. SoutH

AMERICA

The two leading newspapers, not only in Argentina but also in South America, are La Prensa, founded Oct. 18 1869 by Dr. José C. Paz, and La Nación, founded Jan. 4 1870 by Gen. Bartolomé Mitre, of Buenos Aires. For 56 years (1926) both papers have remained in the families of their founders. Each compares favourably with any other newspaper in any country. Both specialise in printing foreign news; possibly La Nación pays more for cable tolls than any other newspaper in the world. Classified advertisements are usually a safe index as to character of newspapers because they represent local opinion. Judged by such a yardstick, La Nación resembles the New York Times and La Prensa the New York World. The editorial page of La Nación is always dignified in subject-matter and serious in mode of treatment. Its Sunday supplement contains contributions from the best writers, not only of Argentina but also of Spain. Much material later appears in book form. La Nación had (1910) a circulation of 80,000: its sworn statement of daily average for Aug. 1925 was 192,007: its average Sunday circulation for the same month was 238,000. At the first Pan-American Congress of Journalists held in Washington in April 1926 Dr. Jorge A. Mitre had the honour of responding to the address of welcome by the President of the United States. He is a grandson of the founder of La Nación who was the first constitutional president of the Argentine Republic. To campaign for civic righteousness seems to be the editorial policy of La Prensa. Its evening competitor, La Razón, established in 1905, once spoke of it as being a safe and serene guide in the difficult task of creating a public conscience. La Prensa widens its influence through syndicating to some 175 provincial papers a weekly feature supplement for Saturday or Sunday editions. La Prensa operates a free clinic, offers free legal advice to the poor, pays for a free industrial and agricultural bureau, opens its library to the public and awards 1,000 pesos annually to the person teaching the largest number of illiterates to read. The oldest evening paper in Buenos Aires is Æ Diario (est. 1881). The oldest of all is the English paper, The Standard (est. 1861) which competes with The Herald (est. 1876). In 1925 Argentina had about 1,000 newspapers and other periodicals. Crossing the Andes, one finds the newspapers of Chile next in influence. First comes El Mercurio (est. 1827) of Valparaiso with separate publication in Santiago and Antofagasta. Its chief competitor is La Union, which also publishes a paper of the same name in Santiago. In the city last mentioned are the rather influential La Nación and Kl Diario Iusirado. The total number of newspapers and periodicals published in Chile (1925) is about 500. In Peru the three leading papers are La Cronica, La Prensa and El Comércio of Lima. In Brazil the most influential paper is probably O Estado of São Paulo. Fanfulla, the Italian daily of that city, wields considerable power through the State of São Paulo. The oldest and best known daily in Rio de Janeiro is the Jornal do Commercio (est. 1827), an extremely conservative paper of limited cir-

culation. Two other influential morning papers are O Patz and Correio da Manha. Newspapers in Brazil are often the personal organs of owners to whom they are useful for political purposes. At the fall of the Empire Brazilian journals numbered about 600. In roro the total exceeded 1,000, since when the increase has been about roo to a decade. The more influential papers in Mexico are limited to the capital city and frequently contain features obtained from American syndicates. They include El Universal, El Nacional and EI Democrata. _REFERENCES.—James

Melvin Lee, /Tistoria de la Prensa Periodis-

tca de la América del Sur; Affonso Celso, Historia

da Imprensa

do

Brasil; Ricardo Rojas, La Literatura Argentina.

To South America, rather than to its sister continent to the north, belongs the honour of printing the first sheets of news in the Western Hemisphere. Not only in contents but also in mechanical make-up they followed the pattern set by the sheets of Southern Europe. This relationship was further emphasised by a similarity in titles for these precursors of printed newspapers: Gazeta Diario, Mercurio, Relación, etc. But these stray sheets lacked regularity of publication and continuity in presenting news. The first newspapers, in the technical sense of that term, for the countries of South America may be listed as follows:— Mexico. Gazeta de México (1679). | Guatemala. Gazeta de Goatemala (1729). Peru. Gaseta de Lima (1744). Cuba. La Gaceta de la Habana (1764). Colombia. La Gaceta de Santa Fé (1785). Ecuador. La Gaceta (1785). Argentina. Fl Telégrafa Mercantil (1801). Haiti. La Gaceta del Cabo (1304). Uruguay. La Estrella del Sur (1807). Brasil. Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro (1808). Venezuela. La Gaceta de Caracas (1808). Chile. La Aurora de Chile (1812). Panama. Miscelanea del Istmo (1822). Bolivia. Æl Condor de Bolivia (1825).

Paraguay.

Ei Paraguay Independiente (1845).

BrsL1oGRAriy.—Before

rgro the literature relating to journalism

was most scant and jejune, but since ihen books have rapidly increased in number. Histories of individual newspapers include: Ilistory of the New York Times 1851-1921, Elmer Davis (1921); The Story of a Page (N.Y. World), John L. Heaton (1913); The Story of the New York Sun 1833-1918, Frank M. O’Brien (1918); The Evening Post (New York), Allan Nevins (1922); The New York Globe, James Melvin Lee; and The Story of an Independent Newspaper (Springfield Republican), Richard Hooker (1924). Among the books on newspaper editing and making are: George C. Bastian, Editing the Day's News; Willard G. Bleyer, Newspaper Writing and Editing (1923); Jason Rogers, Newspaper Building (1918); Norman J. Radder, Newspaper Make-up and Headlines (1924); M. Lyle Spencer, News Writing (1917); Oswald Garrison Villard, Some News-

papers and Newspaper Men, offers a critical survey of some of the leading American newspapers; L. N. Flint, The Conscience of the Newspaper (1925), and N. A. Crawford, Ethics of Journalism, make notable contributions to the field of ethics. The New York Times publishes in book form a quarterly index for that newspaper in particular and others in gencral. Carl L. Canon, Journalism—A List of References in English, lists both books and magazine articles relating to journalism. James Melvin Lee, Jusiruction in Journalism in Institutions of [Higher Education (U.S. Dept. of Education, 1918), traces the development of such instruction since the first

school of journalism was established at the University of Missouri in 1909. (J. M. 1.*) IV. NEWSPAPERS

IN OTHER

COUNTRIES

Freedom of the Press did not accompany the introduction of democratic institutions and universal suffrage.

The Press laws

in the new countries of continental Europe usually begin with the declaration that the Press is free and then follow with provisions which can be used to muzzle or suppress the newspapers. Nevertheless there has been a significant growth of newspapers representing Social Democrats, Socialists and Communists, and so long as they do not openly advocate revolution and direct action for upsetting the social order they are tolerated. In Germany, the Social Democratic Press has gained in strength as the parties are well organised and associated with the trade union movement. It is the same in Czechoslovakia and Austria. In France, where the trade unionists are loosely organised and

1058

NEWSPAPERS

undisciplined, there has been no notable increase in journals representing the extreme Left in politics. In all the new countries there are papers representing agrarian interests as well as democratic. All parties have their newspapers and governments have organs which are more or Jess official. Germany.—Under the old German Empire, especially when Bismarck was the power behind the throne, the Press was not respected, but il was exploited by the Government for its own purposes. There was liberty of the Press within reason and a few independent voices were raised; but, as a rule, most papers were obliged, for one reason or another, to accept inspiration from the Foreign Office. In domestic affairs they retlected the opinion of political partics. Journalists did not enjoy a high standing, but before 1914 they had begun to conquer positions in the political world. To-day the Press has complete freedom and is independent of the Government. The German Press is the most serious in Europe. There are few sensational newspapers. Newspapers do not sell because of sport and “ stunts.”

Journals which cater to the working classes discuss economic problems. Literature, the drama, art, music and economics occupy a greater proportion of space in German newspapers than in the Press of any other country. The journalistic characteristics of the German Press—apart from the greater freedom which it now enjoys—have not changed since the War. The former national organs occupy relatively the same positions, but there has been a shifting of ownership, not due to the political revolution but to the effects of inflation. During this period of inflation many of the old family newspaper owners, particularly in the provinces, were unable to survive and sold to industrialists. Hugo Stinnes, the industrial magnate, was able to create a great newspaper trust, which was, however, broken up after his death, when his mushroom millions were dispersed. There are few afternoon papers in Germany. A new syndicate, financed by industrialists, is the Hugenberg Press, which owns a string of country newspapers. It has its own news agency. It is a new political force repre-

senting Nationalist feelings.

While the Nationalist newspapers

are controlled largely by industrialists, the organs of the Centre or Roman Catholic party are under strict party control and owned by party men. The Centre represents about a third of the population of Germany, but its Press, although vigorous, consists of papers which have not big circulations. The most influential are the Germania of Berlin, and the Volkszeitung of Cologne. Another group of papers which has increased in

prestige since the War is the Democratic and Social Democratic Press, powerful factors in political life. The German Government has no longer an interest in news-

papers as in the days of the Kaiser, when the Foreign Office directed or swayed the policy of several political journals. Its connection with the Press is now confined to its participation in Wolff’s Agency, which is parallel to the Havas Agency in France. Among the most independent and influential papers in Germany are the provincial organs, Frankfurter Zeitung and the Kölnische Zeitung, known throughout the political world as the Frankfurter and the Kölnische. The chief papers in Berlin are the Börsen Zeitung (non-party), the Lokal Anzeiger (Popular), Der Tag (Nationalist), the Berliner Tageblatt and Vossische Zeitung (Democratic), AHgemeine Zeitung (Nationalist), the Tägliche Rundschau (Patriotic), Deutsche Tageszeitung (National and Agrarian), the Morgenpost (Democratic) and the Vorwärts (Social Democratic) and a Communist paper, Die Rote Fahne or Red Flag (sale, 65,000). The more popular papers in Berlin have sales exceeding 250,000. Among the most widely circulated papers outside Berlin are the Erzgebirgischer Volksfreund (Democratic), which has a daily circulation of over 100,000. The Diisseldorfer Nachrichten (Independent-National), which reaches the same figure, the Frankfurter General-Anzeiger, 115,000, the Hamburger Anzeiger, 110,000, the Letpziger Neueste Nachrichten (Patriotic), 175,000, the Miinchner Neueste Nachrichten (National), 145,000, the Dortmund General Anzeiger (non-party), 122,000, and the Dresdener Neueste Nachrichten (Liberal Demo-

cratic), over i0o0,000. There are a number of Communist journals, including, besides the Berlin Rote Fahne, papers in the following cities: Breslau, the Arbeiterzeitung, sale 15,000; Chemnitz, Der Kampfer, 75,000; Bochum, the Westfalischer Arbetter Zeitung, 22,000; Essen, the Ruhr Echo, 47,000; Hamburg, the Volkszeitung, 25,000; Leipzig, the Sächsische Arbeiterzeilung, 30,000. There are several newspapers which occupy a status and exercise an influence in German journalism and public life which cannot be measured by sales. The Frankfurter Zeitung, already mentioned, is perhaps the most powerful. It has 19 issues a

week—morning and afternoon.

Of a similar type is the Köl-

nische Zeitung and the Hamburger Nachrichten, founded in 1792. The Jenaische Zeitung has been in the same family since it was founded in 1674. A still older paper, the Königsberger Hartungsche Zeitung, dating from 1640, keeps its flag flying in the Eastern outpost on the Baltic. Papers published in districts which are inhabited by Germans, although not now under the German flag, are intensely Nationalist, such as the Saarbriicker

Zeitung, papers in Polish Upper Silesia, Danzig and other territories formerly included in the Empire. In Germany, no general newspapers are published on Monday, except two or three in Berlin. Sunday is a day of rest to newspaper workers. The provincial morning papers in Germany issue three editions during the day, the contents varying more or less. In Berlin, two editions are issued. According to the Politischer Almanach there are over roo important newspapers in Germany, and 38 serious political journals, representing all shades of political opinion. There are 24 large news agencies in Berlin, with branches in the chief cities. All the political parties have their Press agencies. Among the best-known German Reviews are the Preussische Jahrbücher, Deutsche Rundschau, Neue Rundschau, Siddeutsche Monatshefte and the Neue Zeit.

France.—In no other country is the political influence of the Press so great, orits literary merits so high, asin France. In France, journalism is literature and literature is journalism. Journalism

and politics are also inextricably mixed. Presidents of the Republic, Prime Ministers, Colonial Governors, Academicians and others who attain high positions in national life, graduate through the Press. When they retire, they return to their muttons. The most famous journalistic statesman was Georges Clemenceau, the great War Premier. He retired a year after the Treaty of Peace was signed, and at the age of eighty was an unsuccessful candidate for the Presidency. He did not profess disappoint-

ment at his failure but consoled himself with the observation: “What matters; with good pen and paper one could be king of the world.” While the literary reputation of the French Press stands high, its commercial and political morality is not on the whole quite so commendable. Many newspapers are run for, or by, ambitious politicians, or in some interest, and nearly all

of them accept inspiration from the Foreign Office.

Ministers

change frequently but the system remains. It is like part of the constitution. The smaller papers—and there are many of them —farm out their financial and advertising columns to agencies. The French Press has been little changed by the World War. During the War many newspapers temporarily disappeared, owing to the lack of staff, or of means, or shortage of paper. All papers were under a severe censorship and, more than ever, were the servants of the Government. In 1926 there were 227 political journals published in Paris, of which 48 were political dailies. This total does not include papers dealing with technical subjects or sport. There were 127

sporting newspapers, of which five were dailies.

The number

of newspapers published in the provinces was 3,076, including publications of all descriptions. Morning and evening dailies numbered 256. France was the first country to have national newspapers with sales of over 1,000,000. The sale was stimulated more by two serial stories run by each paper than by news, but since the War news has become conspicuous in such widely circulated papers

as Le Petit Paristen (1,200,000), Le Petit Journal (1,000,000),

NEWSPAPERS Le Matin (900,000) and the Petit Journal (800,200), which may be described as the “Big Four of the Paris Press.” Following upon these in point of sales comes the Echo de Puris (800,000). The better-known political papers are Le Temps, the venerable Journal des Débats, La Liberté, L’Ocuore, L'Humanité and the Ere Nouvelle. The Figaro maintains its unique position. Characteristics of all the popular Press are signed articles and serial stories. There is a popular daily illustrated paper, Excelsior, established 1910, and numerous dailics devoted to sport, Anance, the drama, motoring, etc. Four daily papers are published in Paris in English; The Daily Mail, The New York Herald, The Chicago Tribune and The Evening Times. Every phase of politics is represented in the Paris Press, from Legitimist to Communist, and every trade and interest has its organ. The provincial Press ‘s more independent politically than the Paris papers and several journals, such as the Dépêche of Toulouse, the Progrès, of Lyons, the Petit Marseillais, La Petite Gironde of Bordeaux, have

t

natłonal reputations. The small local Press exercises an independent influence during elections. Improvements have taken place in the mechanical equipment of the French Press in recent years, and there has been a marked increase in illustrated weeklics and monthlies. The best known weeklies are the dignified [/ustration and the gay Wie Parisienne, which flourished during the War, the literary Annales Politiques ef Litléraires, and a light variety paper Nos Loisirs. The Revne des Deux Mondes, the Mercure de France and the Revue Hebdomadaire are the best known monthlics. The sale of the French Press is pushed all over Europe. The chief news agency, Havas, has official support. There is also a universal wircless service which broadcasts news and propaganda. It is a subsidiary of the wireless company, which holds a concession from the State. Italy. — Until the fascist régime of Mussolini, the Italian Press laws were based on a Royal decree of 1848. In July 1924 a decree was issued which made newspapers liable to suppression and editors to punishment if they published “ tendencious news ” which might embarrass the Government in foreign or domestic affairs; and-an elastic interpretation of these powers has enabled the Government to suppress all newspapers which ventured to offer any independent criticism to such an extent that in the early part of 1926 the freedom of the Press no longer existed. The most famous newspapers in Italy suffered punishment, and were only tolerated on condition that they refrained from hostile criticism. Where the Press was not muzzled there was a forced change of proprictorship in harmony with Fascist policy. This was the case with the well-known Corrtere della Sera of Milan, for some years the most powerful organ in Italy. The Stampa of Turin, although never strongly anti-Fascist, was tamed; the same fate overtook the influential journal in the south, the Matfino of Naples. The complexion of the best-known papers in Rome has been changed. The only journals which enjoy a certain restrained independence are the semi-official organs of the Vatican. A number of newspapers have ceased to exist, and the journalists’ associations have been placed under the control of Government Commissioners. There were only 68 daily newspapers in Italy in 1926. The Press in New Countries —The rebirth of nations after the World War was followed by a revival in journalism. Every new State had its crop of new journals. Although freedom was not complete, the influence of political parties led to the maintenance of rival organs. Under the three Empires out of which it was carved, Poland’s Press existed on sulicrance. Now, there are nine daily papers in Warsaw——two of them official, one in Polish and one in I'rench. There are four dailies in Cracow and several in other cities. Besides exponents of the various national political policies there are Zionist, Ukrainian and German papers in Poland, but the authorities sometimes suppress non-Polish journals. In Czechoslovakia there is a greater measure of freedom and there are far more newspapers. The Press of Yugoslavia has not yet developed a full sense of responsibility. It represents all races, policies and languages. New Turkey now possesses a

democratic Press which can speak its mind within limits.

The

1059

new Baltic States have a Press which is creditable for the small populations for which it caters. In these states and in other territories, where under old conditions there were German interests, newspapers in German are still published. The Press of new Rumania is largely concentrated in the capital, Bucharest, with 24 dailies, of which one is in French and three are in German. In Iungary the popular papers are in the Magyar language—Az Fst and As Ujsug—and the most intluential in German—the Pester Lloyd and the Yeres Pester Journal. The Austrian Press—still headed by the Nene Prete Presse of Vienna —is free, but not flourishing under the narrowed limits of the country. Under the new Austrian Press laws power is given to the educational authoritics to prohibit the sales of newspapers which “ by exploiting youthful impulses may endanger the normal health of young persons.” Russia.—Freedom of the Press has been completely suppressed in Soviet Russia. In Tsarist Russia censorship was severe, but a measure of toleration existed. In Soviet Russia censorship is applied before the matter is printed, which has to be submitted to an official editorial Board known as the Gosizdat. There is a further check on the publication of news and expression of opinion, as newspapers are only published under the auspices of the governing authorities and are thus practically all official organs. In 1914 there were 17 dailies in the capital, some of them of international reputation, such as the Novoe Vrémja, and the Retch, and five in Moscow. In roto there were 52 daily newspapers in Russia, of which 13 were in St. Petersburg (Leningrad), and four in Moscow, exclusive of papers in Finland and

Polish Russia. In 1926 almost all the Press was concentrated in Moscow. There were rr morning and evening papers in Moscow, but only two of any importance, the Zsvestia and the Pravda. In Leningrad there were only two morning papers, the Pravda and the Krasnaya Gazeta. The number of daily newspapers in Russia was, in 1926, eighteen. Belgium.—Belgium possesses a vigorous Press, published in French and in Flemish. Although the chief Paris papers circulate all over Belgium, the Belgian Press nevertheless enjoys a large sale, and the popular journals are highly prosperous. There are 17 daily papers published in Brussels and nine in Antwerp. There are a number of Socialist journals, the chief organ of the party being Le Peuple. The success of the Socialist Press is due largely to its association with the co-operative movement. La Libre Belgigue, which appeared regularly during the War in occupied Belgium in spite of the vigilance of the Germans, how exists as a daily newspaper. In Belgium, the Press laws have not been changed for many years and the Press enjoys almost unlimited freedom. The Netherlands,—The Netherlands, with a population of over 7,000,000, possesses 2 healthy Press, including journals which enjoy a high reputation for their literary merits and as organs of opinion. The chief among these are the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant, De Telgraaf and the Algemeen Handelsblad, of Amsterdam. There are cight daily papers in Amsterdam, seven in The Hague and five in Rotterdam, and these circulate throughout the country. Scandinavia.. The newspapers in the Scandinavian countries appeal to a highly intelligent reading public and are among the best written and the best produced on the Continent. The three kindred races can understand each others’ newspapers. Spain and Portugal.—There is little progress to record in the Spanish Press, and circulations are small. The illustrated A.B.C. is the most popular paper. The Imparcial is an important political organ. The Heraldo and the Liberal are other leading Madrid journals. El Sol was foundedin rory by the Spanish Paper Trust. There are 20 daily papers in Madrid and 17 in Barcelona, and about 200 dailies of sorts in Spain. The principal Portuguese papers are the Diaris Noticia (founded 1820) and the Jornaldo Commercio, both published in Lisbon. Switzerland.—Switzerland, owing perhaps to its small population, has few papers known outside the country. In 1926 there were 38 daily newspapers published in German, 19 in French

NEW

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TESTAMENT—NIEW

YORK

CITY

and two in Italian. The best known are the Journal de Genéve, read in France, the Neue Zuercher Zettung and the Zuericher Post, which have a considerable circulation in Germany. China.—By no means the least result of the Chinese revolution of rgr1 was the amazing expansion of the vernacular press.

Brooklyn, 48-5; Bronx, 32-9; Queens, 10-3; Richmond, 3:8; whole city, 30-6. In 1924 the average death-rate for the city was 11-8 per 1,000, as compared with 15-98 per 1,000 in 1910. The reduction of the general death-rate has been due mainly to special activities in the prevention and control of communicable

Actually the movement had begun some years earlier, but after the revolution it developed into a portent. Native newspapers sprang up in all parts of the Empire in a night, as it were, and it is not surprising that the Chinese Press exhibits most of the undesirable attributes of a mushroom growth. The gencral quality is poor. Most of the papers are run for political or personal ends, the news supplied by them is untrustworthy and their standard of journalistic ethics low. This is the more to be regretted as their multitude testifies to the interest which awakened China

diseases, especially those of childhood.

takes in affairs and their influence on public opinion is beyond doubt enormous; but little improvement is to be expected until political conditions become more settled. As things are it is only fair to say that, with all its irresponsibility and corruption, the Chinese Press is on the whole liberal and patriotic in intention if not always in fact. It may be noted that Chinese periodical publications are on a much higher level than the newspaper press. Between twenty and thirty European and American newspapers are published in China, more than half of them at Shanghai. The majority are British, including the North China Daily News of Shanghai which, founded in 1864, is the oldest foreign

daily in China.

Other British morning newspapers

are

The

Shanghat Times, The Central China Post (Hankow), The Peking and Tientsin Times, The Hongkong Daily Press and The South China Morning Post (Hongkong), The principal British evening papers are The Shanghai Mercury, The North China Daily Maul (Tientsin), Tke Hongkong Telegraph and The China Mail (lHongkong). There are three American morning dailies, The China Press (Shanghai); The Peking Leader and The North China Star (Tientsin)—and three French, L'Echo de Chine (Shanghai), Le Journal de Pékin and L'Echo de Tientsin. In addition there are a number of Chinese and Japanese-owned journals published in English. Japan.—The restraint of the Press which was common to all belligerent countries during the World War was maintained much longer in Japan than elsewhere, and it was not until 1922 that the War-time regulations were repealed. Nevertheless the period 1911-25 was marked by steady progress and a great expansion of the circulation of the more important newspapers, and while there is no Japanese journal that can be said to belong to the first class in the world’s Press, there are several that rank high in the second class. The most widely read newspapers are the Osaka Asahi Shimbun and the Osaka Mainicht Shimbun, each of which has a circulation of 700,000 daily, The leading Tokyo papers, such as the Jiji Shimpo and the Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun, are influential but have a far smaller circulation, The most notable feature of Japanese newspaper enterprise during the period under review was the growth of the evening Press. Formerly there was but one evening paper, the Afaiyu Shimbun of Tokyo, and even now there are, strictly speaking, only two, the Tokyo Mainichi Shimbun having been converted into an evening paper in 1918, but practically all the principal morning dailies publish evening editions. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Continental Press: Handbuch Deutscher Zeitungen; Political Almanack; Lewis S. Benjamin, Guide to the Forcign Press (1924); Press and Press Laws in Forcign Countries, edited by

Montague Shearman and O. T. Rayner, published by H. NI. Stationery Office (1926); Annuaire de la Presse francaise et étrangere ct dit

Monde Politique; Newspaper Press Directory (Mitchell’s); Press Directories of different countries. (R. D.)

NEW TESTAMENT:

see BIBLICAL CRITICISM.

NEW

(see 19.610).—The

YORK

CITY

population

of New

York City in 1925, according to the State census, was 5,873,356,

as against 4,766,883 in r910, an increase of 1,106,473 OF 23-2% The population of the separate boroughs was: Manhattan, 1,945,o29 (in 1910, 2,331,542); Bronx, 872,168 (in 1910, 430,980); Brooklyn, 2,203,235 (in 1910, 1,634,351); Richmond, 138,277 (in 1910, 85,969); Queens, 714,647 (in 1910, 284,041). The average number

of inhabitants

per acre

was:

Manhattan,

139-0;

I. PUBLIC SERVICES Finaince—Yhe city’s budget grew from $163,130,270 in 1910 to $399,618,885 in 1925. Important items were $95,099,162 for education and recreation; $59,068,521 for protection of life and property; $60,255,956 for health, sanitation and care of dependents; $106,487,232 for debt service and tax deficiencies. The assessed values on which taxes for 1925 were levied were $11,901,348,553 real estate and $239,507,540 personal property, or a total

of $12,140,856,003.

In roro the total assessed value of taxable

property, real and personal, was $7,416,837,4990. The net funded debt of the city as of March 1925 was $i, 262,736,066, the gross funded debt being $1,960,515,440. Water Supply—The most notable extensions to public serv-

ices made since roog include the development of additional water supply from the Esopus and Schoharie watersheds in the Catskill Mis., and extending rapid transit fachities throughout the city. The two watersheds have an area of 571 sq. m. anda safe minimum yield estimated at 515,000,000 gal. daily. The flow of the Schoharie creek is intercepted by a temporary diversion dam through the Shandaken tunnel, 18 m. long, to join the water of Esopus creek, which discharges into the Ashokan reservoir. The Gilboa dam, under construction in 1925, was designed to form the Schoharie reservoir with a storage of 20 thousand million gallons. ‘The main reservoir of the system, the Ashokan, is located about 92 m. from the northern boundary of New York City. Its estimated available storage capacity amounts to 130,400 million gallons. Other features of the Catskill system are the Kensico dam, the Catskill aqueduct and city tunnel and the Hudson river crossing. The Kensico dam is one of the great masonry structures of the world, containing nearly 1,000,000 eubit yards of masonry and at its highest point rising 307 ft. above the rock foundations on which it rests. The Catskill aqueduct includes 69 m. of plain concrete grade aqueduct and tunnel, 17 m. of reinforced concrete pressure tunnel and 6 m. riveted steel inverted siphons. The Hudson river crossing comprises a 14-{t. tunnel driven in granite rock 1,114 ft. below the sea-level. The total cost of the completed Catskill supply will be about $180,000,000. Other supplies, together with the Catskill, provide a sife yield estimated at approximately 1,000 million gal. per day. Water consumption during 1925 reached 865 million gal. per day, thus indicating the need for developing additional supply in the near future. Rapid Transit Development—As a means of meeting the demand for additional rapid transit facilities, the city, in March, 1913, entered into separate contracts with the Interborough

Rapid Transit Co. and the New York Municipal Railway Corporation, for the construction, equipment

and operation of a

system of rapid transit lines known as the dual system.

At that

time the Interborough Rapid Transit Co. operated the subway lines in Manhattan, the Bronx and Brooklyn and under lease the elevated lines owned by the Manhattan Railway Company. The New York Municipal Railway Corporation was formed in the interests of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co. for the operation of various lines constructed or to be constructed as outlined in the dual plan. The New York Railway Co. and Third Avenue Railway Co., which operated most of the surface lines in Manhattan

and the Bronx and the surface lines of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co. were the only large traction systems in the city not included in the dual system. The operating contracts made with each company run for a period of 49 years (dating from Jan. 1 191g in the case of the Interborough; and from Aug. 1 1920 for the Brooklyn Co.), at the end of which time all leases and agreements will terminate and the city will have complete ownership and control over the construction included in the dual plan. Provision is made for the sharing of profits with the city after the

NEW

YORK

operating company has paid all necessary expenses and taken out an amount designated as a preferential. ‘he contracts also specify that the fare for a continuous ride shall be five cents. The dual plan provided for the construction of about 325 m. of new tracks, making the total mileage of the completed system 618-4. While the plan as outlined approximately doubled the existing mileage, it tripled the facilities then available, as the third tracking and extension of existing elevated railways materially increased the carrying capacity. For the Interborough these extensions comprised subway construction north and south of 42nd street, Manhattan. North of 42nd street, the new subway extended up Lexington avenue and connected with the existing Fourth avenue subway. New subway construction south of Times Square extended the west side subway down Seventh avenue to lower Manhattan and by tunnel under the East river and to South Brooklyn. This construction provided independent through north and south rapid transit lines for the east and west sides of Manhattan Island. The addition of third tracks and extension of existing elevated lines have brought the route mileage to 115-4, and the total track mileage for the Interborough system

to 333°3.

The main feature of the extension of the lines of the New York Municipal Railway Corporation was the subway beginning at the Queensboro Bridge and extending west by soth and 60th streets to Seventh avenue, thence south by Seventh avenue, Broadway, Vesey street, Church street and Trinity place to a

connection with a tunnel under the East river at Whitehall street. ‘This construction and other extensions make a total of 99:4 route m. and a total track mileage for the New York municipal railway system of 274-3 m. now in operation. A continuous ride of 26-63 m. for five cents is available on the Interborough system and one of 18-5 for the same fare on the Brooklyn lines. Up to June 30 1925, expenditure by the city and the operating companies for rapid transit construction and equipment, exclusive of the cost of the privately owned lines of the old Manhattan elevated structures, amounted to approximately $537,000,ooo. Of this amount the city’s part was about $327,000,000 and the operating companies’ $210,000,000. Communications.—Two important enterprises in. providing additional direct lines of communication with New York City are the New York connecting railway across the East river and the vehicular tunnel under the North river. The New York connecting railroad provides direct rail connection with the New York, New Haven and Hartford line for the boroughs of Queens and Brooklyn. The main features include a reinforced concrete arch viaduct extending from the connection with the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad in the Bronx to a point on Ward’s Island, in the East river, a steel arch spanning that section of the East river known as Hell Gate, and connecting witha similar reinforced concrete viaduct in the Astoria section of Queensborough. Surface construction provides direct passenger rail connection with the Sunnyside Yard of the Long Island railroad and thence access to the Pennsylvania railroad terminal in Manhattan, while another branch for freight only extends to the Bay Ridge section on the water-front of South Brooklyn. The entire length of the connecting railway is 12 miles. The total amount expended was approximately $30,000,000. The bridge itself (Hell Gate), having the largest steel arch in the world, cost $18,500,000. Its massive granite piers rise to a height of 240 ft. and are 1,017 ft. apart. The steel arches which support the deck of the bridge rise 300 ft. above the water, and the clearance for vessels at mean highwater is 135 feet. The bridge carries four tracks, two of them for both passenger and freight service. The Holland vehicular tunnel beneath the North river connecting Manhattan Island and Jersey City was to be open for traffic during 1926. Its construction is under the joint jurisdiction of the New York Interstate Bridge and Tunnel Commission and the New Jersey Interstate Bridge Commission, and the cost was to be shared equally by the two States. The estimated traffic capacity of the tunnel is 15,000,000 vehicles per annum. The tunnel section, the construction of which was completed Oct. 1 1925, comprises two tubes each 29 ft. 6 in. outside diameter and

CITY

1061

approximately 9,500 ft. in length. The tubes are constructed of cast-iron segments and reinforced concrete and were built by the Shield method of construction. Each tube includes a 20-ft. roadway to accommodate two lines of traffic moving in the same direction and a 3-{t. sidewalk for pedestrians. ‘The greatest single engineering difficulty involved was that of providing an adequate system of ventilation. That adopted was the so-called transverse system, under which fresh air is forced into the tunnel structure

through air ducts under the roadway and ejected into the tunnel section through apertures along the roadway curb at each side The foul air is discharged through air ports in the tunnel roof section, and thence forced through air ducts to the ventilation shafts and the outer air. Other Public Improvements —Growth of the city and the great development in the use of motor vehicles have produced serious trafic congestion which has necessitatecl extensive street widen-

ing and the construction of new thoroughfares. Notable examples of new construction are the Varick street extension of Seventh avenue, Manhattan, the extension of Flatbush avenue, Brooklyn, and the construction of the Jamaica Bay boulevard in Queens. The removal of elevated railway structures from 42nd street and Upper Sixth avenue and the construction of a viaduct carrying Park avenue over 42nd street at Grand Central Station have aided in relieving traflic congestion at those points. Progress has been made in relieving the waters of New York Harbour from sewage pollution by the construction of sewage screening plants along the North and East rivers and at other points. There have been marked changes in the use of property, particularly in Manhattan, since 1909. The principal shopping district has shifted northwards, until in 1926 its boundaries, broadly speaking, were 34th street, Broadway, sooth street and Madison avenue. In the vicinity of 42nd stréet there has been an extensive development of office buildings. The buildings formerly housing the Knickerbocker, Holland House and Manhattan hotels and two famous restaurants—Sherry’s and Delmonico’s —have been replaced by office buildings. Notable building construction from 1909-25 includes the Woolworth building (792 ft.), the highest structure in the world excepting the Eiffel Tower, Bankers’ Trust (539 ft.), City Investing (487 ft.), Equitable (485 ft.), Adams Express (424 ft.), Whitehall (424 ft.), Bush Terminal (419 {t.}, American Express (415 ft.), American Telephone and Telegraph (403 ft.), and the new Telephone building (400 ft.). Height restrictions and set-back provisions in the city zoning ordinance have offered the opportunity for considerable variation in the architectural treatment of high buildings constructed during recent years, which have resulted in securing more artistic effects than were formerly possible. Among the newer hotels are the Pennsylvania, with 2,200 rooms, the largest hotel in the world; the Commodore; the Ambassador; and the Roosevelt. Madison Square Garden, an historic structure used for amusement purposes and as a place of public assembly, was demolished in 1925, a 28-storey office building being erected on its site.

Il. COMMERCE

AND

INDUSTRY

Port of New York.—During 1924 the tonnage of vessels entering the Port of New York direct amounted to 18,280,975, while ships clearing from the port carried 18,858,693 tons. The value of the imports received during 1924 aggregated $2,047,759,136, representing an increase of 130% over 1909. Exports for 1924 amounted to $1,685,562,079, an increase of 169°) over 1909, but a decrease of 52°, from those made during 1920. Improvements in port facilities made since 1909 include the completion of the Ambrose Channel work and deepening of the East river channel by the Federal Govt. and the reconstruction and extension of the Erie canal by the State. Eight canal terminals have been built at various points along the North and East rivers together with a modern grain elevator with a capacity of 2,000,000 bu.

located at the Gowanus Bay terminal.

Expenditures on the

canals up to 1925 aggregated $167,123,774. The most noteworthy port development works carried out by the city since 1909 include the North river, Staten Island and Jamaica Bay

1062

NEW

YORK

CITY

projects. Along the North river two 1,000-ft. piers were built between 44th and soth streets, and by 1925 two others had been planned. The completed construction, which cost approximately $5,500,000, including real estate, provides 285,000 sq. ft. additional dock space. The construction of a steamship picr 1,000 ft. long and 174 ft. wide above the Holland vehicular tunnel, involving an estimated expenditure of $2,500,000, was planned. A railroad pier costing about $goo,c00 and providing 92,000 sq. ft. additional dock space, was completed during 1925 at Pier 2, North river. Three piers providing 568,500 sq. ft. dock space were built along the East river during 1016 at the foot of 29th, zoth and 3sth streets respectively, South Brooklyn, and subsequently there was extensive bulkhead improvement of both the Manhattan and Brooklyn waterfronts along the East river. Remodelling High Bridge over the Harlem river and straightening of the alignment of that waterway was also accomplished. In rọrọ the city initiated the Staten Island improvement project

Manufactures —The New York City Metropolitan District (a district of 616,928 ac., including in addition to New York City the neighbouring cities and towns both in New York State and New Jersey) is by far the largest industrial district in the United States. In 1919 there were 32,590 manufacturing establishments in New York City with a total number of 825,056 persons engaged in the industries. Of these 638,775 were wage-carners; 35,101 were proprietors and firm members; 36,8094 were salaried officers, superintendents and managers; and 114,286 were clerks. The sum of $326,171,741 was expended for salaries and $805,822,451 for wages. The total value of the products manufactured was $5,260,707,577,and the amount of capital invested in industries in the whole city was $3,038,557,492. The clothing industry ranked first in importance, the total value of men’s and women’s clothing manufactured being $1,346,8309,946 or 57 % of the value of clothing produced throughout the entire country. Printing and publishing ranked second, with products valued at $206,-

involving the construction of 12 modern steamship piers with terminal warehouse facilities. This improvement, built at a cost of about $30,000,000, includes over six miles of wharfage and

585,376.

1,800,000 sq. ft. dock space. Through its connection with the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, opportunity was provided for track railhead connections between these piers and all but two of the railways entering the Port of New York. The facilities afforded by this improvement exceeded, in 1926, those available for similar purposes on the island of Manhattan. The Jamaica Bay project constitutes the most important development undertaken by the city in recent years. Jamaica Bay has an area of about 26 sq. miles. In 1909 the State of New York ceded to the city all of the State’s ownership in the Bay, amounting to about 16,000 acres. The Federal Govt. adopted a project to dredge a channel through Rockaway Inlet and from Barren Island to Cornell Basin, to an ultimate depth of 30 ft. and to a width of 1,000 feet. In 1923 the Department of Docks laid out in the middle of Jamaica Bay a scheme for the construction of two islands, to be made by dredging a channel 2,500 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep around the bay. The islands will contain 6,500 ac., and will have a quay wharfage of about 28 miles. At an expenditure of about $1,250,ooo the department has completed an embankment

550 ft. wide

and more than two miles long. This embankment provides a roadway of 150 ft., which is the Cross Bay boulevard, over the island and in addition gives the city about 2,000 building lots. The two islands, will provide homes for about 400,000 people. Port Authority.—In 1921, on recommendation by a joint commission appointed in 1917 by the governors of New York and New Jersey to investigate conditions at the Port of New York, a treaty was entered into between these two States providing for the creation of the Port of New York District and the establishment of the Port of New York Authority. This treaty was subsequently ratified by Congress; and the Port Authority was appointed, consisting of six commissioners, three from each State, serving for overlapping terms. In Dec. 1921 the Port Authority presented to the legislatures of New York and New Jersey a comprehensive plan for the development of the port, which was adopted by the legislatures and ratified by Congress. The principal features of the plan are a series of belt lines and marginal railways, a freight tunnel from Greenville, N.J., to Bay Ridge, Brooklyn and an automatic electric system of freight transportation for serving Manhattan and union inland terminal stations on Manhattan Island. In 1924 the states of New York and New Jersey made appropriations for and granted authority to the Port Authority to make surveys and borings for two bridges across the Arthur Hill from Staten Island to New Jersey. In 1925 the legislatures provided for the building of these bridges by the Port Authority, the States contributing a total of $4,000,000 toward the cost, to be eventually repaid from the collection of tolls, and the balance of the cost is to be financed by the issuance of bonds, to be amortised from the tolls collected. In 1925 the legislatures also provided for studies for a bridge across the Hudson river from Manhattan, in the neighbourhood of 178th street, to Fort Lee, New Jersey.

Art.—The additions to the Metropolitan Museum of Art during the years 1910-25 have mace it rank with the large museums of the world. Among the notable bequests have been those of Francis L. Leland, $1,000,000; Joseph Pulitzer, $900,c00; BenJamin Altman, collection of paintings, sculpture, Chinese porcelains, ete., with a fund for their care; William Henry Riggs, collection of arms and armour; Harris B. Dick, collections and funds over $1,000,000; Isaac D. Fletcher, collection of paintings and objects of art and fund over $3,400,000; John Hoge, over $1,000,ooo; and Frank A. Munsey, the bulk of an estate estimated at $40,000,000.

II. LOCAL POLITICS Mayor Mitchel’s Administration. —During the administration of Mayor Gaynor, which began in 1910, there arose an increased interest in city affairs. The mayor who in consequence of an attempt to assassinate him had gained a hold on popular sympathy, died on Sept 10 1913 while on a voyage to Europe.

Adolph L. Kline (b. 1858), president of the Board of Aldermen, succeeded to the office for the remaining few months of the term.

A fusion ticket, led by John Purroy Mitchel (1879-1918), who had made an enviable record in public office as Commissioner of Accounts, Collector of the Port and president of the Board of Aldermen, easily defeated the Tammany ticket. Mitchel, but 35 years of age, undertook a complete reorganisation of administration and obtained remarkable results, making his

mayoralty a period of unprecedented efficiency in the city’s government. Of special note were the improvements in police, street cleaning, charities and corrections and the establishment of high standards and expert service in taxation, purchasing and the selection of personnel. The Tammany Reaction.—Though admittedly efficient, economical and honest, this administration saw itself at the end of

four years buried under the greatest majority for Tammany on record. John F. Hylan (b. 1868), a candidate from Brooklyn, led a complete Tammany ticket into office, with a platform of outspoken opposition to almost everything the Mitchel administration had done. Subsequently, however, upon the election of the

president of the Board of Aldermen, Alfred E. Smith, to the governorship of the State and the death in office of the president of the borough of Manhattan, Republicans were elected to the vacancies. In 1921, largely as a result ai the enactment of legislation

sponsored by Gov. Miller which seriously curtailed New York City’s powers over local rapid transit matters, Mayor Hylan was renominated and again elected by a substantial majority, together with a complete Tammany ticket. During both terms of Mayor Hylan’s administration there was practically continual wrangling among the members of the Board of Estimate and complete lack of co-operation with other public agencies. These conditions, together with the general character of appointments made by the mayor, resulted in a distinct lowering of the morale of city employees and a disturbance of administrative machinery that interfered seriously with the public service. Particularly in

NEW

YORK

providing for much-needed rapid transit facilities the demagogic attitude of Mayor Hylan and to a less degree that of the other members of the Board of Estimate in refusing to work with the transit commissioners, brought about a virtual impasse that for seven years prevented action necessary to afford public relief. Finally, in 1924, the Board of Estimate filed charges against the transit commissioners with Gov. Alfred E. Smith, and the latter appointed the Hon. John V. McAvoy, Supreme Court Justice, Appellate Division of the State of New York, a commissioner to investigate the charges. Commissioner McAvoy’s report, presented early in 1925, placed responsibility for the transit situation directly on Mayor Hylan. The administrative incompetence of Mayor Hylan and his subservience to Mr. William Randolph Hearst, publisher, were factors in causing many influential Tammany leaders to withdraw their support and in Sept. 1925 he was soundly defeated in the primaries as a candidate for mayor by James J. Walker. The Republican nominee was Frank D. Waterman, a prominent manufacturer. Walker was easily elected in the Nov. elections. Home Ruie-—Important legislation affecting New York City since 1910 included the Home Rule Act of 1924 and the Home Rule Transit law. Under the provisions of the Home Rule Act the power to enact local laws in New York City is conferred on a bicameral body known as the “‘ municipal assembly ” consisting of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment and the Board of Aldermen. The Home Rule Transit law provided for the establishment of a Board of Transportation to have jurisdiction over the regulation of existing rapid transit lines and gave the board broad powers for providing additional transit facilities together with the right to undertake municipal operation of such lines. (R. B. F.) NEW YORK STATE (see 19.594), a State of the United States. The population in 1920 was 10,385,227 as compared with ọ,113,614 in Igto, a gain of 14%. The average population per sq. m. in 1920 was 217-9 as compared with r9or-2 In rgto. The urban population (in cities with 2,500 or more inhabitants) was 8,589,844, or 82:7%. The native white population was 7,385,915, of whom 3,668,266 were of native parentage; 2,844,083 of foreign parentage; and 873,566 of mixed parentage. The foreign-born white population was 2,786,112. In 1920 there were 28 cities with populations of over 20,000, of which the chief were:— Albany Binghamton Buffalo ; New York . Niagara Falls

113,344 66,800 506,775 5,620,048 50,760

Rochester Schenectady Syracuse Utica Yonkers

295,750 88,723 171,717 94,156 100,176

Government and Political History —The constitution of 1894 was frequently amended during the period 1910-25, but the amendments did not alter fundamentally the system of government. Among the most important constitutional changes were the adoption of woman suffrage in 1917, the establishment of a literacy test for new voters in 1921 and the granting of home rule to cities in 1923. An important constitutional amendment providing for the consolidation of numerous state administrative establishments (187 in 1919) into 20 departments was approved in Nov. 1925.

On Oct. 6 1910 Gov. Hughes resigned to accept a position on the U.S. Supreme Court, and was succeeded by Horace White, the licutenant-governor. In the election of Nov. 1910 the Democrats carried not only the State but also the Legislature, and John A. Dix was elected governor. The 1911 Legislature adopted a compromise direct primary law, which retained the party convention for the selection of candidates for state-wide offices. The Wagner-Levy election law limited independent nominations to registered and enrolled voters, made registration days uniform and provided for personal registration in rural districts for voters who had not voted in the previous election. It also prevented a candidate’s name from appearing more than once on the ballot, and thus made fusion tickets and independent voting difficult. In the fall elections the Republicans regained control of the Assembly. The Legislature of 1912

STATE

1063

allowed party organisations to substitute the assembly district for the election district asthe unit of repr sentation. This caused absurdly long ballots and tended to discredit the direct primary system. The hours of labour for minors in factories were restricted. The Democrats again carried the State and the Legislature in Nov. 1912, and Sulzer became governor. The Legislature of 1913 passed laws insuring greater safety in factories, providing for an eight-hour day for employees on public works, and a s4-hour week for women and children under 16 in certain industries. In April 1913 Gov. Sulzer sent a special message to the Legislature urging a direct primary law that would abolish party conventions. The Legislature refused to enact the primary bill, and the governor vetoed the legislative substitute. When the Legislature recessed on July 23 the governor declared the special session adjourned, but the Legislature reassembled on Aug. rr. Two days later the assembly voted to impeach the governor; on Oct. 17 he was removed from office and Martin H. Glynn, lieutenant-governor, succeeded. In the elections of Nov. 1913 Sulzer was elected to the Assembly. A constitutional

amendment authorising a workmen’s compensation law was adopted by a large majority. The special session of the Legislature which had impeached Gov. Sulzer reassembled on Dec. 18 and adopted a direct primary law abolishing conventions; a modified office group ballot law; measures to carry out the 17th amendment providing for the popular election of U.S. senators; a resolution submitting to the voters the question of calling a constitutional convention; and the adoption of a workmen’s compensation law for certain hazardous employments. The Republicans were successful in the elections of Nov. 1914, and Whitman became governor. The new Legislature passed a widowed mothers’ pension law; reorganised the inferior criminal courts of New York City by creating a board of city magistrates, the judges of which were given the right to sit in special sessions and to dispose summarily of minor misdemeanours; and authorised parole commissions in cities of the first class. In Nov. 1916 Gov. Whitman was re-elected, the Assembly continuing Republican; in the presidential contest, also, the Republicans carried the State. State legislation of 1917 was strongly influenced by the entrance of the United States into the World War. The woman-suffrage amendment was ratified by a large majority. In the Nov. election, 1918, Alfred E. Smith (Dem.) was elected governor. Most of the other state officers and the Legislature, however, remained Republican. One of the most important laws of the year was the one providing for an income tax of from 1% to 3%. The Federal prohibition amendment was ratified. Shortly after his inauguration Gov. Smith appointed a non-partisan reconstruction commission to investigate the problem of reorganising the state government. This commission in its report of Oct. ro rọrọ recommended an executive budget and the consolidation of the numerous administrative agencies. The most constructive work of the session was the passage of several laws for the relief of the housing situation. In the elections of 1920 the Republicans carried the state by large majorities, and their candidate for governor, Judge Nathan Miller, was elected. The Legislature passed a law placing all public utilities, except transit in New York City, under the jurisdiction of one state commission. A state prohibition enforcement law was adopted. The direct primary was abandoned and the convention system restored for the nomination of state

and judicial officers.

The state industrial commission and the

state tax commission were reorganised, and a board of estimate and control created. The 1922 Legislature authorised life-insurance companies to invest 10% of their assets in new buildings for dwelling purposes; extended the emergency rent laws to 1924 and fixed assessments as the basis for determining the reasonableness of rents. Women were given representation on county party committees. A

home rule amendment was adopted.

Under the law passed the

previous year the candidates for state office were nominated by party conventions in 1922. The election resulted in the election of Alfred Smith as governor. The 1923 Legislature provided for

a commission to study the problem of bringing the state laws into

NEW

1064

ZEALAND

conformity with the home rule amendment, which the Legislature

The chief manufacturing centres and the values of their products in 1921 were: New York City, $4,328,187,499; Buffalo, the governor’s consolidation programme for a constitutional $4.31,383,131; Rochester, $291,117,230; Syracuse, $1009,061,617; amendment providing for consolidation of the numerous adminYonkers, $107,182,668; and Albany, $41,171,786. istrative agencies into 20 departments. The Mullan-Gage Transportation and Commerce.—In 1925 the operated railway prohibition enforcement Act was repealed, and Congress was mileage in New York was 8,401. In 1925 there were 4,792 m. of memorialised in favour of liberalising the Volstead law. electric railways. There were 81,878 m. of highways in the state, In the fall elections the voters approved by large majorities ! 18,566 m. of which were surfaced. Of the $75,000,000 appropritwo constitutional amendments. One authorised a bond issue ated by Congress to the states for highway building in the year of $45,000,000 to pay a bonus to World War veterans. The 1924-5 under the Federal aid system, New York received second amendment extended to cities a large measure of home $3,663,105. The Erie Barge Canal was opened from Troy to rule. The referendum on a bond issue for $50,000,000 for new Buffalo in 1918. The Champlain and the Oswego Barge canals hospitals was likewise approved. The Republicans increased have also been completed. In addition to the canalised rivers their majority in the assembly. The Legislature of 1924 passed and lakes (382 m.) the state has a canal mileage of 525. a bonus law awarding $10 for each month of service to all active Education.—The University of the State of New York, a participants in the World War who were residents of the state; supervising and examining institution, is the State Department the maximum payment was fixed at $150. The emergency rent of Education, and controls the educational system of the state. laws of 1920 and the following years were extended to 1926. It is governed by 12 regents, one elected each year for a 12-year An important measure of the session was the Home Rule term at a joint session of the two Houses of the Legislature. Enabling Act, designed to carry out the amendment adopted The board of regents elects the president of the university, who the previous year. This law, drafted by the state home rule is the commissioner of education. The regents apportion the commission, was adopted unanimously by both Houses of the state educational funds. In 1924 there were 62,401 teachers, and 1,610,076 enrolled pupils. The cost of school maintenance in Legislature. The New York amendment differs from constitutional provisions in some other states in that it grants powers in that year was $250,553,776. Finance.—-On June 30 1925 the total debt of the State was general terms. In the presidential election of 924, the Republicans were successful. Gov. Smith was re-elected, but the Republican $318,456,000. The sinking funds, however, amounted to candidates for the other six elective state offices were success- $87,123,821. Approximately one-half of the total debt was incurred for canals. Highway bonds amounted to $08,800,000, ful, and the Legislature became more strongly Republican. and World War bonus bonds to $45,000,000. The general revenue A griculiure and Stock-Raising—In 1924 New York, with crops valued at $303,812,600, ranked eighth among the states in the receipts for the year ending June 30 1924 amounted to $146,587,656, and the disbursements to $146,456,708. (E. D. G.) value of all crops and first in the production of hay and potatoes. again approved.

Some progress was also made in carrying out

In 1923 the number of farms in the state was 190,000 and the total acreage 20,300,000. The U.S. Census of 1920 placed the value of all farm property at $1,908,483,201. In 1924 7,327,000 tons of hay; 24,519,000 bu. of corn; 6,840,000 bu. of wheat; 34,056,000 bu. of oats; 6,900,000 bu. of barley; 935,000 bu. of Tye; 5,363,000 bu. of buckwheat; 46,620,000 bu. of potatoes; 1,820,000 bu. of beans; 23,800,000 bu. of apples; 2,178,000 bu. of peaches; 2,100,000 bu. of pears; 80,c00 tons of grapes; and 2,350,000 Ib. of tobacco were produced. In 1923 there were 532,000 sheep in the state, and the wool production was 2,968,000 pounds. The dairy business was one of the most important. Minerals —In 1923 mineral products valued at $89,975,134 were produced. The average value for the years 1919-23 was $62,243,270. In 1923 clay products were valued at $25,226,187;

cement, $12,834,471; gypsum, $10,344,745; stone $9,610,324;

salt, $7,431,155; sand and gravel, $7,291,076; petroleum, $4,140,000; natural gas, $3,739,000; and iron ore, $3,320,004. Manufactures ——According to the United States report on manufactures for the year 1923, the value of the products of manufacturing establishments in the state was $8,960,693,000, as compared with $6,973,506,o00 for 1921, a gain of 28.5%. The number of establishments in 1923 was 38,187; in 1921, 38,107; in 1910, 49,330; and in 10914, 48,203. The decrease

in number is partly accounted for by the fact that the last two reports did not include establishments which reported products under $5,000 in value. The wage-earners in 1923 numbered 1,150,901 aS compared with 1,000,414 in 1921, an increase of 15%. The wage payments in 1923 amounted to $1,582,006,000. The industries whose products were valued at more than $100,000,000 in 1923 were:— Clothing . $1,636,529,625 . Printing and publishing 503,411,193 Foundry and machine shop 273,933,262 Bread and bakery products 236,546,477. Knit goods Millinery, lace Boots and shoes Electrical machinery

230,525,505 197,627,982 195,082,384 192,224,937

Paper and wood pulp $140,468, 586 Furniture 137,328,234 Cigars and cigarettes 129,659,423 Chemicals 128,376,073 Steel works and

rolling mills Silk. . Confectionery and ice cream

122,964,813 105,018,097

103,215,335

NEW ZEALAND (see 19.624), a Dominion of the British Empire and a member of the League of Nations. The area of the Dominion proper is 103,285 sq. m., but if outlying islands are included the total area is 103,862 square miles. In addition New Zealand is responsible under the mandate of the League of Nations for the administration of the Western Samoan group, and shares with Great Britain and Australia the administration of the former German island of Nauru. Also, since 1923, the Governor-General of New Zealand is responsible for

the administration of the Ross Sea area in the Antarctic. In Feb. 1926, at the invitation of the British Govt., New Zealand took over the administration of the Tokelau or Union group of islands in the Pacific. The population of the Dominion proper, according to the census of 1921, was 1,271,664. By letters patent dated May 11 1917 the designation of the representative of the British Crown in New Zealand was altered from Governor and commander-in-chief to governor-general and commander-in-chief.

I. POLITICAL HISTORY The year 1910 saw the Dominion recovering from the financial crisis of 1908. Political control was in the hands of the Ward Ministry, which, with incidental cabinet changes, had carried on the Liberal-Labour Govt. and régime of the late Mr. Seddon, who himself had been Prime Minister without intermission for 13 years. Political interest had centred largely around the system of Crown Land tenure; amendments to industrial legislation; the passing in 1910 of the National Provident Fund Act; and questions of military and naval defence. The government was being assailed by Mr. Massey’s already growing party

with the proposal to relinquish the remaining remnants of leasehold principles, and to permit the sale outright, under certain safeguards against monopolistic holdings, of Crown lands. A Defence Act, embodying the principle of universal service within certain ages, had been passed in 1909, though it had not been put into operation; and in 1910 Lord Kitchener, at the invitation of the New Zealand Govt., visited the country, and, after slight alterations had been carried out at his suggestion, the system was introduced in Jan. rọrr. In the naval sphere an arrangement had been made in r909 with the Home Govt. under which it was understood that the Domin-

NEW

ZEALAND

ion’s ‘ gift ”’ battle-cruiser, the “‘ New Zealand,” should be the flagship of a new China unit, and that seven vessels of the unit should be stationed in peace time in New Zealand waters, the ships to be manned as far as possible with New Zealand officers and men, The general election of rort was disastrous to the Ward government. The Liberal-Labour combination, which had held together for 21 years, had for some time been showing signs of disruption, while the Conservative opposition, now known as the Reform party, had improved its organisation. The polls gave the latter an apparently slight advantage, though the issue was still in doubt. In the recess the Ward Ministry resigned because of internal discord, and a new Liberal Cabinct was formed under Sir Thomas Mackenzie. The latter was defeated on a no-confidence motion two weeks after the new Parliament met; and on July 10 1912 Mr. W. F. Massey became Prime Minister. The Reform Régime.—The new government in its first session passed the necessary legislation to enable holders of Crown leases in perpetuity to acquire the freehold. Another important measure passed placed the control of the public services largely under commissioners. No important changes in general policy were made. Nevertheless, there was ample work for the government. For some time, aided by agitators from abroad, sections

of labour had shown considerable restlessness and dissatisfaction with the Arbitration Act, and this culminated in 1913 In a strike of all transport workers, seamen, and miners, who, cancelling their registration under the Arbitration Act and thus being able to strike without incurring penalties, ranged themselves under a federation of Labour.

The strike, one of the

most extensive in the history of New Zealand, was a grave menace to the country, for at the time it took place produce from every part of the Dominion was in store at the ports awaiting shipment to Great Britain. The government took firm measures to deal with the situation. A new Waterside Workers’ Union was established under the Arbitration Act, and all temporary workers, chictly farmers’ sons and employces, joining it were given sccurity by the police and special constables from interference; ultimately the ships, manned by volunteer crews, were dispatched with their cargocs. The strike ended after a protracted struggle. As one result of it the Labour Disputes Investigation Act was passed in the same year; it applied to workers or societies and to employers not bound by the Conciliation and Arbitration Act. The remainder of the parliamentary session was devoted

chiefly to amending legislation, and in this connection useful, if not outstanding, work was done.

To the amended land laws

of the previous session was added a further provision giving the same privilege of purchase to those possessing similar leases of Settlement Lands, i.c., lands which had been purchased by the State and leased. Acts were also passed to provide funds to assist irrigation and also the fruit industry. A board of agriculture was established to act in a consultative and advisory

capacity to the Lands Department. In this session also the second Ballot Act was repealed. In 1913 the Minister for Defence, Finance and Education, Mr. (Sir) J. Allen, visited England, at the wish of the govern-

ment, to confer with the British Admiralty and War Office in regard to New Zcaland’s military and naval defence, and also to attend to certain matters of general finance. Arrangements were completed with the War Office in regard to the strength and composition of the voluntary expeditionary force authorised under the Defence Act of 1909; but the negotiations with the Admiralty were not very satisfactory. It had been found necessary by the Admiralty to depart from the previous arrangement, and station the ships designed for the China Seas in English waters; and the only offer to New Zealand was of two obsolete vessels of the old Australian and New Zealand squadron. New Zealand then asked that the vessels to be sent should be of the “ Bristol” type, but this could not be done. In the same year, 1913, the Naval Defence Act was passed: it provided for the establishment of a New Zealand naval force by voluntary

enlistment.

1065 A New Zealand division was inaugurated in t914,

but the outbreak of war stopped the scheme of training. During his return trip to New Zealand via Canada, the Minister, who had been instructed to purchase in Britain a stock of small arms for the Dominion’s newly constituted territorial army, but had only been able, owing to a shortage, to

obtain a small quantity, bought a large number of -303 LeeEnfield rifles—discarded by Canada for the Ross rifle—which were destined not only to serve for the training of New Zealand’s expeditionary forces for the first two years of the War, but to become, many of them, the weapon of the New Zealanders in Gallipoli. The War Pertod.—A considerable programme of important legislation had been arranged for 1914, but Parliament had not been in session very long before war broke out. It was, however, possible to pass, amongst other measures, an Education Amendment Act, under which there was a complete reorganisation of the educational department and the system of education control. At the declaration of hostilities neither government nor people displayed any hesitation as to the course New Zealand would pursue. Secret preparations had been made for the mobilisation of an Expeditionary Force of approximately 8,o00 officers and men, and these preparations were immediately put into operation. But first, at the request of the British Govt., a force of 55 officers and 1,358 men was mobilised, and on Aug. 15 dispatched to capture German Samoa, a feat accomplished without fighting. The first expeditionary force for the actual scene of war, consisting of 360 officers and 8,139 other ranks, sailed on Dec. 14 1914. The preparation of rein: forcements was meanwhile proceeded with, and also the neces: sary organisation for a sustained war effort. New Zealand maintained her war effort on a scale considerably greater than that involved in her first arrangement with the War Office; her infantry division in France and mounted force in Palestine were kept at full strength with necessary

reserves to the day of the Armistice, and by the close of hostilities she had sent overseas (out of a population of 1,089,525) 100,444 trained troops. In addition, 12,000 were mobilised and preparing for service when hostilities terminated. The financial cost of an undertaking on such a scale was extremely heavy. The budget of 1914 was already in print when the declaration

of war was received, and authority was therefore given by Parliament to raise £2,000,000 by Treasury bills to mect immediate expenses. Afterwards loans were arranged according to requirements. Meanwhile, in Dec. 1914, the Parliamentary elections were held and Mr. Massey was returned with a small majority. Subsequently, in Aug. 1915, a National Govt. composed of the two chief parties, Reform and Liberal (the small Labour section declining representation), was formed; Mr. Massey remained Prime Minister, with Mr. (Sir) J. Allen as Minister of Defence and Sir Joseph Ward as Minister of Finance. A complete party truce was declared.

New Zealand shipped to Britain during the War produce aiid other supplies to a value of £160,000,000,

which were sold to

the Imperial Govt. at prices fixed by mutual arrangements. On three occasions during the War the Prime Minister and the Finance Minister attended Imperial Conferences in London, and on such occasions the Defence Minister, as Acting Prime Minister, combined their duties with his own. Though the country was wholcheartedly behind the war effort, problems naturally followed in the wake of the compulsory enlistment enactment, for which in 1916 the majority of the people had themselves agitated. One serious coal-miners’ dispute at the West Coast mines also required settling. But whatever sectional and temporary difficulties arose, the nation as a whole supported the policy of the government. The ability of the Dominion to ship its produce at satisfactory prices overcame the difficulties of financial provision. The output increased considerably, and extra taxation was met without inconvenience. Up to 1917, comparatively small portions only of loans authorised were raised in London, and the rest in New Zealand, an innovation so far as the Dominion was

1066

NEW

ZEALAND

with these developments and, in the case of the meat producers, passed the necessary legislation. The vexed question of heavy taxation was seriously disturbing the community, the commercial interests especially desiring a change in the incidence of taxation. The government then set up a commission to investigate the whole matter. By the middle of 1922, however, the general situation had considerably improved. Towards the end of the year, while the government was still unpopular owing to its drastic economies, a general election became due. The result was not unexpected. Mr. Massey could not muster a sufficient number to provide an absolute majority over the Liberal and Labour parties, the latter of whom had increased their strength to 17, the largest representation they had ever had. But when the new Parliament met in 1923, three Liberal Independent members, who had given pledges to vote against Labour, ranged themselves on the side of the government, and saved a defeat. The year 1923 was remarkable for the recovery of the New Zealand produce markets in Britain, for the State revenue revival, and for various taxation burden remissions the government was able to institute. Income tax was greatly reduced, penny postage was reinstituted, reductions were made in telegraph rates, the income tax on revenue from farm products was removed, and a sum of approximately {2,000,000 was provided for the aid of soldier settlers who were unable to carry on under the burden of the high value at which their land had been purchased, and for further pension assistance. The incidence of taxation was also altered in some particulars, and a policy of progressive reduction of income tax was instituted, the maximum rate falling from 7s. 4d. to 4s. 6d. in the £, and the minimum from 1s. to 7d. Substantial reductions were also made in the rates of land tax. Exemptions in respect of children were increased. An energetic policy of development was also undertaken. Legislative provision was made for the State Advances Department to extend its security for advances to 75% in the case of farming land, and to 95% for workers’ houses, and legislation was passed to authorise the necessary borrowing to provide the money. For a number of years the payments from borrowers under the scheme had provided sufficient revenue to meet all applications for advances. The customs tariff was also revised, the chief features being the increase of British preference, and a separate reciprocal tariff with Australia. In 1924 the Old Age Pensions Act was improved, further beneficial amendments were made in the education legislation, the Companies Act was altered to enable the issue of “‘ labour shares,” and Acts were passed to permit the dairy, honey, fruit and poultry farmers to exercise control over their industries similar to that enjoyed by the meat producers, though differing in some essential details. Legislation was also passed making registration of electors for general election purposes compulsory. | On May 10 1925 the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. W. F. Massey, died at Wellington. Sir F. H. D. Bell, the first New Zealander born in the Dominion to occupy the office, was appointed Prime Minister on May 14, and was succeeded on May 30, following a reorganisation of the Executive Council, by Mr. J. G. Coates, previously Minister for Public Works and Railways and Postmaster-General. The session closed without any legislation of outstanding importance. In Nov. a general election was held, and resulted in an overwhelming victory for the Reform party under Mr. Coates, which secured 57 seats as against 11 held by the National (Liberal) party, and 12 by 7 works programme, to offer manual labour to those able to Labour. Defence.-—New Zealand’s attention since the War has been undertake it. Meanwhile, the overseas marketing problems were directed chiefly to additional naval security. In 1919 Admiral tackled, reductions were obtained in freights, insurance, storage, Jellicoe of the British Navy visited New Zealand, and preetc., and by the middle of 1922 a recovery in market returns sented a report making recommendations and suggestions for abroad was in evidence. The meat producers of the Dominion the naval defence of the Dominion. In 1926 the Dominion had tackled their own marketing problems, and had set up an organisation under which the whole industry was able to seek maintained a training ship and two modern light cruisers. The reasonable terms in all matters of costs from the farm to the cruisers were loaned free of charge by the Imperia! Govt., the Dominion being responsible for all payments for the ships overseas markets; the dairy producers had taken the preliminary and their personnel, a considerable number of which consisted steps for a like movement. . The government was in close touch

concerned. After 1917, New Zealand provided her own financial requirements. The actual fighting costs of the troops in the field were advanced to New Zealand by the Imperial Govt. on a per capita basis (which fluctuated according to the engagements in which the New Zcaland units participated). The total cost of the War to the Dominion was assessed in ro2t at £81,538,570, and of this amount £55,198,325 had been raised in New Zealand. Post-War Years—VYhe National Govt. came to an end in toro by the withdrawal of the Liberal Party from the Ministry. At the gencral elections which ensued late in the same year the Reform party was returned with a heavy majority. Labour also showed a considerable accession of strength, and, for the first time for many years, became a distinct party in the House. The government turned its attention with concentrated effort to the repatriation of the returned soldiers, secking particularly, under special legislation that had been passed, to place satisfactorily on the land all those who so desired.’ Financial assistance was also given, chiefly by loans on casy terms, to men who desired houses of their own, or wished to start in business, etc. Each case was carefully investigated by special repatriation organisations, and in every possible respect the government sought to provide for the future of each individual soldier who presented himself. In the case of those seeking land occupations, suitable areas were purchased by the government, sub-divided, and resold or leased to the men under special legislative provision at easy terms of interest; or the money was advanced as a first mortgage, with essential safeguards, if a man desired any particular farm. An abnormal demand for land was created, and naturally, assisted by the enhanced values of produce, land values became inflated. House propertics also went up greatly in value, and the shortage, since but few had been built during the War, became very acute. Altogether 9,388 men were assisted to obtain rural homes and properties, and 10,890 in securing homes in towns; 61,254 were placed in employment, trained in some future livelihood or financially assisted to re-establish themselves—a total altogether of 81,532 men. The cost to the country by July 1922 was £28,718,578. The problems of repatriation and others following in the wake of the War were in the forefront of the new government’s duties. Fortunately during the later War years there had been heavy surpluses of revenue over expenditure, and these were available for partial application to repatriation needs. The immediate post-War years were years of high prices and prosperity, but in 1921 the prices of produce, especially of wool and meat, on the British market rapidly fell. Land values in New Zealand were too high and there had been extremely heavy over-importation, largely due to merchants and manufacturers abroad being able to fulfil long-standing orders. The country was faced with an immediate crisis. Taxes were already at a high level, and there were cries for easement to meet the strain of financial calls. The country’s ordinary current expenditure had grown tremendously, and it was impossible to afford much relief. The Prime Minister decided at once on a policy of the most rigid economy. Departmental expenditure was closely examined by a specially appointed commission; war bonuses were attacked, and, since a fall was shown in the cost of living, deductions were made accordingly. As a result of its measures for economy, the popularity of the government was seriously affected. ‘There was much unemployment, but it was possible, by pushing forward the public

NEW

ZEALAND

of New Zealanders. A naval oil-tank vessel is also maintained, and at the naval base at Devonport, Auckland, one oil-tank had been erected while another was under construction in 1925. The amount provided in the Estimates for 1925-6 as the Dominion’s contribution to naval defence was £538,325. All matters relating to the naval forces of the Dominion are administered by a Naval Board, constituted in 1921. The military forces consist of the Permanent Forces, the Territorial Force and the Senior Cadets. The Permanent Forces, excluding the Air Force, contain 1or professional officers who are charged with the training of the forces and the administration of all matters connected therewith. The strength of the Territorial Force in 1925 was 699 officers and 15,481 other ranks. The strength of the Senior Cadets was 427 officers and 26,515 other ranks. Rifle clubs exist throughout the Dominion. All male inhabitants of New Zealand who have resided therein for six months and are British subjects are liable to be trained in the Senior Cadets from 14 years of age, or the date of leaving school, to 18 years of age, or, in the case of those who at the age of 18 are attending a secondary school, to the date of their leaving school; or in the Territorial Force to the age of 25. The New Zealand Permanent Air Force, with an establishment of five officers and 19 other ranks, is a unit of the military forces. Public Finance.-—The gross national debt, which at March 31 roro stood at £74,890,645 (£72 6s. rod. per head of population), had increased to {201,170,755 ({162 12s. od. per head) at March 31 1920; at March 31 1925 it amounted to £227,814,647 (£165 2s. 11d. per head). This is the gross amount, and against it are accumulated sinking funds amounting to {£13,462,839, leaving the net indebtedness of £214,287,128. With the exception of that portion incurred for war purposes, the greater portion of the borrowings has been for productive and developmental purposes, resulting in revenue-producing assets such as railways, hydroelectrical installations, telegraphs and telephones. The war debt to the Imperial Govt. had been funded and repayment was already well advanced by 1925. The following table shows the revenue and expenditure for

These tables show that revenue from taxation increased very considerably from 1914 to 1921, but fell heavily from 1921 to 1925. The public services (chiefly railways and post and telegraphs) increased their revenue after 1921, while the costs of their administration were reduced, showing the excellent results of the severe and continued economies instituted in the services’ administration during the post-War period. The movement of direct and indirect taxation from 1914 to 1925 is shown in the following table:— Year ending

Customs al

Mar. 31

Excise

1910 IQII 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 192I 1922 1923 1924 1925

Excess of

Revenue

£

9,238,917 10,297,273 11,061,161 11,734,271 12,229,661 12,451,945 14,597,530 18,355,194 20,206,222 22,352,372

Expenditure

Revenue over

Expenditure

£ 8,990,922

9,343,106 10,340,368 11,082,038

£ .

247,995

954,167 720,793

652,233

11,825,864

403,797

12,379,803 12,493,107

72,142 2,014,423

14,058,770 15,120,288 18,673,599

4,296,424 5,085,934 3,678,773

23,781,524 28,068,730

2,299,816 6,192,231

28,466,838

275579443

26,263,760 26,148,005

a 339,831

28,643,000

27,399,200

1,243,800

26,081,340

34,260,961

28,127,007

27,960,370

i

aoe

rite

ax

a%

MEMES

£ 767,451

£ 554,271

£ 613,751

IQI4

£ . | 3,553,785 4,037,628 8,769,251

713,118 1,688,979

4,262,126 8,248,945

570,040 1,106,925

1922 1925

. | 5,554,334 . | 8,339,576

1,637,816 1,335,251

6,002,987 3,386,052

1,512,754 1,520,749

I9gi7. . I92I .

FEducation.—In 1914 the whole of the law relating not only to public, but to secondary, technical, and special schools was recast. The principal changes involved the reorganisation of the Department of Education and the inspector-general of Schools became the director of education. Provision was also made for the constitution of fewer education districts, and by an Act of 1915 nine were created from the existing 13. A council of education was also constituted, with statutory duty to report to the Minister and advise upon any matters in connection with education referred to it, or which it may consider advisable to introduce into New Zealand. By the Education Amendment Act 1921-2 the registration of all private schools was made compulsory, and teachers in all schools were required to take the oath of allegiance. The Education Amendment Act 1924 included provisions for the establishment of junior high schools, for the amalgamation of the governing bodies of secondary and technical schools and for the creation of a teachers’ register. The number of scholars receiving instruction in all educational institutions in I9II was 194,325, and in 1924 289,033. The following table shows the advance in the state primary schools (including district high schools): — y

No. of

“er

I9I3

each financial year from 191o to 1925:— Year ending Mar. 3I

1067

|

Pupils at

Average

schools

end of year

attendances

2,255

172,168

89-2

2,574

216,190

2,365

194,934

%

The number of teachers in the public schools in 1913 was 4,262; in 1924, 5,822. In 1915 there were 11,958 children receiving secondary

and technical instruction at all classes of schools; in 1924 there were

23,276. Free places at secondary schools are granted to suitably qualified pupils. There are also liberal national scholarships. Control of higher education is vested in the New Zealand University, which by Royal charter is entitled to grant degrees. In 1921 the degrees of bachelor of science in forestry and doctor of philosophy were instituted. There is a liberal scholarship system in connection with the universities. The following table shows the increased expenditure on education :—

1,315,683 1,812,365

Expenditure from public funds

Expenditure per head of mean population

£

s. d.

1909 I9gI5 1921

980,000 1,378,000 3,224,000

19 7 24 1 51 6

1924 1925

3,247,000 3,643,000

48 8 537

Chief Sources of Revenue and Expenditure Taxation

Railways

£5,918,034

{4,028,739 6,918,492

22,184,414 16,172,306

7,105,106

Post and Tele-

Crown Lands

£1,269,922 2,478,532 2,706,882

Other Sources £750,120

£12,229,661

2,359,882

2,446,957

34,260,961 28,643,000

Interest, etc., a

Other Expenses

Total

The details of expenditure for the same years were:— Year . Maren

; Working Railways

Post and Telegraphs

: Education

1914

£3,004,181

{1,170,883

{1,206,678

£2,887,981

£3,556,141

{11,825,864

IQ2I

6,211,011

2,588,360

2,633,977

7:831,593 8,862,644

8,803,789 7,709,266

28,068,730 27,399,200

1925

5,636,583

2,413,436

2,777,271

|

NEW

1068 BisLioGRAPHY.—J.

E. Rossigne and W. Downie Stewart,

ZEALAND ae

Socialism in New Zealand (1911); Rt. Hon. Sir R. Stout and J. | Stout, New Zealand (1911); Giuseppe Capra, La Nuova Zelanda (1913); H. H. Lusk, Social Welfare in New Zealand (1913); J.

Hight and H. D. Bamford, Constitutional History and Law of New Zealand (1914); J. Lindsay Buick, Treaty of Waitangi (1914); F. Waite, New Zealanders at Gallipoli, official (1919); H. Stewart, New Zealanders in France, official (1921); C. G. Powles, New Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine, official (1922); E. K. Mulgan and A. E. Mulgan, New Zealand Citizen (1922); W. Pember Reeves, The Long White Cloud, ard edition (1924); H. J. B. Drew, New Zealand’ s War Effort, official (1924); N. E. Coad, Dominion Civics a

J.A

II. POPULATION

AND

SETTLEMENT

Population.—The census figures for to1r, 1916 and t921, and the estimated population on Dec. 31 1925 were as follows:— IQII

Europeans .

Maoris

1916

1921

1,008,463 | 1,099,449 | I 218,913

49,844

49,776

2,751

1,058,312 | 1,149,225

Eaa

1925

1,335,719

54,768 1,390,457_

The actual gain in population in the decade 1911-21 (excluding Maoris) was 210,445, or 20-87%. Taking the two census periods, the gain from 1911-6 was 90,981, or 9:02%, and from 1916-21, 119,464, or 10°87 %. Three factors influenced the comparatively small increase:— 1. Immigration during the War years was severely restricted; 2. Emigration figures were swelled by the inclusion of over 100,000 members of the Expeditionary Force, thousands of whom did not return;

3. The rate of natural increase was reduced owing to the absence of so many thousands of men.

In torr the birth-rate per 1,000 was 25-97, and in 1924, 21°57. In the same periods the death-rates per 1,000 were 9-39, and 8-29 respectively. The proportion of females to males, excluding the War years, is steadily increasing. The number of females to 1,000 males in 1911 were 896; in 1916, 993; in tg21, 956; and in 1925, 959. The population is chiefly centred in the North Island, and the “ drift ” that w ay, largely due to the evelopment of the dairy industry, is growing. In 31911, 55:90% or the people resided there; in 1916, 59-22%, and in 1921, 60:81%. The Maoris, who are not included in these percentages, ae reside in the North Island. The census statistics of 1921 classed 56% of the population as urban. In 1921, 98-43 °% of the inhabitants, exclusive of Maoris, had been born in the British Empire, an increase of - 51 % as compared

with rorr. Of the total in 1921, 74-39% were born in New Zealand, 19-54% in the United Kingdom and 3:94% in Australia. A certain number of those born in foreign countries were of British parentage or nationality, and including these the proportion of the population owning British nationality in 1921r was 09°35 °% The number of aliens steadily diminished—from 12,050 in 1911 to 7,901 in rọ2r. Of the 7,901, 2,712 were Chinese, 1,013 Americans and 857 Yugoslavs. Certain restrictions are placed upon the entry into the Dominion of race aliens, a classification implying persons of other than European race. Of the total population in 1925 43:66% were ani of the PRE of England, 25-42% Presbyterian, 13-93% Catholics and 9:53%Methodists. The Maori race increased in numbers from Go oie in I911 to 54,768 in 1925, and continued to preserve their individuality and strength. The above 1925 figure includes 7,352 half-castes, the majority of whom live as Europeans. There are 125 native schools, with an average daily attendance of 5,610 scholars. Immigration.—The immigration policy of the New Zealand Government is to provide assistance, by free or reduced passage rates, to desirable immigrants from Great Britain. Assistance is restricted to persons who are nominated by permanent residents of the Dominion, or by bona fide New Zealanders visiting Great Britain, provided such persons are healthy and under 50 years of age. In the case of a married person, nomination must include the wife and family, except where a judicial separation exists, or desertion is proved. The nominator must undertake to make provision for the maintenance and employment of the nominee, and

guarantee that residence will extend to at least five vears. The quota of such assisted new arrivals is fixed from period to period. From shortly after the War until 1925 the quota was 10,000 per annum, but early in 1926 it was extended to 13,500. Exceptions to the nomination rule are single domestic servants and farm workers, for both of which classes there exists an unsatisfied demand. Very complete arrangements, under the direction of the Immigration Department, which in turn is responsible to the Minister for Immigration, exist for the care and comfort of immigrants both at their departure and arrival. Assisted immigrants are required to pass severe medical tests, and to present certificates of good character. These, and all allied matters, are administered

by the High Commissioner for New Zealand in London. The reduced rates of passage from Great Britain to New Zealand in 1926 were as follows:— Married or widowed adults Single adults (males) Single adults (females) .

Farm labourers

po

Domestic servants

.

oug

;

wo

; i

og

. i

. This dramatic merly in Austro-Hungary) and Montenegro. During the Great change was accomplished by immediate reduction and fixation War many Serbians were in England; over 600 refugees, young of the fracture, by segregation and by continuity of treatment ordinands, were there instructed and prepared for the Orthodox both at the seat of war and at home. Knowledge thus gained priesthood under Serbian priests.” Many others were in France, engaged in secular pursuits, and in other countries. This will be has formed the basis of the efforts to place the organisation and teaching of fractures upon a different basis with a view to minia convenient place to remark on the changed ecclesiastical conmising the disabilities of industrial accidents. Reform lies in the ditions in both Yugoslavia and Rumania. Before the War Rusimplification of apparatus, and in an intensive education in their mania and Serbia were inhabited practically by Orthodox alone. application, in segregation of fractures in special wards and in But the enlarged boundaries have brought in many Roman appointing surgeons with special qualifications to teach the Catholics and Lutherans, and this has complicated the problem student. of national religions. The former idea of one country, one church, Technigue-—The World War supplied us with exceptional has to be given up, and religion and politics cannot have the same close connection that they had before. Moreover, the opportunities of acquiring an improved technique in certain reconstructive operations which have an important bearing upon greatest hindrance to the reorganisation of the Orthodox Church in the Balkans and in Rumania is the exaggerated national feel- civil surgery. Amongst these stand prominently injuries to the ing and jealousy of each country against the others. This jeal- peripheral nerves, tendon transplantations, bone grafting and bone infections. The enormous number of complete nerve laceraousy is much more felt between the different branches of Orthotions enabled a finished operative technique to be built up, which doxy than between them and the Roman Catholics or Lutherans.§ was largely wanting before the War. Many misconceptions were Rumania—To the former Rumanian Church, with its two metropolitans, is now added the Transylvanian Church (for- corrected, such as the worthlessness of complete transplants of nervous or other tissue to bridge gaps in peripheral nerves, and 1The translation of an official summary of Soviet legislation the doubtful value of lateral nerve anastomosis. In cases of against religion is given in the Church Times, Oct. 30 1925. irreparable destruction to nerves, healthy muscles were trans2 Church Times, Nov. 20 1925. posed to take the place of paralysed ones. These operations 3 June 10 1923. 4 See an informative series of four articles on The Orthodox proved singularly successful where large tracts of the musculoChurches by Dr. Greig, Bishop of Gibraltar in Theology, 10-11, spinal nerve were irreparably damaged. which might at its pleasure lend buildings for religious worship. Monasteries were to be converted to useful purposes. A great persecution of the Orthodox has broken out, and according to the official figures, within a period of less than two years, 1,275 bishops (and priests?) and 6,775 other persons have

March, April, July, Aug. 1925. 5 The Christian East, 48.1, 51. f, 54. 6 Greig in Theology, 11. 8, 66.

7 Goodwill, p. 114 ff. 8 Goodwill, p. 127.

:

ORTZEN—OSAKA Certain flexor muscles of the forearm were attached in such a way that extension of the wrist and fingers became assured. Bone graft surgery received a great impetus during the War and has since been extended. This has led to considerable research on the viability of transplanted tissue, and in the case of the bone it is held that the transplant is a scaffold along which the fresh bonelaying cells creep from the embracing bone and deposit new bone, the scaffolding itself being ultimately removed by absorption. War experiences have permanently affected the treatment of virulent infections. The Carrel-Dakin method has permanently established itself as well as the procedure of laying open infected bone cavities so that the soft tissues fall in easily to obliterate the gap when the infection is at an end. Care of Cripples.—The most notable advance in orthopaedic surgery following the War is in the organisation for the care and cure of cripples. This consists in the establishment of wellequipped open-air hospitals in various parts of Great Britain, known as hospital schools, fully staffed by surgeons specially trained to deal with deformities of every kind. These schools provide treatment and education for the cripple, and are associated with what are known as after-care clinics situated in small towns covering an area of from 40 to 50 m. distant from the hospital in every direction. These after-care clinics are visited by the hospital staff at stated times, and are attended by outpatients who have been inmates of the hospital school, and by cases from the district, who are often seen at a sufliciently early date to prevent deformities from arising. These hospitals and clinics are run in close association and agreement with the local practitioners, the education authorities and the Ministry of Health. This scheme, in association with preventive measures, promises practically to eliminate the cripple. Its aims are to sccure the potential cripple at the earliest moment, to give him expert institutional treatment in fresh air and sunlight and to secure continuity of treatment until recovery is complete. Artificial Light—Of the special advances in knowledge that have taken place since the War, the evolution of the artificial light treatment as an auxiliary form of therapeutics for tuberculosis of bones and joints and of rickets may be instanced. The work of Rollier, Leonard Hill and others has given prominence to the therapeutic value of sunlight (see HELIOTHERAPY), and in the absence of sun extended observation favours the conclusion that we have in various forms of artificial light a promising substitute. This treatment, as in the case of heliotherapy, must be looked upon merely as an accessory measure in surgical tuberculosis. It is most effective when used in combination with other surgical procedures. It should be pointed out that there is grave danger in spreading a belief that other forms of treatment are unnecessary and subsidiary. Infantile Paralysis.—The serious epidemic of infantile paralysis has resulted in a more widespread knowledge of the early symptomatology and important work has been done, especially by the late Prof. Lovett of Harvard from 1916 onwards. It has now been proved that complete rest and immobilisation and the elimination of meddlesome therapeutics have resulted in lessening the severity of symptoms by limiting the paralysis. The mass of material rendered available by these epidemics has thrown new light on the actual treatment of deformity. Tendon trans-

plantations for various deformities of the feet have given place to operative stabilisation of the flail foot, and transplantations when practised are now associated with reconstructive operations upon bone. This combination has resulted in more satisfactory function. | Rickets.—Rickets and allied nutritional diseases, largely as a result of starvation diets during the War, have received close investigation by many observers abroad and at home. Considerable work on the aetiology, particularly with reference to diet, exercise and sunlight, has been carried out at Johns Hopkins Hospital, the Lister Institute and by Findlay of Glasgow, Mellanby and Chick. Much has been discovered regarding ‘‘ vitamines’ or “ accessory food factors” (see VITAMINES). The report of the Research Committee provisionally deals with only two varieties; one known as vitamine A, or fat soluble A,

©

II35

and the other as anti-rachitic vitamine.

Both are essential to the

diet of growing animals. Defect in the one leads to arrest of growth and loss of weight; in the other a deficiency in the deposit of lime salts. The committee conclude that an anti-rachitic vitamine is a central factor in the prevention of rickets; and that a deficiency of calcium and phosphorous, in conjunction with a deficiency of anti-rachitic vitamine, hastens rickets. The greater the discrepancy in the calcium phosphorus intake the greater need for an appropriate anti-rachitic intake. It has now been proved that sunlight and ultra-violet rays act as an antidote to a deficiency diet, and can ward off the on-coming of rickets. This work has added considerably to the knowledge of orthopaedic surgeons, and has rendered unnecessary a good deal of the operative treatment for rachitic deformities. Spinal Treatment.—The writings of Hibbs, Calve, Girdlestone and Waldenstrom have enabled us to place in accurate perspective the bony fixation of the vertebral column in tubercular disease of the spine. Forcible correction and fixation of the spine in lateral curvature is being abandoned in favour of less drastic measures, and bony fixation of the flail spine in paralytic cases is being performed with promising results.

Other

Operations—Operative

treatment

in osteoarthritis,

especially in the non-articular type, is being more widely practised. This consists in stabilising the joint by exercising the joint surfaces and in the complete removal of diseased synovial membrane in the knee joints. The so-called operations of arthroplasty, or mobilisation in ankylosis of joints is becoming more common, and the results more encouraging. They mainly consist of the loosening and reconstruction of the bone ends, and the introduction of transplanted or living tissue between the bone ends to secure movement. The treatment of fractures of the neck of the femur by wide abduction of the Hmb with internal rotation have been still further perfected by Royal Whitman of New York, and a large percentage of recoveries in this obstinate type of fracture occurring in old age is reported. The pathology of the rarer bone diseases such as “ cysts of bone,” ‘‘ myeloid sarcoma,” ‘ Paget’s disease ”? have been closely studied by many observers, resulting in valuable information in relation to operative procedure. BIBL1oGRAPHY.—P. B. Roth, Orthopaedics for Practitioners, An Introduction to the Practical Treatment of the?Commoner Deformities (Arnold 1920); Sir R. Jones (ed.), Orthopaedic Surgery of Injuries (by various authors), 2 vol. (Oxford University Press 1921); Sir R. Jones and R. W. Lovett, Orthopaedic Surgery (Oxford University Press 1923). (R. Jo.)

ORTZEN, GEORG, Baron Von (1829-1910), German poet and prose writer (see 20.342), diedin Freiburg May 261910. His later works include: Nebensachen (1910); Auf Schwarzwaldwegen (1910). ORZESZKO, ELIZA (1842-1910), Polish novelist (see 20.343), died at Grodno May 18 rgro. OSAKA, Japan (see 20.344), brought several suburban districts within its boundaries in 1925 and had a population of 1,252,972 in 1920. It was a busy industrial centre with over 7,000 factorics in 1921; the cotton manufacture, in particular, has developed rapidly. There is an acute shortage of houses and rents are high. Many people migrated from the north to Osaka after the earthquake in 1923, since the southern and southwestern districts are believed to be immune from severe shocks. In 1909 one-third of the city was destroyed by fire and though it was rebuilt with wider streets and better buildings, there are still many wooden houses and bridges, dangerous in case of fire, and its factories and warehouses compare less favourably with European and American standards than those of Tokyo. Work on a drainage system was started in 1909, but is still incomplete. Railways in the neighbourhood are in process of electrification, and there were 51 m. of tramways in 1925. Trade has grown very largely, but most goods are loaded and

discharged at Kobe, as the river is only navigable for small vessels. A programme of port improvements was, however, undertaken in 1906 to make the harbour suitable for ocean-going

ships, including the erection of jetties and warehouses, and the protection of the shore was practically completed in 1914; and

further work on land reclamation has been undertaken.

A fourth

~OSBORN—OSTEOPATHY

1136

shipbuilding yard was opened in rorr. A pharmaceutical school was opened in 1917 and in 1919 the university of medicine was made into a general university. The spread of pulmonary tuberculosis has caused alarm and a tuberculosis laboratory has been opened. In 1919 a municipal home for workpeople, including an employment bureau and a children’s clinic, was inaugurated. OSBORN, HENRY FAIRFIELD (1857), American palaeontologist, was born at Fairfield, Conn., Aug. 8 1857. Graduating from Princeton University in 1877, he was appointed assistant professor of natural science there in 1881, becoming professor

of comparative anatomy in 1883.

He went to Columbia Uni-

versity as Da Costa professor of biology in 1891 and was professor of zoology there from 1896 to rgro, in the latter year being appointed research professor of zoology. He was also curator of the department of vertebrate palaeontology of the American Museum of Natural History from 1891 to 1910. He was appointed vertebrate palaeontologist to the U.S. Geological Survey, 1904. From 1894 to 1916 he was connected with the Brearley School for Girls as director and president. He served as chairman of the executive committee of the New York Zoological Society 1896-1903, and assisted in founding the fine Zoological Park in the borough of the Bronx, New York City. (Sce EVOLUTION; PALAEONTOLOGY.) _Osborn’s works include From the Greeks to Darwin (1894); Evolution of Mammalian Molar Teeth (1907); The Age of Mammals (1910); Huxley and Education (1910); Men of the Old Stone Age (1915); Gan and Evolution of Life (1917); and The Earth Speaks to Bryan

OSLER, SIR WILLIAM

(1849-1919), British physician, was

born at Bond Head, Canada, July 12 1849. He was educated at Trinity College School, Port Hope, Trinity University, Toronto and at McGill University, Montreal, where he took the M.D. degree in 1872. He studied medicine in London, Leipzig and Vienna and was in 1874 appointed professor of medicine at McGill University. From 1884 to 1889 he was professor of clinical

medicine in the University of Pennsylvania, and from 1889 to 1904 professor of medicine at Johns Hopkins University. In

OSSENDOWSKI, FERDINAND ANTHONY (17876), Polish traveller and writer, was born May 27 1876 in the government of Witebsk. He studied at the University of St. Petersburg (Leningrad) and at Paris, where he received the degree of docteur des sciences and officier d’Académie for his work entitled Zhe Allotropy of Silver. He was appointed lecturer of physics and

physical chemistry at successively a lecturer facturer, a commercial siclan, a draughtsman, Ossendowski

was

the Tomsk Polytechnic and then became in chemistry, physics, geography; a manumanager, a journalist, a novelist, a phya teacher of languages, and a mineralogist.

twice

imprisoned

for

supposed

political

offences. While at the university he was sentenced to five months’ imprisonment for taking part in a manifestation against capital punishment, and, at the time of the Russo-Japanese War, he was brought before a Russian Jaw court for leading a patriotic organisation in the Far East with the object of preventing civil war after the defeat of the Russian Army. He was sentenced to death but the sentence was later commuted to 20 months’ imprisonment. During this period Ossendowski’s books on prisons appeared, which aroused a great deal of controversy and led to a revision of the Russian prison system. After the outbreak of the Communist revolution, Ossendowski held office as financial adviser to the Government of General Kolchak in Siberia. After Kolchak’s Govt. fell, he made his way through the forests to Mongolia disguised as a peasant. His journey through Central Asia is recounted in Beasts, Men and Gods (1923), and his other works on Asia include Man and Mystery in Asia (1924), and The Shadow of the Gloomy East (1925). His play The Living Buddha had a successful run at the National Theatre in Warsaw. Ossendowski also publishect a number of scientific books, including The Theory of Fermentation, Vegetation of the Pacific Ocean and the Extraction of Iodine; The Origin of Petroleum according to Scientific Hypothesis, Contribution to the Hydrography of the Ussuri Territories; Contribution to the Oceanography of the Pacific, The Coal Industry in Russia and Its Possibilities. See Sven Hedin, Ossendowski und die Wahrheit (1925),

OSTEND, Belgium (see 20.356), had a population in 1923 of 1905 he was appointed regius professor of medicine at Oxford, where he also served as a curator of the Bodleian Library, as a A4,271. Large sums have been recently spent in enlarging and delegate of the University Press and as one of the Radcliffe improving the town and suburbs, which is one of the most poputrustees. In rorr he was created a baronet. Sir William Osler lar watering places in Europe. It is computed that it is visited carried out original and valuable researches on the diseases of by nearly 1,000,000 people yearly. It is also a port for crossthe spleen and blood and also made eminent contributions to the .channel services and the chief Belgian fishing port. The new fishing harbour includes a wet dock for steam trawlers, a tidal study of infections of the heart, of angina pectoris, of malaria dock for sailing boats and a slipway. Extensive harbour and and of many minor maladies. He was the author of many medidock works were completed before the World War. cal works, of which the most important is Tke Principle and The War Period.—Ostend was occupied by the Germans for Practice of Medicine (1892, latest edition 1916), and of a volume four years during the War, and was at first, until it was rendered of essays entitled Acguanimitas. Sir William died at Oxford untenable by acrial bombardments, a base for destroyers and Dec. 29 roto. submarines. In May 1918 the entrance channel to the harbour OSLO, formerly CHRISTIANIA (see 6.279), the capital of Norway, changed its name as from Jan. 1 1925, Oslo being the orig- and the canal to Ghent and Bruges were blocked to all craft inal appellation of the city. The population was 258,483 in except the smallest submarines by the sinking of the ‘“ Vindictive.’ After the War she was raised and broken up. Parts of 1920. Between 1912 and 1921 large sums were spent on building and equipping quays. Vessels up to 10,o00 tons can be built in the “ Vindictive,” “ Intrepid ” and “ Thetis ”?” have been made the ship-building yards. Garden suburbs have been erected by into a memorial on the Digue. During the German occupation over 2,000 bombs were dropped on the town, and an enormous the municipality at Ullevaal, where there is the largest municipal amount of damage was done. The new marine station and the hospital in the country, and at Toien. At the latter place are locks were blown up, and the Central station badly damaged. three buildings, the first erected in 1908, which house the minRestoration, however, was so rapid that two years after the eralogical and palaeontological, zoological and botanical collections. A third Viking ship, that of Oseberg, has been added to Armistice hardly a trace of the havoc was left. A new lighthouse, in place of the large one destroyed in r916, was finished in 1924. the others in the historical museum. The Margaret church, In 1922 a monument to commemorate the work of the people of built by the Swedish colony in memory of the late Crown Princess Ostend among refugees fleeing to England was unveiled in front of Sweden, was consecrated in 1925. Three new theatres have of the church of St. Peter and St. Paul, and in the English church been built since the World War. A trade intelligence bureau is a plaque in memory of those who were killed in the raid on was founded in 1919, and the central bureau of statistics reorZeebrugge. (Sece ZEEBRUGGE.) ganised in 1918. A beginning has been made with the electrifiOSTEOPATHY.—According to its advocates, osteopathy is cation of the state railways, from Oslo to Drammen. The Dovre railway, connecting Oslo with Trondhjem, was completed in that system of the healing art which regards the structural integrity and adjustment of the mechanism of the body as the most 192r, and the Ostbane station has been extended. The joint important single factor in maintaining the organism in health, scheme of the state and the municipality for deriving power from the Glommen river has been delayed, but three units of in contrast to the older systems which regard the chemical intake of the body as the most important factor. In other words osteop13,000 kw. were in use early in 1925.

OSTWALD—OTTOMAN EMPIRE, THE athy is based on the belief that the human body is a vital mechanism, a living machine, which, given wholesome physical and mental environment, good food, proper exercise, pure air and pure water, will be healthy—that is, will function properly, so long as all the cells and parts of that vital mechanism are in normal adjustment. Osteopathy teaches that structural derangement of the body is the predisposing cause of disease. Such structural derangement causes functional perversion of the vascular and nervous system, weakening the nutritional processes and lowering the powers of resistance of the body; on the one hand, producing congestion, either general or local, active or passive; on the other, depriving tissues of an adequate blood and lymph supply. This perversion impairs the rebuilding of cells after waste due to active functioning and retards the elimination of waste products through body drainage, thus making the body unable to withstand climatic changes or unhygienic and insanitary surroundings, and offering a hospitable medium for the invasion and propagation of pathogenic germs. Integrity of mechanical structure determines the normality of functioning. That structural perversion is the basic cause of functional disturbance or disease is a distinctive and fundamental principle of osteopathy. Diagnostic Methods Osteopathic diagnosis includes examination of the whole body and its excretions, especially the articulations and alignments of the vertebrae, ribs and pelvis. Symptoms are noted, and chemical, microscopic, hygienic, sanitary and other findings are studied to aid in determining the existing conditions of tissue, viscera and function. Of supreme importance, however, is the physical examination to discover existing mechanical tissue lesions. Therapeutic Methods —Osteopathic therapeutics may, and usually does, consist in the specific manipulative removal of the lesion or structural perversion, by effecting tissue adjustments, which free the remedial anti-toxic and auto-protective resources of the organism itself; or it may consist in correcting hygienic, dietetic, environmental and psychic conditions; or in the application of operative surgery for fractures, lacerations, and the removal of abnormal growths or organs so diseased as to be dangerous to life; or it may be the administration of antidotes for poisons and other dangerous substances. In osteopathic therapeutics the fundamental principle is, ‘‘ Find the lesion, adjust it, and let it alone.” Historical Matter —The founder of osteopathy, Dr. Andrew

Taylor Still, was born in Virginia Aug. 6 1827, and died at his home in Kirksville, Mo., Dec. 12 1917. He was a practising allopathic physician at the beginning of the American Civil War, served as a Union officer, and at the close of the war returned to his home in Kansas and resumed the practice of his profession. Gradually his confidence in the efficacy of drugs as a means of healing weakened, and his faith in the inherent curative power of the body strengthened, until June 22 1874, when he publicly announced that he would henceforth discard the use of drugs asa curative measure and would dedicate the remainder of his life in aiding nature in the alleviation of disease by the mechanical readjustment of the disordered body. The American School of Osteopathy was opened at Kirksville, Mo., in 1892. There were in 1925, over 9,000 graduate practitioners of osteopathy in all parts of the world. Legal Recognition.—In addition to the school at Kirksville, there were in 1921 six others in the United States devoted to the teaching of osteopathy. The curricula of the osteopathic colleges embrace all the subjects taught in other medical colleges, except Afateria Mfcdica, in place of which there is included “ Principles and Practice of Osteopathy ” and ‘‘ Osteopathic Therapeutics.”” Osteopathy was by 1925 recognised and regulated. by law in 47 states of the United States. The one remaining state, through court decisions, makes its practice legal. There is an international organisation, The American Osteopathic Assn., having some 4,000 active members; an osteopathic association in each state in the Union; associations in Canada; the New England Osteopathic Assn., the Western Osteopathic Assn., the Eastern Osteopathic Assn., the South Atlantic States Osteopathic Assn., Osteopathic Women’s National Assn., a

1137

British Osteopathic Association, the Academy of Osteopathic Clinical Research, and the American Society of Ophthalmology and Oto-Laryngology. There are 10 or 12 magazines and periodicals published by the profession. OSTWALD, WILHELM (1853), German chemist, was born in Riga Sept 2 1853 and educated at the University of Dorpat. In 1882 he became a professor in Riga, and five years later was appointed professor of physical chemistry in the University of Leipzig, where he was later director of the Physico-chemical Institute. In 1906 he resigned his university appointments and subsequently lived in retirement in Saxony. Ostwald will be chiefly remembered for his discovery in 1900 of a method of oxidising ammonia to form oxides of nitrogen; a mixture of air and ammonia being passed over a platinum catalyst with a specially treated surface. By means of this process and by later developments in connection with it, Germany was enabled to continue the manufacture of explosives during the World War after the Allied blockade had been enforced. In 1909 Ostwald was awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry. His published works include Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie (and ed. 1884-87) and Grundlinien der anorganischen Chemie (sth ed. 1922) which have been translated into English. OTIS, HARRISON GRAY (1837-1917), American journalist, was born near Marietta, O., Feb. ro 1837. He became aprinter’s apprentice, working in various offices in Illinois, Iowa, Ohio and Kentucky. He served throughout the Civil War, and rose to be lieutenant-colonel. He was in the Government printing office at Washington, D.C., 1867-70, and in 1870 moved to California, where he managed the Santa Barbara Press. In July 1882 he became connected with the Los Angeles Daily Times, obtaining control of that paper in 1886. He served in the war with Spain as brigadier-general in the Philippines 1898-9. In 1910 the Times building was dynamited, 21 employees being killed. He died at Los Angeles July 30 1917. OTTAWA (sce 20.369), the capital of the Dominion of Canada, had a population of 107,843 in 1921; a later estimate gives it as 126,000. The population is about half British and half French. Ottawa is the headquarters of the Air Force and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and contains the National Victoria Museum, the National Art Gallery, the Royal Observatory and the Royal Mint; while the Central Canadian Experimental Farm is in the vicinity. Parliament buildings were almost completely destroyed by fire in 1916; the magnificent library and the Senate House fortunately escaped. Reconstruction was started at once. The main front of the new buildings is the same length as that of the former one, but the height is double; in the main tower is a War Memorial chamber. Other buildings erected since rorr include the Grand Trunk (now Canadian National) Union station, on the east bank of the Rideau canal and the south side of Rideau street, and the Chateau Laurier hotel facing the Parliament buildings. The Canadian War Memorial, an arch 45 {t. high, was in course of erection in 1926. A colony for the use of civil servants has been built close to Rockliffe Park. The city possesses 2,000 ac. of park lands. Ottawa in 1924 had 452 industrial establishments, largely for wood products, including one of the biggest lumber factories in the British Empire. Electric power is generated at Chaudière Falls. OTTOMAN EMPIRE, THE (sce 27.426).—After an existence lasting well-nigh six centuries and a half the empire founded by Osman (1288-1326) expired on Oct. 29 1923 when the Great National Assembly at Angora by an unanimous vote constituted the Turkish Republic. Since the death of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1566 the Ottoman Empire had been gradually decaying, and throughout the roth century its demise from time to time had been almost hourly expected. Successive wars had shorn it of its outlying provinces, especially in Europe, and from being an empire that extended in the r6th century from Budapest to the Sudan and from Oran to the Caspian Sea it was left by the Treaty of Sévres (q¢.v.) with an area of no more than 175,000 sq. m. and a population of barely 8,000,000. Contrary to expectations, it received its coup de grace not from one of the great Christian Powers but from a section of

OQUSE—OXFORD

1138 its own

subjects.

It fell before the democratic

movement

The War Period.—The two most important facts in the history of the university since rorr have been the World War and the two commissions. In the War 14,561 Oxford men served in the British Forces, and 2,660 lost their lives. But the greatest of the House of Osman, fled from Constantinople on board a service rendered by the university was the supply of officers. British ship of war. In consequence the Great National Assembly Thanks to the O.T.C., nearly 2,000 Oxford men received comat Angora decreed his deposition both as Sultan and Caliph missions in the first two months of the War. After this, Oxford in a fetva passed on Nov. rọ 1922. As Caliph the Assembly became one of the main training grounds for officers; for the last elected Abdul Mejid Effendi, a son of the late Sultan Aziz; three years of the War, there always were nearly 2,000 cadets in but in less than two years even the Caliphate was swept away Oxford and the examination schools and those colleges which and the House of Osman finally banished (March 2 1924) from were not given up to cadets became hospitals. The number the lands over which it had for so long held sway. (See CALI- of undergraduates fell to 1,087 in Jan. r915 and 550, 460 and PHATE; TURKEY.) 369 in the same months in ro16, ror7 and 1918 respectively. See Lord Eversley’s The Turkish Empire (2nd ed., 1923), prob- The tide began to turn in the latter part of 1918; in Jan. r919 ably the best general survey of the history of the Empire. See also there were 1,357 men in residence; and in the following 18 months W. Miller, The Ottoman Empire, 1801-1913 (1913). the entries were so heavy that by Oct. 1920 there were about OUSE (see 20.380).—The question of the navigation of the 4,500 men and 650 women actually in residence. Since that time, all the men’s colleges have striven to reduce their numbers; so English river, the Great Ouse, between Bedford and King’s Lynn that the figures for undergraduates in Oct. 1925 were about was raised in 1913 at Bedford and a committee was formed to 3,400 men and 750 women. These figures indicate clearly one of inquire into the subject, but no further steps were taken until the Land Drainage Act of 1918 made it possible to deal with the the indirect results of the War, the admission of women as full members of university. This change was made in 1920. problem. The Ouse is a long and difficult river, largely artificial, New Statuftes.—The royal commission, set up in r919, reported and in 1913 the locks were decayed and unworkable between in 1922; most of its recommendations had been embodied in Bedford and St. Ives. Parts of the stream had never been adeStatutes by the end of 1925, by the statutory commission quately cleared and the cutting called the New Bedford river, appointed in 1923, although the actual changes made by the comwhich carries one arm of the river to the sea, was suffering from mission will only begin to come fully into effect in Oct. 1926. a long period of neglect. In 1920 an Act was passed superseding It was satisfactory to Oxford men to find that a commission apvarious minor authorities and placing the drainage of the Ouse pointed by a reforming government, and composed of men of all in the hands of a board. The decision to rate the owners and political parties, reported so favourably on the work of the unioccupiers of land adjoining the river in the upper reaches above versitics as a whole; so far from being pronounced to be homes of Earith, where it enters the Fen country, as well as the Fen idleness, the main complaint made against most of the teachers dwellers, for the purpose of making drainage and tidal channels in the Fen area, aroused opposition from the first. The “ up- was that they worked too hard (see Report, pp. 26, 39, 48). To landers ”’ considered that their assistance should be confined to remedy this, and to allow for the extension of university activitics, the royal commission recommended a grant to Oxford and the portion of the river above FEarith, and the comparatively to Cambridge of £110,000 a year each; only £60,000 was given at small area of land adjoining it. The Ministry of Agriculture, as first, but in the spring of 1925 this was increased to £85,000. the result of an inquiry held in 1924, decided that it was imposIt is hard to say what the effect of the new statutes will be. sible to relieve them of their liabilities under the Act, unless the They seem likely rather to carry on the developments which the Government undertook comprehensive works on the tidal porold universities were already making, than to introduce revolution of the river. A suggested grant of about £1,500,000 was refused as insufficient and a long dispute followed between the tionary changes. At Oxford, for example, there has been a growdrainage board and the upland farmers, who refused to pay the ing tendency since about 190o to lay ever-increasing stress on the necessity of research work. ‘To encourage this, the degrees of rate levied for administrative purposes. Distraints were carried Bachelor of Letters and Bachelor of Science were set up in 1895, out In Jan. 1925 and the goods sold at Cambridge. the Doctorate of Philosophy in 1917; the regulations for the Protests from the Upland Riparian Owners and Occupiers’ B.Litt. are now being remodelled in the light of experience. In Association and continued refusals of payment led to further negotiations with the Ministry of Agriculture, which resulted in the examination, too, for the honours degree in natural science, the passing of a temporary suspension order in April, with the students of chemistry can only obtain a class if they spend a year on a piece of research. proviso that no fresh rate should be levied or drainage work Another important line of change is that in future the full done in the “‘ upland ” area (except by consent of a sub-commitemoluments of college entrance scholarships will be given only tee of the board consisting of representatives of that area) until to those who show actual need for help. It remains to be seen how the end of 1926; that the Ouse district should be surveyed; and this change will work; but in this, as in other matters, the comthat a commission should be appointed to investigate the whole problem. The Upland Riparian Owners’ Association adopted a missioners have done as little as possible to interfere with the independence of colleges, and great care has been taken to prefighting policy, stating that they did not require a drainage commission in their area; and that the river could be surveyed for vent the lowering of standard for scholarships and to see that scholarships do not become merely cleemosynary. obstacles and these removed, if necessary, by the National FarmThe machinery of government of the university has also been ers’ Union. They also put forward the suggestion that ‘with codeveloped since 1900, mainly by voluntary action, but in part operation between the millers and the county surveyors the flood by the commissioners. The hecbdomadal council has been made waters could be passed through more rapidly. Efforts were being more representative of the whole university; university finance made later in the year to induce the “ uplanders ”’ to pay their arrears of rates. A new bridge over the old Bedford river was management has been remodelled, first in 1912 in one of the reforms carried out by Lord Curzon, and then by a statute of 1920. begun in 1925, but difficulties were caused by the floods. It was decided to approach the county authorities with a view to their The studies of the university too are now put under a gencral board of the faculties, which was set up in rọr3 and is elected taking responsibility for the bridges, many of which were inadequate for the traffic. by the resident teachers. A further instance of development is the change in the theological degrees, which in 1920 were thrown OXFORD (see 20.405).—The population of the city increased from 53,048 in 1911 to 57,052 in 1921. The garden suburbs on open to students of all denominations, and made to depend, so the Cowley and the Iffley roads are only small, but others are i far as the D.D. is concerned, on the production of a ‘serious conin progress. In 1925 the city adopted a town-planning scheme, tribution to learning.” by which arrangements are made for diverting through traffic Bencfactions.—The material resources of Oxford nave also inaugurated at Angora in rọrọ by Mustafa Kemal Pasha (q.v.), and in the following year the Parliament at Constantinople held its last meeting. Two years later Mehmed VI., last Sultan

round the city, and to preserve its amenities.

been steadily increased by the generosity of benefactors, espe-

OXFORD AND ASQUITH, EARL OF cially old members. Natural science has been the chief gainer, with new laboratories for engineering (1912), for chemistry (thanks mainly to Mr. Dyson Perrins) in 1912, for pathology from the Dunn trustees and for biochemistry from Mr. Whitley and the Rockefeller Foundation. The Welch bequest (1915) has added another

£50,000 to the resources of biological science, and the

Govt. by placing at Oxford the Institutes of Agricultural Engineering (1923) and of Imperial Forestry (1924), has shown its confidence in the oldest university as the fittest place to provide for the newest needs of the empire. Next to the development of natural science, the most marked feature of the decade 1915-25 has been the growth of modern language teaching. Professorships of French and Italian have been founded by Sir Basil Zaharoff and Mr. Arthur Serena respectively; Sir Heath Harrison has provided scholarships for undergraduate travel (1919), and Mr. Laming has founded travelling fellowships in connection with his old college, Queen’s (1924). Closely allied with this development is the increasing number of fellowships for study in the universities of the United States, which are being founded by Americans as a counterpart to the work of Cecil Rhodes. The Bodleian continues to receive gifts, not only of books and pictures as in Lord Curzon’s Napoleonic Collection (1925), but also in cash, as Walter Morrison’s £50,000 in 1920. Mention should also be made of Barnett House, founded in 1914 in memory of Rev. S. A. Barnett. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Marquess Curzon, Principles and Methods of University Reform (1909); Report of the Royal Commission (1922); Sir C., E. Mallet, A History of the University of Oxford to 1700, 2 vol.

(1924). (J. WE.*) OXFORD AND ASQUITH, HERBERT HENRY ASQUITH, ist EARL OF (see 2.769).—The opening of the session of 1911 may be taken as the crowning moment in Mr. Asquith’s public career. The issue of the constitutional struggle with the Lords was not yet decided, but it was no longer in doubt. It had been practically settled by the events of the previous autumn. The round table conference, which had been called in the hope of reaching an agreed settlement, had broken down, and Mr. Asquith had decided to appeal once more to the country. The election took place in December and the Govt. returned with a commanding majority of 126. The decisive mandate which the country had given in December dictated the issue that immediately occupied the new Parliament.