Encyclopaedia Britannica [18, 4 ed.]

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ENCYCLOPEDIA

BRITANNICA.

CncptlopaeUta

iSritanmca;

OR, A

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE;

ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.

THE FOURTH EDITION.

Jllustratcd toitf) neatly air ijunctea engravings.

VOL. XVIII. S'

iNDOCTI DISCANT ; AMENT MEMINISSE PERITI.

EDINBURGH: Printed by Andrew Bell, the Proprietor, FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH: AND FOR VERNOR, HOOD, AND SHARPE, LONDON. 1810.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNIC A.

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fthizo- -pj HIZOPHORA, the MANGROVE, or Mangle, a ge‘)il0ra , XV nus of plants belonging to the dodecandria clafs j and in the natural method ranking under the I 2th order, Ho/oracetr. Thefe plants are natives of the Eaft and Well Indies, and often grow 40 or 50 feet high. They grow only in water and on the banks of rivers, where the tide flows up twice a-day. They preferve the verdure of their leaves throughout the year. From the lowell branches iflfue long roots, which hang down to the water, and penetrate into the earth. In this polition they refemble fo many arcades, from five to ten feet high, which ferve to fupport the body of the tree, and even to advance it daily into the bed of the water. Thefe arcades are fo clofely intertwifted one with another, that they form a kind of natural and tranfparent terrace, railed with fuch lolidity over the water, that one might walk upon them, were it not that the branches are too much encumbered with leaves. The moll natural way of propagating thefe trees, is to fuffer the feveral (lender imall filaments which iffue from the main branches to take root in the earth. The mod common method, however, is that of laying the fmall lower branches in balkets of mould or earth till they have taken root. The defcription juft given pertains chiefly to a particular fpecies of mangrove, termed by the Weft Indians black mangles, on account of the brown dulky colour of the wood. The bark is very brown, imooth, pliant when green, and generally ufed in the Weft India illands for tanning of leather. Below this bark lies a cuticle, or {kin, which is lighter, thinner, and more tender. The wood is nearly of the fame colour with the bark ; hard, pliant, and very heavy. It is frequently ufed for fuel, for which purpofe it is faid to be remarkably proper ; the fires which are made of this wood being both clearer, more ardent and durable than thofe made of any other materials whatever.—The wood is compaft ; almoft incorruptible; never fplinters; is eafily worked; and were it not for its enormous weight, would be commodioufly employed in almoft all kinds of work, as it pofleffes every property of good timber. To the roots and branches of mangroves that are immerfed in the water, oyfters frequently attach themfelves ; fo that wherever this curious plant is found growing on the fea-fhore, oyfter-filhing is very eafy ; and in fuch cafes thefe fliell-filh may be literally faid to grow upon trees. The red mangle or mangrove grows on the feaVOL. XVIII. Part I.

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fhore, and at the mouth of large rivers; but does not advance, like the former, into the water. It generally rifes to the height of 20 or 30 feet, with crooked, knotty branches, which proceed from all parts of the trunk. The bark is {lender, of a brown colour, and, when young, is fmooth, and adheres very clofely to the wood ; but when old, appears quite cracked, and is eafily detached from it. Under this bark is a {kin as thick as parchment, red, and adhering clofely to the wood, from which it cannot be detached till the tree is felled and dry. The wood is hard, compadt, heavy, of a deep red, with a very fine grain. The pith or heart of the wood being cut into fmall pieces, and boiled in water, imparts a very beautiful red to the liquid, which communicates the fame colour to wool and linen. The great weight and hardnefs of the wood prevent it from being generally ufed. From the fruit of this tree, which, -when ripe, is of a violet colour, and refembles fome grapes in tafte, is prepared an agreeable liquor, much efteemed by the inhabitants of the Caribbee iflands. White mangle, fo termed from the colour of its wood, grows, like the two former, upon the banks of rivers, but is feldom found near the fea. The bark is gray ; the wood, as we have faid, white, and when green fupple ; but dries as foon as cut down, and becomes very light and brittle. This fpecies is generally called rope-mangrove, from the ufe to which the bark is applied by the inhabitants of the Weft Indies. This bark, which, on account of the great abundance of fap, is eafily detached when green from the wood, is beaten or bruifed betwixt two ftones, until the hard and woody part is totally feparated from that which is foft and tender. This laft, which is the true cortical fubftance, is twilled into ropes of all fizes, which are exceedingly Hr ong, and not apt to rot in the water. RHODE ISLAND, one of the fmalleft of the United States of America, not exceeding 47 miles in length and 37 in breadth, is bounded on the N. and E. by the province of Maflachufetts ; on the S. by the Atlantic, and on the W. by Connedlicut. It is divided into five counties, viz. Newport, Providence, Walhingtoy, Briftol, and Kent, which are fubdivided into 30 townships, containing 68,825 inhabitants, and including 948 flaves. This Hate is interfered by rivers in all directions ; and the winters in the maritime parts of it are milder thaji in the interior of the country. The fummers are delightful, and the rivers and bays teem wilh.A filh

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fifn of different kinds. It is generally allowed by tr.ivellers, that Newport is the bell fiih market in the world. This hate alfo produces rye, barley, oats, and in fome places wheat fufficient tor home confumption. Cyder is made here for exportation ; and it abounds witn gralfes, fruits, and culinary roots and plants, all of an excellent quality. The north-weftern parts are but thinly inhabited, and more rocky and barren than the reft of the ftate. There are ex ten five dairies in fbme parts of it, which produce butter and cheefe ot the beft quality1, and in large quantities for exportation. Iron ere is found in great abundance in many parts of the ftate } and the iron-works on Patuxet river, 12 miles from Providence, are fupphed with ore from a bed about four miles and a half diftant, where a variety of ores, curious Hones, and ochres, are alfo met with ; and there is a copper mine mixed with iron in the townfhip of Cumberland. This ore is ftrongly impregnated with loadftone, large pieces of which have been found in the vicinity j but no method has yet been difeovered of working it to advantage. Here alfo lime ftone abounds, of which large quantities of lime are made and exported. This ftone is of various colours, and is the genuine marble of the white, plain, and variegated kinds, receiving as fine a polilh as any ftone in America. In this fiaie there are alfo feveral mineral Springs, to one of which, not far from Providence, numbers relort to bathe, and drink the waters. The chief towns of tiae ftate are Providence and Newport. The flave-trade, which was a fource of wealth tojnany, has been happily abolifhed. Briftol carries on a considerable trade to Africa, the Weft: Indies, and different parts of the United States: but the inhabitants of the profperous town of Providence have in their hands the greateft part ol the commerce ^ they had I 29 veffels in the year 1791. The common exports are tlax-feed, timber, horfes, cattle, beef, pork, fifh, poultry, onions, butter, cheefe, barley, grain, fpirits, cotton and linen goods. I he imports confift of Weft India and European goods, and logwood is brought from the hay of Honduras. At the different ports of this ftate move than 600 veffels enter and clear out annually. The amount of exports in I794> was valued at 9^4,573 dollars. At Providence there is a cotton manufactory, the produce of which is fent to the fouthern ftates j but the manufactures of bar and ftieet iron, fteel, nail-iods, and nails, implements of hutbandry, ftoves, pots, &c. are the molt extenfive. The conftitution of the ftate is founded on the charter granted in 1663 by Charles II.; and the revolution made no effential change on the form of government. The legiflature confifts of two branches} a fenate compofed of ten members, befides a governor and deputygovernor, and a houfe of reprefentatives. The members of the legiftature are chofen twice a year, and there are two fefiions of this body annually. It was firfl: fettled from Mafl'achufetts. So little has the civil authority to do with religion here, that no contract between a minifter and a fociety is of any force, for which reafon a great number of feCts have always been found here 5 yet it Is faid that the fabbath, and all religious inftitutions are more neglefted in this, than many other of the New England ftates. RHODE-ISLAND, an ifland of N. America, in a flate of the fame name, fituated between 41° 28' and 410 42' N. Lat. and between 71° 17' and 710 27' W. long.

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from Greenwich, or about 15 miles long, and its me- PJvcdes dium breadth about 3 and a half. It is a famous refort for invalids from the foulhern climates, as it is exceedingly pleafant and healthful, being at one period regarded as the Eden of America ; but the change is great which has been effected by the ravages of war, and a decreafe of bufinefs. Between 30,000 and 40,000 Iheep are fed upon this ifland, befides cattle and horfes. i he foil, climate, and lituation of this ifland, are perhaps not exceeded by any other in the wmrld. RHODES, a celebrated ifland in the Archipelago, Ancient and the largeft and moft eafterly of the Cyclades, was name? etymology. known in ancient times by the names ot Ajleria, 0phiufa, JEtfircea, Trinacria, Corymbia, Poejfa, Atabyria, Marcia, OloejTa, Stadia, Telchims, Pelagia, and Rhodus. In later ages, the name of Rhodus, or Rhodes, prevailed, from the Greek word rhodon, as Is commonly fuppofed, fignifying a “ rofe the ifland abounding very much with thele flowers. Others, however, give different etymologies, among which it is difficult to find one preferable to another. It is about 20 miles diftant horn the coafts ol Eycia and Caria, and about 120 miles in compafs. Several ancient authors affert, that Rhodes was for- Its orisin. merly covered by the lea, but gradually raifed its head above the waves, and became an ifland. Delos and * Pliny, Rhodes (fays Pliny), iflands which have long been * lib. ii. cap. celebrated, fprung at firfl from the fea. I he lame fact 87. is fupported by fuch a variety of other evidence as render it indubitable. Philo k aferibes the event to the | p}gi0 ,{e decreafe of the waters or the ocean. If his conjedlure Munuo. be not without foundation, raoft of the ihes of the Aichipelago, being lower than Rhodes, rauft have had a fimilar origin. But it is much more probable that the volcanic fires, which in the fourth year of the I35^1 lympiad, raifed Therafia and d hera, known at preient by the name of Santonn, from the depths of the iea, and have in our days thrown out feveral fmall iflands adjacent, alfo produced in feme ancient era Knoues and Delos. The firft inhabitants of Rhodes, according to Diodoru* Siculus, were called the 2 elchtmc, who carne originally from the ifland of Crete. Thefe, by their Ikftl in aftrologv, perceiving that the ifland was toon to oe drowned writh w’ater, left their habitations, and rmA. room for the Heliades, or grandfons of Phoebus, w ho took poffeffion of the ifland after that god had cleared it from the water and mud with which it was overw’helmed. Thefe Heliades, it feems, excelled all otner men in learning, and efpecially in aflrology *, invented navigation, &c. In after ages, however, oeing infefted wdth great ferpents wdiich bred in the ifland, tncy had recourfe to an oracle in Delos, which advfled them to admit Phorbas, a Theffalian, with his followers, into Rhodes. This was accordingly done: and Phorbas having deftroyed the ferpents, was, after his death, honoured as a demigod. Afterwards a colony ol Cretans fettled in fome part of the ifland, and a little before the Trojan w^ar, Tlepolemus the fon of Hercules, who was made king of the wThole ifland, and governed with great juftice and moderation. Firft inhaAfter the Trojan war, all the ancient inhabitants bitants. r w ere driven cut by the Dorians, who continued to be mafters of the ifland for many ages. The government w’as at firft monarchical 5 but a little beiore the expedition

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tion of Xerxes into Greece, a republican form of go- Antigonus, charging them as aggreffbrs, and beginners PJiOcfrvernment was introduced ; during which the Khodians of an unjufl war, threatened to befiege their city with —v— applied themfelves to navigation, and became very the flrength of his whole army. The Rhodians endeapowerful by fea, planting feveral colonies in diftant voured by frequent embaflies to appeafe his wrath ) but countries. In the time of the Peloponnefian war, the all their remonflrances ferved rather to provoke than republic of Rhodes was rent into two fa&ions, one of allay his refentment: and the only terms upon which he which favoured the Athenians, and another the Spar- would hearken to any accommodation were, that the tans ; but at length the latter prevailing, democracy Rhodians thould declare war againd Ptolemy, that they was abolifhed, and an ariftocracy introduced. About Ihould admit his fleet into their harbour, and that an Xji B. C. we find the Rhodians opprefled by Mauio- hundred of the chief citizens thould be delivered up to lus king of Caria, and at laid reduced by Artemifia his him as hodages for the performance of thele articles. widow. In this emergency, they applied to the Athe- The Rhodians fent ambaffadors to ail their allies, and hians, by whofe affiftance, probably, they regained to Ptolemy in particular, imploring their aflidance, and reprefenting to the latter, that their attachment to their liberty. 5 Submit to From this time to that of Alexander the Great, the his intered had drawn upon them the danger to which Alexander, Rhodians enjoyed an uninterrupted tranquillity. To they were expofed. The preparations on both fides were but revolt him they voluntarily fubmitted; and were on that ac- immenfe. As Antigonus was near fourfeore years of j7 i 0 f ., after his count highly favoured by him : but no fooner did they age at that time, he committed the whole management fle, ecj by" death. hear of his death, than they drove out the Macedonian of the war to his fon Demetrius, who appeared before Demetrius, garriGns, and once more became a free people. About the city of Rhodes with 200 Ihips of war, 170 ttanfi this time happened a dreadful inundation at Rhodes j ports having on board 40,000 men, and 1000 other veiwhich, being accompanied with violent ftorms of rain, lels laden wbth provifions and all forts of warlike engines. and hailltones of an extraordinary bignefs, beat down As Rhodes had enjoyed for many years a profound tranmany houfes, and killed great numbers of the inhabi- quillity, and been free from all devadations, the expectation of booty, in the plunder of fo wealthy a city, alViolent in- tants. As the city was built in the form of an amphiundation at theatre, and no care had been taken to clear the pipes lured multitudes of pirates and mercenaries to join DeRhudas. and conduits which conveyed the water into the fea, metrius in this expedition •, infomuch that the whole fea the lower parts of the city were in an inftant laid un- between the continent and the iliand was covered with der water, feveral .houfes quite covered, and the inha- (hips : which druck the Rhodians, who had a profpect bitants drowned before they could get to the higher of this mighty armament from the walls, with great terplaces. As the deluge increafed, and the violent (bowers ror and condernation. Demetrius, having landed his troops without the continued, feme of the inhabitants made to their flops, and abandoned the place, while others miferably reach of the enemy’s machines, detached feveral (mail perhhed in the waters. But while the city was thus bodies to lay wade the country round the city, and cut threatened with utter deftrudlion, the wall on a hidden down the trees and groves, employing the timber, and burft afunder, and the wrater difeharging itfelf by a vio- materials of the houfes without the walls, to fortify his lent current into the fea, unexpectedly delivered the in- camp with drong ramparts and a triple palifade •, which work, as many hands were employed, was finilhed in a habitants from all danger. The Rhodians fuffered greatly by this unexpected few days. The Rhodians, on their part, prepared for a [ e 9n accident, but foon retrieved their Ioffes by a clofe ap- vigorous defence. Many great commanders, who had ^ > hab n re plication to trade. During the wars which took place lignalized themfelves on other occafions, threw them- ^ ^*r^ " among the fucceffors of Alexander, the Rhodians ob- felves into the city, being defirous to try their fkill in vi^orQu^ f’erved a ftriCl neutrality ; by which means they enrich- military affairs againd Demetrius, who was reputed one defence, ed themfelves fo much, that Rhodes became one of the of the mod experienced captains in the conduft of lieges mod opulent dates of that age ; infomuch that, for the that antiquity had produced. The befieged began with common good of Greece, they undertook the piratic difmifling from the city all fuch perfons as were ufelefs ; war, and, at their own charge, cleared the feas of the and then taking an account of thofe who were capable pirates who had for many years infeded the coads of of bearing arms, they found that the citizens amounted Difference Europe and Afia. However, notwithdanding the neuto 6000, and the foreigners to 1000. Liberty was with Antipromifed to all the (laves who (hould didinguiih themtrality they profeffed, as the mod advantageous branchgoii*;:. es of their commerce were derived from Egypt, they felves by any glorious abtion, and the public engaged to were more attached to Ptolemy, king of that country, pay the maders their full ranfom. A proclamation than to any of the neighbouring princes. When there- was like wife made, declaring, that whoever died in defore Antigonus, having engaged in a war with Ptolemy fence of their country (hould be buried at the expence about the idand of Cyprus, demanded fuccours of them, of the public } that his parents and children (uould be they earnedly intreated him not to compel them to de- maintained out of the treafury ; that fortunes (hould be clare war againd their ancient friend and ally. But given to his daughters} and his fons, when they were this anfwer, prudent as it wras, drew upon them the grown up, diould be crowned and prefented with a comdifplealure of Antigonus, who immediately ordered one plete fait of armour at the great folemnity of Bacchus ; of his admirals to fail with his fleet to Rhodes, and which decree kindled an incredible ardour in all ranks felze all the fhips that came out of the harbour for of men. Demetrius, having planted all his engines, began to Engines of Egypt. The Rhodians, finding their harbour blocked up by the fleet of Antigonus, equipped a good number batter with incredible fury the walls on the fide of the Demetrius of galleys, fell upon the enemy, and obliged him, with harbour ; but was for eight days fucceflively repulfed burnt, the lofs of many (hips,, to quit his flatiop. Hereupon by the befieged, who fet fire to mod of his warlike enA2 gmes, ■RiiOiles.

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gines, and tnereby obliged him to allow them fome refpite, which they made good ufe of in repairing the breaches, and building new walls where the old ones were either weak or low. When Demetrius had repaired his engines, he ordered a general affault to be made, and caufed his troops to advance with loud (bouts, thinking by this means to llrike terror into the enemy. But the befieged wrere fo far from being intimidated, that they repulfed the aggreflbrs with great (laughter, and performed the moft aftonifhing feats of bravery. Demetrius returned to the affault next day ; but was in the fame manner forced to retire, after having loft a great number of men, and fome officers of diftinftion. He had feized, at his firft landing, an eminence at a fmall diftance from the city j and, having fortified this advantageous poft, he caufed feveral batteries to be eredfed there, with engines, which inceffantly difcharged againft the walls (tones of 150 pounds weight. The towers, being thus furioufty battered night and day, began to totter, and feveral breaches were opened in the wTalls: but the Rhodians, unexpedtedly fallying out, drove the enemy from their poft, overturned their machines, and made a moft dreadful havock ; infomuch that fome of them retired on board their veffels, and were with difficulty prevailed upon to come aftrore again.

Several defDemetrius now' ordered a fcalade perate af- the fame time , and fo employed

by fea and land at the befieged, that

e pvnfucc'f' e s ^ y were at a lofs what place they (liould chiefly de‘ ’ fend. The attack was carried on with the utmoft fury on all fides, and the befieged defended themfelves with the greateft intrepidity. Such of the enemy as advanced firft w’ere thrown down from the ladders, and miferably bruifed. Several of the chief officers, having mounted the walls to encourage the foldiers by their example, were there either killed or taken priloners. After the combat had lafted many hours, with great (laughter on both fides, Demetrius, notwithftanding all his valour, thought it neceffary to retire, in order to repair his engines, and give his men fome days reft. ' Demetrius being fenfible that he could not reduce the city till he was mafter of the port, after having refreflied his men, he returned with new vigour againft the fortifications which defended the entry into the harbour. When he came within the caft of a dart, he caufed a vaft quantity of burning torches and firebrands to be thrown into the Rhodian (hips, which wTere riding there 5 and at the fame time galled, with dreadful (bowers of darts, arrows, and (tones, fuch as offered to extinguifh the flames. However, in fpite of their utmoft efforts, the Rhodians put a (top to the fire ; and, having with great expedition manned three of their ftrongeft drips, drove with fuch violence againft: the veffels on which the enemy’s machines were planted, that they were (battered in pieces, and the engines difmounted and thrown into the fea. Exceftus the Rhodian admiral, being encouraged by this fuccefs, attacked the enemy’s fleet with his three (hips, and funk a great many veffels; but was himfelf at laft taken prifoner : the other two veffels made their efcape, and regained the port. As unfortunate as this laft: attack had proved to Demetrius, he determined to undertake another and, in order to fucceed in his attempt, he ordered a machine

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of a new invention to be conftrufted, which was thrice the height and breadth of thofe he had lately loft.

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When the work was finilhed, he caufed the engine to be placed near the port, wrhich he was refolved, at all adventures, to force. But as it was upon the point of entering the harbour, a dreadful (form arifing, drove it againft: the (bore, with the veffels on which it had been reared. The befieged, who were attentive to improve all favourable conjunftures, while the tempeit wTas (fill raging, made a fally againfl: thofe who defended the eminence mentioned above j and, though repulfed feveral times, carried it at laft, obliging the Demetrians, to the number of 400, to throw down their arms and fubmit. After this vidfory gained by the Rhodians, there arrived to their aid 150 Gnoffians, and 500 men fent by Ptolemy from Egypt, moft of them being natives of Rhodes, who had ferved among the king’s troops. t2 Demetrius being extremely mortified to fee all his Demetrius rames a batteries againft: the harbour rendered ineffeftual, refol-f ved to employ them by land, in hopes of carrying "^e^ailed city by aflault, or at leaft reducing it to the neceffity o^helepolis. capitulating. With this view, having got together a vaft: quantity of timber and other materials, he framed the famous engine called ke/ef>o/is, which was by many degrees larger than any that had ever been invented before. Its bafis was fquare, each fide being in length near 50 cubits, and made up of fquare pieces of timber, bound together with plates of iron. In the middle part he placed thick planks, about a cubit diftance from each other •, and on thefe the men were to (land who forced the engine forward. The whole was moved upon eight (frong and large wheels, whofe felloes were ftrengthened with ftrong iron plates. In order to facilitate and vary the movements of the helepolis, callers were placed under it, whereby it was turned in an inftant to what fide the workmen and engineers pleafed. From each of the four angles a large pillar of wood was carried to about the height of 100 cubits, and inclining to each other •, the whole machine confiding of nine (lories, whofe dimenfions gradually leffened in the atcent. The firfl: (lory was fupported by 43 beams, and the lad by no more than nine. 'Ihree (ides of the machine were plated over with iron, to prevent its being damaged by the fire that might be thrown from the city. In the front of each (lory were windows of the fame fize and (hape as the engines that were to be discharged from thence. To each window were (butters, to draw up for the defence of thofe who managed the machines, and to deaden the force of the (tones thrown by the enemy, the (butters being covered with (kins (luffed with wool. Every (lory was furniihed with two large ilaircafes, that whatever was neceffary might be brought up by one, while others were going down by the otner, and fo every thing may be dilpatched without tumult or confufion. This huge machine was moved forwards by 3000 of the ftrongeft: men of-the whole army j but the art with which it was built greatly facilitated the motion. Demetrius caufed likewiie to be made feveral teftudoes or pent-houfes, to cover his men while they advanced to fill up the trenches and ditches *, and invented a new' fort of galleries, through which thole w'ho were employed at the fiege might pafs and repafs at their pleafure, without the lead danger. He employed all his feamen in levelling the ground over which th

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wood. This tree is not known for its good qualities, but greatly fo for the efFeft of its poifon j which though it is noxious to fome people, yet does not in the leatt afteft others. And therefore one perfon can handle the tree as he pleafes, cut it, peel off its bark, rub it or the wood upon his hands, fmell at it, fpread the juice upon the fkin, and make more experiments, with no inconvenience to himfelf: another perfon, on the contrary, dares not meddle with the tree while its wood is freth j nor can he venture to touch a hand which has handled it, nor even to expofe himfelf to the fmoke of a fire which is made with this wood, without foon feeling its bad effects $ for the face, the hands, and frequently the whole body, fwells exceflively, and is affe