Encyclopaedia Britannica [18, 14 ed.]

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THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA | BRITANNICA FIRST

EDITION

SECOND THIRD

EDITION EDITION

FOURTH

EDITION

1768 1777 1788 1801

FIFTH

EDITION

1815

SIXTH

EDITION

1823

SEVENTH EIGHTH NINTH

EDITION EDITION

EDITION

TENTH

EDITION

ELEVENTH TWELFTH

EDITION EDITION

THIRTEENTH

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

EDITION

1830 1853 1875 1902 1910 1922 1926

19291932

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LEANTA


Ramuz, Charles Ferdinand. utor to the Journal des Débats; Gazette de Lausanne; Revue de Genève; etc.

C. D. M.

C.

C. E. Cl.

CHARLES E. CLARK, LL.B., M.A.

C. E. R. S.

CHARLES ELY ROSE SHERRINGTON.

tee ae

ee

Sc.D.

ormerly Professor of Chemistry and Biology and Dean of the Faculty, Ripon College, Wisconsin. Physiologist in charge of field investigations of poisonous plants, Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, 1905-15.

Dean of the School of Law, Yale University. of Probate Law and Practice in Connecticut.

:

Author of Code Pleadings.

Instructor in Economics, Cornell University, 1922-4. Assistant Lecturer in Transport, London School of Economics, London University, and Secretary, Railway

C. FI.

Cect EDGAR TILLEY, B.Sc., PH.D., F.G.S. Lecturer in Petrology, University of Cambridge. CARL FLINK.

Ch. D.

CHANDLER Davis, A.B., M.A.M., M.C.

Railways (in pari). —

Prehnite; Pyroxene. Radiator (in part).

Engineer, Gas Utilization Division of the American Radiator Company, New York,

C. H. W.

Consulting Engineer, New York. Member of the American Institute of Consulting Railways (in part). Engineers and of the American Society of Civil Engineers. CamiLtA H. WEpGwoop, B.A. Department of Anthropology, Sydney University, N.S.W. Formerly Lecturer in Pottery, Primitive. Sociology, Bedford College, London.

C. J.

CHARLES JAMES.

Praseodymium ; Rare Earths.

C. K. H.

CHARLES KENNETH HOBSON.

Profiteering (in pari).

Professor of Chemistry, New Hampshire University, Durham, New Hampshire.

C. La.

Author of The Export of Capital; etc. CaRNEY Lanois, A.M., PH.D.

CL R.

Author of Studies of Emotional Reactions. CLAUDIUS FRANCOIS REGAUD.

C. Mas.

C. M. L.

C. R. B.

Chairman,

Department

of Psychology,

Wesleyan University,

Middletown,

Psychogalvanic Reflex.

Conn.

Radiumtherapy.

Pasteur Laboratory, Radium Institute, Paris.

CHARLES MASSON. Conservateur Musée du Luxembourg. CHARLES Mostyn Liovp, M.A.

Portrait Painting (in part).

Sey wen Sy”

Barrister-at-Law, Lecturer and Head of the Department of Social Science and Administration in the London School of Economics, University of London. Assistant Editor of The New Statesman.

Poor Law (in part). ey

CHARLES RaymMonp Beaztey, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S. Professor of History, University of Birmingham. Late Fellow of Merton and University Lecturer in History and Geography, Oxford. Formerly on Council of R.G.S.

and of Hakluyt and African Societies, and a member of the House of Laymen. Mem- Ptolemy (in part). ber of Advisory Committee of British Labour Party for International Affairs and for Education. Member of Executive of Birmingham Labour Party. Author of History of Russia; Nineteenth Century Europe; etc. a

C. Ri.

Cuive Riviere, M.D., F.R.C.P.

À

C.S. R.

C. Stanrorp Reap, M.D. (Lond.). Lecturer in Psychological Medicine, Royal Bethlem Hospital and

C.T. C.

C. T. CARR. Editor of Statutory Rules and Orders.

C. T. R.

C. Tate Recan, M.A., F.R.S. Director, Natural History Museum, London.

Physician to the City of London Hospital for Diseases of the Chest, and to the East London Hospital for Children. Author of The Pneumothorax and Surgical Treatment Pneumothorax. of Pulmonary Tuberculosts, etc. : chologist to the West End Hospital for Nervous Diseases, London,

mittee, 1917-20. Progress; etc.

C. W. K.

Clinical

Psy-

;

,

Ra

y-

,

Fellow, Geological Society of America, Member of Society of Economic Geologists. Member, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Member, American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. Formerly Associate Provincial Geologist for the Province of Ontario. Author of several papers on pre-Cambrian

geology; etc.

\ Psychosis (in pari); Psychotherapy.

. lProvisional Order.

Member of Fresh Water Fish ComAuthor of British Fresh Water Fishes; Animal Life and Human

Cyrit W. Knicut, B.Sc., F.R.S.C.

;

Co-Author Practico and Procedure (in pari).

Research Service of the British Railways since 1924.

C. E. T.

s . Poisonous Plants (in part).

Pre-Cambrian.

Vill

INITIALS

D. Bru.

CAPTAIN D. BRUNT.

D. C. Pe.

Mrs. C. S. PEEL, O.B.E.

Sup argade ondon.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

of the Army division of the Meteorological

Office, Air Ministry, } Rainbow.

Departmenta! Editor, Queen. Editor of Hearth and Home and Woman. Managing Director of Beeton & Co., Ltd., 1903-6. Director of Women’s Service, Ministry of Food, 1917~8. President of British Housewives Association. Editor of The Daily Mail Cookery Book. Author of My Own Cookery Book; etc.

Puddings.

Rev. Canon Davip CapELt Smupson, M.A., D.D.

Oriel Professor of Interpretation of Holy Scripture, Oxford, and Canon of Rochester Cathedral. Fellow of Oriel College. Examining Chaplain to the Bishop of Southwell, 1913-25.

D. D. C.T.

Proverbs, Book of. —,—_

Mrs. D. D. Cottincton Taytor.

Certificate Household and Social Science, King’s College for Women, Loadon. First Preserving and Bottling (in Class Teaching Diplomas, Cooking, Laundrywork, Housewifery, High Class Cookery, part). National Training School of Cookery, London. Director of Good Housekeeping. u~,-—_

DoNnALD Francis Tovey, M.A., Mus.Doc.

Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh University. Author of Essays on Musical Analysis, comprising the Classical Concerto, the Goldberg Variations, and analyses of Programme Music. many other classical works. Editorial Adviser, Music section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

D. Ja.

DuNnHAM JACKSON, A.M., P.D.

D. M.S.

Doris Mary Stenton, B.A.

D. M. S. W.

Davip MEREDITH SEARES WaTSON, M.Sc., F.R.S.

D. R.-J.

Sy

Lecturer in History in the University of Reading. Hon. Secretary and Editor for the yp Purveyance. Pipe Rolls Society. Author of The Earliest Lincolnshire Anise Rolls; etc.

Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University College, London. Author of many papers on Vertebrate Palaeontology and connected subjects in Proceedings of the Zoological Society; Journal of Anatomy; etc.

D. Ross-JOHNSON. General Manager and Secretary, Port of Bristol Authority.

E. A.

CAPTAIN EDWARD ALTHAM, C.B., R.N.

E. B.

ERNEST BARKER, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D.

E. B. N.

Polynomial.

Professor of Mathematics, University of Minnesota.

Formerly Principal of King’s College, University of London. Professor of Political Science, Cambridge, and Fellow of Peterhouse. Author of Greek Political Theory; The Crusades; etc.

Evan BAILLIE NOEL. Late Secretary of Queen’s Club, London.

ERNST CASSIRER.

E. D. M.

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL E. D. Miter, C.B.E., D.S.O.

E. D. Macl.

Sir Epwarp D. Macracan,

E. E. K.

E. E. KELLETT. Author of Suggestions, Literary Essays; The appreciation of Literature. E. E. Toum, E.M

oe erlin.

Antioch).

in Philosophy and History at the Prussian Akademie der Wissenschaften, } Prussia (in part).

Professor of Philosophy, University of Hamburg.

}

Served in South Africa, 1899-1900, and in the World War, 1914-8. Author of Modern Polo and Horse Management in the Field; Fifty Years of Sport; etc.

K.C.S.I., K.C.LE., M.A.

Governor of the Punjab, 1921-4.

Lieut.-Governor, 1919-21.

Associate Editor, The Iron Age, New York.

se

a

Author of Kani’s Leben und Lehre. Rationalism.

Author of Elementary Metallurgy.

Sır Epmunp Gossez, M.A., C.B., LL.D., Hon.Lirr.D. Librarian, House of Lords, 1904-14. Sometime Assistant Librarian, British Museum.

Clark Lecturer in English Literature, Trinity College, Cambridge, 1884-90. President of the English Association, 1921. Author of History of Eighteenth Century Literature; etc. See the biographical article: Gosse, SIR EDMUND.

EDWIN GARRIGUES BoriNG, M.A., A.M., Pu.D

Associate Professor of Psychology and Director of the Psychological Laboratory, Harvard University.

E. G. Co.

Raymond (Prince of

Rackets or Racquets.

E. Cr.

E. G. Bor.

Port Operation (in part).

al wa~

ERICE BRANDENBURG.

E.G.

Proboscidea; Pterodactyl.

Secretary and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United Services Institution since 1927. Portugal (in part); Senior Naval Officer, Archangel River Expedition, 1918-9. Secretary and Editor of the Journal of the Royal United Service Institution. Editor of the Naval section of the Quartermaster (in part). 14th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. u es

E. Bra.

E. E. T.

Plesiosaurus;

ERNEST GEORGE COKER, M.A., D.Sc., M.InstT.C.E., M.I.Mzcu.E., F.R.S.

}

Polo (in part). t

.

.

| Punjab (im part).

iPrologue (in part); Prose (in part). Presses and Presswork,

Prologue (in part);

Prose (in part).

>Psychophysics.

}

Professor of Engineering and Dean of the Faculty, University of London. Author of various papers in Transactions of the Royal Societies of London, Edinburgh and Pulley. Canada; etc.

E. Gr.

ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, Litt.D. Vice-Chancellor of the University of London, 1924-6. Archaeology, University College, London.

E. H. B.

Formeily Yates Professor of +Propylaea.

Author of The Art of Greece; etc.

Sir Epwarp Hersert BUNBURY, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; etc.

|romped (tn part); Ptolemy (im part).

INITIALS E.

J. F.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

1X

E. J. FoRSDYKE, M.A., F.S.A. Deputy Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum.

Sometime | Pottery and Porcelain (ii

Editor of the Journal of Hellenic Studies, Student of the British School of Archaeology [ part).

E. J. S.

at Athens and Secretary of the British School at Rome.

zoe

Jines

eee

D.Sc., F.L.S.

rotessor of Botany and Fellow of University College, University of London. Hon. . a Britisk Ecological Society. Author of An Introduction to the Study of Plants (in part). wants; etc,

EDGAR M. FOLTIN.

}Prison (in part).

Professor of Criminal Law and Procedure, University of Innsbruck.

E. N. da C. A. EDWARD NEVILLE pa Costa AnpDRADE, D.Sc., Pu.D., F.Inst.P. Quain Professor of Physics in the University of London. Author of Tke Structure of |Radiation, Rays;

E. P.

E. R. B. E. R.-Br.

the Atom; The Mechanism of Nature; etc. Editor of the Physics section of the rath {Raman Effect. Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. EpcGAR PrestacE, M.A., D.Litt. Professor of Portuguese Language, Literature and History in the University of |Portuguese Literature (in London, Corresponding member of Lisbon Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical( ari). Society, etc. Editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun; Agurara’s Chronicle of Guinea; etc. EpWyYN RoBERT Bevan, O.B.E., M.A., D.Lirt., LL.D. Hon. Fellow of New College, Oxford. Lecturer on Hellenistic History and Literature pPtolemies. at King’s College, London. Author of A History of Egypt under the Ptolemaic Dynasty.

SiR EVELYN J. RucGLes-Brisz, K.C.B.

)

Chairman, Prison Commission, England and Wales, 1895-1921. Late President, i Prison (in part) International Prison Commission. Author of The English Prison System; Prison| Sas Reform at Home and Abroad,

E. Rh.

Ernest REYS. Editor of Everyman's Library. Author of A London Rose; Lord Leighton; The Fiddler

Publishing.

of Carne; The Leaf-Burners; Modern English Essays; etc.

E. Ru.

SIR aoe Roro TORD; O.M., F.R.S.

r

avendish Professor of Experimental Physics and Director of Cavendish Laboratory, e s University of Cambridge. Nobel Prize for Chemistry, 1908. See biographical article: Radioactivity. RUTHERFORD, SIR ERNEST.

ELMER T. Howson, C.E.

Western Editor of Railway Age. Cyclopaedia.

E. V. H. E.

W.

Editor of Railway Engineering and Maintenance

.

i

>Railways (in part).

Potato: Cultivation,

E. V. HarDENBURG, M.S.A., PH.D.

Professor of Vegetable Gardening, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

EDWARD ALEXANDER WESTERMARCK, PuH.D., Hon.LL.D. Professor of Philosophy at the Academy of Abo, Finland.

aS

Professor of Sociology at

the University of London since 1907.

and Trade

Polvandrv: P M Iy; otysyny.

F.A. M. W.

F. A. M. WEBSTER.

F. C. Mi.

FREDERICK Cerc Mirs, P.D.

F. C. S. S.

Theortes of Unemployment; Statistical Methods; The Behavior of Prices. FERDINAND CANNING SCOTT SCHILLER, M.A., D.Sc., F.B.A.

er Vaulting ;

Joint-Editor of The Blue Magazine, London, and writer on athletics. -~

Professor of Statistics, Columbia University, New York.

Putting the Shot.

Author of Contemporary

Fellow and Senior Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Formerly Tutor, Cornell University. Author of Formal Logic; Humanism; Studies in Humanism; Tantalus, or the Future of Man; Problems of Belief; etc. :

Pragmatism gm *.

F. Da.

FREDERICK DALGAS.

F. E. F.

FELIx EuGEN Fritscy, D.Sc., Pu.D. 2 Head of Department of Botany, East London College, and Professor of Botany, Protophyta. — University of London. Author of An Introduction to the Study of Plants; An Introp duction to the Structure and Reproduction of Plants; British Fresh Water Algae; etc. F. E. Martaews, PE.D., F.I.C. en . Former Professor of Chemistry at the Royal India Engineering College, Cooper’s | Platinum;

Officier, Legion d'Honneur. Manufactory.

ay

F. E. Wa.

ee

a

,

-Prices, Statistics of (i part).

Managing Director of The Royal Copenhagen Porcelain

Author of articles on ceramic art and craft.

to Messrs. Johnson and Matthey,

arden, London. Rev. FREDERICK EDWARD WARREN, Hon. Canon of Ely, 1906-14.

Research

`

Chemists,

Pott

my and

i borean

bart}.

Hatton { Platinum Metals.

M.A., B.D., F.S.A.

.

Author of The Liturgy and Ritual of the Ante- NicenePian Book of Common (żin

Church; Prayer Book Commentary; etc.

F. G. H.T.

Francis G. H. Tarts, F.C.S.

F. H.

FRED HORNER. Consulting Engineer. ing; Machinery.

F. He.

FRIEDRICH HEMPELMANN, D.PH. Professor of Zoology, University of Leipzig.

F. H. N.

F. H. Nixon.

First Class Chemist, Government Laboratory, London.

part).

oon Spirit;

oteen; Proof Spirit. } Contributor to The Times Engineering Supplement; Engineer- Punching and Shearing Machines.

|Psychology, Comparative.

| Poland , (in part). of the League of Nations. Member of British Official Financial Mission to Poland, |

H.M. Treasury, London.

1924.

t

Porcelain (ix

Formerly Director of the Financial section of the Secretariat

INITIALS

X F. H. W. F. J. H. M.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

BRIGADIER-GENERAL F. H. Wiırrramson, C.B., C.B.E. Director of Postal Services, General Post Office, London. Services, 1915-9.

Pn and Postal Services (in part)

Director of Army Postal

Hon. FREDERICK JAMES HAMILTON MERRILL, Pu.D., F.G.S., M.A.Inst.M.E.

,

Consulting Geologist and Mining Engineer. State Geologist of New York, 1899-1004. >Quarrying. Author of Reports of New Jersey and New York Geological Surveys; etc.

F. L. B. F. LI. G.

FRANCIS LYALL Brrcu, O.B.E., M.A.

ree Minister;

Lecturer in History in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of King’s College. f Privy Council. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., Pu.D., F.S.A., F.B.A Professor of and Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaco- Psammetichus. logical Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund.

F. M. STENTON.

Professor of History, University of Reading.

,

Editor of the History (Mediaeval) sec-

>Poland (in part).

tion of the 14th Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica.

ERDIA

E

covet, sae

5

is

Bei

etri

,

ormerly Emeritus Professor of Botany, Universityof Glasgow. rice President o the Botanical Section of the British Association and Ex-President of the Royal

Society of Edinburgh.

Planis and Man; etc.

F. R. C.

Author of The Origin of a Land Flora; Plant Life on Lond, | * teridophyta.

FRANK RICHARDSON Cana, F.R.G.S. Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903-11 and 1914-5.

\ Staff of The Times, | Portuguese East Africa (in

London, since 1916. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union; The Great War in Europe; The Peace Settlement. J

F. Si.

F. SIMON. on

. . o part),

en

of the Foreign Office, Berlin.

Formerly

Private Secretary to Herr

part).

>Rathenau, Walther.

athenau.

F.T. W.

FREDERICK THEODORE WEBER.

F. W. A.

Francis WiILi1aM Aston, Sc.D., F.R.S.

G. A. P. G.A.R.C

GEORGE A. PFEIFFER. Professor of Mathematics, Columbia University, New York. GEOFFREY A. R. CALLENDER, M.A., E.S.A.

G. Buc.

College, Greenwich. Author of The Naval Side of British History; etc. SIR oe SEATON BUCHANAN, oe uE PEGE na

Etcher and Artist.

Etchings in the Library

Public Library; Smithsonian

Institution,

of Congress, Washington; New York

Washington.

Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Nobel Prize for Chemistry, 1922. biographical article: Aston, FRANCIS WILLIAM.

See the

Secretary to the Society for Nautical Research and Professor at the Royal Naval

G. E.C. G. E. E. . G. F. St.

GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON,

GEORGE EARL CHURCH. Explorer of the Amazon, 1868-79. Late Vice-President, Royal Geographical Society (London). See the biographical article: CHURCH, GEORGE EARL. G. E. ELLIS. Committee on Automatic Train Control, American Railway Association,

GEORGE FREDERICK SrourT, M.A., LL.D., F.B.A.

G. F. Z.

GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER, A.M.INsT.C.E.

G. G. A.

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR GEORGE G. AsTON, K.C.B.

.

Lecturer on Naval History, University College, London. Fortification at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Strategy; Memories of a Marine; The Navy of To-day.

GrorcE G. Witson, Pu.D., LL.D

Professor of International Law, Harvard University.

Situations and Topics; etc.

Formerly

G. S. B.

attle of (im part). |

. . Public Health (sn part).

Prieur, Pierre.

>Plata, Rio de la (in part).

,

i

>Railways (in part).

.

}

i

;

Pneumatic Conveying.

Professor of |Poland (in part),

Author of Sea, Land and Air Editor of The Study of War.

Author of International Law

GENERAL GEORGE HENRY GATER, C.M.G., D.S.O.

G. N.

.

Seon, rep entaand

Psychology (in pari).

Consulting Engineer and Joint-Editor of Engineering and Industrial Management.

Education Officer, London County Council. Formerly Director of Education, Lancashire County Council.

GILBERT JOCELYN PONSONBY,

} Polygons. .

i

Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in St. Andrews University.

G. J.P

_.

pPositive Rays.

Lirrt.D., F.R.S.L.

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; etc. Editor of Bryan’s Dictionary of Painters and ngravers.

SA _ Chicago.

ea ete

fey

enior Medica cer, Ministryof Health. Member ofCourt of Governorsof London School of Hygiene, of Army Advisory Committee on Hygiene, and of Council Royal Society of Medicine.

G. C. W.

be

Portrait Painting (in pari).

B.A.

Assistant Secretary to the Railway Research Service, London School of Economics.

Portugal (in part).

e Courts and Prize Law (in part)

>Polytechnics.

i ;

.

Railways (in part).

Sır GEORGE NEWMAN, K.C.B., M.D., E.R.C.P., D.P.H. Chief Medical Officer, Ministry of Health and Board of Education, London. Author | Preventive Medicine (in of An Outline of the Practice of Preventive Medicine; Recent Advances in Medical] part). Education in England; etc. GEORGE SIDNEY Brett, M.A. Professor of Philosophy, University of Toronto since 1916. Professor of Ethics, Trinity College, Toronto, and Lecturer in the University of Toronto, 1908-16. Author of Philosophy of Gassendi; History of Psychology; etc. 7

. Psychology, History of.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

G. T. M.

GILBERT T. Morcar, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.I.C., F.R.S.

H. A. B.

H. A. Bavytis, D.Sc. Assistant Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History). Rev. HERBERT Lovrs BISHOP. Missionary, Lourenço Marques, 1919-26. Henry Core Corres, M.A., F.R.C.M., B.Mus.

Pyrazoles;

Director, Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Pyrogallol: Research, London. Formerly Mason Professor of Chemistry, University of Birming- Pvrones: ? ham, Professor in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Royal College of Science for yr i a Ireland and Professor of Applied Chemistry, Technical College, Finsbury. Editor of Pyrrole;

the Chemical section of the 14th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

H. Bp.

H. C.C.

Musical Critic of The Times, London.

Music and Musicians.

H. C. L.

x4

Quinones.

. }Platyhelminthes.

Portuguese East Africa (in part).

Editor of third edition, Grove'’s Dictionary of pRavel, Maurice.

H. C. Ro.

H. C. Lone, B.Sc. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, London. Editor of Journal of Ministry of} Poisonous Plants (iz pari). Agriculture and Fisheries. Author of Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden; etc. H. C. ROBBINS. so

H. Dev.

SER Devine, ER, TDi TENI

General Manager, Press Association.

}Press Association, The.

as

ee

5

i

xaminer in Psychology, Royal College hysicians, London. Lecturer in Psychology, Maudsley Hospital, London. Medical Superintendent, Holloway Sanatorium, Virginia Water, England. Co-editor of The Journal of Mental Science.

sa Psychosis (in part).

H. DARNLEY NAYLOR, M.A. Emeritus Professor of Classics in the University of Adelaide, South Australia. Gov-

pQueensland (in part).

Haven Emerson, A.M., M.D. Professor of Public Health Administration, Columbia University, New York. Asso-

i pPublic Health (iz part).

H. E. A.

Hues E. Acnew, A.B., M.D. Chairman, Department of Marketing, New York University School of Commerce,

, pPrice-Cutting.

H. E. Bar.

Harry ELMER Barnes, A.M., Pa.D.

ernor of the Public Library of South Australia.

ciate-Editor of The Survey.

Accounts and Finance.

Author of Co-operative Advertising by Competitors; etc.

Professor of History and Sociology, Smith College, Northampton, Mass.

Historian,

New Jersey Prison Inquiry Commission. Author of History of Penal Reformatory and Correctional Institutions of New Jersey; Progress of American Penology; The Repression of Crime; etc.

H. E. Van Ge. H., E. VAN GELDER.

Director of Service for Art and Science (incl. the Town Museums) of The Hague, Holland. Editor of Oud. Holland. Author of Pottenbahkers; Kunst in Nedersland,

H. Fi.

HERMAN Finer, D.Sc.

H. Fr.

HENRI FRANTZ. Art Critic, Gazette des Beaux Aris, Paris. Homer Forks, LL.D.

Lecturer in Public Administration, London School of Economics.

Author of Foreign

Governments at Work; The Case Against Proportional Representation, etc.

H. Fs.

:

-Prison (in part). `

Pottery and Porcelain (in part).

i

Proportional Representation.

ee de Chavannes, Pierre Cécile (zn part).

Secretary of the State Charities Aid Association of New York. Chairman of the Executive Committee, Welfare Council of New York City. Author of Care of the Destitute, Neglected and Delinquent Children; etc.

H. G. B.

H. G. BEASLEY.

H. J.R.

HERBERT JENNINGS Rose, M.A. Professor of Greek, University of St. Andrews, Fife. Fellow and Lecturer of Exeter

Founder of the Cranmore Ethnographical Museum.

Author of Pacific Island Records.

College, Oxford, 1907-11. Associate Professor of Classics, McGill University, I911~5. Professor of Latin, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, I919-27. Author o The Roman Questions of Plutarch; Primitive Culture in Greece; Primitive Culture in

Poor Law (in part). Polynesia.

Prometheus

(in part)

Italy; A Handbook of Greek Mythology; etc.

H. L. Cr.

HaroLrp L. Cross.

\ Press Laws (in part).

H. M. Sp.

Of the firm of Sackett, Chapman, Brown & Cross, Lawyers, New York. Henry M. SPERRY. \ Publicity Representative of the Union Switch and Signal Company, General Railway }Railways (in part). Signal Company, New York.

H. M.T.

Horace M. Towner, LL.B.

Ponce; Porto Rico.

Governor, Porto Rico.

H. N.

H. Nisbet, F.T.I.

H. O.

HERMANN OELSNER, M.A., P.D.

Textile Technologist and Consultant.

Prunella.

Author of Grammar of Textile Design.

;

Late Taylorian Professor of the Romance Languages in University of Oxford.

ber of Council of the Philological Society. of Provencal Literature; etc.

Mem- | Provencal Language and

Author of Frederic, Mistral; A History{

Literature (in part).

H. R. M.

Henry R. Mussety, A.B., PH.D.

H. S. H.-S.

Henry Sersy Here-Suaw, D.Sc., M.I.Mercu.E., ; F.R.S ; : ' LL.D., ; M.Inst.C.E., i ; : ro wer I Transmission issi } (in Emeritus Professor of Engineering, University of Liverpool. Ex-President, Institupart). tion of Mechanical Engineers, and Institution of Automobile Engineers, London. Harry STEWART NEw, LL.D. :

H. S. N.

Professor of Economics, Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass.

Postmaster General, Washington, 1923-9.

apolis Journal.

} Protection (in part).

;

Former Editor and Publisher of Indian- woa Postal Services (im .

INITIALS

XU H.

T.

À.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

Rev. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS. Author of “The Commentary on Acts” in the Westminster New Testament; Handbook on the Apocryphal Books in the “Century ” Bible, Harry T. NeEwcoms, LL.M. General Counsel of the Delaware and Hudson Company, New York.

Author of Rail-Railways (tn part).

way Economics; etc.

|Potato: Cultivation, Production and Trade (in pari).

H. V. Tayor, M.B.E., A.R.C.S., B.Sc., F.R.H.S. Horticulture Commissioner, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, London.

f

HUMBERT Noe P PE n Š i ee SE oet an riter. Principal Assistant Secretary, Ministry of Labour. Substitute British Government Member, Governing Body International Labour Office. Author of London Sonnets; Circular Saws; The Unknown Goddess; Cursory Rhymes, etc.

H. W. PARKER, B.A.

' Polycarp (in part).

,

,

anaes in the Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensing-

.

Poetry (in part).

Python;

Rattlecnalee:

Rev. HENRY WHEELER Rosinson, M.A., D.D. Principal of Regents Park College, London, since 1920. Formerly Professor of Church History and the Philosophy of Religion in Rawdon College, Leeds. Author }Psalms. of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology (in Mansfield College Essays); etc.

an edie itor of f The eeroprietor E e The R Review offR Reviews

since 1923. Editor Editor o of The e T Times, London, 1919-22. Lecturer on Central European History, King’s College, London University. Engaged in propaganda in enemy countries, 1918.

Propaganda.

Sirk Henry YuLe, K.C.S.1I., J C.B British Orientalist. Author of Cathay and the Way Thither; The Book of Ser MarcoPolo,Marco (in part). Polo; etc.

I.

E. L.

ISABEL ELy Lorp.

Author of Getting Your Money's Worth,

J. A. S.

Joun Apprncton Symonps,

LL.D.

Author of Renaissance in I taly; Studies of the Greek Poets; etc.

J. A. Th.

vo

Editor of Everybody's Cook Book.

article: SYMONDS, JOHN ADDINGTON.

and Bottling (in

part).

See the biographical

3

.

:

Poggio m pari 7

olan

(in part).

Sir Joun Artuur THomson, M.A., LL.D. Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen. Gifford Lecturer, . , St. Andrews, 1915. Terry Lecturer, Yale University, 1924. Author of The Study of (Play in Animals;

Animal Life; Outlines of Zoology; Heredity; Darwinism

Man?; Concerning Evolution. Evolution; Sex; Biology. +

J. C. Os.

Joint-Author

(with

and Human

Professor

Joux CrLype Oswarb.

President of the New York Employing Printers Association, Inc.

of The American Printer.

J. C. Su.

Author of Benjamin Franklin, Printer.

Life; What I : Protoplasm (im part).

Patrick

o

Formerly Editor Author of

J. E. COATES. Joun Epwarp Sears,

Quebec.

lp

Professor of Chemistry, University College, Swansea.

J. E.S.

CET.

Printing (in part).

J. C. SUTHERLAND, B.A. Inspector-General of the Protestant Schools of the Province of Quebec. The Province of Quebec: Geographical and Social Studies.

J. E. Co.

Geddes)

C.B.E.,

M.A.,

M.I.Mecu.E.,

i

A.M.inst.C.E., F.Inst.P.

“a

Deputy Warden of the Standards, Board of Trade, London, and Superintendent of oe

J.F.C.F. J. F-K.

the Metrology Department, National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex.

J. G. H.

Military Assistant to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff. Chief General Staff Pydna, Battle of Officer, Tank Corps, 1917-8. Formerly Chief Instructor, Camberley. Author of g i Tanks in the Great War; Sir John Moore's System of Training; etc.

JAMES FitzMaurice-Ketty,

Lirt.D.,

F.R.Histz.S.

SIR JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, O.M., F.R.S. a of The Golden Bough. See the biographical article: FRAZER, EORGE. James G. HARBORD, B.S. Major-General, United States Army, retired.

America, New York.

J.H.

J. H. B.

GO: i

:

.

President of the Radio Corporation of Radio Corporation of

Joann HILTON. Director of Statistics, Ministry of Labour, London. Joser H. BONNEVILLE, A.M.

.

ee Y one TAUCISCO TOMOT

SIR Janes Praeneste (in part).

Department of Banking and Finance, New York University School of Commerce, Accounts and Finance, New York. Author of Elements of Business Finance.

J. H. Co.

TEO and

omparators.

COLONEL JOHN FREDERICK CHARLES FULLER, C.B E., D.S.O.

Late Gilmour Professor of Spanish ‘Language and Literature, University of Liverpool. Author of A History of Spanish Literature.

J. G. Fr.

i

ssic Acid.

America.

Pools, f in Industry (in part); : SANAA

Profit-Sharing (in part),

Rationalization of Industry. +Preferred Stock.

Jurrus Henry Comen, LL.B. Counsel for the Port of New York Authority; Special Attorney General, State of New Por Authority. York, in Housing Cases. Author of Law and Order in Industry; etc.

INITIALS J. H. McG.

J. H. Mi.

AND

NAMES

OF

James Howarp McGrecor, M.A., PH.D. Professor of Zoology, Columbia University, New York. Author of various papers on Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-95. Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-92. Art Director of the South Kensington Museum, 1892-6. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times.

J. H. V. C.

BRIGADIER-GENERAL JOHN HENRY VERINDER CROWE, C.B.

J. McL. T.

J. M. La. J. Mof.

Commandant of the Royal Military College of Canada, 1909-13. Formerly Chief \pjeyna Instructor in Military Topography and Military History and Tactics, Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Author of Epitome of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78; etc. JAMES KEELEY. } Pullman Company, The. Assistant to the President of the Pullman Company, Chicago.

Srr Jonn Macpvone tt, C.B., LL.D. Late Master of Supreme Court, Quain Professor of Comparative Law, University \Protectorate

J. P. E. J. P. P.

Author of

J. E. M. McGrecor, A.C.G.I., A.M.I.E.E.

Engineer-in-Chief's Office, General Post Office, London. J. Mcrean THomeson, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.S.E. Professor of Botany, University of Liverpool. Author of memoirs on the anatomy and affinity of ferns, and on the problems of floral structure, presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh and in the publications of the Hartley Botanic Laboratories. J. M. Lanois, A.B., LL.B., $.J.D. Professor of Legislation, Harvard Law School, Author of The Business of the Supreme Court of the United States.

|Pneumatic Dispatch. Plants (in part). :

Police Power.

James Morratt, M.A., D.D., D.Litt.

Washburn Professor of Church History in Union Theological Seminary, New York. Formerly

J. O. McC.

pRaphael (in part).

aoi ye e Prerogative; Professor of Constitutional Law, University of London. Brigadier-General, late . 7 te : Deputy Adjutant-General. Reader in Constitutional Law to the Inns of Court. B Authorities Protection Editor of the Law section of the 14th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

College, London, and Editor of State Trials; Civil Judicial Statistics; etc. Survey of Political Economy; The Land Question; etc.

J. McG.

>Primates (i part).

Joun Henry Mippteton, M.A., Litt.D., F.S.A., D.C.L.

J. HE. Morean, K.C.

J. Mac.

X11

reptilian and primate Palaeontology.

J. H. Mo.

J. Ke.

CONTRIBUTORS

Professor

of Church

History,

United

Free

Church

College,

Glasgow.

Author of The Presbyterian Churches; Introduction to Literature of the New Testament; Everyman's Life of Jesus; etc. Joun Oprre McCatt, A.B., D.D.S. Professor of Periodontia, New York University College of Dentistry. Co-Author of Textbook of Clinical Periodontia. JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. Late Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour and Membre de l'Institut. Author of Cours élémentaire d'histoire du drott français. J. P. PosteaTE, M.A., Litt.D., F.B.A. Late Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool and Fellow of Trinity College, Editor of the Classical Quarterly. Editor-in-Chief of the Corpus Poetarum Co

Presbyterianism

(in part).

pPyorrhoea (in part). Provost.

Propertius, Sextus.

atinorum; etc.

J. Rd. J. Ro.

J. R. R.

Joun READ. Professor of Chemistry at the University of St. Andrews, Scotland. Jonn Ross, Pa.D., B.Sc., A.R.C.S., D.I.C.

Pyridine.

JoHN ROBERTSON RIDDELL. Principal of the London School of Printing and Kindred Trades.

Printing (in part).

Sır Jonn Smr Ferr, K.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Sopar

Quinoline.

Research Chemist, Chemical Research Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex.

Pneumatolysis;

J. S. F.

z

Quart Ae :

Director, Geological Survey of Great Britain and Museum of Practical Geology.

?

Quartz-Porphyry. }

J. S. Fa.

Jomn Smærps FAIRBAIRN, M.B., B.Cu., F.R.C.S., F.R.C.P.

J. Wil.

James Wrttrams, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D Prescription (in part). Barrister at Law, Lincolns Inn; formerly All Souls’ Reader in Roman Law, University } of Oxford and Fellow of Lincoln College.

K. F. D.

Obstetric Physician and Lecturer on Midwifery and Diseases of Women, St. Thomas's Hospital, and Consulting Physician, General Lying-In Hospital, London. Author of A Textbook for Midwives; Gynaecology with Obstetrics; etc.

Major KNIGHTLEY FLETCHER DUNSTERVILLE, D.S.O., R.A.

K. G. J.

Inspector, Inspection Staff, War Office, London. KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE. Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Author of Vasco da Gama and His Successors.

K. T. B.

Kart BELAR.

L. B.

Sy oe L. M. BRANDIN, Px.D. Professor of French and of Romance Philology in the University of London.

L. C. L.

Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903.

Professor of Zoology, University of Berlin.

_ , LIONEL CHARLES LIpDELL, M.V.O. Sometime British Consul at Copenhagen. Successively Secretary of the Restriction of Enemy Supplies Committee, and the Grand Committee on Trade in the War, 1914-8.

Puerperal Fever i tp

|Range-Finders (in part). Portugal (iz part).

}

Protozoa.

ea Language and Literature (in part). Rationing of Neutrals

(Blockade).

X1V

L. €. M.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Sır Leo Cui0ozza Money, F.R.Stat.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. Author and Journalist.

Member of the War Trade Advisory Committee,

Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Shipping, 1916-8.

1915-8.

Chairman of the

Tonnage Priority Committee, 1917-8. Editor of the Economics, Engineering and Industries section of the 14th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

LAURENCE DuptEy StAmp, B.A., D.Se., A.K.C., F.G.S., M.L.T.P.

Sir Ernest Cassel Reader in Economic Geography in the University of London. Author of An Introduction to Stratigraphy.

rPlaster-Work (in part).

Pliocene; Quaternary.

L. H. D. B.

L. H. Duptry Buxton, M.A. cs in Physical Anthropology in the University of Oxford. sta,

L.J. S.

L. J. SpeNcER, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.S. Keeper of Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. | Pollux or Pollucite; Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. | Quartz (in part).

L. O. H.

LELAND OsstAN Howarp, Pu.D., M.D., LL.D., Sc.D. Principal Entomologist, United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Ento-

Author of Peoples of >Races of Mankind.

Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine.

mology since 1878. Author of Mosquitoes: How They Live; The Insect Book.

L. S. M.

Lewis S. Muneer, M.A., D.D., LL.D. Secretary of General Council of Presbyterian Church in the United States. of The Manual of Law in the Presbyterian Church in the United States.

L. S. Ma.

LIONEL S. Marks, B.Sc., M.M.E.

Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Harvard University. Engineer's Handbook; The Airplane Engine; etc.

L. Un.

M. A. J.

Author:Presbyterianism (an part).

Author of Mechanical pPower.

Lovurs UNTERMEYER.

Author. Travelling Lecturer at various universities in the United States. Editor of Modern American Poetry; Modern British Poetry. Author of American Poetry since I900.

M. A. Jorr, B.S.A., M.S., Pu.D.

(in part).

MortTIMER Buss LANE, A.B.

Editor of Survey of Current Business (published by the United States Department of Commerce).

Max Cary, D.Litt.

Reader in Ancient History in the University of London.

Association, 1911-4.

M. Fi.

Morris FisHsein, B.Sc., M.D.

M. G.G.

Martin G. GLEASER, PH.D.

Poetry (in part).

tPoutiy and Poultry Farming

United States Department of Agriculture, Washington.

M. B.L.

>Plum Curculio.

Secretary to the Classical

Production, Census of (in part).

Plataea:

P ataca;

unic Wars.

}Quackery (in part).

Editor of Journal of American Medical Association.

Professor of Economics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Formerly Statistician, Railroad Commission of Wisconsin. Author of Outlines of Public Utility

Public Utilities.

Economics.

Mitton J. ROSENHAU. Professor of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene, Harvard Medical School.

Formerly | Preventive Medicine (in

Director of the School of Public Health of Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Author of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene; etc.

part).

Marcus NIEBUHR Top, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. Reader in Greek Epigraphy. Joint-Author}Pylos (in part,. of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. MORTON SNYDER, A.B. Head Master of the Rye Country Day School, and Member of the Progressive Education Association.

Progressive Education Movement, The.

Macnus W. ALEXANDER, M.S.

President, National Industrial Conference Board, New York. Author of Safety in ine) Proft-Sharing (in part), Foundry; etc.

N. B. J. N. D.

N. B. Jopson, B.A. Reader in Comparative Slavonic Philology, London University. Mrs. NoťëLLE Davies, Px.D.

Polish Language. onan

Prussia (in part). petal Neon

N.E.C.

N. F.G.

NORMAN E. CRUMP

Statistical Correspondent to the Financial Times, London. Member of the Council of the Royal Statistical Society. Joint-Author of Clare’s A. B. C. of the Foreign Exchanges.

Neri Forses Grant, C.B.E., M.A.

Foreign Editor of The Morning Post, London, 1918-25.

N. W. McL.

Portugal (in part).

~

NoRMAN W. McLacutan, D.Sc.(Eng.), M.I.E.E., F.Inst.P.

Chief Electrical Research Engineer, Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company. Independent Research Engineer, Marconi Company, 1920-6. Inventor of various forms of radio and sound reproducing apparatus.

O. C. H.

Pools, in Industry (in part), Pound Sterling. i

Radio Receiver.

OLIvE Crio Hazrert, Pu.D. Assistant Professor of Mathematics, University of Illinois. Associate Editor of the Quaternions. +, Transactions of the American Mathematical Society. Member of the Council of the ,—-—_ American Mathematical Society.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

XV

O.H. T.R.

O. H. T. Risuperu, M.A., F.R.GS. Professor and Head of the Department of Geography, University College, South-|Queensland (in part).

O. V.

OSWALD VEBLEN, A.B., Pu.D.

P. A. F.

Percy A. Francis, M.B.E. Poultry Commissioner, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, London.

P. B.

PIERRE BERNUS.

ampton.

oe

Professor of Mathematics, Princeton University, New Jersey.

Foreign Editor of the Journal des Débais.

Genève.

in Mathematics;

Projective Geometry.

a and Poultry Farming (in part).

Paris Correspondent of the Journal de Poincaré, Raymond.

Chevalier of the Legion d’Honneur.

P. G. K.

Paur G. Konopy. e epa; Art Critic of The Observer and The Daily Mail, London. Author of Velasquez, His Life Potter, Paul. and Work; The Brothers Van Eyck; Raphael; Fra Filippo Lippi; etc.

P. L.G.

PAuL L. GERHARDT, L.B. Vice-President and General Manager and Member of Board of Directors, Bush Terminal Company, New York. Paut R. Strma, D.D.S., F.A.C.D. Clinical Professor of Periodontia, New York University. Post Graduate Lecturer,

P. R.S. 1

P.

V. B.

P.Z. C.

Harvard University.

-Port Operation (in part). -Pyorrhoea (in part).

Co-Author of Text Book of Clinical Periodontia.

Percy V. BRADSHAW.

}Poster

Principal, The Press Art School, London.

e (in part).

MAJOR-GENERAL Sır Percy Z. Cox, G.C.M.G., G.C.LE., K.C.S.1., F.R.G.S. Acting British Minister to Persia, 1918-20. High Commissioner in Mesopotamia, | Qain; 1920-3. Secretary, Foreign Department, Government of India, 1914. Political Agent, Muscat, Arabia, 1899-1904.

Consul and { Qais.

R. A. Lu.

R. A. LUNDELL, B. of M.E.

R. B. F.

RayMonp B. Fospicx, M.A., LL.D. Lawyer. Associate Editor, American Journal Criminal Law and Criminology, New

}Pneumatic Tools.

Ingersoll-Rand Company, New York.

York.

-Police (in part).

Author of European Police Systems; American Police Systems.

RoBERT C. BRooxs, PH.D. Professor of Political Service, Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania. Author of Corrup- +}Progressive Party. tion in American Politics and Life; Political Parties and Electoral Problems. R. CHAMBERS, M.A., PH.D. l Research Professor of Biology, New York University, and Chairman of the Depart- >Protoplasm (iz part). ment of Biology, Washington Square College. R. de W. C.

ROBERT DE WoLF CoGHILL, A.B., M.S., Pa.D.

R. Dy.

: . Roman DysBoskI, PH.D. Poland (in part); . in the University of Cracow (Poland).4 Correspond of English Literature Professor I | : : Polish Literature; AeMember of the Polish es Academy.y Member of the School of Slavonic Studies, i Uni- Poznan. or Posen Ae(in

R. FirtH, M.A., PH.D.

Purines.

E

,

7Property, Primitive.

R. F. F.

Member of the Polynesian Society. Author of Primitive Economics of the New Zealand Maori. ROBERT FREDERICK FOSTER.

R.F. K.

R. F. KELLEY.

Polo (2 part).

R. H. Ra.

RoBERT HERON RASTALL, Sc.D., F.G.S. University Lecturer in Economic Geology and Fellow of Christ’s College, Cambridge.

Card Editor to the New York Tribunc. Bridge Tactics; Bridge Up to Date; etc.

l

Author of Foster’s Whist Manual;

Member, United States Polo Association.

,

Foster's

,

Polo Editor, New York Times.

Member of Council of the Geological Society, 1915, and Mineralogical Society, 1918.

Attached to War Office, 1915-9. Author of Geology of the Metalliferous Depostts. Editor of the Geology section of the 14th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

Poker.

Quartz (iu part).

R. J. T.

RICHARD JOHN TaBor, B.Sc., F.L.S. Assistant Professor of Botany, Imperial College of Science and Technology, SouthPlants (in part).

R. L. Ho.

ROBERT LOCKHART HOBSON.

R. L. Wi.

RAYMOND Louis WILDER,

R. M. Wh.

R. MORTIMER WHEELER.

R. N. B.

ROBERT NISBET BAIN.

Kensington.

; i

Keeper of Department of Ceramics and Ethnography, British Museum. Author of Worcester Porcelain; Chinese Pottery and Porcelain; TheLater Ceramic Wares of China. PH.D.

Assistant Professor of Mathematics, University of Michigan.

ca and Porcelain (im part). :

ipoint Sets. }Punch.

,

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: The Po- Poland (im part) > litical History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613 Potemkin, Grigory Aleksandrovich. to a 5; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to] 17906; etc.

RENÉ POUPARDIN, D-Ès-L. ee

tionale,

of the Ecole des Chartes.

Paris.

part).

.

Honorary Librarian of the Bibliothèque Na-

Provence (ù part).

INITIALS

XVI R. R.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

SIR RICHARD STUDDERT REDMAYNE, K.C.B., M.Sc., F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E. | ed President, Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Hon. Member, Surveyors’ nstitute. H.M. Chief Inspector of Mines, 1908-20. Author of The British Coal JPulverized Fuel. ae NaAUStrY.

R. R. M.

RoBERT RaANuLPH MarettT, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.I. Rector of Exeter College, Oxford. University Reader in Social Anthropology. of Anthropology; Psychology and Folklore.

R. S. Cl.

R. S. Cray, B.A., D.Sc., F.InsT.P.

R. S. Co.

in Light; Treatise on Practical Light. ROBERT SEYMOUR Conway, M.A., D.LırrT.

Principal, Northern Polytechnic,

Holloway, London.

AuthorPrayer.

Author of Practical BrercisesRadiometer.

Hulme Professor of Latin, Victoria University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin, University College, Cardiff, and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

Praeneste (im part).

R. TAYLOR, M.A., B.Sc.

R. Ta.

lPressure Chemistry.

Assistant, Chemical Research Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex.

R. W. P.

RAYMOND WILLIAM POSTGATE. Editorial Staff of the 14th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of The ce Theory; Revolution from 1789-1906; The Builders’ History; ed. Pervigilium enerts.

Radical.

SAMUEL ALEXANDER, O.M., M.A., Litt.D., F.B.A.

S. A.

Hon. Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford, 1918. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, 1925. Qualities, Primary, Hon. Professor (Professor, 1893-1924) of Philosophy, Manchester. Author of ary and Tertiary. Moral Order and Progress; Locke: Spinoza and Time; etc. —n S. A. HURREN. Lecturer on Technology of Pianoforte Construction at Northern Polytechnic Insti- Player-Piano.

S. A. H.

tute.

~

S. F. H.

SIR SIDNEY FREDERIC HARMER, K.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

S. Fr.

SIGMUND FREUD.

Director of Natural History Departments, British Museum, 1919-27. Hon. Fellow, Polyzoa; formerly Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer, King’s College, Cambridge. Joint-Editor of Pterobranchia. —,—_ The Cambridge Natural History.

Professor of Neurology, Vienna University. Director of the International Journal of Psychoanalysis. THOMAS SHAW, BARON SHAW OF DUNFERMLINE, P.C., K.C., LL.B. Lord of Appeal. Lord Advocate for Scotland, 1905-9.

Sh. S,

K.

Second-

Psychoanalysis: Freudian School.

S. K. Loruror, A.B., PH.D.

L.

Anthropologist, Museum of the American Indian Heye Foundation, New York. Author of Tulum: An Archaeological Study of Eastern Yucatan; Pottery of Costa Rica

S. McC. L.


eggs are either shed only by the dehiscence of the wall of the uterus and of the body-wall, or by a special (temporary or permanent) birth-pore. In almost all flatworms there is a yolkgland or vitellarium (often multiple vitellaria), producing yolkcells which form nutritive material for the developing embryos. The vitellarium, in the most primitive forms, appears to be developed as a sterile portion of the ovary. There is also usually a “shell-gland,” possibly concerned in the secretion of the outer covering of the eggs. The ducts of these glands open into the oviduct or into a specialized portion of it called the ootype. The external apertures of the male and female ducts are sometimes separate, but frequently both ducts open into a common “genital atrium,” which is often muscular.

NUCLEUS IN WALL OF CANAL

fluids. Among the latter class some are without special digestive organs and can only feed by the absorption of liquid nourishment.

fadag

The phylum is usually considered to include three main divi-

MAIN CANAL OR DUCT

W

sions or classes: (1) Turbellaria (including Temnocephalidea), >

G

D FROM

FLAME CELLS OF CAPILLARY VESSELS

geo

LANKESTER,

FIG.

“TREATISE

the majority of which are free-living, but some parasitic. This group is probably nearest to the primitive ancestral form. (2) Trematoda (flukes), all of which are wholly or partly parasitic either upon or within other animals. (3) Cestoda (tapeworms), all of which are wholly endoparasitic. See NEMERTINEA, TAPEWORMS, TREMATODES, TURBELLARIA. (H. A. B.)

SECONDARY CANAL

ON ZOOLOGY”

2.—EXCRETORY

NUCLEUS IN WALL OF CANAL

(A. & C. BLACK)

SYSTEM

OF

A PLATYHELMINTH

s

PLATYPUS, a remarkable Australian aquatic mammal belonging to the primitive sub-class Monotremata (q.v.). The duckbilled platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), the only species, is

, Below, diagram of a portion of the excretory system showing branching ducts ending in flame cells. Above, a single flame cell more highly magnified

oviparous; two eggs, łin. long and żin. wide, each enclosed in a strong, flexible, white shell, are produced at a time. The animal ture is the mouth, which may be situated subterminally, near the shows many primitive features; there are no true teats in the anterior end, or much further back, sometimes even behind female, the milk glands being probably modified sweat glands; the middle of the body. The mouth may be surrounded by an the body temperature is relatively low. The platypus inhabits the oral sucker, or developed into a protrusible and highly muscular streams and rivers of south-east Australia and Tasmania. About pharynx. 20in. long, it is clad in short, dense fur of a deep brown above, The main ganglia of the nervous system (the “‘brain”) and paler below. There are no teeth in the adult, their purpose being the chief sense-organs are generally concentrated towards the served by horny prominences, two on each side of each jaw, givanterior end. In addition to tactile papillae or special sensory ing the muzzle a very beak-like appearance. In the cheek are cilia, “eye-spots” or ocelli are frequently present in free-living capacious pouches. The limbs are short and strong, each with forms, and sometimes in the free-living larval stages of para- five claw-bearing toes. In the fore-feet, the web extends far besitic forms. In certain free-living flatworms stafocysts (sac-like i yond the ends of the claws, but it can be folded back on organs containing minute calcareous nodules or statoliths) and the palm when the animal ciliated pits, probably sensory in function, also occur. Cie TEN z NA P There is no blood-vascular system or haemocoele. The ex(4 comes out on to the land. On cretory organs consist of a branching system of canals ending ity the heel of the male is a movMRA O e RF internally in “flame-cells.” These are minute pyriform structures able horny spur, perforated by a sf So - =a pilm earan containing cilia which keep up a constant flickering movement. canal which communicates with a The main collecting vessels of the system open to the exterior by PLATYPUS (ORNITHORHYNCH ANA.- poison-gland. The platypus forms US AN TINUS), EGG-LA MAMMAL YING one, two or many pores. deep burrows in the banks, in The Platyhelminthes are, with rare exceptions, hermaphroditic which it sleeps and brings up its young, the entrance being under animals, each individual being potentially both male and female. water. The food consists of aquatic insects, Crustacea and worms. The reproductive system is usually very complex. The male or- The animal is nocturnal. See H. Burrell, The Platypus (1927). gans consist essentially of one or more (often very numerous) testes, whose ducts are usually connected with a protrusible introPLATYRRHINE APE, the name applied (in contradistincmittent organ (penis or cirrus). The essential organs of the tion to Catarrhine [g.v.] to the New World monkeys, on account female apparatus are an ovary (sometimes multiple ovaries) and of the broad septum between the nostrils. See PRIMATES. a tubular duct communicating with the exterior. The arrangePLAUEN, a town of Germany, in the republic of Saxony. Pop. ment of the parts of the female system is subject to great vari- (1925) 121,436. Plauen, probably founded by the Slavs, is first ation in different groups. Sometimes the same duct functions in mentioned in 1122. It passed under the authority of Bohemia in turn as a vagina or fertilization canal, as a uterus or reservoir for 1327 and came to Saxony in 1466, remaining permanently united fertilized eggs, and as an oviduct by which the eggs reach the with the electorate since 1569. The manufacture of white goods exterior. In some cases (most Cestodes) the only communica- was introduced by Swabian, or Swiss, immigrants about 1570. tion with the exterior is a vagina, which is connected internally It was formerly the capital of Vogtland, or Voigtland, a terriwith an oviduct leading from the ovary to a sac-like uterus; tory governed by the imperial vogt, or bailiff, and this name but does not serve for the expulsion of eggs. In such forms the clings to the district. The fine Gothic church of St. John, with ot =

AN NA)

PLAUTUS twin spires, was restored in 1886. The town hall about 1550; and the old castle, Hradschin, is now Plauen manufactures embroidered white goods and It manufactures much of the machinery used in the has a trade in coal, yarn and cattle.

PLAUTUS,

TITUS

MACCIUS

67

dates from no reason to suppose that he improved on his models (cf. Aul. a law court. Gell. ii. 23). Even the bulk of the prologues may be of Greek orimakes lace. gin, though certain passages in them must have been added by town and it Plautus, and other passages (e.g., Casina 5—20) are post-Plautine.

(originally,

perhaps,

Maccus; cf. Asin, Prol. 11), the great comic dramatist of ancient

Rome, was born at Sarsina in Umbria according to the testimony of Festus, who calls him Umber Sarsinas, and Jerome. The date of his death was 184 B.c. (Cicero, Brutus, xv. 60). The date of his birth depends upon an inference based on the statement of Cicero (De senectute, xiv. 50) that he was an old man, when he wrote his Truculentus and Pseudolus. The latter play was produced in I9I B.C.; hence we get 254—251 B.C, as the approximate date of his birth. The only record that we possess as to his life is that contained in Aulus Gellius iii. 3, 14 (based on Varro), the histori-

cal character of which is doubted by Leo (Plautinische Forschun-

gen, ch. ii.). The chief fact that emerges is that he left his native Umbrian home and settled as a peregrinus at Rome, where, after earning some money and losing it again, he took to writing plays. The Plays—His literary activity may well have begun somewhat late in life; for it must have taken him a long time and much hard study to acquire the mastery of Latin and Greek which his dramas attest. The main body of his extant works belongs, so far as can be ascertained from the scanty evidence which we have, to the last 20 years of his life; 206-204 B.C. is the approximate date of the Miles Gloriosus; cf. line 211 seq., quoi bini custodes . . . occubant (present tense), which alludes to the imprisonment of Naevius. Of the extant plays the Cistellaria and the .Stichus must be associated with the Miles as comparatively early works; for the former was clearly produced before the conclusion of the Second Punic War, see 1. 201 seg.; and the Stichus is proved by its didascalia to have been produced in 200 B.c. The Pseudolus and the Truculentus fall within the last seven years of his life; and the Trinummus is later than 194 B.c.; cf. I. 990 novi aediles. The dates of the other extant plays are uncertain. An interesting attempt to place them in chronological order according to the proportion in them of scenes written in lyrical metres and set to music (cantica) has recently been made by W. B. Sedgwick

(Classical Review, xxxix., 1925, p. 55 seg.). It is at any rate not improbable that the poet gave greater scope to his musical innovation (see below) as his command over language and metres developed and the success of his experiment became assured. The titles of the other extant plays are (in alphabetical order) Amphitruo, Asinaria, Aulularia, Bacchides (later than the Epidicus, see 1. 214), Captivi, Casina, Curculio, Epidicus, Menaechmi, Mercator (later than the Rudens according to F. Marx and E. Fränkel, but regarded as one of the earliest plays by P. J. Enk in Mnemosyne, liii., F. A. Wright in Broadway Translations, and W. Beare in Classical Review xlii., 1928, pp. 106 and 214 seg.), Mostellaria, Persa, Poenulus, Rudens (probably first acted 192 B.c.) Vidularia (existing only in a fragmentary condition in the codex Ambrosianus). Some of these may possibly be earlier than 204 B.c.; and it seems a priori likely that the 35 other Plautine plays known to us only by their titles and a few fragmentary quotations were not all written within the last 20 years of the poet’s life. Indebtedness and Originality.—The plays of Plautus are

based on Greek originals of the New Comedy, of which one complete specimen is extant. But Plautus was not a mere translator. This was shown by K. M. Westaway (The Original Element in

Plautus, 1917), and has been recently demonstrated in detail by E. Frankel (Plautinisches im Plautus, 1922), who calls attention to certain mannerisms as evidence of unmistakable Plautine additions to the Greek texts, and also points out the originality of the Roman in the introduction of a musical element into his plays (see below). On the other hand, there are passages in which he does not hesitate to take over from his originals, allusions which can hardly have been intelligible to a Roman audience, e.g., the reference to Stratonicus, a musician of the time of Alexander the Great (Rudens, 932); and in the delineation of character we have

And where Plautus varies his plot on lines of his own by amalgamating the plots of two distinct Greek comedies (e.g., in the Miles and the Poenulus) the result is generally not happy; the romanization of the plays by way of allusions to towns in Italy, to the streets, gates and markets of Rome, to Roman magistrates and their duties, to Roman laws and the business of Roman law courts, banks, comitia and senate, etc., involves the poet in all the difficulties of attempting to blend two different civilizations. The inconsistency of his attitude is shown by his use, side by side, of the contemptuous expressions barbarus (applied to the Romans) and pergraecari (applied to the Greeks). In some passages the poet seems to take delight in casting dramatic illusion to the winds (e.g., Pseudolus, 720; Poenulus, 550). But as an adapter for the Roman stage Plautus is nothing less than masterly. His command of Latin is such that his plays read like original works, and it may be at least said that some of his characters stand out so vividly from his canvas that they have ever since served as representatives of certain types of humanity, e.g., Euclio in the Aulularia, the model of Moliére’s miser. Alliteration, assonance, plays upon words and happy coinages of new terms, give his plays a charm of their own. “To read Plautus is to be once for all disabused of the impression that Latin is a dry and uninteresting language” (Skutsch, in Die Cultur der Gegenwart, 1905). It is a mistake to regard the Latin of Plautus as “vulgar” Latin. It is essentially a literary idiom, based upon the language of intercourse of the Roman society of the day (cf. Cic. De oratore, ili. 12, 45). The Characters in his plays are the stock characters of the New Comedy, and they remind us also of the standing figures of the Fabulae Atellanae (Maccus, Bucco, Dossennus, etc.). We may miss the finer insight into human nature and the delicate touch in character-drawing which Terence presents to us in his reproductions of Menander, but there is wonderful life and vigour, and considerable variety in the Plautine embodiments of these different types. Their language is often coarse; and there is some deliberate obscenity in it, but not so much as has been discovered by Gurlitt and introduced into his German translation (1920-22). And the careful reader will take note of occasional touches of serious thought (no doubt derived from the Greek Originals), as in the enumeration of the ten deadly political sins (Persa, 555 seq.) and allusions to ethical philosophy (Pseud. 972 seq.; Stich, 124; Trin. 305 seq., 320 seg., 363 seg., 447; Rud. 767, 1235~1248, etc.). The Captivi is the story of the heroic self-sacrifice of a slave. The Amphitruo is a mythological burlesque. But most of his plays depend for their main interest in intrigue, such as the Pseudolus, Bacchides, Mostellarta. In the Menaechmi and as a subordinate incident in the Amphitruo we have a comedy of errors. Metres.—In the metrical structure of his plays Plautus introduced an important innovation. The New Comedy of Greece had confined itself for the most part to the metres of dialogue: Plautus took the bold step of transposing whole scenes into metres suitable for singing to the accompaniment of the flute (cantica); and to other scenes he gave a quasi-operatic character by the use of recitative. But the cantica are not mere inserts or accessories, like the songs introduced in the Shakespearean drama; they form integral parts of the action, which would often be unintelligible

without them (see Fränkel [op. cit.] whose theory is a development of that of Leo in Die plautinischen Cantica und die hellenistische Lyrik, 1897). The metres employed were, of course, not invented by Plautus; they are of Greek origin and are common to Roman tragedy and Roman comedy; but Plautus gave them a new development and a wider scope. Further light is thrown upon the immediate source of these Plautine metres by J. H. O. Immisch (Zur Frege der plaut. Cantica, in Berichte der Heidelb. Akad., 1923}. The Plautine metres are wonderfully varied, and the teztual critic does well not to attempt to limit the possibilities of original metrical combinations and developments in the Roman

638

PLAYA—PLAYER-PIANO

comedian.

Trinummus

by Brix

(5th

ed., 1907);

other

plays

ın Macmillans

Reputation.—Plautus was a general favourite in the days of Classica] Series and the Pitt Press Series. Lexicon: Gonzalez Lodge’s

republican Rome.

Cicero, though he found fault with the iambics

of the Latin comedians generally as abiecti “slovenly” (Orator lv. 184), admired Plautus as elegans, urbanus, ingeniosus, facetus (De. ofic. i.,29,104). To the fastidious critics of the Augustan age, such as Horace, he seemed rude (cf. Ars Poetica, 270-274), just as Addison declared Spenser to be no longer fitted to please “a cultivated age.” In another passage (Epist. ii. 1 170~176) Horace accuses him of clumsiness in the construction of his plays and the drawing of his characters, and indifference to everything except immediate success; gestit enim nummum in loculos demittere, post hoc securus cadat an recto stet fabula talo. That there are many inconsistencies and signs of carelessness in his work has been proved in detail by Langen. But that he found many admirers, even in the Augustan age, Horace himself bears witness (ibid. 1. 58), where he says that Plautus was regarded as a second Epicharmus: Plautus ad exemplar Siculi properare Epicharmi; cf. Varro’s statement (in Priscian ix. 32), deinde ad Siculos se applicavit. It is possible that Plautus may have been working on the lines of the old comedy in the tell-tale names which he is so fond of inventing for his characters such as Polymachaeroplagides (Pseud. 988), Pyrgopolinices (Mil. 56), Thesaurochrysonicochrysides (Capt. 285)—-names which stand in remarkable contrast to the more commonplace Greek names employed by Terence. In the middle ages Plautus was little regarded, and 12 of his plays (Bacchides—-Truculentus) disappeared from view until they were discovered (in the ms. called D) by Nicholas of Treves in the year 1429. But after the revival of learning Plautus was reinstated, and took rank as one of the great dramatists of antiquity; cf. Shakespeare, Hamlet, IL., ii., 420, where Polonius says “The best actors in the world . . . Seneca cannot be too heavy nor Plautus too light.”

Influence on Modern Literatures.—A comprehensive view

Lexicon Plautinum (nearing completion and indispensable). Syntax: Lindsay, Syntax of Plautus (1907): Metre and Prosody: Lindsay,

Early Latin Verse (1922); Vollmer, Römische Metrik (1923); and Ueber die sogenannte Iambenkiirzung (1924); Sonnenschein in What

is Rhythm? (10925, ch, vi.). E. Frankel’s Iktus und Akzent im lateinischen Sprechvers (1928) is an attempt to show that in the dialogue metres, as distinct from the metres set to music, the verse-stress (ictus metricus) nearly always coincides with a genuine speech-accent, or at any rate corresponds to some modification of accentuation or intonation. Translations: English prose by P. Nixon in the Loeb Series (1916-24; 2 vols. still to come) ; English verse by Wright and Rogers in Broadway Translations—select plays (1923).

PLAY: see Drama. PLAYA (a Spanish word meaning “shore”), the name applied in America to a level plain formed of the deposits of a river which has no outlet to the sea or a lake. If at seasons of high water a river floods any area and temporarily converts it into a lake, which subsequently dries up in hot weather, the tract thus left dry is

called a playa. The barren Black Rock desert in north-western

Nevada, about room. in length by 15 in breadth, is typical.

PLAYER-PIANO, a piano equipped with a mechanical device for automatically playing written music or for reproducing the playing of a pianist. All types of player-piano mechanism are operated by utilizing the difference between external and internal air pressures. In fig. r, the tracker-bar, T, with its 88 holes, is represented as being closed by the paper roll, R, which lies closely against it, Some of the air has been extracted from the duct, D, and from the chamber,

C, by means

of an air-

exhaust to which they are connected. There is a very tiny vent, V, which allows air from the tracker duct to leak into the chamber. A disk, K, closes the chamber from the outer air, being held down because the air in C, is at a lower pressure than normal. The pneumatic, B, is full of air at normal atmospheric pressure and is open to the external air by means of the port, A.

Should a hole in the paper come into line with any hole in the

of the widespread influence of Plautus on modern literatures is tracker-bar, the external air rushes into the duct and lifts the given by Reinhardstoettner, Spätere Bearbeitungen plautinischer pouch, P, which is simply a circular piece of soft kid about jin. Lustspiele (1886). Many adaptations for the Italian stage were in diameter, and bigger than K. Hence it lifts K, connecting the produced between the years 1486 and 1550, the earliest (the pneumatic with the partial vacuum, C, and disconnecting it from Menaechmi) under the direction of Ercole I., duke of Ferrara. the external air by closing the port A. The air in B spreads to C From Italy the practice spread to France, Spain, England and and, the external pressure on the surface, S, being greater than other countries. the reduced pressure inside, the pneumatic collapses suddenly, Of English plays the interlude called Jack Juggler (between the movable leaf rising and lifting with it the pilot, L, which 1547 and 1553) was based on the Amphitruo, and the lost play operates the piano action. called the Historie of Error (acted in 1577) was probably based The pneumatic remains collapsed until paper again blocks the on the Menaechmi; Nicholas Udall’s Ralph Royster Doyster, the hole in the tracker-bar. The air in D then leaks through into C first English comedy (acted before 1551, first printed 1566), is and can no longer hold up the pouch, which falls back into position founded on Miles Gloriosus; Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors and allows K to close the chamber C again, at the same time (about 1591) is an adaptation of the Menaechmi; and his Falstaff opening the pneumatic to the external air at A. The external and may be regarded as an idealized reproduction or development of internal pressure on S now being the same, the pneumatic rethe braggart soldier of Plautus and Terence—a type of character inflates and allows the pilot to drop back into position, which reappears in other forms not only in English literature (e.g., In the days of heavy and clumsy valves it was difficult to in Shakespeare’s Parolles and Ben Jonson’s Captain Bobadil) but provide the necessary power to lift them rapidly without hard also in most of the literatures of modern Europe. Shakespeare’s pedalling and consequent loud tone. To overcome this defect Taming of the Shrew has been influenced in several respects (in- the more expensive player action was provided with an additional cluding the names Tranio and Grumio) by the Mostellaria. Ben (or primary) valve of light construction, easily lifted by the Jonson produced a skilful amalgamation of the Aulularia and the inrush of air when a hole was opened on the tracker-bar. Its

Captivi in his early play The Case is Altered (written before 1599). Thomas Heywood adapted the Amphitruo in his Silver Age (1613), the Rudens in his Captives (licensed 1624), and the Mostellaria in his English Traveller (1633). Dryden’s Amphitryon or the two Sosias (1690) is based partly on the Amphitruo, partly on Moliére’s adaptation thereof; Fielding’s Miser (acted 1732) on Moliére’s L’Avare rather than on the Aulularia, and his Intriguing Chambermaid (acted 1733) on Regnard’s Le Retour imprévu rather than on the Mostellaric. BIBLIOGRAPHY,-—Standard Texts and Editions with Notes: Texts

by Goetz and Schoell (editio minor, 1893-1907), by Leo (1895-96), by Lindsay (1904-05). With notes: Captivi, by Lindsay (1900), by Brix (6th ed., 1910); Menaechmi, by Brix (sth ed., 1912); Miles by Lorenz (2nd ed,, 1886), by Brix (3rd ed., t90r); Mostellaria by

Lorenz (2nd ed., 1883), by Sonnenschein (2nd ed., 1907); Pseudolus by Lorenz

(1876); Rudens by Sonnenschein

(1891, ed. min., 1901);

lifting admitted air to the other and heavier valve, through the

port O, operating the striking pneumatic as previously described. Both single and double valve systems are still in use. The interior of the player action is maintained in a steady state of reduced pressure by forcing the pedal, F, to open the exhaust, X (fig. 2). This allows all the interior air to spread itself into X past L, a flat strip of well-tanned leather, lying

over holes. A fan spring, G (about r2lb. in strength), then closes the exhaust, expelling the air via another flap valve, Z. A strong spring, A, is always trying to open the equalizer, E, but is prevented from so doing when the external air pressure is much greater than the reduced pressure inside. When, however, there is not much difference between the external and internal pressures,

the spring can open and in so doing allows air to spread into it from the interior.

The effect is to reduce the internal pressure

PLAYER-PIANO

MECHANISM

OF THE

PLAYER-PIANO.

THE

FIGURES

once more to such an extent that the equalizer begins to collapse. Its constant to-and-fro motion enables a steady amount of reduced pressure to be maintained in the interior channels, despite unsteady working of the pedals. Controls.—The simplest method of operating the “soft” and “sustaining” pedals is to connect the ordinary mechanism of the piano, by suitable levers, to finger controls in front of the keyboard. Many manufacturers prefer to control the distance from the hammers from the strings as shown in fig. 3. A button, B, opens a gate, G, when pressed down. This admits air to a pouch, P, which lifts the valve lying above it, and puts the pneumatic, N, into communication with a partial vacuum, V, thus collapsing it and causing it to lift the hammer rail, H, which softens the tone by giving the hammerhead less distance to travel towards the string, S.

A similar device withdraws all the dampers from the strings. This being a heavier task than shifting the hammers, a larger pneumatic has to be employed, and two valves instead of one. Music rolls are provided with an additional hole at the left-hand edge, which works the lifting of the dampers, if desired. Change of power, in addition to the means above described, is provided by varying the strength of the blow given to the hammer. Fig. 4 shows how the normal amount of reduced air is altered by interposing a pneumatic, N, between the main exhaust, E, and the small playing pneumatics. Pressing a button (as in fig. 3), air is allowed to enter at A, the pressure from which lifts the pouch, P, and with it the valve, D. This closes the large hole, L, and leaves only the aperture, K, over which lies a knife-cutter valve, J, so called because it closes like the blade of a pen-knife. The spring, S, is of such strength that it governs the amount of air passing through to the bellows, hard pumping closing N and therefore closing the aperture K and preventing loud playing. A slight alteration of fig. 4 would give a fair representation of the automatic Accenting Device, which is worked from marginal perforations in the music roll. The valve disk, D, is moved to the other side of the hole, L, keeping it normally closed and softening the tone until a marginal perforation allows air to rush towards P. The pouch lifts the valve, opens L and accents the note. The pedals also provide sufficient power to work the spool

AND

LETTERS

ARE EXPLAINED

IN THE TEXT

which draws the music roll over the tracker-bar. Five pneumatics of the type shown in fig. 5 are fixed at equal angular distances upon a crank-shaft, C, each one collapsing in turn and so driving the shaft round steadily. Collapse is effected when the hollow slide, S, is covering both of the ports A and B, for the pneumatic is then in direct communication with the main exhaust, through E. As the crank-shaft is thus moved round, the slide is raised, and no longer covers both ports. External air is admitted to the pneumatic, and the collapse of one of its neighbours provides the power to lower its slide and again get into communication with the main exhaust. All communication between motor and exhaust is by way of a governor pneumatic; powerful pedalling tends to collapse it, but directly this happens a knife-valve partly closes the passage-way (as in fig. 4), and thus prevents the motor from “racing.” Variation in tempo is secured by deliberately altering the size of the passage-way within an enclosure known as the Tempo Box. The shape of the slot is usually as shown in fig. 6, over which passes a slide, S. When half the area of the slot is covered, the speed of the motor is half its maximum, and so on, the slide being worked mechanically from the control board. The holes in the paper roll being so close together, it is essential that they should track correctly, despite the effects of wear and weather. Correct tracking is controlled in ways which vary in detail, but usually depends upon the action of two pneumatics, kept under exhaust. Holes in the tracker-bar are so placed as to be uncovered when (and only when) the roll goes to one side, letting air into one of the pneumatics and causing it to open slightly, taking with it either tracker-bar or spool. Reproducing Pianos.—The “reproducing” instruments are in a separate class, designed to reproduce faithfully all the shades of tempo and expression made by well-known pianists. All control is rightly withdrawn from the operator when using the specially cut rolls, but the same instrument may be used for ordinary rolls by putting the reproducing mechanism out of action.

Additions to the normal player mechanism are mostly for the

purpose of controlling more completely the comparative loudness or softness of individual notes. To do this effectively it is necessary to have as many grades of power as possible, to include

7O

PLAYFAIR—PLAY

smooth crescendo as well as sforzando effects. The Ampico mechanism alters the size of the main passage-way (and hence the power) by means of a regulator valve, which is

attached to a lever, controlled by a set of pneumatics under vacuum (three small “intensity” pneumatics above, balanced by a large “spring” pneumatic beneath). When marginal perforations connect up to the valves of the “intensity” pneumatics, these lift and allow the pneumatics to fill with air, thus exerting an up-push on the lever, raising the regulator valve and increasing the size of the passage-way. As these pneumatics lie along the lever, their lifting power depends upon position, those furthest from the fulcrum end being the most effective. When it is necessary for an intensity pneumatic to collapse again, another marginal perforation, connecting up to a “cancel” valve, admits air and allows this to happen. Further marginal perforations are provided, one for slow crescendo, and the other for fast crescendo, each connecting up to the same crescendo pneumatic, but in the latter case two ways are open for the air to escape, making the pneumatic collapse quickly. For “brilliant” or extra powerful performance, the Ampico can be switched over so as to close the slight “in-leak” provided on one of the three pumpers of the power mechanism. The whole system then works at maximum power. For subdued performance the main passage-way is blocked by a disk, operated pneumatically from a switch in the spool-box. The Angelus Artrio system employs thirteen expression openings, all leading from the interior to the exhaust pumps. Five of these are in the controlling governor, and the others in the treble and bass sections. They vary in size from tiny vents to a large “melody” opening, and all air must pass through one or more openings on its way from tracker-bar to main exhaust. In addition, there is an “in-leak” as on the Ampico, but the Angelus system works it from the tracker-bar. When a perforation appears against the second hole from the left-hand side, the ‘‘in-leak”’ is closed and an increase of power results. The Duo-Art (Aeolian Company) is essentially a theme and accompaniment expression arrangement, the former being at a higher dynamic power than the other. Each has a knife-valve control of the passage-way, operated by a set of four pneumatics, varying in their amount of possible collapse. In this way six variants of power are obtained. There is also an “in-leak,” automatically closed by another knife-valve so as to get maximum power when the passage-way is already nearly full open. The Welte-Mignon is worked by suction fan instead of the usual pumpers. Its expression unit consists of a governor bellows, held open by a coiled spring. This controls the position of a conical valve in the passage-way. and is itself automatically responsive to the amount of work being done at any moment within the pneumatic system. The expression pneumatic, which also works the same conical valve. is operated from the tracker-bar, and can act slowly or quickly according to the perforations in

operation.

(S. A. H.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—S. Grew, The Art of the Player-Piano

(1922), The

Book of the Player-Pianist (1925); D. M. Wilson, The Player-Piano: its Construction, kow to play (1923).

Value of the Player-piano.—The player-piano in its modern perfected form enjoys the whole-hearted support of musicians. In schools it has proved invaluable, while in musical colleges and academies it is utilized as a means of familiarising students with the interpretations of the greatest performers.

PLAYFAIR, JOHN

(1748-1819), Scottish mathematician,

was born at Benvie, Forfarshire, where his father was parish minister, on March 10, 1748. He was educated at home until the age of r4, when he entered the University of St. Andrews. He was ordained, and succeeded his father in the parish of Benvie, but continued his scientific studies. In 1785 he succeeded Dugald Stewart in the chair of mathematics at Edinburgh, which he ex-

changed in 1805 for that of natural philosophy. In 1795 he published his Elements of Geometry, which later passed through many editions. He enunciated the axiom now known by his name, viz., that two intersecting straight lines cannot both be parallel to the same straight line. He was elected F.R.S. in 1807. He died in Edinburgh on July 20, 18109.

IN ANIMALS

His other publications include: Jllustratzons of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth (1802) ; Outlines of Natural Philosophy (2 vols., 1812—16). His collected works, with a memoir by J. G. Playfair, were published at Edinburgh (4 vols. 1822).

PLAYFAIR, LYON PLAYFAIR, tst Baron (18181898), was born at Chunar, Bengal province, on May 21, 1818, and educated at St. Andrews, Glasgow, Edinburgh, University College, London, and under Liebig at Giessen, where he took his doctor’s degree. Playfair translated into English Liebig’s Chemistry of Agriculture. From 1841-42, he was chemical manager of the Primrose print-works at Clitheroe, and in 1843 was elected honorary professor of chemistry to the Royal Institution of Manchester. Soon after he was appointed a member of the Royal Commission on the Health of Towns, a body whose

investigations may be said to have laid the foundations of modern sanitation. In 1845 he was appointed professor in the new School of Mines, and chemist to the geological survey, and thenceforward was constantly employed by the public departments in matters of sanitary and chemical inspection. For his services as special commissioner of the 1851 Exhibition, he was made C.B. From 1856 to 1869 he was professor of chemistry.at Edinburgh University. In 1868 he was elected to represent the universities of Edinburgh and St. Andrews in parliament, and retained his seat till 1885, from which date until 1892 he sat as member for Leeds. In 1873 he was made postmaster-general, and in the following year, after the dissolution of parliament, was made president of a commission to inquire into the working of the civil service. Its report established a completely new system, known as the “Playfair scheme.” From 1880, when Gladstone returned to power, till 1883, Playfair acted as chairman of committees. In 1892 he received a peerage, and in 1895 the G.C.B. He died in London, on May 29, 1898, and was buried at St. Andrews. He published a volume, Subjects of Social Welfare. A memoir by Sir Wemyss Reid was published in 1899.

PLAYFAIR,

SIR NIGEL

(1874-

), actor and the-

atrical manager, was born in London on July 1, 1874. Educated at Harrow and at University college, Oxford, he acted with the Oxford University Dramatic Society. For some time he practised as a barrister. On July 30, 1902, he made his first appearance as a professional actor at the Garrick theatre, London, in “A Pair of Knickerbockers.” He was chiefly associated with the Lyric theatre, Hammersmith, London, the management of which he assumed in 1919. Among his most famous productions at this theatre were John Drinkwater’s Abrakam Lincoln (1919) and the revival of Gay’s Beggar’s Opera (1920) which ran for over three years. He published The Story of the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith (1925), and other works. He was knighted in 1928.

PLAYFORD, JOHN (1623—c. 1686), English musical pub-

lisher, was born at Norwich. From 1653 he was clerk to the Temple church, and from his shop in the Inner Temple issued most of the English music of his day. Of his own compositions the chief are numerous psalm tunes, the popular Introduction to the Skill of Musick (1654, 19 ed. 1730) and The Dancing Master (1650), a collection of airs for the violin used for country dances which constitute an invaluable treasury of English national tunes. See F. Kidson, British Music Publishers.

PLAY IN ANIMALS. Play is illustrated their ball, puppies and their sham-hunt, lambs monkeys and their ‘“‘follow-my-leader.” There fights among birds which seem to be entirely

by kittens with and their races, are often shamplayful, besides

exhibitions of flying powers that have no direct usefulness.

For

it is one of the criteria of play that it is not directly useful. Play is not work, though it may be as strenuous and may lead to exhaustion; it is not meré exercise, though, perhaps, it exercises best; it has no deliberate (or, in animals, perceived) end, for the sake of which it is played, yet it may be almost indispensable if

the animal is to attain to the full use of its powers.

Play is not

necessarily social, for many a kitten plays alone; and it is not necessarily competitive, though rivalry may give it zest. Its key-

note is its anticipation of modes of activity characteristic of adult life. Play is well illustrated by many young carnivores, such as cats, dogs, foxes, otters and bears; by many young ungulates, such as

PLAY

IN ANIMALS

7/

lambs, kids, calves and foals; by most monkeys, and by less | is enough to suppose that each type of playing animal has its familiar cases like young squirrels and water-shrews. Yet it cannot be said to be a general feature in the youthful life of mammals. It is not common

among birds; it is only hinted at in reptiles,

amphibians and fishes; and it is at most incipient among back-

boneless animals. This raises the question why a playing period should be interpolated in the life-history of only a small minority. There must be some particular biological advantage in play, yet one which only certain types have been able to secure. Uses of Play.—The poet Schiller suggested that animal play is an expression of overflowing energy.

But while this theory has its

grain of truth, it is far too simple. Thus there are many young animals with abundant vigour that never play; and it is well known that a thoroughly tired animal, such as a dog, may turn in a moment from fatigue to play, as children often do. Moreover, half the problem is that different types of mammals play in characteristic or specific ways. Schiller’s theory of play was re-expressed by Herbert Spencer with the important additional suggestion that imitation accounts for the particular form that the playing takes. The physiological condition of play is superfluous energy, but imitation defines the channel of expression. Young creatures mimic in play what they see their seniors doing in earnest. Here again there is some truth, and corroboration may be found in the imitativeness of certain

forms of playing in children. But Spencer’s theory will not cover the facts. Thus an isolated young animal, such as a kitten, will play, and will play true to type, provided that an appropriate liberating stimulus, apart from imitation, is supplied at an appropriate time. But if a kitten reaches a certain age—usually about two or three months—without having had any experience of mice, it will not afterwards show any “mousing instinct,” nor any capacity for

playing with a mouse. A third idea has some relevance, namely the close correlation between pleasant emotions and bodily movements. It is a familiar fact of experience, elaborately studied by the physiologists and psychologists, that pleasant feelings reverberate in various parts of the body, such as the heart, lungs, larynx, food-canal and bladder. The correlation of emotional excitement and activity of the suprarenal bodies is well known. But to the internal movements there may be added movements of the body as a whole, and these will be naturally specific for different types. The child dances with joy; the otter cub gambols exuberantly. This simple movementplay may be a useful safety-valve, but it is also a natural expression of overflowing joie-de-vivure. To Karl Groos we owe the illuminating suggestion that play is important as an irresponsible apprenticeship to the subsequent business of life. It is the young form of work, and this accounts for its specificity. The young carnivore has its sham hunt, the young ungulate its amateurish race, neither Involving serious responsibilities. Under the shelter of parental or communal care the playing animal educates powers essential in after-life, and is afforded opportunities without the serious consequences involved whenever the struggle for existence sets in keenly. As Groos puts it, animals do not play because they are young; they continue young in order that they may play. No doubt non-playing young animals also educate their capacities, but the point is that the interpolation of the play-period is an additional advantage which some plastic and well-endowed creatures have been able to secure for themselves. It is interesting that most of the mammals man

has succeeded in domesticating are playing mammals. Another aspect of the play-period is that it affords opportunity for testing new variations before the struggle for existence sieve becomes too fine in the mesh. Play affords elbow-room for new departures, and its value is particularly clear when the adult life is very varied, like an otter’s, demanding plasticity and resourcefulness. Here there is a marked contrast between games, which are restricted to mankind, and play, which children share with young animals. For the game has its rules and demands self-subordination, whereas play is spontaneous and allows of idiosyncrasies and experimentation. From the biological point of view it is clear that human games cannot fulfil all the functions of play. According to Groos there is no general “instinct to play”; it

inborn or instinctive system or pattern of predispositions towards particular types of adult activity, and that the young are peculiarly sensitive to liberating stimuli. Play implies not only susceptibility, but precocity and plasticity. It secures a certain freedom for initiative before habituation sets in. And this, as has been said, is of especial value when the adult life demands considerable versatility. In such cases, the animals that play best are also likely to work best. Types of Play.—If

play is anticipatory of future work, the

different kinds of play will correspond to the chief activities of adult life. (a) Many forms of play are of the nature of experiments in locomotion, as in aimless racing, rival jumping, riotous gambolling and feats of climbing or of flying. Here one pictures the behaviour of lambs, kids, calves, young antelopes, young chamois, foals, young squirrels and young monkeys. (b) On another line is sham-hunting, in which the young animal chases some moving object irrespective of all utility. A leaf blown by the wind or a ball of grass will pull the trigger as effectively as a small animal. The mother sometimes aids and abets, and here play may coalesce with education (see ANIMALS, EXPERIMENTS ON). The kitten’s play with the mouse, often absurdly misinterpreted as “delight in torture,” is paralleled in many other young carnivores. It is justified in the present by the repetition of pleasurable excitement, and in the future by the increased dexterity it develops. When the mouse-play is exhibited by cats of mature years, and apart from their education of their kittens, it is probably a relapse into youthful play, illustrated less poignantly in some other adults. (c) A third form of play is the sham-fight, familiar in puppies. It has been described among lions, tigers, hyenas, wolves, foxes, bears and other carnivores; among lambs, kids, calves, foals, antelopes and other ungulates. It is also common among birds. Care must be taken to keep the sham-fight distinct from the combats of rival males, the first hints of which may begin early, as in bull-calves. And even apart from sex, it is not always easy to distinguish the sham-fight from serious combativeness. In his description of the behaviour of two young gluttons, Brehm says that nothing could be more playful, they were hardly at a rest for a minute, but every now and then the note of earnest was struck. Very curious, considering the level at which they occur, are the so-called sham-fights which several good observers have described among ants. There is energetic wrestling and the like, but no discharge of poison or actual wounding. (d) Perhaps one may recognize another type which may be called playful experiment, when animals test things, often pulling them to pieces; or test themselves, often performing interesting but useless feats; or test their neighbours, discovering how they will respond to sundry provocations. The difficulty is to distinguish these playful experiments from the ways in which many well-endowed young animals feel their way about in their environment. But Hamerton describes how his young goats would spend hours in Jumping in end out of a basket, or would try to upset the artist by getting under his seat, or would tease the big dog to the limit of his endurance. Along this line the subtlest forms of play are found in apes, where experimenting may go far, and sometimes become sheer mischief. Chimpanzees often show what looks like delight in being a cause, and an entirely useless activity may be repeated over and over again. Thus a chimpanzee will entice a hen with bread, and pull the reward away at the last minute, repeating the trick many times with evident gusto. Or it will attract a hen close to the cage and then give her a sudden poke with a stick when she is preoccupied with her food. This seems almost like a joke. Of interest are those cases where playing or something like playing is continued long after youth is past. This is familiar in domestic dogs, but is also exhibited in natural conditions, for

instance by the otter. This extension of play may be sometimes associated with the mother’s habit of playing with successive litters of young ones year after year. But this interpretation does not apply to all cases, for instance to the communal playing of fullgrown penguins on the sea-ice. Thus Murray Levick has described the diving play in which the succession of birds may be so rapid

72

PLEADING—PLECOPTERA

“as to have the appearance of a lot of shot poured out of a bottle into the water.” A favourite activity was to board an ice-fioe till it would hold no more, and get carried by the tide to the lower end of the rookery, where every bird would suddenly jump off and swim back against the stream to catch a fresh floe and get another ride down. An adult snake-bird (Anhinga) has been seen playing catch with twigs, an activity obviously correlated with its dexterity of head and neck in catching fish. Many birds have flight games; the “shooting” and tumbling of rooks and herons, and the turning upside-down of ravens may be specially mentioned. It seems impossible to restrict the idea of play to youth. But in general play is a mode of behaviour characterizing the youthful period of certain well-endowed animals, a precocious exhibition of activities more or less anticipatory of those characterizing adult life, but not in themselves of direct utility. Its biological significance is partly as a safety-valve for overflowing energy, partly as an early expression of imitativeness, partly as a correlate of pleasant feelings, but mainly as an irresponsible apprenticeship to adult activities and an opportunity for testing new departures, especially in habit. Restrictions of Play.—Since these characteristics of typical play are tolerably well-defined, it is undesirable that the concept should be blurred by a vague and loose application of the term. The following restrictions may be suggested: (1) The term play should not be used for the idle movements of animals, such as insects and fishes, unless there is evidence that these are serving as an apprenticeship. Gregarious swimming on the part of cuttlefishes and fishes, gregarious flying on the part. of insects and birds, may have no utility, and yet hardly deserve the name of play. (2) It is undoubtedly difficult to draw the line, but it seems useful to try to exclude from typical play all activities bound up with sex-display or courtship. For while these resemble play in being artistic and spontaneous expressions of individuality, they have an immediate outcome: they serve to arouse sex interest and sex desire, whereas typical play never has any immediate reward. If it seem impossible to draw a line between play and display, it might conduce to clearness if the word, sex, were used as a prefix. Thus one might use some phrase such as courting dance for many of the extraordinary displays that birds make at the breeding season. (see BIRD, Reproductive Habits; COURTSHIP or ANIMALS). W. H. Hudson portrays the dance of the cock-ofthe-rock (Rupicola) of tropical South America: “A mossy level spot of earth surrounded by bushes is selected for a dancingplace, and kept well-cleared of sticks and stones; round this area the birds assemble, when a cock-bird, with vivid orange-scarlet crest and plumage, steps into it and, with spreading wings and

tail, begins a series of movements as if dancing a minuet; finally, carried away with excitement, he leaps and gyrates in the most astonishing manner, until, becoming exhausted, he retires and

another bird takes his place.” This strikes a note quite different from that sounded in the races of lambs and kids, wild foals anc asses, or “tag” and “fallow my leader” among monkeys. (3) Itis part of the essence of play that it is not directly usefu, but has a prospective value in educating efficiency. But not a few animals with abundant spare energy and initiative are known to indulge in occasional adventures which, though they can hardly be called other than of the experiments may illustrate this called tricks rather

playful, have no prospective meaning. Some of apes, to which we have already referred, kind of behaviour, and should perhaps be than play. True play is characteristic of a

species and is neither occasional nor individual. A naturalist re-

lates that on one occasion, when botanizing on the Alps, his dog ceased to follow him on the graduated path, and was seen to choose a more direct slope of hard snow. There he lay down on his back, folded his legs and slid down like a toboggan. At the

well-endowed animal.

Similar instances are known at much lower

levels of intelligence. The ecological concept of animal play is most useful when employed in the strictest sense, as already

defined. (See ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR; PSYCHOLOGY, COMPARATIVE; SEXUAL SELECTION.)

BrsriocraPpHys—Karl Groos, Play of Animals (1898); J. Artbur Thomson, Biology of the Seasons (1911); The Minds of Animals (1927); P. Chalmers Mitchell, The Childhood of Animals (1912); W. P. Pycraft, The Infancy of Animals (1912); Murray Levick, Natural History of the Adélie Penguin (1915); W. Kohler, The Mentality of Apes (1925) ; Frances Pitt, Animal Mind (1927). (J. A. TH.

PLEADING: see PRACTICE AND PROCEDURE,

PLEASANTVILLE, a city of Atlantic county, New Jersey, U.SA., 5m. W.N.W. of Atlantic City; served by the Pennsylvania and the Reading railways. Pop, (1930) 11,580.

PLEASURE:

see Frerinc, Psycnorocy or; HEDONISM;

ETHICS.

PLEBISCITE, a term borrowed from the French for a vote

of all the electors in a country or given area taken on some specific question. The most familiar example of the use of the plebiscite in French history was in 1852, when the coup d'état of 1851 was confirmed and the title of emperor was given to Napolean III, Its essential characteristic, as distinguished from the referendum

(g.v.), is this:—A plebiscitary vote decides a specific question, ad hac and pro hac vice. It is not, as in the case of the referendum, a normal method or procedure of voting applied on a general system to certain classes of legislation. It is sometimes used in England to decide questions of municipal rates or other local questions, and extensively in the Dominions and the United States on certain local or State questions. In Europe its use has been almost wholly political and national. In that sense it is a method of ascertaining the general desire of the inhabitants of a given territory or area, As a means of settling the destination of populations and territories, this method was first used in the French Revolution to defend the wholesale annexations of territory made by the conquering French Republic, and subsequently by Napoleon I. It was revived by Napoleon ITI,

and applied (successfully for him) in the case of Nice and Savoy, and (successfully for Victor Emmanuel) in the duchies of north Italy during the years 1859-60, The Peace Conference of 1919 proposed the taking of 17 plebiscites to settle difficult national questions of which eight were

actually held. Of these the Turkish plebiscite in Transcaucasia

was a farce. Others, which decided the fate of Allenstein Marienwerder, of the Burgenland, of Klagenfurt, the economic destiny of Luxembourg, the attribution of the northern and southern zones of Slesvig, and the partition of Upper Silesia had substantial and important results, which are noted elsewhere under the individual articles. The Versailles Treaty provided for a plebiscite of the Saar district in 1935 to decide the future of the region. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. W. V. Temperley, ed., A History of the Peace Conference of Paris (1920); references in Subject Index to vol. vi, 703; Plebiscites in Historical Section of Foreign Office Peace Handbooks; Sarah Wambaugh, A Monograph on Plebiscites, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (1920); Sarah Wambaugh, La Pratique des Plébiscites, Recueil des Cours de Academie de Droit International; F. Llewellyn Jones, Plebiscites, Grotius Society Transac-~ tions (1927).

PLEBS, the “multitude,” or unprivileged class in the early Roman state (from the root pleo, seen in Latin plenus, All; cf. Gr. Aflos). For the origin and history of this order see PATRIcians. Its disqualifications were originally based on descent, but after the political equalization of the two orders these ceased.

PLECOPTERA

(Gr. mħékos plaited, and mrepdv, a wing)

is that order of insects which comprises the stone-flies: by some authorities they are termed Perlaria from Perla, the principal foot he looked up at his astonished master and wagged his tail! genus. Stone-flies are dull coloured insects, either black, brown or No conclusion can be based on single instances, however well grey, or in some species green. They are poor fliers and do not documented, but we cite this case as an instance of probable mis- wander far from water where their early stages are passed, Their interpretation. The observer supposed that the dog had thought habitation is the margins of streams and lakes, especially in hilly out a short cut—an unnecessarily generous view; others have or rocky districts and they are usually found resting on stones, called it a piece of play. But the probability is that it was a casual palings or tree-trunks, or crawling about over stones or plants; adventure, such as may be reasonably put to the credit of many a the green forms frequent bushes or other herbage and are diffi-

PLECTRUM—PLEISTOCENE cult to detect. Fewer than 500 species are known and these are classified into seven families: about 30 species inhabit the British Isles and a considerably larger number is found in the United States. The richest fauna is found in the southern hemisphere and the earliest forms are confined to the Australian region and Chile. Stone-flies are soft-bodied insects with long thread-like antennae: the wings are membranous, folded flat over the back in

repose and the hind pair is usually the largest with a plicated posterior lobe. The mouth-parts are weak and of the biting type, the tarsi are three-jointed and the body is generally terminated by

long, many-jointed tail-feelers. These insects derive their name

from the fact that their nymphs are often common beneath stones

in the beds of streams. The females discharge their eggs in masses into the water: metamorphosis is incomplete arid the nymphs only occur in clear, unfouled streams or lakes, not in stagnant water. Some are carnivorous, while others feed upon organic particles of various kinds. In form they resemble the perfect insects very closely except for the absence of wings: they are provided with

lateral tufts of abdominal tracheal gills or with a terminal group of these organs around the anus. When fully grown the nymph crawls out of the water and the imago emerges. A few Plecoptera in the fossil condition are met with in the Upper Jurassic rocks of Europe, and in the Lower Permian of Kansas. The nymphs serve as food for certain fishes, such as trout, and are in that respect valuable. The species Taeniopteryx pacifica, has been recorded as damaging the buds of fruit trees in Washington State. Further information

on these insects will be found in works

on

aquatic insects (see InsEcTs), while for the British species see papers

by K. J. Morton in Trans. Entomological Soc. London (1894, 1896).

The North American species are dealt with by J. G. Needham and C. P. Claassen, The Plecoptera or Stone-Flies of North America (1925), and for the general classification of the order see R. J Tillyard, Canadian Entom. (vol. liii., 1921). (A. D. 1)

PLECTRUM, a small contrivance, made of metal, wood or some other suitable material, and used as a substitute for the finger in plucking the strings of musical instruments. In ancient times the strings of the lyre were sometimes so plucked, while later the lute was similarly played, as are the mandolin and zither to-day; the same term being applied also to the quills and bristles of the harpsichord and spinet.

PLEDGE

or PAWN,

in law, a “bailment of goods by a

debtor to his creditor to be kept till the debt is discharged” (Jones on Bailments). The term is also used to denote the property which constitutes the security. Pledge is the pignus of Roman law from which most of the modern law on the subject is derived. It differs from hypothecation and from the more usual kind of mortgage in being confined to personal property, and also in that the pledge is in the possession of the pledgee. A mortgage of personal property, in the majority of instances, takes the name and form of a bill of sale (g.v.). In the case of a pledge, it is held that a special property passes to the pledgee, sufficient to enable him to maintain an action against a wrongdoer, but the general property, i.e., the property subject to the pledge, remains in the pledgor. As the pledge is for the beneft of both parties, the pledgee is bound to exercise only ordinary care over the pledge. He must, however, insure against loss by fire (35/36 Vict. ch. 93, s.36). The pledgee has the right of selling the pledge if the pledgor makes default in

in 1846.

73

He was educated at Warsaw and at the university of

St. Petersburg (Leningrad) before he entered the department of justice, in which he rose rapidly to be assistant solicitor-general in Warsaw, then solicitor-general in St. Petersburg, and in 1881 director of the state police. As assistant to the minister of the interior he attracted the attention of Alexander TTI. by the skill he showed in investigating the circumstances of the assassination of Alexander II. He received the title of secretary of state in 1894, became a member of the council of the empire, and in 1902 succeeded Sipiaguine as minister of the interior. Plehve carried

out the “russification” of the alien provinces within the Russian Empire, and earned bitter hatred in Poland, in Lithuania and especially in Finland. He despoiled the Armenian Church, and oppressed the Armenians of the Caucasus. He certainly did nothing to discourage pogroms against the Jews, and he was credited with being accessory to the Kishinev massacres. His logical mind and determined support of the autocratic principle gained the tsar’s entire confidence. He opposed commercial development on ordi-nary European lines on the ground that it involved the existence both of a dangerous proletariat and of a prosperous middle class equally inimical to autocracy. He was a determined and successful opponent of Witte’s policy. An attempt was made on his life early in 1904, and he was assassinated on July 28 of the same year by a bomb thrown under his carriage as he was on his way to Peterhof to make his report to the tsar; the assassin, Sasonov, was a member of the socialist revolutionary party.

PLEIAD, in Greek literature, the name given (by analogy from PierapEs) by the Alexandrian critics to seven tragic poets who flourished during the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). In French literature, in addition to the Pleiad of Charlemagne, there were two famous groups of the kind. The first, during the reign of Henri III. (1574-89), the chief member of which was Pierre de Ronsard, sought to improve the French language and literature by enthusiastic imitation of the classics;

the second, under Louis XIII. (1610-43), consisted of authors who excelled in the composition of Latin verse. PLEIADES, the constellation so called is in mythology the seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione, and sisters of the Hyades. Owing to their grief at the death of their sisters or at the sufferings of their account, the Orion (g.v.) the woods,

father, they were changed into stars. In another Pleiades and their mother met the amorous hunter in Boeotia; for five years he pursued them through

until Zeus translated them all—Pleione and her daughters, Orion and his dog—to the sky. This is one of the few myths really astronomical in origin, for it is based on the relative positions of the constellations in the sky. The names of the sisters are Alcyone, Asterope, Electra, Kelaine, Maia, Merope, and Taygete (Hesiod fr. 275 Rzach); one is always dim or invisible, because she is Electra mourning for Troy, or Merope, who is ashamed of having wedded a mortal, Sisyphus. All the Pleiades became the ancestresses of divine or heroic families. The spring rising and early winter setting of the Pleiades (Lat. Vergiliae) are important dates to the farmer. See H. J. Rose, Handbook

of Greek Mythology

(1928).

The stars are situated in the constellation Taurus. They are supposed to be referred to in the Old Testament (Job ix. 9,

xxxviii. 31). The brightest star is Alcyone (3rd magnitude); Pleione and Atlas are also of the 3rd magnitude.

This group is

payment at the stipulated time.

physically connected, being distinguished from the background

The law of Scotland as to pledge generally agrees with that of England, as does also that of the United States. The main difference is that in Scotland and in Louisiana a pledge cannot be sold unless with judicial authority. Chattel mortgages, which differ from pledges in that the owner retains possession of the article, are uniformly required to be recorded in order to be valid against

stars by community of proper motion. Photographs show a faint nebulosity filling the whole region; there is little doubt that this is rarefied matter made luminous by stimulation of the radiation of the hot stars comprised in it. The distance of the Pleiades is estimated at roo parsecs (306 light-years), but is not very certainly known. Alcyone and the other bright stars are of the hottest type of spectrum (Type B), and give out several hundred times as much light as the sun.

third parties, but except for a few States and aside from the Factors acts, a pledge, for the validity of which possession must be transferred to the pledgee, will be enforcible against third parties without being recorded. (See also Factors and PAwnBROKING.) PLEHVE, VIATSCHESLAF KONSTANTINOVICH (1846-1904), Russian statesman, was born of Lithuanian stock

PLEISTOCENE (Gr.mdetcrov, most, and xaivés, recent), in geology the epoch which succeeded the Pliocene. The Pliocene is now usually considered the last of the Tertiary period and hence the Pleistocene forms the lower subdivision of the Quaternary era. The period saw the arrival of the great Ice age (see GLACIAL

PLEKHANOV—PLEURISY

74

concessions compatible with the maintenance throughout the whole monarchy of the position due to the German Austrians. He sought to compromise the quarrel between Germans and Czechs, and the so-called “points” of 1890, a summary of the

Perron) and the Pleistocene and Glacial period are sometimes used as if synonymous. The general geology of the period is considered under QUATERNARY. PLEKHANOV, GEORGY VALENTINOVITCH (N. BELTMAN) (1857-1918), the founder and for many years the chief exponent of Russian philosophic Marxism, was born on Nov. 26, 1857, in the province of Tambov, of an old noble family. His father wished him to enter the army, but while a student he joined the Narodnist (populist) revolutionary movement. In 1876 he led the first great popular demonstration at St. Petersburg (Leningrad) in the Kazansky square. When the majority section of the Narodnists adopted terrorist methods in 1879, Plekhanov seceded, and with Deutsch, Axelrod, Vera Sassulitch and Ignatov, formed the Marxist “Liberation of Labour” group in Geneva (1883). He spent 40 years in exile, chiefly at Geneva, from which town he became the intellectual leader of the Russian Social-Democratic movement, in particular playing a

bases for a German-Czech understanding, were essentially his work. In the Windischgratz Coalition Ministry (1893-5), Plener took over the portfolio of Finance. Soon after his retirement from the Finance Ministry, Plener was appointed president of

the Supreme Audit Department (Oberster Rechnungshof). entered the Upper House in 1900, and died on May 1, 1923.

He

Plener wrote a series of economic and political works, among others Die englische Fabriksgesetzgebung (1871); Englische Baugenossenschaften (1873). He published Erinnerungen, 3 vol. (1911-21).

PLESIOSAURUS, technically the name of a genus of extinct

reptiles of the group Sauropterygia; it is commonly used to apply to all the later members of that group. The typical plesiosaurs are completely adapted for a marine existence in the open sea.

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NECKED

PLESIOSAUR,

large part in Lenin’s early mental development. In the ’9os and the early years of the 2oth century the two men were closely associated. In Dec. 1900 was founded the S.D. journal Iskra (The Spark) of which Plekhanov was joint editor with Lenin, Martov, and others. In the first split of the Russian S.D. Party in 1903 Plekhanov was largely on the side of the Bolsheviks, holding views closely akin to those of Lenin. After the resignation of the Mensheviks from editorship of the Iskra Plekhanov and Lenin were joint editors, but some months later differences arose between them on the question of collaboration with the Mensheviks, and Lenin resigned. Thenceforth for several years Plekhanov worked with the Menshevik section of the party, but after 1907, while remaining a Menshevik,

FROM THE OXFORD

CLAY OF PETERBOROUGH,

ENGLAND

They first appear in the Rhaetic and are last seen in the Upper Cretaceous. A typical plesiosaur has a small head with a large mouth and slender pointed teeth adapted to the catching of fish. The neck is long, often four times as long as the head. The body is relatively short, as is the tail. All four limbs are converted into paddles, no external trace of the fingers being visible. From these forms two main evolutionary lines appeared. In one, the animals adopted the habit of living on large prey which they captured by their superior speed; in this line the head grew bigger and the neck shorter until it became no longer than the head. The body is comparatively long, the tail little more than the pointed hinder extremity of the body. The paddles become very large indeed, the hinder pair being bigger than the front ones. The

largest members of this group are the pleiosaurs from the European Jurassic. In them the skull may be nearly 6 ft. in length and an individual tooth a foot long. In an animal whose head was just under 5 ft. in length the whole creature had a length of some 16 ft., and the hind paddles were about 5 ft. long. The other line consists of animals which fed on small quickand when the war broke out in 1914 Plekhanov was foremost in advocacy of the principle of “revolutionary defence” of the moving prey which they seem to have captured by sudden lateral country against the Bolshevik policy of working for the defeat of movements of the head and neck. Its most recent member, the Government. After the March revolution he returned to Elasmosaurus, is found in the Upper Cretaceous of Kansas, EngRussia and was invited to join the Provisional Government. land, Queensland and New Zealand. In it the head is about 18 in. He refused, but actively supported the Government against the in length, the neck with as many as 76 vertebrae may reach a Bolsheviks, and remained an opponent of the Bolshevik revolu- length of 19 ft., and the total length of the animal about 30 ft. tion until his death in Finland on May 30, rgrz8. The paddles of such an animal were about 3 ft. in length. Some Plekhanov had an enormous influence on the development of plesiosaurs had the interesting habit of eating pebbles which were the Socialist movement in Russia. The. Moscow Marx-Engels kept in the stomach to assist in grinding up food. Although the Institute has published a complete edition of his works in 26 majority of plesiosaurs were marine, some few are always found volumes. His biggest work is available in German: Beiträge zur in estuaries or freshwater deposits. See REPTILES. Geschichte des Materialismus. (D. M. S. W.)

he took up an attitude on many issues, particularly on the ques-

tion of participation in the State Duma and also on illegal activities, in agreement with that of the Bolsheviks. At the end of toro he again co-operated with the latter in contributing to the Bolshevik Zviezda (The Star) but the alliance did not last long,

PLENER, ERNST, Frererr von (1841-1923), Austrian politician, was born on Oct. 18, 1841, at Cheb in Bohemia, the

PLEURISY or PLEURITIS.

A medical term for infiam-

mation and the effects of inflammation affecting the pleura (see

son of the Austrian statesman Ignaz von Plener (1810-1908).

CorLom AND SreRouS Memsranes).

From 1888 onwards he was the acknowledged head of the German Liberals in their struggles against the Slav-Conservative majority in the Chamber. Consequently he represented Germunism on the nationalities question, but was not averse to

mechanically, e.g., by a blow, but more commonly is the result of microbial infection whether conveyed directly by the blood (as in scarlatina) or extending to the serous membranes from an inflammatory focus in the lung or adjacent part.

Pleurisy may be induced

PLEURONECTIDAE—PLEVNA The condition may be acute or chronic. In acute pleurisy the normal glistening appearance of the serous membrane is lost, it becomes injected with blood, roughened from the deposition of fibrin from the serum that exudes from the dilated and inflamed blood vessels and so long as the two surfaces

are in contact

occasions much pain from friction during respiration. The amount of serum poured out into the pleural cavity and the amount of fibrin formed vary within wide limits. The fluid may accumulate to such an extent that there is bulging outwards of the inter-

costal spaces and the lung is rendered airless and compressed at the back of the pleural cavity close to the vertebral column. The fibrin may form a thick white felty layer over the entire lung. The subsequent history of a pleurisy varies. If the effusion of fluid causes respiratory or cardiac distress surgical removal (thoracentesis) of a portion of the fluid is necessary; lymphatic and venous drainage are effective in removing the remainder. There may then be complete recovery, the compressed lung resuming its function if it has not been left compressed too long. In other cases fibrous adhesions, formed by the same process as that

which leads to scar tissue (see PaTHoLocy) bind the two layers of the pleura together over a greater or less extent of their surface. The condition is then one of chronic pleurisy and recrudescences of inflammation with local pain and effusion of fluid may occur. If the pleurisy arise by extension from a pulmonary, diaphragmatic, costal or pericardial focus of disease its character is determined by that of the primary focus. If tuberculous, tuberculous nodules are found in the thickened material covering and replacing the normal serous membrane; if malignant disease the nodules are cancerous and the fluid often contains many red blood cells; while if the primary focus be that form of pneumonia which is caused by the pneumococcus and is characterized by the local output of numerous leucocytes, the pleurisy will be similar and frequently purulent (see EmpyemA). The symptoms and signs of pleurisy present difficulty. Where

75

lated by Borrel. The earliest notices of this disease testify that it first prevailed in Central Europe, and in the 18th century it was present in certain parts of Southern Germany, Switzerland and France, and had also appeared in upper Italy. In 1769 it was definitely described as prevailing in Franche-Comté by the name of “murie.” From that date down to 1789 it appears to have remained more or less limited to the Swiss mountains, the Jura, Dauphiné and Vosges, Piedmont and upper Silesia; it showed itself in Champagne and Bourbonnais about the time of the Revolution, when its spread was greatly accelerated by the wars that followed. In the roth century its diffusion was accurately determined. It invaded Prussia in 1802, and soon spread over north Germany. It was first described as existing in Russia in 1824; it reached Belgium in 1827, Holland in 1833, the United Kingdom in 1841, Sweden in 1847, Denmark in 1848, Finland in 1850, South Africa in 1854, the United States—Brooklyn in 1843, New Jersey in 1847, Brooklyn again in 1850, and Boston in 1850; it was also carried to Melbourne in 1858, and to New South Wales in 1860; New Zealand and Tasmania

in 1864; and also into Asia Minor.

During the zoth century it has occurred in Asia, Africa, Australia, South America, Russia, Germany, France and Spain. It has now been eradicated, or the incidence very much reduced, in most countries by compulsory slaughter and veterinary police measures. Great Britain has been free since 1808. Symptoms and Treatment.—After a period of incubation of

12—16 days (after inhalation Nocard and Roux) or a little longer, loss of appetite and fever are apparent, accompanied by a dry, painful cough, which later becomes more frequent and moister. Pulse and respiration are accelerated with the customary signs of acute pulmonary disease. Generally the disease persists for some weeks before death supervenes, or apparent recovery ensues, with a later recrudescence of symptoms. High temperature with death in a few days is less common. Recovered cases should be regarded the patient complains of a sharp pain in the side especially on with suspicion. drawing a deep breath, the normal resonant note on percussion Willems of Hasselt (Belgium) 1852 introduced protective inocof the chest is replaced by a dead, dull note, the breath sounds ulation, employing lymph obtained from a diseased lung; since are barely audible and the ear applied to the chest detects a that date the protective value has been proved in the field. Not rubbing sound, a diagnosis of pleurisy is easy. But the relative entirely free of danger, the method appears to confer a temporary infrequency of these phenomena and the very great frequency immunity. The inoculation is made in the extremity of the tail. with which pleural adhesions, often of wide extent, are found in In France, Nocard and Roux have used as a vaccine, an eight the post-mortem room without the slightest indication that the days’ old culture of the virus in Martin’s broth. Injected in the patient during life complained of symptoms such as the appear- same manner, the method has given good results. An anti-serum, ances would seem to suggest, indicate that pleurisy is often symp- capable of conferring a passive immunity, has also been prepared. tomless. The inference is that pleurisy is very common, but com- The disease is scheduled in Great Britain under the Diseases of Animals Act. (A. R. S.) paratively rarely calls for medical or surgical treatment. Treatment.—In many cases strapping of the affected side to PLEVNA (Bulgarian Pleven), a city in Bulgaria; on the limit movement is sufficient; where effusion becomes purulent and Tutchinitza, and Sofia-Varna railway (opened in 1899). Pop. thoracentesis will be insufficient, a wide opening into the pleural (1906), 21,208. A branch line, 25 m. long, connects Plevna with cavity with removal of portions of one or more ribs to provide Samovit on the Danube, where a port has been formed. After the events of 1877, it was almost entirely forsaken by the Turks, drainage becomes necessary. (W. S. L.-B.) PLEURONECTIDAE, the family of fishes to. which the and most of the mosques have gone to ruin; but, peopled now name “flat-fish” is popularly applied. It includes the sole, flounder, mainly by Bulgarians, it has quite recovered its prosperity, and has a large commerce in cattle and wine (see Russo-TURKISH turbot and plaice (gg.v.). (See Fisx.) PLEURO-PNEUMONIA or LUNG-PLAGUE, a con- Wars). Plevna, a small and unknown town without fortifications, tagious disease peculiar to the bovine species generally affecting the lungs and pleura, producing a particular form of lobar or lobu- became celebrated as the scene of Osman Pasha’s exploits. He left lar pleuro-pneumonia, and, in the majority of cases, transmitted by Widin on July 13 with a column consisting of some 12,000 men the living diseased animal, or, exceptionally, by mediate contagion. and 54 guns. Hearing that he was too late to relieve Nikopol, he Cattle and closely allied species are susceptible; other animals and pushed on to Plevna, where there was a small garrison and on man are immune. Inoculation of healthy cattle with the fluid from July 19 he took up a position on the bare hills to the north and the diseased lungs produces, after a certain interval, characteristic east. He was none too soon. General Schilder-Schuldner, comchanges at the seat of inoculation, and though the inoculated ani- manding the sth division of the IX. corps, which had just captured mal does not develop the lung lesions always observed in natural Nikopol, had been ordered to occupy Plevna, and his guns were infection, yet there is a local anatomical similarity or identity. In already in action. On July 20, having made no preliminary recon1888 Arloing, of Lyons, described various bacilli obtained from naissance, the Russian commander advanced his infantry in four the lesions of lung-plague. The cause is now held to be a polymor- separate columns. On the north flank they pressed into Bukova, phic micro-organism capable of passing through ordinary bacterial and also succeeded in driving back the Turkish right wing; but filters. With a high magnification, coccal-like bodies, vibrios, in both cases Turkish counter-attacks pressed back the Russians, short spirilla, branching and asteroid bodies, also mycelioid moulds with the result that by noon they were in full retreat, having lost may be seen. Fine mucin coverings are always present and for 2,800 men out of a total of 8,000. The Turks lost 2,000. Osman the latter reason the name Asterococcus mycoides was formu- at once drew up plans for the fortification of the position, and the

PLEYEL—PLIMER

76

troops were employed night and day constructing redoubts and entrenchments. In order to secure his line of communications, he occupied Lovcha (Lovatz). The Plevna garrison had now been reinforced to 20,000. Trenches were 4 ft. deep and the_redoubts had a command of ro to 16 ft., with parapets about 14 ft. thick. There were in some cases two lines of trench to the front, thus giving three tiers of fire. Second Battle of Plevna.—In accordance with orders from the Russian headquarters at Tirnova, a fresh attack was made by TURKISH INTRENCHMENTS SEPT.71677 AI" ff > . Oe ae

caused by the artillery fire of the first few days. There was no question of pursuit. The Russians were greatly superior in numbers and the Turks were completely exhausted.

Investment and Fall of Plevna.—This was the last openforce attack on Osman’s lines. General Todleben, the defender of

Sevastopol, was now entrusted with the conduct of the siege, and he determined to complete the investment, which was accomplished by October 24, Osman’s request to retire from Plevna having been refused by Constantinople. Supplies eventually gave out and a sortie on the night of Dec. g—10 failed, with the result that he and his army capitulated. Plevna is a striking example of the futility of the purely passive defence, which is doomed to failure however tenaciously carried out. Osman Pasha repelled three Russian attacks and practically held the whole Russian army. It remained for the other Turkish forces in the field to take the offensive and by a vigorous counter-

stroke to reap the fruits of his successes. Victories which are not

followed up are useless.

(J. H. V. C.)

See W. V. Herbert, The Defence of Plevna, 1877 (London, 1895); F. V. Greene, The Russian Army and its Campaign in Turkey (London, 1880) ; General Kuropatkin (Ger. trans. by Krahmer), Kritische Rückblicke auf den russisch-tiirkischen Krieg; Mouzaffer Pacha and Talaat Bey, Défense de Plevna; Krahmer’s German translation of the Russian Official History ; General H. Langlois, Lessons of Two Recent Wars (Eng. trans., War Office, 1910); Th. von Trotha, Kampf um Plewna (Berlin, 1878); Vacaresco (Ger. trans.), Rumdniens Antheil am Kriege, 1877-1878 (Leipzig, 1888).

Ftstraee

aNinadischeye™ orl

ENGLISH MILES

3%

#

PLEYEL, IGNAZ JOSEPH (1757-1831), Austrian musician, was born at Ruppersthal, near Vienna, on June 1, 1757, the 24th son of a poor village schoolmaster. He studied the pianoMONTHS DEFENCE OF THE TOWN BY OSMAN PASHA AGAINST THE forte under Van Hal (known in England as Vanhall), and in 1772 RUSSIANS IN 1877 Kriidener on July 30. He had been reinforced and his force num- learned composition from Haydn, who became his dearest friend. bered nearly 40,000 with 176 guns. After a preliminary cannonade He was appointed temporary maître de chapelle at Strasbourg the infantry advanced at 3 P.M., as before in widely spread col- in 1783, receiving a permanent appointment to the office in 17809. umns. The columns attacking from the north and north-east were In 1791 he paid a successful visit to London. He narrowly repulsed with heavy loss. Shakovskoi temporarily occupied two escaped the guillotine on returning to Strasbourg, and was only redoubts, but a counter-stroke by the Turkish reserves forced saved by the existence of a cantata which he had written, and in him back. The Russians retreated, their losses amounting to which the inspiration could fairly be claimed to be on the side 7,300, while the Turkish losses exceeded 2,000. The victory was of liberty; so that he was permitted to remain until 1795, when he decisive, but Osman again failed to pursue. His troops were migrated to Paris. Here he opened a large music shop, published elated by success, the moral of the enemy severely shaken, the the first complete edition of Haydn’s quartets, and founded, in undefended Russian bridge over the Danube was within 40 m. of 1807, the pianoforte manufactory which still bears his name. The him, but he lost his opportunity, and contented himself with latter years of his life were spent in agricultural pursuits. He died strengthening his defensive works. It is said that he was tied down on Nov. 14, 1831, in Paris. PLIEKSANS, JAN (1865), Latvian poet and drama» to Plevna by orders from Constantinople. The Russians now concentrated all their available forces against tist, was born on Sept. 12, 1865, at Tadenava in the district of Plevna and called in the aid of the Rumanians. By the end of Illukst, Courland. He adopted the pen name of Jozsef Rajnis. August they had assembled a force of 74,000 infantry, 10,000 He was educated at the Riga gymnasium, and from 1884 to 1888 cavalry and 440 guns. On August 30 Osman moved out of Plevna, studied law at St. Petersburg (Leningrad). He then practised as a and on the 31st attacked the Russians about Pelishat. He returned barrister at Mitau, Courland. From 18ọr1 to 1895 he edited in Riga to Plevna the same evening. The Turks lost 1,300 and the Rus- a democratic Latvian paper, Dienas Lapa (Daily Paper). He was sians 1,000 men. The Russians determined to occupy Lovcha, and arrested by the Russian Government on political grounds and so cut Osman’s communications before again attacking Plevna. remained in exile, first at Pskov and then at Viatka, until 1903. After three days’ fighting this was accomplished by Skobelev, act- He may be considered the chief exponent of democracy in Latvian ing under Imeretinski, with a force of 20,000 men, on September 3. poetry. He translated plays from Shakespeare, Goethe and Osman moved out to the relief of the garrison that day with a Schiller. His principal historical tragedies are Uguns un nakis strong column, but, finding he was too late, returned to Plevna on (Fire and night), Put véjint (Blow breeze) and Daugava (The the 6th. The survivors from Lovcha were re-formed into 3 bat- Dvina). The Sons of Jacob has been translated into English, and talions, including which Osman had been reinforced to a strength was produced on May 22, 1925, at the New Scala theatre, London, of over 30,000, with 72 guns. by the International Theatre Society. For several years he was Third Battle of Plevna.—The Russians moved to their pre- director of the Latvian National Theatre, and in 1920 became a liminary positions on the night of September 6-7. Their plan was member of the Latvian Saeima (parliament). PLIMER, ANDREW (c. 1763-1837), English miniature to attack the north-east, south-east and south fronts simultaneously. An artillery bombardment began at 6 a.m. on Septem- painter, was the son of a clock-maker at Wellington. With his ber 7, and was carried on till 3 p.m. on the rth, when the infantry brother Nathaniel (1757~c. 1822) he joined a party of gypsies and advanced. The Rumanians took one Grivitza redoubt; Skobelev wandered about with them, eventually reaching London, where occupied two redoubts on the south front, but the centre attack on in 1781 he was engaged by Mrs. Cosway as studio boy. Cosway the Radischevo front failed. On the 12th the Turks recaptured the sent him to a friend to learn drawing, and then received him southern redoubts, the Rumanians remained in possession of the into his own studio. In 1785 he set up for himself in Great Grivitza redoubt, but the Russian losses already amounted to Maddox Street. He exhibited many times in the Royal Academy, 18,000 and they withdrew, and entrenched themselves on a line resided for a while in Exeter and travelled a good deal through Verbitza-Radischevo, with cavalry on either flank to the Vid. The England. He died at Brighton in 1837 and was buried at Hove. Turkish losses totalled 5,000, of which only a few hundred were His miniatures are of great brilliance and are in considerable a

MAP

i

OF

z

PLEVNA

=

SHOWING

TURKISH

me

ENTRENCHMENTS

i

DURING

THE

FIVE-

PLIMSOLL—PLINY

THE

ELDER

77

demand among collectors. They are to be distinguished by the | lamare) on the southern shore of the Bay of Naples. There, peculiar wiry treatment of the hair and by the large full expres- In order to allay the fears of his friends, he dined, as his sive eyes which Plimer invariably gave to his female eyes resembling those of his own wife and daughters.

sitters,

nephew says “cheerfully, or what was equally splendid, with a

pretence of cheerfulness,” and then retired to rest. In the middle See G. C. Williamson, Andrew and Nathaniel Plimer (1903). of the night, when stones and ashes were already falling about PLIMSOLL, SAMUEL (1824-1898), British politician and the house and the house itself was rocking alarmingly, he was social reformer, was born at Bristol on Feb. r0, 1824. His efforts roused by his friends and the party determined to seek safety in for reform were directed more especially against “coffinships” the open, binding pillows about their heads as a protection against —unseaworthy and overloaded vessels, often heavily insured, falling debris. “Now it was day elsewhere,” to use his nephew’s in which unscrupulous owners risked the lives of their crews. words, “but there night darker and denser than any night, alleviPlimsoll entered parliament as Liberal member for Derby in ated a little by numerous torches and lights of various sorts. It was 1868, and failing to pass a bill dealing with the subject, he pub-

lished a work entitled Our Seamen (1872), which made a great impression throughout the country. On Plimsoll’s motion in 1873, a royal commission was appointed, and in 1875 a government bill was introduced, which Plimsoll, though regarding it as inadequate, resolved to accept. On July 22, when Disraeli, announced that the bill would be dropped, Plimsoll lost his self-con-

trol, applied the term “villains” to members of the house, and shook his fist in the Speaker’s face. Eventually Plimsoll apologised, but the country shared his view that the bill had been stifled by the pressure of the shipowners, and the popular agitation forced the government to pass a bill, which in the following year was amended into the Merchant Shipping Act. This gave stringent powers of inspection to the Board of Trade. The mark that indicates the limit to which a

decided to go out upon the shore and see at close quarters whether the sea now offered any prospect of safety; it still continued wild and adverse. There Pliny lay down upon a cast-off linen cloth, and once and again he asked for cold water, which he drank. Then flames and a smell of sulphur announcing the approach of flames, caused the others to take to flight and roused him. Supported by two slaves he got upon his feet, but immediately collapsed, his breathing, I gather, being obstructed by the thickening vapour which closed up his throat—naturally weak and nar-

row and frequently inflamed. When day returned—the third (in English reckoning the second, z.e., Aug..26) after the last day (Aug. 24) that he had seen—his body was found intact and uninjured, covered as he had been dressed. The appearance of the body suggested one sleeping rather than dead.”

ship may be loaded is generally known as Plimsoll’s mark. Plimsoll

A list of Pliny’s writings is given in a letter by his nephew, (Plin. Epp. JII. 5) as follows: 1. De iaculatione equestri (On

was re-elected for Derby at the general election of 1880, but gave

throwing the javelin from horse-back), “written while he was

up his seat to Sir W. Harcourt, in the belief that the latter, as home secretary, could advance the sailors’ interests more effectively than any private member, Later on Plimsoll was estranged

from the Liberal leaders by what he regarded as their breach of

faith in neglecting the question of shipping reform.

He became

president of the Sailors’ and Firemen’s Union, and raised a further agitation about the horrors of the cattle-ships. Later he visited the United States with the object, in which he did good service, of securing the adoption of a less bitter tone towards England in the historical textbooks used in American schools. He died at Folkestone on June 3, 1898.

PLINTH, in architecture, the lowest member of a classic base, also any rectangular block on which a

statue or vase is placed. In a pedestal or podium the plinth is the lowest member, and usually consists of a projecting, continuous block above which are the base

mouldings. (See ORDER.) PLINY THE ELDER (Garrus Prwtus SECUNDUS) (¢. AD. 23-79), Roman polymath, was born at Novum

Comum

(Como), in Transpadane Gaul, on which ground he claims Catullus, a native of Verona in the same region, as a fellow countryman (N.H. praef. 1., Catullum conterraneum meum).

The date of his birth is fixed as a.D. 23 or 24 (Plin. Epp. III. 5,7). He

must have come to Rome at an early age (N.H. XXXVII, 81).

serving as commander

of a cavalry regiment with equal ability

and care.” 2. De vita Pomponi Secundi duo (Life of Pomponius Secundus, in 2 books), “the discharge, as it were, of a debt due to the memory of a friend whọ had entertained a singular affection for him.” This Pomponius, who is described by Tacitus (Ann. V. 8) asa man “of refined character and conspicuous ability” was a tragic poet whọ had also a military career of some distinction, cf. Plin, N.H. XIV. 56. 3. Bellorum Germaniae viginti (German Wars, in 20 books), “in which he brought together all the wars waged between us and Germany. He began the work while he was serving in Germany, being admonished by a dream. The ghost of Drusus Nero (stepson of Augustus who died in Germany in 9 B.C.) who, having carried his conquest of Germany to the widest extent, died there, stood by him as he slept and commended to him his memory and entreated him to vindicate him from the injustice of oblivion.” This work is cited by Tacitus, Ann. I. 69; Sueton., Calig. 8 and Vita Plinii, and was probably used by Tacitus in bis Germania. 4, Studiosi tres (The Student, in 3 books) “in which he instructs and perfects the orator from the cradle up”? (cf. Aul, Gell. IX. 16. Plinius Secundus . . . libros religuit quos studiosorum inscripsit, Quintil JII. 1.27). 5. Dubii sermonis octo (Dubious Language, in 8 books) “written in the last years of the reign of Nero when slavery had rendered dangerous every study of a free and elevated character,” cf. Plin. N.H. praef. 22. Fragments of the treatise were edited by Beck,

Leipzig 1894. 6. A fine Aufidi Bassi triginta unus (Continuation of the History of Aufidius Bassus, in 31 books). The History

He practised for some time as an advocate (Plin. Epp. MI. 5, 7, aliquamdiu causas actitasse). He saw military service in various

of Bassus seems to have ended with the reign of Claudius (cf. Quintil X. r. 103, Tac. Dial 23, Seneca Epp. 30), and Pliny conparts of the world, Germany, Spain, Gaul. Under Vespasian, with tinued the story down to his own times. Cf. N.H. praef. 20. whom he was on the most intimate terms (Plin. Epp. IMI., 5, 9), 7. Historiae Naturalis 37 (Natural History in 37 books), This he served as procurator in Gallia Narbonensis (A.D. 70) and His- work alone is extant (for fragments of Pliny’s lost works cf. pania Tarraconensis (A.D. 73), At some time—the date is not Historicorum Romanorum Reliquiae, coll. H. Peter, 2,109 ff.). known—he was in Africa (N.H. VII. 36. “I myself saw in Pliny, the Younger, has given a description of the uncle’s studiAfrica,” etc., cf, XVII., 41, XXV. 123). Finally Vespasian ap- ous habits. He would call upon the Emperor Vespasian before pointed him praefect of the Roman fleet at Misenum, in Cam- daybreak and then after performing his official duties, return pania, which Augustus had made one of the principal Roman home and devote what time remained to study. After a light naval stations (Sueton. Aug. 49). He was stationed at Misenum luncheon, if it were summer and he had leisure, he would lie when on Aug. 24, A.D. 79 there occurred the great eruption of in the sun while a book was read, annotated and extracts made: Vesuvius which overwhelmed Herculaneum and Pompeii and he never read a book without making extracts, holding that incidentally cost Pliny his life. The circumstances are vividly no book was so bad as not to contain something good. Next told in a letter of the younger Pliny to the historian Tacitus he had a cold bath, a snack, and a short siesta, after which, “as (Plin. Epp. VI. 16). Surveying the eruption from a ship, Pliny if it were another day,” he studied till dinner-time. During

took refuge with his friend Pompeianus

at Stabiae

(Castel-| dinner a book was read and notes made. He rose from the dinner

78

PLINY

THE

table in summer before night-fall, in winter within the first hour of night. Thus at Rome; but in vacations no time was exempt from siudy, save bath-time, nay, even then, he had something read to him or he dictated something, while he dressed. When traveliing he was accompanied by a shorthand writer armed with book and notebook and in winter provided with gloves. To procure time for study he generally drove even in Rome and his nephew tells how he was once reproved by him for wasting valuable time in walking. When he died he bequeathed to his nephew 160 volumes of annotated selections (electorum commentarios) “written on both sides and in the minutest hand,” for which, when he was procurator in Spain (A.D. 73) and when the number of volumes was rather less, he had declined an offer from Largius Licinus of 400,000 sesterces. The Natural History, which was dedicated to Titus, son of Vespasian and his successor as emperor, and of which the first ten books were probably published in A.D. 77, is, as we have seen, in 37 books. Bk. I. has a general preface and contains a table of contents of the other books, to each being appended alist of the authors consulted, the order of enumeration corresponding to the order in which they are utilised. These lists contain the names of 146 Latin and 327 foreign authors. Bk. II. is devoted to a mathematico-physical description of the world and deals with the heavenly bodies—sun, moon, planets, fixed stars; various meteorological phenomena; the succession of the seasons, the earth’s shape and surface phenomena; seas, rivers, springs, and the like. The subject matter of this book affords Pliny an opportunity, of which he readily avails himself, to expound his own philosophic creed, which is a modified Stoicism. His view of nature is pantheistic (N.H. II. 1). Bks. III—VI. are devoted to geography and ethnography. This is unscientific and uncritical but extremely valuable from the incidental facts which it. presents. There is an interesting mention of a map of Armenia (N.H. VI. 40). Books VII-XI. are occupied with zoology and are the most generally interesting section. The seventh book deals with man and is occupied less with the normal than with the marvellous and portentous, which the scientific creed of the author and his belief in the infinite power of ingeniosa natura enabled him to accept or at least not forthwith to reject. Thus we have tales such as would have charmed the ear of Desdemona—of men whose feet were turned the wrong way, of tbe Mouthless Men

(Astomi) who subsisted upon the mere fragrance of flower and fruit, of the Umbrella-foots (Sciapodae) who used their extensive feet by way of parasol to protect them from the sun; monstrous births; precocity or exceptional development of physical strength or speed, of sight or hearing, of mental powers; of men who were unconscionably long of dying. Incidently (c. 55) he declares his disbelief in immortality. The eighth book treats of terrestrial animals other than man. Here again, amid much that is interesting in detail, there is an unfortunate absence of scientific arrangement and an excessive proneness to accept the marvellous of which he was so unconscious that he expresses

surprise at the credulity of the Greeks (N.H. VIII. c. 22 mirum est quo procedat Graeca credulitas). Hence side by side with

YOUNGER is one of the most interesting in this section. Books XKX.-XXVII. treat of medical botany or the medicines derived from plants,

Books XXVIIIL.—XXXII. deal with other than botanical materia medica, i.e., of medicines derived from the bodies of man and other land animals (XX XII.). The remaining books are occupied with what may be described roughly as mineralogy, że., with metals and metallic products, the precious metals, gold and silver, being discussed in bk. XXXIII., bronze and bronze statuary in bk. XXXIV., painting in bk. XXXV., stone as used in building and sculpture in bk. XXXVI., gems and precious stones in bk. XXXVII. The style of the Natural History gives an impression at once of affectation and of slovenliness which may in some degree be attributable to the condition of the text. On the Natural History was based the Collectanea rerum memorabilium of Julius Colinus

(3rd cent. A.D.) and on Bks. XX.-XXXII. a compilation of the 4th century.

the Medicina Plini,

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Editio princeps, Venice 1469. Editions (Paris, 1685) ; Franz (Leipzig, 1778—1791) ; Sillig with Index by O. Schneider (Gotha, 1853-35); von Jan (Leipzig, 1854-1865) ; Detlefson (Berlin, 1866-73) ; Mayhoff (Leipzig, 1906-08). Eng. trans. Philemon Holland (London, 1601); French, Littre (1855), German, Grosse

(1781-88).

The Elder

Pliny’s Chapters on the History of Art, trans. by Jex Blake, comment. by Sellers (London, 1896). On Pliny’s authorities Munzer, Beitrage

sur Quellenkritik (Berlin, 1897); on his Cosmology, Friese (Breslau, 1862); his Botany, Sprengel (Marburg, 1890); his Mineralogy, Nies (Mainz, 1884); his History of Art, Brunn (Munich, 1875) ; Munzer

Hermes 30 (1895); Kalkmann

PLINY

THE

(Berlin, 1898).

YOUNGER

(Garus

(A. W. Ma.)

Piinrus

Casciivs

SecuNDUS) (A.D. 61 or 62—-c. 113), Latin prose author, was born at Novum Comum (Como) in Cisalpine Gaul. The second son of L. Caecilius Cilo and Plinia, sister of the elder Pliny, he bore the name P. Caecilius Secundus until the death of his uncle (A.D. 79), who by his will made him his adopted son, when he assumed the name C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus. He was then in his 18th year (Epp. VI. 20. 5). Educated in rhetoric under Quintilian

(Epp. II. 14. 9, VI. 6. 3), he made his debut as an advocate at the age of 18 (Epp. V. 8. 8). Pliny was fortunate in having as guardian—doubtless under his father’s will (Epp. II. r. 8)—L. Verginius Rufus (A.D. 14-97), who had three times declined to become emperor (in Nero’s lifetime, Dio 63. 25, after Nero’s death, Plut. Galb. 10. Dio 64. 4, after the death of Otho, Plut. Oth. 18). He thus commenced his public career under the most favourable auspices. He became a quaestor in 89 and in gr a tribune of the plebs, withdrawing during his year of office from practice at the bar (Epb. i. 23, vii. 16

2, Paneg. 95). In 93 he became praetor (Epp. III. 11. 2; VIL II. 4; 16. 2, Tac. Agric. 6, 45; Juv. x. 36) and during his year of office was one of the counsel for the impeachment of Baebius Massa, procurator of Hispania Baetica (Epp. ITI. 4, VI. 29, VII. 33). In 94 or 95 he was appointed praefectus aerarii militaris. Under Nerva in 98 he became praefectus aerarii Saturni (i.e., commissioner of the public treasury in the temple of Saturn). In September 100 he became consul, holding office for two months. His oration of thanks to Trajan for his nomination (£9. ITI. 13. 1; 18. 1) is what is called in the mss. Panegyricus Traiano dictus. After acting as counsel for the defence of two ex-governors of

sound science, mostly taken from Aristotle and, so far as concerns Africa, from Iuba, we have a host of imaginary animals— Bithynia—Iulius Bassus and Varenus Rufus—he was himself winged horses, unicorns, and the like monstrosities. Book IX. appointed by Trajan, circ. Ir1 A.D., governor of that province. deals with aquatic animals and scientifically is the soundest of Whether he died in that office is not known, but the probable date all the zoological books, which is no doubt due to the fact that of his death is 113, since in the Comum inscription Trajan is his information is mainly derived from the History of Animals mentioned without the titles, conferred in 114, of Optimus and of Aristotle, who treats of aquatic animals with unusual fullness. Parthicus. The inscription referred to was inscribed on a marble The marvellous in this book is chiefly represented by his belief slab in the wall of the baths (thermae) presented by Pliny to in Nereids and Tritons and the usual stories of the human sym- Comum and commemorated that and other benefactions, includpathies of the dolphin. The tenth book treats of birds, com- ing a library. The stone was removed to Milan and broken into mencing, according to Pliny’s practice of beginning with the six pieces. Four of these were built into a tomb in the church of St. largest, with the ostrich. Such classifications as he makes of Ambrose, and from the only one of these now known Mommsen, birds is of an empirical kind and based on very superficial with the aid of other records, restored the inscription. The extant works of Pliny are the Panegyric on Trajan already observations. The first part of the eleventh book is occupied with insects—the bee being treated with some fullness—and the referred to (cf. Epp. III. 18), which is of some historical imlatter part with what may be called comparative anatomy. portance, the Letters in nine books, and a tenth book comprising Books XII.~XIX. deal, generally speaking, with botany, includ- his Correspondence with Trajan. Mommsen (Zur Lebensgesing forestry and agriculture, the subject of Book XVIII., which chichte des jüngeren Plinius, in Hermes 3, 1868), suggests as

PLINY

THE

YOUNGER |

dates: Bk. I., a.D. 97; II., early in 100; IIL., ror or 102; IV., early in 105; V., 106; VI., 106 or 107; VIL, 107; VIIL, 109; IX,

perhaps at same time as VIII.; and Correspondence with Trajan, 111-113.

Merrill has modified Mommsen’s

t

theory by the sug-

The interest attaching to letters selected and edited for publication, like those of Pliny, is wholly different from that of such a correspondence

as the letters of Cicero.

There is in Pliny always a suggestion of pose, of self-consciousness and self-complacency. But the Letters are admirable examples of polished and pointed Latinity, while the range of subject

and the quality of the persons to whom some of them are addressed render them of singular interest and attraction.

As an

example of his manner may be taken the letter (I. 21) which he writes on hearing of the death of the poet Martial, who had some time before retired from Rome to his native Bilbilis: “I hear that Valerius Martialis has gone, and I am sorry. He was a man able, acute, and keen: one in whose writing there was wit and pungency, yet not less candour. When he was leaving Rome I provided his travelling expenses, a tribute to friendship, a tribute also to the lines which he wrote about me. It was an old custom to reward with honours or money those who had written the

praises of individuals or of cities: in our times, like other fair and excellent things, this also among the first has become obsolete:

for since we ceased to do things worthy of praise, praise itself

Christians I have followed this procedure. I asked themselves whether they were Christians. If they admitted it, I put the question a second time and a third, with threats of punishment.

If they persisted in their confession, I ordered them to be led to execution: for I had no doubt that whatever the nature of that which they confessed, in any case their pertinacity and inflexible obstinacy deserved to be punished. There were others of a similar delusion whom, as they were Roman citizens, I noted for remission to Rome. Presently the mere handling of the matter produced the usual result of spreading the crime, and more varieties occurred. There was published an anonymous pamphlet containing many names. Those who denied that they were Christians or ever had been, when, after me, they invoked the gods and worshipped with incense and wine your statue which I had ordered to be brought for that purpose along with the images of the gods, and, further, reviled Christ—things which it is said that no real Christian will do under any compulsion—I considered should be dismissed. Others who were named by the informer admitted that they were Christians and presently denied it, admitting indeed that they had been, but saying that they had ceased to be, some several years before, some even twenty. All these likewise did homage to your statue and to the images of the gods and reviled Christ. They

gestion that the Letters were published in groups: I-II. in 97 or g8, IIL—-VI. in 106, VIT—IX. in 108 or r09. frank and unguarded

79

affirmed moreover that the sum of their crime or error was that they had been wont to meet together on a fixed day before daybreak and to repeat among themselves in turn a hymn to Christ as to a god and to bind themselves by an oath (sacramentum), not for some wickedness but not to commit theft, not to commit robbery, not to commit adultery, not to break their word, not to deny a deposit when demanded; these things duly done, it had been their custom to disperse and to meet again to take food—of an ordinary and harmless kind. Even this they had ceased to do after my edict by which, in accordance with your instructions, I had forbidden the existence of societies (hetaeriae). For these reasons I deemed it all the more necessary to find out the truth by the examination—even with torture—of two maids who were called deaconesses (ministrae=écaxévor). I found nothing but a perverse and extravagant superstition. I have therefore adjourned the inquiry and have had recourse

e R A a aa e n

we account foolishness. You ask what are the lines for which I showed my gratitude? I would have referred you to the book itself [Martial, X., 19], were it not that I remember certain of them. He addresses the Muse, bids her seek my house on the Esquiline, approach it reverently: But beware nor in season unpropitious, Tipsy reveller, knock upon the door of Him who dedicates all his days to Pallas, While he cons for the hearing of the Hundred What posterity and the after ages May compare to the writings of Arpinum: Safer go when the lamps of eve are lighted: Thine the hour when the ruddy wine is flowing, On locks perfume-bedewed the roses glowing— Then stern Catos themselves might read my verses.

Did not he who wrote thus of me deserve that I should both speed him then, as I did, in friendliest fashion, and mourn him now, which I do, as a dear friend departed? For he gave me the best that he had to give and would have given me more had be been able. Yet what greater gift can be given to any man than glory and praise and immortality? But his writings will not be immortal? Perhaps not: but he wrote them as if they would be.” Other letters of special interest are VI. 16, one of several addressed to the historian Tacitus which gives a vivid account of the death of the elder Pliny (g.v. for citations from the letter) through the eruption of Vesuvius; VI. 20, also to Tacitus, narrating the experiences of Pliny and his mother; those (I. 18, III. 8, V. ro, IX. 34) written to Suetonius, the biographer of the twelve Caesars; II. 17 which gives a description of Pliny’s Laurentine villa; VII. 27 which recounts a couple of ghost stories. The Correspondence with Trajan which consists, apart from the first 15 letters, wholly of letters written during Pliny’s governorship of Bithynia, contains much that is of value regarding provincial administration under the empire. But the interest of the modern reader centres chiefly in the two letters (96 and 97) relating to the Christians. In the first Pliny writes to the emperor: Sire, It is my custom to refer to you all matters about which I am doubtful: for who is better able to direct my hesitation or instruct my ignorance? At trials of Christians I have never been present and I am therefore ignorant of the usual practice in regard to the matter and the limits of punishment or inquiry. I have had also no little difficulty as to whether some distinction of age should be made, or if persons of the most tender age stand on the same footing as the more adult; whether the penitent is to be pardoned or if a person who has once been a Christian shall have no benefit of ceasing to be one. Whether the mere name of Christian, apart from crime, is punishable, or only crime coupled with the name. Meanwhile in the case of those reported to me as

to consulting you. For the matter seemed to me one deserving a consultation, especially in view of the number of those imperilled. For many persons of every age, of every rank, of both sexes even, are daily involved and will be, since not in the cities only, but in villages and country districts as well, has spread the contagion of that superstition—which it seems possible to check and correct. At any rate it is certain that temples which were already almost deserted have begun to be frequented; the customary religious rites, long intermitted, are being restored; and fodder for sacrificial victims—for which hitherto it was rare to find a purchaser —now finds a market. Whence it is easy to infer what a mass of men might be reformed, if penitence were recognized.

The reply of the emperor briefly approves of the procedure adopted by Pliny: No formula capable of universal application can be laid down. The Christians are not to be sought out; if reported and convicted, they are to be punished, with this reservation that any person who denies that he is a Christian and confirms his testimony by overt act, that is, by worshipping our gods, however suspect he may have been in the past, shall obtain pardon by penitence. Anonymous publications ought to have no place in a criminal charge. It is a thing of the worst example and unworthy of our age (et pessimi exempli nec nostri saeculi est).

The full discussion of the questions raised by the correspondence on the matter of the Christians belongs to the province of Church history, but no one can fail to be interested in the account which Pliny gives of the practice of the early Christians: the meeting on a fixed day before day-break (if the “fixed day” means Sunday, the early hour points to a desire for secrecy perhaps rather than to the rest of the day being occupied with other avocations); the singing or reciting of a hymn or psalm of an antiphonal character (rf. O.T. Psalm lxxxvii. 7); the recital of the ten commandments; the love feast (ayamn) with its innocuous elements; the existence of women office-bearers or deaconesses. When a person selects for publication from his private letters,

or when he writes a private letter with an eye to its eventual publication, he is necessarily confronted by a dilemma. The selfrevelation, the candour of motive, the frankness of prejudice or predilection, which are not merely appropriate to the private letters but are its chief charm, are incompatible with the reserve which is proper to a public document, and while suppression and excision inevitably produce an air of unreality, unreserved publication is almost certain to expose the writer to a charge of priggish-

ness or self-conceit. Those who care to attack Pliny on this ground

PLIOCENE

80

will find a store of arrows ready-winged for their satire in his letters, even without mistranslating or misunderstanding his words (eg., “Maxime imitabilis’? used quite innocently of Tacitus in Vil. 20). It is a kinder and more pleasing occupation to recognize the amiability and culture of the character which the Letters everywhere reveal, and, what at least no competent judge will seek to controvert, the many admirable qualities—conciseness combined with lucidity, precision united with the picturesque— of the style in which they are written.

Tt need only be added that though Pliny on occasion courted the Muses (Epp. IV. 27, Ego interdum versibus ludo, cf. Mart. X. 19, Non Musis vacat aut suis vacaret) and wrote a Greek tragedy at the age of fourteen (Epp. VII. 4), the specimens of his verses which he quotes (Epp. VII. 4 and 9) do not suggest that his talent lay in that direction. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Editio princeps of Letters i-vii.; ix. (Venice, 1471), Schurener (Rome, 1474), Letters i~ix. Panegyricus, (Venice, 1485). The Correspondence of Trajan, Epp. 41-121, first published by Avantius (Verona, 1502), Epp. 1-40 by Aldus (Venice, 1508). Critical ed. of text, Keil (Leipzig, 1870). Ed. with comment. Gesner and Schaefer (1805), Gierig (1796-1806). Correspondence with Trajan, E.S. Hardy (1889). Selected letters, Westcott (1899), Merrill (1903). For Pliny and the Christians, cf. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire (1893), Hardy, Studies in Roman History (1906); E. T. Merrill, C. Plini Caecili Sec. Epist. Libri X (1922).

PLIOCENE

(A W. Ma.)

(Gr.r^eiov, more, and kavós, recent), in geol-

ogy, the name given by Sir Charles Lyell to the system of strata lying between the Miocene and the Pleistocene. The name refers to the increasing number of living species amongst the fossils of this, the highest division of the Tertiary. The Pliocene is now considered the upper of the two subdivisions of the Neogene or Newer Tertiary period. Conditions During the Pliocene—During this period the great land masses were approaching the configuration which they exhibit at the present day and the marine Pliocene deposits are limited to comparatively few areas. In Europe the marine regression which closed the Oligocene was succeeded by a new, but

feeble, marine transgression in the Pliocene, which was closed by a final regression before the opening of the Quaternary. Reference should be made to the article on Miocene for the extent of the seas at the opening of the period. The North sea of the Pliocene period covered parts of East Anglia, northern Belgium and Holland, and in the earliest part of the period is believed to have occupied the Thames valley. Bays from the Atlantic covered parts of south-western England and north-western France, and the valley of the Guadalquivir. From the western Mediterranean a bay extended up the Rhone valley as far as the present position of Lyons. Early in the period the sea covered considerable areas of Italy and Sicily, but these lands had assumed approximately their present form by the close of the period. The eastern Medi-

terranean remained cut off from the west, and the Black sea and Aralo-Caspian sea began to assume their present form. Generally, however, all over the world the majority of Pliocene formations are non-marine, and hence local in their distribution. In many areas the Alpine earth movements did not cease until the close of the period, and not only are the Pliocene deposits represented by vast accumulations of coarse sediment—such as the Siwalik series (Mio-Pliocene) of northern India and the Irrawaddian sands (Mio-Pliocene) of Burma—but these sediments have themselves been severely folded. The formation of some of the great rifts, such as those of East Africa, is attributed to the Pliocene period: volcanic outbursts of the central plateau of France, Etna and the Italian volcanoes, and the East Indian volcanoes probably commenced in this period. In North America marine Pliocene is found fringing the coasts of California and continental deposits are widespread. The oncoming of a glacial era is evidenced by the lowering of temperature during the period. In Britain the earlier Pliocene seems to have been warmer than at present, but the percentage of arctic or northern species amongst marine fossils increases as the period advanced.

Life of the Period.—Sir Charles Lyell defined the Pliocene

strata as those which contained from 36 to 95% of living marine mollusca. Although this rule is no longer strictly applicable, the

Pliocene marine organisms are very like their living representa-

tives, and there is often practically no specific difference. Thus most of the existing genera of mollusca have Pliocene representatives. It is notable, too, that there is often a closer resemblance

between Pliocene faunas and the faunas existing in the neighbouring seas or rivers than there is between Pliocene faunas in

widely separated regions. The mammals of the British Pliocene include Machaerodus (the sabre-toothed tiger), hyenas, dogs, fox, wolf,’ glutton, marten, bears (Ursus arvernensis, the grizzly bear and the cave bear), seals, whales, dolphins, bisons, musk ox, gazelle, the red deer and many others now extinct, the roebuck, pigs and wild boar, hippopotamus, hipparion and horse (Equus caballus and E. stenonis), several species of rhinoceros, tapir, hyrax, elephants

(Elephas

meridionalis,

and E. antiquus),

several mastodons,

squirrel, beaver, hare, mice, voles, etc. The mastodon disappeared from Europe before the close of the period, but lived longer in America. Although no generally accepted direct ancestor of man sufficiently advanced to be called human has yet been found in the Pliocene, there are several manlike forms which represent offshoots from the main human tree. Amongst these the most famous are Pithecanthropus erectus, found by E. Dubois in Java, and Eoanthropus dawsoni, found by C. Dawson at Piltdown in Sussex. Monkeys such as Macacus and Semnopithecus occur in the Pliocene of Europe as well as in the Upper Siwalik of India, During the Pliocene the mammals of North America were able to migrate into South America, and a few of the southern forms travelled northwards. Pliocene Stratigraphy.—The following stages have been distinguished in the Mediterranean Pliocene: ~ Marine Facies 2 Upper—Calabrian

Continental Facies Villafranchian Lower Pliocene

facies iTower o Plaisancian facies The Pontian, sometimes included as Lower Pliocene, has been considered under Miocene.

The Lower Pliocene of the Mediterranean basin differs from the Miocene in the disappearance of numerous species and the appearance of many new ones. One finds most of the molluscs now living in the Mediterranean as well as others now only found in the marine waters of the west African coasts. The Upper Pliocene of the Mediterranean basin has a fauna almost identical with that of the Mediterranean of to-day, but includes a few northern forms such as Cyprina islandica, now living in the cold seas of the north of Europe, and hence it is believed that the temperature of the Mediterranean sea in late Pliocene times was much lower than it is to-day. This marine type of Upper Pliocene, well developed in Italy, is known as Calabrian or Sicilian. More often the Upper Pliocene is represented by continental formations known as the Villafranchian (from Villafranca d’Asti in Piedmont). The clearest classification of the continental types of Pliocene is by means of the mammalian remains :— Upper Pliocene or Villafranchian—marked by appearance of true elephants (EZ. meridionalis), and true horses (E. stenonis), and true oxen (Bovus etruscus), and by the last mastodons (M. arvernensis). Another mammal is Rhinoceros etruscus. The mastodons are absent from the higher Villafranchian, which is sometimes, therefore, known as Saint-Prestian. Famous localities include Villafranca d’Asti, Val d’Arno and St. Prest near Chartres. Lower Pliocene—with Mastodon arvernensis, M. borsoni, Rhinoceros leptorhinus and large antelopes. Famous localities include Montpellier and Bresse. The Pliocene rocks of Britain now occupy principally a small area in Norfolk, Suffolk, and part of Essex. Small outlying

patches in Cornwall (St. Erth and St, Agnes) and elsewhere in the west of England supply evidence that the Pliocene sea was responsible for the planation of much of the present surface of the peninsula of Devon and Cornwall. Small patches of ferruginous sands and gravels on the North downs of Kent and Surrey,

on the chalk hills north of London and on the South downs of Sussex have also been shown to be of Pliocene age. In early Pliocene times a large bay of the North sea occupied what is now the

PLOCK—-PLOTINUS London basin; the shore lines of this bay have been traced, as well as the plane of marine denudation for which it is responsible. Later in the period the sea retreated and covered only parts of Fast Anglia whilst a great spread of fluvio-marine gravels was deposited in the London basin at an elevation of, roughly, 400 ft.

above present sea-level. Still later in the period the sea left even East Anglia, and the highest Pliocene there were probably laid down in a distributary of the Rhine-Thames system. The Pliocene of East Anglia has been classified as follows:—

9 Cromerian

Cromer forest bed series (freshwater and estuarine)

8 Weybournian 7 Chillesfordian 6 Icenian

Weybourne crag (marine) Chillesford clay and sand (estuarine) Norwich crag (marine and estuarine)

4 Newbourniany

Red crag (marine)

2 Gedgravian

Coralline crag (marine)

5 Butleyan

3 Waltonian

t Lenhamian or

Diestian

Lenham beds (marine)

The Pliocene deposits of Belgium and Holland are closely related to those of Britain but are much thicker and more extensive. The sea retreated northwards as it did in England. In Germany the retreat of the Oligocene sea left vast lakes in which swamp forests gave rise to lignites. In Brittany and Normandy there are patches of marine sands

comparable with those of Cornwall; in Central France no marine beds are found, but many interesting and in some cases highly fossiliferous deposits occur in volcanic rocks. In North America the marine Pliocene—marls, clays and limestones—are well developed in Florida and can be traced into the Carolinas and Virginia; they have been classed as the Lafayette group (with lignites), the Florida group, and the Calooshatchis stage. On the Pacific coast the marine beds have attained great thicknesses, notably in the Merced series of San Francisco. In the San Luis Obispo region the non-marine Paso Robles beds, said to be 1,000 ft. thick, belong to this period. Other local formations of marine origin in California are those of San Diego and Wild Cat. In the Rocky mountains are large lacustrine formations of considerable thickness, and certain conglomerates in Wyoming and Bishop mountain are assigned to this age.

SI

rich in petroleum, salt and lignite. Ploesti is the greatest centre of the Rumanian oil industry, and is a rapidly growing commercial and industrial town of much importance. There are cardboard factories, roperies, tanneries and oil mills. Ploesti possesses schools of commerce and of arts and crafts, several banks, and many synagogues and churches, including the Orthodox church of St. Mary, built in 1640 by Matthew Bassarab.

PLOMBIERES, a town of eastern France, in the department of Vosges, on a branch line of the Eastern railway, 17 m. S. of Epinal by road. Pop. (1926) 1,565. The town stands at a height of 1,410 ft. in the picturesque valley of the Augrogne. It is famous for its mineral springs, containing sodium sulphate and silicic acid, varying from 66° to 166° F. The waters have been used since Roman times.

PLOTINUS

(A. 204 or 20s—270) was a native of Egypt,

but it is not known from what race he sprang. As a young man he studied philosophy at Alexandria, and at last found a congenial teacher in Ammonius Saccas, under whom he worked till he was 39. Then he accompanied the expedition of the emperor Gordian against Persia, hoping to have an opportunity of studying the wisdom of the East. Gordian was assassinated in Mesopotamia and Plotinus escaped to Antioch with difficulty. In 244 he went to Rome, where he lived for the rest of his life. There he opened a school and gathered round him an enthusiastic band of disciples. For many years the instruction was purely oral, and Plotinus took but little pains to perpetuate his teachings. We owe the preservation of it mainly to his pupil Porphyry, who edited his scattered lectures and tried to reduce them to order. The philosopher died after a long illness at the age of 66. His biographer Porphyry described him as a man of saintly character and very attractive personality. In him philosophy and personal religion were closely connected; the apex of the dialectical pyramid was also the beatific vision in which the mystical life culminates. He made no enemies and was loved and reverenced by all who knew him. The later members of the school spoke of him as “the most divine Plotinus.”

The importance of Plotinus in the history of thought can hardly be exaggerated. Among the philosophers of mysticism he holds an undisputed pre-eminence, since no other writer unites in the same measure metaphysical genius with intimate personal BIBLIOGRAPHY.—For general references see under Eocene; also C. experience. On the theoretical side he draws mainly from Plato, Reid, “The Pliocene Deposits of Britain” (Mem. Geol. Surv., 1890); but on Plato as interpreted by a long series of scholars, and E. T. Newton, “The Vertebrates of the Pliocene Deposits of Britain” (Mem. Geol. Surv., 1891) ; C. Reid, Origin of the British Flora (1899) ; buttressed by Aristotle and (to a less extent) by the Stoa. The F. W. Harmer, “The Later Tertiary History of East Anglia” (Proc. rival schools of Greek philosophy were in fact beginning to Geol. Assoc., vol. xvii., 1902, p. 416) ; S. W. Wooldridge, “The Pliocene coalesce into a theocentric system, at once universal and indiHistory of the London Basin” (Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. eo fen vidual, of religious discipline. Plotinus gave an impetus to this fusion; for the victory of his philosophy was so rapid and overPLOCK or PLOTSK, a town of Poland in the province of whelming that it absorbed the other schools, and when NeoWarsaw, on the right bank of the Vistula, 67 m. by the Vistula platonism captured the Platonic Academy at Athens, the seat of W.N.W. of Warsaw. Pop. (1921), 25,800. It has a cathedral, the official Diadochus, it reigned almost without a rival until dating from the rath century, but restored in 1903, which con- Justinian closed the Athenian schools in 529. tains tombs of Polish dukes and of Kings Wladyslaw and Boleslaw Neoplatonism remained attached to the classical tradition, and (of the r1th and z2th centuries). There is considerable naviga- Porphyry wrote against Christianity. But even Augustine rection on the Vistula, grain, flour, wool and beetroot being ex- ognized that the differences between Platonists and Christians ported, while coal, petroleum, salt and fish are imported. were slight, and the Church gradually absorbed Neoplatonism PLOERMEL, a town of western France in the department of almost entire. The Christian Platonists of Alexandria led the Morbihan, 36 m. N.N.E. of Vannes by rail. Pop. (1926) 2,513. way; then came Augustine himself, the Cappadocian fathers, and Ploërmel (Plou Armel, people of Armel) owes its name to Armel, the Pseudo-Dionysius, a disciple of Proclus, whose writings, a hermit who lived in the district in the 6th century. The Renais- popularly ascribed to St. Paul’s Athenian convert, introduced sance church of St. Armel (16th century) is remarkable for the the whole scheme of Plotinian mysticism into the Church. It is delicate carving of the north facade and for fine stained glass. It no paradox to say with Eucken that the pagan Plotinus has left also possesses effigies of John II. and Jobn III., dukes of Brittany, a deeper mark upon Christian thought than any other single man. brought from their tomb in an ancient Carmelite monastery In reading the Enneads we can realize the truth of Troeltsch’s founded in 1273 and destroyed by the Protestants in 1592 and famous dictum, that the Catholic Church does not belong tq the again at the Revolution. The lower ecclesiastical seminary has a middle ages, but is rather the last creative effort of classical room in which the Estates of Brittany held several meetings. antiquity, which may be said to have died in giving birth to it. PLOESTI, the capital of the department of Prahova, Ru- Troeltsch adds that in a new synthesis of Neoplatonism and mania; at the southern entrance of a valley among the Carpa- Christianity lies ‘the only possible solution of the religious probthian foothills, through which flows the river Prahova; and at lem at the present day,” and “does not doubt that this synthesis the junction of railways to Buzau, Bucharest and the Transylvan- will once more be dominant in modern thought.” Such a judgian system. Pop. (1920) 76,400. As the name Ploesti (pluviena, ment, from the foremost thinker of his day in Germany, is rainy) implies, the climate is moist. The surrounding hills are enough to show that the philosophy of Plotinus, so far from

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being extinct, is still a factor in modern civilization. As Eunapius | off of everything that is alien to the purest nature of the soul, said, “the altars of Plotinus are still warm.” which cannot enter into the Holy of Holies while any trace of His Philosophy.—Whatever English equivalents we choose for earthliness still clings to it. Hence the constant reiteration of the Plotinian technical terms must be misleading. The “Matter” of such symbols as nakedness, nothingness and darkness. Plotinus Piotinus is immaterial, being the all-but nothing which remains in the well-known sentence with which the Enneads as arranged when we have deprived an object of contemplation of the form by Porphyry end, defines it as “‘a flight of the alone to the Alone.” and meaning which make it a possible object of contemplation. He gives us several eloquent descriptions of the mystical trance, “Soul” is often nearer “life,” the word usually translated “intelli- drawn evidently from intimate personal experience; but like gence” is much nearer to “Spirit”; “God” is not the deity of other mystics he knows that it is impossible to utter the ineffable, personal theism, and the Absolute is “beyond existence.” It is and repeats cautions like “The vision is for him who will see it”: mainly mistranslation of technical terms that has caused many “he who has seen it knows what I say.” to ascribe metaphysical dualism to Plotinus, for which there is It is part of the fundamental sanity of Plotinus that he always no ground whatever. There are no hard and fast dividing lines speaks of the vision of the One as an exceedingly rare experience, in this philosophy, but a graduated hierarchy of existence and It is the consummation of a life-long quest of the highest, to be value, in every grade of which the soul finds affinities. earned only by intense contemplation and unceasing self-disThe soul is a stranger among the things of sense, into which it cipline. He says nothing of supernatural favours granted for has “come down.” From the desire of Soul to create after the their encouragement to young aspirants. Nor are there any traces pattern of Spirit, “the whole world which we know arose and took of those attempts to force the pace which in many mystics proits shapes.” The universal soul is the creator and providence of duce the terrible reactions which are described as the dark night the visible world, which is in it, rather than the soul being in the of the soul. This sense of dereliction, which fills so large a place world. “There is nothing between soul and spirit except that in the records of the mysticism of the cloister, may have some spirit imparts and soul receives. But even the Matter of Spirit is connection with a deeper sense of guilt and sinfulness than the beautiful and of spiritual form.” “There is nothing Yonder that Neoplatonists ever felt; but it is partly the effect of nervous is not also Here.” Plotinus therefore blames the half-Christian overstrain and of severe mortification of the body, which PlatoGnostics, who despise the visible world and are blind to its nism has never encouraged. Plotinus, as we have seen, lived the beauties. Souls cannot be divided quantitatively; “all souls are active and sociable life of a professor among his pupils; his one.” In the spiritual world there is distinction without separa- habits were austerely simple, but neither he nor his disciples tion; individuality is preserved, but all spirits are transparent to tortured themselves like Heinrich Suso and many other Catholic each other. Even on earth there is a “faint sympathy” which saints. The combination of healthy asceticism with humanism connects all beings together, a pale reflection of the complete is the hall-mark of Platonists in all times. unity in plurality which prevails Yonder. ‘The character of the The ethical scheme of Plotinus falls, like everything else in soul depends on the sphere in which it voluntarily moves. If it his philosophy, under three heads—purification, enlightenment chooses to live among the shadows of the true, it forfeits its and unification. The “political virtues,” which include all the birthright, and is “lost,” so far as a divine being can be lost. conduct expected of a good citizen, are the preliminary but inThere is a higher soul which never consents to sin, and remains in dispensable prelude to the course. It was not to be expected that the eternal world. (Here the school was to differ. Later Neo- any writer in the 3rd century of our era should show much interest platonists asked, “If the will sins, how can the soul be im- in what we call social questions, which occupied the attention of peccable ?”’) Plato and Aristotle. The special task of philosophy in that disThe soul neither comes into existence nor perishes; “nothing tracted age was to isolate religion in its purity, detaching it from that possesses real being can ever perish.” But souls that have all that was local and temporal, and bringing to light its innerlived unrighteously will be punished by being reincarnated in most essence. To have done this is an achievement of permanent the bodies of lower animals; the soul will also be chastened by value, and we must not blame Plotinus for his apparent indifferits daemon or guardian angel. It is not quite clear whether every ence to the misfortunes which were threatening his country. But, soul must at last find deliverance from its chains. The world like all the ancients, he does not sufficiently emphasize our need Yonder is the heaven of Neoplatonism. It is the realm of spiritual of our fellow-men to develop the best in human nature. The existence, in which the ultimate and eternal values—Truth, Good- bravest of the Greeks could never renounce the hope of making ness and Beauty—are fully realized and- fully operative. It con- himself invulnerable. sists in the unity of Nous, Noésis and Noéta, in which the whole Neoplatonism culminates in Plotinus. Of his successors, Proclus nature of the Absolute is manifested. It is essentially a kingdom alone was a thinker of the first rank, and in Proclus the system is of values, but of values which are fully realized. It is eternal, intellectualized and scholasticized. The later history of this type not as existing through an infinite series of moments, but as of religious thought and practice is mainly within Christianity. belonging to the divine life, of which indestructibility is an As a philosophy, it was restated with acumen by Scotus, Erigena attribute. The world reflects in its everlastingness the eternity and Meister Eckhart; but many of the post-Kantians are deeply of its archetype. There is no change or progress Yonder, since indebted to Plotinus, and Troeltsch is probably right in thinking the perfect cannot receive augmentation; but there is unceasing that even in the future Christian philosophy must continue to be life and movement, which on the lower side is manifested in per- largely Plotinian. The Church carried off this Hymettian honey petual creativeness. The lower orders of being proceed from the to its hive just at the time when the intellectual formulation of higher in a constant stream, though the higher loses nothing in the victorious creed was taking its permanent shape. the process of creation. The lower is immanent in the higher, not (W. R. L) the higher in the lower. Nothing that takes place in time can BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The Enneads of Plotinus were first made known in the Latin translation of Marsilio Ficino (Florence, 1492) which was affect the essential nature of eternity. The duality in unity of the spiritual world points to an absolute reprinted at.Basle in 1580, with the Greek text of Petrus Perna. Later editions by Creuzer and Moser (“Didot” series, 1855), A. unity behind it. This unity, though the necessary culmination of Kirchhoff (1856), H. F. Miiller (1878-80), R. Volkmann (1883-84). the dialectic, is beyond knowledge and existence, and is revealed There is an English translation of selected portions by Thomas Taylor, to experience only in the mystical trance. The “soul become re-edited in Bohn’s Philosophical Library (1895, with introduction and

spirit” cannot rest even in this state of blessedness; it is impelled by its inner nature to aspire still further, “always attaining and always striving upward.” Plotinus is convinced that in the mystical state we have actually an experience of formless intuition. This is, it is needless to say, the testimony of all the mystics, of every age, country and creed. The mystical ascent seems to those who pass through it to be a progressive stripping

bibliography by G. R. S. Mead). Translation of the whole (except Ennead vi., not yet published (in 1928) by S. Mackenna. On Plotinus generally see article in Suidas; Eunapius, Vitae sophistarum; and above all the Vita Plotini by his pupil Porphyry. Among modern works, see the treatises on the school of Alexandria by J. F. Simon, i. (1845), and R. Vacherot (1846); A. Richter, Ueber Leben und Geistesentwicklung des Plotin (Halle, 1864-67); T. Whittaker, The Neoplatonists (1901); A. Drews. Plotin und der Untergang der antiken Weltanschauung (1907); E. Caird, Evolution of Theology in

PLOUGH—PLUM the Greek Philosophers

(1904), ii. 210-157; W. R. Inge, The Philo-

sophy of Plotinus (2 vols., 1918; 3rd ed. revised, 1928) ; F. Heinemann,

Plotin (1921). A detailed account of Plotinus’s philosophical system and an estimate of its importance will be found in the article Nro-

PLATONISM, the works above referred to, and the histories of philosophy. For his list of categories, see CATEGORIES; also Locos; MystIcIsM; MAGIC.

PLOUGH, PLOW: see CULTIVATING MACHINERY. PLOVER, the name given to an indefinite group of birds which, with the snipes and sandpipers, form the group Limicolae or “waders,” although the plovers themselves rarely enter water.

Perhaps the best entitled to the name are the golden plover (Cha-

radrius pluvialis) and the grey plover (Squatarola helvetica). The latter is the larger and lacks the hind toe; otherwise the two forms are very similar. The grey plover breeds in the far north of America, Asia, and Europe, migrating south in the winter, when it reaches the Cape, Australia, and Ceylon. The golden plover is more local but ranges from Iceland to Siberia, including the British Isles, as a breeding species. It also migrates south in winter. Both forms are exceedingly wary. In America occur two further golden plovers, breeding in the far north, where, in Alaska, their

83

published in Poggendorffs Annalen (1847), deals with the behaviour of crystals in a magnetic field. Then followed a long series of researches, mostly published in the same journal, on

the properties of magnetic and diamagnetic bodies, establishing results which are now part and parcel of our magnetic knowledge. This was followed by researches on the discharge tube; he investigated the deflection of the discharge by a magnet and the behaviour of the negative glow in a magnetic field. Pliicker, first by himself and afterwards in conjunction with Hittorf, made many important discoveries in the spectroscopy of gases. He anticipated Bunsen and Kirchhoff in announcing that the lines of the spectrum were characteristic of the chemical substance which emitted them, and in indicating the value of this discovery in chemical analysis. According to Hittorf he was the first who saw the three lines of the hydrogen spectrum, which a few months after his death were recognized in the spectrum of the

solar protuberances, and thus solved one of the mysteries of modern astronomy. Induced by his mathematical friends in England, Pliicker in 1865 returned to “line geometry.” His first memoir on the subject was published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London in 186s. Pliicker himself worked out the theory of complexes of the first and second order, introducing in his investigation of the latter the famous complex surfaces of which he caused those models to be constructed which are now so well known to the student of the

ranges are scarcely roo miles apart. But whereas the eastern form winters in Patagonia, which it reaches via Labrador, Newfoundland, and the Antilles, returning by way of Panama, the Pacific bird winters in the Low Archipelago (see Coward’s Migration of Birds). Plovers are gregarious but monogamous birds, partial to mud-flats and marshes and eating worms and small arthropods and higher mathematics. He left an uncompleted work on the submolluscs. The legs are long, the bill shorter than in most waders. ject which was so far advanced that his pupil and assistant Felix The ringed plovers include the shore-haunting British bird of Klein was able to complete and publish it. (See LINE GEOMETRY. ) that name; killdeer (g.v.); zick-zack (Hoplopterus spinosus), See R. F. A. Clebsch’s obituary notice (Abk. d. kön. Ges. d. Wiss. z. celebrated for its connection with the crocodile, from the mouth Göttingen, 1871, vol. xvi.), to which is appended an appreciation of of which it picks leeches and other parasites, besides, from its Plücker’s physical researches by Hittorf, and a list of Pliicker’s works by F. Klein. See also C. I. Gerhardt, Geschichte der Mathematik in wariness, acting as a sentinel to the reptile. The coursers, Cur- Deutschland, p. 282, and Pliicker’s life by A. Dronke (Bonn, 1871). sorius and allied genera, to which the last belongs, are mainly ‘PLUM, the English name both for certain kinds of tree and desert forms from Africa and India. Other allies of the plovers also generally for their fruit. The plum tree belongs to the genus are the stone curlews (see Curtew), lapwings (g.v.), oyster- Prunus, family Rosaceae. Cultivated plums are supposed to have catchers (g.v.), turnstones (g.v.), and avocets (g.v.). (For originated from one or other of the species P. domestica (wild “plovers’ eggs” see LAPWING.) plum) or P. insititia (bullace). The young shoots of P. domestica PLUCKER, JULIUS (1801-1868), German mathematician are glabrous, and the fruit oblong; in P. insititia the young shoots and physicist, was born at Elberfeld on June 16, 180r. After are pubescent, and the fruit more or less globose. A third species, studying at the universities of Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin he the common sloe or blackthorn, P. spinosa, has stout spines; its went in 1823 to Paris, where he came under the influence of the flowers expand before the leaves; and its fruit is very rough to great school of French geometers, whose founder, Gaspard the taste, in which particulars it differs from the two preceding. Monge, had only recently died. In 1825 he was received as These distinctions, however, are not maintained with much conPrivatdozent at Bonn, and after three years he was made pro- stancy. P. domestica is a native of Anatolia and the Caucasus, fessor extraordinary. He then held the following posts: pro- and is considered to be the only species naturalized in Europe. fessor of mathematics at Friedrich Wilhelm’s Gymnasium, Ber- P. insititia is wild in southern Europe, in Armenia, and along the lin (1833-34), professor of mathematics at Halle (1834-36), shores of the Caspian. In the Swiss lake-dwellings stones of the professor of mathematics (1836-47) and finally professor of P. insititia as well as of P. spinosa have been found, but not those physics at Bonn. He died on May 22, 1868. of P. domestica, Nevertheless, the Romans cultivated large numFrom his lectures at Bonn sprang his first great work, Analy- bers of plums. The cultivated forms are tisch-geometrische Entwickelungen (vol. i., 1828; vol. ii., 1831), some of the groups, such as the greengages, extremely numerous, the damsons and the in which he introduced the abridged notation which has since egg plums being very distinct, and sometimes reproducing themcharacterized modern analytical geometry. (See ANALYTIC selves from seed. The colour of the fruit varies from green to Grometry,) He applied this notation to the straight line, circle deep purple, the size from that of a small cherry to that of a hen’s and conic sections, and he used it in his theory of cubic curves. egg; the form is oblong acute or obtuse at both ends, or globular; Also he established the great principle of duality. Pliicker dis- the stones or kernels vary in like manner; and the flavour, season covered the six equations known as “Pliicker’s equations” con- of ripening and duration are all subject to variation. From its necting the numbers of singularities in algebraical curves. (See hardihood the plum is one of the most valuable fruit trees, as it is Curve.) Pliicker communicated his formulae in the first place to not particular as to soil, and the crop is not readily destroyed by Crelle’s Journal (1834), vol. xii., and gave a further extension and spring frosts. Prunes and French plums are merely plums dried complete account of his theory in his Theorie der algebraischen in the sun. Their preparation is carried on on a large scale in Curven (1839). In his System der analytischen Geometrie (1835) Yugoslavia, as well as in Spain, Portugal and southern France. _he introduced the use of linear functions in place of the ordinary Plums are propagated chiefly by budding on stocks of the co-ordinates; he also made the fullest use of the principles of mussel, Brussels, St. Julien and pear plums. The damson, winecollineation and reciprocity. He discussed curves of the third sour and other varieties, planted as standards, are generally inorder and gave a complete enumeration of them, including two creased by suckers. For planting against walls, trees which have hundred and nineteen species. In 1846 Pliicker published his been trained for two years in the nursery are preferred, but System der Geometrie des Raumes in neuer analytischer Behand- maiden trees can be very successfully introduced, and by liberal lungsweise, but this contains merely a more systematic and treatment may be speedily got to a fruiting state. Any good wellpolished rendering of his earlier results. drained loamy soil is suitable for plums, that of medium quality After his appointment as professor of physics at Bonn, Pliicker as to lightness being decidedly preferable. Walls with an east or began a series of researches in physics. His first physical memoir, west aspect are generally allowed to them. The horizontal mode

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PLUMBAGO— PLUMBING

of training and the fan or half-fan forms are commonly followed;

where there is sufficient height probably the fan system is the best. The shoots should be laid in nearly or quite at full length. The fruit is produced on small spurs on branches at least two years old, and the same spurs continue fruitful for several years. Standard plum trees should be planted 25 ft. apart each way, and dwarfs 15 or 20 feet. The latter are now largely grown for market purposes, being more easily supported when carrying heavy crops, fruiting earlier, and the fruit being gathered more easily from the dwarf bush than from standard trees.

Diseases.—The plum is sub-

ject to several diseases of fun-

gal origin. A widespread disease known as pocket-plums or bladder-plums is due to an ascomycetous fungus, Hxoascus prum, the mycelium of which lives parasitically in the tissues of the host plant, passes into the ovary of the flower and causes the characteristic malformation of the fruit which becomes a deformed, sometimes curved or flattened, wrinkled dry structure, with a hollow occupying the place of the stone. Plumleaf blister is caused by Polystigma rubrum, a pyrenomycetous fungus which forms thick fleshy reddish patches on the leaves. The reproductive spores are formed in embedded fleshshaped receptacles (perithecia) and scattered after the leaves have fallen. The spots are

of Eastern Europe and Western America, and do not endure such extremes of heat and cold, wet and dry, as are found in

America east of the Rocky Mountains. The temperate zone in North America, however, is a natural orchard of wild species of plums, scarcely any part of the United States lacking in one or more species of this fruit growing in the wild. At least ten of these wild species have been more or less domesticated with orchard representatives of several species commonly grown.

The plum is comparatively easy to suit in the matter of soils, and orchard exposure. The chief requisite for the genus in general seems to be a good drainage. Given this condition, some sort of plum can be grown in almost any soil in the United States not wholly prohibitive to plant growth. In western America several plums are commonly grown for the making of prunes. Any plum that can be cured, without removing the pit, into a firm, longkeeping product is a prune. The growth of the prune industry on

the Pacific coast is one of the most remarkable industrial develop-

ments of American agriculture. The first commercial orchard of prunes was planted in California about 1870. In 1920, the output per annum was valued by the producers at over $1,000,000. About 1,500 varieties of plums have been described in horticultural literature in America.

Of these perhaps 1,000 are of the

common European domestic type; perhaps too are damson plums; and 4oo sorts may be distributed among the Io or 12 species of wild native plums now under domestication. In addition to the European and native species, an Asiatic plum, Prunus salicina, has been introduced from Japan, of which there are probably 200 sorts, if hybrids with native species be included. The leading varieties of plums cultivated at the present time are in order of ripening:— Beauty, a splendid large, very early Japanese plum, yellow, juicy flesh; Abundance, a large, juicy, sweet, Japanese plum; Burbank, a

PLUM (PRUNUS DOMESTICA), SHOWING (A) LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH FLOWER, (B) TWIG WITH BLOSSOM, (C) FRUITS (DRUPES)

not often so numerous as to do much harm to the leaves, but where the disease is serious diseased leaves should be collected and burned. Sloes and bird-cherries should be removed from the neighbourhood of plum-trees, as the various disease-producing insects and fungi live also on these species. Of recent years the most troublesome disease has been that of silver leaf due to Stereum purpureum. The fungus, one of the Basidiomycetes (see Funci), enters through a wound and through the mycelium remains in the stem. The leaves become affected and turn a curious ashen colour, something of the appearance of lead. The valuable Victoria plum is particularly attacked. The disease is a notifiable one in Great Britain. (X.) Cultivation in the United States—In European countries, varieties of three, or at most four, species of plums are under cultivation, but in North America representatives of at least 12 quite distinct species are commonly cultivated, 2,000 forms of which have been named and described. It is hardly too much to say that of all drupe fruits plums furnish the greatest diversity. Species and varieties give a great range of colours, forms, kinds, sizes, flavours, aromas and textures. The plants are quite as diverse in America as the fruits; some plums are true trees with stout trunks and sturdy branches, while others are slender shrubs; some species have thin, delicate leaves; others, coarse, heavy foliage; in some the plums are large and attractive, in others, small and unattractive with a disagreeable odour.

productive, red, early Japanese plum, home or local markets; Formosa, Japanese plum recommended for productiveness and large fruits; Santa Rosa, new Japanese plum, tree and fruit characters surpass Abundance and Burbank; American Mirabelle, larger than the European Mirabelle, splendid for dessert and culinary purposes; Grand Duke, very large, dark purple, long oval in shape, low quality; Hall, good, dark purple, large, well flavoured, desirable for roadside stands or city markets; Stanley, prune shape, large, dark blue, freestone, excellent quality; Imperial Epineuse, purplish red, prune shape, excellent in quality; Washington, roundish oval, light yellow, good, home

use; Jefferson, golden yellow with delicate blush, good, home or fancy trade; Reine Claude, yellow, roundish oval, good in quality, late, desirable for canning; Italian Prune, purplish black, freestone, excellent quality for dessert or canning; French damson, the largest and best of the damsons, excellent for preserves; President, large, oval, dark

red-purple, nearly freestone, good, late.

(U. P. H.)

PLUMBAGO, a name frequently applied to graphite (g.v.). PLUMBING, properly working in lead (Lat. plumbum), now

a term embracing all work not only in lead, but also in tin, zinc,

copper and other metals, connected with the installation, fitting, repairing, soldering, etc., of pipes for water, gas, drainage, on cisterns, roofs and the like in any building.

Water Supply.—Where there is no public water supply, an

important part of plumbing is to bring water for domestic and other purposes from streams and wells, to buildings for distribution to various fittings and sanitary appliances. In the case of streams giving an abundant supply, the general appliance to use is the hydraulic ram. This works automatically by raising a portion of the water flowing through it to a high level cistern, from which fittings are supplied by gravitation. The ram is fitted in a frost proof house and provided with a supply or drive pipe, delivery and waste pipes. Excess water which forms the motive power may usually be conveyed through the waste pipe In geographical distribution in North America, wild and culti- to the stream at a lower level. Particular features in this work are vated plums cover almost the whole temperate zone, the several strength and permanent soundness, because of the shock and species and varieties being adapted to a great diversity of soils strain due to pulsation of the ram, while entry of air would have and climates. In Europe nearly all of the varieties of plums be- detrimental effect. Pipes used in this work are lead, iron or copper. long to the species Prunus domestica. This species does not hold Water is extracted from wells by pumps of different types. the same relative position in America that it does in Europe for Suction pumps deliver water at their own height, while lift pumps the reason that it does not possess in a high degree the power of deliver to greater heights than that at which they are placed. As adaptation to trans-Atlantic environment. The feature of environ- pumps are dependent for their working upon atmospheric presment most uncongenial to European plums in America is the sure, it is not wise to fx them more than 28 ft. above the water climate. The plums thrive best in an equable climate like that level in the well, consequently, in deep wells, they must be fixed

PLUMBING

85

actually in the well. Lead, iron or copper pipes are used for this | Special malleable iron fittings are used with wrought iron wastes work. Suction and delivery pipes should be at least half the | to maintain internal bore without recesses for lodgement. Both soil and waste pipes require adequate ventilation to prediameter of the pump barrel; airtightness is essential, and in the case of long pipes or high lifts adequate air vessels must be in- serve the water seals of traps. Sanitary Fittings.—All fittings such as baths, bidets, lavatories, serted to overcome the inertia of water and keep it in motion between the strokes of the pump. Again lead, iron or copper pipes slop sinks and water closets should be fixed on impervious floors. may be used, due regard being paid to the character of the water ‘The craze for open baths is disappearing. When covered, these fitments should be entirely enclosed so that there is no possibility and its action on metals. Where there is a public supply, a separate communication pipe of undesirable articles being placed underneath. The essential is laid to each building, the size being dependent upon the size of points of sanitary fittings are absence of corners where filth may the building and whether fire hydrants, etc., are fitted. This pipe collect, adequate water supply, quick discharge arrangements, should be, at least, 2 ft. 6 in. below ground as a protection from proper trapping and ventilation to preserve the water seals of frost, and a stop cock, with draw-off, should be placed in an traps. In large houses different types of sinks are used for various accessible position, immediately within the premises. Branches are often taken from the communication pipe for drinking water, purposes, such as the reception of slops, preparation of vegetables but its main purpose is to supply the house storage cisterns. Here and food, washing up, etc. Bath rooms en suite with bedrooms are becoming common, and the supply is controlled by a ball valve which automatically cuts wash basins with running water are frequently fixed in bedrooms. off the supply when the cistern is filled. House cisterns should be placed in clean, accessible positions, These often necessitate concealed piping systems, which work be fitted with a cover and overflow pipe and stand over a metal should only be entrusted to skilled plumbers who have proved their tray, also provided with an overflow pipe, to protect the structure ability as craftsmen and their knowledge of sanitary principles. Roof Work.-—-An outstanding feature of plumbing is lead work in case of fracture and leakage. Distribution pipes of lead, iron or copper are led from the cis- on roofs. Although lead is not so largely used for covering large tern to supply various fittings throughout the building; these should flat roof surfaces as formerly, it is in evidence upon practically all be protected from damage and frost and well fixed to prevent roofs in the form of gutters, flashings, etc., for making watertight joints between slated or tiled roofs and brick walls, chimneys, etc., sagging with consequent trouble from air-locks. The character of the water has an important bearing upon the in addition to covering dormer windows, stone cornices, domes, selection of metals for use in connection with water supply. Soft turrets and other ornamental features. The great malleability of waters, especially from moorland sources, often dissolve lead, lead and comparative ease with which skilled plumbers can boss it which should therefore not be used for the storage or conveyance into intricate shapes renders it invaluable for this purpose. For some years there has been a revival in the use of cast lead in these cases. These waters also cause excessive rusting with iron, with offence to the aesthetic senses, owing to discolouration, and rain-water pipes, heads, cornices, etc., because of its undoubted damage to linen when used for laundry purposes. Here copper superiority and lasting qualities. Milled sheet lead is more generally used for roof work, alhas manifest advantages. With hard waters, mineral salts are deposited, causing obstruc- though for the very best work, as on cathedrals, and the like, tion in vessels and pipes. Hardness may be removed by the cast sheet lead is still largely used. An entirely new feature of plumbing is the covering of steel introduction of water softening apparatus in the main supply pipe or by the physical action of “etherium” activators in cisterns. columns and constructional work with ornamental cast lead, both Rain water is conducted from roofs by gutters and pipes. In for preservation of the metal structure and to give artistic towns it is usually run to waste, while in country houses it is col- appearance. Hot Water.—The increasing number of baths and wash-basins lected in underground tanks, filtered, pumped and used for launhas added much work under the category of plumbing in the dry or carriage washing purposes. Fire hydrants are connected to cast or wrought iron pipes, in arrangement and fixing of domestic hot water apparatus. This which the water is under constant pressure, their disposition consists of the fixing of boilers and storage vessels with circulating being such that operators may have easy escape. Pipe sizes for pipes between the same, and adequate draw off pipes. Especial this work should be carefully calculated to ensure an adequate points to be considered are the sizing of pipes and vessels to ensure adequate heating of the water, while at the same time providing supply at all points. Drinking fountains are usually connected to the main water sufficient supplies; effective insulation to conserve heat; and gensupply, while unfiltered water may be used for ornamental eral arrangement of pipes to ensure the withdrawal of all heated water, upon the opening of taps, before cold water can find exit. fountains. Drains.—With ever increasing heavy traffic, drains are best One of the greatest faults in this direction is the possibility of constructed of heavy cast iron, jointed with metallic lead. The drawing cold water from taps while heated water is bottled up in use of this material is facilitated by the number of fittings of the apparatus. While gravity circulations are more general, varying angles now obtainable. In large buildings drains are often accelerating pumps are often installed to ensure adequate circufixed on walls or suspended from ceilings in basements, especially lation and supplies. where basement floors are below sewer levels. Such drains must Insulation consists of covering pipes and vessels with some be properly sealed at all openings and traps. This procedure porous material to provide a layer of stagnant air around them necessitates extra provision of ventilating pipes to protect the and so obviate the withdrawal of heat by conduction. water seals of traps and to remove gases. Access covers are Other Points.—Pipes for conveyance of gas to lighting points, cooking and warming stoves and water heating apparatus are made air-tight with greased felt washers. Soil pibes may be in lead or iron. Lead is preferable because of usually of wrought iron or steel with fittings of similar material its internal smoothness, adaptability, freedom from corrosion, and or malleable iron. Screwed joints being used, the threads are permanent soundness when jointed with wiped soldered joints, smeared with a lead and oil compound. These pipes must be especially when in concealed positions inside buildings. Lead well fixed to prevent damage. They are usually concealed. For beer engines, pumps and spirit pipes, block tin pipes are should not be used for the waste of slop sinks where hot water is used, joints being of the cupped variety known as blown joints. used. Cast iron pipes are used where strength is required. Waste pipes may be in lead, iron or copper. When lead is used The solder used contains bismuth to lower its melting point so for main waste pipes through which heated discharges pass it must that a surface alloy is formed at a temperature below the melting have expansion joints to obviate fracture, it must be well sup- point of the pipes. Pewter, an alloy of lead and tin, is used for

ported to prevent sagging. Wrought iron and copper pipes are largely supplanting lead for waste pipes because of their greater strength, whereby they maintain their alignment between fixings.

washing bowls, trays, etc. Plumbing work in connection with cold storage, etc., consists of bending and fixing wrought iron tubes and connections.

PLUM

86 Chemical

Plumbing

consists

CURCULIO—PLUMER

of the erection and jointing

of large chambers of heavy sheet or plate lead; the manufacture und fixing of large pipes for conveyance of acids and gases; covering of earthenware cocks; iron fans and lining vessels constructed of other metals with lead. In this work lead is used because of its great immunity from destruction by the action of acids; consequently all joints are made by lead burning or the fusing together of edges with the addition of extra lead to strengthen the seams and joints from a filling rod. Plumbing work on ships is similar in many respects to that ashore. Fresh water is carried on liners in tanks in the ship’s bottom, from which it is pumped to the upper decks for filtration, aeration, and storage for delivery by gravitation to various points about the ship. Waste water, soil, etc., from fittings above the water-line is carried in pipes to openings in the ship’s side immediately above the water-line, and there discharged into the sea through storm valves. Waste matter from decks and fittings

these tubes are joined by screwed and socketed joints. Owing te the great strength and excellent physical properties of this metal. it has been found that tubes of thin substance or light gauges are extraordinarily strong, although not of sufficient thickness to cut a thread into their walls. The comparatively recent introduction

of compression joints, whereby soundness is assured by simply compressing the ends of tubes in gun-metal joints, has rapidly brought these tubes into prominence for use in connection with hot and cold water supplies and other features of plumbing, thus facilitating installations de luxe at comparative costs. Welding operations in plumbing are usually carried out by use

of the oxy-acetylene flame (g.v.). (W. Sco.) PLUM CURCULIO, a North American curculionid beetle, or weevil (Conotrachelus nenuphar). This insect is confined to North America

east of the Rocky mountains.

It ranges as far

north as Manitoba and Quebec, and as far south as Victoria, Texas and northern Florida. In this territory it is a serious enemy below the water-line is carried to bilge tanks in the ship’s bottom, to stonefruits and also attacks the apple and other pomaceous from which such is pumped for delivery overboard. Wrought fruits. It is especially injurious to all varieties of plums, and to iron pipes are largely used on ships and the process of welding peaches and cherries. Its original food was probably the fruit branches to them, as well as flanges for connections by the oxy- of native Crataegus. The adult curculio is small (about 4 in. long), dark brown in acetylene flame, is largely followed. Plumbing work on ships is of a heavy character. Special fittings such as water closets ar- colour, with whitish markings on the thorax and the hinder part ranged so that they may be securely bolted to the decks, are used. of the wing-covers. It lays its eggs in holes next to a crescentMaterials.—The following is a short description of materials shaped cut made in the skin by the beetle’s beak. The function of the crescent-shaped cut is to kill the spot in the fruit containing used in plumbing with methods of jointing. Sheet lead may be either cast or milled. Cast sheet lead is the egg, so that the latter will not be crushed by the rapidly growlead poured over a prepared sand-bed and struck off to a required ing fruit. The larvae penetrate the flesh of the fruit, and a number thickness. With milled sheet lead, sheet copper, zinc and iron, the of them may occur in the same plum or peach. On reaching full metals are passed backwards and forwards between huge rollers growth, the larva leaves the fruit and enters the soil, forming a until they assume a required thickness, consequently these latter cell in which it transforms successively to the pupa and adult. It rests in the pupal stage for two or three weeks. The resulting are more dense. All sheet metals used for roof coverings are joined by rolls, beetles feed upon the fruit and foliage until the approach of cold laps, welts, etc., which, while providing fixings allow for move- weather, when they enter hibernating quarters in protected places ments of the metals under the influence of varying temperatures. such as under trash in the orchards or in near-by woods. In its Soldering, brazing and rigid fixings are not resorted to unless more northern range the insect has but one generation annually. In the far south some individuals develop a second generation. unavoidable. The plum curculio is a great enemy to orchards. It was estiFor internal work, lead is jointed by soldering with wiped joints. mated in 1912 that the annual loss through its work in the United Copper is brazed and iron is welded. Lead pipes are squirted from a machine under great pressure States was nearly $9,000,000. It has several natural enemies while the metal is in a plastic condition. These are joined by among the hymenopterous and dipterous parasites, and it is dewiped soldered joints, which process consists of pouring or stroyed by a few species of predatory insects. The fruit attacked splashing heated solder on to prepared ends, manipulating them by it often falls to the ground, and under such conditions poultry until the pipe is sufficiently heated to permit a surface alloy to destroy many of the pests. The only practical remedy for very many years was based upon form, and then the solder is wiped with a cloth. Lead burning consists of applying an intense flame, produced the habit of the adult of feigning death and dropping when by mixing coal-gas and oxygen, oxygen and acetylene or other alarmed. Curculio catchers were developed which caught the combinations of gases to prepared edges and fusing them together falling beetles when the trees were jarred. Only recently have successful spraying methods been discovered. The foliage of peach is with local heat; extra lead is added from a filling rod. Cast iron pipes are made by pouring molten metal into a particularly susceptible to burning by arsenical sprays, and therevertical mould with the socket end downwards, or into a hori- fore it was long before proper combinations were ascertained. zontal water-cooled mould, which revolves rapidly, thereby spin- The punctures in the fruit by the weevil form a resting place for ning the metal to shape with increased density. These pipes are the spores of the so-called brown-rot fungus which develop and jointed by filling the sockets with yarn and metallic lead tightly cause the fruit gradually to rot. The prevalence of this rot in curculio-infested orchards renders desirable a combination spray staved home with special tools. Wrought iron and steel pipes are made from strip metal bent to destroy both insects and fungous disease. The old Bordeaux to form a tube and welded by either butting or lapping the edges. mixture, a specific for fungous troubles, injures the susceptible Lap-welded tubes are the best. These pipes are usually made in foliage of the peach, and at present a self-boiled lime-sulphur three strengths, designated gas, water and steam, and are jointed wash is used, to which lead arsenate is added. The lime in the by threading the ends and screwing together with prepared fittings. mixture reduces the injurious effects of the arsenic on the Fittings used with wrought iron and steel tubes are either made leaves. Spraying is much complicated by the effect of meteorofrom strip metal bent to shape and welded, or of malleable iron, logical conditions. In moist weather, burning of the leaves occurs which would not happen in dry weather. The spray schedule, which is cast iron rendered less brittle by extended annealing. (L. O. H.) Iron pipes are protected from corrosion by galvanizing, which therefore, must be varied according to the season. consists of coating the metal with zinc; painting; subjecting them PLUMER, HERBERT CHARLES ONSLOW PLU), British to the action of superheated steam which forms a protective MER, ist Baron, of Messines, cr. 1919 (1857— coating of magnetic oxide on the surface or by dipping them while field-marshal, was born on March 13, 1857, and entered the army hot into a bath containing a mixture of coal tar, pitch, resin and in 1876. He served on the Red Sea littoral in 1884, and in 1896 linseed oil, the latter process being known as Dr. Angus Smith’s commanded a mounted regiment in the Matabele Campaign. Bemethod. fore the ‘outbreak of the South African War (1899) he raised the Copper tubes are made by drawing extrusions from cast billets Rhodesian field force, which he commanded during the early over mandrils, with huge machinery. When of stout substance, months of the contest. He was promoted major-general on the

PLUMPTRE— PLURALISM

87

conclusion of hostilities. i universally recognized. His speeches raised him immediately to In May 1915 Sir Herbert Plumer was selected to lead the II. the front rank of his party; and when Grattan re-entered the Army on the Western Front. His army was not very actively moribund senate he took his seat next to Plunket, thus significantly engaged during the remainder of 1915, nor yet in 1916, but on recognizing the place the latter had attained. After the union Plunket returned to the practice of his proJune 7, 1917, Plumer gained a signal victory at Messines. (See Ypres, BATTLES OF.) In November he took charge of the British fession, and became at once a leader of the equity bar. In 1803 troops sent to the basin of the Po after the Italian defeat at he was selected as one of the Crown lawyers to prosecute Emmet. Caporetto, and in the following March was recalled to Flanders to For his speech on this occasion he was exposed to much obloquy, resume the leadership of the II. Army just before the great Ger- and more especially to the abuse of Cobbett, against whom he man offensive started. In the general advance in August, his brought a successful action for damages. In 1803, in Pitt’s second army took part in the operations for the recovery of Belgian administration, he became solicitor-general, and in 1805 attorneyFlanders. At the peace he received a peerage, promotion to field- general for Ireland; and he continued in office when Lord Grenmarshal and a grant of £30,000. He subsequently commanded the ville came into power in 1806. Plunket held a seat in the Imperial British forces on the Rhine for a short time. From 1919 to 1925 parliament during this period, and there made several able speeches he was governor of Malta, and from 1925 to 1928 high com- in favour of Catholic emancipation, and of continuing the war with France; but when the Grenville cabinet was dissolved he missioner for Palestine. PLUMPTRE, EDWARD HAYES (1821-1891), English returned once more to professional life. In 1812 he re-entered parliament as member for Trinity college, divine and scholar, was born in London on Aug. 6, 1821. A scholar of University college, Oxford, and a fellow of Brasenose, he was and identified himself with the Grenville or anti-Gallican Whigs. ordained in 1847, and became professor of pastoral theology at He was soon acknowledged as one of the first orators, if not the King’s college, London. In 1863 he was given a prebendal stall first, of the House of Commons. In 1822 Plunket was once more at St. Paul’s, and from 1869 to 1874 he was a member of the com- attorney-general for Ireland, with Lord Wellesley as lord-lieutenmittee appointed by Convocation to revise the authorized version ant. One of his first official acts was to prosecute for the “bottle of the Old Testament. He was Boyle lecturer in 1866-67 (“Christ riot,” an attempt on his part to put down the Orange faction in and Christendom’’), and Grinfield lecturer on the Septuagint at Ireland. He strenuously opposed the Catholic Association, which Oxford 1872-74. After successively holding the livings of Pluckley about this time, under the guidance of O’Connell, began its agiand Brickley in Kent, he was installed in 1881 as dean of Wells. tation. In 1825 he made a powerful speech against it; thus the curious spectacle was seen of the ablest champion of an oppressed He died on Feb. 1, 1891. church doing all in his power to check its efforts to emancipate Plumptre translated the plays of Sophocles (1865) and Aeschylus (1868), and the Divina commedia of Dante (1886). In verse his main itself. In 1827 Plunket was made master of the rolls in England; achievements were Lazarus (1864), and Master and Scholar (1866). but, owing to the professional jealousy of the bar, who regarded Among his many theological works may be mentioned An Exposition an Irishman as an intruder, he resigned in a few days. Soon uf the Epistles to the Seven Churches of Asia (1877), The Spirits in Prison (1884), “The Book of Proverbs” (which he annotated in the afterwards he became chief justice of the common pleas in Ireland, and was then created a peer of the United Kingdom. In Speaker’s Commentary), the “Synoptic Gospels, Acts, and II. Corinthians,” in Bishop Ellicott’s New Testament Commentary, and Life of 1830 he was appointed lord chancellor of Ireland, and held the Bishop Ken (1888). office, with an interval of a few months only, until 1841, when he PLUNKET, OLIVER (1629-1681), Irish Roman Catholic finally retired from public life. He died on Jan. 4, 1854, and was divine, was born at Loughcrew, Co. Meath. He was appointed succeeded by his eldest son, Thomas Spen Plunket (1792-1866), archbishop of Armagh and primate of Ireland in July 1669 and in bishop of Tuam, as 2nd baron. See the Life of the First Lord November he was consecrated at Ghent, reaching Ireland in Plunket (1869), by his grandson, David Robert Plunket. PLUNKETT, SIR HORACE (CURZON) (1854- _ _—s=*?= March 1670. The measures following on the Test Act bore hardly upon him, and in Dec. 1678 he was imprisoned in Dublin K.C.V.O. (1903), son of the 13th Baron Dunsany, was born on Castle for six weeks. Accused of a share in the Irish branch of Oct. 24, 1854, and educated at Eton and Oxford. After engaging the “Popish Plot,” he was brought to London, and in June 1681 in cattle ranching for ten years, his interest in agriculture led arraigned in the King’s Bench, charged with conspiring to bring him to devote himself to the promotion of agricultural coa French army to Carlingford. He made a good defence, but on operation, and in 1894 he founded the Irish Agricultural Organizathe most absurd of evidence the jury convicted him of treason, and tion Society. As a member of parliament from 1892 to 1900, he strongly advocated the cause of agriculture, and in 1899 he on July r, he was hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn. was appointed vice-president of the department of agriculture and PLUNKET, WILLIAM CONYNGHAM PLUNKET, IST BARON (1764—1854), Irish lawyer, orator and statesman, was technical instruction for Ireland. Two years later he became born in the county of Fermanagh in July 1764, the son of a commissioner of the Congested Districts Board in Ireland. He Presbyterian minister, and studied at Trinity college, Dublin. was elected F.R.S. in 1902, and in 1919 endowed a trust, known Having entered Lincoln’s Inn in 1784, Plunket was called to by his name, for the development of agriculture. He presided over the Irish bar in 1787. He gradually obtained a considerable prac- the Irish Convention of 1917~18, and was a Senator (1922—23) of the Irish Free State. tice in equity and was made a king’s counsel in 1797. His works include, Ireland in the New Century (1904); The In 1798 he entered the Irish parliament as member for Charlemont. He was an anti-Jacobin Whig of the school of Burke, and Rural Life Problem of U.S. (1910); Some Tendencies of Modern a fervent Irish patriot. But he was a sincere admirer of the con- Medicine (1913); and The Better Way (1914). PLURALISM. ‘The term describes certain schools of philstitutional government of England as established in 1688; he even justified the ascendancy it had given to the Established Church, osophical thought. It is, indeed, distinctive of one of the two although he thought that the time had arrived for extending groups into which metaphysical theories may be divided by what toleration to Roman Catholics and dissenters. To transfer it to is perhaps the profoundest of the many differences apparent beIreland as thus modified, and under an independent legislature, tween the various directions taken by the speculations of eminent was the only reform he sought for his country; he opposed the philosophers. In short, every philosophical system is either singularistic or pluralistic; that is, it takes for its starting point, union because he thought in incompatible with this object. When Plunket entered the Irish parliament, the Irish Whig and for the guiding principle which directs its development. the party was almost extinct, and Pitt was feeling his way to accomp- idea of the essential unity of reality; or, on the other hand, it lish the union. In this he was seconded ably by Lord Castle- regards as fundamental the characters of diversity and plurality reagh, by the panic caused by a wild insurrection, and by the which are everywhere in evidence in the realms open to observasecession of Grattan from politics. When, however, the measure ! tion. Nevertheless, the term “pluralism” is by no means definite m was brought forward, among the ablest and fiercest of its adversaries was Plunket, whose powers as a great orator were now meaning. On the contrary it is ambiguous and capable philosoph-

83

PLURALISM

ically of a number or different meanings, each of which, however, refers to some peculiarly radical distinction in philosophic thought. But, as so frequently happens in such cases, the word has tended more and more to become restricted in meaning to one particular type of theory. This is perhaps an example of the survival of the fittest, for it is probable that what is nowadays generally meant by “pluralism” is capable of giving a better account of itself and of putting wp a stronger defence than any of the other kinds of theory which may be included within the scope of the term as literally interpreted. QUALITATIVE PLURALISM In the first place the term “pluralism” may have a qualitative meaning. One of the oldest problems of philosophy is that which concerns itself with the question whether the ultimate fundamental stuff, which is the ground of reality, is a single substance or includes a number of substances with differing attributes. Theories founded on the supposition that there are many ultimate substances, or at any rate more than one, are “pluralistic” in the qualitative sense of the term. As a matter of fact only one theory of this type has ever been seriously propounded and effectively defended. This is the theory of “dualism,” which holds that there are two kinds of fundamental substance. The two substances of dualism are commonly termed “mind” and “matter,” and the distinctive attributes assigned to them are not merely different but are strictly incomparable with one another. The essential property of “mind” is thought; that of “matter” is extension. Dualism, which probably approximates more nearly than any other metaphysic to the practical, if unformulated, belief of the ordinary man who does not concern himself with philosophical analysis, recurs at intervals, in one form or another, throughout the history of speculative thought. But the clearest statement and the most able defence of it are to be found in the writings of Descartes (1596—1650), with whom modern philosophy is generally regarded as beginning. Descartes starts from the existence of the self. The fact of consciousness is, he holds, quite undeniable. He then proceeds to deduce the existence of God from the presence in our minds of an idea of God which embraces attributes so exalted as to make it inconceivable that the idea could have originated in anything so limited as the human mind. Accordingly its presence can only, he thinks, be explained by an external cause, namely, God himself. From this it is an easy step to the existence of matter. For God, being perfect, would not falsify our clearest perceptions; and among these is the perception of matter. Moreover, the attribute of matter which is most distinctly apparent to us is its extension, or occupancy of space, and this must accordingly be regarded as the essentially distinctive property of material substance. We need not stop to consider in detail the defects of this argument which Descartes elaborated with remarkable thoroughness and ingenuity. It is sufficient to point out that the essential feature of his analysis, namely, the division of reality into mind and matter, was at fault. Matter as he conceived it, so far from being a substance and therefore concrete in the most complete sense, was altogether abstract. The same is true, though to a lesser extent, of his conception of mind. In fact the dualistic division of the universe into mind and matter, though it starts, as all philosophical theories must start, from the elements given in immediate experience, proceeds by abstracting some of these elements and elevating them to the position of concrete entities in their own right. This process, useful and indeed necessary for the purposes of such bodies of knowledge as the special sciences,

is too artificial to yield anything of metaphysical value. Meta-

physics, to achieve its end, must keep in constant touch with the concrete, that is, with experience. But a process of reasoning like that adopted by Descartes inevitably tends further and further away from the concrete to the abstract. The practical consequences of this for dualism are seen in its inability to attack with any success such problems as those concerned with the relation of body and mind, the nature of the external world, and the question as to how knowledge is possible at all.

Dualism is the only form of qualitative pluralism which has ever been seriously developed. (But it should perhaps be pointed out that the cosmology of Empedocles [490-430 B.c.], with its four elements, earth, air, fire, water, together with the qualitative atomism of his follower Anaxagoras, who regarded the universe as made up of a countless number of qualitatively simple elements, are really forms of qualitative pluralism.) It is true that some of the doctrines of theosophy and allied systems appear to

tend to a pluralism of more than two kinds of substance, doctrines are essentially speculative and have never veloped in a form sufficiently definite, nor defended ments sufficiently logical, to affect at all seriously the

but these been deby argudevelop-

ment of philosophical thought. We may therefore conclude this brief survey of qualitative pluralism and pass on to consider quantitative pluralism. QUANTITATIVE

PLURALISM

Quantitative pluralism includes all those theories which hold reality to be made up of a number of relatively independent substantial entities, each of which exists, at any rate to some extent, in its own right. Quantitative pluralism is thus sharply contrasted with those forms of singularism or absolutism which regard reality as ultimately consisting of a single individual being, of which the many and diverse elements which seem to exist in the world are no more than mere appearances, qualities, or modes, having no real existence in themselves. This contrast has sometimes been expressed by saying that whereas, according to pluralism, the multitude of entities which appear to find a place in the universe have a “substantival” existence, according to singularism their existence is merely “adjectival” as attributes or aspects of the one real being. We may classify types of quantitative pluralism according to their doctrine regarding the substance composing the real entities which they postulate. This substance may be material, spiritual (or mental), or it may be neutral in the sense that its essential character is unknown, or, if known in part, cannot be placed definitely in any particular category. Neutral Pluralism.—The first kind of neutral pluralism, where the nature of the ultimate substance of which individual entities are composed is taken as unknown, though not altogether untenable, is philosophically barren and need not detain us. Its best known exponent is Herbart, who contended that reality is ultimately made up of a number of independent entities, of the inner nature of which we could know nothing, although they were the ground of all the facts of which knowledge was possible. Herbart’s theory did not seriously affect the course of metaphysical speculation. It was largely a reaction against the philosophy of Hegel (1770-1831). The second kind of neutral pluralism, in which the nature of the ultimate reals is regarded as known, at least in part, but as

not definitely classifiable, has been developed only in comparatively recent years. William James (1842-1910), foremost and most original of American philosophers, seems to have been the first to have given it clear expression, though he was probably influenced to some extent by the speculations of the German physicist Ernst Mach. James based his belief on what he himself described as a “radical empiricism.” He held essentially that the world of which we have knowledge is made up of a number of fundamental elements which may be taken as arranged in different types of patterns or sequences. If the elements are set out in one way we get the kind of structures or series which make up the contents of what we call “minds.” Another method of selecting the elements will give the type of arrangements which constitute those entities which we know as material objects or physical events. Yet the elements of a pluralistic universe of this kind are not to be regarded as themselves essentially mental or material—they are of “neutral” stuff. Incidentally James was the first thinker to give the term “pluralism” currency among Englishspeaking philosophers, though in Germany we find it even as

early as Wolff, the disciple of the great Leibniz (1646), to whom we shall refer later. More recently still, a neutral pluralism which in some respects

PLURALISM exhibits a strong family likeness to that of William James has been developed in England by Bertrand Russell, who describes

his own theory by the name “logical atomism.” Russell’s procedure consists essentially of an exceptionally detailed analysis of the material

open

to immediate

observation,

especially the

particulars given in sensation and in imagery, followed by an attempt to build up from this material alone constructions corresponding to the fundamental concepts characteristic of physics and of philosophy, or to such among these concepts as analysis may show to be valid within their limits. Russell has applied his method to the analysis both of “mind” and of “matter.” Current developments in the theories of some of the American neo-realists seem also to be moving along rather similar lines. There can be no doubt that a neutral pluralism of the type we have outlined is in many respects an extremely powerful theory. Not only does it establish a metaphysical position which calls for

serious consideration, but it introduces into the philosophical world an analytic technique the value of which it would be difficult to overestimate. It is not possible to undertake a detailed criticism here; but it is probable that the chief objections to current expositions of the theory are to be found in the fact that

they dispose of some of the traditionally pressing questions of metaphysics with arguments which may be regarded as unduly facile, to say the least; while many will feel that most of the really ultimate problems are left untouched. No doubt the supporters would retort that these problems are insoluble, and no more time should be wasted on them. Material Pluralism.—There remain for consideration material pluralism and spiritual pluralism. For the material pluralist the world consists, in the last analysis, entirely of particles or bodies, the properties of which are among those commonly associated with the concept of matter, in particular mass (or, perhaps, electric charge); position and (perhaps) extension in space; and position and (perhaps) extension in time. The earliest philosophers to give coherent expression to a theory of this kind were the Greeks, Leucippus and Democritus (about 460-350 B.c.). We owe to Leucippus the first clear state-

ment of philosophic materialism, namely, the reduction of all reality to the primary qualities of matter. The denial of qualitative differences between the elements was combined with an atomic theory of matter which was conceived as split up into an infinite number of minute reproductions of itself, these “atoms” being invisible to the eye, eternal and unchangeable, and differing from one another only in shape and size. The scientific development of this point of view by Democritus was an out-

standing philosophical achievement which marked a definite stage in the progress of the speculative thought of antiquity. Although material pluralism, or atomistic materialism, suffered long periods of eclipse during the middle ages and the Renaissance, it has been revived at intervals and was finally given complete and powerful expression as a result of the great advances made during the last century in physical and biological science. Twentieth century materialism is chiefly associated with the name of Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), who developed an extremely comprehensive system based on three current doctrines which were just then achieving remarkable triumphs in the respective realms of chemistry, physics and biology. These doctrines were the atomic theory, the principles governing the distribution and conservation of energy, and the Darwinian theory of evolution by natural selection. In a swift and temporarily overwhelming advance, philosophic materialism reached its zenith. But its success was a transient one. Before the end of the century it was already beginning to stagger under the powerful blows of its opponents, and during the years that have since elapsed it has ceased to be regarded as a tenable metaphysical theory. It can probably be safely stated that it will never again be revived unless it be in so changed a form as to be unrecognizable. Briefly, its downfall may be said to be due to three inherent defects. In the first place the concepts and principles on which it is based are merely descriptive in character, that is, they do no more than give an account of what actually occurs, or

is presumed to occur, in the world, and do not even begin to pro-

39

vide any kind of genuine explanation of reality. Not only this, but secondly, modern analysis has shown that most of the conceptions of conventional materialism, so far from corresponding to anything really concrete, are most probably no more than abstractions from, or constructions made up of, the content perceived by minds in sense-experience or perception. Thirdly, materialism has never yet been able to give an account of the origin of mind which could possibly be accepted as a satisfying one, while its consequent attempts to dismiss mind as unreal or at most real but ineffective, have been extremely facile and altogether unconvincing. Spiritual Pluralism.—There remains spiritual pluralism, and it is to this type of theory that the name “pluralism” is most commonly understood to apply at the present time. It is the belief that the world consists ultimately of an indefinite number of beings, essentially spiritual in character. Its origin can be traced back, albeit in a vague form, even to the obscure hylozoism of the ancients, who regarded all nature as alive and informed with a countless number of animate beings, to whose activities all her manifestations were due. But at this epoch the distinction between the physical and the mental had not begun to emerge clearly, and only when this occurred was it possible for the development of spiritual pluralism to take place. But it was not till the coming of Leibniz (1646) that spiritual pluralism at last received definite and coherent statement, together with logical development. Leibniz started from a conception of mind directly opposed to that which had been given currency by Locke and the English empiricists. The latter regarded the mind as a passive receiver of impressions from objects external to it. But Leibniz realized that it is the essence of mind to be active. In his famous work, the Monadology, he elaborated the theory that reality consists of an infinite number of individual forces or agents, psychic in nature, which he termed “monads.” These individual minds or spirits exhibited every degree of mental development and complexity, from that of beings even higher than man (the “angels’”) right down to that of psychic entities of so low an order that Leibniz described their being as a mens momentanea or mere flash of conscious awareness. In this hierarchy of mind a complete continuity from one level of development to another was postulated. Leibniz conceived each monad as reflecting within itself the rest of the universe from its own particular “standpoint.” The perceptions of each monad were partly conditioned by its particular level of development, and constituted the appearance to it of all the other monads. But Leibniz met with great diffculty

at this point. He had conceived the monads as absolutely independent reals with no ground of connection between them. But how could the appearance of beings otber than itself arise in such an isolated entity as a monad, which, being “windowless” (as Leibniz put it), was impervious to external influence? Leibniz tried to solve this difficulty by his doctrine of “Pre-established, Harmony,” which involved the introduction of the idea of God into his system. According to this doctrine the development of the universe is the working out of a plan conceived by God when he created the monads. Each monad contains the principle of its own development, but the course of that development is so arranged that, at any instant, the unfolding order of phenomena within each monad is an accurate representation of the rest of the universe at that instant. This may be illustrated by the analogy of a number of clocks set going by the watchmaker so as always to keep time with one another, though actually there is no connection between them. The spiritual pluralism of Leibniz, though it continued to exert a dominant influence in Germany until the time of Kant (1724~ 1804), did not find much vogue among English-speaking philosophers until comparatively recent times. During the last years of the rgth and the early years of the present century, however, it was adopted and developed, in the reaction against crude materialism, by one or two influential thinkers, including

Ffowison in America and the late James Ward in England. Though his system is founded on that of Leibniz, Ward introduced very considerable modifications, exposing the weaknesses of the orig-

QO

PLURALITY—PLUTARCH

inal theory and endeavouring to eliminate them. He pointed out that pluralism has to explain away three difficulties. Two of these are concerned with what he calls respectively “the upper limit” and “the lower limit” of pluralism. If we are to make reality at all intelligible we must, with Leibniz, postulate continuous development of the monads. But from what did this development originate and how was it set going? We can trace it downwards to ever lower levels, but we cannot find within it the principle and the explanation of its own origin. On the other hand, whither is it tending? A mere plurality of independently developing beings cannot contain any indication of a satisfying explanation which shall harmonize, and give point to, the manifold separate developments. Thirdly, there is the old difficulty, encountered by Leibniz, as to the impossibility of interaction between the monads if these are really independent individuals. Ward comes to the conclusion that a thoroughgoing pluralism is untenable. It must be supplemented by a principle of unity which, while it does not destroy the conception of the monads as real individuals having a “substantival” and not a merely “adjectival” existence, at the same time enables us to get rid of the difficulties raised by a pure pluralism. Ward finds his unifying principle in a theistic theory, conceiving God as a supreme being transcending the world of the many and yet immanent in it. On the one hand God, as creator, originates monadic development: on the other, He stands as the supreme unity to a harmonious co-existence with whom that development is for ever more nearly approaching. Moreover, as immanent in the world, He mediates the interaction between the monads. It is impossible to enlarge here upon the metaphysical theory thus outlined. It must suffice to point out that it has many important possibilities and merits serious consideration. Moreover, it is a healthy corrective to the cruder forms of materialism, for while the latter are ultimately based on conceptions which can be shown to represent pure abstractions, spiritual pluralism starts from a fact of which each of us is certain from his own immediate experience, namely, the concrete existence of such a thing as an

individual “mind,” or better, perhaps, “spirit.”

A form of spiritual pluralism is being developed in America by the Personal Idealists; while in England Wildon Carr has propounded an interesting monadism with especial reference to the philosophical importance of Einstein’s principle of relativity and its apparent implication of the reality and profound significance of the existence of individual observing minds.

rate causes can produce the same kind of effect as another.

In

other words can one cause ever act vicariously for another? (Hence the alternative, and less ambiguous name, “vicarious causes.”) J. S. Mill is the best known advocate of the doctrine of

plurality of causes. Examples taken from daily experience seem to support the view. Many different causes can produce death for example. For most practical purposes the doctrine holds good. The whole system of substitutes, in peace and in war, is based on it. But for practical purposes many effects are sufficiently similar, although they are really very different when closely scrutinised The total state called death is very different according as one cause or another led to it. The holding of coroner's inquests is based on the assumption that a close examination of the state of a dead body can help to determine the precise cause of death in each case. Similarly with all cases in which details matter. The total effect produced by one kind of cause is never precisely the same as that produced by any other. So that strictly speaking the doctrine of plurality of causes is not true. But where the interest is centred in broad kinds of effect, and differences of detail do not matter much, there the doctrine holds good for all practical purposes. See J. S. Mill, System of Logic (1875 etc.); J. Venn, Empirical Logic (1889); J. Welton, Manual of Logic (1896).

PLUSH.

Plush fabrics are characterized by a fur-like or vel-

vet pile surface somewhat typical of the short hairy pelts of certain animals as, for example, the seal and otter. A plush pile surface is developed in woven fabrics by causing a series of tufts of pile to project more or less vertically from a foundation texture. The tufts of pile virtually consist of short lengths of warp threads usually of silk, artificial silk or mohair yarn interwoven

with the foundation fabric in such a manner that the tufts of pile are looped under the picks of weft by which they are securely retained in the fabric.

PLUTARCH (Gr. Movrapxos) (c. A.D. 46-120), Greek biog-

rapher and miscellaneous writer, was born at Chaeronea in Boeotia. After having been trained in philosophy at Athens he travelled and stayed some time at Rome, where he lectured on philosophy and undertook the education of Hadrian. (There seems no authority for this statement earlier than the middle ages.) Trajan bestowed consular rank upon him, and Hadrian appointed him procurator of Greece. He died in his native town, where he was archon and priest of the Pythian Apollo. In the Consolation to his Wife on the loss of his young daughter, he tells us (§ 2)

that they had brought up four sons besides, one of whom was called by the name of Plutarch’s brother, Lamprias. We learn incidentally from this treatise (§ 10) that the writer had been initiated in the secret mysteries of Dionysus, which held that the soul was imperishable. He seems to have been an independent thinker rather than an adherent of any particular school of philosophy. His vast acquaintance with the literature of his time is PLURALITY, a term applied particularly to the holding of everywhere apparent. The celebrity of Plutarch, or at least his popularity, is mainly “two or more offices by the same person (called then a pluralist). In ecclesiastical law, plurality, or the holding of more than one founded on his 46 Parallel Lives. He is thought to have written benefice or preferment, was always discountenanced, and is now this work in his later years after his return to Chaeronea. His prohibited in England by the Pluralities Act, 1838, as amended knowledge of Latin and of Roman history he must have partly derived from some years’ residence in Rome and other parts of by the Pluralities Act, 1850, and the Pluralities Acts Amendment Act 1885. By the latter act a provision was made that two bene- Italy (Demosth. § 2), though he says he was too much engaged in fices might be held together, by dispensation of the archbishop lecturing (doubtless in Greek, on philosophy) to turn his attenon the recommendation of the bishop, if the churches be within tion much to Roman literature during that period. Plutarch’s design in writing the Parallel Lives—for this is the four miles of each other, and if the annual value of one does not title which he gives them in dedicating Theseus and Romulus to exceed £200. (See BENEFICE.) In the United States, the term is used in election law to denote Sosius Senecio—appears to have been the publication, in succesthe number of votes which a candidate has received for a pub- sive books, of authentic biographies in pairs, taking together a lic office in excess of the number received by any one of two Greek and a Roman. In the introduction to the Theseus he speaks of having already issued his Lycurgus and Numa, viewing them, no or more other candidates. PLURALITY OF CAUSES, in logic, is the view that one doubt, as bearing a resemblance to each other in their legislative and the same kind of effect can be produced in different cases character. Theseus and Romulus are compared as the legendary by different causes. This is quite distinct from the question founders of States. In the opening sentence of the life of Alexwhether the cause of an effect is as a rule a complex or multiplic- ander he says that “in this book he has written the lives of Alexity of several or many constituent or contributory factors or ander and Caesar” (Julius), and in bis Demosthenes, where he conditions. Assuming the complexity of each cause, there still again (§ 1) mentions his friend Sosius, he calls the life of this remains the further question whether any one of several sepa- orator and Cicero the fifth book. (It is quite evident that the BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Descartes, Meditations (1640); Leibniz, Monadology (1714); Spencer, Synthetic Philosophy: First Principles (1862, 1890); Latta, Leibniz: The Monadology, etc. (1898); Howison, The Limits of Evolution (1901); James, A Pluralistic Universe (1908); Ward, The Realm of Ends (1912); C. A. Richardson, Spiritual Pluralism and Recent Philosophy (1919); Bertrand Russell, The Analysis of Mind (1921) and The Analysis of Matter (1927); Wildon Carr, A Theory of Monads (1922). (C. A. R.)

PLUTARCH—PLUTO

Or

original order of the books has been altered in the series of Lives | tans, and (3) of Spartan women. Doubt is thrown on the validity as we now have them.) It may, therefore, fairly be inferred that | of The Banquet of the Seven Wise Men, On Fate; Parallels; On Plutarch’s original idea was simply to set a Greek warrior, states- Accepted Opinions and the Lives of the Ten Orators. man, orator or legislator side by side with some noted Roman celebrated for the same qualities, or working under similar con-

ditions. Nearly all the lives are in pairs; but the series concluded

with single biographies of Artaxerxes, Aratus (of Sicyon), Galba

and Otho. In the life of Aratus, not Sosius Senecio, but one Polycrates, is addressed. The Lives are works of great learning and research, long lists of authorities are given, and they must for this very reason, as well as from their considerable length, have taken many years in compilation. It is true that many of the lives, especially of Romans, do not show such an extent of research.

But Plutarch

must have had access to a great store of books, and his diligence as an historian cannot be questioned, if his accuracy is in some

points impeached.

From the historian’s point of view the weak-

ness of the biographies is that their interest is primarily ethical. The author’s sympathy with Doric characters and institutions is very evident; he delights to record the exploits, the maxims and virtues of Spartan kings and generals. This feeling is the key to his apparently unfair and virulent attack on Herodotus, who, as an Ionian, seemed to him to have exaggerated the prowess and the foresight of the Athenian leaders. The voluminous and varied writings of Plutarch exclusive of the Lives are known under the common term Opera moralia. These consist of above 60 essays, some of them long and many of them rather difficult, some too of very doubtful genuineness. Their literary value is greatly enhanced by the large number of citations from lost Greek poems, especially verses of the dramatists, among whom Euripides holds by far the first place. The principal treatises in the Opera moralia are the following :—

BiBLIOGRAPHY.—Editio princeps, by H. Stephanus (1572); other complete editions by J. J. Reiske (1774-82), J. G. Hutten (1791-1804), T. Dohner and F. Dtibner (1846~55). Of the Lives, there are editions by A. Coray (1809-14), C. Sintenis (1839-46; ed. min., 1874-81), and of many separate lives by Siefert-~Blass, Sintenis-Fuhr, Holden, Hardy and others; Loeb ed., with trans. (11 vols. 1914-26). There are many English translations, of which the most popular is that by John and William Langhorne; also the old French version by Jacques Amyot (1559) from which Sir Thomas North’s (1579) was made, newly edited by G. Wyndham (1895) ; many of the Roman lives have been translated, with notes, by George Long. The Moralia has been edited by

D. Wyttenbach (1795-1830), and G. N. Bernardakes (1888-96) Loeb ed. with trans. (1927— ). The old English translation by Philemon Holland (1603) has been revised by C. W. King and A. R. Shilleto in Bohn’'s Classical Library (1882-88), and a later translation by various hands (London, 1684-94), edited by W. W. Goodwin with introduction by R. W. Emerson, has been republished at Cambridge, Massachusetts (1874-78). Mention may also be made of P. Holland’s Roman Questions, edited with introductory dissertations by F. B. Jevons (1892) ; Roman Problems, with essay on “Roman Worship and Belief,” by G. C. Allen (1904); H. J. Rose, The Roman Questions of Plutarch (Text and Commentary, 1924) ; De la Musique, edit. H. Weil and Th. Reinach (1900); J. Oakesmith, The Religion of Plutarch as expounded in his Ethics (1902) ; Archbishop Trench, A Popular Iniroduction to Plutarch (1873); O. Gréard, De Ia Morale de Plutarque (1866); R. Volkmann, Leben, Schrif n und Philosophie des Plutarch (1869) ; R. Hirzel, Plutarch (1912). The earlier literature of Plutarch is very extensive, for which W. Engelmann, Scriptores graeci (1881), may be consulted.

PLUTARCH, of Athens (350?—430), Greek philosopher, head

of the Neoplatonist school at Athens, was the son of Nestorius. His main principle was that the study of Aristotle must precede that of Plato, and that the student should be shown the fundamental points of agreement between them. With this object he On the Education of Children; How a Young Man Ought to wrote a commentary on the De anima which was the most imporHear Poetry, on the moral aspect of Homer and the tragedians, tant contribution to Aristotelian literature since the time of with quotations On the Right Way of Hearing (Ilept rod axéveuw) Alexander of Aphrodisias. This critical spirit reached its greatest is another educational essay. Among the moral essays may be height in Proclus, the ablest exponent of tbis latter-day syncretism. included: How a Flatterer may be Distinguished from a Friend, Plutarch was versed in all the theurgic traditions of the school, and How One May be Conscious of Progress in Goodness, addressed believed in the possibility of attaining to communion with the to Sosius Senecio, consul under Nerva and Trajan; three short Deity by the medium of the theurgic rites. Unlike the Alexanessays, On Having many Friends, On Chance and On Virtue and drists and the early Renaissance writers, he maintained that the Vice, mainly valuable for quotations from poets otherwise lost; soul which is bound up in the body by the ties of imagination and Advice to the Married, On the Late Vengeance of the Deity, On sensation does not perish with the corporeal media of sensation. the Genius of Socrates, On Superstition, On Exile, a fine essay He interposed between sensation and thought the faculty of Imagiplentifully illustrated with quotations; The Amorous Man, and the nation, which is the activity of the soul under the stimulus of Gryllus, an entertaining dialogue proving the moral superiority of unceasing sensation, and provides the raw material for Reason. many animals over man. The speakers are Circe, Odysseus, and Reason is' present in children as an inoperative potentiality; in its pure activity, it is the transcendental or pure intelligence of God. "a pig; the pig wins. See Marinus, Vita Procli, 6, 12; Zeller’s History of Greek Philosophy. Another group includes some physical treatises such as Precepts PLUTO, a euphemistic name for the Greek god of the lower about Health, which do not often coincide with modern ideas; On the Face of the Moon’s Disk, which throws light on ancient world (Gr. HIħovræwv), properly Hades, Aïdes or Aïdoneus, “the astronomical theory; Whether Land or Water Animals are the Unseen.” He was the son of Cronus and Rhea, and brother of Cleverer; Whether Water or Fire is the More Useful ; On Primary Zeus and Poseidon. Having deposed Cronus, the brothers cast Cold; Questiones Naturales and On Flesh Eating. The historical lots for the kingdoms of the heaven, the sea, and the infernal treatises include: On the Fortune of the Romans, two essays on the regions. The last, “the house of Hades,” sometimes loosely called career of Alexander, Whether the Athenians were More Renowned Hades, fell to Pluto. Here he ruled with his wife, Persephone, for War or for Wisdom, and the famous De Malignitate Herodoti, over the other powers below and over the dead. He is stern and charging Herodotus with unfair treatment of the non-Ionic States. pitiless, deaf to prayer or flattery, and sacrifice to him is of no There are also a purely metaphysical work, the Platonic Questions, avail; only the music of Orpheus prevailed upon him to restore and two political treatises, Should a Man Engage in Politics when his wife Eurydice. His helmet, given him by the Cyclopes after No Longer Young? and Political Precepts. There are also two their release from Tartarus, rendered him invisible (like the Tarn Consolations, one to Apollonius for his son, and one to his own —or Nebelkappe of German mythology). Being feared, he is wife for their daughter. There remains a group of his most usually alluded to by euphemistic epithets: Polydectes (the revaluable and interesting works, on archaeological questions gen- ceiver of many), Clymenus (the Illustrious}, Eubulus (the giver erally, and especially religious history. These include On Isis and of good counsel). But, perhaps by contamination with a god of Osiris, On the Cessation of Oracles, On the Pythtan Responses the fertility of the earth, he is also Pluto, the “giver of wealth” (an appendix to the last), and On the E at Delphi, of the exclu- (a name that first occurs in the Attic poets of the fifth century), sively ritual discussions; and two miscellaneous works, which and at most of the centres of his cult he was so worshipped; contain a vast collection of information and discussions on points At Elis alone he was Hades, the god of the dead. The plants of almost every kind, the Symposiaca (9 books), and the Quaes- sacred to him were the cypress and narcissus; black victims were tiones Romanae and Graecae, which is of considerable importance sacrificed to him, as to all underworld powers. In art he was to classical archaeology. There is also the collection of Short represented like Zeus and Poseidon, but sterner; his attributes Sayings, divided into (1) of kings and commanders, (2) of Spar- are a sceptre and Cerberus; he carries the key of the world below

92

PLUTO

MONKEY—PLYMOUTH

(cf. the epithet wuAaprys, “keeper of the gate’), and is frequently erty of the corporation. There is a contemporary portrait of Sir in company with Persephone. He is sometimes represented as an Francis Drake in the modern Guildhall. Near the Guildhall is agricultural god, carrying a cornu copiae and a two-pronged fork. the church of St. Andrews erected on the site of a chapel; itis a In Latin his name is transliterated Pluto or translated Dis, Perpendicular church of 1480-1520, restored 1874. A new parish Dis pater; the name Orcus (“Opxos, the oath-spirit who punishes was formed in 1640 under the Gothic Charles church, known as perjury) also occurs in poetry, but never in cult. For Etruria, cj. the New Church. South of St. Andrews church is the site of a CHARON. In Romanesque folk-lore Orcus (possibly English Franciscan Friary with some early 15th-century remains. Near by are some old houses dating from Elizabethan times. The Citadel ‘‘ogre,”’) has passed into a forest-elf. See article “Hades,” in Roscher’s Lexikon der Mythologie; Preller(now used as army headquarters and barracks) is a specimen of Robert, Griechische M ythologie (1894 i., 798 ff.); L. Farnell, Cults 17th-century military architecture. It is an irregular bastioned of the Greek States, vol. iil. pentagon in trace. It possesses a classical gateway. In the centre PLUTO MONKEY, a guenon, Cercopithecus leucampyx, stands a Jacobean house, once the residence of the governor of nearly allied to the mona (g.v.), which takes its name from the Plymouth. Plymouth is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric founded black fur of the under-parts, passing into blackish grey on the head and back. The violet-coloured face is fringed by large in 1851, the cathedral, in Wyndham Street, being completed in bushy whiskers and surmounted by a white band above the 1858. The building is in the Early English style, and adjoining brows. The species extends from the Congo to Nyasaland. (See are the bishop’s house and the convent of Notre Dame. Above the north-west angle of Plymouth Sound, and occupying PRIMATES, GUENON.)

PLUTUS, properly, the abundant increase of the earth; child of Demeter (g.v.) and Iasion; in art, usually shown as a child, alone or in company with Tyche, Eirene, Athena, or some other goddess. In popular thought, allegories, and especially comedy (see Aristophanes, Plutus), he was represented as Wealth (Gr. Idotvos); he was proverbially said to be blind.

PLYMOUTH,

a municipal county (1888, extended 1896)

and seaport of Devonshire, England, 231 m. W.S.W. of London. Pop. (1931) 208,166. Plymouth, the Suton of Domesday, was afterwards divided into the town of Sutton Prior, the hamlet of Sutton Valletort and the tithing of Sutton Ralph, the greater part belonging to the priory of Plympton. The market, established about 1253, became in 131rz town property, with the mayor as clerk of the market. In 1292 the town first returned members to parliament. In the 14th century it was often used for armies to and from France and it suffered from French attacks. In 1412 the inhabitants petitioned for a charter, which, after strenuous opposition from the priors of Plympton, was granted in 1439. In the discovery of the New World it played an important part. Sir John Hawkins was port admiral and (in 1571) M.P. From Plymouth in 1577 Drake set out on his voyage round the world; in 1581 he became mayor and represented the borough in parliament during 1592—1593. Sir Humphrey Gilbert (M.P. 1571) sailed on his second colonizing expedition to America in 1583 from the port, and hither Drake brought the remnant of Raleigh’s Virginian colony. Plymouth supplied seven ships against the Armada, and it was in the Sound that the English fleet awaited the sighting of the Spaniards. A stone on a quay at the Barbican records the fact that this was the last port touched by the Pilgrim Fathers on their voyage to America, During the Civil War Plymouth was closely invested by the Royalists. It was the only town in the west that never fell into their hands. It early declared for William of Orange, in whose reign the neighbouring dockyard was begun. It lies at the head of Plymouth Sound, stretching westward from the river Plym towards the mouth of the Tamar, from which it is separated by the township of East Stonehouse and the borough of Devonport, the two latter constituting with it the “Three Towns.” The prince of Wales is lord high steward of the borough which has included Devonport and Stonehouse since 1914. The water frontage of the Three Towns consists of Plymouth Sound, with its inlets. The Cattewater and Hamoaze are flanked on the east and west respectively by high ground, on which are built forts that command the harbour and its approaches, On the western side of the entrance to Cattewater is the Citadel,

founded in the reign of Henry VIII. and rebuilt by Charles II. The

adjacent Hoe extends along the northern edge of the Sound. To the north is seen the town of Plymouth rising up to the hills known as Mannamead. On the site of an old Trinity House obelisk landmark is Smeaton’s lighthouse tower, removed from its original position on the Eddystone Reef in 1884. Adjacent to the Citadel, at its south-west angle, is the Marine Biological Station. In the Sound is Drake’s (formerly St, Nicholas’s) Island, at one time the prop-

a triangular peninsula formed by Stonehouse Pool on the east, and the Hamoaze on the west is the town of Devonport (¢.v.). The “Port of Plymouth” in 13121 embraced Plympton, Mod-

bury and Newton Ferrers, and received a customs grant from Richard II. In 1435 sixty-five cargoes were imported, and in the reign of Elizabeth it rose to be the foremost port in England. The 18th century saw a great development of trade with Virginia and the West Indies, and this resulted in the establishment of a sugar-refining industry that was maintained until a recent date. In 1749 the “town’s water” was carried to the Barbican to supply shipping. The port of Plymouth as at present constituted, embraces the waters of the Plymouth Sound and the Hamoaze. The chief water area within the limits of the port is the Sound with its inlets, the Cattewater, Sutton Pool, Mill Bay, Stonehouse Pool and the Hamoaze. The Sound itself covers an area of 4,500 ac., and is sheltered from the south-west gales by a breakwater a mile long with a lighthouse at its eastern end. It was constructed in 1841. Cattewater, Sutton Pool, and Mill Bay constitute the three mercantile harbours of Cattewater harbour, Sutton harbour, and the Great Western Docks, whilst Hamoaze has been set aside for H. M. Navy. Cattewater harbour has an area of 200 ac. and 2,200 ft. of quayage space. Sutton harbour entered from Cattewater has a quayage space of 4,500 ft. and is the place for handling of fish. Great Western Docks at Mill Bay has an outer basin 35 ac. in area, and an inner basin or wet docks with an area of 13 ac. Steamers sail regularly from Plymouth for Australia, New Zealand, the Cape and North America. It has productive fisheries, and is a port where fishing vessels from the East coast call tohandle their catches which include whiting, sole, and plaice. It has also a considerable export and import trade; its imports include grain, timber, provisions and manures, while its exports are mostly kaolin for the pottery areas. As a naval station it is second only to Portsmouth. The town is served by the G.W.R. and S. railways. The G.W.R. company has a main line entering from the west through Devonport and going east to Exeter, having Dartmoor on the west; the

S.R. company has a terminal station in the eastern quarter of the town, and its route to Exeter is by way of the Tamar valley, and the western and northern moorland districts. The industries of Plymouth include soap making, manufacture of chemicals, artificial manure and paper staining. There is some electrical engineering, and a clothing factory. Plymouth has re-

turned three members to Parliament, from the Drake, Devonport and Sutton divisions, since 1918. Lady Astor, the first woman to be honored by election to the House of Commons, was returned in 1919.

PLYMOUTH,

2 town of Massachusetts, U.S.A., 37 m. S.E.

of Boston, on Plymouth bay; a port of entry and the county seat of Plymouth county. It is served by the New York, New Haven

and Hartford railroad, and in summer by steamers to Boston. Pop.

(1920)

13,045;

in 1930

it was

13,042.

Visitors

to the

number of many thousands are brought annually by the historic interest of the town and its attractions as a summer resort, ‘Ihe

PLYMOUTH—PLYMPTON modern town has important manufacturing industries (notably the largest cordage works in the world, with its own steamers bringing cargoes of sisal fibre from Yucatan) and its aggregate factory output in 1927 was valued at $22,756,988.

Cranberry

culture,

herring fisheries and the propagation of clams and brook trout are also important industries. Plymouth was the landing-place of the Pilgrims and the first permanent settlement by Europeans in New England. Plymouth

Rock, the granite boulder on which the Pilgrims stepped from

the shallop of the “Mayflower” on Dec. 21, 1620, was placed in 1920 on the spot it originally occupied, under a protecting portico of granite, presented by the Society of Colonial Dames, and this part of the water front has been made a part of the State park system. Rising behind the Rock is Cole’s Hill, where during their terrible first winter in America the Pilgrims buried half their number, levelling the graves and sowing them with grain in

the spring to conceal their losses from the Indians. Burial Hill (the site of the first fort and of a watch-tower) contains the

graves of William Bradford and others of the original Pilgrims,

though the oldest stone is dated 1681. In the Registry building

are the original records of Plymouth Colony, the will of Myles Standish, the original patent of Jan. 23, 1630, and many other interesting historical documents. Pilgrim hall, a large stone build-

ing erected in 1824, houses a rich collection of relics of the Pilgrims and of early colonial times. The oldest house still standing (the Crowe house) was built in 1664, and many others antedate the Revolution. In the northern part of the town is the National Monument to the Forefathers (of Maine granite), designed by Hammatt Billings, which was dedicated on Aug. 1, 1889, 30 years ‘after the cornerstone was laid. Plymouth dates its founding from the landing of the Pilgrims. It was never incorporated as a town, but in 1633 the general court of the Colony recognized it as such by ordering that “the chiefe government be tyed to the towne

of Plymouth.” It remained the seat of government until 1692, when Plymouth Colony was united to Massachusetis Bay.

PLYMOUTH,

a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania,

U.S.A., on the west bank of the Susquehanna river, opposite Wilkes-Barre. It is served by the Delaware and Hudson and the Lackawanna railways. Pop. (1920) 16,500 (24% foreign-born white, over half from Poland and Lithuania); 1930 Federal census 16,543. Plymouth is in the midst of the anthracite fields, and is surrounded by the beautiful scenery of the Wyoming valley. The mining, preparation and handling of anthracite provide the principal occupations, but there are silk mills and various other factories, with an output in 1927 amounting to $1,457,386. Plymouth was settled in 1769 under the auspices of the Susquehanna Company of Connecticut, by colonists from Plymouth, Litchfield county, Conn., and other places in New England, and became a centre of the conflict known as the Pennamite-Yankee War. (See

Wyominc VALLEY.) The first coal shipped from the anthracite region was sent from Plymouth in 1808 by Abijah and John Smith. The borough was incorporated in 1866.

PLYMOUTH

BRETHREN,

2 community of Christians

who received the name in 1830 when the Rev. J. N. Darby (1800~ 1882) induced many of the inhabitants of Plymouth, England, to associate themselves with him for the promulgation of his opinions. Although small Christian communities existed in Ireland and elsewhere calling themselves Brethren, and holding similar views, the accession to their ranks of Darby so increased their numbers and influence that he is usually called the founder of Plymouthism. Darby had been a curate in Wicklow 1825-1827, when he felt himself constrained to leave the Anglican communion; going to Dublin, he became associated with several devout people who met

statedly for public worship, and called themselves “Brethren.” Among these were A. N. Groves and J. G. Bellett, who deserve to tank among the founders of the movement. In 1830 Darby at Plymouth won over many people to his way of thinking, among them the well-known Biblical scholar Samuel Prideaux Tregelles.

During the next eight years progress was rapid, and communities were founded in many of the principal towns in England. In 1838 Darby went to reside in French Switzerland, and made

many

disciples.

French

Switzerland has always remained

the

ST. MARY

93

stronghold of Plymouthism on the Continent, and for his followers there Darby wrote two of his most important tracts, Le Ministère considéré dans sa nature and De la Présence et de Vaction du S. Esprit dans l’église. The revolution in the canton Vaud, brought about by Jesuit intrigue in 1845, brought persecution to the Brethren in the canton and in other parts of French Switzerland and Darby’s life was in great jeopardy. He returned to England, and his reappearance was followed by divisions among the Brethren at home. These divisions began at Plymouth. Benjamin Wills Newton, head of the community there, who had been a fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, was accused of departing from the testimony of the Brethren by reintroducing the spirit of clericalism. Unable to detach the congregation from the teacher, Darby began a rival assembly. The majority of the Brethren out of Plymouth supported Darby, but a minority remained with Newton. The separation became wider in 1847 on the discovery of supposed heretical teaching by Newton. In 1848 another division took place. The Bethesda congregation at Bristol, where George Miller was the most influential member, received into communion several of Newton’s followers and justified their action. Out of this came the separation into Neutral Brethren, Jed by Miiller, and Exclusive Brethren or Darbyites, who refused to hold communion with the followers of Newton or Muller. The Exclusives, who were the more numerous, suffered further divisions. An Irish clergyman named Samuel O’Malley Cluff had adopted views similar to those of Pearsall Smith, who preached a doctrine of sanctification called “Death to Nature” as an antidote to the supposed prevalent Laodiceanism, and when these were repudiated seceded with his followers. The most important division among the Exclusives came to a crisis in 1881, when William Kelly and Darby became the recognized leaders of two sections who separated on a point of discipline. This was followed (1885) by the disruption of the strict Darbyite section, two communions

being formed out of it upon points of doctrine. The theological views of the Brethren differ considerably from those held by evangelical Protestants (for a list of divergences, see Teulon History and Doctrines of the Plymouth Brethren). They make the baptism of infants an open question and celebrate the Lord's Supper weekly. Their distinctive doctrines are ecclesiastical. They hold that all official ministry, whether on Episcopalian, Presbyterian or Congregationalist theories, is a denial of the spiritual priesthood of all believers, and sets aside the Holy

Spirit’s guidance. The movement, if it has had small results in the formation of a sect, has at least set churches to consider how they might make their machinery more elastic. The movement spread to the United States where, in 1915, there were 10,566 communicants. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Darby, Collected Works (32 vols., edited by Kelly, with supplementary volume, 1867-83); A. Miller, The Brethren, their Rise, Progress and Testimony (1879); Rogers, Church Systems of the Nineteenth Century; Teulon, History and Doctrines of the Plymouth Brethren (1883); article “John Nelson Darby,” in Contemp. Rev. (Oct. 1885); W. B. Neatby, A History of the Plymouth Brethren (London, 1902, 2nd ed.).

PLYMPTON ST. MARY and PLYMPTON MAURICE or EARL’S, two small adjacent towns in Devon, England, s m. E.N.E. of Plymouth, on the Great Western railway. (1921), Plympton St. Mary, 4,089; Plympton Maurice, The earthworks on which in the 12th century Richard de vers reared his Norman castle at Plympton Maurice were

Pop. 1,102. Redprobably of British origin; traces of the castle remain. A Saxon document dated 904 records a grant by Edward the Elder to Asser, bishop of Sherborne, of twelve manors in exchange for the monastery of “‘Plymentun.” Plympton St. Mary has a Decorated and Perpendicular church, with a lofty tower of the later period. Near it are remains of the former Augustinian priory of Plympton, founded by William Warelwast, bishop of Exeter (1107-36). They include an Early English refectory with Nor-

man

undercroft, the kitchen and other fragments;

but there

are no remains of the great priory church. There are several old houses in the town, together with a guildhall dated 1696, and a grammar school founded in 1658, of which Sir Joshua Reynolds’s father was master. Pop. of St. Mary rural district (1931) 26.779.

94 PLYNLYMON

PLYNLYMON—PNEUMATIC (Plyalimmon, Pumplumon, Pumlumon, Pen-

lumon: pump means fire: lumon, chimney flag or beacon; pen, head), a mountain of Wales 2,463 ft. high, about ro m. from Machynlleth and Llanidloes. It is composed of Bala (Ordovician) grits and stands out above the high plateau of Central Wales. There are three summits with a carnedd (stone-pile, probably a military or other landmark, rather than the legendary barrow or tomb) on each. Plynlymon is the source of the Rheidol, the Llyfnant and the Clywedog, the Wye and the Severn. The morasses of Plynlymon saw many a struggle, notably the war between Owen Cyfeiliog (f. c. goo), prince of Powys, and Hywel ab Cadogan. Here also Owen Glendower unfurled the banner of Welsh independence; from here, in 1401, he harassed the country, sacking Montgomery, burning Welshpool, and destroying Abbey Cwm Hir. Aberystwyth obtains its water from a reservoir on the mountain slopes. There are slate quarries, also old lead and copper mines in the district. The district west, north and east of Plynlymon is a very wild and lonely moorland, with very few roads. Around the sharp northern and western edges of the moorland are deep-cut ravines with waterfalls.

PLYWOOD.

Board made of several plies or veneers (g.v.)

of wood, glued together with the object of obtaining comparatively

CONVEYING

fuselages, hydroplane hulls, bed plates, etc.); etc. Although there is evidence that the principle of “plying” thin strips of wood into panels to ensure permanent flatness was known and practised in very early days of civilization and was continued

by the cabinet-maker and builder all over the world, mechanical production of plywood originated comparatively recently, ze., in the eighteen-eighties, when the first factories specializing in the production of plywood were erected in Russia. The industry has since spread to all parts of the world wherever large timber resources are available and where widespread employment of the material makes local manufacture profitable. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E. Vernon Knight and Meinrad Vulpi, Veneers and Plywood (N.Y. 1927); Shirley P. Wainwright, Modern Plywood (1927) ; Bulletins of the Forest Products Laboratory, U.S. Department of Commerce; B. C. Boulton, The Manufacture and Use of Plywood and Glue (1920); The Timber Trades Journal (London; wkly.).

(A. Mor.)

PNEUMATIC

CONVEYING

conveying power of air in motion. veyance

TRA

of timber. Rotary cut (peeled) or sliced veneers are used, if neces-

best plies for the outer surfaces (face and back).

sheets with as to their material is leaving the

The natural tendency of wood to shrink, swell and warp is effectively neutralized, and the comparatively low tensile strength of wood along its grain is greatly improved upon, by carefully crossgraining the plies. In the result, a large flat board of wood is produced, practically unaffected by climatic influences, and possessing considerably higher shearing, braking and bending properties than ordinary wood of similar thickness. The plies are glued (cemented) together under considerable pressure, different adhesives being used, dependent upon whether or not the gluing process is aided by heat, and also varying according to the kind of timber used. The veneers are wet when produced from the log and may be glued together either in their wet state or after a pre-drying process. Plywood is, therefore, grouped into two classes, wet and dry produce. The drying of veneers before being cemented and pressed into a board prevents their shrinkage during the pressing process and, therefore, helps to make a better plywood board. If the veneers be glued wet the drying process is combined with the glueing operation in the press, and this often produces face checks (cracks) on the surfaces

It will be realized that con-

of material through a pipe-line, either by suction or blast, is ideal; since there are no mechanical parts in the path

large sheets free from some of the natural defects and limitations

sary joined edgewise, to form each ply, and thus large an unbroken surface are obtained; the plies are sorted appearance, and the inferior (knotty, shaky or sappy) generally utilized for the interior of the board (core),

is the utilization of the

YS LELEI

rH Ae TAN

ITRANS

Xa NDH

of the material there cannot be any contamination by lubrication. Another advantage is the greater flexibility of pneumatic plant: every part of the hold of a vessel, for instance, can be reached by flexible tubes for the purpose of unloading a grain cargo, whereas

a

more

complex

mechanical

plant is rigidly fettered to straight lines. BY COURTESY OF MESSRS, HENRY SIMON, The modus operandi of a pneuMANCHESTER matic plant is extremely simple PNEUMATIC COAL-HANDLING PLANT and is as follows:—Into a grain AT BRIMSDOWN POWER STATION cargo in a vessel, for instance, a hosepipe is lowered, the nozzle at the end of which admits a mixture of air and grain. The other end of the pipeline enters tangentially into the upper part of a cylindrical receiver from which the air is exhausted, while the grain is withdrawn from the cone-shaped lower end by an air-trap, without, however, admitting air into the receiver. When comparing pneumatic with mechanical handling devices the former have but one drawback. viz.: the greater consumption of driving power for handling a given quantity. This, however, is more than compensated for by the greater flexibility and the hygienic value of the system. The frst grain handling installation on the Duckham system was known as “Mark Lane No. 1,” and was built, under the personal supervision of the inventor, by the East Ferry Road Engineering Co., during the closing years of the roth century. This was one of the most epoch-making revelations of all systems of handling. The plant is mounted on a pontoon and sucks the grain through a nozzle and pipeline from the ship’s hold to an elevated receiver, whence it runs by gravity to a given point, via an air trap; an of the finished board, exhauster furnishes a partial vacuum by pipes connected with In the construction of plywood the said receiver. the following different types are As has been shown, the material in a pneumatic plant floats, known: so to speak, in a current of air, from which it is separated by its The outside plies of the lamispecific gravity when the air expands in the receiver. The nated type and of battenboards ELROD COTEU TION heavier the material to be handled the greater must be the speed may be occasionally superimposed ¢1) Ordinary plywood, (2) laminated of travel of the air in the conveying pipes in order to ensure on so-called crossbandings (ve- plywood, (3) batten board the floating of the material in and with the air. If the air speed neers lying crosswise to the outer plies) to ensure still greater is too slow the tendency will be for the material to separate from rigidity of the boards. the air and thus block the pipes, especially such portions as are Utilization.—Plywood is used wherever a material is required horizontally disposed, or nearly so. Obviously, therefore, instalto cover large unbroken spaces with a light but strong and rigid lations for such heavy materials as coal and ash require more sheeting, ¢.g., in cabinet-making (for panels, bed-ends, sides of powerful pumps. Similar installations in which, however, draught wardrobes, tabletops, etc.); building (for doors, wall panelling, is induced by “steam jets” are successfully employed for hanceilings, flooring, etc.); coach-building (for coach panels, motor dling ash from boilers. bodies, railway carriage roofs and walls, vans, baby carriages, Owing to the advantages accruing from the use of pneumatic etc.); shipbuilding (for bulkheads, etc.); boxmaking (for tea handling plants new avenues for their employment are being chests, rubber chests, cases, etc.); engineering (for aeroplane constantly opened. Such varied materials as grain, small coal,

PNEUMATIC

DISPATCH

95

chemicals, ashes, potatoes, and even red-hot rivets and artillery shells are now successfully handled by pneumatic

means.

An

offshoot of this system is the pneumatic tube, which is largely employed in postal and telegraph offices, as well as in great variety in business offices and stores. (G. F. Z.) PNEUMATIC DISPATCH, a system of transporting written dispatches through long tubes of small diameter by means of compressed or rarefied air. It was introduced in 1853 by J. Latimer Clark between the Central and Stock Exchange stations of the Electric and International Telegraph company in London, the stations being connected by a tube r4in. in diameter and 220yd. long, the messages, enclosed in a tight fitting carrier, being drawn through it by the production of a partial vacuum at one end. The system was improved in 1858 by C. F. Varley, who used compressed air to return the carriers in the other direction. By this means it was possible to develop two-way working on single tubes between a central station, equipped with air-compressing plant, and outlying offices. Pneumatic dispatch tubes are in extensive use in many countries for both telegraphic and postal matter. Radial System: This system of pneumatic dispatch was de-

i= oosa) Z where ¿=length of tube in yards,

d=diam. in inches, P=effective air pressure in pounds per sq. inch, t= transit time in seconds. For vacuum working the formula is:— 700825

fee

V;

1—-234V15-5—P, ¥ 2

where P,=effective vacuum

in

Ib. per sq. inch.

The horse-power required to propel the carrier is approximately

P d’ for pressure H.P.= (57440011P) |/ l ag

for vacuum

ee

ees

6

H.P.=(5-187— 1-214 V 15°5— P) P/Ž

For a given transit time the horse-power required is less in the case of vacuum than in the case of pressure working, owing to veloped by R. S. Culley and R. Sabine in connection with the the lesser density of the air column moved: thus, for example, British post office for the transmission of telegrams between local the transit time under xrolb. pressure is the same as with a collection and delivery offices and the central telegraph office; it vacuum of 64lb., but the horse-power required is as 1-83 to I. became generally more economical, under normal conditions of A 2tin. tube ım. long worked at tolb. per sq.in. pressure will traffic and distance, to transmit these messages by tube rather have a transit time of 2imin. and will theoretically require 3-35 than wire so dispensing with the employment of skilled h.p. to work it. Actually owing to various losses 25% more telegraphists. power must be allowed for the compressor. When working at Since that time the system has been greatly extended both in the same pressure the transit time for a 24in. tube is 16% more London and the large provincial towns until in London alone the than that for a corresponding length of 3in. tube, but the power street tubes laid measure over 57m., varying in length from required is 50% less and it is therefore advisable to use the tooyd. to nearly 4,oooyd. These tubes are either single tubes smallest tube compatible with the traffic. working in both directions or, where the traffic warrants it, sepDispatching and Receiving Apparatus.—On house tube arate “up” and “down” tubes are installed. In a few cases inter- systems, where only low pressures and vacuum are required, mediate offices are connected to the tubes, but this practice is simple forms of terminals consisting of cast-iron bodies with not desirable as delay in transmission is caused and direct tubes flap-doors are used, the doors being opened to insert a carrier, are installed wherever possible. and through which carriers are automatically ejected, the door A further development is the laying of pressure worked trunk closing behind them. Dispatching funnels are also used at the tubes from the central telegraph office to an outlying centre, mes- open end of tubes. sages being transmitted between this centre, where a pumping On the street tubes, however, a more complicated type of plant is also installed, by radial tubes to offices in the vicinity. apparatus, called a double slide switch, is used at the central House Tubes and Street Tubes.—Short tubes known as office. This consists of two vertical sections of tube secured into house tubes are in use in a large number of offices and telephone top and bottom plates and provided with a handle by which it is exchanges for carrying messages from the public counter or one rocked between two fixed horizontal plates forming a frame, room to another. These tubes, which are generally r4in. in diame- three holes being provided in each plate, the air supply pipe and ter, are made of brass and are operated by hand-worked pumps dispatch tube being connected to the centre holes and funnels for where the distance is short and the traffic inconsiderable, or by inserting or removing the carriers to the other holes. The carrier means of small electrically driven centrifugal fans or other form on arriving is received in one of the vertical sections and on the of blower. The pressure or vacuum required is only a few inches rocker being moved to its second position the carrier drops out as shown by water gauge and the blowers are either run continu- through the funnel provided. The second tubular section is now ously or switched on as required. ready to receive a carrier, which is discharged when the rocker Street tubes used by the post office are generally 2tin. in is returned to its first position. The process is reversed for disdiameter, but 3in. and r4in. tubes are also used. These tubes patching purposes, and where the tube is used for two-way working when laid in the street are in all cases made of lead and are pro- one position is reserved for sending and one for receiving. The tected by cast-iron pipes. Where they are run in buildings or supply of air, and whether under pressure or vacuum for sendsubways brass tubing is used. They are operated by electrically ing or receiving purposes, is controlled by a three-way valve driven compressors. mounted under the switch. Carriets.—The carriers, in which the messages are inserted A form of flap terminal, the door being restrained by a spring for dispatch, are made of gutta-percha covered with felt, the front in view of the higher pressures used, is installed at the outlying of the carrier being provided with a buffer or head formed by offices in place of the receiver originally used and thé carrier is several layers of felt fitting the tube closely, the messages being automatically ejected. held in place by means of an elastic band. The 3in. carriers hold On tubes where the carrier reaches a high velocity, a by-pass 50, the 24in. carriers 20 and the r4in. carriers five ordinary forms. is provided near the terminal by means of which the air pressure The carrier used on house tube systems are generally made of behind the carrier is released after it has passed this point so fibre the messages being retained by a clip. as to reduce the velocity of egress. This terminal is also used Working.—The air for working the street tubes is supplied for the dispatch of carriers to the central office, the supply of by electrically driven compressors, the standard pressure and air to the tube being changed from vacuum to pressure at the vacuum used being rolb. and 64lb. per sq.in. respectively, which latter point in response to a bell signal. When used for dispatchvalues give approximately the same speed. ing the by-pass is cut off by a remote control valve. Carriers may The time of transit of a carrier through a tube at the ordinary be diverted from one tube to another by means of a moving pressures in use is given approximately by the empirical section of tube directly or remotely controlled. formula :— A further development is the provision of an automatic rotat-

96

PNEUMATIC

GUN—PNEUMATIC

ing pneumatic tube switch by which carriers can be transferred between street and house tubes for both sending and receiving purposes, the terminals used being of the flap type.

Circuit System.—Another

system of working is the circuit

system, in which stations are arranged in circular or loop lines round which the carriers travel in one direction only, both pressure and vacuum being used. This system is in use in Paris and other Continental cities. In Messrs. Siemens’ system a continuous flow of air is maintained in the tube, the carriers being dis-

patched or removed through a form of rocking switch so designed that the movement of carriers in other parts of the system is not interfered with. More usually carriers, or trains of carriers, are dispatched at intervals, the air supply being cut off when not required. Long tubes may be sectionalized, means being provided at the various stations by which air is only supplied to the working section. In America, under the Batcheller system, tubes 8in. in diameter are used for postal purposes in New York, Brooklyn, Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston and St. Louis; tubes 6in. and toin. in diameter are also used. These tubes are essentially cast-iron pipes, carefully bored and equipped with suitable apparatus for introducing and receiving the carriers. The carriers for the 8in. tubes consist of cylindrical steel shells about 7in. in diameter and 2tin. long (inside dimensions) with suitable end covers. They are fitted with lubricated soft bearing or packing rings. The working capacity of these tubes may be taken as 8lb. per container and six containers per minute, or 2,880lb. of postal matter per hour in each direction, the average speed being about 25 to 30m. per hour. The dispatching apparatus is similar to that in the Siemens’ system, consisting of two sections of tube supported in a rocking frame so arranged that either section may be brought into line with the main tube, in which a current of air is constantly flowing. One of these sections maintains the continuity of the tube while the other section is loaded. The switch is then swung over by means of a pneumatically operated piston to insert the carrier

in the tube. A by-pass is provided to maintain the flow of air in the tube during the operation. As soon as the carrier leaves the switch it trips a lever and the switch automatically returns to the loading position. A time lock is used to prevent carriers being dispatched too frequently. The carrier is received by an air cushion formed by closing the end of the tube with a sluice gate, a by-pass being provided before this point to allow the air to flow away.

In addition to their use for postal and telegraphic purposes pneumatic dispatch tubes are used for internal communication in offices, hotels, etc., also in shops for the transport of money and bills between the counters and the cashiers’ desk. Pneumatic tubes are also used for the unloading and transport of grain and other commodities in bulk between warehouses and ships, trains, etc. BrstiocrapHy.—The system as developed for use in the British post office by Messrs. Culley and Sabine is described in a paper in Min. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. xliii. The same volume contains a description of the Paris system and of experiments thereon by M. Bontemps, and also a discussion of the theory of pneumatic transmission by Prof. W. C. Unwin. Reference should also be made to a paper by C. Siemens (Min. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. vol. xxxiii.), describing the Siemens’ circuit system; to Les Télégrapkes, by M. A. L. Ternant (188r); to the report to Congress of the American joint commission on pneumatic tube mail service, March 1919; General Post Office engineering department’s Technical Instruction No. X (Pneumatic Tubes); a short paper by J. McGregor on the automatic

system in the post office (P.O. Elec. Eng. Journal, vol. xix., part 1), and to Kempe’s Engineers Year Book. (J. "Mc G.)

PNEUMATIC GUN.

Air as a propellant commended itself

to some early designers of guns on account of its comparatively gentle action which proved advantageous with the primitive high explosive shells of the time. In 1883 Mefford of Ohio utilized an air pressure of soolb. per sq.in. in a 2-in. gun, and succeeded in propelling a projectile 2,r00yds. The arrangement was of the simplest form—a hose with an ordinary cock by which the air was admitted into the gun behind the projectile. The question was then taken up by Capt. E. L. Zalinski (1849-1909) of the United States Artillery, who in 1888 reduced the so-called “dynamite gun”

POWER

TRANSMISSION

to a more practical shape and obtained excellent firing results. The only record of the practical employment of a dynamite gun afloat was the case of the U.S. gunboat “Vesuvius,” which carried

three of the weapons in the bows. The guns were fixed at a constant angle of elevation, and the range regulated by an air valve, training being given by the helm. The “Vesuvius” was employed during the Spanish-American War of 1898, when on several nights in succession she approached the defences of Santiago under cover of darkness and discharged three projectiles. Fire delivered under such conditions could not be sufficiently accurate to injure coast defences; but the shells burst well, and made large craters. A

small dynamite gun on a field-carriage was used in the land operations above Santiago in the same war. PNEUMATIC POWER TRANSMISSION. Every wind

that blows is an instance of the pneumatic transmission of power, and every windmill or sail that catches the breeze is a demonstration of it. The modern or technical use of the term, however, is confined to the compression of air at one point and its transmission to another point where it is used in motors to do work. The first recorded instance of this being done was by Denis Papin (b. 1647), who compressed air with power derived from a waterwheel and transmitted it through tubes to a distance. About 1800 George Medhurst (1759-1827) took out patents in England for compressing air. He compressed and transmitted air which worked motors, and he built a pneumatic automobile. William Mann in 1829 took out a patent in England for a compound air compressor. In his application he states: “The condensing pumps used in compressing I make of different capacities, according to the densities of the fluid to be compressed, those used to compress the higher densities being proportionately smaller than those previously used to compress it to the first or lower densities,” etc. This is a very exact description of the best methods of compressing air to-day, omitting the very important inter-cooling. Baron Van Rathen in 1849 proposed to compress air in stages and to use inter-coolers between each stage to get 750 lb. pres-

sure for use in locomotives. For the next 40 years inventors tried without success all manner of devices for cooling air during compression by water, either injected into the cylinder or circulated around it, and finally, with few exceptions, settled down to direct compression with no cooling worthy of mention. Only in the last ten years of the roth century were the fundamental principles of economical air compression put into general practice, though all of them are contained in the patent of William Mann and the suggestion of Van Rathen. The first successful application of compressed air to the transmission of power, as we know it, was at the Mont Cenis tunnel in 1861. The form of compressor used was 2 system of water rams— several of them in succession—in which water was the piston, compressing the air upwards in the cylinder and forcing it out. Although the air came in contact with the water, it was not cooled, except slightly at the surface of the water and around the walls of the cylinders. The compressors were situated near the tunnel, and the compressed air was transmitted through pipes to drilling machines working at the faces in the tunnel. Rotary drills were tried first, but were soon replaced by percussion drills adapted from drawings in the U.S. Patent Office, copied by a French and Italian commission from the patent of J. W. Fowle of Philadelphia. H. S. Drinker (Tunneling, Explosive Compounds and Rock Drills, New York, 1893) states positively that the first percussion drill ever made to work successfully was patented by J. J. Couch of Philadelphia in 1849. Shortly afterwards Fowle patented his drills, in which the direct stroke and self-rotating principle was used as we use it now. The first successful drill in the Hoosac tunnel was patented in 1866 by W. Brooks, S. F. Gates and C. Burleigh, but after a few months was replaced by one made by Burleigh, who had bought Fowle’s patent and improved it. Burleigh made a compressor, cooling the air during compression by an injected spray of water in the cylinders. The successful work in the Mont Cenis and Hoosac tunnels with the percussion drilling machines caused the use of compressed air to spread rapidly. and it was soon found there were many other

purposes for which it could be employed with advantage.

PNEUMATIC

POWER

TRANSMISSION

97

Application of Pneumatic Power.—The larger tunnels and | difference in pressure between the compressor and the motor several miles away. Light butt-welded tubing is largely used for mission, often using it for pumping and hoisting as well as drilling. piping, and if properly put in there is very slight loss from leakIn Paris and Nantes, in Berne and in Birmingham (England), age, which, moreover, can be easily detected and stopped. In street tramways have been operated by pneumatic power, the practice, a sponge with soap-suds passed around a joint furnishes transmission in these, however, being in tanks rather than pipes. a detective agency, the escaping air blowing soap bubbles. In Tanks on the cars are filled at the central loading stations with good practice there need not be more than 1% loss through leakair at very high pressure, which is used in driving the motors, age and 1% possibly through friction. Air develops heat on compression and is cooled by expansion, enough being taken to enable the car to make a trip and return to the loading station. Several attempts in pneumatic street trac- and it expands with heat and contracts with cold. For the purpose tion were made in America, but failed owing to financial troubles of illustration suppose a cylinder ro ft. long containing ro cu.ft. and the successful introduction of electric traction. It is used of air at 60° F, with a frictionless piston at one end. If this piston yery successfully, however, both in Europe and in America, in be moved 74 ft. into the cylinder, so that the air is compressed to underground mine haulage, being especially adapted to coal mines, one-quarter of its volume, and none of the heat developed by where electricity would be dangerous from its sparks. The copper compression be allowed to escape, the air will be under a pressure smelting works at Anaconda, Mont., uses 12 large pneumatic of go lb. per square inch and at a temperature of 460° F. If this locomotives for charging the furnaces, removing slag, etc. Many air be cooled down to 60° F the pressure will be reduced to 45 stone quarries have a central plant for compressing air, which lb. per square inch, showing that the heat produced in the air is transmitted through pipes extending to all working points, itself during compression, gives it an additional expansive force and operates derricks, hoists, drills, stone cutters, etc., by means of 4s lb. per square inch. The average force or pressure in comof motors. Every considerable ironworks, railroad shop or foundry pressing this air without loss of heat is 2x lb. per square inch, has its pneumatic, transmission plant. Also in the erection of the whereas if all the heat developed during compression had been larger steel bridges or buildings a pneumatic transmission system removed as rapidly as developed the average pressure on the is part of the contractor’s outfit, and many railways have a piston would have been only 11 lb. per square inch, showing that portable compressing plant on a car ready to be moved to any the heat developed in the air during compression, when not removed as fast as developed, caused in this case an extra force point as needed. Dr. Julius G. Pohle, of Arizona, patented in 1886, and intro- of ro lb. per square inch to be used on the piston. If this heated duced extensively, the use of compressed air for lifting water air could be transmitted and used without any loss of heat the directly, by admitting it into the water column. His plan is extra force used in compressing it could be utilized; but in praclargely adopted in artesian wells that do not flow, or do not flow tice this is impossible, as the heat is lost in transmission. If the as much as desired, and is so arranged that the air supply has a piston holding the 24 cu.ft. of air at 45 Ib. per square inch and back pressure of water equal to at least half the lift. If it is at 60° F were released, the air expanding without receiving any desired to lift the water 30 ft. the air is admitted to the water heat would move it back within 34 ft. of the end only, and the column at least 30 ft. below the standing water surface. The temperature of the air would be lowered 170° F, or to 110° F air admitted being so much lighter than the water it displaces, below zero. If the ait were then warmed to 60° F again it would the column 60 ft. high becomes lighter than the column 30 ft. move the piston the remaining 34 ft. to its starting point. It is seen that the ideal air-compressing machine is one which high and is constantly released and flows out at the top. The efficiency of this method is only 20 to 40%, depending on the will take all the heat from the air as rapidly as it is developed lift, but its adaptation to artesian wells renders it valuable in during compression. Such “isothermal compression” is never reached in practice, the best work yet done lacking 10% of it. many localities. A remarkable pneumatic transmission system was installed in It follows that the most inefficient compressing machine is one 1890 by Priestly’ in Snake River desert, Idaho. On the north which takes away no heat during compression—that is, works by side of the river is a cliff, nearly perpendicular, about 300 ft. high. “adiabatic compression,” which in practice has been much more One hundred and ninety feet above the river, for a considerable nearly approached than the ideal. It also follows that the ideal distance along the cliff, streams of water gush out from between motor for using compressed air is one which will supply heat to the bottom of the great lava bed and the hardened clay of the the air as required when it is expanding. Such “isothermal” expanold lake bottom. Priestly, without knowledge of Pohle’s system, sion is often attained, and sometimes exceeded in practice by built a pipe line down the bluff and trained the water into it in supplying heat artificially. Finally, the most inefficient motor for such a way that it carried a very considerable quantity of air in using compressed air is one which supplies no heat to the air the form of bubbles along with it down the pipe, compressing it during its expansion, or works by adiabatic expansion, which was on the way. The air was collected at the bottom in a covered long very closely approached by most air motors. In practice reservoir, and taken up the cliff again to the lower part of an isothermal compression is approached by compressing the air inverted siphon pipe, one side of which reached down from the slightly, then cooling it, compressing it slightly again and again water-supply about 60 ft. and the other side reached up and over cooling it until the desired compression is completed. This is the bluff. Allowing the water to fill both sides of the pipe to the called compression in stages or compound compression. Isolevel of the water-supply, he admitted his compressed air at about thermal expansion is approximately accomplished by allowing the 75 Ib. pressure into the long side of the pipe near the bottom, and air to do part of its work (as expanding slightly in a cylinder) and soon had water flowing upwards over the cliff and irrigating a then warming it, then allowing it to do a little more and then large tract of rich lava land. He had made a power, a transmis- warming it again, and so continuing until expansion is complete. sion and a motor plant without a moving part. A similar com- It will be seen that the air is carefully cooled during compression pressor was installed near Montreal, Canada, in 1896; another to prevent the heat it develops from working against compression, at Ainsworth, British Columbia, in 1898; and another at Norwich, and even more carefully heated during expansion to prevent loss Conn., in 1902. These are called hydraulic air compressors and from cold developed during expansion. More stages of compresshow an efficiency of about 70%. They are particularly adapted sion of course give a higher efficiency, but the cost of machinery to positions with a large flow of water with a slight fall or head. and friction losses have to be considered. The reheating of air is Theory of Pneumatic Power Transmission.—The actual often a disadvantage, especially in mining, where there are great transmission of power by air from the compressor to the motor objections to having any kind of combustion underground; but is simple and effective. The air admits of a velocity of 15 to 20 where reheating is possible, as W. C. Unwin says, “for the amount ft. per second through pipes, with very slight loss by friction, and of heat supplied the economy realized in the weight of air used consequently there is no necessity for an expensive pipe system is surprising. The reason for this is, the heat supplied to the air in proportion to the power transmitted. It is found in practice is used nearly five times as efficiently as an equal amount of heat that, allowing a velocity as given above, there is no noticeable employed in generating steam.” Practically there is a hot-air metal mines were naturally the earliest to adopt pneumatic trans-

PNEUMATICS—PNEUMATIC

98

TOOLS

engine, using a medium much more effective than common air, | are also given certain other minor divisions according to the in addition to a compressed-air engine, making the efficiency of use to which they are put, such as boring, reaming, tapping, the whole system extremely high. (See also Pneumatic Toots.) flue rolling and stud-setting. The larger sizes of pneumatic drills

(A. De W. F.)

use a four-cylinder V-type air motor, with one crank throw pro-

the branch of physical science concerned

vided for each pair of cylinders in the same cross plane. The

with the properties of gases and vapours (Gr. mveĵua, wind, air). PNEUMATIC SUCTION CLEANING AND CON-

power from the crank-shaft is transmitted to the drilling spindle

PNEUMATICS,

VEYING: see Vacuum CLEANER. PNEUMATIC

TOOLS

comprise various classes of hand

tools which are operated by compressed air power.

They are di-

vided in two general classes according to the principle of operation (r) percussion, (2) reciprocating motor-driven. Under percussion tools are grouped rivetting, chipping and sand rammers, pneumatic diggers, rock drills, paving breakers, etc.; each using a piston or plunger for striking a blow. Reciprocating motor-driven tools employ a reciprocating piston air motor to drive a spindle from which power can be used for drilling, grinding, etc. The tools under this classification include pneumatic drills, grinders, motors, hoists, etc. Pneumatic tools usually operate best when supplied with compressed air at go lb. gauge pressure. The principal uses of pneumatic tools occur on those classes of work where it is not possible or not advisable to take the work to a machine. A pneumatic tool, being a self-contained power unit, can be taken to the work and various operations performed rapidly, with a minimum of manual labour. Pneumatically operated tools are suited for a wide variety of uses because of their availability, the adaptability of compressed air power, the absence of danger and because they embody within small confines a great range of power and action. Other advantages are rugged construction, simplicity, and easy operation. Pneumatic Hammers are made in a variety of sizes and types, and the name for each is governed largely by the work to be performed. This group covers chipping, rivetting, scaling and caulking hammers, diggers, paving breakers, rock drills and the

by gears arranged to give the spindle speed desired. A feed screw with a feed handle is used to feed the drill up to the work. A main valve, of rotary type, controls the supply of air to each of the four cylinders, the air supply reaching this main valve through a throttle handle. At the upper end of the main valve is located a centrifugal speed governor which limits the speed of the drill motor after it has passed the point of maximum horsepower. Another small class of pneumatic drills employ a three-cylinder radial air motor, the three cylinders being in one plane with one crank provided for all three cylinders. The power from the crank is transmitted through a spindle and gears to the point where the drill chuck is attached. The main spindle also serves as a valve controlling the air to the three cylinders, greatly simplifying the construction of the tool. These tools are used for light drilling in metal, in the automobile assembly plants for running up nuts, and for running in screws. They are equipped with either feed screw, spade handle or breast plate. The closequarter type of pneumatic drill uses a two-cylinder, doubleacting motor to give a flat and compact construction. The power is transmitted from the crank-shaft to the spindle by a train of gears. A feed screw is located at the end of the spindle and can be turned by means of the ratchet handle. This type of drill is used for drilling, reaming and tapping in cramped spaces where the usual drill cannot be employed.

Pneumatic

Grinders.—The pneumatic grinder is similar in

general construction to the air drill except that a higher speed motor, operating at 3,000 to 6,000 r.p.m. is used. The motor is like implements. (See Biastinc.) Each class of work requires directly connected to a spindle upon which is mounted the grinding a hammer of a particular size, weight, speed and strength of wheel. These tools are used in all kinds of service where a blow. In the operation of most rivetting hammers air enters the portable grinding tool, buffer or polisher is needed and are widely hammer at the air inlet in the handle, the amount of air being con- used in foundries and machine shops, monumental stone shops trolled by the throttle valve which is actuated by a trigger. After and automobile body plants. Pneumatic Diggers.—Pneumatic diggers, of the same operpassing the throttle valve the air is conducted through the passage in the handle to the valve chamber containing the operating valve ating principle as a rivetter, are made in two styles. A shortand valve box. The valve is moved back and forth in the valve box handle type is used in tunnel work or in close quarters and an by the action of the air pressure on its differential areas. As the extension-handle type for trench or shaft. Pneumatic diggers valve moves forward it admits air back of the piston, throwing it are a recent development for work where it is desired to replace forward against the rivet set, which forms the rivet head. The the hand pick. The tools are used for loosening up clay, hard piston, after striking a blow, is returned for another stroke by air ground, etc. The pneumatic digger consists of a hammer having admitted to the front of the cylinder, which is covered by the a piston which strikes against a blade or scoop. The blows of the piston in this position. Hammers for chipping, caulking and scal- piston drive the blade into the ground, prying it loose. One man ing are very similar in construction to the rivetting hammer. The with such a tool is the equal of six men using ordinary hand chipping hammer is used to clean foundry castings, for caulking picks. Rock Drills.—The removal of solid rock in excavation for the seams of boilers and tanks, pipe joints, etc., saving two-thirds foundations, trenches, highways, in mining and many other projthe time required by hand work. Sand Rammers have a long barrel containing a piston having ects calls for the use of a vast number of compressed-air rock a projecting rod at one end, to which the tamping butt is attached. drills. These tools are made in a wide variety of sizes for all In action the piston moves rapidly up and down in the barrel classes of work, depending on the size and depth of the hole to lifting the tamping butt from the sand and returning it with be drilled, the hardness of the rock and other factors. In the considerable impact against the material to be rammed. The “Jackhammer” type of rock drill, compressed air enters to a throtramming of certain classes of moulds in foundry work, a long tle valve in the handle and then passes to a flapper type of plate and arduous task when done by hand, is rapidly accomplished valve, which controls the movement of the piston. On the forward by means of the pneumatic sand rammer. Machine-rammed or downward movement of the piston it strikes against the shank moulds are harder and more uniform than those rammed by hand, of the drill steel, and imparts a cutting action to the points of the resulting in better castings. Floor rammers are used for working steel. On the back stroke of the piston it slides over a fluted rifleon large moulds on the floor, and the bench rammer on small bar which turns the piston and causes it to turn the drill steel. bench moulds. These tools strike up to 800 blows per minute. Rotation of the drill steel is desired in order that the cutting The force and number of blows are regulated by the operator edges on the end of the drill steel may be put in a new position with a throttle. The sand rammer is also used to tamp the with regard to the rock being drilled. A ratchet mechanism enback-fill in trenches in city streets, where it is desired to pack sures rotation in one direction. To blow out the cuttings and dust on sand solidly and by this means avoid the subsequent set- from the hole in the rock, air is passed down through the rifle-bar tling. and piston and through the drill steel to the cutting face. Pneumatic Drills—Portable pneumatic drills are divided These tools make it possible to drill holes in rock for inserting into four general types: the reversible drill, the non-reversible the explosives which blast out rock. One rock drill bores roo to drill, the woodborer and the close-quarter drill. The several types 150 ft. of hole in rock in an eight-hour day, while the best a

PNEUMATOLYSIS man can do using a hand hammer and steel is not more than 8 to 10 ft. a day. Rock drilling requires the use of pointed drill

steels which must be resharpened as the cutting edges become worn and dulled by the rock. This is done by compressed-air-operated drill steel sharpening machines in which after the drill steel is heated and inserted quickly shapes and sharpens the steel by means of dies many times faster than is possible by hand methods. Paving Breakers.—The paving breaker is a tool somewhat similar in construction to the rock drill and is used in demolition work such as breaking up pavement, tearing out concrete walls, foundations, etc. This tool uses a pointed chisel or steel, but it is not rotated. The absence of the rotation mechanism simplifies the general construction of the paving breaker. Paving breakers are extensively used by public utilities for making openings in the pavement prior to installing or repairing sewer pipes and connections. They are usually operated from a portable air compressor, Mounted on a motor truck, which can be quickly taken to the place where the work is to be done. One man operating one tool is able to break out more pavement in a given time than 12 to 15 men using hand sledges and steels. Air Motor Hoists.—These are made in a range of sizes to handle loads from soo Ib. up to 20,000 pounds. This style of hoist is equipped with a high-powered air motor of the fourcylinder type which is geared to a hoisting drum. A feature of these hoists is the automatic brake which acts to hold the load

at any point after the air pressure is shut off. When the motor is operating, air passes to the brake through a connecting tube releasing it. When the air is shut off at the throttle, the brake is automatically applied. These air hoists are widely used in industrial plants for handling material too heavy to be easily lifted by one man. In machine shops they lift and place heavy parts on lathes, milling machines and planers. (See MECHANICAL HANDLING.) Air hoists are particularly suited for foundry work because the operation is not affected by dust, dirt or fumes, and they are not damaged by overloading. Another type is the portable hoist, which can be mounted wherever convenient; #.e., to a post or

timber. It is used for pulling cars, skidding timbers, pulling a scraper on back-fill work, and dozens of other applications. Tools for Railroad Track Work.—Special pneumatic tools have been developed for a number of applications in railroad track construction and maintenance. There are pneumatic tie tampers for tamping ballast under ties, pneumatic spike pullers, spike drivers, rail drills, pneumatic wrenches, rail bonding drills and others. Tamping ballast with pneumatic tampers 1s much easier than swinging a pick or tamping with a hand bar. The air tampers strike a uniform blow all day long and produce a uniform track. In removing old rail, the old spikes must be pulled. A compressed-air-operated spike puller draws ro to 15 spikes per minute. One such machine does as much work as eight to ten men using hand claw bars. The pneumatic wrench removes the nuts or runs up nuts on the joint bolts much faster than is possible with a hand wrench. The air-operated spike driver puts down the spikes in a fraction of the time required by a hand hammer. A pneumatic rail drill bores a % in. hole through the web of a rail in from 25 to 30 seconds. Small holes for signal wires are drilled with pneumatic rail bonding drills at the

tate of 60 per hour. PNEUMATOLYSIS

(ni-mit-él’i-sis),

(R. A. Lv.) in petrology, dis-

charge of vapours from igneous magmas and effects produced by them on rock masses (so called from Gr. wvedua, vapour, and

Ave, to set free), In volcanic eruptions the gases given off by molten lavas are powerful agencies. The slaggy clots of lava thrown out from the crater are so full of gas that when they cool they resemble spongy pieces of bread. The lava-streams as they flow down the slopes of the volcano are covered with white steam clouds, while over the orifice of the crater hangs a canopy of vapour which is often darkened by fine particles of ash. Cause of Volcanic Explosions.—Most authors ascribe volcanic explosions to the liberation of steam from the magma which held it in solution, and the enormous expansive powers which

99

free water vapour possesses at very high temperatures. Of these gases the principal are water and carbonic acid; but by analysis of the discharges from the smaller fumaroles, for the active crater is generally too hot to be approached during an eruption, it has been ascertained that hydrogen, nitrogen, hydrochloric acid, boron, fluorine, sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid are all emitted by volcanoes. A recent lava flow has been likened to a great fumarole pouring out volatile substances at every crack in its slaggy crust. Many minerals are deposited in these fissures. and among the substances produced in this way are ammonium chloride, ferric chloride and oxide, copper oxide (tenorite and cuprite) and sulphur; by reacting on the minerals of the rock many zeolites and other secondary products are formed. These processes have been described as “juvenile” or “post-eruptive,” and it is believed that the amygdales which occupy the cavities of many porous lavas are not due really to weathering by surface waters percolating in from above, but to the action of the steam and other gases set free as the lava crystallizes. The zeolites are the principal group of minerals which originate in this way together with chlorite, chalcedony and calcite. The larger cavities (or geodes) are often lined with beautiful crystal groups of natrolite, scolecite, thomsonite, stilbite, and other minerals of this order. Solfataric Activity.—The active gases were evidently in solution in the magma as it rose to the surface. Geologists now believe they are of subterranean origin like the lava itself, and an essential or original component of the magma. Long after a lava has cooled down and become rigid the vapours continue to ooze out through its fissures, and around many volcanoes which are believed to be extinct there are orifices discharging gas in great quantities. This state of activity is said to be “solfataric,” and a good example of it is the volcano called the Solfatara near Naples. The numerous “soufriéres” of the West Indies are further instances. The prevalent gas is steam with sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid. White crusts of alum, various sulphates, and sulphides such as pyrites, also carbonates of soda and other bases, are formed by the action of the acid vapours on the volcanic rocks. The final manifestation of volcanic activity in a solfataric region may be the discharge of heated waters, which have ascended from the deep-seated magma far below the surface, and make their appearance as groups of hot springs; these springs persist long after the volcanoes which give rise to them have become extinct.

Role of Hot Waters.—It is now believed by a large number of geologists and mining engineers that these ascending hot waters are of paramount importance in the genesis of some of the most important types of ore deposits. Analyses have proved that the igneous rocks often contain distinct though very small quantities of the heavy metals; it is also established beyond doubt that veins of gold, silver, lead, tin and mercury most commonly occur in the vicinity of intrusive igneous masses. At Steamboat, Nev., hot springs, probably of magmatic origin, are forming deposits of cinnabar; at Cripple Creek, Colo., and in many other places gold-bearing veins occur in and around intrusive plugs of igneous rock. Tin ores in all parts of the world are found in association with tourmaline granites, and in all cases the veins bear evidence of having been filled from below by hot waters set free during the cooling of the igneous intrusions. Volcanic rocks are consequently the parent sources of many valuable mineral deposits, and the agency by which they were brought into their present situations is the volatile products discharged as the magma crystallized. The process was no doubt a long one and it is most probable that both steam and water took part in it. In what condition the metallic ores are dissolved and by what reactions they are precipitated depends on many factors only partly understood. The tin ores are so often associated with minerals containing boron and fluorine that it is quite probable that they were combined with these elements in some way, but they were deposited in nearly all cases as oxides. Other gaseous substances, such as sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid and hydrochloric acid, probably have an. important part in dissolving certain metals; and the alkaline

carbonates, sulphides and chlorides have been shown by experiment to act also as solvents. In these ore deposits not only the

IOO

PNEUMONIA

heavy metals are found, but often a much larger quantity of min- | be well proved, and it is undoubted that the pneumococcus is pres. erals such as calcite, barytes, fluorspar, quartz and tourmaline ent in the fauces of numbers of healthy persons and seems to which serve as a matrix or gangue, and have been deposited by the require a lowered power of resistance or other favouring condition same agencies, and often at the same time as the valuable minerals. for the production of an attack. Alteration of Minerals.—In their passage upwards and outLobar Pneumonia begins with an acute inflammatory process wards through the rocks of the earth’s crust, these gases and liquids in the alveoli. The changes which take place in the lung are chiefly not only deposit minerals in the fissures along which they ascend, three: (1) Congestion, or engorgement, the air cells still contain but attack the surrounding rocks and alter them; the granite or air. (2) Red Hepatization, so called from its resemblance to liver other plutonic mass from which the vapours are derived is specially tissue. In this stage the congested blood-vessels pour into the air liable to transformation, probably because it is at a high tempera- spaces of the affected part an exudation which speedily coagulates, ture, not having yet completely cooled down. Around the tin-bear- causing the lung to become airless and solid. In this condition ing veins in granite there is extensive replacement of felspar and the lung substance sinks in water. (3) Grey Hepatization. In this biotite by quartz, tourmaline and white micas (the last-named stage the lung still retains its liver-like consistence, but its colour often rich in lithia). In this way certain types of altered granite is now grey, not unlike the appearance of grey granite. This is due are produced, such as greisen (g.v.) and schorl rock (see SCHORL). partly to anaemia from pressure of the solidified exudation on the In the slates adjacent to the tin veins tourmalinization also goes pulmonary capillaries, partly to local accumulation of enormous on, converting them into schorl-schists. The alteration of felspar numbers of white blood corpuscles. The fibrin of the solid exudainto kaolin or china clay is also a pneumatolytic process, and is tion is now liquefied by a process of autolysis or peptonization by often found along with tin veins or other types of mineral deposit; unorganized ferments and the entangled cells undergo fatty deprobably both fluorine and carbonic acid operated in this instance generation (“resolution”). Absorption of this liquefied material is along with water. Equally common and important is the silici- carried out by the lymphatics and veins and in most cases the fication of rocks near mineral veins which carry gold, copper, lung soon recovers its normal function apparently uninjured. The lead and other metals. Granites and felsites may be converted into absorbed exudate is mainly excreted by the kidneys, excess of hard cherty masses of silica; limestones undergo this transforma- nitrogen being found in the urine during this period. When resolution very readily; at the same time they are regarded as rocks tion does not take place, death may occur from extension of the very favourable to the deposition of ores—probably the great fre- disease and subsequent toxaemia, heart failure, the formation of quency with which they undergo silicification and other types abscess or, more rarely, gangrene of the lung or from some compliof metasomatic replacement is one of the main causes of the cation. Usually pneumonia affects one lower lobe but it may exabundance of valuable deposits in them. The process known as tend to the whole lung or even to parts of both lungs (double “propylitization,” which has extensively affected the andesites pneumonia). In some cases, and particularly in children, the apex of the Hungarian goldfields, is believed to be also a consequence of the lung alone is affected. The prognosis of lobar pneumonia of the action of pneumatolytic gases. The andesites change to depends to a great extent on the previous history of the patient. dull, soft, greenish masses, and their original minerals are to a especially in respect of alcohol; a chronic alcoholic patient with large extent replaced by quartz, epidote, chlorite, sericite and apical or double pneumonia rarely recovers. The death rate of kaolin. Around granites intrusive into serpentine and other rocks acute lobar pneumonia in the chief London hospitals is 20%. containing much magnesia, there is often extensive “steatization,” Symptoms.—The attack is usually ushered in by a rigor (or in or the deposit of talc and steatite in place of the original minerals children a convulsion), and rise of temperature to 102° F or more. of the rock. Some of the apatite veins of Canada and Norway Pulse and respiration are quickened but disproportionately so that accompany basic rocks of the gabbro group; it has been argued the normal ratio (3 or 4:1) is replaced by 2:1 or even 1:1. The that the apatite (which contains phosphorus and chlorine) was extraordinary muscles of respiration come into play and rhythmic laid down by vapours or solutions containing those gases, which dilatation of the alae nasi is very characteristic. Pain in the side may play a similar part in the basic rocks to that taken by is felt, especially should any amount of pleurisy be present, as is fluorine and boron in the pneumatolytic veins around granites. In often the case. Cough is an early symptom. It is at first frequent the country rock around the veins scapolite (g.v.), a lime alumina and hacking, and is accompanied with a little tough colourless silicate, containing chlorine, often is substituted for lime-felspar. expectoration which soon, however, becomes more copious and of These extensive changes attending the formation of mineral a rusty red colour, either tenacious or frothy and liquid. The paveins are by no means common phenomena, but in many plutonic tient during the greater part of the disease lies on the back or on masses pneumatolytic action has contributed to the formation of the affected side. The urine is scanty, sometimes albuminous, and pegmatites (g.v.). (J. S. F.) its chlorides are diminished. In favourable cases, however severe, PNEUMONIA, a term used for inflammation of the lung there generally occurs after six or eight days a distinct crisis, substance. The disease has long been divided into three varieties: marked by a rapid fall of the temperature accompanied with per(x) Acute Croupous or Lobar pneumonia; (2) Catarrhal or Bron- spiration and a copious discharge of lithates in the urine. Although cho-pneumonia; (3) Interstitial or Chronic pneumonia. no material change is as yet noticed in the physical signs, the r. Acute Lobar Pneumonia (Pneumonic Fever) is now patient breathes more easily, sleep returns, and convalescence classed as an acute infective disease of the lung, characterized by advances rapidly in the majority of instances. fever and toxaemia, running a definite course and being the direct The complications of acute pneumonia are pleurisy, empyema, result of a specific micro-organism or micro-organisms. The pericarditis and endocarditis, while meningitis is responsible for micrococcus lanceolatus (pneumococcus, or diplococcus pneu- a large percentage of the fatal cases. The pneumococcus has been moniae) of Fränkel and Weichselbaum is present in a large num- found in the exudate in all these cases. Secondary pneumonias ber of cases in the bronchial secretions, the affected lung and the chiefly follow the specific fevers, as diphtheria, enteric fever, blood. This organism is also present in many other infective pro- measles and influenza. Bacteriologically a number of different orcesses which may complicate or terminate lobar pneumonia, such ganisms have been found, together with the specific microbe of as pericarditis, endocarditis, peritonitis and empyema. The bacil- the primary disease; the striking features of primary lobar pneulus pneumoniae of Friedländer is also present in a proportion of monia are often masked in these types. cases, but is probably not the cause of true lobar pneumonia. Treatment.—This is partly general, partly by means of vacLobar pneumonia is an acute endemic disease of temperate cli- cines and serums. Many trials have been made with antipneumomates, though epidemic forms have been described. It has a dis- coccic serum, but it has not been shown to have a very marked tinct seasonal incidence, being most frequent in the winter and effect in cutting short the disease. The polyvalent serum of spring. Osler strongly supported the view that it is an infectious Romer has given the best results. Much more favourable results disease, quoting the outbreaks reported by W. L. Rodman of have been obtained from the use of a vaccine. The vaccine proFrankfort, Kentucky, where in a prison of 735 inhabitants there ducing the best results is autogenous, z.e., prepared from the pawere 118 cases in one year; but direct contagion does not seem to tient’s own strain of pneumococcus but in order to save time a

PNEUMOTHORAX—PNOM-PENH

IOI

and according to the means of its production is spoken of as Spontaneous or Artificial. Spontaneous Pneumothorax.—This is generally due to the to depend upon recognition of the particular “type” of pneumorupture of an air-containing lung into the pleural sac, commonly coccus causing the disease. 2, Broncho-Pneumonia (Catarrhal or Lobular Pneumonia caused by softening of a tuberculous nodule. According to the or Capillary Bronchitis). The term “broncho-pneumonia” is size and nature of the rupture the pneumothorax is formed or suddenly with here used to denote a widespread catarrhal inflammation of the gradually, with slow development of symptoms, smaller bronchi which spreads in places to the alveoli and produces immediate and urgent distress. A rapid and complete collapse of by encroachment consolidation. All forms of broncho-pneumonia depend on the one lung, accompanied, as commonly happens, severe breathto leads lung, other the on contents chest the of has organism one No micro-organisms. by lung invasion of the extensively was organ collapsed the however, Where, lessness. however been constantly found which can be said to be specific, and occasionally its as in lobar pneumonia; the influenza bacillus, micrococcus catar- diseased its loss may be less urgently felt the benefit rhalis, pneumococcus, Friedlander’s bacillus and various staphyl- collapse may be actually beneficial. It was largely attention to the ococci have been found and often the infection is mixed. Broncho- arising from certain of these cases that directed of spontaneous pneumonia may occur as an acute primary affection in chil- idea of inducing collapse artificially. In most cases and fluid, whether dren, but more usually is a secondary extension of the bronchitis pneumothorax the pleura becomes inflamed, a hydro- or pyofound in infectious fevers, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, thin or purulent, transforms the condition into

“stock” mixture of known pneumococcus strains is employed, at least for a first injection.

The value of vaccine treatment seems

scarlet fever and typhoid fever. In these it forms a frequent and often a fatal complication especially in early childhood. In adults

it may follow influenza or complicate chronic Bright’s disease or various other disorders. Broncho-pneumonia also may follow operations on the mouth or trachea, or the inhalation of foreign bodies into the trachea. The lung shows numerous prominent dark red patches in contact with depressed areas of collapsed and airless lung. Under the microscope the air vesicles and finer bronchi are blocked with

epithelial cells and leucocytes, but there is no fibrinous exudation as in croupous pneumonia. In favourable cases resolution takes place by fatty degeneration, liquefaction, and absorption of the cells, but in weakly children the foci are liable to be infected by B. tuberculosis and the subsequent changes are those of tuberculosis. Broncho-pneumonia is a serious disease; the death-rate in children under five has been estimated at 30 to 50%. The treatment is mainly symptomatic. In children, should the secretion accumulate in the bronchial tubes an emetic is useful. Inhalations relieve the cough, and circulatory stimulants such as strychnine are valuable, together with belladonna and oxygen.

3. Chronic

Interstitial

Pneumonia

(Cirrhosis

of the

Lung) is a fibrosis chiefly around the walls of the bronchi and vessels, and in the intervesicular septa, which proceeds to such an extent as to invade and obliterate the air cells. The lung becomes shrunken, dense in texture and solid, any unaffected portions being emphysematous; the bronchi are dilated (see BRONCHIECTASIS), the pleura thickened, and the lung substance often deeply pigmented, especially in miners, who are apt to suffer from this disease. This condition is present to some degree in almost all chronic diseases of the lungs and bronchi, but it is specially apt to arise in persons following dusty occupations such as those of colliers, flax-dressers, stonemasons, millers, etc., to which the term pneumonokoniosis is now applied (including anthracosis, siderosis, chalicosis and “grinder’s rot”). (See MINERS’ PHTHISIS.) The malady is usually of long duration, many cases remaining for years in a stationary condition and even undergoing temporary improvement in mild weather, but the tendency is on the whole downward. Brstiocrapny.—R. Murray Leslie, Pneumonia, London, 1924; H. E. Stewart, Diathermy with special reference to pneumonia (2nd ed., New York, 1925); Avery and others, Acute lobar pneumonia, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, Monograph No. 7 (New York, 1917, bibl.) ; W. G. MacCallum, Monograph ro of same series (New

York, 1919, bibl); R. L. Cecil, H. S. Baldwin and N. P. Larsen, Lobar pneumonia; clinical and bacteriological study of 2,000 typed cases, Arch. Int. Med. 1927, xl. 253 (bibl.) ; F. B. Kelly, “Observations of lobar pneumonia, etc.,” Jz. Infect. Dis. (1926, xxxviil., on te 24, bibl.).

PNEUMOTHORAX.

The lungs are elastic organs kept

extended by their indirect attachment to the walls of the bony thorax. This is effected through the intervention of the pleura (see Cortom and Serous MEMBRANES), the surfaces of which are held in contact by atmospheric pressure, and glide over one another during respiration. If gas or air gain entry to the pleural cavity, the lung on account of its elasticity tends to collapse and empty itself of air. This is the condition known as Pneumothorax.

pneumothorax. Artificial Pneumothorax.—Otherwise known as pneumothorax treatment, or as collapse-therapy, artificial pneumothorax was first urged on theoretical grounds in 1821 by an Irishman, James Carson of Liverpool. His views were supported by clinical observations on Spontaneous Pneumothorax (Houghton, 1832; Stokes, 1837), but not till 50 years later did Potain (1884) put air into a spontaneous pneumothorax, and Cayley (1885) treat a case of haemoptysis by this method. The treatment on

its modern lines may be said to originate with Forlanini, who reported his first cases in 1894-5. The aim of this treatment is the collapse of a diseased lung, where disease does not respond to other measures, and the other lung is sufficiently sound. Its main field has been pulmonary tuberculosis, but it has also been used in lung abscess and bronchiectasis, in the diagnosis of obscure lung conditions, especially tumours, and to assist the surgeon in certain chest operations. The gases used are commonly air, nitrogen or oxygen, according to the requirements of the case. The gas is delivered from a “gas bottle” connected with a “pressure bottle” containing fluid, and enters the chest through a special needle attached to a water manometer to control the pressure. It is introduced in small quantities at first and collapse brought about slowly. As it collapses the lung squeezes out the diseased secretions it contains, and these are brought up as sputum. In a favourable case the sputum then ceases, the temperature becomes normal and the patient regains his lost health. Gas is introduced every few weeks, and treatment is carried on till disease is judged to be healed. The lung is then allowed to expand and does so to a varying extent. The main impediment to pneumothorax treatment is the occurrence, in a large proportion of cases, of adhesions between the surfaces of the pleura. The main source of failure during its course is the development of fresh disease in the functioning lung. The success of pneumothorax treatment in severe tuberculous disease has been very notable, at least 50% being improved, arrested or cured. BrevroGRAPHY.—Medical Research Council, Special Report No. 67, Report on Artificial Pnewmothorax (H.M. Stat. Off., 1922); C Riviere, The Pneumothorax and Surgical Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis (2nd ed. London, 1927); J. B. Amberson, Jr. and A. Peters, Pulmonary Tuberculosis; its Treatment by Induced Pneumothorax in H. Lilienthal’s Thoracic Surgery, vol. ii. p. 320 (Philadelphia. 1925,

bibl.);

J. Gravesen,

Surgical

Treatment

of Pulmonary

and

Pleural Tuberculosis (London, 1925); J. Alexander, Surgery of Pulmonary Tuberculosis (London, 1925, bibl.). See also E, Loewenstein, Handbuch der Gesamten Tuberculose-Therapie (Berlin, R a

PNOM-PENH,

.

Ri.

a town of French Indo-China, capital, since

1886, of the protectorate of Cambodia and seat of the residentsuperior. Pop. about 60,000, consisting of Cambodians, Annamese, Chinese, Malays, Indians and some Europeans. It is situated on the Mekong about 173 m. from its mouth at the point where it divides into two arms and is joined by the Tonlé-Sap river. Its position makes it the market for the products of Cambodia, Laos, Upper Burma and part of Siam (dried fish, rice, cotton, indigo, cardamoms, etc.). The administrative opening of the Mekong to maritime navigation in 1908 has contributed a great

102

PO—POCKET-GOPHER

deal to‘its development. The palace of the king of Cambodia occupies a large space in the Cambodian quarter. The town gets its name from the Pném, a hill surmounted by an ancient pagoda. PO (anc. Padus, Gr. Tddos), a river of northern Italy, and the dominating factor in its geography. It is the longest river in Italy (310 m. direct, 417 m. including its many windings), and the area of its basin, which includes portions of Switzerland, is estimated at 26,798 sq.m. For its course and principal tributaries, see ITALY. The lower valley of the Po was at an early period occupied by people of the Palaeolithic and Neolithic stages of civilization, who built houses on piles along the swampy borders of the streams. The river regulation works originated in pre-Roman times. The reclaiming and protecting of the riparian lands went on rapidly under the Romans, and in several places the rectangular divisions of the ground are still remarkably distinct. (See Este.) During the barbarian invasions much of the protective system decayed but the later middle ages saw the works resumed, so that the present arrangement existed in the main by the close of the 15th century. The Ligurian name of the Po was Bodincus or Bodencus, 2.e., the bottomless. The name Padus was taken from the Celts or the Veneti. Thus we find Bodincomagus as a town name (Industria) on the upper course, and Padua, as a name of one of the mouths of the river. The name ’Hpuéavés (Eridanus) of Greek poetry was identified with it at a comparatively late period. See A. Beltramelei, Da Comacchio ad Argenta A. Cappellini, JZ Polesine (Rovigo, 1925).

POBEDONOSTSEV,

CONSTANTINE

(Bergamo,

1905);

PETROVICH

(1827-1907), Russian jurist, state ofħcial, and writer on philosophical and literary subjects. Born in Moscow in 1827, he studied

at the School of Law in St. Petersburg, and entered the public service as an official in one of the Moscow departments of the senate. From 1860 to 1865 he was professor of Russian civil law in Moscow University, and instructed the sons of Alexander II. in the theory of law and administration. In 1868 he became a senator in St. Petersburg, in 1872 a member of the council of the empire, and in 1880 chief procurator of the Holy Synod. He was an uncompromising reactionary. In the early years of the reign of Alexander II. (1855-1881), Pobédonostsev maintained, though keeping aloof from the Slavophils, that Occidental institutions were radically bad in themselves and totally inapplicable to Russia. Parliamentary methods of administration, modern judicial organization and procedure, trial by jury. freedom of the press, secular education—these were among the principal objects of his aversion. He subjected all of them to a severe analysis in his Reflections of a Russian Statesman (English by R. C. Long, London, 1898). To these dangerous products of Occidental rationalism he opposed the autocratic power, and the traditional veneration for the ritual of the national Church. He therefore persecuted the dissenters, Stundists, Doukhobors and others, and insisted on severe measures of repression in education and in the press. In the sphere of practical politics he exercised considerable influence by inspiring and encouraging the Russification policy of Alexander III. (1881~ 1894). After the death of Alexander III. he lost much of his influence. Pobédonostsev retired in 1905, and died on March 23, 1907.

pened in connection with the expedition under Capt. Bartholomew Gosnold and others, who landed in Chesapeake Bay in 1607, ex. plored the James river, and formed a settlement. Owing to the fact, however, that no mention of this experience is made in the minute personal narrative covering this period, written by Capt. Smith at the time of the supposed occurrence and published im.

mediately

thereafter, nor in the recollections of his comrades

who usually gave him full credit for any of his exploits, doubts

have arisen as to the authenticity of the tale. The first story

concerning Pocahontas appears in the General] Historie, first published in 1624, after she had been made much of in England as the attractive daughter of an emperor and the first convert of her tribe to Christianity, and it is to be feared that the temptation to bring her on the stage as heroine in a new character in connection with Smith, ever the hero of his own chronicles, was more than he or the publishers of the Generall Historie could withstand. Among the many prominent Virginia families who trace their ancestry to the son of Pocahontas and her husband, John

Rolfe, are the Bollings (Mrs. Edith Bolling Galt married Presjdent Woodrow Wilson in 1915), the Guys, the Robertsons, the Elbridges, and the John Randolphs. (See Lincoln Library of Facts and American Antiquarian Society Trans., vol. iv., p. 40.)

POCATELLO, a city of south-eastern Idaho, U.S.A., on the Portneuf river, at an altitude of 4,460 ft., 176 m. S. by W. of Yellowstone National Park; the county seat of Bannock county and

the second city of the State in size. It is on Federal highways 30N and gi and the Oregon Short Line of the Union Pacific railway system; and has a municipal airport and station for the air mail service. Pop. (1920) 15,001—82% native white—16,471 in 1930 by the Federal census. Beyond the Snake river (15 m. distant) to the north and west stretches the Snake river lava plain of 20,000 sq.m. American Falls (pop. in 1920, 1,547) 23 m. W. of Pocatello, is the centre of a great hydro-electric power and irrigation project. Pocatello has extensive railroad shops, large wholesale houses and a variety of manufacturing establishments (including cheese factories with a world-wide market) with an output valued in 1927 at $5,765,879. It is the seat of the southern branch of the State university, which duplicates the first two years of the curriculum offered at Moscow. Seven miles north is the Ft. Hall Indian Reservation, and within its limits is the site of old Ft. Hall, built in 1834 at the intersection of the MissouriOregon and the Utah-Canada trails. The early history of this region, when the overland stage made its way through the Portneuf valley, was full of episodes with Indians and highwaymen. At Massacre Rocks, 38 m. S.W. of Pocatello, an emigrant train was annihilated by Indians in Aug. 1862. The city is built on 2,000 ac. sold by the Indians to the United States.’ It began as a tent colony in 1882, when the railroad was completed to this point, and was incorporated in 1892. Its growth was due at first to the railroad shops, and later to the irrigation projects which turned much of the surrounding desert into productive agricultural lands.

POCHARD,

a diving duck, Nyroca ferina, the female of

which is sometimes called the dunbird. In the male in full plumage the head is coppery-red, the breast black, and the back and flanks a dull white, closely barred with fine undulating black lines. The tail coverts and quill feathers are black and the lower surface dull white. The female is duller. The pochard breeds throughout the northern hemisphere, migrating to the coast in For an account of Pobédonostsev’s policy of repression see B. winter and retiring southward. The American subspecies is Pares, A History of Russia. larger. A second American species is the much bigger canvasPOCAHONTAS (1595-1617), daughter of the Indian chief, back duck (g.v.). Both species are excellent table birds when Powhatan, is the heroine of one of the best-known traditions con- they frequent fresh water, the canvas-back being pre-eminent. nected with the beginnings of American history. The story is Allied to the pochards are the scaup duck (N. marila), the that Capt. John Smith, as head of a band of soldiers in search tufted duck and the eiders. of food and exploring the Chickahominy river, was waylaid by POCKET-GOPHER, the name of a group of (chiefly North) Indians and taken prisoner by their chief, Powhatan. Smith had American rat-like rodents, characterized by large cheek-pouches, been forced to kneel down while his head was laid on a stone the openings of which are external to the mouth; while their preparatory to having his brains crushed out with heavy clubs, inner surface is lined with fur. The second and third front-claws when Pocahontas, a young daughter of the chief, sprang forward, are greatly enlarged, and all the claws are furnished at the base seized his head in her arms, and saved his life. She is supposed with bristles. The eyes are small, and the external ears to have come again to his aid a year later by revealing a plot rudimentary. made against Smith by her father. All this is said to have hapPocket-gophers, which typify a family, the Geomyidae, spend

POCKET-MOUSE—PODMOKLY

103

the whole of their time underground, their powerful claws being | cause was strongest and where his own ancestral castle was situadapted for digging, while the bristles on the toes prevent the |ated, he marched on Prague and took it, afterwards defeating the earth from passing between them. The upper incisor teeth are Romanist or Austrian party led by Ulrich von Rosenberg. In 1451 the emperor Frederick III., Ladislas’ guardian, entrusted employed to loosen the ground, like a fork; and the little rodents are able to move both backwards and forwards in their runs. Poděbrad with the administration of Bohemia. In the same year

a diet assembled at Prague also conferred on Poděbrad the regency. The struggle of the Bohemians against Rome continued uninterruptedly, and Podébrad’s position became very difficult when Ladislas, who was crowned in 1453, expressed his sympathies for the Roman Church, though recognizing the compacts Canadian Thomomys talpoides, which is considerably smaller and ancient privileges of Bohemia. In 1457 King Ladislas died than the former. (See RODENTIA.) suddenly. Public opinion from an early period accused Podébrad POCKET-MOUSE, the name of a number of small jerboa- of having poisoned him; but the suggestion is undoubtedly a like, chiefly North American rodents belonging to the family calumny. On Feb. 27, 1458, the estates of Bohemia unanimously Heteromyidae, and including the genera Dipodomys, Microdi- chose Podébrad as king, even the adherents of the Austrian party podops, Perognathus, and Heteromys. The typical pocket-mouse voting for him. A year later, Pius IXI. (Aeneas Sylvius) became P. fasciatus is a native of Montana, Dakota and Wyoming. The pope, and his incessant hostility proved a serious obstacle to Pocket-Mice (Perognathus) and Kangaroo Rats (Dipodomys) Podébrad’s rule. are fairly closely allied genera, the latter looking very like jerboas, Though refusing to let the compacts be abolished, as Pius dewith long hind-feet and plumed tails. Heteromys contains a manded, Podébrad placated him by punishing the most advanced number of Spiny Pocket-Mice, in which the hair is spiny and enemies of the papacy, including the newly-founded community the colour of the coat usually black; the majority of the species of the Bohemian brethren; but his endeavours to establish peace of this genus are from Central America and Mexico. with Rome proved ineffectual, although the death of Pius II. POCOCKE, EDWARD (1604-1691), English Orientalist prevented him from carrying out his planned crusade against and biblical scholar, the son of a Berkshire clergyman, was edu- Bohemia. Despite the prosperity enjoyed by Bohemia under cated at the free school of Thame in Oxfordshire and at Corpus Podébrad’s rule, the malcontent nobles of the Romanist party, Christi college, Oxford of which he became a fellow in 1628. meeting on Nov. 28, 1465, at Zelena Hora, formed a confederacy He discovered in a Bodleian ms. the missing Syraic versions of against him which was supported by the Roman see. On Dec. 23. the four New Testament epistles (2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude) 1466, Paul II., the successor of Pius II., excommunicated Poděbrad which were not in the old Syriac canon, and were not contained and pronounced his deposition as king of Bohemia, forbidding all in European editions of the Peshito. His edition of these was Romanists to continue in his allegiance. The emperor Frederick published at Leyden in 1630, when Pococke sailed for Aleppo ILI., and King Matthias of Hungary, Podébrad’s former ally, as chaplain to the English factory. At Aleppo he studied Arabic, joined the insurgents. Matthias conquered a large part of Moravia, and collected many valuable mss. Laud founded an Arabic and was crowned king of Bohemia at Brünn on May 3, 1469. On chair at Oxford, and invited Pococke to fill it. He began to March 22, 1471, Podébrad’s death ended the war. He was the lecture on Aug. 10, 1636; but next summer sailed again for only native king of Bohemia, and the only one not a Roman Constantinople, and remained there for about three years. When Catholic. he returned to England Laud was in the Tower, but had placed See H. Markgraf, Über das Verhiiltniss des Königs Georg von the Arabic chair on a permanent footing. Pococke’s rare scholar- Poděbrad zu Papst Pius II. (1867); Jordan, Das Königthum Georgs Poděbrad (1861); A. Bachmann, Ein Jahr böhmischer Geschichte ship and personal qualities won him influential friends among the von (1876), and Urkunden ... zur oesterreichischen Geschichte .. . im opposite party, and through the good offices of John Selden and Zeitalter George von Poděbrad (1879); E. W. Kanter, Die Emordung John Owen he was advanced in 1648 to the chair of Hebrew, Konig Ladislaus (1906); Novotry, Uber den Tod Kénig Ladislaws though as he could not take the engagement of 1649 he lost the Postumus (1906). See also BOHEMIA. emoluments of the post soon after, and did not recover them till PODGORICA (pronounced Podgoritsa), the commercial capthe Restoration. During the Commonwealth attempts were made ital of Montenegro, Yugoslavia. Pop. (1921) 8,727. The town lies to deprive him of his living of Childrey. In 1649 he published the in a fertile plain on the Moracha, here spanned by a fine old Specimen historiae arabum, a short account of the origin and Turkish bridge, while a tributary separates the Turkish town lying manners of the Arabs, taken from Barhebraeus (Abulfaragius), within the ruined ramparts, and inhabited by Albanians, from the with notes from a vast number of MS. sources which are still new Montenegrin quarter built in 1878. The latter contains a valuable. This was followed in 1655 by the Porta Mosts, ex- State agricultural college, a gymnasium, a bank, a prison, a large tracts from the Arabic commentary of Maimonides on the tobacco factory and one of the few sawmills in the country. Mishna, with translation and learned notes; and in 1656 by the Podgorica is an important road centre, and has a large transit annals of Eutychius in Arabic and Latin. trade. After the Restoration Pococke’s political and pecuniary troubles PODIUM, in architecture, a continuous pedestal, a low wall were removed, but the reception of his magnum opus—a com- supporting columns, or the lowest portion of the wall of a buildplete edition of the Arabic history of Barhebraeus (Greg. Abuling when given a separate archiJaragit historia compendiosa dynastiarum), which he dedicated tectural treatment. Sometimes to the king in 1663—-showed that the new order of things was not the basement (g.v.) storey of a very favourable to profound scholarship. After this his most classic building may be treated important works were a Lexicon heptaglotton (1669) and English as a podium. The podium is usucommentaries on Micah (1677), Malachi (1677), Hosea (1685) ally designed with a moulded base and Joel (1691), which are still worth reading. and plinth (qg.v.) at the bottom, a The cheek-pouches are employed in carrying food, which consists of roots. The common pocket-gopher, Geomys bursarius, of the Mississippi Valley measures about 8 in. in length, with a tail of between 2 and 3 in.; its colour being rufous brown and greyish beneath. A well-known representative of the second genus is the

See a curious account of his life and writings by L. Twells prefixed to Theological Works of Dr. Pococke (2 vols., 1740).

PODEBRAD,

GEORGE

OF (1420-1471), king of Bo-

hemia, was the son of Victoria of Kunstat and Poděbrad, a Bohemian nobleman, who was one of the leaders of the “Orphans” or modern Taborites during the Hussite wars. George became early prominent as leader of the National, or Calixtine party in Bohemia, becoming its chief at the death of Ptacek of Pirkstein. In 1448, during the minority of Ladislas Posthumus, having raised a force of 9,000 men in north-east Bohemia, where the National

central plane surface known as a die or dado, and a projecting cor-

PODIUM: SHOWING MOULDED Base, Nice or cap. The majority of

PLANE SURFACE OR DADO, AND Etruscan and Roman temples CORNICE were raised on podiums and the entrance steps ascended between wing walls which were the continuations of the podium at the sides.

PODMOKLY

(Ger. Bodenbach), a frontier town on the left

bank of the Elbe in north-western Bohemia. Situated on the main Prague-Dresden-Berlin railway, it is an important junction, cus-

104

PODMORE—POE

tom-house and passport control with a flourishing transit trade, in part supplied by its varied industries, which include textiles, porcelain, chemicals and foodstuffs. Pop. (1921), 15,103.

PODMORE,

FRANK

(1856-1910), English psychologist,

was born at Elstree, Herts., on Feb. 5, 1856, and educated at Haileybury and at Pembroke college, Oxford. He became interested in psychical research, and was closely associated with Edmund Gurney and F W. H. Myers in the telepathic and psychical investigations described in their joint publication Phantasms of

the Living (1886).

He was found drowned near Malvern on

Aug. 15, IQIO. His publications include Apparitions and Thought Transference a Studies in Psychical Research (1897); Moderm Spiritualism 1902).

PODOCARPACEAE: see GyMNOSPERMS. PODOLIA, a former government of European Russia now in the Ukrainian S.S.R.

(See UKRAINE.)

PODOLSK, a town of Russia in the province of Moscow, in 55° 27 N., 37° 28” E., 26 m. S. of Moscow, on the railway and on the Pakhra river, crossed by a suspension and a railway bridge. Pop. (1926) 19,335. The town manufactures cement, lime, silicates and silk goods and has a railway repair shop. Until 1781 it was a dependency of the Danilov monastery of Moscow. Near it is an unkept park on the banks of the Pakhra, on the former estate of Count Tolstoi, and a museum, once a house of Prince Golitzin.

PODOPHYLLIN, a drug obtained from the rhizome of the

American mandrake or May apple (qg.v.). As met with in commerce, the rhizome occurs in cylindrical pieces 2 or 3 in. long and about 4 in. in diameter, of a chocolate or purplish-brown colour, smooth, and slightly enlarged where the juncture of the leafy stem is indicated by a circular scar on the upper and a few broken rootlets on the under side. The odour is heavy and disagreeable, and the taste acrid and bitter. Podophyllin is a resinous powder obtained by precipitating an alcoholic tincture of the rhizome by means of water acidulated with hydrochloric acid. The powder is soluble in alcohol and strong solutions of alkalis. There are at least two resins in the

powder (which is known officially as Podophylli resina), one being soluble and the other insoluble in ether. Each contains an active substance, which can be obtained in crystalline form, and is known as podophyllotoxin. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform and boiling water. The properties of podophyllin resin vary with the reaction of the tissue with which it is in contact; where this is acid the drug is inert, the picro-podophyllin being precipitated. The resin does not affect the unbroken skin, but may be absorbed from a raw surface, and will then cause purging. When taken internally it is both a secretory and an excretory cholagogue. It is largely used in patent medicines, usually as an auxiliary to aloes. The best method of prescribing podophyllin is in pill form. In toxic doses podophyllin causes intense enteritis which may end in death. (See MAy APPLE.)

PODOSTEMACEAE,

a remarkable family of dicotyledon-

ous plants, living only on rocks in rushing water. The seeds are shed on the rocks during the dry season, germinating when the rocks become submerged in the rainy season. The vegetative parts consist mainly of a flattened green thallus, usually derived from adventitious roots. There are 22 genera and about 100 species, nearly all tropical, a single representative, Podostemon Ceratophyllum (river-weed), occurring in North America, found in shallow streams from Massachusetts to Minnesota and southward to Georgia and Alabama. (See J. C. Wilis, Ann. Perad. [1902].)

POE, EDGAR

ALLAN

(1809-1849), American poet and

critic, cultivated the literature of mystery, and is himself, to a great extent, a mystery. His work owes much to the drift of romanticism (of which he is a late heir) towards the occult and the satanic, It owes much also to his own feverish dreams, to which he applied a strange power of logic and a rare faculty of shaping plausible fabrics out of impalpable materials. With an air of objectivity and spontaneity, his productions are closely

dependent on his own idiosyncrasy and an elaborate technique.

He was born in Boston, Mass., Jan. 19, 1809, and was three years old when his mother, a young English actress, the widow of an American player, died at Richmond, Va., in 1811. The wellto-do childless Mrs. Allan, who adopted him, gave hım motherly care and affection—reluctantly seconded by her husband. Edgar received a good education, first in England, then ın a private

school at Richmond, whence he went, in 1826, to the University of Virginia. Differences arose between him and his foster-father. Prevented from returning to college after the end of the first -zaas year, the youth ran away to Boston, where he enlisted in the Army. For three years he was a soldier (1827—-31)—the last three months in the capacity of a cadet at West Point. His inclination led him towards writing. In spite of untoward BY COURTESY OF THE ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES circumstances and uncongenial POE'S COTTAGE AT FORDHAM, NEW surroundings, he wrote poetry, YORK CITY (RESTORED) which he managed to have

published in Boston (Tamerlane, 1827), in Baltimore (Al Aaraaf, 1829) and in New York (Poems, 1831). Poe settled as a man of letters at Baltimore in 1832, and struggled with poverty, at times with actual want, upheld by his pride and his set resolution to achieve work that would count in America and in the world. He had neither family nor friends. Disappointments in love and social slights threw a sombre cloud over his disposition. He was afflicted with a strange susceptibility to the effects of liquor, combined with an attraction towards it which he did not always resist successfully. It was this defect (or hereditary flaw) that, in a large measure,

made it impossible for him to remain literary editor, in Richmond, Philadelphia or New York, of magazines which he had raised to prosperity; that, later, discouraged J. R. Lowell from taking him as contributor to The Pioneer; that disqualified him for a clerkship in a Government office at Washington. He made worthy efforts to abstain from stimulants after he had married Virginia Clemm (1836), but relapsed when his child-wife fell dangerously ill, in 1841, with scant hope of recovery. After the death of Virginia, in 1847, his morbid condition grew worse and seems to have assumed the form of a lesion of the brain with temporary crises of delirious fever. “I became insane,” he wrote, “with intervals of horrible sanity.” His last years were marked by fits of platonic > erotomania, the objects of which were successively or at the same time women of letters, such as Mrs. Osgood, Mrs. Shew

(Maria Louise), Mrs. Whitman

(Helen), Mrs. Lewis (Stella),

and new or old friends, like Annie and Mrs. Shelton. He died aiter letting himself be entrapped into drinking too much liquor at Baltimore, in 1840. For 40 years he had fought, against terrible odds, to keep his genius clear and accomplish the work of a creative artist. While continuing to write verse, he began composing prose tales in 1832, and started a career of literary critic in 1835 which he was to carry on steadily in various magazines till the end. His keen and sound judgment as appraiser of contemporary literature, his idealism and musical gift as a poet, his weirdness and dramatic power as a story teller, though hardly appreciated in his lifetime, have secured him to-day a prominent place among universally known men of letters. The complex and elusive nature of his productions can best be understood when one tries to seize the relations of his personality to the working of his mind. The outstanding fact in Poe’s character is a strange duality. We find this trait in his temper, in his mind, in his art The wide divergence of contemporary judgments on the man seems to point to the coexistence in him of two persons. With those he loved and who saw him in repose, he was gentle, affectionate, obliging and devoted. Others, who were the butt of his sharp criticism or who happened to meet him in moments of excitement, found him irritable, arrogant, self-centred, sombre, rebellious, and went so far as to accuse him of lack of principle and conscience. Was it. in the latter case, a double of the man rising from harrowing nightmares, or from the haggard inner vision of dark crimes, or

105

POELZIG—POERIO from appalling graveyard hallucinations, that ominously loomed

through the gentler Poe’s unstable being?

If we consider the mind of Poe, the duality is still more strik-

ing. On one side he was an idealist and a visionary. His yearning

for the ideal was both of the heart and of the imagination. His sensitiveness to the beauty, purity and lovingness of woman, asso-

ciated with the contemplation of her amid the sweetest objects of nature or in the glory of ethereal radiance, inspired him with his most touching lyrics (“To Helen,” “The Sleeper,” “Eulalie,”

“To One in Paradise”), and with the full-toned prose hymns to beauty and love in “Ligeia” and “Eleonora.” His imagination carried him away from the earth and the material world into the angels’ dwelling-place (“Israfel’”’), into fairyland or dreamland, or into the empyrean, where souls dwell in immortality, where Monos and Una, Eiros and Charmion, Oinos and Agathos hold discourses on the secrets of life and death, and whither the prophet of “Eureka” takes his flight to meditate on ultimate causes. This Pythian mood was especially characteristic of the later years of his life. More generally, either in his verse (“Valley of Unrest,” “Lenore,” “The Raven,” “For Annie,” “Ulalume’’) or in his prose-tales, his familiar mode of evasion from the universe of common experience was through converse with death-in-life or life-in-death, and through haunting thoughts, impulses, or fears that seem to belong to an eerie world of horrible dreams, lurking in his abnormal subliminal consciousness. From these materials he drew the startling effects of his “tales of death” (“House of Usher,” “Red Death,” “Valdemar,” “Premature Burial,” “Oval Portrait,” “Shadow’’), of his “tales of wickedness and crime” (“‘Berenice,” “Black Cat,” “William Wilson,” “Imp of the Perverse,” “Cask of Amontillado,” “Tell-Tale Heart”), of his “tales of survival after dissolution” (“Ligeia,” “Morella,” “Metzengerstein”), and of his “tales of fatality” (‘‘Assignation,” “Man of the Crowd”). Even when he does not hurl his characters into the clutch of fearful, mysterious or supernal forces or on to the untrodden paths of the beyond, he uses the anguish of imminent death as the means of causing the nerves to quiver and the flesh to creep (“Pit and the Pendulum”), and his very grotesque inventions deal with corpses and decay in an uncanny play with the aftermath of death. On the other side, Poe is conspicuous for a close observation of minute details, which characterizes the realist or the painter of trompe-l’oeil landscapes or familiar scenes. He resorts to this gift of precise, Defoe-like apprehension in the long narratives and in many of the descriptions that introduce the tales or constitute their setting. Closely connected with this accurate scanning of actual or imagined things, is his power of ratiocination. He prided himself on his faultless logic and he carefully handled this real accomplishment so as to impress the public with his possessing still more of it than he had. Hence the would-be feats of thought-reading, problem-unravelling and cryptography which he attributed to his Legrand and his Dupin. This suggested to him the “analytical tales,” which introduced into literature the detective story, and his “tales of pseudo-science.” The same duality is evinced in his art. He was capable of writing angelic or weird poetry with a supreme sense of rhythm and word-appeal, or prose of sumptuous beauty and suggestiveness, with the apparent abandon of compelling inspiration; and he would write down a problem of morbid psychology or the outlines of an unrelenting plot in a hard and dry style, with the clear-cut directness of algebraic reasoning. He was capable of throwing massively into a poem or a prose-tale the most impressive unity of effect, as if urged by a flashing vision or an irresistible creative impulse; and he would dissect in cold blood that seemingly unanalysable whole and show by precept and rule that it was the result of the most deliberate and artificial technique. In Poe’s masterpieces, the double contents of his temper, of his mind and of his art are fused into a oneness of tone, structure and movement, the more effective, perhaps, as it is compounded of various elements that give depth and intensity to the total sheen or dismal glow.

Poe's genius was first recognized abroad.

persuade the world, and, in the long run, America, of Poe’s greatness than Baudelaire and Mallarmé.

The one was a romanticist

and the other a symbolist; they hailed Poe as the wizard of letters who had had intimation of immortal truths and the divine faculty of calling up an other-worldly thrill. Even if the present and the future generations are less likely to tremble in awe at Poe’s would-be revelations of Elysian or Tartarian lore, they will concur with his “discoverers” in admiring his fecund and startling invention, his exact dosage of artifice and spontaneity, and his supreme artistry. Poe’s works have been edited by J. A. Harrison (1903, containing biography and letters), and by E. C. Stedman and G. E. Woodberry (1914, with a memoir, biography and criticism). See J. H. Ingram, Edgar Allan Poe (1880) ; G. E. Woodberry, Life of E. A. Poe (1909) ; C. Baudelaire, Edgar Poe (1856); J. W. Robertson, Edgar A. Poe (1922); S. Cody, Poe (1924); C. Mauclair, Le genie a@’Edgar Poe (19285); H. Allen, Israfel (1926); M. E. es oe

Allan Poe (1926); J. W. Krutch, Edgar Allan Poe (1926).

POELZIG, HANS (1869-

(C.C.

), German architect, was born

in Berlin, April 30, 1869. He studied architecture at the technical high school in Berlin (1888-93); in 1900 he was appointed a lecturer in the Breslau academy of arts, of which he was subsequently director (1903-16). He was architect to the city of Dresden (1916-20) and also professor at the technical high school there. In 1920 he started an advanced studio for applied arts at the academy of arts in Berlin. He became professor of the architectural section of the Technische Hochschule in Berlin in 1924. Poelzig was also a member of the academies of arts at Dresden and Berlin and president of the Deutscher Werkbund. Among his buildings, which display remarkable versatility, may be mentioned the dam in the Klingenberg valley; the Centenary exhibition in Berlin (gardens and buildings); reconstruction of the Grosses Schauspielhaus, Berlin; the water tower at Posen; the “Kapitol” cinema, Berlin; Keksfabrik, Hanover; the remarkable interior of Reinhardt’s theatre; a chemical factory at Luban with an effective rhythmical arrangement of windows; an office-building at Breslau, almost completely glass-walled; and flat-roofed dwelling-houses partially in ferro-concrete exhibited at Die Wohnung, Stuttgart, 1927; he was also associated with Prof. Tessenow in a new housing scheme near Berlin.

POERIO, ALESSANDRO

(1802-1848), Italian poet and

patriot, was descended from an old Calabrian family, his father, Baron Giuseppe Poerio, being a distinguished Neapolitan lawyer. In 1815 he and his brother Carlo accompanied their father, who had been identified with Murat’s cause, into exile, and settled at Florence. In 1818 they were allowed to return to Naples. Alessandro fought as a volunteer, under Guglielmo Pepe (g.v.), against the Austrians in 1821, but when the latter reoccupied Naples and the king abolished the constitution, the family was again exiled and settled at Gratz. Alessandro studied in Germany, and at Weimar he became the friend of Goethe. In 1835 the Poerios returned to Naples. In 1848 Alessandro accompanied Pepe as a volunteer to fight the Austrians in northern Italy, and on the recall of the Neapolitan contingent he followed Pepe to Venice. He was severely wounded in the fighting round Mestre, and died on Nov. 3, 1848. His poetry “reveals the idealism of a tender and delicate mind”; but he could also sound the clarion note of patriotism, as in his stirring poem ZI Risorgimento. His brother Carlo (1803-67), after returning to Naples, practised as an advocate, and from 1837 to 1848 was frequently arrested and imprisoned. Under the short lived constitution of 1848 he was minister of education. He resigned office in April

and took his seat in parliament, where he led the constitutional opposition. After the Austrian victory Poerio was arrested (July 19, 1849) tried, and condemned to 19 years in irons. Chained in pairs, he and other political prisoners were confined in one small room in the bagno of Nisida, near the lazaretto. The exposure (1851) of the horrors of the Neapolitan dungeons by

Gladstone, who emphasized especially the case of Poerio, awakened the indignation of Europe, but he was not released till 1858. He and other exiles were then placed on board a ship bound for None did more to | the United States, but the son of Settembrini, another of the

106

POET

LAUREATE—POETRY

exiles, who was on board in disguise, compelled the crew to land them at Cork, whence Poerio made his way to London. In the following year he returned to Italy, and in 1860 he was elected deputy to the parliament of Turin, of which he was chosen vicepresident in 1861. He died at Florence on April 28, 1867. See Baldachini, Della Vita e de’ tempi di Carlo Poerio (1867); W. E. Gladstone, Two Letters to the Earl of Aberdeen (1851) ; Carlo Poerio and the Neapolitan Police (1858); Vannucci, I Martiri della libertà italiana, vol. iii. (Milan, 1880); Imbriani, Alessandro Poerio a Venezia (Naples, 1884) ; Del Giudice, J Fratelli Poerio (Turin, 1899); Countess Martinengo Cesaresco, /ialian Characters (1901).

POET LAUREATE.

The laurel (Lat. laurea) was sacred

to Apollo, and as such was used to form a crown or wreath of honour for poets and heroes. The word “laureate” or “laureated” thus came in English to signify eminent, or associated with glory, literary or military. “Laureate letters” in old times meant the despatches announcing a victory; and the epithet was given, even

officially (e.g., to John Skelton) by universities, to distinguished poets. The term “poet laureate” was ultimately restricted to the office of the poet attached to the royal household, first held by Ben Jonson, for whom the position was, in its essentials, created by Charles I. in 1617. (Jonson’s appointment does not seem to have been formally made as poet-laureate, but his position was equivalent to that). The office was really a development of the practice of earlier times, when minstrels and versifiers were part of the retinue of the king; it is recorded that Richard Coeur de Lion had a versificator regis (Gulielmus Peregrinus), and Henry IIT. had a versificator (Master Henry) ; in the 15th century John Kay, also a “versifier,”’ described himself as Edward IV.’s “humble poet laureate.” Moreover, the Crown had shown its patronage in various ways; Chaucer had been given a pension and a perquisite of wine by Edward III., and Spenser a pension by Queen Elizabeth. Sir William Davenant succeeded Jonson in 1638, and the title of poet laureate was conferred by letters patent on Dryden in 1670, two years after Davenant’s death, coupled with a pension of £300 and a butt of Canary wine. This was the beginning of the official laureateship. The successors of Dryden were T. Shadwell (who originated annual birthday and new year odes), Nahum Tate, Nicholas Rowe, Laurence Eusden, Colley Cibber, William Whitehead, Thomas Warton, H. J. Pye, Southey, Wordsworth, Tennyson, Alfred Austin, Robert Bridges (appointed 1913) and John Masefield (appointed 1930). The poet laureate, being a court official, was considered responsible for producing formal and appropriate verses on birthdays and state occasions. Wordsworth stipulated before accepting the honour, that no formal effusions from him should be considered a necessity; but Tennyson was generally happy in his numerous poems of this class. The emoluments of the post have varied. To Pye an allowance of £27 was made instead of the Canary wine. Tennyson drew £72 a year, and £27 in lieu of the “butt of sack.” See Walter Hamilton, Poets Laureate of England (1879), and E. K. Broadus, The Laureateship (1921).

POETRY. In modern criticism the word poetry (ie. the art of the poet, Gr. rounrns, maker, from qocety, to make) is used

to speak here; and all that we have to say upon poetry as an energy

is that the critic who, like Aristotle, takes this wide view of poetry

—the critic, who, like him, recognizes the importance of poetry in its relations to man’s other expression of spiritual force, claims a place in point of true critical sagacity above that of a critic, who, like Plato, fails to recognize that importance. With regard to poetry as an art, most of the great poems of the world are dealt with elsewhere in this work, either in connection with the names of the writers or with the various literatures to

which they belong; consequently, these remarks must be confined to general principles. Under VERSE the detailed questions of prosody are considered: here we are concerned with the essential principles which underlie the meaning of poetry as such. All that can be attempted is to inquire:

(1) What is poetry? (2) What varieties of poetic art are the outcome of the two great kinds of poetic impulse, dramatic imagination, and lyric or egoistic imagination? Definition of Poetry.—Definitions are for the most part alike unsatisfactory and treacherous; but definitions of poetry are

proverbially so. Yet some definition must be here attempted; and, using the phrase “absolute poetry” as the musical critics use the phrase “absolute music,” we may, perhaps, without too great presumption submit the following: Absolute poetry is the concrete and artistic expression of the human mind in emotional and rhythmical language. This, at least, will be granted, that no literary expression can, properly speaking, be called poetry that is not in a certain deep sense emotional, whatever may be its subject-matter, concrete in its method and its diction, rhythmical in movement, and artistic in form. That the expression of all real poetry must be concrete in method and diction is obvious, and yet this dictum would exclude from the definition much of what is called didactic poetry. With abstractions the poet has nothing to do, save to take them and turn them into concretions; for, as artist, he is simply the man who by instinct embodies in concrete forms that “universal idea” which Gravina speaks of—that which is essential and elemental in nature and in man; as poetic artist he is simply the man who by instinct chooses for his concrete forms metrical language. As an example of the absence of concrete form in verse take the following lines from George Eliot’s Spanish Gipsy: “Speech is but broken light upon the depth Of the unspoken; even your loved words Float in the larger meaning of your voice As something dimmer.”

Without discussing the question of blank verse cadence and the weakness of a line where the main accent falls upon a positive hiatus, “of the unspoken,” we would point out that this powerful passage shows the spirit of poetry without its concrete form. The abstract method is substituted for the concrete. Such an abstract phrase as “the unspoken” belongs entirely to prose. That poetry must be metrical or even rhythmical in movement, however, is what some have denied. Here we touch at once the very root of the subject. Aristotle seems to have assumed that the indispensable basis of poetry is invention; and perhaps the first critic who tacitly revolted against the dictum that substance, and not form, is the indispensable basis of poetry was Dionysius of Halicarnassus, whose treatise upon the arrangement of words is really a very fine piece of literary criticism.

sometimes to denote any expression (artistic or other) of imaginative feeling, sometimes to designate a precise literary art, which ranks as one of the fine arts. As an expression of imaginative feeling, as the movement of an energy, as one of those great primal human forces which go to the development of the race poetry in the wide sense has played as important a part as science. By the poets themselves metre was for long considered to In some literatures (such as that of England) poetic energy, and in others (such as that of Rome) poetic art is the dominant be the one indispensable requisite of a poem, though, as regards quality. It is the same with individual writers. In classical liter- criticism, even in the time of the appearance of the Waverley ature Pindar may perbaps be taken as a type of the poets of Novels, the Quarterly Review would sometimes speak of them energy; Virgil of the poets of art. With all his wealth of poetic as “poems”; and perhaps even later the same might be said of art Pindar’s mastery over symmetrical methods never taught him romances so concrete in method and diction, and so full of poetic to “sow with the hand,” as Corinna declared, while his poetic energy, as Wuthering Heights and Jane Eyre, where we get abenergy always impelled him to “sow with the whole sack.” solutely all that Aristotle requires for a poem. However, at In some writers, and these the very greatest—in Homer, all events this at least may be said, that the division between Aeschylus, Sophocles, Dante, Shakespeare, Milton, and perhaps poetical critics is not now between Aristotelians and others; Goethe—poetic energy and poetic art are seen in something like it is of a different kind altogether. While one group of critics equipoise. It is of poetry as an art, however, that we have mainly |may still perhaps say with Dryden that “a poet is a maker, as the

DEFINITION]

107

POETRY

name signifies” and that “he who cannot make (that is, invent) has his name for nothing,” another group contends that it is not

the invention but the artistic treatment, the form, which determines whether an imaginative writer is a poet or a writer of prose—contends, in short, that emotion is the basis of all true

poetic expression, whatever be the subject-matter, that thoughts must be expressed in an emotional manner before they can be brought into poetry, and that this emotive expression demands even yet something else, viz., style and form. Although many critics are now agreed that “L’art est une

forme,” that without metre and without form there can be no poetry, there are few who would contend that poetry can exist

by virtue of any one of these alone, or even by virtue of all these combined. Quite independent of verbal melody, though mostly accompanying it, and quite independent of “composition” there is an atmosphere floating around the poet through which he sees everything, an atmosphere which stamps his utterances as poetry. This atmosphere is what we call poetic imagination. In order to produce poetry the soul must for the time being have reached that state of exaltation, that state of freedom from self-consciousness, depicted in the lines:— “T started once, or seemed to start, in pain Resolved on noble things, and strove to speak As when a great thought strikes along the brain And flushes all the cheek.”

Whatsoever may be the poet’s “knowledge of his art” into this mood he must always pass before he can write a truly poetic line. For, notwithstanding all that may be said upon poetry as a fine

art, it is in the deepest sense of the word an “inspiration.” No man can write a line of genuine poetry without having been “born again” (or as the true rendering of the text says, “born from above’); and then the mastery over those highest reaches of form which are beyond the ken of the mere versifier comes to him as a result of the change. It might almost be said, indeed, that Sincerity and Conscience, the two angels that bring to the poet the wonders of the poetic dream, bring him also the deepest, truest delight of form. It might almost be said that by aid of sincerity and conscience the poet is enabled to see more clearly than other men the eternal limits of his own art—to see with Sophocles that nothing, not even poetry itself, is of any worth to man, invested as he is by the whole army of evil, unless it is in the deepest and highest sense good, unless it comes linking us all together by closer bonds of sympathy and pity, strengthening us to fight the foes with whom Fate and even Nature, the mother who bore us, sometimes seem in league—to see with Milton that the high quality of man’s soul which in English is expressed by the word virtue is greater than even the great poem he prized, greater than all the rhythms of all the tongues that have been spoken since Babel—and to see with Shakespeare and with Shelley that the high passion which in English is called love is lovelier than all art, lovelier than all the marble Mercuries that “await the chisel of the sculptor” in all the marble hills. Varieties of Poetic Art.—We have now reached the inquiry: What varieties of poetic art are the outcome of the two kinds of poetic impulse, dramatic imagination and lyric or egoistic imagination? Allowing for all the potency of external influences, we shall not be wrong in saying that of poetic imagination there are two distinct kinds—(z) the kind of poetic imagination seen at its highest in Aeschylus, Sophocles, Shakespeare, and Homer,

and {2) the kind of poetic imagination seen at its highest in Pindar, Dante, and Milton, or else in Sappho, Heine, and Shelley.

The former, being in its highest dramatic exercise unconditioned by the personal or lyrical impulse of the poet, might perhaps be called absolute dramatic vision; the latter, being more or less conditioned by the personal or lyrical impulse of the poet, might be called relative dramatic vision. It seems impossible to classify poets, or to classify the different varieties of poetry, without drawing some such distinction as this, whatever words of defnition we may choose to adopt. For the achievement of all pure lyric poetry such as. the ode, the song, the elegy, the idyll, the sonnet, the stornello, it is evi-

dent that the imaginative force we have called relative vision will suffice. And if we consider the matter thoroughly, in many other forms of poetic art—forms which at first sight might seem to require absolute vision—we shall find nothing but relative vision at work. Even in Dante, and even in Milton and Virgil, it might be difficult to trace the working of any other than relative vision. And as to the entire body of Asiatic poets, it might perhaps be

found (even in view of the Indian drama) that relative vision suffices to do all their work. Indeed the temper which produces true drama is, it might almost be said, a growth of the Western mind. For, unless it be Semitic, as seen in the dramatic narratives of the Bible, or Chinese, as seen in that remarkable prose story The

Two

Fair Cousins

translated by Rémusat,

absolute

vision seems to have but small place in the literatures of Asia. The wondertulness of the world and the romantic possibilities of fate or circumstance, or chance—not the wonderfulness of the character to whom these possibilities befall—are ever present to the mind of the Asiatic poet. It was left for the poets of Europe to show that, given the interesting character, given the Achilles, the Odysseus, the Helen, the Priam, any adventure happening to such a character becomes interesting. What then is this absolute vision, this true dramatic imagination which can hardly be found in Asia—which even in Europe cannot be found except in rare cases? Between relative and absolute vision the difference seems to be this, that the former only enables the poet, even in its very highest exercise, to make his own individuality, or else humanity as represented by his own individuality, live in the imagined situation; the latter enables him in its highest exercise to make special individual characters other than the poet’s own life in the imagined situation. “That which exists in nature,” says Hegel, “is a something purely individual and particular. Art, on the contrary, is essentially destined to manifest the general.” And no doubt this is true as regards the plastic arts, and true also as regards literary art, save in the very highest reaches of pure drama and pure lyric, when it seems to become art no longer—when it seems to become the very voice of Nature herself. The cry of Priam when he puts to his lips the hand that slew his son is not merely the cry of a bereaved and aged parent; it is the cry of the individual king of Troy, and expresses above everything else that most naive, pathetic, and winsome character. Put the words into the mouth of the irascible and passionate Lear and they would be entirely out of keeping. Lyric, Epic, and Dramatic Singers—It may be said then that, while the poet of relative vision, even in its very highest exercise, can only, when depicting the external world, deal with the general, the poet of absolute vision can compete with Nature herself and deal with both general and particular. If this is really so, we may perhaps find a basis for a classification of poetry and of poets. That all poets must be singers has already been maintained. But singers seem to be divisible into three classes: first the pure lyrists, each of whom can with his one voice sing only one tune; secondly the epic poets, save Homer, the bulk of the narrative poets, and the quasi-dramatists, each of whom can with his one voice sing several tunes; and thirdly the true dramatists, who, having like the nightmgale of Gongra many tongues, can sing all tunes. It is to the first-named of these classes that most poets belong. With regard to the second class there are not of course many poets left for it; the first absorbs so many. But, when we come to consider that among those who, with each his one voice, can sing many tunes are Pindar, Firdausi, Jami, Virgil, Dante, Milton, Spenser, Goethe, Byron, Coleridge, Shelley, Keats, Schiller, Victor Hugo, the second class is so various that no generalization save such a broad one as ours could embrace its members. And now we come to class three, and must pause. The third class is necessarily very small. In it can only be placed such names as Shakespeare, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Homer, and (hardly) Chaucer. These three kinds of poets represent three totally different kinds of poetic activity. With regard to the first, the pure lyrists, the impulse is mere

POETRY

108 egoism.

Many of them have less of even relative vision at its

highest than the mass of mankind. They are often too much engaged with the emotions within to have any deep sympathy with the life around them. Of every poet of this class it may be

said that his mind to him “a kingdom is” and that the smaller the poet the bigger to him is that kingdom. To make use of a homely image—like the chaffinch whose eyes have been pricked by the bird-fancier, the pure lyrist is sometimes a warbler because he is blind. Still, he feels that the Muse loves him exceedingly. She takes away his eyesight, but she gives him sweet song. And his song is very sweet, very sad, and very beautiful; but it is all about the world within his own soul—its sorrows, joys, fears, and aspirations.

With regard to the second class the impulse here is no doubt a kind of egoism too; yet the poets of this class are all of a different temper from the pure lyrists. They have a wide imagination: but it is still relative, still egoistic. They have splendid eyes, but eyes that never get beyond seeing general, universal humanity (typified by themselves) in the imagined situation. Not even to these is it given to break through that law of centrality by which every “me” feels itself to be the central ‘‘me”— the only “me” of the universe, round which all other spurious “me’s” revolve. This “me” of theirs they can transmute into many shapes, but they cannot create other “me’s’—nay, for egoism, some of them scarcely would, perhaps, if they could. The third class, the true dramatists, whose impulse is the simple yearning to create akin to that which made “the great Vishnu yearn to create a world,” are, “of imagination all compact”—so much so that when at work “the divinity” which Iamblichus speaks of “seizes for the time the soul and guides it as he will.” The distinction between the pure lyrists and the other two classes of poets is obvious enough. But the distinction between the quasi-dramatists and the pure dramatists requires a word of explanation before we proceed to touch upon the various kinds of poetry that spring from the exercise of relative and absolute vision. Sometimes, to be sure, the vision of the true dramatists —the greatest dramatists—will suddenly become narrowed and obscured, as in that part of the Oedipus Tyrannus where Sophocles makes Oedipus ignorant of what every one in Thebes must have known, the murder of Laius. And again, finely as Sophocles has conceived the character of Electra, he makes her, in her dispute with Chrysothemis, give expression to sentiments that, in another play of his own, come far more appropriately from the lofty character of Antigone in a parallel dispute with Ismene. And, on the other hand, examples of relative vision in its furthest

reaches can be found in abundance everywhere, especially in Virgil, Dante, Calderon, and Milton. In Coleridge’s “Ancient Mariner” we find an immense amount of relative vision of so high a kind that at first it seems absolute vision. When the ancient mariner, in his narrative to the wedding guest, reaches the slaying of the albatross, he stops, he can proceed no farther, and the wedding guest exclaims :— “God save thee, Ancient Mariner, From the fiends that plague thee thus! Why look’st thou so?” “With my cross-bow I shot the albatross.”

But there are instances of relative vision—especially in the great master of absolute vision, Shakespeare—which are higher still—so high indeed that not to relegate them to absolute vision seems at first sight pedantic. Such an example is the famous speech of Lady Macbeth in the second act, where she says:— “Had he not resembled My father as he slept, I had done’t.”

Marvellously subtle as is this that it expresses the general special human soul. Indeed, bargeman who, charged with barge, used in his confession

speech it will be found, if analysed, human soul rather than any one Leigh Hunt records the case of a

robbing a sleeping traveller in his almost identical words—“Had he not looked like my father as he slept, I should have killed as well as robbed him.” Again, the thousand-and-one cases (to be found in every literature) where a character, overwhelmed by some

[CLASSES

sudden surprise or terror, asks whether the action going on is that of a dream or of real life, must all, on severe analysis, be classed under relative rather than under absolute vision—even such a fine speech, for instance, as that where Pericles, on discovering Marina, exclaims :— “This is the rarest dream that e’er dull sleep Did mock sad fools withal”—

even here, we say, the humanity rendered is general and not particular, the vision at work is relative and not absolute. The poet, as representing the whole human race, throwing himself into

the imagined situation gives us what general humanity would have thought, felt, said, or done in that situation, not what one par-

ticular individual and he alone would have thought, felt, said,

or done.

Now what we have called absolute vision operates in a very

different way. So vividly is the poet’s mere creative instinct at work that the ego sinks into passivity—becomes insensitive to all impressions other than those dictated by the vision—by the “divinity” which has “seized the soul.” Shakespeare is full of examples. Take the scene in the first act of Hamlet, where Hamlet hears for the first time, from Horatio, that his father’s ghost haunts the castle. Having by short sharp questions elicited the salient facts attending the apparition, Hamlet says, “I would I had been there.” To this Horatio makes the very commonplace reply, “It would have much amazed you.” Note the marvellously dramatic reply of Hamlet—‘Very like, very like! Stayed it long?” Suppose that this dialogue had been attempted by any other poet than a true dramatist, or by a true dramatist in any other mood than his very highest, Hamlet, on hearing Horatio’s commonplace remarks upon phenomena which to Hamlet were more subversive of the very order of the universe than if a dozen stars had fallen from their courses, would have burst out with: “Amazed me!” and then would have followed an eloquent declamation about the “amazing” nature of the phenomena and their effect upon him. But so entirely has the poet become Hamlet, so completely has “the divinity seized his soul,” that all language seems equally weak for expressing the turbulence within the soul of the character, and Hamlet exclaims in a sort of meditative irony, “Very like, very like!” It is exactly this one man Hamlet, and no other man, who in this situation would have so expressed himself. While all other forms of poetic art can be vitalized by relative vision, there are two forms (and these the greatest) in which absolute vision is demanded, viz., the drama, and ina lesser degree the Greek epic, especially the Ziad. This will be seen more plainly perhaps if we now vary our definitions and call relative vision egoistic imagination; absolute vision dramatic imagination, The nature of this absolute vision or true dramatic imagination is easily seen if we compare the dramatic work of writers without absolute vision, such as Calderon, Goethe, Ben Jonson, Fletcher, and others, with the dramatic work of Aeschylus and of Shakespeare. While of the former group it may be said that each poet skilfully works his imagination, of Aeschylus and Shakespeare it must be said that each in his highest dramatic mood does not work, but is worked by his imagination. Note, for instance, how the character of Clytaemnestra grows and glows under the hand of Aeschylus. The poet of the Odyssey had distinctly said that Aegisthus, her paramour, had struck the blow, but the dramatist having imagined the greatest tragic female in all poetry, finds it impossible to let a man like Aegisthus assist such a woman in a homicide so daring and so momentous. And when in that terrible speech of hers she justifies her crime (ostensibly to the outer world, but really to her own conscience), the way in which, by sheer magnetism of irresistible personality, she draws our sympathy to herself and her crime is unrivalled out of Shakespeare and not surpassed even there. Epic and Drama Compared.—Much has been said as to the scope of these. If in epic the poet has the power to take the imagination of his audience away from the dramatic centre and show what is going on at the other end of the great web of the world, he can do the same thing in drama by the chorus, and also

EPIC AND DRAMA]

POETRY

by the introduction into the dramatic circle of messengers and others from the outside world. But as regards epic poetry, is it

right that we should hear, as we sometimes do hear, the voice of the poet himself as chorus bidding us contrast the present picture

with other pictures afar off, in order to enforce its teaching and illustrate its pathos? This is a favourite method with modern poets and a still more favourite one with prose narrators. Does it not give an air of self-consciousness to poetry? Does it not disturb the intensity of the poetic vision? Yet it has the sanction of Homer; and who shall dare to challenge the methods of the great father of epic? An instance occurs in /liad v. 158, where, in the midst of all the stress of fight, the poet leaves the dramatic action to tell us what became of the inheritance of Phaenops, after his two sons had been slain by Diomedes. Another instance occurs in iii. 243-244, where the poet, after Helen’s pathetic mention of her brothers, comments on the cause of their absence, “criticizes life” in the approved modern way, generalizes upon the impotence of human intelligence—the impotence even of human love—to

pierce the darkness in which the web of human fate is woven.

Thus she spoke (the poet tells us); but the life-giving earth already possessed them, there in Lacedaemon, in their dear native land :— &s haro’ rods 6’ Abn KaTexev ducitoos ata év Aaxedaipove adfi, iàn év warpiés yain. This, of course, is “beautiful exceedingly,” but, inasmuch as the imagination at work is egoistic or lyrical, not dramatic; inasmuch as the vision is relative, not absolute, it does not represent that epic strength which we call specially “Homeric.”

The deepest of all the distinctions between dramatic and epic methods has relation, however, to the nature of the dialogue. Aristotle failed to point it out, and this is remarkable until we remember that his work is but a fragment of a great system of criticism. In epic poetry, and in all poetry that narrates, whether the poet be Homer, Chaucer, Thomas the Rhymer, Gottfried von Strassburg, or Turoldus, the action, of course, is moved partly by aid of narrative and partly by aid of dialogue, but in drama the dialogue has a quality of suggestiveness and subtle inference which we do not expect to find in any other poetic form save perhaps that of the purely dramatic ballad. In ancient drama this quality of suggestiveness and subtle inference is seen not only in the dialogue but in the choral odes. The third ode of the Agamemnon is an extreme case in point, where by a kind of double entendre the relations of Clytaemnestra and Aegisthus are darkly alluded to under the cover of allusions to Paris and Helen. Of this dramatic subtlety Sophocles is perhaps the greatest master; and certain critics have been led to speak as though irony were the heart-thought of Sophoclean drama. But the suggestiveness of Sophocles is pathetic (as Professor Lewis Campbell well pointed out), not ironical. This is one reason why drama more than epic seems to satisfy the mere intellect of the reader,

r109

But, although we could hardly expect to find it among those whose language, complex of syntax and alive with self-conscious inflexions, bespeaks the scientific knowingness of the Western mind, to call the temper of the Great Lyric broadly ‘‘Asiatic”’ would be rash. It seems to belong as a birthright to those descendants of Shem, who, yearning always to look straight into the face of God and live, could (when the Great Lyric was sung) see not much else. Though two of the artistic elements of the Great Lyric, unconsciousness and power, are no doubt plentiful enough in India, the element of grace is lacking for the most part. The Vedic hymns are both nebulous and unemotional, as compared with Semitic hymns. And as to the Persians, they, it would seem, have the grace always, the power often, but the unconsciousness almost never. This is inevitable if we consider for a moment the chief characteristic of the Persian imagination—an imagination whose wings are not so much “bright with beauty” as heavy with it—heavy as the wings of a golden pheasant—steeped in beauty like the “tiger-moth’s deep damasked wings.” Now beauty of this kind does not go to the making of the Great Lyric. Then there comes that poetry which, being ethnologically Semitic, might be supposed to exhibit something at least of the Hebrew temper—the Arabian. But, whatever may be said of the oldest Arabic poetry, with its deep sense of fate and pain, it would seem that nothing can be more unlike than the Hebrew temper and the Arabian temper as seen in later poets. It is not with Hebrew but with Persian poetry that Arabian poetry can be usefully compared. If the wings of the Persian imagination are heavy with beauty, those of the later Arabian imagination are bright with beauty—brilliant as an Eastern butterfly, quick and agile as a dragon-fly or a humming-bird. To the eye of the Persian poet the hues of the earth are (as Firdausi says of the garden of Afrasiab) “like the tapestry of the kings of Ormuz, the air is perfumed with musk, and the waters of the brooks are the essence of roses.” And to the later Arabian no less than to the Persian the earth is beautiful; but it is the clear and sparkling beauty of the earth, as she “wakes up to life, greeting the Sabaean morning”; we feel the light more than the colour. But it is neither the Persian’s instinct for beauty nor the Arabian’s quenchless wit and exhaustless animal spirits that go to the making of the Great Lyric; far from it. In a word, the Great Lyric, as we have said, cannot be assigned to the Asiatic temper generally any more than it can be assigned to the European temper.

The Ode.—In the poetry of Europe, if we cannot say of Pindar, devout as he is, that he produced the Great Lyric, what can we say of any other European poet? The truth is that, like the Great Drama, so straight and so warm does it seem to come from the heart of man in its highest moods that we scarcely feel it to be literature at all. Passing, however, from this supreme expression of lyrical imagination, we come to the artistic code. though this may be counterbalanced by the hardness of mechani- Whatever may have been said to the contrary, enthusiasm is, in cal structure which sometimes disturbs the reader’s imagination the nature of things, the very basis of the ode; for the ode is a mono-drama, the actor in which is the poet himself; and, as in tragedy. The Lyric Imagination—But we must now give undivided Marmontel has well pointed out, if the actor in the mono-drama attention to pure egoistic or lyric imagination. This, as has been is not affected by the sentiments he expresses, the ode must be said, is sufficient to vitalize all forms of poetic art save drama and cold and lifeless. But, although the ode is a natural poetic the Greek epic. It would be impossible to discuss adequately here method of the poet considered as a prophet—although it is the the Hebrew poets, who have produced a lyric so different in kind voice of poetry as a fine frenzy—it must not be supposed that from all other lyrics as to stand in a class by itself. As it is equal there is anything lawless in its structure. “Pindar,” says the in importance to the Great Drama of Shakespeare, Aeschylus, Italian critic, Gravina, “launches his verses upon the bosom of and Sophocles, we may perhaps be allowed to call it the “Great the sea; he spreads out all his sails; he confronts the tempest Lyric.” The Great Lyric must be religious—it must, it would and the rocks; the waves arise and are ready to engulf him; seem, be an outpouring of the soul, not towards man, but towards already he has disappeared from the spectator’s view; when sudGod, like that of the God-intoxicated prophets and psalmists of denly he springs up in the midst of the waters and reaches happily Scripture. Even the lyric fire of Pindar owes much to the fact the shore.” Now it is this Pindaric discursiveness, this Pindaric that he had a childlike belief in the myths to which so many of unrestraint as to the matter, which has led poets to attempt to his contemporaries had begun to give a languid assent. But there imitate him by adopting an unrestraint as to form. Although no is nothing in Pindar, or indeed elsewhere in Greek poetry, like two odes of Pindar exhibit the same metrical structure (the the rapturous song, combining unconscious power with uncon- Aeolian and Lydian rhythms being mingled with the Doric in scious grace, which we have called the Great Lyric. It might different proportions), yet each ode is in itself obedient, severely perhaps be said indeed that the Great Lyric is purely Hebrew. obedient, to structural law. This we feel; but what the law is

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Ito

exactly no metricist has perhaps ever yet been able to explain. It was a strange misconception that led people for centuries to use the word “Pindaric”’ and irregular as synonymous terms; whereas the very essence of the odes of Pindar (of the few, alas! which survive to us) is their regularity. There is no more diffcult form of poetry than this, and for this reason: when in any poetical composition the metres are varied, there must be a reason for such freedom, and that reason is properly subjective—the varying form must embody and express the varying emotions of the singer. But when these metrical variations are governed by no subjective law at all, but by arbitrary rules, supposed to be evolved from ‘the practice of Pindar, then that very variety which should aid the poet in expressing his emotion crystallizes it and makes the ode the most frigid of all compositions. Great as Pindar undoubtedly is, it is deeply to be regretted that no other poet survives to represent the triumphal ode of Greece— the digressions of his subject matter are so wide, and his volubility is so great.

The great difficulty of the English ode is that of the apparent spontaneity of the impulse from being the apparent artifice of the form; for, assuredly, no sequent to Coleridge and to Keats would dream of

preventing marred by writer subwriting an

ode on the cold Horatian principles adopted by Warton, and even by Collins, in his beautiful “Ode to Evening.” Fervour being absolutely essential, we think, to a great English ode, fluidity of metrical movement can never be dispensed with. The more billowy the metrical waves the better suited are they to render the emotions expressed by the ode, as the reader will see by referring to Coleridge’s “Ode to France” (the finest ode in the English language according to Shelley), and giving special attention to the first stanza—to the way in which the first metrical wave, after it has gently fallen at the end of the first quatrain, leaps up again on the double rhymes (which are

expressly introduced for this effect), and goes bounding on, billow after billow, to the end of the stanza. Not that this fine ode is quite free from the great vice of the English ode, rhetoric. If we except Spenser, and in one instance Collins, it can hardly be said that any English writer before Shelley and Keats produced odes independent of rhetoric and supported by pure poetry alone. But fervid as are Shelley’s “Ode to the West Wind” and Keats’s odes “To a Nightingale” and “On a Grecian Urn” they are entirely free from rhetorical flavour. Notwithstanding that in the “Ode on a Grecian Urn” the first stanza does not match in rhyme arrangement with the others, while the second stanza of the “Ode to a Nightingale” varies from the rest by running on four rhyme-sounds instead of five, vexing the ear at first by disappointed expectation, these two odes are, after Coleridge’s “France,” the finest regular odes perhaps in the English language. The main other varieties of lyrical poetry, such as the idyll, the satire, the ballad, the sonnet, etc., are treated in separate articles.

(T. W.-D.; X.) MODERN DEVELOPMENTS IN BRITISH POETRY This note purports only to deal with the principal developments of British verse in the 20th century. The difficulty, however, is to decide when that century began. We cannot, unhappily, for this purpose permit the composers of almanacs to settle the question. Something more subtle than arithmetic is at work. What we have actually to do is to isolate the moment at which Victorianism was definitely spent and something new was born. From that point of view an attempt will be made to show that the new period was precipitated not earlier than 1910 with the Georgians. Till then we are still in the spacious days of great Victoria. The ’9os were, of course, essentially Victorian, in the sense that every blind reaction is an integral part of that from which it reacts. The Rhymers’ club was not that new way of saying “yes” which alone is the mark of a new movement. It was merely spirited contradiction, or even what we should now call a rather blatant exhibition of an inferiority-complex. When Arthur Symons, for example, wrote his defence of the prostitute, with cockrobin self-consciousness, he was not so much shocking the suburbs

as Lord Tennyson.

When Ernest Dowson fainted prettily with

[MODERN BRITISH

Pierrot, or invited Cynara to share his exquisite self-depreciation, he was not in fact languid or corrupt. He was protesting against the heartiness of Dickens and the incorruptibility of King Arthur. In that way a queer self-condemned poetry of artifice arose, which had its roots neither in life nor in the refusal of life, but in the

rejection of the poet laureate. That, however amusing or lively, is not a broad enough basis for a new period of literature. Poetry of the °90s.—Two objections may fairly be raised to

this interpretation of the ’90s. On the one hand the names of Robert Bridges, Thomas Hardy and Rudyard Kipling will be advanced as proving that at that time there was a volume of virile

and important verse being written which was influenced neither by liking nor distaste for Victorianism. On the other hand, it will be pointed out that W. B. Yeats and A. E. Housman—two of the most considerable poets of our time—had both fully established themselves in the ’90s. Having regard to the profound influence of A Shropshire Lad an objector might go so far as to claim that

the zoth century began not in 1906 but ten years earlier in 1896, Yet these objections, though serious, are not valid. In every period there are distinguished writers who do not influence, and are not influenced by their contemporaries in their sphere of creation. That is essentially true, though for different reasons, of Bridges, Hardy and Kipling. Robert Bridges in such a poem, for example, as “I have loved flowers” permanently enriched the English treasury. But it has that curiously withdrawn quality, that affinity to the grave unswerving mould of the classic, which distinguishes all his work. Both in his simplicity here, and his metrical experiments and complexities elsewhere, Bridges is neither Victorian nor post-Victorian. He contributes, but he neither borrows nor influences. So, too, with Hardy. That reluctant expression, that constant effect of breaking a chisel on obdurate stone, may be admired: it can never be imitated, and it is doubtful whether any one would seek to imitate it. Standards that apply to no other poet, and to no other poetry, have been applied to Hardy, and by those standards he has by some been adjudged triumphantly successful. But he has no disciples as he had no master. To some his poetry may stand out like Stonehenge in a great plain, and in these it will inspire awe and perhaps worship. But it will remain as rugged, as isolated, and to many as unmanageable as those great monoliths. Kipling again, though incomparably the most popular poet of his time, is not, and could not be, a poet’s poet. In so far as he was a brilliant and sometimes vicious pamphleteer, he was bound to suffer the fate of all politicians. As the author of Barrack-room Ballads he created not so much a new school of verse as a new army, just as in his poems of empire he joined hands with Cecil Rhodes and Joseph Chamberlain, and turned his back on Parnassus. When he consented to be a poet, as in such a perfect lyric as the Valour and Innocence poem in Rewards and Fairies, he did not affect his fellow poets because they had been frightened away by the outcries of the imperial buccina. The small body of his real verse will be winnowed out by Time from the great quantity of chaff, but its effect will not be felt till the separation is complete. W. B. Yeats did start, or was an important part of, a new and fertile period. But it was an Irish and not an English period. It is indeed one of the curiosities of literature (and races) that the Celtic revival so little influenced poetry in the sister-island. Yeats, “A. E.” and James Stephens affected the English hardly at all. It is, however, true that for Ireland the 2oth century began in the 90s and what a century! Yeats and the Abbey Theatre, rather than all the politicians who spoke and died for Erin, were the fathers of the Revolution. Poets in Ireland always, more than elsewhere, have been recognized as “the movers and shakers Of the world for ever.” Yeats wrote the first draft of the Constitution of the Free State in “The Lake-isle of Innisfree.” The answer to the objectors, therefore, remains. The typical poets of the ’9o0s did not look forward eagerly, but backward contemptuously. They were not creating; they were for the most part sneering. The more considerable names either like Yeats belonged to Irish literature, or like the other three belonged to themselves only, or with Kipling to himself and certain echoes

III

POETRY

MODERN BRITISH]

suboverseas. But there is still A. E. Housman. In his case it is cer- |Stephen Phillips had some of the manner, but none of the tain that he did profoundly influence his fellow-writers, but it is! stance to restore the accent of the heroes. He had a genuine more open to question whether it was not rather with the last | singing impulse. and hands ft for a flute with two stops. He was enchantment of the old than with the first of the new age. Per- | asked to play the organ in the Albert Hall. He should have been haps Housman is no more than Robert Louis Stevenson signalling | strong enough to refuse, but the blame attaches not a little to all in vain from his Pacific island to the future. Because, though | the noisy pack of fawning critics who bayed him on to his doom. this has not been generally accepted, if at all, it is Stevenson in | Whoever’s the fault, at least he left no mark on his successors. They were pressing on. At the very moment when the world verse that was the most potent influence in the early part of the} soth century, and that influence was exerted in part at least | was beginning to doubt its new idol, and in their doubt of him through Housman, a disciple so unconscious of his master that | renewing their despair in poetry in general, the New Age was behe would certainly repudiate him. Yet the two are in essence the | ginning in Oxford with a swarthy malcontent called Flecker, at same—poets of comment, and not of participation. They have | Cambridge with a group which Rupert Brooke led by unqueseach a small neat explanation of the events they so competently, | tioned right, and outside Cambridge, but still in the polite world, and sometimes so endearingly, describe.

The older man

is the | with a certain Walter Ramal

(Walter de la Mare), and a much

more human, the younger the better poet. But Housman carried | less certain John Masefield. and outside the world altogether with on the Stevenson note of deliberate interpretation with feeling |W. H. Davies, who was not so much a man on the tramp as a bird introduced from without. Housman attracted, and deserved to at- | on the wing. But before all these gathering rivulets converged tract, general attention, but when his Last Poems was published into the broad flood of Georgianism that forced its way ever three or four years ago, it became clear that he belonged to the | widening into the threshhold of the War and, beyond it, strained world of Stevenson and not to ours. His lads found the brook of | and parcelled into the swamps of death, there were still the names the 20th century too broad for leaping. They do not lie on the | of Herbert Trench, Sturge Moore, Henry Newbolt and Laurence further side, but they stand there a little wistful and dim against | Binyon, each with his individual claim and contribution. While 1 background of-end-of-the-century self-consciousness. They be- | roaring and laughing by their side, like two huge children in H. long to the horizon whose margin fades behind us “for ever and G. Wells’s Food of the Gods, Hilaire Belloc and G. K. Chesterton shouted to each other across the world, and “when all church for ever aS we move.” Predecessors of the New Age.—Of the writers who carry over | bells were silent, their caps and bells were heard.” It is perhaps not necessary to attempt to range the first three in from the ’gos to the first decade of the 2oth century (for purlist. Herbert Trench was a far from negligible poet, but he this | John St. the as poses of the almanac) none can be saluted even the Baptist of the New World. Three at least deserve mention as | wrote in the grand manner at a time when events were conducting writers of importance, though each must be denied the title of the | themselves in a manner at once small and obscene. His verse forerunner—John Davidson, “Michael Field” and Stephen Phil- | was too much a stranger to the times in which he lived ever to be lips. Of these Davidson in his baffled fury, his fundamental | at home there. He speaks, therefore, always a little like a foreigner. inability to clinch with his hated antagonist because he never | Sturge Moore, also a poet of distinction, perhaps influenced his recognized him, is nearest to being the prophet. He did not hate generation of writers more by his personality than his work, Victoria, or the Victorians. He did not hate the gently anaemic | interesting and diverse as it is. He has to his credit not merely a

Rhymers. But what inspired his fits of temper, that sometimes | brilliant anthology of “Michael Field,’ but a solid body of rose almost into a genuine poetry of hate? Life, of course, but | mature and constructive criticism. Henry Newbolt, who is at it is doubtful whether he ever knew exactly what in life it was | times unfairly bracketed with Alfred Noyes as a poet of “patriotthat bit him. Had it ever declared itself then Davidson might | ism,” has suffered by succeeding with his worst work. “Drake’s

have set the trumpet of the herald to his mouth. As it was the |Drum” had (and continues to have) almost a music-hall success.

instrument was something of a broken reed. “Michael Field,” | The result is that Newbolt has quite unfairly been classified as a the name chosen by those two remarkable women—aunt and | minor Kipling—another partisan of the white man’s beneficent niece—who composed their poems together, could never for all | destiny to take up his dividends. But that is wholly unjust to a

their lovely cadence, have been more than a museum-piece in a | poet with a clear perception of realities, and an almost humble

living world of letters.

Though there is in bulk a surprising | readiness to adapt his manner to his subject. He came a little too

quantity of their work, and though much of it will endure, yet | early to belong to the new movement.

If there had been no new

even while it was written it had the air of a gracious antique. |movement his name would have stood very high. Nor need we It was a little as though those delicate fingers had discovered a| re-classify Hilaire Belloc and G. K. Chesterton. They refuse to lost art, and were, like Count Caloveglia in South Wind, moulding | be treated as grown-up poets.

They are Trinculo, Falstaff, or

a Faun with the enigmatic ecstasy of some disciple of Praxiteles. | Father Christmas in The Christmas Carol, and they have deceived Their best poems had an old and final ring. They were as lonely | the world into believing them to be mere wassaillers. They have almost deceived themselves, but not quite. Both, when they hate, as a Ming vase in a world of Chelsea pottery.

Stephen Phillips is a very different case, and much more difficult | write poetic satire unequalled since Pope, and Chesterton, at to assess. In his poetic youth the fixed stars of poetry were | least, when he loves has a star hidden up his sleeve. In vain he

crowded by the critics to give place to this new and larger lumi- | assures his audience to the contrary. Why, his very words are on

nary. Within less than a quarter of a century he passed “unwept, | fire! But Belloc and Chesterton have stood outside the main stream unhonoured and unsung.” So much so that recently when a posthumous play of his was published the writer who had undertaken | of development, watching it as though two players in a football

the preface used it to indicate his author’s remarkable short- | match should stand among the spectators applauding heartily. In comings. The truth about Stephen Phillips’s rise and fall has not

the circumstances it is difficult to accuse them of desertion: it is

been told yet, and certainly the present estimate of his work is| better to take them for what they are—and to be thankful. We

unfair to the writer who rediscovered the blank verse line. The | May turn from them to the players, who are thinking and who rhetoric of Herod will disappear. It was inspired rather by Beer- | thought of nothing but the game. bohm Tree than the tetrarch. But “Marpessa” will quietly and | Georgian Poetry.—The name “Georgian poetry” was coined in due course climb to its modest place among the quieter candles | in the first anthology of contemporary poets published in 1911 of the night. For the purpose of this essay, however, Stephen | under the editorship of Edward Marsh, to whom, and to Harold Phillips is important because of the disappointment he pro-| Monro the publisher of this and the subsequent volumes, modern voked.

It was believed that the great tradition of English verse | British poetry owes much.

But the name is misleading, and has

that Swinburne had for all his exotic beauty failed to renew, had | constantly misled critics. It has been assumed that it represented

returned. The blank verse line is the most English and at its best | a single school of writers with the same aim and the same method,

the most decisive of metres. In Stephen Phillips it was hoped that |much as were exhibited in the case of painting by the Preit had resumed its old immortal mastery in a new prevailing way. | Raphaelites. This is in fact a quite false view. The contributors

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I2

to the Georgian volume—and to Georgian poetry—represented at least fve divergent streams, their only link being a common passion for verse, and a common response to something in the age which was evoking it. Those who believe that the name is more than convenient shorthand may be asked to explain what community of aim and method are represented by de la Mare, Masefield, Hodgson, Drinkwater, Rupert Brooke, Flecker, Harold Monro,

D. H. Lawrence

and W. H. Davies, to name

only nine

of the leading figures in the revival. Can the dark Arabian musiclan mute his strings while Saul Kane is smashing a beer-bottle with a hammer? Would the Song of Honour be audible among the mild country sounds of the Cotswolds? How would the young men “into cleanness leaping’’ endure the doubtfully delicious neighbourhood of “Yasmin,” and what would happen in Harold Monro’s week-end cottage if two of D. H. Lawrence’s lovers set about breaking up the eloquent crockery in the course of their noisily stark embraces? And would W. H. Davies’s nightingales sing through it all like choir boys when the organ’s loud? The wealth and the strength of the period consists in its amazing diversity. It was the great achievement of Edward Marsh and Harold Monro to find a common meeting place for all these vigorous tendencies, but they had the wisdom to make no attempt to assimilate them. It is difficult, if not impossible, to explain why one period rather than another should be rich in poetry. It is, for example, maintained that great verse generally coincides with some great national excitement, either of victory or defeat. Men sing, this view would maintain, best when they are most disturbed, and poetry, like trade, follows the battle-flag. This theory could easily be destroyed by instances both from England and France, and there is another theory which better explains the periods of fertility that supervene, as did the Georgian, on a long period of barrenness. It may perhaps be stated that poetry goes in long cycles for two reasons. First because it is the most intensive form of art: it is a divine shorthand, and can summarize in a page what may require a volume in prose. Poetry therefore is liable quickly to absorb its material. In the second place, though mankind never wants much poetry, it always demands a little. Poetry is in a sense the ultimate luxury of the human mind: it is a luxury that no men want all the time, few men want much of the time, but that all men must have some time. So great a need and so vast a desire do in the long run precipitate their object, and thus after silence song is born. The Georgian period may have owed something to the stormy days in which it was generated. Imperialism had seen itself in the mirror of the Boer War and found that it looked uncommonly like a skeleton. Industrialism which for a century had been an affair of capital was with urgent creaks and groans becoming a problem of labour. Victorian comfort was changing into the lurid extravagance of Edwardianism. The oil-engine was challenging the printing-press for the control of the soul of man. Here were conditions which called for examination, explanation, defence and condemnation, and if the prose-writers—Wells, Bennett, Galsworthy and Shaw—were at work, how and why should the poets be still? They weren’t. But poetry is a subtler thing than prose. It is less like a photograph than a picture, less like a picture than a face seen by a lightning flash and remembered in a dream. Therefore it is not surprising that this grossly confused age should express itself supremely in a poet of sheer and airy music like Walter de la Mare, or in so consciously exquisite a craftsman as Flecker. These two with Masefield, Davies and Brooke stand out as the leading names of the period. It is not our business to range as much as to record. The world was in fact brought to the realization of the re-birth of poetry not by Brooke, nor by the first Georgian anthology, nor by the publication of Flecker’s Bridge of Fire, nor even by the establishment of the Poetry Bookshop in ror2. It was not to the marvel of The Listeners that the gates swung open, but to the huge hammer-blows of The Everlasting Mercy published in the English Review, The effect of that poem was almost comparable to the excitement induced by the appearance of Don Juan. Poetry with Masefield had once again ceased to be a matter for poets and %

[GEORGIAN

coteries: it had become the possession of the people. By that one blow Masefield flung the door of public interest

wide, and the rest of the waiting poets flooded through it with a shout. The period is so rich that in the first place there must be a catalogue of names like the Homeric catalogue of the ships —Lascelles Abercrombie, Gordon Bottomley, Rupert Brooke, W. H. Davies, John Drinkwater, F. S. Flint, John Freeman, Ralph Hodgson, W. W. Gibson, Gerald Gould, D. H. Lawrence,

Walter de la Mare, Harold Monro, John Masefield, Thomas Goult, Charlotte Mew, Edward Shanks, Fredegond Shove, J. C. Squire, Anna Wickham, and of the Irish, W. B. Yeats, “A.E.,” James Stephens, Padraic Colum, Francis Ledwidge, Seumas O’Sullivan and Dr. Douglas Hyde. And when it is recalled that all belong to the pre-War period, it is reasonable to suggest that Victorianism was dead, that a new and fertile period had begun. It is dif. ficult to classify material so various, or in respect of work so recent to identify the prevailing influence, particularly as these influences are still working themselves out. Certain of these

poets, it was clear from the outset, whatever their individual mer.

its, would not be likely to found a school. Lascelles Abercrombie and Gordon Bottomley, for example, both engaged in revising the blank verse line and, if possible, in re-establishing the poetic drama, were necessarily monks of verse. With such preoccupations they would be bound to stand outside the main stream. Both added notably to the intensification of poetic language, and Bottomley in Gruach wrote a play in verse which in time will be recognized as a permanent part of British dramatic effort. But they were not likely to impinge on the work of their fellows. D. H. Lawrence, if a poet at all, was one so savagely individual, so arrogantly physical, that he must have abashed even his admirers. He reached the extreme of remorseless resignation to the senses. He might be endured: he could not be copied. Charlotte Mew, Fredegond Shove and Anna Wickham of the women all had their own self-centred emotions. In each case their output was limited to the attar of their spiritual nature. No other poets of their period reached such continuous intensity of expression, but its very merit made it fatiguing. They are all three poets whose poems should be lived with like a great picture rather than caught suddenly like the colour of a flower. Finally, of those not likely to fit into a scheme or to herald a new world those two distinguished poets Gerald Gould and Ralph Hodgson should he mentioned. Both were poets of discontent with their age. Gerald Gould carried into action what Ralph Hodgson immortally expressed in such a poem as “The Gipsy Girl.” But each had his own secret. Gould was on a pilgrimage: he was not sure whither, nor could he guide others. But he must seek. Ralph Hodgson of all his age saw loveliness most directly and strongly. He recorded it, and was struck dumb by the very completeness of his utterance. These were then all poets who belonged to no school. But of the rest it might have been expected that de la Mare, Flecker or Masefield might each have set a fashion, though in fact it was Brooke who with Drinkwater and Harold Monro created that general attitude to which Freeman, Squire, Shanks and later Martin Armstrong, F. W. Harvey and Edmund Blunden attached themselves—the attitude to which the generic term “Georgian” has tended to be specifically applied. Of these in time Squire assumed the leadership, and he will be entitled to special memory if not as the founder at least as the saviour of a school of poetry. De la Mare founded no school, though his rhythms have effected a profound revolution in the structure of English verse. No poet writing for the next so years will or can be unaffected by those fairy declensions, those elfin ascents. De la Mare need not fear mortality. His accent is now a part of English verse. He will continue to have imitators of his manner, but he is too incorrigibly delicate in substance to prevail upon the mind of other poets. Flecker perhaps failed of influence because of his long illness and untimely death. A poet cannot found a correspondence school, and Flecker, except for the earliest years of his output—the Oxford and Cambridge years—was first an exile in the East, and then a

dying man in a Swiss sanatorium. “The

Old Ships”

should

It is, even SO, surprising that

drag no lesser ships in their shining

wake, or that no later pilgrims should have set out on “The

POETRY

POST-WAR]

113

.” Golden Journey to Samarkand Effects of the War.—It is a question whether Masefield might

a little readjustment of values, living beauty can still be restored. At a time when verse was in active danger of dying of suffocation, not have created a school, if his violence had not been outpointed | they breathed new life into it. Their work at least is not dead. For the rest of the most recent work there should be mentioned by the War. Strength and beauty, ranging hand in hand, were an intoxicating sight for all men, but most of all for poets. And it Edmund Blunden and Humbert Wolfe. Blunden, though associmight have been supposed at least that Masefield would restore ated with the Georgian school, has lived at first hand with his the narrative poem to its proper place in English poetry. He has fields and his farms. To read him is not like paying a visit to the not, and it is more than likely that the War, which encouraged country but like living there. Humbert Wolfe has attempted both pastoral poetry, the verse of retreat from uproar, may have satire and verse that is accused of a facile romanticism. His equally turned men’s minds from poetry, like Masefield’s, of con- Requiem was in some quarters regarded as making an advance on his earlier work; but with him, as with the Sitwells, for the moflict and tumult. However that may be, it is true that when war had with its ment we must be content with saying that he continues the attack. Nor are there many signs that newer men and women of the usual foul impartiality murdered good and evil alike, it was to first rank are coming, though we have W. J. Turner, Herbert Brooke and the poets of release that the world for a moment turned. Brooke burst into fame with his War sonnets consecrated Read, Richard Church and Peter Quennell among the men to by his death in that Greek island. He became for the moment encourage expectation, and among the women Victoria Sackvillethe expression of the youth of the world, gladly offering itself West, Lady Gerald Wellesley, Rose Macaulay, Sylvia Lynd and to wholesale assassination. But behind that momentary mag- Camilla Doyle. Two things have still to be said. Among the greatest of the nificence were the more enduring meadows of Grantchester. In these the wracked world might find peace. In these—or by the names in contemporary poetry are the Irish poets, who have only trees, whose whisper Freeman overheard, in the long wholesome been mentioned, but not discussed. That was for the reason stretches of Drinkwater’s Cotswolds, by the harsher northern up- given above, that Yeats created the new Irish poetry and had lands of Wilfrid Gibson, in Harold Monro’s most endearing con- far less effect on purely English verse than Housman. But the body of English literature is one and indivisible, and though it solation of the country cottage, or with the birds and the moon of Squire. This was a corporate offer to the world, and it was is possible in the light of the strong impulse given by Yeats to see Trish verse of the century separately, it must at least be meneagerly accepted. For the moment. Because it was the habit of the War to make tioned here. All of it, as it was bound to be, is informed by a and break its idols almost simultaneously. Hardly had the new passionate consciousness of Ireland. But if the matchless rhythms recruits flocked to the banner, hardly had Edward Shanks and of Yeats turned back to legend for consolation and hope, if Martin Armstrong added their conspiracy of release, when the “A. E.” plunged into a mysticism as profound as Blake’s, though, poets of hatred burst upon the world like an angry shell. Robert unlike Blake’s, regulated by a sweet humanity, James Stephens Graves, Robert Nichols, Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon one was already looking forward. He has found truth through laughter, after another blasted the romantic assumption that war was the the laughter of a thrush. He has probably more than the other consecration of youth by fire. In the teeth of a world staggering two influenced the latest developments of Irish verse. Padraic under its weight of stupid ugliness, these poets flung the single Colum and Seumas O’Sullivan are not of the same order as these, though both are poets of distinction. Colum has the quiet word “Murderers.” The other poetry grew for the moment strangely dim and pale. Men were listening to this new and dignity of the inspired peasant, while O’Sullivan writes in the imabominable accusation—and even the fields, the birds and the mediate shadow of Yeats. There remain Francis Ledwidge, who died young after an early lyric promise of almost torturing lovemoon could not distract them from it.

The name

of Edward Thomas

should be mentioned in this

connection. Thomas was a much older man than the other poets here mentioned, and had written much before the War. But the War in some way released his response, and his reputation— growing and deserved—is wholly post-War. Because of the circumstances in which he wrote Thomas was entirely a poet for posterity. He could do nothing to arrest the doom of silence which the exhaustion of the War was suddenly to impose. Relentlessly this poison-gas of despair advanced till a period that had seemed to be most fertile since the Elizabethan, ended choking in the fog of the spirit that denies. By the end of the decade which had seen its origin Georgian poetry was spent, and the war poetry with it. Because it seemed that the poets, who had exposed its horrors and cursed its originators, were content to forget, or at least to live back into peace. Wilfred Owen was quiet for ever, Robert Nichols turned to prose and play writing, Siegfried

Sassoon at long intervals reminded the world of his genius. Only Robert Graves remained to write new forms of verse in the desperate hope of escaping from the memories he had permanently established in traditional shapes. After the War.—And thereupon the silence smashed in 1910 began slowly to settle again. The Georgian period is over, and the war-period is over. There have been two later revolts, one known as “the Imagist” headed by F. S. Flint, with Transatlantic sanction, another led by Edith, Osbert and Sacheverell Sitwell. The first revolt like the poetry against which it protested has apparently ended. Flint, Richard Aldington and the Americans “H. D.” and Ezra Pound, have contributed some ravishing melodies in free verse. They seem now to be replaced by verse not so much of freedom but in dissolution. They cannot compete, and they are wisely content to let the beauty they have made speak for itself. The Sitwell family on the other hand, and in a world of denial, affirm that with a slight shifting of the vision,

liness, and Bertram Higgins and Austin Clarke who are going

steadily forward in the paths laid down by Yeats and his peers. Finally, a special tribute should be paid to the anthologists. There have first been the annual anthologies of The Best Poems of the Year prepared respectively in England and the United States of America by Thomas Moult and L. A. G. Strong, both poets of distinction. There have been no volumes of the Georgian anthology since 1918, but J. C. Squire has published very useful anthologies of contemporary poets, as has also Sir Henry Newbolt, in the latter case with a valuable commentary. One does not forecast the immediate future. But if violent controversy and still more violent perversion indicate life, then the history of poetic criticism and some poetic practice in the last few years give reason for happy expectation. CH. Wo.)

MODERN DEVELOPMENTS IN AMERICAN POETRY Although no date can be used as a line of demarcation, modern American poetry may be said to be a product of the 2oth century. Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson were its curiously differentiated precursors, but Whitman left no immediate literary heirs and, though Emily Dickinson’s first posthumous volume appeared in 1890, it was not until 40 years after her death in 1884 that her work received adequate appraisal. The pioneer vitalism of the former and puritan mysticism of the latter infiltrated gradually; two generations echoed, amplified and varied the dissimilar notes. Suddenly, “the new era in American poetry” was manifest; beginning in 1913, new and vigorous tendencies swept over. the country like a succession of spring torrents. Before this, Edwin Markham’s “The Man With the Hoe” had struck the social conscience and Ezra Pound had sounded the submerged aesthetic consciousness. But what followed was as different as it was dynamic. The year 1913 brought Robert Frost to the attention of his

POEY

Tig

Y ALOY—POGGIO

own country. When “A Boy's Will,” first published in England, was reprinted in America, Frost was immediately recognized as an authentic voice; his subsequent volumes confirmed his position and established his eminence. North of Boston (1914), Mountain Interval (1916), New Hampshire (1923), West-Running Brook (1928) are full of that distinct “tone of voice’? which is the touchstone of poetry; a farmer by choice, a philosopher by instinct, Frost's half-sombre, half-whimsical lyrics are likely to outlive even his highly characteristic monologues. In the same year Vachel Lindsay published General Wiliam Booth Enters Into Heaven and this, with the three succeeding volumes incorporated in Collected Poems (1923), gave America its jazz in terms of literature. An evangelist at heart, Lindsay combined revivalism and ragtime; he preached the Gospel of Beauty— through a saxophone. The following year (1914) marked the rise of free verse and the Imagist movement, a movement divided between poetry and propaganda. Amy Lowell (1874-1925) was its belligerent champion; her own craftsmanship, at its best in Selected Poems (1928), placed emphasis on enamelled images, vivid motion and the swift pictures of the external world. “H.D.,’? who adhered closer to the Imagist tenets, went deeper; her Collected Poems (1925) revealed an unusual tensity beneath an unusual technique. 1915 brought Edgar Lee Master’s Spoon River Anthology, a landmark

of “small town”

gossip and documentation.

Its disillusioned

epitaphs gave rise to a school of satire and self-criticism, Sinclair Lewis’s Main Street (1920) being a prose equivalent. The next decade was no less prolific. 1916 was notable for the emergence of Carl Sandburg and the popularity of E. A. Robinson. Robinson had been writing for years (his concise Children of the Night appeared as early as 1897), but The Man Against the Sky (1916) was the first of his astringent works to draw an audience that increased with his Collected Poems (1921) and reached great numbers with Tristram (1927). Sandburg’s volumes, from

Chicago

Poems

(1916)

to Good

Morning,

America

(1928),

blended slang and mysticism, expressing extremes of roughness and tenderness in a language definitely American. Edna St. Vincent Millay’s Renascence (1917) was followed by Second April (1921). The Harp-Weaver and Other Poems (1924), The Buck in the Snow (1928)—each volume securing her high place in contemporary letters and the affection of her readers. There ensued a wave of lyrical poetry, chiefly impelled by women. Penetration and extraordinary finesse marked the verse of Elinor Wylie (dec. 1928); rare and unified metaphysics intensified the lines of Léonie Adams; the songs of Sara Teasdale, Genevieve Taggard, Louise Bogan, Elizabeth Coatsworth, Jean Starr Untermeyer, Hazel Hall were sharpened with poignance. The masculine lyricists were more detached. Conrad Aiken, John Crowe Ransom. Archibald MacLeish, Hart Crane perfected a subtle music; William Rose Benét, John Hall Wheelock, George Dillon fashioned melodies that were more outspoken. An opposite tendency manifested itself in the savage masculinity of Robinson Jeffers (first pronounced in Roa Stallion, 1926) with its elemental sense of power, and in Stephen Vincent Benét’s John Brown’s Body (1928), panoramic in scope and epic in proportions. The decorative tendency found expression in the abstract elegance of Wallace Stevens, the arresting designs of E. E. Cummings, the whimsical patterns of Alfred Kreymborg and the distorted euphuism of Maxwell Bodenheim. But, for the greater part. vigour was in the ascendancy, an unconscious reaction to the frustrated disintegration of T. S. Eliot’s remarkable The Waste Land (1922). John Gould Fletcher discarded Imagism and projected a passionate affirmation in Branches of Adam

(1926); William Ellery Leonard published his long-withheld autobiographical sequence of sonnets, Two Lives ( 1925); Joseph Moncure March syncopated his brusque rhythms in the fastmoving The Wild Party (1928) and the pugilistic The Set-Up (1928); Samuel Hoffenstein and Dorothy Parker put cynicism to gay heel-and-toe jingles; Nathalia Crane, whose The Janitor’s Boy (1924) was published before she was eleven. proved to be a prodigy whose creative genius was no mere flash in the pan. And, anticipating her centenary in 1030,

alinost two hundred

of Emily Dickinson were printed in 1929;

unpublished poems

the newly discovered Further Poems of Emily Dickinson, estab-

lishing her as an indisputably great poet.

(L. Un.)

POEY Y ALOY, FELIPE (1799-1891), Cuban naturalist, was born in Havana on May 26, 1799. He received his degree in law at the University of Madrid (1820) but abandoned practice to devote himself to natural history. He returned to Cuba and formed a collection which he carried back to Paris.

Here he re-

mained until 1833, publishing many articles and his Centurie de Lepidopteres de L'ile de Cuba (1832). He became professor of zoology and comparative anatomy in the University of Havana in 1842 and in 1863 was appointed to the chair of botany, mineralogy and geology. From 1873 until his death at Havana on Jan. 28, 1891, he was professor of philosophy and belles lettres. His magnum opus is the Catdlogo rozonado de los peces cubanos, an atlas of ten volumes with over 1,000 of his own drawings, and describ-

ing about 800 tropical fish, about half of which he first made known to science.

The Cuban Government is preparing a “Mazg-

nífica edición” of Poey’s works under the direction of Carlos de la Torre. POGGENDORFF,

JOHANN CHRISTIAN (17961877), German physicist, was born in Hamburg on Dec. 29, 1796. He became an apothecary’s assistant and later went to Berlin, where he entered the university in 1820. In 1823 he was appointed meteorological observer to the Academy of Sciences. Poggendorff founded in 1824 the Annalen der Physik und Chemie, which became the foremost scientific journal in Europe. He was its editor for 50 years. His Biographisch-literarisches Handwörterbuch zur Geschichte der exacten Wissenschaften (2 vols. 1863) contains notices of the lives and labours of mathematicians, astronomers, physicists and chemists, of all peoples and all ages. This publication was continued by other hands, after his death, in later volumes, which appeared in 1898, 1904 and 1924-25. His literary and scientific reputation brought him many academic honours. He declined to accept any professorship, devoting his energies to the editorship of the Annalen, and to the pursuit of his scientific researches. He died at Berlin on Jan. 24, 1877. POGGIO (1380-1459). Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini, Italian scholar of the Renaissance, was born in 1380 at Terranuova, 2 village in the territory of Florence. He studied Latin under John of Ravenna, and Greek under Manuel Chrysoloras. His distinguished abilities and his dexterity as a copyist of mss. brought him into early notice with the chief scholars of Florence. Coluccio Salutati and Niccolo de’ Niccoli befriended him, and in the year 1402 or 1403 he was received into the service of the Roman curia. His functions were those of a secretary; and, though he profited by benefices conferred on him in lieu of salary, he remained a layman to the end of his life. It is noticeable that, while he held his office in the curia through that momentous period of 50 years which witnessed the Councils of Constance and of Basle, and the final restoration of the papacy under Nicholas V., his sympathies were never attracted to ecclesiastical affairs. Nothing marks the secular attitude of the Italians at an epoch which decided the future course of both Renaissance and Reformation more strongly than the mundane proclivities of this apostolic secretary, heart and soul devoted to the resuscitation of classical studies amid conflicts of popes and antipopes, cardinals and councils, in all of which he bore an official part. Thus, when his duties called him to Constance in 1414, he employed his leisure in exploring the libraries of Swiss and Swabian convents. The treasures he brought to light at Reichenau, Weingarten, and above all St. Gall, restored many lost masterpieces of Latin literature, and supplied students with the texts of authors whose works

had hitherto been accessible only in mutilated copies. In one of his epistles he describes how he recovered Quintilian, part of ae Flaccus, and the commentaries of Asconius Pedianus at t.

Gall.

Manuscripts of Lucretius, Columella, Silius Italicus, Manilius and Vitruvius were unearthed, copied by his hand, and communi-

cated to the learned. Wherever Poggio went he carried on the same

industry of research.

At Langres he discovered Cicero’s Oration

POGLIZZA—POINCARE for Caecina, at Monte Cassino a ms. of Frontinus. He also could boast of having recovered Ammianus Marcellinus, Nonius Marcellus, Probus, Flavius Caper and Eutyches. If a codex could not be obtained by fair means, he was ready to use fraud, as when

he bribed a monk to abstract a Livy and an Ammianus from the convent library of Hersfield. Poggio embraced the whole sphere of contemporary studies, and distinguished

himself

as an orator,

a writer

of rhetorical

treatises, a panegyrist of the dead, a violent impugner of the living, a translator from the Greek, an epistolographer and grave historian and a facetious compiler of fabliaux in Latin.

Of his moral essays

it may suffice to notice the dissertations On Nobility, On Vicissitudes of Fortune, On the Misery of Human Life, On the Infelicity

of Princes and On Marriage in Old Age. These compositions belonged to a species which, since Petrarch set the fashion, were very popular among Italian scholars.

They have lost their value,

except for the few matters of fact which are embedded in a mass of commonplace meditation, and for occasional brilliant illustrations. Poggio’s History of Florence, written in avowed imitation of Livy’s manner, requires separate mention, since it exemplifies

by its defects the weakness of that merely stylistic treatment which deprived so much of Bruni’s, Carlo Aretino’s and Bembo’s work of historical weight. A somewhat different criticism must be

passed on the Facetzae, a collection of humorous and indecent tales expressed in such Latinity as Poggio could command. This book is chiefly remarkable for its unsparing satires on the monastic orders and the secular clergy. Among his contemporaries Poggio passed for one of the most formidable polemical or gladiatorial rhetoricians; and a considerable section of his extant works are invectives. One of these, the Dialogue against Hypocrites, was aimed in a spirit of vindictive hatred at the vices of ecclesiastics; another, written at the

request of Nicholas V., covered the anti-pope Felix with scurrilous abuse. But his most famous compositions in this kind are the personal invectives which he discharged against Filelfo and Valla. All the resources of a copious and unclean Latin vocabulary were employed to degrade the objects of his satire; and every crime of which humanity is capable was ascribed to them without discrimination. In Filelfo and Valla Poggio found his match; and Italy was amused for years with the spectacle of their indecent combats. About the year 1452 Poggio finally retired to Florence, where he was admitted to the burghership, and on the death of Carlo Aretino in 1453 was appointed chancellor and historiographer to the republic. He had already built himself a villa in Valdarno, which he adorned with a collection of antique sculpture, coins and inscriptions. In 1435 he had married a girl of 18 named Vaggia, of the famous Buondelmonte blood. His declining days were spent in the discharge of his honourable Florentine office and in the composition of his history. He died in 1459, and was buried in the church of Santa Croce. A statue by Donatello and a picture by Antonio del Pollajuolo remained to commemorate a citizen who chiefly for his services to humanistic literature deserved the notice of posterity. Poggio’s wotks were printed at Basle in 1538, “ex aedibus Henrici Petri.” Dr. Shepherd’s Life of Poggio Bracciolini (1802) is a good authority on his biography. For his position in the history of the revival, see Voigt, Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums (3rd ed., 1893) and Symonds, Renaissance in Italy (1875-86). (J.A.S.; X.)

POGLIZZA

(Serbo-Croatian, Poljica), a tract of mountain-

ous land in Dalmatia, Austria; formerly the seat of an independent republic.

The territories of Poglizza lay chiefly within the south-

easterly curve made by the river Cetina before it enters the Adri-

atic at Almissa (Omi§). They also comprised the fastnesses of the Mossor range (4,500 ft.) and the fertile strip of coast from Almissa to Stobrez, ro m. W.N.W. The population of Poglizza

numbered 6,566 in 1806. In the following year, however, the republic incurred the enmity of Napoleon by rendering aid to the Russians and Montenegrins in Dalmatia; and it was invaded by French troops, who plundered its villages, massacred its inhabitants, and finally deprived it of independence. See the Annuario Dalmatico for 1885 (published at Zara); and A. Fortis, Travels into Dalmatia (1778).

IL5

POINCARE, JULES HENRI

(1854-1912), French mathe-

matician, was born at Nancy, on April 29, 1854. He studied at the Ecole Polytechnique, devoting himself to scientific mining, and took his degree in 1879. He was lecturer at Caen and then was transferred to the University of Paris in 1881, lecturing first on physical mechanics, then on mathematical physics, and ultimately on astronomical mechanics. Poincaré’s work falls into three main divisions: his work in pure mathematics, in astronomy and in physics. Most important is his work in pure analytical mathematics; he took the main points of an existing theory, simplified it and then developed it beyond all recognition. In this way he opened up new fields for the mathematician and gave new material to the mathematical physicist. In pure analytical mathematics a good deal of his work is on the theory of functions. He developed automorphic functions and his work on the ‘“Fuchsian” functions he applied to the non-Euclidean geometry of Lobatchevski; he also wrote a number of papers on Abelian functions. Poincaré’s work on differential equations is also important; here he extended the work of Cauchy; he dealt with linear differential equations on the lines of Riemann and Fuchs and he wrote a number of papers on the differential equations which occur in physics. In astronomy he dealt chiefly with the theory of orbits; he began with an idea due to Hill and investigated the general problem of three bodies. In addition to his purely mathematical and scientific work he also wrote on philosophy. He died in Paris on July 17, 1912. His works include Cours de physique mathématique, 10 vol. (1889, etc.); Leçons de la mécanique céleste (1905, etc.); Théorie de Maxwell et les oscillations hertziennes (1907); La théorie du potentiel newtonien (1899); Science d’hypothése (1903); La valeur de la science (1904); Science et méthode

(1908). , POINCARE,

RAYMOND

(13860-

), French

states-

man, was born at Bar-le-duc on Aug. 20, 1860, the son of Nicolas Poincaré, a distinguished civil servant and meteorologist. Educated at the university of Paris, Raymond was called to the Paris bar, and was for some time law editor of the Voltaire. He had served for over a year in the department of agriculture when in 1887 he was elected deputy for the Meuse. He made a great reputation in the chamber as an economist, and sat on the budget commissions of 1890-91 and 1892. He was minister of education, fine arts and religion in the first cabinet (April~Nov. 1893) of Charles Dupuy, and minister of finance in the second and third

(May 1894-Jan. 1895).

In the succeeding Ribot cabinet Poin-

caré became minister of public instruction. Although he was excluded from the Radical cabinet which followed, the revised scheme of death duties proposed by the new ministry was based upon his proposals of the previous year. He became vice-president of the Chamber in the autumn of 1895, and in spite of the bitter hostility of the Radicals retained his position in 1896-97. In March 1906 Poincaré became minister of finance in the Sarrien Government, but he gave up his portfolio to Caillaux in October of the same year, when Sarrien was succeeded by Clemenceau as prime minister. During the next five years, though he still continued to exercise a powerful influence in the senate, Poincaré devoted himself mainly to his legal career. In 1909 he was elected a member of the French Academy. In Jan. 1912, Caillaux, who had been prime minister since the beginning of the previous year, resigned, whereupon Poincaré formed a government in which he himself held the portfolio of foreign affairs. Poincaré’s cabinet constituted an entente nationale, and his first aim was to pursue a more definite foreign policy. In home affairs the problem which presented the greatest difficulties was that of

electoral reform. Poincaré induced the chamber to pass a proportional representation bill. But above all diplomatic affairs claimed his constant attention; for during the negotiations with Germany which took place in consequence of the dispatch of a gun~boat by that country to Agadir, certain incidents had occurred during the Caillaux administration which had produced a feeling of disquietude in regard to foreign policy. Poincaré therefore sought to re-establish a continuity of policy; and though he

maintained

courteous

relations

with

Germany

his

main

116

POINSETTIA

endeavour was to prove that France would remain faithful to both friends and allies The ratification by the senate of the FrancoGerman Treaty of Nov. 4, 1911, was followed by France's definite estabhshment in Morocco. Almost immediately after the establishment of the Poincaré Government, an incident had occurred which temporarily obscured the friendly relations between France and Italy. The Italians. who at that moment were at war with the Turks, seized two French mail-steamers, the “Carthage” and the “Manouba,” which were on their way to Tunis, on Jan. 16 and 18, 1912. But Poincaré, by his calmness and resolution, succeeded in re-establishing amicable relations between the two countries. By the end of October Italian sovereignty in Libya was recognised, and by a mutual declaration of the two Governments, full liberty of action was granted to France in Morocco and to Italy in Libya. When in the autumn of 1912 the Balkan War broke out, Poincaré made every effort possible to prevent the conflagration from spreading. Nevertheless the succession of European crises, combined with the ever-increasing menace from Germany and Austria-Hungary, rendered it necessary to take precautions; and Poincaré induced parliament to vote a programme of naval construction; through the strengthening of Franco-British relations it became possible to concentrate the whole of the French fleet in the Mediterranean. On Jan. 17, 1914, Poincaré was elected president of the republic in place of Fallières. In power, he endeavoured to cement the friendships and strengthen the alliances of France. (See France, History.) At a later stage, his enemies at home and abroad criticised him severely for this policy; yet it is hardly reasonable because a man is sufficiently far-seeing to apprehend a storm and make preparations for it, to accuse him of wishing to hasten it. He claimed that he did his utmost to avert war, holding that the way to prevent the conflict was for those powers against whom the menace was directed to present a powerful and united front, thus making it imprudent to attempt any act of aggression. In July r914 Poincaré went to Russia on a visit which had

been planned for some time past. He was on his way home, hav-

obligations in regard to the delivery of coal and coke, Poincaré, in agreement with Belgium, undertook the occupation of the Ruhr (g.v.). At first this measure involved merely a method of control, but gradually, owing to the passive resistance of the Germans, it became necessary to exploit the railways and to some

extent also the mines by means

of Franco-British supervision,

But by autumn the passive resistance had ceased, and Poincaré awaited the German proposals which never came. He then accepted the American suggestion that a group of experts should

be given the task of finding the solution of the reparation prob-

lem; this resulted in the adoption of the Dawes Plan. But Poincaré had made up his mind not to withdraw from the Ruhr until he was satisfied that this plan was being carried out. During the first three months of 1924 Poincaré had to face a financial crisis due to the state of the exchange. Not without difficulty he induced parliament to vote new taxes and succeeded in saving the situation. But from now onwards he had to withstand strenuous opposition from the parties of the Left consisting of the Radicals and Socialists. The policy of these groups met

with a marked success at the general elections of May 11, ro2z, and resulted in a majority for the Left which now formed a coalition under the name of the Cartel des Gauches. Immediately the results were announced, Poincaré stated that he would retire on the day when the new Chamber was to assemble, which took place on June I, 1924. Thenceforward he took his place in the senate, intervening only rarely more. crisis, check,

in political debates. But he was to come into power once When, in the middle of the summer of 1926, the financial which successive cabinets since 1924 had been unable to became more and more serious, public opinion saw in him

the only man capable of meeting the situation.

After the fall of

the Briand-Caillaux cabinet, which only lasted a few weeks, and of the Herriot cabinet, which only existed a few hours, Poincaré, in the last days of July, formed a ministry which included both moderate Republicans and Radical-Socialists, and had as its object the stabilization of French finances by means of a policy of national union. Public opinion was immediately reassured. At the beginning of August the ministry caused the national assembly, meeting at Versailles, to pass, as articles embodied in the constitution, and therefore not at the mercy of political changes, regulations for the establishment of an automatic sinking-fund, to

ing arranged to visit the three Scandinavian capitals, when the news of the Austrian ultimatum to Serbia reached him. After a short stay in Stockholm he returned hastily to Paris; and in a letter to King George V. he pleaded for a clear declaration that the entente cordiale, if necessary, would prove its strength on the battlefield, pointing out that such a statement would have a which would be attributed funds which could not be touched (death duties, revenues from the tobacco monopoly, etc.). restraining effect on the policy of Vienna and Berlin. Throughout In three months he succeeded in raising the value of the franc the World War he continued to perform his duty with the same energy and discretion as before; though sometimes he visited from 264 francs to the pound sterling, to 124. This rate was the front, he never placed any obstacle whatever in the way either achieved in Dec. 1926, and thenceforward the value of the franc of the Government or of the army. In Nov. rg17 he gave proof did not fluctuate. For a year and a half Poincaré, who had of his vision and disregard of self by placing in power Clemen- restored a strict financial equilibrium, maintained this stabilizaceau, who, though undoubtedly the man of the moment, was tion of the currency de facto. The general election of April 1928 one with whom he had little sympathy. During the critical months having returned a majority which approved of his policy, a law of 1918, Poincaré revealed an inflexible resolution and a supreme was voted in June by the new assembly, and by the senate, establishing the stabilization de iure. It was one of the most successful confidence in the ultimate victory. During the peace negotiations divergence of views again be- operations of this nature in history. Withdrawal of the Radicalcame apparent between Poincaré and Clemenceau. On more than Socialist support from his government, engineered by Caillaux, one occasion the president found it necessary to write to the caused his resignation on Nov. 7, 1928, but he formed a new prime minister pointing out the errors which, from his point of ministry on Nov. 12. He resigned because of illness, on July 27, view, were being committed. His counsels, however, were not 1929. Poincaré undertook the publication of an important work followed. and at the beginning of 1920, after having completed in 10 volumes, entitled Au service de la France; neuf années de seven years as president, he left the Elysée and was shortly after souvenirs, the plan of which is to describe the sequence of events re-elected senator for the department of the Meuse. In Jan. 1922, from rg11 to 1920 and the réle which he himself played in them the Briand cabinet having resigned, Poincaré once more became Four of these volumes appeared in 1926, 1927 and 1928 under the prime minister and minister for foreign affairs. He made it his titles of Le lendemain d’Agadir, Les Balkans en feu, L’Europe chief aim to insist on the fulfilment by Germany of her obligations sous les armes, and L'Union sacrée. See H. Girard, Raymond Poincaré (1913); E. Charton, L’Angleterre in regard to reparations. During the first year of his new government he failed to arrive at any agreement on this subject with the et M. Poincaré (1923); S. Huddleston, Poincaré (1924); Sir George (P.B): British cabinet, whose views differed so widely from his own. Arthur; ed., Memoirs of Raymond Poincaré (1929). The Inter-Allied Conference in London in Aug. and Dec. 1922 POINSETTIA, a popular greenhouse winter-flowering shrub produced no result. A further conference took place in Paris of the family Euphorbiaceae. The Poinsettia pulcherrima of garon Jan. 2 and 5, 1923. But Poincaré rejected the proposals drawn dens (Euphorbia pulcherrima of botanists), a native of Mexico up by Bonar Law. and Central America, with its scarlet bracts, stands high among At this moment, the Reparations Commission, with Britain | decorative plants. The white-bracted sort, var. alba, is not so effecdissenting, having declared that Germany had failed to fulfil her | tive, but the double-flowered, var. plenissima, in which the infor-

POINSOT—POINT

SETS

117

escence is branched, is as brilliant as the type, and keeps long in | P and QO together with all points between them is called an interval and is denoted by [P,Q]. Let us imagine that we have a common foot-rule which can be applied to LZ in order to measure good turfy loam, with an addition of one-sixth of leaf-mould and lengths. Then given an interval [P,Q] we can measure its length, a little sand, and should be kept in a heat of from 65° to 70° at and say that it is a certain number of feet. Of a single point we night, with a rise of 10° by day. About August they may be would say, in accordance with the ordinary geometry notion, that inured to a heat of 50° at night, and should be placed out of doors its length is zero. If we are given two intervals which have no for a month under a south wall in the full sun. This treatment point in common, it is not natural to speak of the length of the matures and prepares them for flowering. In autumn they must set of points which they represent, the word “length” being usually be removed to a house where the temperature is 50° at night, and applied only to connected pieces. In this case we shall use the by the end of September some of them may be put in the green- word “measure,” and say that the measure of this point set is the house, where they will come into flower, the remainder being sum of the lengths of the two intervals. laced under heat later for succession. However, when we speak of a point set on L, this does not POINSOT, LOUIS (1777-1859), French mathematician, was necessarily imply that we are thinking of an interval, a single born at Paris on Jan. 3, 1777. In 1794 he became a scholar at point, or a set of intervals; we sometimes mean to indicate a set the Ecole Polytechnique, which he left in 1796 to act as a civil of points which contains no connected portion, z.e., which contains engineer. In 1804 he was appointed professor of mathematics no interval. One might be tempted to say that since a point has at the Lycée, in 1809 professor of analysis and mechanics, and length zero, the “measure” of such a set would be the sum of the in 1816 examiner at the Ecole Polytechnique. On the death of lengths of its individual points, z.e., the sum of a set of zeros, and J. L. Lagrange, in 1813, Poinsot was elected to his place in the hence zero. Such a hasty decision would not lead to very fruitful Académie des Sciences; he was chosen a member of the senate results, however, for the following reason. If we determine upon formed in 1852. He died at Paris on Dec. 5, 1850. a “measure” for two point sets, A and B, wbich have no points in Poinsot’s earliest work was his Elémens de statique (1803; common, the sum of their measures should naturally be the measoth edition, 1848), in which he introduces the idea of statical ure of the point set which is made up by them taken together. couples and investigates their properties. In his Théorie nouvelle Thus, above, we have stated that the measure of a set consisting de la rotation des corps (1834) he treats the motion of a rigid of two intervals with no common point is the sum of the lengths body geometrically. of those intervals. Now any interval [P,Q] can easily be shown to See J. L. F. Bertrand, Discours aux funérailles de Poinsot (1860). be the sum of two sets A and B each of which fails to contain any POINT, in finance, the unit used to estimate or quote the interval, and if we arbitrarily call the measure of both A and B changes in market price of securities, commodities, or exchange. zero, the sum of their measures would be zero, which is not the In the security market a point is 1% or $r per share of stock or length of [P,Q], no matter how small the length of [P,Q]. In $10 per bond. Variations in securities are quoted as low as 4 other words, we want a measure of a set of points which will corof a point, 123 cents on stock and $1.25 on bonds. commodi- respond to the ordinary idea of length. ties such as cotton, coffee, and sugar the point is z4, of a cent We have now introduced what is known, in the theory of sets per pound, and no fractional points are quoted. Thus in cotton of points, as the problem of measure. There have been several a decline or advance of 4 cent a pound oe be 25 points or methods devised for finding a measure of an arbitrary set of $1.25 per bale. A point in exchange is of a cent. Thus an points. We shall describe, briefly, the theory of Lebesgue measadvance in sterling from 4-8625 to 4-863 5 would be a ten-point ure, which is the foundation of the Lebesgue theory of integration. rise. In the English market stock is quoted at so much per £100 Lebesgue Measure.—A set, A, is said to be covered by a coland the loss of a point would not necessarily mean the loss of 1%. lection, G, of intervals, when every point of A is in some interval If, for example, £100 worth of stock were quoted at “£87, dropped of G. If the set of intervals G is denumerable, then we shall say one point,” this would be equivalent to £86. On the other hand, that it is a covering of 4. (A set is called denumerable if its ele£100 stock quoted at “£237, gained one point,” would indicate ments can be “tagged” with positive integers in such a way that that the closing price was £238. no two elements of the set are “tagged” with the same integer.) POINT PLEASANT, a town and the county seat of Mason If the sum of the lengths of the intervals of G exists, let us call county, W. Va., U.S.A., on the Ohio river, at the mouth of the this the sum-length of the covering. Now of all possible coverings Kanawha river, and about midway between Pittsburg and Cin- of A consider the corresponding sum-lengths, and let N be the cinnati. Pop. (1930) 3,301. It is served directly by the Baltimore largest number which jis not greater than any of these sum-lengths. and Ohio railway, and by the Hocking Valley railway on the oppo- Then JN is called the exterior measure of A and is denoted by mA. site side of the Ohio river. The Kanawha river is navigable (by Suppose, now, that [P,Q] is some interval, whose length we shall the use of locks and dams) for 90 m. above the town, and Point denote by d, such that all points of A are within [P,Q]. Let B Pleasant is a re-shipping point for Kanawha coal. be the set of all points of [P,Q] that do not belong to A, and let The permanent settlement of the town dates from 1785. In 1794 meB denote the exterior measure of B, found just as me4 was the village of Point Pleasant was planned; it was incorporated found. If it happens that meA-HmeB=d, then meA is accepted as as a town in 1833. A granite monument (86 ft. high) commemoratthe measure of A, and is what is known as the Lebesgue measure ing the battle was unveiled on Oct. 10, 1909. of A. Of course we have at the same time that meB is the Leflower. They are propagated by cuttings in spring, which when taken off with a heel, strike freely in brisk heat. They require

See J. T. McAllister’s article, “The Battle of Point Pleasant,’” in the Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (1901-02), vol, 2 and Virgil A. Lewis, History of the Battle of Point erate (Charles-

ton, W. “Va. 1909).

POINT SETS. A point set is a collection of points selected from a given space. The study of the properties of point sets constitutes that branch of mathematics known as point sets, or the theory of sets of points. Generally speaking, the properties of a point set may be classified under two heads, (1) topological and

(2) metric. For a description of the former see ANAtysis SITUS. a introduction to the metric properties of point sets is given elow. The Problem of Measure.—tIn order to approach the subject by as simple an example as possible, let us confine ourselves to the case where the given space is an ordinary straight line, L. If P and Q are distinct points of L, then the point set consisting of

besgue measure of B, and in accordance with our ideas of length we have required that the sum of the two measures give the length of [P,Q]. To be sure, the Lebesgue measure of a set of points may not exist, but it does exist for all ordinary point sets. Indeed it is not at all easy to give an example of a set of points which has no Lebesgue measure, and all of those examples which have been given make use of certain methods which are held to be unacceptable by many mathematicians. For the measure of a set of points in a plane, areas are employed. Thus, the measure of the set of all points in a square is the area of the square. And to get the measure of a general plane point set M, a covering of M is made by means of squares. In three dimensions cubes are employed, and we deal with sumvolumes. The introduction of the notion of measure has led to an enriching of the content of general analysis that could hardly have been

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realized otherwise. And the effect has been felt not only in mathematics itself, but in the closely allied fields of mechanics and dynamics. Breriocrapuy.—Encyklopidie der mathematischen Wissenschaften, Band IIs, Heft 7 (1924). In ss. 18-20c will be found a summary of various kinds of measure. On p. 858 are given references to applications of the notion of measure to problems in physics, astronomy, etc.

E. W. Hobson, The Theory of Functions of a Real Variable (2nd ed.

1921) vol. i., p. 158 seg.; A. N. Whitehead, An Introduction to Mathematics (1911), & popular treatise, on pp. 77-79 of which will be found an example of a set which is denumerable, as well as of a set which is not denumerable; W. H. and G. C. Young, The Theory of Sets of Points (1906).

POISON.

(R. L. WL)

There is no official legal definition of the meaning

of the word “poison” though from the phraseology of the sections in the various laws relating to poisoning it may readily be inferred what is understood by the term “poison” in its legal aspects. The legal sections relating to criminal poisoning contain the expressions “poison or other destructive thing,” “poison or other destructive or noxious thing,” “to inflict upon such person grievous bodily harm,” “any chloroform, laudanum or other stupefying or overpowering drug, matter or thing.” These phrases all occur in the sections where the crime for wilful intent in “unlawfully administering” is regarded as felony.

In the section dealing with intent to injure, aggrieve or annoy any person the expression “poison or other destructive or noxious thing” is used and the offence is regarded as misdemeanour. In the section dealing with criminal abortion the term “poison or other noxious thing” is used, and the unlawful administration of such with intent to procure a miscarriage is regarded as felony. The term “noxious thing” has been held to include all substances causing symptoms which might be dangerous to life, or symptoms giving rise to pain, serious discomfort or incapacity. In the case of abortion it includes all substances which might under the circumstances in which they were administered reasonably give rise to any risk of abortion.

The sale of “poisons” to the public is carefully controlled by law, and the danger to human life from the indiscriminate sale of poisons by unqualified persons is thereby reduced. With certain exceptions only duly qualified and registered phar-

ACTION OF POISONS Poisons may have a local action or a general systemic action after absorption into the circulatory system, or they may act in both ways. Almost all poisons have a general systemic action. Some poisons such as “corrosives” destroy the mucous membrane or tissues with which they come in contact and cause serious or dangerous injury thereby. Irritant poisons set up a local inflammatory reaction in the mucous membrane of the alimentary tract.

Apart from these local effects, the common result of the absorp-

tion of a poison is the harmful effect produced by the important organs of the body, for example, the heart and nervous system are almost certain to affected. A poison after absorption attacks all the

the poison on liver, kidneys, be adversely organs of the

body to a more or less extent and it is a mistake to regard poisons as being exclusively selective in their action though some poisons appear to direct the brunt of their attack on a particular system

Among the conditions affecting the action of a poison may be mentioned the following: 1. The Amount Taken.—Usually the quantity of a poison taken bears a relation to the effects produced; exception to this rule are substances in the case of which owing to the quantity taken vomiting occurs so that most of the poison is expelled; oxalic acid and tartar emetic are examples.

The term “fatal dose” when applied to a poison means the

smallest amount which is known to have caused death in an adult Frequently larger doses may be taken without death resulting, but much depends on other factors than quantity, and also as to whether adequate treatment has been adopted. 2. Habit.—A tolerance to some poisons occurs after their repeated use, and in some cases doses far greater than a normal “fatal dose” may be tolerated without serious symptoms developing; examples of such drugs are morphine, opium, cocaine and alcohol. In the case of some of these poisons their repeated use

leads to the development of the “drug habit” with all its pernicious symptoms and effects. 3. Idiosyncrasy.—Some persons are exceedingly intolerant of

certain drugs which in moderate doses may cause in them dan-

gerous or even fatal symptoms; examples are salicylates and macists and medical practitioners are permitted to sell poisons. aceto-salicylic acid which in some persons have a severe cardioDefinition.—A convenient and comprehensive definition of depressant action. the word “poison” is “A substance which by its direct action on 4. Age—Usually children are much more susceptible to the the mucous membrane, tissues, or skin, or after absorption into effects of a poison than adults. The dosage of drugs in the case of the circulatory system can, in the way in which it is administered, children has been fixed by a pharmacological rule, but exceptions injuriously affect health or destroy life.” This definition includes to this are morphine, opium and its preparations which are much such substances as powdered glass, metallic filings, etc., which more toxic than the rule would indicate; on the other hand chilwould act mechanically as irritants if swallowed. It also includes dren tolerate belladonna preparations better than adults. Aged substances which are ordinarily of a harmless nature but by persons withstand poisons badly. nature of the excessive quantity, or of their physical condition or 5. The State of Health.—lIn disease, usually drugs are much mamma pci AL A tA i i oe a AO a a RE e A i manner of administration may act injuriously on the body, for more toxic and this is especially so where the excretory organs are example, water at the boiling temperature or milk given intra- diseased. For example, in nephritis medicinal doses of such drugs muscularly or intravenously would be included. as morphine, salvarsan, hyoscine, etc., often cause dangerous The commonly understood definition of a poison would be a symptoms, likewise in cirrhosis of the liver there is a greatly substance which if taken internally in small doses is capable of increased susceptibility to such drugs. In conditions of gastritis acting deleteriously on the body or of destroying life. or enteritis irritant drugs like arsenic are especially toxic. Poisoning may be accidental, suicidal or homicidal. By far On the other hand in some conditions associated with delirium the commonest type of poisoning is that due to accidental causes. or pain large doses of sedative drugs produce little effect provided In spite of the precautions taken by the State in the sale of poisons that the excretory organs are healthy.

much too little care is taken by the public in the safeguarding 6. Condition and Mode of Administration.—If a poison of poisons in their possession, and these are commonly taken in is taken by the mouth in solution it acts much more powerfully mistake for other substances of a harmless nature, or often an than if in an insoluble form, for example, an insoluble preparaoverdose is taken from pure carelessness. tion of arsenic may produce little poisonous effect even in large Thus, oxalic acid crystals when purchased in a paper packet doses; similarly strychnine given in hard pills has a much delayed may be transferred to a bottle or jar which is unlabelled and action. then taken in mistake for Epsom salts which they closely resemble. The state of the stomach as regards the presence of food has Similarly tablets of corrosive sublimate have been taken in a marked influence on the effect of a poison; for example, if the mistake for tablets of a harmless nature such as Blaud’s pills. stomach is empty the effect will be rapid, particularly so when It cannot be too strongly insisted upon that it is the duty of every the poison is in a soluble form; on the other hand if the stomach individual possessing a substance of poisonous nature to take the is full considerable delay may occur in the action of the poison utmost care that this is correctly labelled and kept safely guarded as is well shown in acute arsenical poisoning. under lock and key; by this means accidental poisoning would be Poisons administered subcutaneously or intravenously act more largely prevented. powerfully than by the mouth.

IIQ

POISON When a poison is inhaled in the form of spray, vapour or gas| its absorption from the respiratory tract is rapid and the effect great. Poisons may be absorbed by the skin or mucous membrane

of the vagina or rectum with fatal result. DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF POISONING Evidence of Poisoning.—It must be remembered that the symptoms of poisoning may be closely simulated by the symptoms of natural disease and the greatest care must be taken before a

diagnosis of “poisoning” is arrived at. For example, the symptoms of acute arsenical poisoning closely resemble those of cholera or

acute bacterial food poisoning. The only certain differentiation is the finding of arsenic in the excreta or of the bacteriological evidence of a cholera or food poisoning infection. The evidences of poisoning are—(1) The symptoms are usually sudden in onset and they occur after the taking of food or drink or after exposure to poisonous gases or vapours. (2) If several

persons are similarly exposed all are affected more or less with similar symptoms. An exception may occur in the case of bacterial food poisoning (so called ptomaine poisoning) where certain persons may be immune, or some be specially susceptible. (3) The analysis which should always be carried out in suspected cases may reveal the presence of the poison in the vomit and urine and faeces and possibly also in some articles of food or medicine. Post-mortem Evidence.—If death occurs a post-mortem examination should only be made following instructions from the coroner. The post-mortem signs found should be consistent with those occurring from poisoning by the suspected poison. The analysis of the viscera should yield results consistent with that of poisoning by the suspected poison having regard to the circumstances attaching to the date of administration and death. Treatment.—The mode of treatment to be adopted varies according to the nature of the poison. The first measure to be adopied without delay, is the removal of the unabsorbed poison. If the case is seen within six hours of the taking of the poison by mouth the stomach should be emptied and washed out as soon as possible. Emetics are a poor substitute for the emptying and washing out of the stomach by means of the funnel and stomach tube, but they may be employed if the more effective treatment is impossible. Safe emetics are mustard and water, salt and water, ammonium carbonate (30 grains) in a tumblerful of water, cr apomorphine er.,!, hypodermically. The only contra-indication to the emptying and washing out of the stomach by means of the stomach tube and funnel are where poisoning occurs from the corrosive mineral acids or alkalies. In such cases there might, be danger of perforation. After the stomach has been emptied and washed out suitable antidotes should be given, such as chalk and lime water to neutralize oxalic acid and the mineral acids, lime water for carbolic acid. Atropine may be given hypodermically in the case of morphine poisoning. Where morphia and ‘cocaine are taken the stomach should be washed out with diluted permanganate of potash solution. Elimination by the bowel is facilitated by colon washes with warm normal saline solution and by free bowel evacuations. The symptoms of poisoning are subdued by the administration of appropriate remedies, thus, pain may be relieved by hypodermic injection of morphine, and the convulsions from strychnine by chloroform inhalation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT POISONS Classification.—Poisons may be classified in many different ways, e.g., according to their chemical composition, to their action on the body, to their physical characters, etc.

The following is a convenient and simple classification. 1. Corrosive Poisons are those which destroy by direct action the tissues with which they come in contact. They are the mineral acids such as sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric acids, etc; the caustic alkalies such as caustic soda, caustic potash, ammonia, etc.; carbolic acid; metallic poisons such as corrosive sublimate, zinc chloride, silver nitrate. These latter will be considered under irritant poisoning. It should be remembered that corrosive poisons in diluted condition lose their corrosive effect and become irritants.

2. Irritant Poisons—These poisons by their direct action on the mucous membrane set up inflammation. Examples are:— oxalic acid and its soluble salts; arsenic compounds, antimony compounds; most of the metallic poisons in solution; phosphorus, bromine, iodine, boracic acid, etc. 3. Systemic Poisons which act on the nervous system or other

important organs such as the heart, liver, lungs or kidneys without having any special irritant or corrosive effect. This group includes the majority of poisonous substances such as the vegetable poisons or their alkaloids, hydrocyanic acid, its salts, chloral, chloroform, alcohol, ether, hypnotic drugs such as veronal, sulphonal, etc. Also liver poisons such as those causing toxic jaundice, tetrachlorethane, trinitrotoluene, picric acid, etc., and renal poisons such as cantharides, turpentine, etc. 4. Gaseous Poisons such as chlorine, carbon-monoxide and coal gas, carbon-dioxide, etc. 5. Poisonous Foods such as mushrooms, shell fish and food contaminated with dangerous pathogenic bacteria. CORROSIVE

POISONS

Symptoms.—These produce severe symptoms immediately they are taken—‘a burning pain” in the mouth, throat and oesophagus and pain referred from the stomach and intestines. Vomiting occurs quickly and the vomit contains blood which may be altered in colour by the action of the poison; often also shreds of destroyed mucosa are present. Collapse occurs early, and perforation is common when, should the patient survive, signs of general peritonitis develop. An examination of the patient will show signs of the corrosive action of the poison on the mouth and throat, and marked tenderness will be present on palpation over the stomach and

intestine. Corrosive poisons if swallowed in poisonous quantity are usually fatal within 24 hours unless immediate treatment with a suitable antidote is adopted. Should the patient survive the immediate effects of the poison, serious after effects result owing to the damage done to the alimentary tract and in the case of volatile corrosives often serious pulmonary complications ensue. Post-mortem examination shows evidence of the destructive action of the poison on the mucous membrane of the mouth, throat, oesophagus and stomach, there being often extensive haemorrhage in the underlying tissues. Among examples of corrosive poisons may be named: The Corrosive Mineral Acids.—These include: Sulphuric Acid commonly known as oil of vitriol; this is used in various industries and in all chemical laboratories. It is a most powerful corrosive in the concentrated form, whether taken internally, or applied externally as in cases of “vitriol throwing.” One drachm has caused death in an adult, and half that quantity in a child. Hydrochloric Acid is known also as muriatic acid or spirits of salts. It is used largely for industrial and chemical purposes and is a common article of domestic use. It is readily obtainable and is very commonly used for suicidal purposes. It is a most dangerous corrosive and one drachm has caused death in an adult. Nitric Acid is known as “aqua fortis” and is used for industrial and chemical purposes. It is a most dangerous corrosive and produces characteristic yellow staining of the tissues with which the strong acid comes in contact. The vapour of the acid, if inhaled into the lungs, often produces an acute fatal form of pneumonia which is a common cause of death in nitric acid poisoning. Two drachms of the acid have caused death. Other mineral acids such as Hydrofluoric, Phosphoric and Sulphurous acids in concentrated form produce similar effects. Treatment.—The treatment of poisoning by corrosive mineral acids consists in giving as soon as possible harmless alkaline remedies such as magnesia powder, lime water, sodium bi-carbonate or chalk. These should be given freely, and plenty of

egg albumen (white of egg) should also be given since this tends to neutralise the acid by forming a protein combination, and also it has a soothing effect on the damaged mucosa. ` The stomach should not be washed out for fear of perforation. Pain is relieved by the free use of morphine hypodermically, and after the swallowed acid has been neutralised food should be

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POISON

withheld by the mouth and normal saline given as freely as can be retained per rectum.

cold, pale and faint with a rapid feeble pulse and at this stage death from syncope may occur. In some cases nervous symptoms such as tinglings and numbness, muscular spasms, convulsions, delirium and coma occur, but these symptoms are uncommon.

The Caustic Alkalies.—Among these may be named the fol-

lowing: Caustic potash or potassium hydrate or potash lye is a powerful corrosive, and potassium carbonate known as salt of tartar has a similar but less powerful effect. Both are used industrially, Forty grains of caustic potash have caused death. Caustic Soda or Sodium Hydrate, or Soda lye is a powerful corrosive and quite as dangerous as caustic potash. It is commonly used industrially. Ammonia, liquid ammonia or spirits of hartshorn, is used largely for domestic and industrial purposes. It is also used in the form of smelling salts when mixed with carbonate of ammonia.

Owing to the rapid absorption of the poison death is likely to occur rapidly, e.g., within an hour, but it may be delayed. As respects treatment, fresh lime water, or better the saccharated lime water which is 15 times as strong, should be given

in large quantities and it should be mixed with calcium carbonate in the form of chalk or whiting. Since oxalic acid has only slight corrosive action the stomach mediately if no antidote is at hand.

It is

dote freely if immediately available and after a few minutes

a powerful corrosive poisori and in addition the vapour has a very injurious effect on the lung giving rise to bronchopneumonia which takes on a septic type. One drachm of the strong solution has caused death. As regards treatment in respect of the foregoing, harmless acid drinks such as diluted vinegar or lemon juice or citric or tartaric acid should be given freely. Pain should be relieved by the free use of morphine hypodermically and nourishment should not be given by the mouth but rectal feeding adopted. Carbolic Acid or phenol is commonly used as a disinfectant for domestic and surgical purposes. Allied preparations such as creasote, cresol, etc., have a similar poisonous effect. Lysol is a combination of cresol with soap and is similar in action to phenol. Carbolic acid and the allied substances have a powerful corrosive action causing necrosis of the tissues with which they come in contact, the superficial part of which has a whitish appearance. the deeper parts being dark red owing to resulting haemorrhage into them. Carbolic acid is one of the poisons most frequently used by suicides, and owing to its common use for domestic purposes accidental poisoning by it often occurs. The symptoms caused by carbolic acid are those of corrosive poisoning but owing to its local anaesthetic action vomiting may be absent, and pain may be less marked. If death does not result from shock, the profound effect of the poison on the nervous system causes paralysis of the respiratory and cardiac centres, with rapid feeble pulse, and stertorous breathing, coma develops in severe cases and is usually followed by death. One drachm of carholic acid taken by the mouth has caused death in 12 hours. Death has resulted from the absorption of phenol by the skin, and from rectal injections of the drug in solution. Usually death occurs in from 3 to 4 hours after the taking of a large dose. With respect to treatment, the stomach should be washed out by means of a soft stomach tube with diluted saccharated lime water, or fresh lime water; by this means the phenol is con-

to wash out the stomach thoroughly with a soft stomach tube and funnel, and then finally introduce a pint of lime water made into a thin cream with an ounce of chalk, leaving this mixture in the stomach. Arsenic.—This is the most important of the irritant poisons and owing to the tasteless property of many of its compounds

and preparations it is the commonest poison used for homicidal purposes. The most important and commonest compound is arsenious anhydride or white arsenic. It occurs in the form of a white powder or in lumps of a white porcelain-like appearance. The powdered form resembles powdered sugar or flour and when mixed with food is almost tasteless. It is sparingly soluble in cold water. When mixed with alkaline substances white arsenic becomes freely soluble. Commercial preparations containing white arsenic mixed with alkalies such as sodium hydrate or carbonate are weed killers, sheep dip and wood preservatives which may contain from 20% to 40% of white arsenic. Copper arsenite (Scheele’s Green), lead arsenate and other arsenical preparations are used as insecticides for the spraying of fruit trees. Rat poisons may contain arsenic as the active ingredient. Wallpapers which formerly often con-

tained green pigment (Scheele’s Green) or the yellow sulphides

of arsenic are now coloured with arsenic-free pigments, arsenic being prohibited from use. White arsenic, if sold except for medicinal purposes, must be coloured with soot or indigo. Arsenic in Faod.— Riga had appealed more than Le once for protection, at length inÀ iP oe ele tervened decisively. At his camp Te before Riga in 1561, the last BY JOHN BARTHOLOMEW & SONS PARTITIONS IN THE 18TH CENTURY grand-master, who had long been at the head of the Polish party in Livonia, and who had embraced Protestantism, and the archr 256% 499 te

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bishop of Riga, gladly placed themselves beneath his protection, and by a subsequent convention signed at Vilna (Nov. 28, 1561), Livonia was incorporated with Lithuania in much the same way as Prussia had been incorporated with Poland 36 years previously,

that is to say, as a new Protestant duchy, and as a fief of the Polish Crown, with local autonomy and freedom of worship. ducted from Königsberg by Poland’s vassal, Prince Albert of Union with Lithuania, 1569.—The danger to Lithuania, reEast Prussia, appeared to the bulk of the nation under the guise | vealed in the Baltic wars with Ivan the Terrible, as well as the

Catholic banners; and the vigorous Protestant propaganda con-

UNION WITH LITHUANIA]

POLAND

apathy shown in these matters by the diet of Poland, must have convinced so statesmanlike a prince as Sigismund II. of the necessity of preventing any possibility of cleavage in the future between the two halves of his dominions. A personal union under one monarch had proved inadequate. A further step must be taken— the two independent countries must be transformed into a single state. The principal obstacle was the opposition of the Lithuanian

magnates, who feared to lose their dominance in the grand-duchy if they were merged in the szlachta (gentry) of the kingdom. When things came to a deadlock in 1564, the king tactfully intervened and voluntarily relinquished his hereditary title to Lithuania, thus placing the two countries on a constitutional equality and preparing the way for fresh negotiations.

The death, in 1565,

of Black Radziwilt, the chief opponent of the union, still further weakened the Lithuanians, but the negotiations, reopened at the diet of Lublin in 1569, at first also led only to rupture. Then Sigismund executed his master stroke. Knowing the sensitiveness of the Lithuanians as regards Volhynia and Podolia, he suddenly, of his own authority, formally incorporated both these provinces with the kingdom of Poland, whereupon, amidst great enthusiasm, the Volhynian and Podolian deputies took their places on the same benches as their Polish brethren. The hands of the Lithuanians were forced. Even a complete union on equal terms was better than mutilated independence. Accordingly they returned to the diet, and the union was unanimously adopted on July 1, 1569. Henceforth the kingdom of Poland and the grand-duchy of Lithuania were to be one inseparable and indivisible body politic; all dependencies and colonies, including Prussia and Livonia, were to belong to Poland and Lithuania in common. The retention of the old duality of dignities was the one reminiscence of the original separation—and was only abolished in 1791, four years before the final partition of Poland. The union definitely shifted Poland’s political centre of gravity eastward: it created a common interest in the Russian menace to the long and naturally defenceless eastern frontier, and in the millions of Greek orthodox population in the eastern borderlands. Warsaw was appointed the future meeting-place of the joint diet, thus preparing the transfer of the capital from Cracow to Warsaw. The Union was the last great historical act of the Jagiettonian dynasty: it put the copingstone to the structure of a monarchy which, with growing consolidation, seemed to bear in it the promise of empire. The Polish Constitution.—Simultaneously with the transformation into a great power of the petty principalities which composed ancient Poland, another and equally momentous political transformation was proceeding within the country itself. The origin of the Polish constitution is to be sought in the wzece or councils of the Polish princes, during the partitional period (c. 1279-1370). The privileges conferred upon the magnates of whom these councils were composed, especially upon the magnates of Little Poland, who brought the Jagiettons to the throne, directed their policy, and grew rich upon their liberality, revolted the less favoured szlachta, or gentry, who, towards the end of the r4th century, combined for mutual defence in their seymiki, or local diets. The first seym to legislate for all Poland was the Diet of Piotrków (1493), summoned by John Albert to grant him subsidies; but the mandates of its deputies were limited to 12 months, and its decrees were to have force for only three years. John Albert’s second diet (1496), after granting subsidies the burden of which fell entirely on the towns and peasantry, passed a series of statutes benefiting the nobility at the expense of the other classes. These were followed by others of the same kind under his successor Alexander, which, by facilitating import and crippling export trade in the interests of the gentry, enfeebled and degraded the middle class and thereby seriously disturbed the social equilibrium of the State. Nevertheless, so long as the Jagielio dynasty lasted, the political rights of the cities were jealously protected by the Crown against the usurpations of the nobility. The burgesses of Cracow, the most enlightened economists in the kingdom, supplied Sigismund I. with his most capable

159

Sigismund’s predecessor Alexander had been compelled to accept the statute nikil novi (1505) which gave the seym and the senate an equal voice with the Crown in all executive matters. Under Sigismund I., some of the royal prerogatives were recovered; but in his later years the influence of the gentry returned, and the diet succeeded in controlling all the great ofñces of state. The Polish parliamentary system, vesting supreme powers in the two houses of the diet, was an established fact. Sigismund II. knew that only a strengthening of the central authority could save the State. But his endeavours to manoeuvre his way between the two rival powers of the magnates and the smaller gentry were, on the whole, unsuccessful. A patriotic party of “gentry democrats” arose, veiling its programme of democratic reforms under the conservative watchword of the “execution of the laws,” and dealing further legislative blows at the trade of the towns and the social status of the middle class. The king, who at first sided with the great nobles against the “executionists,’”’ afterwards allied himself with the latter to curtail the power of the magnates by a repeal of former royal grants of land, and by the imposition of a tax on all tenants of Crown lands for the maintenance of the Army (1562-63). Beneficial as this was, it was only obtained at the price of further dependence of the Crown on the szlachta. Interregnum, 1572—73.—The childless Sigismund IT. died suddenly. Fortunately for Poland, the political horizon was unclouded. Domestic affairs, however, were in an almost anarchical condition. The Union of Lublin, barely three years old, was anything but consolidated, and in Lithuania it continued to be extremely unpopular. Worst of all, there existed no recognized authority in the land to curb its jarring centrifugal political elements. Civil war was happily averted at the last moment, and a national convention, assembled at Warsaw, in April 1573, for the purpose of electing a new king. Five candidates for the throne were already in the field. Lithuania favoured Ivan IV. In Poland the bishops and most of the Catholic magnates were for an Austrian archduke, while the strongly anti-German szlachta were inclined to accept almost any candidate but a German. It was easy, therefore, for the adroit and energetic French ambassador to procure the election of the French candidate, Henry, duke of Anjou. Well provided with funds, he speedily bought over many of the leading magnates. Having been one of the instigators of the St. Bartholomew massacre, he was looked at askance by the Protestants; the religious difficulty in Poland, however, had meanwhile been adjusted to the satisfaction of all parties by the compact of Warsaw (Jan. 28, 1573), which granted absolute religious liberty to all non-Catholic denominations without exception—a far more liberal measure than the Germans had made in the religious Peace of Augsburg 18 years before. Finally, early in April 1573, the election diet assembled at Warsaw, and Henry of Valois was elected king of Poland. Henry of Valois, 1573—-74.—The election had been preceded by a correctura iurum, or reform of the constitution, which re-

sulted in the famous “Henrician Articles” which converted Poland from a limited monarchy into a republic with an elective chief magistrate. The king was to have no voice in the choice of his successor. He was to marry a wife selected for him by the senate. He was to be neutral in all religious matters. He was not to lead the militia across the border without the consent of the sslachta, and then only for three months at a time. Should the king fail to observe any one of these articles, the nation was ipso facto absolved from its allegiance. Whatever its intrinsic demerits, the

disastrous.fruits of this reform were largely due to the precarious geographical position of Poland. and it must be remembered to Poland’s credit that she alone with England preserved the tradition of parliamentary government in the increasingly absolutist Europe of the time. The reign of Henry of Valois lasted 13 months. The tidings of the death of his brother Charles IX. determined him to exchange a thorny for what he hoped would be a flowery throne, and at midnight on June 14, 1574, he literally fled from Poland. Eighteen months later, the senate elected the Austrian prince Maximilian to the throne; but the “gentry democracy,” at the counsellors during the first twenty years of his reign (1506-26). | suggestion of its new leader Jan Zamoyski. chose a prince of

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[SIGISMUND If.

Transylvania, Stephen Bathory, assigning him for husband to the last surviving princess of the Jagiełło dynasty, and enforced this election by arms.

king of Sweden and of a Jagiełło princess, was the epoch of last and lost chances. The collapse of the Muscovite tsardom in the east, and the submersion of the German empire in the west by the Thirty Years War, presented Poland with an unpre-

otic” party proved one of Poland’s greatest kings. The glorious II years of his reign, too brief to be permanently effective, yet represent the high-water mark of Poland’s international power, and the achievements of his genius both in foreign and domestic policy remain unsurpassed in Polish annals. (See STEPHEN, King of Poland.) With the insight of a born statesman he focussed his energy on two vital objectives: the maintenance of Poland’s access to the sea by way of Danzig, and the defence of her newly-gained further sea-board in the north-east against the rising power of Moscow. Danzig, on Bathory’s election, began to intrigue against him with the German emperor, who of course supported Bathory’s Austrian rival, and with Russia and Denmark. In spite of a deplorable lack of understanding on the part of the Polish gentry for the issue at stake. Bathory, who had throughout the able and strenuous support of his chancellor Zamoyski, conducted a campaign against Danzig both by land and sea, and finally enforced its complete submission to his rule. Before peace was made with Danzig, Ivan the Terrible had raided Livonia once more. Bathory for the first time in the history of Polish warfare using infantry rather than cavalry and calling peasants and burghers to arms together with the gentry, achieved in the operations against Russia the greatest military triumphs of his reign. In three successive expeditions he pushed his way north-eastward as far as Pskév, and the tsar was fain to obtain the Pope’s intervention by a promise of making Russia Catholic. As a result of Bathory’s victories, Poland pushed Russia entirely away from the Baltic for a long time, and regained sway over nearly the whole of Livonia. Brilliant as these foreign successes were, the greatness of Bathory’s statesmanship is even more manifest at home. He conciliated in a most far-sighted way, by concessions and privileges, two of the monarchy’s most important minority groups: the Ukrainian Cossacks and the Jews. The Cossacks were largely runaway serfs, who had organized into a sort of military republic on the vast and scantily inhabited plains of the “Ukraine” or “borderland,” stretching from the south-east of the monarchy towards the Black sea along the river Dnieper. The Cossack community had been drawn into the Polish military system under Bathory’s predecessors by registration and pay, and had already been granted exemption from taxation, as well as their own jurisdiction. Bathory, who needed them for his Russian wars, confirmed and enlarged these privileges. His successors used the Cossacks against the Russians, Turks and Tartars; but soon the Cossacks themselves were to grow into a factor of trouble for Poland, not without serious errors of policy on the Polish side. The privileges which the Jews had obtained from former kings were augmented: from his day until 1764 the Polish Jews had a parliament of their own, meeting twice a year, with powers of taxation. It was also chiefly in the interest of the Jews that Bathory restricted, by special edict, the trading rights of Scottish pedlars, of whom as many as 30,000 were abroad in Poland at his time. Among other domestic measures, Bathory reformed the Polish judicial system by the creation of a supreme court of appeal for civil cases; and founded, in 1579, the University of Vilna as a bulwark of Western European culture in the East. The growing Imperial ambitions of the house of Habsburg had developed into a menace to Poland’s international position: they now threatened to outflank and encircle Poland on the southern side. Bathory proposed to counteract them by the project of a union with Russia and a joint crusade against Turkey under the

cedented opportunity of consolidating, once for all, her hard-won position as the dominating power between central and eastern

Stephen Bathory, 1575-86.—The king elected by the “patri-

auspices of the Pope.

This grandiose plan would have given

Poland again a firm footing on the shore of “her second sea”— the Black sea—which she had reached once before in the time of the Jagiellos. But the idea was carried with Bathory to his grave on his sudden death in 1586.

Sigismund IN., 1587-1632.—The Vasa period of Polish history, which began with the election of Sigismund, son of John IIL.,

Europe: she might even have wrested the best part of the Baltic littoral from the Scandinavian powers, and pushed Russia back beyond the Volga. That this was not achieved, was partly due to the class spirit and blind selfishness of the Polish gentry. Apathetic towards vital problems of foreign policy, and unwilling te make material sacrifices to the cause of national defence, they

persisted in a doctrinaire defence of “republican liberty” at the very time when the need of a strong central executive was more urgent than ever. But other grave causes of failure were not wanting. One of them consists in the very personality of the new foreign-bred king: the tenacity with which he clung to his hereditary rights to the Swedish crown, involved Poland in unnecessary wars with Sweden at most inopportune times; and his bigoted devotion to the cause of Catholicism introduced a new spirit of religious fanaticism and

persecution into the atmosphere of a country hitherto distinguished for toleration, while the same bigotry served Poland's interests very ill abroad. Poland’s greatest statesman of the time, Jan Zamoyski, discovered in the earliest years of the reign that the king, who had married a Habsburg princess, was willing to surrender the crown of Poland to an Austrian archduke, and to return to his native Sweden in order to bring it back to the Catholic fold. Zamoyski, who had himself placed Sigismund on the throne by conquering a rival Austrian candidate, was naturally indignant, and the whole disgraceful affair of the king’s secret negotiations with Austria culminated in his having to answer the charges of a special “Court of Inquisition” (1592)—the first time that the prestige of the crown in Poland was exposed to such an ordeal. The Uniat Church.—It was only where the expansion of Catholicism served the interests of the Polish state that Zamoyski saw eye to eye with the king’s Catholic zeal. Thus, he became instrumental in creating, at the synod of Brzes¢ in 1596, the Uniat Church as a half-way house for those of the republic’s Greek Orthodox citizens who were willing to recognize the supremacy of Rome, but desired to preserve their accustomed Eastern ritual and Slavonic liturgy. The Uniat Church served the purpose of drawing a large section of the population of the Eastern border provinces out of the orbit of Russian and into that of Polish influences; but by the antagonisms which soon began between Uniats and Non-Uniats, it became in itself a source of new troubles

for Poland.

Besides this, the pride of Poland’s Roman Catholic

prelates, who looked down on the Uniat hierarchy, forced the Uniat Church into the position of a “peasant religion” and contributed to making it the social nucleus of anti-Polish Ukrainian

nationalism which it remains to-day. Even in Sigismund’s time, Austria, competing with Poland for influence in the Eastern Balkans, began to seduce the Ukrainian element (represented in organized form by the military community of the Cossacks) against Poland—a policy which the same Austria was to resume later in changed form and under different conditions when mistress of Eastern Galicia. : War with Sweden, Moscow and Turkey.—The dispute over Sigismund’s rights to the Swedish crown began, from the earliest years of the reign, to drag its weary course of alternate victories and defeats. At first the Estonia and Latvia of to-day were both territory and principal object of the strife; in the later stages, Gustavus Adolphus transferred the ground nearer to the heart of Poland by espousing the cause of the Calvinist elector of Brandenburg, who had come into possession of East Prussia and thus laid

the foundation of a large Protestant power on the Baltic. The danger to Danzig and Poland’s corn exports roused even the gentry from their apathy; but in spite of some brilliant victories by sea and land, an armistice towards the end of the reign was

highly unfavourable to Poland. Sigismund’s persistent Swedish ambitions, his equally persistent

WARS WITH MOSCOW] Austrian sympathies, but, more

POLAND

E41

than all, his absolutist leanings | of expansion into the fertile Ukrainian regions than of sea power.

and cherished plans for a drastic and arbitrary constitutional re- | Accordingly, the Polish navy, which had begun to develop in a form on foreign models and on anti-parliamentary lines, occasioned | promising manner under Sigismund III., was allowed to fall into in 1606 an armed revolt of the Polish gentry against their king— | permanent decay, and Wladislaus’ plans for foreign action on a the rokosz (or insurrection) of Nicholas Zebrzydowski, who was | large scale were unrealized. He wavered in his diplomacy besupported by the discontented Protestants. The rokosz was at | tween Austrian and French influences, represented by his two last suppressed in 1607, but it left as its legacy such ruinous | successive queens; his tolerant and friendly attitude towards the

precedents as an enforced recognition of the doctrine of the sub- | Orthodox East caused serious trouble with the Vatican; and his jects’ right to depose their king (de non praestanda obedientia), | projects of a great crusade against the Turks, although encouraged

and, being undertaken in justified defence of the native Parlia- | by the Venetian republic and acclaimed by the Southern Slav mentary tradition against wholesale foreign innovations, it had | nations, in the end came to nothing. the harmful effect of blocking the way towards any and every The Cossack Revolt.—The chief obstacle which prevented reform of the Parliamentary system. Wladislaus’ Turkish plans from maturing, was the impossibility of Soon after the constitutional cataclysm of the rokosz Poland | winning the help of the decisive factor—the Ukrainian Cossacks, became embroiled in prolonged wars with Moscow. The motive | who had become too numerous and powerful to be a willing inwas partly a vague conception of a Polish-Russian union as op- | strument of Polish policy, Catholic intolerance towards this Or-

posed to the king’s Austrian propensities,—but partly also the | thodox population, in the time of Sigismund III., had combined very real desire of some border magnates for more and more land | with the proud and high-handed behaviour of Polish landowners east of the Dnieper. An occasion was furnished by the extinction | to produce in the Cossacks a spirit of religious, racial and social of the Rurik dynasty in Russia, and the subsequent struggle for | enmity against the Polish element; the Polish parliament had not the throne, particularly the emergence of one candidate—the ill- | kept the financial terms of its compacts with the Cossacks, refated “Talse Demetrius” —whom certain Polish nobles, and finally pressions inspired by the border magnates had infuriated them. also the king, supported. (See also ROMANOFFS.) The appearance | Already in the earlier years of Wladislaus’ reign terrible Cossack ef a second Demetrius after the fall of the first prolonged the | rev olts had flared up, and been unwisely punished by abolition of strife. Throughout the campaigns against Moscow the king found| ancient privileges. Now, instead of letting themselves be made the AAS LY NR | SRR i

himseif at variance with some leading Polish statesmen and sol- | tools of Wladislaus’ anti-Turkish plans, the Cossacks made com-

diers of the time, such as Zamoyski and, later, General Zdtkiew- | mon cause with the Tatars of the Crimea, who were the most imski. he thought of the problem only in terms of conquest, of the | mediate objective of che king’s crusading plans; and the reign establishment of Catholicism in Russia, and of strong monarchi- | ended amidst a wave of Cossack insurrection, engineered by the cal rule over the united kingdoms, while Zétkiewski, even at the | sultan, assisted by Tatar hordes, and led by Bogdan Chmielnicki height of military successes against Russia, had a union like that | (g.v.), a country gentleman personally wronged by a Polish offiof Poland with Lithuania in his mind, and advocated tolerance of | cial, now the rising hero of Ukrainianism. It was only the reRussia’s creed and social order. The Poles once actually held the | sistance of the brave Polish burghers of Lwów (Lemberg) that

Kremlin of Moscow for a time (1610), and once again laid siege | stemmed the Cossack and Tatar tide from flooding the inner to it (1617); Sigismund’s son was elected tsar, and his opponent | provinces of Poland; the same patriotic town was to arrest two did homage to Sigismund as a prisoner. But a national insur- | other invasions—a Russian and a Transylvanian one—in the next rection in Russia and the establishment of the Romanoff dynasty | few years. But the defence of Lwów only meant a respite, and on checked the Polish advance, and only certain territorial gains | Wladislaus’ death, his brother and successor, the last of the Polish (including Smolensk), as well as a good deal of influence of Polish | Vasas, found himself faced by a powerful renewal of Chmielnicki’s

customs and institutions on the Russian nobility, were definite | attack on central Poland. results of the struggle in Sigismund’s time. It was to be conJohn Casimir, 1648-68.—John

Casimir, summoned

to the

tinued under his successors. throne from France, where he lived as a priest and had become The wars with Moscow temporarily ended in armistice at the | a cardinal, was obliged to begin his reign by negotiating with his an Sete EL a a

very moment (1618), when the Thirty Years’ War broke out in | rebel subject Chmielnicki, But Chmielnicki’s conditions of peace Central Europe. In this Poland remained officially neutral, but | were so extravagant that the negotiations came to nothing. It Sigismund’s favourable attitude towards the Habsburgs entangled | was only after a second invasion of Poland, in 1649, by countless Poland in renewed and long wars with Turkey, which the later | hosts of Cossacks and Tatars, that the compact of Zborów was Jagielios and their first successors had managed to avoid, AJ concluded, by which Chmielnicki was officially recognized as definite success was attained against the Turks at Chocim (1621), | Chief (ketman) of the Cossack community A general amnesty a year after Zétkiewski’s heroic death at Cecora,—but in the very | was also granted, and it was agreed that all official dignities in same year the Swedish trouble began anew, and Sigismund’s long | the Orthodox palatinates of Lithuania should henceforth be held and unlucky reign ended rr years later amidst turmoil abroad | solely by the Orthodox gentry. For the next 18 months Chmieland at home, set-backs to Polish power on all sides without, and | nicki ruled the Ukraine like a sovereign prince. He made of seriously increased Constitutional disorder within. Czehryn, his native place, the Cossack capital, subdivided the Wiadislaus IV., 1632-48.—Sigismund’s son, born in Poland | country into 16 provinces, and entered into direct relations with and brought up as a Pole, enjoyed a popularity which had never | foreign powers. The Orthodox patriarchs of Alexandria and

been his father’s share. As a crown prince, he had been success- | Constantinople were his friends and protectors. His attempt to ful in military operations against Moscow and Turkey; on his | carve a principality for his son out of Moldavia led to the outascension to the throne he ingratiated himself with the gentry by | break of a third war between suzerain and subject in Feb. 1651. some new concessions, including even exemption from income-tax | But fortune, so long Bogdan’s friend, now deserted him, and at The “wisest of the Polish Vasas,” as he has justly been called, | Beresteczko (1651) the Cossack chieftain was utterly routed by intended to create a basis of public favour and confidence for the | Stephen Czarniecki. All hope of an independent Cossackdom constitutional reforms which he planned. was now at an end; yet it was not Poland but Muscovy which But the international difficulties inherited from his father, di- | reaped the fruits of Czarnieck1’s victory. verted his energies largely into channels of foreign policy. The Chmielnicki, by suddenly laying bare the nakedness of the very first years of his reign are marked by new victories over | Polish republic, had opened the eyes of Muscovy to the fact Russia and the Turk; also by a new, and much more advantageous, | that her ancient enemy was no longer formidable. Three years

truce with Sweden. He was less fortunate in a new conflict with | after his defeat at Beresteczko, Chmielnicki, abandoned by his Danzig—and with her supporter Denmark—over the tolls he in- | Tatar allies and finding himself unable to cope with the Poles tended to impose on the trade of the Baltic ports: no interest in | single-handed, very reluctantly transferred his allegiance to the these matters was to be awakened in the gentry, and the most | tsar, and in the same year the tsar’s armies invaded Poland. powerful magnates—those of the Eastern border—thought more | The war thus begun, and known in Russian history as the Thir-

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[FOREIGN INFLUENCES

assumption of the absolute politica] teen Years’ War, far exceeded even the Thirty Years’ War in | liberum veto was based on the with the corollary that every gentleman, Polish every of equality grossness and brutality. Polish diet must be adopted unanithe into introduced measure the Invasion.—In Swedish the and War Russian The any single deputy believed that a meas. summer of 1635, while the Republic was still reeling beneath mously. Consequently, if of the house might be the shock of the Muscovite invasion, Charles X. of Sweden, on ure already approved of by the rest right to exclaim nie the had he , constituency his to of greed injurious his gratify the flimsiest of pretexts, forced a war to martial glory, and before the year was out his forces had occu- pozwalam, “I disapprove,” when the measure in question fell at was pied the capital, the coronation city and the best half of the land. once to the ground. Subsequently this vicious principle King John Casimir, betrayed and abandoned by his own subjects, extended still further. A deputy, by interposing his individual fled to Silesia, and profiting by the cataclysm which, for the veto. could at any time dissolve the diet, when all measures moment, had swept the Polish State out of existence, the Mus- previously passed had to be re-submitted to the consideration covites quickly appropriated nearly everything which was not of the following diet. Before the end of the 17th century the already occupied by the Swedes. At this crisis Poland owed her liberum veto was used so recklessly that all business was fre. salvation to two events—the formation of a general league against quently brought to a standstill. Later it became the chief instruSweden, brought about by the apprehensive court of Vienna, and a ment of foreign ambassadors for dissolving inconvenient diets, as popular outburst of religious enthusiasm on the part of the Polish a deputy could always be bribed to exercise his veto. people. The first of these events, to be dated from the alliance THE AGE OF FOREIGN INFLUENCES between the emperor Leopold and John Casimir (1657) led to a With the election of Michael Wiśniowiecki in 1669 a new era truce with the tsar and the welcome diversion of all the Muscovite forces against Swedish Livonia. The second event, which began. A native Pole was freely elected by the unanimous vote began with the heroic and successful defence of the monastery of his countrymen: but he was chiefly chosen for the merit of of Czenstochowa by Prior Kordecki against the Swedes, resulted his father, a great border magnate who had victoriously kept in the return of the king from exile, the formation of a national down the Cossacks, and he proved to be a passive tool in the army, and the recovery of almost all the lost provinces from the hands of the Habsburgs. In view of this the French party rallied Swedes, who were driven back headlong to the sea, where with round John Sobieski, a military commander of rising fame. The difficulty they held their own. On the sudden death of Charles X., dissensions between the two camps cost Poland a new defeat at Poland seized the opportunity of adjusting all her outstanding the hands of the united Turks and Cossacks. Sealed by a shamedifferences with Sweden. By the peace of Oliva (1660), made ful treaty at Buczacz, this defeat was only wiped out bya brilliant under French mediation, John Casimir ceded Livonia, and re- victory of Sobieski’s at Chocim, which also, after king Michael's nounced all claim to the Swedish crown. The war with Muscovy early death, carried him to the throne against an Austrian was then prosecuted with renewed energy and extraordinary suc- candidate. John III. Sobieski, 1674—-96.—Connected with France by marcess. In 1664 a peace congress was opened, and the prospects of Poland seemed most brilliant; but at the very moment when riage and by political sympathies, Sobieski, although he had half she needed all her armed strength to sustain her diplomacy, the a lifetime of constant wars against the Turks behind him, at first, rebellion of Prince Lubomirski involved her in a dangerous in accordance with French policy, stood for peaceful relations with civil war, compelled her to reopen negotiations with the Mus- Turkey, and directed his eyes towards the Baltic, attempting, with covites and practically to accept the Muscovite terms. By the French help, to check the rising Hohenzollern power in that truce of Andruszowo (1667) Poland received back from Muscovy quarter. But his secret dealings with France turned his own subVitebsk, Polotsk and Polish Livonia, but ceded in perpetuity jects against him, while continuous Turkish invasions forced him Smolensk, Siendierz, Chernigov and the whole of the eastern bank into war, until an attack of unprecedented magnitude, aimed at of the Dnieper. The Cossacks of the Dnieper were henceforth the very heart of Europe, called forth that unprecedented outto be divided between the dominion of the tsar and the king burst of Polish heroism—the gallant rescue of Vienna in 1683. of Poland. Kiev, the religious metropolis of south-western Russia, That great act was the last noble reflex of the great crusading impulse of the Middle Ages; it was a unique service, rendered in was to remain in the hands of Muscovy for two years. The “truce” of Andruszowo proved to be one of the most per- the old chivalrous spirit by one nation to another in an age of manent peaces in history, and Kiev, though only pledged for two Machiavellian diplomacy and growing national selfishness. It won years, was never again to be recovered. Henceforth the political Poland offers of friendship from all the great powers. But its influence of Russia over Poland was steadily to increase, without positive gains for Poland proved little: cessions of territory to any struggle at all, although influences of Polish culture and Moscow did not buy any active support in further campaigns manners, exercised chiefly through the academy of Kiev, still against Turkey, nor did the delivered Austria assist Poland in her continued to permeate Russia for a time, until the advent of endeavour to re-establish the Rumanian outpost against the Turk. Augustus IL, 1697-1733, and the Peace of Karlowitz.—On Peter the Great. Growth of Political Corruption in Poland.—Poland had, the death of John ITI. no fewer than 18 candidates for the vacant in fact, emerged from the cataclysm of 1648—67 a moribund State, Polish throne presented themselves. The successful competitor though her not unskilful diplomacy had enabled her for a time was Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony, who cheerfully reto save appearances. Her territorial losses, though considerable, nounced Lutheranism for the coveted crown, and won the day were, in the circumstances, not excessive, and she was still a because he happened to arrive last of all, with fresh funds, when power in the opinion of Europe. But a fatal change had come the agents of his rivals had spent all their money. He was over the country during the age of the Vasas. The period crowned, as Augustus II., in 1697, and his first act was to expel synchronized with, and was partly determined by, the new from the country his French rival, the prince of Conti, whose European system of dynastic diplomatic competition and the defeat was also partly due to the growing Russian influence which, unscrupulous employment of unlimited secret service funds. This from the accession of Peter the Great (1700), becomes a permasystem, which dates from Richelieu and culminated in the reign nent factor in Polish domestic politics. Good luck attended the opening years of the new reign. In of Louis XIV., was based on the old rivalry of the houses of Bourbon and Habsburg, and very soon nearly all the monarchs 1699 the long Turkish war, which had been going on since 1683, of the Continent and their ministers were in the pay of one or was concluded by the peace of Karlowitz, whereby Podolia, the other of the antagonists. Poland was no exception to the general Ukraine and the fortress of Kamieniec Podolski were retroceded rule. To do them justice, the szlachta at first were not only free to the republic by the Ottoman Porte. But the permanent weakfrom the taint of official corruption, but endeavoured to fight ening of Turkey brought Poland little good, for the power of against it. But they themselves unconsciously played into the Russia soon became a greater menace to her than ever Turkey hands of the enemies of their country by making the so-called had been. Itberum veto an integral part of the Polish Constitution. The War with Charles XI. of Sweden.—Shortly after the Peace

FOREIGN INFLUENCES]

143

POLAND

of Karlowitz, Augustus was persuaded by the plausible Livonian exile, John Reinhold Patkul, to form a nefarious league with

Frederick of Denmark and Peter of Russia, for the purpose of

despoiling the youthful king of Sweden, Charles XII. (see SweDEN: History). This he did as elector of Saxony, but it was the unfortunate Polish republic which paid for the hazardous speculation of its newly elected king. Throughout the Great Northern War, which wasted northern and central Europe for

20 years (1700-20), all the belligerents treated Poland as if she had no political existence. Swedes, Saxons and Russians not only lived upon the country, but plundered it systematically. The

diet was the humble servant of the conqueror of the moment, and the leading magnates chose their own sides without the slightest regard for the interests of their country, the Lithuanians for the most part supporting Charles XII., while the Poles divided

their allegiance between Augustus and Stanislaus Leszczyński, whom Charles maintained upon the throne from 1704 to 1709. At the end of the war Poland was ruined materially as well as politically. Augustus attempted to indemnify himself for his failure to obtain Livonia, his covenanted share of the Swedish

plunder, by offering Frederick William of Prussia Courland, Polish Prussia and even part of Great Poland, provided that he were

allowed a free hand in the disposal of the rest of the country.

else and returned to Poland in 1759 somewhat discredited. Nevertheless, the Czartoryskis looked to Russia again for support on the death of King Augustus III. They rejected with scorn and derision the pacific overtures of their political opponents, prince Michael Czartoryski openly declaring that he preferred the tyranny of the Muscovite to the tyranny of his equals. He had in fact already summoned a Russian army corps to assist him to reform his country, which sufficiently explains his own haughtiness and the unwonted compliance of the rival magnates. THE PERIOD

OF THE PARTITIONS

The simplicity of the Czartoryskis was even more mischievous than their haughtiness. Their naive expectations were very speedily disappointed. Catherine II. and Frederick IT. had already determined (Treaty of St. Petersburg, 1764) that the existing state of things in Poland must be maintained, and as early as 1763 Catherine had recommended the election of Stanislaus Poniatowski as “the individual most convenient for our common interests.” The personal question did not interest Frederick: so long as Poland was kept in an anarchical condition he cared not who was called king. Moreover, the opponents of the Czartoryskis made no serious attempt to oppose the entry of the Russian troops.

Stanislaus II. Poniatowski, 1764—95.—Shortly afterwards Stanislaus Poniatowski was elected king and crowned. But at the four eagles” (viz., the black ones of Austria, Prussia and Russia, beginning of 1766 Prince Nicholas Repnin was sent as Russian and the white eagle of Poland) should divide the banquet between minister to Warsaw with instructions which can only be described them. He died, however, before he could give effect to this as a carefully elaborated plan for destroying the republic. The first weapon employed was the dissident question. At that time shameless design. Augustus III., 1733-63.—On the death of Augustus II., the population of Poland was, in round numbers, 11,500,000, of Stanislaus Leszczyński, who had, in the meantime, become the whom about 1,000,000 were dissidents or dissenters. Half of these father-in-law of Louis XV., attempted to regain his throne with were the Protestants of the towns of Polish Prussia and Great the aid of a small French army corps. Some of the best men in Poland, the other half was composed of the Orthodox population Poland, including the Czartoryski family, were also in his favour, of Lithuania. The dissidents had no political rights, and their and he was elected king for the second time. But there were religious liberties had also been unjustly restricted; but twomany malcontents, principally among the Lithuanians, who so- thirds of them being agricultural labourers, and most of the rest licited the intervention of Russia in favour of the elector of artisans or petty tradesmen, they had no desire to enter public Saxony, son of the late king. A Russian army appeared before life, and were so ignorant and illiterate that their new protectors, Warsaw and compelled a phantom diet (it consisted of but 15 on a closer acquaintance, became heartily ashamed of them. Yet senators and soo of the szlachta) to proclaim Augustus III. it was for these persons that Repnin, in the name of the empress, Stanislaus and his partisans were besieged by the Russians in now demanded absolute equality, political and religious, with the Danzig, and with its surrender their cause was lost. He retired gentlemen of Poland. He was well aware that an aristocratic and once more to his little court in Lorraine, with the title of king, Catholic assembly like the seym would never concede so preposterous a demand. leaving Augustus III. in possession of the kingdom. Early in 1767 the malcontents, fortified by the adhesion of the Augustus ITI. left everything to his omnipotent minister, Count Heinrich Brühl, and Brühl entrusted the government of Poland leading political refugees, formed a confederation at Radom, to the noble family of the Czartoryskis, who had intimate rela- whose first act was to send a deputation to St. Petersburg, peti-

When Prussia declined this tempting offer for fear of Russia, Augustus went a step farther and actually suggested that “the

tions of long standing with the court of Dresden. “The Family,” as their opponents sarcastically called them, were to dominate Polish politics for the next half-century, and they were honourably

tioning Catherine to guarantee the liberties of the republic. With a carte blanche in his pocket, Repnin proceeded to treat the diet as if it were already the slave of the Russian empress. But

despite threats, wholesale corruption and the presence of Russian troops outside and even inside the chamber of deputies, the patriots, headed by four bishops, offered a determined resistance of Poland were ob- to Repnin’s demands. Only when brute force in its extremest called it, any “viola- form had been ruthlessly employed, only when two of the bishops tion” of the existing constitution. The Potockis, in particular, and some other deputies had been arrested in full session by whose possessions in South Poland and the Ukraine covered Russian grenadiers and sent as prisoners to Kaluga, did the thousands of square miles, hated the Czartoryskis, and success- opposition collapse. The liberum veto and all the other ancient fully obstructed all their efforts. During the reigns of the two abuses were now declared unalterable parts of the Polish constiSaxon kings, every diet was dissolved by the hirelings of some tution, which was placed under the guarantee of Russia. All the edicts against the dissidents were, at the same time, repealed. great lord or, still worse, of some foreign potentate. Confederation of Bar.—This shameful surrender led to a It was against this primitive state of things that the Czartoryskis struggled and struggled in vain. First they attempted to abolish Catholic patriotic uprising, known as the Confederation of Bar, the liberum veto with the assistance of the Saxon court where which was formed in 1768 at Bar in the Ukraine, by a handful they were supreme, but fear of foreign complications and the of small squires. It never had a chance of permanent success, opposition of the Potockis prevented anything being done. Then though, feebly fed by French subsidies and French volunteers, they broke with their old friend Brühl and turned to Russia. it lingered on for four years, until finally suppressed in 1772. Their chief intermediary was their nephew Stanislaus Poniatowski, But, insignificant itself, it was the cause of great events. Some whom they sent, as Saxon minister, to the Russian court in the of the Bar confederates, scattered by the Russian regulars, fled suite of the English minister Hanbury Williams, in 1755. The over the Turkish border, pursued by their victors. The Turks, handsome and insinuating Poniatowski speedily won the sus- already alarmed at the progress of the Russians in Poland, and ceptible heart of the grand-duchess Catherine, but he won nothing stimulated by Vergennes, at that time French ambassador at

determined to save the republic by a radical struction which was to include the abolition and the formation of a standing army. Unfortunately, the other great families stinately opposed to any reform or, as they

constitutional reconof the berum veto

144

POLAND

Constantinople, at once declared war against Russia. Seriously disturbed at the prospect of Russian aggrandizement, the courts of Berlin and Vienna conceived the idea that the best mode of preserving the equilibrium of Europe was for all three powers to readjust their territories at the expense of Poland. Negotiations led to no definite result at first, till Austria took the frst step by occupying, in 1769, the country of Zips, which had been hypothecated by Hungary to Poland in 1411 and never redeemed. This act decided the other confederates. In June 1770 Frederick surrounded those of the Polish provinces he coveted with a military cordon, ostensibly to keep out the cattle plague. Catherine’s consent had been previously obtained. First Partition, 1772.—The first treaty of partition was signed at St. Petersburg between Prussia and Russia on Feb. 6-17, 17725 the second treaty, which admitted Austria also to a share of the spoil, on Aug. 5-16 the same year. The consent of the seym to this act of brigandage was extorted by bribery and force in 1773. Russia obtained the palatinates of Vitebsk, Polotsk, Mscistaw: 1,586 sq.m. of territory, with a population of 550,000. Austria got the greater part of Galicia, minus Cracow: 1,710 sq.m., with a population of 816,000. Prussia received the maritime palatinate minus Danzig, the palatinate of Kulm minus Thorn, the northern half of Great Poland, and the palatinates of Marienburg and Ermeland: 629 sq.m., with a population of 378,000. In fine, Poland lost about one-fifth of her population and one-fourth of her territory. In return for these enormous concessions the partitioning powers presented the Poles with a new constitution. The most mischievous of the ancient abuses, the elective monarchy and the liberum veto, were of course retained. Poland was to be dependent on her despoilers, but they evidently meant to make her a serviceable dependant. The Government was henceforth to be in the hands of a “permanent council” of 36 members, 18 senators and 18 deputies, elected biennially by the seym in secret ballot, subdivided into the five departments of foreign affairs, police, war, justice and the exchequer, whose principal members and assistants, as well as all other public functionaries, were to have fixed salaries. The royal prerogative was still further reduced. The king was indeed the president of the permanent council, but he could not summon the diet without its consent, and in all cases of preferment was bound to select one out of three of the council’s nominees. Still, the new organization made for order and economy, and enabled Poland to develop and husband her resources, and devote herself uninterruptedly to the now burning question of national education. The shock of the first partition had a certain

[PARTITIONS

sake the Russian alliance, and offered to place an army corps of 40,000 men at her disposal. Reform

of the Constitution, 1788-91.—It was under these

exceptional circumstances that the “four years’ diet” assembled (1788). Its leaders, Stanislaus Matachowski, Hugo Koltontay and Ignacy Potocki, were men of character and capacity, and its measures were correspondingly vigorous. Within a few months of its assembling it had abolished the permanent council; enlarged the royal prerogative; raised the army to 65,000 men; established direct communications with the Western powers; declared its

own session permanent, and finally settled down to the crucial

task of reforming the constitution on modern lines. But the difficulties of the patriots were commensurate with their energies, and though the new constitution was drafted so early as Dec, 1789, it was not till May 1791 that it could safely be presented

to the diet. Meanwhile Poland endeavoured to strengthen her position by an alliance with Prussia. Frederick William II. stipu.

lated, at first, that Poland should surrender Danzig and Thom;

but the Poles proving obstinate, and Austria simultaneously dis. playing a disquieting interest in the welfare of the republic,

Prussia, in 1791, concluded an alliance with Poland which engaged the two powers to guarantee each other’s possessions and render mutual assistance in case either were attacked. But external aid was useless so long as Poland was hampered by her anarchical constitution. The most indispensable reforms had been frantically opposed, the debate on the reorganization of the army had alone lasted six months. It was only by an audacious surprise that Koltontay and his associates contrived to carry through the new constitution. Taking advantage of the Easter recess, when most of the malcontents were out of town, they suddenly, on May 3, brought the whole question before the diet and demanded urgency for it. Before the opposition could demonstrate, the marshal of the diet produced the latest foreign despatches, which unanimously predicted: another par- | tition, whereupon, at the solemn adjuration of Ignacy Potocki, King Stanislaus exhorted the deputies to accept the new constitution as the last means of saving their country, and himself set the example by swearing to defend it. The revolution of May 3, 1791, converted Poland into an hereditary limited monarchy, with ministerial responsibility and ` duennial parliaments. The berum veto and all the intricate and obstructive machinery of the anomalous old system were forever abolished. All invidious class distinctions were done away with. The towns, in a special bill confirmed by the new constitution, got full administrative and judicial autonomy, as well as a certain salutary effect on national mentality. Already in the darkest days measure of parliamentary representation; the personal privileges of Saxon rule, important educational reforms had been carried of the gentry, such as possession of land and access to office out in the schools of the Piarist order by Stanislaus Konarski. in the State and in the Church, were thrown open to the townsNow, the dissolution of the Jesuit order in 1773, putting its rich men. The peasants were placed under the protection of the law, possessions and the system of schools conducted by it into the and their serfdom was mitigated, preparatory to its entire abolihands of the State, gave Poland opportunity to secularize as well tion. Absolute religious toleration was established. Provision was as modernize the whole educational fabric of the nation. This made for further periodical reforms by subsequent parliaments. huge task was admirably performed by the Commission of NaRussia Overthrows the Constitution.—The constitution of tional Education, the first Ministry of Education in Europe. It May 3 had scarce been signed when Felix Potocki, Severin reorganized both the programme of teaching and the structure Rzewuski and Xavier Branicki, three of the chief dignitaries of of the schools—including the decayed Universities of Cracow Poland, hastened to St. Petersburg, and there entered into a and Vilna—in a thoroughly modern and truly enlightened way. secret convention with the empress, whereby she undertook to Less progress was made with the cause of constitutional reform: restore the old constitution by force of arms, but at the same the Chancellor Andrew Zamoyski indeed drafted a new compre- time promised to respect the territorial integrity of the republic. hensive code of laws, in which a beginning was made with the Entering Polish territory with Russian troops, the conspirators emancipation of the peasant serfs and of the town population, but formed a confederation at the little town of Targowica in the this was rejected by the gentry in the diet (1780). Ukraine, protesting against the new constitution as tyrannous In the meantime, important events in the international field and revolutionary, and at the same time the new Russian minister seemed to give Poland another chance of re-asserting her inde- at Warsaw presented a formal declaration of war to the king and pendence against her despoilers. The death of Frederick the the diet. The diet met the crisis with dignity and firmness. The Great, in 1786, loosened the bonds of the alliance between Prussia army was at once despatched to the frontier; the male population and Russia. Russia, drawing nearer to Austria, undertook, jointly was called to arms, and Ignacy Potocki was sent to Berlin to with her, a war against Turkey which proved unexpectedly hard; claim the assistance stipulated by the treaty of March 19, 1791 and Russia was at the same time attacked by Sweden. Prussia, The king of Prussia, in direct violation of all his oaths and having changed her policy and concluded an alliance against promises, declined to defend a constitution which had never had Russia with England and Holland, was now emboldened by his “concurrence.” Thus Poland was left entirely to her own Russia’s difficulties to go farther: she invited Poland also to for- resources. The little Polish army of 46,000 men, under prince

es,>wao

PARTITIONS]

POLAND

145

Joseph Poniatowski and Tadeusz Kościuszko, did ali that was

even parts of their booty from the two others. Thus the name

possible under the circumstances.

of Poland was wiped out from the map of Europe, to reappear

For more than three months

they kept back the invader, and, after winning three pitched

battles, retired in perfect order on the capital (see PoNIATOWSKI,

and Kosciuszko). But the king, and even Kottontay, despairing of success, now acceded to the confederation; hostilities were suspended;

the indignant officers threw up their commissions;

the rank and file were distributed all over the country; the reformers fled abroad; and the constitution of May 3 was abolished by the Targowicians as a “dangerous novelty.” The Russians then poured into eastern Poland; the Prussians, at the beginning of 1793, alarmed lest Catherine should appropriate the whole republic, occupied Great Poland; and a diminutive, debased and helpless assembly met at Grodno in order, in the midst of a Russian army corps, “to come to an amicable understanding” with the partitioning powers.

only after more than a century. THE

NAPOLEONIC

(R. N. B.; R. Dy.) PERIOD

AND

AFTER

After the third partition, the more high-spirited Poles, chiefly officers and soldiers of Kościuszko’s army, emigrated and formed, on Italian soil, the Polish Legions, which, during the next ten years, fought the battles of the French republic and of Napoleon all over Europe and even outside it, from Egypt to the West Indies. They were commanded by Dombrowski, one of Kościuszko’s ablest generals; but Kościuszko himself stood aloof, distrusting Napoleon. The Grand Duchy of Warsaw.—In 1806 and 1807, when Napoleon defeated

Prussia

and engaged in a war with Russia,

Polish soldiers once more appeared on Polish soil, and the hopes Second Partition of Poland.—After every conceivable means of the nation seemed near fulfilment. In fact, the peace of Tilsit of intimidation had béen unscrupulously applied, the second treaty resulted in the reconstruction of a Polish State out of the central of partition was signed at three o’clock on the morning of Sept. provinces of Prussian Poland; but Napoleon’s anxiety to con23, 1793. By this pactum subjectionis, as the Polish patriots ciliate Russia effectually prevented him from making his new called it, Russia got all the eastern provinces of Poland, extending creation large enough to be self-supporting. The grand-duchy of from Livonia to Moldavia, comprising a quarter of a million of Warsaw, as it was called, originally consisted of about 1,850 square miles, while Prussia got Dobrzyn, Kujavia and the greater sq.m., to which Western Galicia with Cracow, about goo sq.m. part of Great Poland, with Thorn and Danzig. Poland was now more, were added in 1809, in consequence of Napoleon’s war reduced to one-third of her original dimensions, with a population against Austria. The constitution was dictated by Napoleon: it was framed on the French model and on very advanced lines. of about 3,500,000. Kosciuszko and the Third Partition.—The focus of Polish Equality before the law (implying personal freedom of the nationality was now transferred from Warsaw, where the Tar- peasant), absolute religious toleration, and highly-developed local gowicians and their Russian patrons reigned supreme, to Leipzig, autonomy, were its salient features. The king of Saxony, as grandwhither the Polish patriots, Kosciuszko, Koltontay and Ignacy duke, took the initiative in all legislative matters; but the adPotocki among the number, assembled from all quarters. From ministration was practically controlled by the French. In spite the first they meditated a national rising, but their ignorance, of being subject to most burdensome financial and miltary enthusiasm and simplicity led them to commit blunder after exigencies for the purposes of Napoleon’s continuous wars, the blunder. The first of such blunders was KoSciuszko’s mission to small grand-duchy contrived, during the few years of its existParis, in Jan. 1793. He was full of the idea of a league of re- ence, to do much peaceful, productive, organizing work, especially publics against the league of sovereigns; but he was unaware in the educational and economic spheres. Poland’s hopes for greater things revived once more when that the Jacobins themselves were already considering the best mode of detaching Prussia, Poland’s worst enemy, from the anti- Napoleon announced his war against Moscow (1812), as his French coalition. Kościuszko received an evasive reply, and re- “second Polish war.” The grand-duchy, by an immense effort, turned to Leipzig empty-handed. In the meantime, certain officers put an army corps of nearly 80,c00 men into the field. But the in Poland had revolted against the reduction of the Polish army calamity which overtook Napoleon in Russia, also sealed the to 15,000, imposed upon the country by the Partition Treaty. fortunes of the duchy. The remainder of the Polish troops faithKościuszko himself condemned their hastiness; but the march fully followed Napoleon in his campaign of 1813-14, during which of events forced his hand, and in March, 1794, he came to the heroic leader of the Poles, Prince Joseph Poniatowski (nephew Cracow, proclaimed a national insurrection and assumed the of the last king), perished in covering the Emperor’s retreat from powers of a dictator. He called the peasants to arms, and they Leipzig. The duchy was occupied by the Russians. The Congress Kingdom, 1815-31.—Tsar Alexander I. had responded nobly, in return for which he supplemented the provisions of the Constitution of 1791 by a manifesto giving them been united by youthful friendship to the most eminent Polish complete freedom. At first, KoSciuszko’s arms were almost uni- noble of his time, Prince Adam Czartoryski, and had even made versally successful. The Russians were defeated in more than one him, on his accession, foreign minister of the Russian empire. pitched battle; three-quarters of the ancient territory was re- On Napoleon’s downfall the Poles, to whom Alexander did not covered, and Warsaw, and Vilna, the capitals of Poland and spare promises and flatteries, entertained the highest hopes. It was not Alexander’s fault, indeed, if the Congress of Vienna, Lithuania respectively, were liberated. The first serious reverse, at Szczekociny, was more than made up for by the successful owing to jealousy among the great powers and to the entangle-

defence of Warsaw against the Russians (July 9~Sept. 6). But even during that heroic defence, mob lawlessness in Warsaw and violent dissensions in the supreme council and in the army, began to frustrate the superhuman efforts of the unfortunate but still undaunted dictator. The appearance of overwhelming masses of Russian troops, together with the open hostility of Austria as well as Prussia did the rest, and Kosciuszko’s insurrection re-

ment of the Polish question with that of Saxony and other territories, did not end in a re-union of Poland, even under the Russian

sceptre, but confirmed the division of the country between the three partitioning powers. Cracow only, with a small surrounding territory, was erected into a free city republic. Great Poland, with Posen for its centre and a population of 810,000, was left to Prussia. Austria remained in possession of Galicia with 1,500,000 ceived its death-blow on the battlefield of Maciejowice, where he inhabitants. The Eastern borderlands, from Lithuania and White himself was wounded and taken prisoner. Warsaw was taken Russia to Volhynia and the Ukraine, continued to be incorporated amidst a terrible massacre of the population in the suburb of in Russia. The remnant of central Poland only—about threeoe and the remainder of the troops capitulated a few weeks fourths of the territory of Napoleon’s grand-duchy of Warsaw— was constituted as the so-called Congress kingdom under the ater. The greed of the victorious powers nearly led to a rupture emperor of Russia as king of Poland. Guarantees of home rule in between Austria and Prussia; but after some dissensions, the all parts of the divided country, and of free communication bethird partition of Poland was effected by successive treaties in tween them, were given by all powers concerned, only to prove 1795 and 1796. Austria had to be content with Western Galicia soon more or less futile. Polish Constitution, 1815.—Alexander, who had a sentiand Southern Masovia, while Prussia took Western Masovia with Warsaw. Russia annexed all the rest, and was afterwards to tear mental regard for freedom, so long as it meant obedience to him-

146 self, had promised the Poles a constitution.

POLAND That constitution

was soon duly drafted and signed. It contained 165 articles divided under seven heads. The kingdom of Poland was declared to be united to Russia, in the person of the tsar, as a separate political entity. Lithuania and the Ruthenian Palatinates continued to be incorporated with Russia as the Western Provinces and were divided from the Congress kingdom by a customs barrier till the reign of Nicholas I. The kingdom of Poland thus defined was to have at its head a lieutenant of the emperor (namiestnik), who must be a member of the Imperial house or a Pole. The first holder of the office, General Zajonczek (17521826), was a veteran who had served Napoleon. Roman Catholicism was recognized as the religion of the State, but other religions were tolerated. Liberty of the Press was promised,

subject to the passing of a law to restrain its abuses. Individual liberty, the use of the Polish language in the law courts, and the executive employment of Poles in the civil government were secured by the constitution. The machinery of government was framed of a council of State, at which the Imperial Government was represented by a commissioner plenipotentiary, and a diet divided into a senate composed of the princes of the blood, the palatines and councillors named for life, and a house of nunti elected for seven years. Poland retained its flag, and a national army based on that which had been raised by and had fought for Napoleon. The command of the army was given to the emperor’s brother Constantine, a man of somewhat erratic character, who did much to offend the Poles by violence (see CONSTANTINE PAVLOVICH ). The diet met three times during the reign of Alexander, in 1818, in 1820 and in 1825, and was on all three occasions opened by the tsar. But the tsar and the diet soon quarrelled. The third session

of the diet (May 13 to June 13, 1825) was a mere formality. All publicity was suppressed, and one whole district was disfranchised because it persisted in electing candidates who were disapproved of at court. All Europe at the time was seething with secret societies organized to combat the reactionary governments of the Holy Alliance. In Poland, the National Freemasonry, or National Patriotic Society as it was afterwards called, had a large membership, especially among the students and the younger officers. Outside Congress Poland, a similar student movement arose in the University of Vilna. Severe measures— imprisonment, deportation, and exile—were taken against students and graduates of Vilna (including the great poet Mickiewicz), and they added to the excitement in Warsaw. No open breach occurred during the reign of Alexander I., nor for five years after his death in 1825. On the death of the unpopular Zajonczek in 1826, the Grand Duke Constantine became imperial lieutenant. His brother, the new tsar, Nicholas I., soon became entangled in a war with Turkey. Austria, as usual, desirous of profiting by Russia’s difficulties, began to court the favour of the Poles. Nicholas was crowned king of Poland in Warsaw, in 1829, and personally opened the diet in 1830. But the diet, already in 1828, had refused to sentence to death a group of Polish conspirators accused of dealings with the Russian “decembrists” who had plotted Nicholas’ overthrow—and in 1829 there was even an abortive Polish plot to murder him at his coronation in Warsaw. Fresh excitement was created in Poland by the outbreak of the revolution in France, in July, 1830, and the revolt of Belgium: a rumour was current—not without justification—that Nicholas, acting in concert with the other autocrats of the Holy Alliance, intended to use the Polish army to coerce the French and Belgian revolutionaries. The Rising of 1830—On Nov. 29, 1830, a military revolt broke out in Warsaw. It was started by the young hotheads of the Officers’ Training school, and began with the murder of several senior officers loyal to the Government. Regiments of the army and masses of the civilian population began to join the rising; the weakness of Constantine allowed it to gather strength. ‘He evacuated Warsaw and finally left the country. The war lasted from January till Sept. 1831. The Poles began with some chances of success: they had a well-drilled and well-equipped army of about 30,000 men, which they increased by recruiting to about

So,ooo.

[ALEXANDER I. Against this, the Russians, with considerable

1

|i

difficulty, :

succeeded in putting only about 114,000 men into the field. Their ultimate success was partly due to the friendly attitude of Prussia, partly to the fact that the Polish diet, having proclaimed the deposition of the tsar at an early stage of the conflict, received no response to its appeal for Western European protection.

to a large extent the defeat of the insurrection was certain faults on the Polish side: want of ability and the part of the generals, a succession of rapid changes mand of the army, fierce party strife within the civil

But

caused by decision on in the comgovernment

in the capital, a deplorable outbreak of mob violence in Warsaw at a critical moment of the war; finally, an irresolute attitude of the insurrectionary parliament towards the peasant claims. After the suppression of the insurrection, certain remnants of

a constitution

were

still granted

to Russian

Poland

by the

“Organic Statute” of 1832, but they were soon rendered illusory:

the administration avowedly aimed at destroying the nationality,

and even the language, of Poland. The universities of Warsaw and Vilna were suppressed, the Polish students compelled to go to St. Petersburg and Kiev. The recruits from Poland were dis-

tributed in Russian regiments, and the use of the Russian language was enforced as far as possible in the civil administration and in the law courts. The customs barrier between Lithuania and the former Congress Poland was removed, in the hope that Russian influence would spread more easily over Poland. A hostile policy was adopted against the Roman Catholic Church. But though these measures cowed the Poles, they failed to achieve their main purpose. Polish national sentiment was intensified. The Poles in Russia, whether at the universities or in the public service, formed an element which refused to assimilate with the Russians. In Poland itself the tsar left much of the current civil administration in the hands of the nobles, whose power over their peasants was hardly diminished and was misused as of old. The Polish exiles who filled Europe after 1830 maintained a constant agitation from abroad. The stern government of Nicholas was, however, so far effective that Poland remained quiescent during the Crimean War. Alexander II. and the Rising of 1863.—The reign of the new tsar Alexander II. began with certain concessions to Poland in the political and educational field. Exiles were allowed to return, administrative pressure was lightened, the Church was propitiated, an “Agricultural Society” was allowed to be formed and to discuss important affairs of the community, a medical faculty, and later on, a complete university, was re-established in Warsaw. Finally even, a Polish council of State and a Polish administrative apparatus for the kingdom began to be organized. In their later stages, these reforms were the work of count Alexander Wielopolski, who was installed in high office, and stood for a national policy of loyal union with Russia. But his autocratic temper lost him the sympathies of the moderate elements of the gentry; whilst, on the ardent minds of the young, Wielopolski’s methods acted like fuel heaped on fire. Religious ceremonies were used as the occasion for demonstrative political processions, there were collisions with the Russian troops, and victims fell in the streets of Warsaw. Wielopolski had the unhappy idea of causing the revolutionary youth of the cities to be recruited en masse for the Russian Army; the plan became known, numbers of the young people fled into the forests, and a Revolutionary committee, on Jan. 22, 1863, started an ill-prepared insurrection. The struggle of the ill-equipped and ill-organized insurgent bands against the Russian garrisons in the country dragged on in the form of guerrilla warfare throughout the country for nearly two years. A secret National Government was set up in Warsaw, the movement spread successfully into Lithuania, and the insurrection occupied the diplomatic attention of Western Europe. But the assistance promised by Napoleon III. never became effective; the rising was crushed; wholesale executions, confiscations and deportations followed its suppression, and Poland was now definitely turned into a Russian province. After the insurrection of 1831, no remnant of Poland’s independent political existence had been left except the minute city republic of Cracow, created by the Congress of Vienna. For

`

. | »

POLAND

FATE OF CRACOW]

30 years, this miniature state led a flourishing existence.

When

the ferment of the approaching European revolution of 1848 was

stirring most continental countries to their depths, there were active

preparations

Prussian Poland.

for another

rising both

in Austrian

and

For Austria the menace was diverted by a

huge peasant revolt in Galicia, which led to a massacre of thousands of landowners by the peasantry. At the same time, Austria availed herself of the unrest among her Poles to obtain

the consent of Russia and Prussia to the suppression of the city

republic of Cracow. But it was only in 1848, amidst the thunders

of the “springtide of nations,” that Cracow was finally occupied

by Austria and incorporated into Galicia.

After the disaster of 1863, the Poles of Prussian, Austrian and Russian Poland developed along such widely different lines that there is, for the next 60 years, little unity left in Poland’s national

history. Certain features, however, are common to the life of the three sections of the nation during this period. The gentry, shattered by the insurrectionary disasters, ceases to be the dominant class in the community; the professional intelligentsia of the towns

swelled by influxes from the ruined gentry assumes that part; and gradually, towards the end of the 19th century, the peasant masses, now fully enfranchised, rise into importance. The Poles in Prussia.—The régime in Prussian Poland during the first 15 years after the Congress of Vienna had been endurable. A Polish nobleman related by marriage to the Prussian dynasty—

Prince Radziwilt—was appointed lieutenant-governor of the province; there was a provincial assembly and local representative bodies both urban and rural. The landowners were allowed to organize for economic purposes, and the peasants were fully enfranchised in 1823. After the insurrection of 1830, a period of more oppressive government by a German provincial president, Flottwell, set in; he revived Frederick the Great’s method of German colonization of the Polish province; and he began to Germanize the administration and the school system. A period of new concessions to the Poles, under Frederick William IV., was interrupted by the revolution of 1846-48. The constitution with which Prussia emerged from the revolution put an end to the selfgovernment of Prussian Poland. Another interval of relaxation, in the first years of William I., was soon succeeded by the period of Bismarck’s and Biilow’s resolutely anti-Polish policy—characterized by the Kulturkampf, the “Colonizing Committee,” the Września scandal, the schools’ strike, the Expropriation bill and the like, for an account of which see Poznan. The result of the Prussian methods was to create a sturdy class of peasants and small bourgeoisie, disciplined and economically and culturally advanced; and a fellow-feeling arose between the peasants and the landowning gentry, such as was hardly known in other parts of Poland. The Poles in Austria.—Austria, under the old autocratic régime, had oppressed its Polish province politically and exploited it economically in the most ruthless fashion, till the revolution of 1848 brought a change. But not until the defeat of Austria by Prussia in 1866 was it realized at Vienna that only a more liberal policy could hold the tottering, mixed monarchy together. The relation with Hungary having been placed on a federal footing, concessions had to be granted to the strong Polish element in Austria. The Poles became a dominant nationality in the Austrian empire. The numerical strength of the group of Polish deputies in the Vienna parliament was such that no Austrian Govvernment could be formed without it. Galicia (as Austrian Poland was officially called), containing a large Ruthenian element in its Eastern half, was granted a special minister to represent its interests in the Vienna cabinet. It also got a provincial legislative assembly and a governor, who was invariably appointed from the

ranks of the Polish aristocracy. With purely Polish administration schools and courts of law, Galicia became indeed almost an Independent Polish State within Austria, and successfully defied the centralizing efforts of the Vienna bureaucracy. The Polish landowning class, who practically governed the country for the next few decades, managed its affairs in a onesidedly agrarian spirit: the interests of the towns were not properly considered,

hardly any attention was given to the development of industries,

147

and Galicia remained economically backward. Even its oilfields were largely developed by foreign capital. On the other hand, political and cultural activities had more scope than in the two other parts of Poland: Galicia became the ‘‘Piedmont” of the Polish national movement, and Cracow, with its old university and new Academy of Sciences, an intellectual, artistic and literary centre for the whole nation. With the growth of a new educated class, and the introduction of universal suffrage in Austria (1896) the social structure of the country began to change, its politics were strongly democratized, new economic tendencies got the upper hand, and Galicia was at last on the road of material advance when the World War began. The Poles in Russia.—All self-government in Congress Poland was suppressed in 1863; all education was Russified in 1869, justice In 1873. On the other hand, the abolition in 1851 of the customs frontier between Russia and Poland had laid the foundation for an extraordinary industrial expansion: Russian Poland became the chief industrial region for all Russia. Its vast market in agricultural Russia was protected against Western competition by high tariffs; the Russian Government took every possible measure (such as the introduction of specially favourable railway tariffs) to assist this expansion. The Poles, being excluded from State service in their own country, busied themselves with productive occupations, and the upper and middle classes achieved a well-being far superior to anything enjoyed by their cousins in

Galicia. A second result of this expansion was the growth in Congress Poland of a large and radical proletariat which made common cause with the Russian Social Democratic movement. In the country districts, the agrarian policy of the Russian Government was expressly calculated to stir up ill-feeling between the Polish peasants, whom the Government demonstratively took under their protection, and the country gentry, whom it was determined to punish in every way for the leading part they had played in the insurrections. The peasant of Russian Poland officially got his freedom from the tsar in 1864. Each peasant, whatever his tenure had been, and the mass of the landless proletariat, became freeholders. The landlords received compensation in the form of Russian Treasury bonds, which stood far below par, and the peasants got the right to use the landlords’ pastures and woods. In the sphere of education, the most thoroughgoing system of Russification set in after 1863. All the revived Polish schools of the Wielopolski period were made Russian again, including the University of Warsaw, and no effort was spared to produce in the minds of youth a distorted image of Poland’s past. Secret patriotic education, however, counteracted this policy successfully both in town and country; and private Polish schools, struggling against great difficulties, kept the great Polish cultural tradition alive.

The civil government of Russian Poland was reorganized strictly on the model of the rest of the Russian empire, the Poles being debarred, however, from certain liberal institutions which the Russians by that time possessed, such as municipal self-government and trial by jury. The Russian language was made compulsory in all official relations, and at a later time even in the records of private institutions. A corrupt Russian bureaucracy filled all Government offices, a severe censorship strangled every free utterance of the nation in the press and in literature, and a drastic police régime kept the prisons filled with political offenders. After Russia’s defeat in the Japanese war of 1904, the outbreak of a revolution in 1905 kindled all Polish hopes once more. A constitution was granted to Russia, and 36 Polish deputies sat in the first Russian parliament. A certain measure of freedom in the educational field was obtained and eagerly used for the foundation of new schools by a Warsaw society called “the Mother of Schools” (Macierz Szkolna). The peasants of Russian Poland spontaneously introduced the Polish language in their self-governing bodies. In the Duma itself, the Liberals were not averse to granting Poland a large measure of autonomy within Russia. At the same time, persecution in Prussian Poland increased under

Biilow, while the Ukrainian national movement,

developing in

Austrian Poland especially since the grant of universal suffrage in 1907, was unwelcome both to Poles and Russians. Under these circumstances, Russian propaganda, reviving the Pan-Slav ideals

POLAND

148

of 30 years ago, could count on some success even among the Poles.

There were gestures of reconciliation at two Slav congresses, in

1908 and 1910, the Czechs willingly acting as mediators. The idea of uniting all Poles with autonomy within the Russian empire was widely preached: it became the programme of the national Democratic, or all-Polish, party, led by Roman Dmowski, the head of the Polish representation in the Duma. Opposite to Dmowski and the followers whom he found even among Austrian Poles, there stood the irreconcilable revolutionaries, led by Joseph Piłsudski. Both the insurrectionary movements started by Piłsudski in 1905, and the Constitutional en-

[WORLD WAR PROBLEM

State was appointed, which was solemnly opened on J an. 14, IQI},

Piłsudski began to work out the plans for a national Polish Army,

He refused, however, to raise it for German use; and actually the German plan of raising a Polish Army failed completely. In March 1917 the Russian dynasty fell. On March 30 the

new Russian Government recognized Poland’s right to self. determination and promised the creation of a new Polish State, These events altered the attitude of the Allies towards Poland, particularly as they were now

reinforced by the entry of the

United States into the War. The answer of the Entente Powers to the peace proposals of the Central Powers issued on Jan. to, 1917 had already declared their adhesion to the tsar’s manifesto

deavours of Dmowski and his friends in the Duma, were soon stifled by the Russian reaction of the Stolypin period. Piłsudski to his armies (Dec. 25, 1916) which had spoken of “‘the formation was obliged to flee to Galicia, and began to organize active resis- of a free Poland in all parts into which it is at present divided,” The danger still threatening Poland from Russia vanished tance to Russia from that base. In the Duma, the Polish representation was lowered from 36 to ro deputies. In the country, all with the breakdown of Kerensky’s offensive (July, 1917). The the liberties gained after 1905 soon disappeared. The Govern- Central Powers were now the only enemy. In May, 1917, the ment’s purchase of the railway line from Warsaw to the Austrian Polish members of the Austrian Reichsrat unanimously demanded frontier resulted in the removal of all Polish railway-men from the “an independent united Poland with an outlet to the sea,” and service and was a great blow to the Polish element. In rgr2 the declared that the Polish case was one for “international considerseparation of the district of Chełm, in the south-east of Russian ation.” At the same time, the Polish council of State in Warsaw

Poland, from the body of the province and its incorporation in Russia proper was received with indignant protests by Polish opinion as a new division of Poland. THE POLISH PROBLEM DURING THE WORLD WAR The World War found the Poles estranged from one another, and without a united national policy. Pitsudski, the “activist,” crossed the frontier from Galicia with a few hundreds of his armed band and engaged the Russian empire in battle as forerunner of the army of an independent and united Poland.

But the Polish

National committee, formed in Cracow on Aug. 16, aimed at uniting Galicia and Congress Poland as a third party in the Dual

Monarchy and required the Polish Legion to take the oath to the emperor. In Warsaw, another Polish committee under Dmowski denied the right of the Cracow committee to speak in the name of the Polish nation; protested loyalty to the tsar; and attempted to form a Polish Legion on the side of Russia. Meanwhile the Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaievich issued a proclamation (Aug. 14)

in which he promised to unite the three parts of Poland in an

autonomous state with the Russian empire. When the Russian army occupied a great part of Galicia the Russophil party in Galicia (the National Democrats) accepted this programme. In the summer of 1915, however, the Central Powers conquered all Congress Poland. After the fall of Warsaw on Aug. 5, 915, governments were set up on behalf of Germany at Warsaw, and Austria-Hungary at Lublin. It was now the Russian solution that was platonic. But fresh difficulties confronted the

Austrian solution. The Polish Socialist Party (P.P.8.) under Pitsudski declared that no recruiting should take place for Polish legions until an autonomous Polish Government had been formed to conduct it. Meanwhile Tisza, tbe Hungarian Minister President, had vetoed the Austrian trialist scheme, which was also

opposed by Germany. Vienna, again, rejected the plans put forward by Germany, of annexing Congress Poland to Germany, or af forming an independent Polish buffer state in economic military and political alliance with the Central Powers, Formation

of a Polish State.—In

Aug. 1916, however, after

the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian troops at Luck, the German Supreme Command acquired complete control of policy on the Eastern Front. Ludendorff believed it possible to gain a large Polish army if his ideas were adopted. Germany and AustriaHungary issued a proclamation on Nov. 5, 1916, holding out a prospect of the restoration of an independent Congress Poland as a hereditary constitutional monarchy closely attached to the Central Powers. Francis Joseph promised Galicia increased autonomy within Austria-Hungary. The discussion of details was shelved; the military governments at Warsaw and Lublin continued to administer the country. The German Governor, General von Beseler, arranged for the election of a diet with fairly extensive powers in local administration, education and justice. Meanwhile, by decree dated Nov. 26, 1916, a Provisional Council of

asked the occupants for a widening of its powers, and split up over the German demand for a recruiting appeal and an oath of loyalty. Pitsudski resigned from the diet with his adherents, and set about turning his secret military organization against Germany. On July 22 Polish discontent was increased by the arrest of Piłsudski. On Aug. 25 the diet, now discredited with the people, resigned. On Sept. 12 Germany and Austria-Hungary introduced a new project of a regency of three, a cabinet and premier and council of State, chosen by the regency, and enjoying limited powers, the German and Austrian military governments retaining

the right of veto. The regency was appointed on Oct. 15; it consisted of the Archbishop of Warsaw, Dr. Kakowski, Prince Lubomirski, and Józef Ostrowski, a large landowner. The first

prime minister, Jan Kucharzewski, was appointed on Nov. 26 and formed his first ministry on Dec. 7. While Polish affairs were taking this course under Austro-

German occupation, Dmowski was making propaganda for the Polish cause in France and England, and Paderewski was working tirelessly in America. In Nov. 1916, a great Polish National Department in Chicago had united all the organizations of the 4,000,000 Poles in America; and under Paderewski’s influence, President Wilson, in his tentative peace message of Jan. 22, 1917, alluded to a “united, independent and autonomous Poland.” In the course of 1917, a Polish corps was organized by General Dowbor-Musnicki in Russia, and a Polish army, afterwards known as General Haller’s Army, began to be formed in France. The Polish National committee, founded at Lausanne in Aug. 1917, and since

established in Paris, was gaining increasing influence in the councils of the Allies. Between Sept. 20 and Dec. 1, 1917, France, Great Britain, Italy and the United States had recognized it as the official representative of the Polish people. The thirteenth of President Wilson’s Fourteen Points (Jan. 8, 1918) declared that a Polish State should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish population “with an outlet to the sea and an international guarantee of its independence and integrity.”

In the meantime, the utter collapse of the Russian army had led to peace negotiations between the Central Powers and the Bolsheviks. The Bolshevik delegates who arrived at BrestLitovsk (g.v.) in Dec. 1917, recognized, in theory, the right of the Polish people to self-determination; but Polish delegates were not admitted to the deliberations. By the treaty as concluded on March 3, 1918, Soviet Russia renounced all claims over Poland;

but the treaty (Feb. 9, 1918) between the Central Powers and the Ukraine allotted to the Ukraine the disputed province of Chelm,

while Austria-Hungary further pledged herself in a secret clause

to form East Galicia and the Bukovina into a separate Crownland.

These clauses became known; Polish opinion was infuriated beyond measure; the Polish Cabinet resigned; the Polish club in the

Austrian Reichsrat went over to the Opposition; the remnant of Pitsudski’s legions still fighting for the Central Powers mutinied.

Some were interned, some fought their way to the coast and joined the new Polish army in France. The elections for the council of State in Poland were held in April and it was opened in Warsaw

on June 22. Little interest was taken in the elections, and general

feeling in Poland tended to ignore this body in favour of the National committee in Paris. Even before the breakdown of the German offensive in July 1918, the prime ministers of Great

Britain, France and Italy had declared in favour of an independent and united Poland at Versailles on June 3, 1918. The Declaration of Independence.—On

Oct. 6, the Polish

Regency Council and minister president published a manifesto to the Polish nation declaring its intention of dissolving the council of State, forming a representative national Government and summoning a Diet for a “free and united Poland.” On Oct. 15 the Polish representatives of the Reichsrat declared themselves to be “subjects and citizens of a free and re-united Polish State.” On the same day the council of Regency in Warsaw summoned the Galician Poles to Warsaw to take part in forming the new Polish Government. A cabinet was hurriedly formed on Oct. 22. On Oct. 28 a commission of Austrian Poles met in Cracow to wind up relations with Austria. Assuming its authority to extend throughout Galicia, it appointed its next meeting for Nov. 2 in Lemberg, where a Ruthenian Government had already been formed, thus early coming into collision with its neighbours. On Nov. 3 the cabinet proclaimed the Polish Republic. On Nov. ro Piłsudski, who had been released from imprisonment on Oct. 7, arrived in Warsaw. The German troops of occupation were disarmed and expelled, and the Poles assumed the executive power in Warsaw on Nov. 11. The council of Regency declared on Nov. 12 that it appointed Piłsudski to the supreme command of all Polish troops; while Piłsudski proclaimed himself head of the National Government. THE

NEW

POLAND

Of all the new or resurrected states of Europe, Poland was in many respects in the most difficult position. The territory of Congress Poland and Galicia had been devastated in the War. Most of the factories were closed for lack of raw material, where they had not been actually dismantled. The fields of the peasants had been laid waste, their live stock slaughtered, their farms burnt.

Many districts were actually famine-stricken, others swept by epidemics. Communications were disorganized, rolling stock in a deplorable state. Marks, roubles and kronen circulated freely, but their value was low and uncertain, and public and private finances were chaotic. Owing to the past policy of Prussia and Russia, a national bureaucracy existed only in Galicia. Thirty thousand German troops were still in the country. On the East, Bolshevik Russia was in a highly unsettled state and exercised an unsettling influence on the masses in Poland. Radical propaganda of all sorts was rife, and political parties were as numerous as they were, on the whole, futile. Pitsudski, the old revolutionary, had begun by appointing a cabinet of the Left, composed mainly of Galician socialists and peasants’ representatives, under the presidency of J. Moraczewski. But the propertied classes refused him their support, and his attempt to float an internal loan met with little response. In December, M. Paderewski, the second man in Poland enjoying almost unlimited prestige, arrived in the country, composed his differences with Pitsudski and became premier on Jan. 17, tgro9.

Prussian Poland had come under complete control of its Polish inhabitants by Jan. 9. West Galicia was incorporated; East Galicia was occupied by Polish troops, which had entered Lemberg on Nov. 22. It was possible to hold elections for a constituent assembly on Jan. 26, 1919. The constituent Seym met on Feb. ro. It passed a vote of confidence in Paderewski’s cabinet, and confirmed Piłsudski in his position as head of the State without, however, exactly defining his position. Paderewski proceeded to Paris to urge Poland’s claims; Piłsudski raised an army to defend them. General Haller’s troops, returning from France, formed the nucleus of this force. Poland soon had an army of 600,000,

which was shortly increased to 800,000. was

opened

in East

149

POLAND

VERSAILLES TREATY]

Galicia

against

On May 8 an offensive the

Soviet

Russian

and

Ukrainian forces. The Treaty

:

of Versailles

and

Frontier

Problems.—On

June 28, 919 the Polish delegation signed the treaty of Versailles, under which Poland agreed to accept an agreement with the Principal Allied and Associated Powers for the protection of national minorities in Poland, and for the protection of freedom of transit and equitable treatment of the commerce of other nations. This Minorities Treaty was signed on June 28, rọrọ. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Poland received the larger part of Posen and part of West Prussia. A plebiscite was to determine the settlement of Masuria and Upper Silesia. Danzig (g.v.) was to be a free city under the protection of the League of Nations. This city was to be included within the Polish customs frontiers and its foreign relations and the protection of its citizens abroad were to be entrusted to Poland, who also received other economic rights in this territory and was to have free access to the sea. ‘The actual details were settled later by treaties between Poland and the free

city, in 1920, 1921 and 1923. Art. 87 of the treaty assigned to the Allied and Associated Powers the duty of fixing Poland’s eastern frontier. As a signatory to the Treaty of Versailles, Poland was an original member of the League of Nations. The treaty was not popular in Poland but the Seym ratified it on July 30-31 by 285 votes to 41. During the next three years, however, Poland was almost exclusively occupied with questions arising directly or indirectly out of it, which it will be convenient to take in order.

The industrial district of Teschen (g.v.), with important coal mines, was claimed by both Poles and Czechoslovaks. Each nation attempted to assume practical control, and there was some fighting. A plebiscite commission arrived in the district on Jan. 30, 1920, but on July 28, 1920 the Supreme Council fixed a line of demarcation through this district, cutting the town in two, and

through the neighbouring districts of Zips and Orava. In East and West Prussia (see ALLENSTEIN-MARIENWERDER) the plebiscites were held on July 11, 1920. The bulk of the districts were allotted to Germany on the basis of the vote. Upper Silesia was the scene of grave troubles (see SILESIA). Art. 88 of the Treaty of Versailles provided that the inhabitants

of this area, except in its purely German portions, should vote by plebiscite for adherence to Germany or Poland. Allied troops occupied the districts in the meantime. At the polls, 717,422 votes were cast for Germany, 483,514 for Poland. The towns and industrial districts voted German. In consequence of a rumour that only two districts were to be assigned to Poland, Korfanty, a

prominent Pole, occupied south-eastern Upper Silesia with an armed force. A commission of the Council of the League of Nations on Oct. 20, 1921 awarded the south-eastern districts, including 75% of the aggregate material wealth of the disputed territory, to Poland. A convention signed at Geneva between Poland and Germany May

15, 1922 provided guarantees

for the continuity

of the economic life of the country and the protection of minorities during a transitional period of 15 years. Hostilities

Against

the Ukraine

and Russia.—The

dis-

turbances on Poland’s eastern frontier were on a larger scale. Polish troops, on occupying Lemberg in Nov. 1918, had expelled the East Galician Government, which took refuge in Vienna. General Petlura, who formed a government in the Ukraine in the same month, proclaimed the union of the Republics of Ukraine and West Ukraine (East Galicia). The East Galician troops placed themselves under his command. Throughout rorg fighting continued between the Polish and Ukrainian troops, the former remaining in de facto possession of the disputed territory. On Nov. 20, the Peace Conference assigned Eastern Galicia to Poland for 25 years, with a provision for local autonomy; after 25 years, the League of Nations was to decide its future. Simultaneously with the campaign in Eastern Galicia, Poland was engaged in war with Soviet Russia. The German troops of occupation had evacuated the White Russian and Little Russian territory in Chełm and Volhynia in such a way that the Bolshevik troops were able to occupy it before the Poles, to whom the inhabitants appealed for aid, could come up. In this year Soviet Russia was engaged in war with most of her neighbours and with

various expeditions, such as those of Kolchak or Denikin.

Polish

150

POLAND

forces, as the largest and most successful of those opposed to

Russia, enjoyed considerable support in Western Europe. All the Allies desired a strong Poland; but British statesmen considered that this aim would be best achieved if Poland’s frontiers were not excessively extended. In the autumn, Russia suggested an

armistice which was declined. The “Curzon line,” of Dec. 8, attempted to define Poland's eastern frontier. It drew a line roughly following the ethnographical frontier and thus running some way further west than the actual line then occupied by Polish troops. The district of Vilna (Wilno), which the Poles had occupied in April 1919, was assigned

to Lithuania.

,

In the spring of 1920 efforts were made to secure peace with Russia, but came to nothing. On April 25, having settled differences with Petlura in the Ukraine by a treaty dated April 22, Poland opened a strong offensive. On May 8 the Polish troops entered Kiev. The Soviet army, however, having defeated Kolchak and Denikin, concentrated against Poland and opened a counter-offensive. By July the Polish forces were in a serious position. Poland appealed to the Allies for mediation; and the Allies suggested that Poland should retire to the Curzon line and that representatives of Poland, Russia, Finland, Lithuania and Latvia should meet in London to arrive at a general peace settlement of eastern Europe. Russia refused this offer, but agreed to negotiate directly with Poland. The beginning of these negotiations, however, was delayed by Russia, who believed that the military situation would become more advantageous to herself with delay. The Russian forces were actually at the gates of Warsaw when the Allies at last became perturbed by the Russian advance, and a French mission under General Weygand arrived in Warsaw to assist the Polish General Staff. The Government issued an appeal to the country, which responded nobly. On Aug. 14 Pitsudski opened a counter-offensive, and drove the Russians back in confusion. Poland, backed by the Allies, was now able to reject the crushing peace terms which the Russian delegates at Minsk had suggested. The conference was moved to Riga, where the preliminary treaty of peace was signed on Oct. 12. The final treaty was signed at Riga on March 18, 1921 and ratified by the Seym on April 17. Both parties recognized each other’s sovereignty and agreed to refrain from propaganda and from harbouring organizations directed against the other party. All art collections, libraries, historical documents, etc., which had been carried out of Poland since the first partition, and all industrial installations evacuated during the Russian retreat in the World War, were to be restored to Poland. Russia was to pay 30,000,000 roubles in gold as Poland’s share in the assets of the former Russian empire. A number of mixed commissions were set up to carry out the terms of this treaty; but considerable difficulty was experienced in recovering the art and literary treasures, and hardly any progress made in recovering the industrial material or obtaining cash pay-

line of demarcation, which was to come into force on Oct. ro. On Oct. 9, however, the Polish General Zeligowski took Possession

of the disputed districts by a coup de main. The Polish Government disowned the general but made no serious effort to recall him. The territory was first organized as an autonomous province under

the name of “Central Lithuania,” then, a plebiscite having declared in favour of Poland, it was incorporated in Poland as “the Palatinate of Vilna.” Finally, the Conference of Ambassadors assigned Vilna and district to Poland on March 14, 1923.

Lithu-

ania refused to recognize this decision and continued to consider herself as in a “state of latent war” with Poland, till at the autumn session of the League of Nations in 1927, she was prevailed upon to declare the state of war ended. This only opened the way for

negotiations

concerning railway

communication,

river transit,

consular representation and diplomatic relations; all these things

had been non-existent between the two countries since 1920, to the great economic detriment and inconvenience of the population, The Ambassadors’ Conference on March 14, 1923, not only assigned Vilna to Poland, but recognized the whole of Poland’s existing northern, eastern and south-eastern frontiers in the name of the Allied Powers, the United States subsequently notifying the Polish Government of their acknowledgment of this decision. Thereby, previous provisions for the future of East Galicia were repealed, and the province became an integral part of Poland. Little Entente, France, Rumania and the Baltic States, —Surrounded by foes, Poland could not stand alone. The most important bloc in Central Europe formed after the War was that

of the Little Entente (g.v.). Although Poland had many interests in common with the members of this alliance, she was unable to join it. She had no quarrel with Hungary; but the long drawn out disputes with Czechoslovakia on the Teschen, Zips and Javor-

zina frontier questions prevented a close alliance with that Power. Furthermore, Czechoslovakia had received a mandate over Carpathian Russia and hoped to establish a direct frontier with Russia. So long as the fate of East Galicia remained in abeyance, Czechoslovak and Polish interests were bound to conflict. A commercial treaty between Poland and Czechoslovakia was indeed signed in 1921, but important economic antagonisms continued to exist, and relations between the two States only began to grow more cordial in the Locarno period (1925 and after). From the first, France had designated Poland as the ally which should take over Russia’s rdle on Germany’s eastern frontier. France gave Poland military assistance against Russia in 1920, and diplomatic support in the Silesian and East Galician questions, helping her to acquire most valuable coal and oilfields and industrial regions. France assisted Poland to organize and equip her army, lent her instructors and staff officers and made her generous loans for the purchase of war material. On Feb. 19, 1921 Pitsudski signed a Franco-Polish Treaty in Paris for the “maintenance of the treaties .. . the peace of Europe,

territories and their common

ments,

The new eastern frontier of Poland ran south-east from the Latvian frontier, then mainly due south, passing some 18 m. west

[LITTLE ENTENTE

the security of their

political and military interests.”

The Polish Government ratified this political treaty on May 30, 1922. It was supplemented by six conventions concluded at —_

various times before 1925, viz., a military one (unpublished), and a series of others, relating to commerce, to the possessions and neighbourhood of Ostróg it turned slightly south-west and con- rights of individuals, to the exploitation of the Polish oilfields by tinued so for some 25 m.; thence it ran due south again till reach- French capital, to the immigration of Polish workmen into ing the river Zbrucz: this it followed till its junction with the Dnie- France (four successive agreements, 1919—25), and to consular ster, which separates Poland from Rumania. The Zbrucz section and juridical matters. of the frontier coincides with the Austro-Russian frontier of 1914, The treaty of March 3, 1921 with Rumania provided chiefly for and the whole of the new eastern frontier of Poland roughly cor- mutual assistance in case of attack from the east; a military conresponds. to the frontier left to the historical Poland after the vention followed. A definite alliance between Poland and the Balsecond partition in 1793. tic States proved impracticable as, quite apart from the antagonism Vilna.—Simultaneously, Poland was embroiled with Lithuania between Poland and Lithuania, the smaller states could not conover the question of Vilna (g.v.). This town and district had been template anything but a defensive attitude towards Russia. In occupied by Poland on April 19, 1919, but were assigned to Lithu- July 1921, however, representatives of Poland, Finland, Latvia and ania by the Curzon line. Russia recognized Lithuania’s claims to Estonia met at Helsingfors and determined to hold periodical them by a treaty with Lithuania dated July 12, 1920; but after- conferences to exchange opinions on matters of policy and discuss wards, in the Riga Peace Treaty with Poland, she declared her the possibility of joint action. Such conferences were held every désiniéressement in the dispute. During their advance after the year since, but dealt mostly with minor financial and economic victory over Russia in 1920, Polish troops came into conflict with problems. An attempt to reach a political agreement in 1922 failed the Lithuanians. An armistice convention of Oct. 7 laid down a | owing to the opposition of the Finnish diet. In Jan. 1925, a multi-

of Minsk, and, further south, some 70 m. east of Pińsk; in the

lateral arbitration

treaty was

151

POLAND

MINORITIES QUESTIONS] signed between

Poland

and the

Baltic States. Commercial treaties were concluded with all the Baltic States individually, and commercial, as well as non-ageression treaties with all the three Scandinavian countries. In the course of several years, commercial treaties were con-

cluded by Poland with a large number of States, and in the case of some of them, arbitration treaties followed.

During the years

1922-27, commercial treaties were concluded with 24 States, viz., Rumania, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Yugoslavia, Japan, Belgium (and Luxembourg), Turkey, Finland, Great Britain (and the Dominions, treaty of July 1, 1924), Denmark and Iceland, Sweden,

France (latest treaty, July 10, 1925), the United States (Feb. 10, 1925), Hungary, Greece, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Norway, Estonia, Persia and Latvia. The Minorities Questions.—Within her frontiers the new Poland, like the old, included a considerable proportion of minorities non-Polish in speech and race. They made up nearly onethird of the whole population (including approximately 3,883,000 Ruthenians, 2,123,000 Jews, 1,057,000 White Ruthenians, 1,036,ooo Germans, 72,000 Lithuanians and 210,000 Russians, Czechs, Tatars, etc.), sufficient, under the system of proportional representation and scrutin de liste, to give the bloc of national minori-

ties 89 deputies in the first regular Seym of 444 deputies. The Polish Minorities Treaty of June 28, 1919, signed by Poland at Versailles and guaranteed by the League of Nations, secured that all bona fide inhabitants of the districts allotted to Poland be admitted to Polish nationality and citizenship in the fullest sense (except in the case of recent German colonists); guaranteed the minorities the right to use their own language; to maintain their own institutions, to receive primary instruction in

The land thus available was to be used for increasing “dwarf holdings” to economic small holdings and settling the landless in new small holdings. The reform, however, was not carried through as originally intended. It was impossible in any case to put through expropriation on a large scale, for financial reasons. The bill became a convenient asset in the political bargainings of the over-numerous parties of the Seym. In 1925, it provided for the distribution of about 50,000 ac. a year to a period of ro years. The maximum which an owner could retain was 148 ac. in the industrial centres, 740 ac. in the border provinces and 435 ac. in other areas. A series of remarkably good harvests fortunately diminished somewhat the acuteness of the problem. The Labour Question.—Labour inspection was introduced on Jan. 3, 1919, the organization of the Labour Inspection Bureaux being slowly extended until the whole country was covered in 1923. The duties of labour inspectors include that of arbitration. Working hours were regulated by the Statute of Dec. 8, 1919, by an amendment to this statute of Feb. 14, 1922 and by various other statutes. The working day, with certain exceptions, is limited to eight hours and the working week to 46 hours. The Decree of Feb. 8, 1919 introduced the freedom of coalition and defined the status of trade unions, which after that date grew rapidly in numbers and importance. At a later period, Poland took a very important part in the work of the International Labour Organization, being among the States to ratify most readily the draft conven-

tions prepared by that office. Nevertheless, the position of workmen in Poland long remained distressful. ADMINISTRATION

AND

PARLIAMENTARY

HISTORY

A capable civil service might have conducted the country withtheir own language, and where the proportion was considerable out grave difficulties until conditions were settled. Unfortunately, to receive “an equitable share in the enjoyment and application the only trained bureaucracy was that of Galicia, and this was nuof public funds.” The Jews are included among the “racial, re- merically insufficient to meet the needs of the whole country. The ligious or linguistic minorities”; Yiddish is recognized as a lan- requisite staffs for the ministries were hastily improvised, and the guage, and the Jews are granted special protection as regards first years of their administration were inefficient and expensive. As a country divided both politically and geographically, Poland education and the keeping of the Sabbath. The most difficult minorities questions, after the Jews, proved had a great number of political parties. The constituent Seym had to be those of the Ukrainians. On Sept. 26, 1922 the Seym passed 13 political parties, as well as two independent members, and it a general law on provincial self-government which established was difficult to ensure a stable Government. The Constitution, local bodies (diezines) for dealing with purely local affairs. This in its final and still very imperfect form, was only adopted on law granted a small measure of autonomy to East Galicia, but not March 17, 1921. In the meantime, the resignation of Paderewski (Nov. 1919), was being followed by a succession of quickly changenough to prevent complaints. Serious disputes arose, not only with the Ukrainians, but also ing cabinets, always based on unstable coalitions—chiefly between with the German minorities. In 1924 a more conciliatory spirit the Peasant Centre and either the Nationalist Right or the mainly began to prevail. On July ro of that year a bill was passed pro- Socialist Left. A cabinet under the former Galician peasant leader viding for the use of Ukrainian, White Russian and Lithuanian in Witos (the first of three of which he was to be the head) sucgovernment offices, law courts and schools in districts where the ceeded at a critical moment in rousing the country—chiefly by majority of population speaks one of those languages. In the lavish promises of agrarian reform to the peasants—to shake off summer of 1924 the Government concluded a kind of pact with the Bolshevik invasion. Another cabinet, headed by Professor the Jewish leaders by which the Government promised to promote Ponikowski, in 1922, being a non-party one, was unhampered by political conflict; accordingly, its foreign minister, Skirmunt the religious and educational interests of the Jewish community, while the Jewish leaders pledged themselves to abstain from anti- (afterwards Polish Minister in London), and its finance minister, Polish propaganda abroad. But it was only the resolutely liberal Dr. Michalski, achieved certain successes—the latter by introducpolicy of the Government of Marshal Piłsudski from 1926 on- ing a capital levy and temporarily stabilizing the currency. Towards the end of 1922, the prolonged legislative period of the ward that achieved a greater measure of success in reconciling Constituent Assembly came to an end. An electoral law was the minorities to Polish rule. The Agrarian Question.—The first period of Poland’s inde- passed on July 28, and in November, elections for the Upper and pendent existence bore the marks of its origin, which had been Lower House of the first regular parliament were held. They to some extent revolutionary. The franchise promulgated in 1918 ended by distributing power in the Chamber pretty evenly befor the elections to the Constituent Assembly allowed the often tween the Nationalists (163) and the peasant groups (150); the untutored wishes of almost the entire adult population of Poland Socialists obtained only 41 seats, but the National Minorities, by to find expression. The Constituent Assembly, which counted 337 organizing a bloc for electioneering purposes, got 83 (of whom 36 members, was, in consequence, composed mainly of peasants (who were Jews) and accordingly, in spite of the large abstention of the form two-thirds of Poland’s population). Between a group of only Ukrainian element from the elections, became an important, and 32 socialists and of 107 nationalists, the peasants formed a sort occasionally a decisive factor in the parliamentary system. The first business of the two houses of the new parliament. of Centre Party, soon themselves divided into a right and a left according to the Constitution, was jointly to elect a president of wing. The land reform bill was introduced in the Seym on July ro, the republic. Marshal Piłsudski, who for four years had occupied. 1g1g, and was passed by a single vote in a House of about 360. It the position of “Chief of State,” refused to stand. The parties proposed the nationalization of forests and limited the amount of of the Left, supported by the National Minorities and the Witos land to be held by an individual in Poland to from 148 to 248 ac., Peasant Party, put forward and secured the election of Narutoalthough in the borderlands a higher limit of 988 ac. was fixed. wicz, a friend of Pitsudski, who had acted as minister of foreign

152

POLAND

affairs in several cabinets. The defeated candidate of the Right was Count Zamoyski, sometime president of the Polish National

Committee in Paris during the war. Polish nationalism was infuriated by the election of a president through the votes of the National Minorities, including the Jews; and on Dec. 16a fanatic (apparently of unsound mind) assassinated the new president.

This act sobered public opinion. The new president was Wojciechowski, an old member of the Polish Socialist party. General Sikorski became premier. Financial Collapse and Reforms.—Poland’s position in the early part of 1923 was still very unsettled. The Polish mark was affected by the collapse of the German currency, falling in sympathy with it. Relations with Russia remained unsatisfactory, being especially troubled by the Soviet’s persecution of Catholic priests, A Government formed in the spring by Witos, on the basis of an alliance between the Peasant Party and the National Democrats, had to struggle against the resolute opposition of the Left and the National Minorities; in spite of an excellent harvest, the Government proved unable to cope with the continued, disastrous fall of the mark; there was serious unrest in the country, culminating in sanguinary riots at Cracow on Nov. 6; and the Government was obliged to resign on Dec. 11. It was followed by a non-party one under Grabski, who, as prime minister and

minister of finance, made financial reform his principal task. The

Security.—Skrzyński,

[LOCARNO PACT

Poland’s foreign minister for the sec-

ond time in Aug. 1924, took an active part in the work of the

Fifth Assembly of the League (Sept. 1924). He spared no effort to co-ordinate opposing views and assist 1n the drafting of the Geneva Protocol as a comprehensive solution of the problem of security. The rejection of the protocol by Britain in 1925 alarmed Polish opinion. So did the German proposals to France

in the spring of 1925, which treated the problems of Germany’s

to western and eastern frontiers separately. Poland saw danger thesis Polish the pacts; herself in a system of distinct regional

being all the time that the question of security in Western Europe

was inseparably connected with that of the stability of frontiers in the East, as both were established by the Treaty of Versailles and any new agreements would have to be in strict accordance with the Peace Treaties and with the existing alliances.

Poland’s relations with Germany were further troubled, firstly by the breakdown of negotiations for a commercial treaty, fol-

lowed by a tariff war, secondly by a failure of the arrangements to receive the German natives of Poland who had not opted for Polish nationality, whom the Polish Government called upon to leave Poland on or before July 31, 1925. The question of Danzig, moreover, was a perennial cause of friction. Its economic importance for Poland, its racial and historical bonds with Germany, were never forgotten by either party. The Locarno pact (g.v.) signed on Dec. 1, 1925 brought forward a fresh solution to the problem of Poland’s security. Poland and Germany signed an arbitration treaty which included in its

political parties now at last agreed to subordinate all other problems to those of financial reconstruction. On Jan. 3, 1924, Grabski’s Government was granted emergency powers for the purpose. existing Fulfilling partly the recommendations of a British financial adviser, preamble the recognition of the inviolability of the Mr. (now Sir Edward) Hilton Young, Grabski strenuously reor- treaties, the recognition of the integrity of each contracting party’s of settlement of ganized the financial system of the country. A bank of Poland rights, and the elimination of war as a means was once more created on a basis of private subscription. The disputes and conflicts. In a separate treaty of guarantee between budget was balanced by draconic reductions in expenditure, the France and Poland, France is referred to as the guarantor of the printing of paper money stopped, the currency became stabilized Polish-German arbitration agreement. France undertook in the at the disastrous rate of exchange which it had reached (1,800,000 case of an unprovoked attack by Germany against Poland to marks to the gold franc), and finally, a new currency unit, the abandon no means of assistance at her disposal and within the słoty, was introduced and declared equal to the gold franc. The limits of the Covenant and of the agreements with Poland. drastic manner in which this financial reform was accomplished, in- Polish opinion was not easily reconciled to the idea of the evitably brought about its revenge. The too high level at which Locarno pact. The arrangements were accepted, but there was the value of the new currency had been fixed, caused a period of some feeling that Poland was being abandoned by France, which heavy economic depression; exports declined rapidly, industrial even brought about a temporary rapprochement with Soviet stagnation ensued, and bankruptcies became numerous. The bal- Russia. Chicherin, the Russian Commissar for Foreign Affairs, ance of the budget proved impossible to maintain, inflation (in the visited Warsaw Sept. 26-30, 1925, but the visit did not result in somewhat masked form of the printing of small currency notes) any concrete revision of the policy of either country. Soon aftercrept into the system once more, and finally the zfa¢y calamitously wards the breakdown of his financial policy caused the resignation fell to about half its value. The consolidation of the Polish debt to of Grabski. On Nov. 20, Count Skrzynski formed a new coalition cabinet. America (Nov. 14, 1924) and to Great Britain (Dec. 10, 1924) produced a favourable impression; but both an Italian and an The treasury was almost empty, the shortage of private capital American loan which the administration managed to obtain, were was very great, unemployment was rife, and the złoty continued unsatisfactory both in amount and in rate of interest; and the to fall. The year 1926 opened amid violent controversy. The trading away of one asset of the State after another—such as the Socialists proposed economies on the army budget, but would not tobacco monopoly and the monopoly of matches—disquieted opin- hear of a reduction in the number of railway employees, asked for ion at home. It was not till the force of events had corrected the a rise in salaries in the lower branches, and demanded a large errors of Grabski, that his achievements could be turned to profit- programme of public works to relieve unemployment. The Right, able account by his successors, and the great work of financial on the contrary, desired a reduction of civilian expenditure, while maintaining the army at full strength. Another stormstabilization completed, Religious Matters—Among the agreements concluded by centre of embittered dispute was the question of re-instating MarGrabski with foreign powers, one of the most important was the shal Pitsudski in the position of commander-in-chief of the army. Concordat reached with the Holy See on Feb. ro, 1925. The He had resigned the office of chief of staff during the GovernCatholic Church was granted absolute freedom of execution of ment of the Nationalist-Peasant coalition, and from his retireher authority and jurisdiction in Poland; the assistance and sup- ment near Warsaw uttered from time to time devastating critiport of the State being assured her in this respect. The State’s cisms on the administration of the army. In foreign affairs, the Skrzyfiski administration was under interests in connection with nominations for the higher ecclesiastical posts are adequately protected. In religious education, the the shadow of a growing feeling of international insecurity for competencies of Church and State are exactly defined. The di- Poland, A large German espionage organization was discovered vision of Poland into ecclesiastical provinces is carried out in such in Poland. When, a month after the ratification of the Locarno a way that no portion of Polish territory remains subject to the Treaty, the League of Nations met to put it in operation, and jurisdiction of a bishop residing outside the borders of the State. proceeded to elect Germany a permanent member of the Council, An autocephalous Orthodox church also established in Poland re- the Polish delegates claimed a permanent seat for Poland as well. ceived the blessing of the Synod and of the Oecumenical Patriarch- Tt was not till after a good deal of dramatic friction in the League ate in Constantinople on Nov. 11, 1924. By an analogous meas- that a solution was found—Germany getting a permanent, and ure, the Protestant Church in Poland was likewise placed beyond Poland, after her, a so-called “half-permanent” seat in the Counreach of political influences from abroad. cil. Apart from securing for Poland this important place in the

POLAND

PEESUDSKI’S COUP D'ÉTAT] League, the Skrzyński Government

endeavoured

to strengthen

Poland’s international position by regional understanding with her

neighbours: the alliance with Rumania was renewed; an exchange of visits took place between Skrzyński and Dr. Beneš, and a number of conventions, including an important political treaty, was concluded with Czechoslovakia; finally, as a result of Skrzynski’s visit to Vienna, 2 new arbitration treaty was signed with Austria,

MARSHAL PIESUDSKI’S COUP D’ETAT Meanwhile internal dissensions intensified while the conclusion of a new Russo-German treaty in Berlin (March 1926) increased the general nervousness. Pitsudski, in his retreat, was looked up to by large masses of the people as the only man who could secure a better future for the country. His adherents and

opponents formed two opposing camps in the Army. In parliament, the Right, since the days of his provisional presidency, had used every legislative device to limit his power and influence. Now, in the dispute over his commandership, the Right desired to frame the Army Organization bill in such a way as to bring the army under the direct control of parliament, while Pitsudski in-

sisted on complete independence of the commander-in-chief, even in peace time, from the minister of war. Matters came to a crisis, when, owing to the dissensions over

the budget, the Socialist ministers left the cabinet, and Count Skrzyński himself resigned in consequence. After a prolonged

period of negotiations Witos succeeded in forming a ministry. Rumours were current that he meant to rely exclusively upon the support of the Right, and to settle the question of the commandership in the sense demanded by the Nationalists. Thereupon, on May 12, Pitsudski, whose following was growing from day to day, suddenly entered Warsaw at the head of troops. The Government opposed his demands and proclaimed him a rebel. The concentration of Government troops in Warsaw, however, was hampered by a strong strike movement in the country, chiefly among the railwaymen; and after two days of heavy fighting in the streets of Warsaw, Pitsudski was master of the capital. The Government resigned, and the president of the Republic abdicated. Rataj, the marshal of the Seym, became acting head of the State, in accordance with the terms of the Constitution. A provisional cabinet under Professor Bartel was appointed, pending the election of a new president. By May 17, the country was quiet, and when the two Chambers met for the presidential election, there resulted an overwhelming majority in favour of Piłsudski. He, however, refused the ofñce in favour of his nominee, Professor Ignacy Moscicki, a scientist of high repute not formerly engaged in politics, who was duly elected. Piłsudski himself became minister of war, and a few months later, officially assumed premiership in the cabinet. Piłsudski met with little opposition when he proceeded to reform the constitution in the sense of limiting the powers of parliament, and strengthening the executive. In doing this, he stopped short, however, of the more thorough-going dictatorship established in Italy at the same time by Mussolini. Many points in State organization which it had proved impossible to get settled by parliament, were now settled by decree. Many personal changes were made in the higher posts both of the civil administration and of the army: they were not always improvements as far as professional efficiency was concerned, but they invariably

strengthened the Government’s grip of the country. The freedom of political discussion in the press was curtailed by two severe decrees, which called forth much protest. On the whole, however, the home policy of the new Government was liberal and demo-

cratic enough to cause no discontent among the masses. Inflation, which had begun to reappear, was stamped out; the budget was strictly balanced, and reserves created. The urgent need for an increase in the salaries of the State servants was satisfied only gradually and by very economic instalments. This policy of circumspection, coupled with a fairly good harvest in 1926 and the favourable effect of the English coal strike of that year on Polish coal export, produced good results: the rate of exchange

of the zioty ceased to waver, and remained de facto stabilized at

about 43-60 to the £, or 8-90 to the $. The Government, at an

153

early stage after the coup d’état, engaged the services of the American currency expert Professor Kemmerer, and the principal recommendations of his mission concerning reforms in financial administration were carried into effect by presidential decree. An American loan of $70,000,000 was obtained by Poland in autumn, 1927, and was used principally for the final stabilization of the currency system. The appointment of an American adviser as a member of the board of directors of the Bank of Poland established a useful permanent connection with American capital. In spite of frequent provocation, peace with Russia was steadily maintained; even after the murder of the Soviet envoy in Warsaw by a Russian emigrant student, a rupture was avoided, and negotiations towards the conclusion of a commercial treaty were begun. Similarly, everything was done to produce better relations with Germany, although incidents which might have caused quarrels were frequent. With Germany also, negotiations for a commercial treaty were opened in 1927. A year and a half after Marshal Pitsudski’s coup d'état, a new parliamentary election became due in Poland. He had left the outward structure of the parliamentary system intact, and had not been prevailed upon to use his power for a restriction of the franchise to the more educated elements of the community, as advocated by some. The practical impotence, however, to which his rule reduced the sometime all-powerful parliamentary parties, had a profound effect on them. The largest groups began to disintegrate, and when the elections approached, as many as 35 different factions appeared in the field with lists of candidates of their own. This “pulverization of the party system,” as it was called, was the result of splits in the larger groups on the one issue that remained dominant under the circumstances, viz., the question: for Pitsudski or against him. In the midst of this re-shuffling of all former groupings, the Government created a non-party bloc of its supporters of various shades of opinion. From the elections held on March 4 and 11, 1928, only the Socialists emerged with a substantial increase in the number of their seats (by about onethird); the other parties which had once been strong factors—the Peasant and the Nationalist Party—dwindled down to insignificant handfuls of deputies; the national minorities, largely placated by Pilsudski’s liberal policy, did not form a solid anti-Government bloc, as they had done in 1922, and therefore achieved no marked success, even in the eastern borderlands; the Jews, in particular, torn by dissensions between the Zionist intelligentsia and the Orthodox masses, lost heavily; and in the midst of all these considerably diminished factions, the Government bloc entered parliament as the strongest of all groups, with 128 out of 446 members in the lower, and 53 out of 110 in the upper chamber. Constitution.—Under the constitution of March 17, 1921, amended in some of its articles on Aug. 2, 1926, Poland is a Republic. The legislative power is vested in a diet (Seym) and a senate, which are summoned, adjourned and dissolved, but not without their own consent, by the president. The diet is composed of paid members elected for five years, upon a system of proportional representation. Suffrage is universal, all who enjoy full civic rights and who are over 21 being qualified to vote; soldiers on active service are excluded. Citizens over 25 are eligible for election to the diet; members of the civil service cannot be elected for the district in which they hold office. The minimum age for voting in senatorial elections is 30, whilst no one under 40 is eligible for election. Bills go to the senate after being passed by the diet and if no objection is raised within 30 days the bill becomes law. Taxes and customs duties can be established only by law and a supreme board of control superintends the management of State finance. The executive power is exercised by the president and a council of ministers who are responsible for his official actions. He is elected for seven years by the National Assembly, that is, the diet and senate acting together. Laws are to be signed by him and by the president of the council and the minister concerned.

For purposes of administration Poland is divided into 16 palat-

inates, which again are subdivided into districts, and urban and rural communes. The palatine or wojewoda (q.v.) represents the executive Government in the palatinate, the starosta in the dis-

154

POLAR

BEAR—POLE

trict. Local legislation is to be exercised by dietines (“‘seymiki’’) in the palatinates, and by district councils in the districts. Economic autonomy is established by means of chambers of agriculture, commerce, industry, etc.; judicial control over the whole administration is vested in a supreme administrative tribunal. Poland was reconstructed out of provinces of three empires in which widely different systems of law were operative. A codify-

ing commission began to work out a body of uniform codes of law for the whole republic; in the meantime, Russian, German and Austrian codes remained in force in the different parts of the country. Gradually, many domains of legal relations were covered by parliamentary legislation, and, since 1926, by presidential decrees. A supreme court of justice in Warsaw was established at an early date, but it was only in 1928 that the country found itself in possession of a unified judicial organization and a uniform code of judicial procedure. Judges are nominated by the president, and irremovable except by judicial decision. Justices of the peace are to be locally elected by the people. Over property in land, forests and mineral wealth, however, a certain amount of State control is extended by special provisions of the constitution. State protection is given to labour, and insurance against unemployment, illness and accident is guaranteed. The exercise of religion is free, as far as it is in accordance with the law.

The Roman

Catholic religion, being the predominant religious denomination of the country, is placed by the constitution in a privileged position.

story

down

to 1572);

Henri

Grappin:

Histoire de Pologne des

origines a 1922 (1922); Fr. Tommasini, La risurrezione della Polonia

(1925, by the first Italian Minister in Warsaw after x918); Walther Recke, Die polnische Frage als Problem der europäischen Politik (1927, by a Danzig official, from the German point of view) ; Casimir

Smogorzewski, La Pologne restaurée (1927); St. Filasiewicz and K.

Lutostaríski, Recueil des actes diplomatiques, traités et documents concernant la Pologne (2 vols., I. Neufchatel, 1918; II. Paris, 1920),

13. Books on Polish history in English.

of Polish History

Roman

Dyboski, Outlines

(1925, bibl.): Charles Sarolea, Letters on Polish

Affairs (Edinburgh,

1922); Alexander

Skrzynski,

Poland

and Peace

(1923) ; Roman Dyboski, Poland Old and New (1926). 14. Encyclopaedic accounts of contemporary Poland, The Polish Handbook (1925); Almanach Polonais (1926); Das heutige Polen

(text in German, French and English, Vienna, 1927).—For current

information,

the monthly, Poland

(published at 953 Third Avenue,

New York, U.S.A.). (R. Dy.) Music.—The music of Poland has one outstanding figure in that of Chopin, to whose uniquely distinguished and, in their way, unapproachable creations it is quite unnecessary to refer in detail: but otherwise its achievements in music, save in the production of great executants and interpreters, have not been very remarkable. So much is made plain by the comparative unfamiliarity in West-

ern Europe of even the names of most of Poland’s other leading composers. Among these may be named Moniuszko (1820-1872), Zelenski (1837—1921), Moszkowski (1846-1909), all chiefly opera-

tic writers. In addition, and among more recent composers, may be mentioned Paderewski (b. 1860), the genuine value of whose compositions have been to some extent overshadowed by his BrsriocraPuy.—1. Political History. The epoch-making book of achievements as a pianist; Rézycki (b. 1884), who has produced Michat Bobrzynski, Dsieje Polski w zarysie (2 vols., 1877; 4th edition, operas of note, and Karol Szymanowski (b. 1882), Poland’s most Warsaw, 1927) gave expression to the views of the so-called “Cracow important composer of the present day, who has written works School” whose leading idea was that inward political decay was the in all the leading forms (operas, symphonies, concertos, pianoprincipal cause of the fall of Poland. These views have since been forte pieces, choral works, songs, etc.), all distinguished by a counterbalanced by those of the “Warsaw” and the “Lwów” (Lemberg) school, which placed emphasis ca outside aggression. An up-to- strong individuality, highly “advanced” tendencies, and commanddate presentment of Polish history is given in a history of Poland ing technical powers. Of the eminent executants and virtuosi which forms part of a Polish Encyclopaedia published by the Polish whom Poland has produced—-Wieniawski, Paderewski, Godowsky, ae at Cracow, Historja polityczna Polski (vol. I., 1920; vol. IL., Rosenthal, and so on—the list is almost endless. 1923). 2. Constitutional History. Stanistaw Kutrzeba, Historja ustroju Polski w zarysie vol. I., Poland (sth ed., 1920), vol. IL., Lithuania oe 1920), vols. III—IV., post-partition history, 2nd ed. (1920, wow). 3. Economic History. Jan Rutkowski, Zarys gospodarczych dziejów Polski (Posen, 1923). , 4. History of manners. Władysław Tozińśki, Zycłe polskie w dawnych wiekack (Lwów, 1907, 6th ed., 1922). 5. History of education. Antoni Karbowiak, Dzieje wychowania i szkół w Polsce w wiekach średnich (vols. I—II., St. Petersburg, 18981904, vol. III, Lwów, 1923), for the middle ages; for the modern period, see the chapters on Poland in the general history of education by Stanisław Kot, Historja wychowania (Warsaw 1924 bibl.). 6. History of Polish law. Przemysław Dombkowski, Prawo prywatne polskie (2 vols., Lwów rgro-x1); Julian Makarewicz, Polskie prawo karne (Lwów 1919).

7. Military history. Tadeusz Korzon, Dzieje wojew i wojskowości w Polsce (3 vols., Cracow r9r2). 8. Sources. Collections of sources published by the Polish Academy at Cracow: Monumenta Poloniae historica (1864-93, 6 vols.); Scriptores rerum Polonicarum (1872 ff., 23 vols., in progress) ; Monumenta medii aevi (1874 ff., 19 vols., in progr.); Acta historica (1878 ff., 14 vols., in progr.) ; Corpus iuris polonici (1906 ff., 4 vols., in progr.) ; Monumenta Poloniae Vaticana (1913 ff., 6 vols., in progr.); Monumenta Poloniae palaeographica (1902—10); Żródła do dziejów Polski porozbiorowej (1907 ff., 17 vols. in progr.). At Lwów there were published Akta grodzkie i ziemskie (1868-1914, 23 vols.); in Warsaw: Zrddta dziejowe (1876-97, 24 vols.). 9. Bibliography. Ludwik Finkel, Bibljografja historji polskiej (Cracow, I8gI-1g10, 3 vols.; supplt., 1914). 10. Periodicals, Kwartalnik historyczny (Lwów, since 1887); Przeglad historyczny (Warsaw, since 1905); Reformacja w Polsce (Cracow, since 1921) devoted to studies in the history of the Reformation period. tr. History of Poland since rp9rg. Anonymous (M. Bobrzynski): Wskrzeszenie Państwa polskiego (2 vols., Cracow, 1920); Stanistaw Kutrzeba, Polska odrodzona (Cracow, 1922); Roman Dmowski, Poliiyka polska i odbudowanie Panstwa (Warsaw, 1925); Marjan Seyda, Polska na preetomie dziejéw (Posen, 1927); K. W. Kumaniecki, Odbusinh pan stwowości polskiej, najwatniejsze dokumenty (Cracow, 1924). 12. Books on Polish history in German, French and I talian: R. Roepell, Geschichte Polens (vol. i., 1840), continued by J. Caro (vals. ï.=iv., 1—2, 1863-88) and E. Zivier (vol. V., IOIS, carries the

POLAR

BEAR

(Thalassarctus maritimus), the white bear

of the Arctic, with a circumpolar distribution. Except, perhaps, for the grizzly (g.v.), the polar bear is the largest member of the family (Ursidae) sometimes exceeding oft. in length. It feeds largely upon seals and fish. It swims and dives excellently and can gallop at a fair pace, notwithstanding its clumsy appearance. The soles of the feet are beset with bristles to facilitate walking on ice. The female brings forth her young in a cavern in the snow during the winter. (See BEAR, CARNIVORA.)

POLAR BODY: see Cyrorocy. POLARITY or POLARIZATION, the property of having two parts at which certain qualities are the opposite to one another, as in a magnet the ends of which have opposite magnetic characters or, more generally, of having an axis with reference to which certain physical properties are determined. The act of producing polarity is termed polarization. For electrolytic polarization see BATTERY and ErecrroLysIs, and for optical see LICHT.

POLAR

REGIONS:

see Arctic Recrons and ANTARCTIC

REGIONS. POLDER, the Dutch name for a piece of artificially-drained low-lying land reclaimed from the sea or other water and protected by high embankments (see HoLLanp). POLE (ramy). The family of the Poles, earls and dukes of Suffolk, which, but for Richard ITI.’s defeat at Bosworth, might have given the next king to England, had its origin in a house of merchants at Kingston-upon-Hull. The Poles were among the first English peers whose fortunes had been founded upon riches gained

in trade. William atte Pole (d. c. 1329), a merchant of Ravens-

rode, settled in Hull. His sons, Sir Richard and Sir William atte Pole, were both famous for their wealth. Sir Richard (d. 1345), the king’s butler in 1327, removed to London, and is styled a London citizen in his will. The male line of this, the elder branch of the Poles, failed with a grandson, John Pole, whose daughter was Joan, Lady of Cobham, the Kentish heiress, whose fourth husband was Sir John Oldcastle the Lollard. Sir William atte Pole (d. 1366), the second son of William, joined his brother in advancing large sums to the government

POLE while keeping safely apart from politics.

The first mayor of

Hull, he sat for Hull in five parliaments, and was advanced to

be knight banneret and a baron of the exchequer.

He was

counted “second to no merchant in England,” but after his time his descendants left the counting-house, his four sons all serving

in the French wars. The eldest son, MICHAEL Pots, rst earl of Suffolk, who had fought under the Black Prince and John of

Gaunt, became

(1383) chancellor of England.

In 1385 he was

created earl of Suffolk, a grant from the Crown giving him the castle and honour of Eye with other East Anglian lands formerly

held by the Ufford earls. In 1386 the opposition, led by Gloucester, the king’s uncle, pulled him down. He was dismissed from his chancellorship, impeached, and convicted.

Richard was forced

to send his minister into ward at Windsor until the parliament was dissolved, when Suffolk once more appeared as the leader of the king’s party. But the opposition was insistent, and Suffolk fled over sea to Calais. He died an exile in Paris in 1389. The exile’s son Michael, 2nd earl, was restored in 1397, died of dysentery at Harfleur, and his son Michael was killed at Agincourt. Michael was succeeded as 4th earl by his brother William.

(See SUFFOLK, WILLIAM DE LA Poret, DUKE OF.)

John Pole (1442-1491), the only son of the 4th earl, should have succeeded to the dukedom, his father having died unattainted. But the honours were apparently regarded as forfeited, and the dukedom was formally restored to the boy in 1455, the earldom of Pembroke being allowed to lapse. He married

King Edward IV.’s sister Elizabeth. The marriage confirmed him a partisan of the White Rose. Before he was of age he was steward of England

at his brother-in-law’s

crowning,

Queen Elizabeth’s crowning he bore her sceptre.

and at

Having held

many offices under Edward IV. he was ready to bear a sceptre at Richard’s coronation, and, after Bosworth, to swear fealty to the Tudor dynasty and to bear another sceptre for another Queen Elizabeth. He died in 1491, having safely kept his lands, his dukedom, and his head through perilous years. (See SUFFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF and RICHARD DE LA POLE.) Another family of the name of Pole, having no kinship with the house of Suffolk, owed their advancement and their fall to a match with a princess of the royal house. Sir Richard Pole, a Buckinghamshire knight, was the son of Geoffrey Pole, a squire whose wife, Edith St. John, was sister of the half-blood to the mother of Henry VII. About 1490 or 1491 he married the Lady Margaret, daughter of George, duke of Clarence. He died in 1505, and in 1513 King Henry VIII. created the widow countess of Salisbury, as some amends for the judicial murder of her brother, the Earl of Warwick. Four years later, the barony of Montague was revived for her eldest son Henry. Until the king’s marriage with Anne Boleyn, the countess of Salisbury was governess of her godchild, the Lady Mary. When her son, the famous Cardinal Pole, published his Pro ecclesiasticae unitatis defensione the whole family fell under the displeasure of the king, who resolved to make an end of them. The Lord Montague was the first victim, beheaded in 1539 on a charge of treasonable conversations, on evidence of his brother, Sir Geoffrey Pole. In 1541 the aged countess, attainted with her son Montague, was also executed. Sir Geoffrey Pole fled the country, and joined the cardinal in exile. He returned with him at Mary’s accession, both dying in 1558. His sons Arthur and Edmund, taken in 1562 as plotters against Queen Elizabeth, were committed to the Tower of London, where they died after eight years of imprisonment. See T. Rymer’s Foedera; C. Frost, History of Hull (1827); Chronicon de Melsa (Rolls Series); G. E. C., Complete Peerage; Testamenta Eboracensia (Surtees Soc.) ; Hon. and Rev. H. A. Napier, Swincombe and Ewelme (1858) ; Dict. Nat. Biog. s.v. “Pole.”

POLE, REGINALD

(1500-1558), English cardinal and

archbishop of Canterbury, born at Stourton Castle, Staffordshire, was the third son of Sir Richard Pole and Margaret, countess of Salisbury, niece of Edward IV. Intended for the Church, he was sent for five years to the grammar school founded by Colet at

Sheen. Here he had Linacre and William Latimer as teachers. In

his thirteenth year he went to Magdalen College, Oxford, and two years after took his degree in arts. In 1517 Henry VIII. appointed

155

his young kinsman to a prebend in Salisbury, and soon afterwards to the deaneries of Wimborne and Exeter. He was a friend of Sir Thomas More, who says that Pole was as learned as he was noble and as virtuous as he was learned. In 1519, at the king’s expense, he went to Padua, the Athens of Europe, according to Erasmus; and there, where Colet and Cuthbert Tunstall had also been educated, he came into contact with the choicest minds of the later Italian Renaissance, so forming his friendships. In 1525 he went to Rome for the Jubilee, and two years after returned to England and was initiated by Thomas Cromwell into the mysteries of statesmanship, that master telling him that the main point consisted in discovering and following the will of princes, who are not bound by the ordinary code of honour. When the divorce question arose, Pole seems at first to have been in its favour. He probably took the same view that Wolsey had, viz., that the dispensation of Julius II. was insufficient, as of two existing impediments only one had been dispensed. When, however, the king raised the theological argument which ended in disaster, Pole could not accept it; and, after the failure of Campeggio’s mission, when the king asked him for his opinion, he excused himself on the score of inexperience, but went by Henry’s order to Paris (1530) to obtain the judgment of the Sorbonne, insisting on the presence of a colleague to do the necessary business. On his return to England he spoke strongly against the project to the king, who sought to propitiate him by the offer of the sees of York or Winchester, which were kept vacant for ten months for his acceptance. There was a stormy interview at York Place; but eventually Henry told him to put into writing his reasons against the divorce. This was done, and, recognizing the difficulties of the situation, the king gave him leave to travel abroad, and allowed him still to retain his revenues as dean of Exeter. In 1535, which saw by the deaths of Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More a change in Henry’s policy, Pole received orders to send a formal opinion on the royal supremacy, and the king promised to find him suitable employment in England, even if the opinion were an adverse one. The parting of the ways had been reached. Pole’s reply, which took a year to write, and was afterwards published with additions under the title Pro ecclesiasticae unitatis defensione, was sent to England (May 25, 1536), meant for the king’s eye alone. It contained a severe attack upon the royal policy, and a warning of temporal punishment at the hands of the emperor and the king of France if Henry did not repent of his cruelties and return to the Church. Pole was again summoned to return to England to explain himself, but declined until he could do so with honour and safety; but he was on the point of going at all risks, when he heard from his mother and brother that the whole family would suffer if he remained obstinate. Paul III., who had prepared a bull of excommunication and deposition against Henry, summoned Pole to Rome in October, and two months after created him cardinal. In January 1537 he received a sharp letter of rebuke from the king’s council, together with the suggestion that the differences might be discussed with royal deputies either in France or Flanders, provided that Pole would attend without being commissioned by any one. He replied that he was willing and had the pope’s leave to meet any deputies anywhere. Paul III. in the early spring of that year named him legate a latere to Charles V. and Francis I., to secure their assistance in enforcing the bull by helping a projected rising in England against Henry’s tyranny. The mission failed, owing to the mutual jealousy of the sovereigns. Francis feared to allow his presence in France, and Pole passed over to Flanders, and awaited in vain royal deputies. In August 1537 the cardinal returned to Rome. There he was appointed to the commission established by Paul III. for considering the reforms necessary for the church and Roman curia. The report Consilium delectorium cardinalium is, in its plain-spoken directness, one of the most noteworthy documents of the history of the period. Towards the end of 1539, after Henry had destroyed the shrine of St. Thomas Becket, another attempt was made to launch the bull of deposition, and Pole again was sent to urge Charles V. to assist. Once more his efforts were in vain, and he retired to his friend Sadoleto at Carpentras. As Pole had escaped Henry’s power the royal ven-

POLE

156

geance fell on his mother, who was executed on May 27, 154. On Aug. 21, 1541, the cardinal was appointed legate at Viterbo, and for a few years passed a happy and congenial life amid the friends that gathered round him. Here he came into close relations with Vittoria Colonna, Contarini, Sadoleto, Bembo, Morone, Marco Antonio, Flaminio, and other scholars and leaders of thought; and many of the questions raised by the Reformation in Germany were eagerly discussed in the circle of Viterbo. The burning question of the day, justification by faith, was a special subject of discussion. Pole’s own attitude to the question of justification by faith is given by Vittoria Colonna, to whom he said that she ought to set herself to believe as though she must be saved by faith alone and to act as though she must be saved by works alone. In the excited temper of the times any defender of justification by faith was looked upon by the old school as heretical; and Pole, with the circle at Viterbo, was denounced to the Inquisition. Though the process went on from the pontificate of Paul III. to that of Paul IV., nothing was done against the cardinal until the time of the latter pope.’ While at Viterbo his rule was firm but mild; and he regained many heretics, such as his friend Flaminio, by patience and kindliness, to a reconsideration of their opinions. During this time also he was still engaged in furthering a proposed armed expedition to Scotland to aid the papal party, and in 1545 he was again asking

help from Charles V. all his attention. In presiding legates and concilio; and now in

But 1542 had 1545,

the Council of Trent (g.v.) required he had been appointed one of the written in preparation his work De after a brief visit to Rome, he went

secretly, on account of fear of assassination by Henry’s agents, to Trent, where he arrived on May 4, 1545. At the council he advocated that dogmatic decrees should go together with those on reform as affording the only stable foundation. His views on the subject of original sin, akin as it is to that of justification, were accepted and embodied in the decree. He was present when the latter subject was introduced, and he entreated the fathers to study the subject well before committing themselves to a decision. On June 28, 1546, he left Trent on account of ill-health and went to Padua. While he was there frequent communications passed between him and the council and the draft of the decree on justification was sent to him. His suggestions and amendments were accepted, and the decree embodies the doctrines that Pole had always held of justification by a living faith which showed itself in good works. This effectually disproves the story that he left the council so as to avoid taking part in an adverse decree. On the death of Henry (Jan. 28, 1547), Pole was excepted from the general pardon. At the conclave of 1549 Pole received twothirds of the votes, but by a delay, he lost the election and Julius TIT. succeeded. He then retired to Magazzano on the Lake of Garda and occupied himself in editing his book Pro unitate ecclesiae, with an intended dedication to Edward VI. On the accession of Mary he was appointed legate to the new queen, and began his negotiations. But he was still under attainder; and the temper of England was not yet ripe for the presence of a cardinal. The project of the queen’s marriage was also an obstacle. A marriage between her and Pole, who was then only a deacon, was proposed by some, but this was opposed by the emperor. The marriage with Philip, of which Pole did not approve, having taken place (July 25, 1554), and Rome yielding on the practical difficulties of the lay holders of Church lands, Pole was allowed to return to England as cardinal. On his landing he was informed that the attainder had been reversed; and he was received with joy by Mary and Philip. He proceeded to parliament and there absolved the kingdom and accepted in the pope’s name the demands respecting ecclesiastical property. He rectified the canonical position of those who had been ordained or conse-

crated since the breach with Rome.

Those ordained in schism,

indeed, but according to the old Catholic rite, were absolved from their irregularity, and, receiving penance, were reinstated; those

1Within the institution of the Inquisition his name continued to be regarded as that of a heretic and misleader of others, as is proved by the mass of evidence accumulated against him in the Compendium inquisitorum (v. archivio della società dì storia patria, Rome, 1880).

ordained under the new rite were simply regarded as laymen and dismissed without penance or absolution. Pole was not responsible for the cruel persecution by which the reign was dis-

figured. On Nov. 4, 1555, Pole opened, in the chapel royal at Westminster, a legatine synod, consisting of the united convocations of the two provinces, for the purpose of laying the foundations of wise and solid reforms. In the Reformatio Angliae which he brought out in 1556, based on his Legatine Constitutions of 1555, he ordered that every cathedral church should have

its seminary. He also ordered that the Catechism of Caranza, who, like him, was to suffer from the Inquisition for this very

book, should be translated into English for the use of the laity. On Cranmer’s deprivation, Pole became archbishop of Canterbury; and, having been ordained priest two days before, he was consecrated on March 22, 1556, the day after Cranmer suffered at Oxford. But the clouds began to gather round him. His

personal enemy Caraffa had become pope under the name of Paul IV. and was biding his time. When Rome quarrelled with Spain, and France, on behalf of the pope, took up arms, England could no longer observe neutrality. Paul IV. deprived Pole of his power both as legate a latere and legatus natus as archbishop of Canterbury (June 14, 1557); he also reconstituted the process of the Inquisition against the cardinal, and summoned him to

Rome to answer to the crime of heresies imputed to him. Mary, who had been warned by her ambassador to the pope that prison awaited Pole, prevented the breve ordering the cardinal to pro-

ceed to Rome

from being delivered, and so Pole remained in

England. Broken down as much by the blow as by ill-health the cardinal died at Lambeth on Nov.

17, 1558, twelve hours after

Mary’s death and under the unmerited disgrace of the papacy in defence of which he had spent his life. He was buried at Canterbury near the site of the shrine of St. Thomas Becket. The

chief

sources

for Pole’s

biography

are

his life written

in

Italian by his secretary Beccatelli, which was translated into Latin by Andrew Dudith as Vita Poli cardinalis (Venice, 1563), and his letters (Epistolae Reginaldi Poli) edited by Girolamo Quirini and published in 5 volumes (Brescia, 1744-57), a new edition of which is in preparation at Rome with additions from the Vatican Archives. See also the State Papers (foreign and domestic) of Henry VIII, Edward VI. and Mary; the Spanish and Venetian State Papers;

vol. i. of A. Theiner’s Acia genuina S.S. Oecumenici Caecilii tridentini (1874); tbe Compendio dei processi del santo ufizio di Roma da Paolo III. a Paolo IV. (Società romana di storia patria, Archivio, ii. 261 seq.) ; T. Phillipp’s History of the Life of R. Pole (Oxford, 176467); Athanasius Zimmermann, S.J., Kardinal Pole sein Leben und seine Schrijten (Regensburg, 1893); Martin Hailie, Life of Reginald Pole (1910) ; and F. G. Lee, Reginald Pole.

POLE, RICHARD

DE LA

(d. 1525), pretender to the

English crown, was the fifth son of John de la Pole (1442-1491), 2nd duke of Suffolk, and Elizabeth, second daughter of Richard, duke of York and sister of Edward IV. His eldest brother John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln (c. 1464-1487), is said to have been named heir to the throne by his uncle Richard III., who gave him a pension and the reversion of the estates of Lady Margaret Beaufort. On the accession of Henry VII., however, Lincoln took the oath of allegiance, but in 1487 he joined the rebellion of

Lambert Simnel, and was killed at the battle of Stoke. The second brother Edmund (c. 1472~1513) succeeded his father while still in his minority. His estates suffered under the attainder of his brother, and he was compelled to pay large sums to Henry VII.

for the recovery of part of the forfeited lands, and also to exchange his title of duke for that of earl. For his negotiations with the German King Maximilian in Tirol, Henry seized his brother William de la Pole, with four other Yorkist noblemen. Two of them, Sir James Tyrell and Sir John Wyndham, were executed, William de la Pole was imprisoned and Suffolk outlawed. Then in July 1502 Henry concluded a treaty with Maximilian by

which the king bound himself not to countenance English rebels. Presently Suffolk fell into the hands of Philip, king of Castile, who imprisoned him at Namur, and in 1506 surrendered him to Henry VII. on condition that his life was spared. He remained a prisoner until 1513, when he was beheaded at the time his brother

Richard took up arms with the French king.

Richard de la Pole joined Edmund abroad in 1504, and remained

at Aix as surety for his elder brother’s

debts.

The creditors

POLE—POLESIE threatened to surrender him to Henry VII., but, more fortunate than his brother, he found a refuge with King Ladislas VI. of Hungary. He was excepted from the general pardon proclaimed at the accession of Henry VIII., and when Louis XII., went to war with England in 1512 he recognized Pole’s pretensions to the

English crown, and gave him: a command in the French army.

In 1513, after the execution of Edmund, he assumed the title of earl of Suffolk. In 1514 he was given 12,000 German mercenaries

ostensibly for the defence of Brittany, but really for an invasion of England. These he led to St. Malo, but the conclusion of peace

with England prevented their embarkation. Pole was required to leave France, and he established himself at Metz, in Lorraine, and built a palace at La Haute Pierre, near St. Simphorien. had numerous interviews with Francis I., and in 1523 he permitted, in concert with John Stewart, duke of Albany, Scottish regent, to arrange an invasion of England, which never carried out. He was with Francis I. at Pavia and killed on the field on Feb. 24, 1525, so ending the male line.

He was the was was

E57

ly climbs trees. Its food consists of small mammals and any birds it can catch, especially poultry. It also eats snakes, lizards, frogs, fish and eggs. It is extremely blood-thirsty and hunts at

night. From three to eight young are produced in April or May, after a two months’ gestation. It is very tenacious of life and has a fetid smell. It is replaced in north Asia by an allied species, P. eversmanni, and on the central plateau of the United States by a third form, P. nigripes, with creamy-yellow fur, brown legs and black feet and tail. A smaller species, P. sarmaticus, whose fur is white marbled with reddish spots above, extends from east Poland to Afghanistan. All these animals resemble P. foetidus in Kabits.

POLENTA,

DA, the name of a castle in Romagna, from

which came the noble and ancient Italian family of Da Polenta. The founder of the house is said to have been Guido, surnamed

PAntico or the Elder, who wielded great authority in Ravenna in the 13th century. His grandson Guido Novello upheld the power of the house and was also capitano del popolo at Bologna; See Letters and Papers Illustrative of the Reigns of Richard III. he was overthrown in 1322 and died in 1323. In 1321 he gave hosand Henry VII., edited by J. Gairdner (2 vols., “Rolls Series,’ 24, pitality to the poet Dante, who immortalized the tragic history 1861); Calendar of Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry VIII.; and Sir William Dugdale, The Baronage of of Guido’s daughter Francesca, unhappily married to Malatesta, lord of Rimini, in an episode of the Inferno. Guido’s kinsman England (London, 1675). POLE, WILLIAM (1814-1900), English engineer, was born Ostasio I. was lord of Cervia and Ravenna from 1322 to 1329, at Birmingham on April 22, 1814. He spent some years as a pro- and, after being recognized as a vassal of the Holy See, again fessor of engineering in Bombay, returning to England in 1848, became independent and went over to the house of Este, whom and in 1859 was appointed to the chair of civil engineering in he served faithfully in their struggles with the Church until his University college, London. He was secretary to the Royal Com- death in 1346. His son Bernardino, who succeeded him as lord mission on Railways (1865-67); the duke of Richmond’s Com- of Ravenna in 1346, was deposed in 1347 by his brothers, Panmission on London Water (1867-69), also taking part in the pro- dolfo and Lamberto II., but was reinstated a few months later ceedings for establishing a constant supply; the Royal Com- and ruled until his death in 1359; he was famous for his profmission’ on the Disposal of London Sewage (1882—84); and the ligacy and cruelty. His son Guido III. ruled more mildly and departmental committee on the science museums at South Ken- died in 1390. Then followed Ostasio II. (d. 1396), Obizzo sington in 1885. In 187: he was appointed consulting engineer (d. 1431), Pietro (d. 1404), Aldobrandino (d. 1406), all sons of in London to the Japanese Government. He was elected F.R.S. Guido III. Ostasio IIT. (or V.), son of Obizzo, was at first in 186r for some investigations into colour-blindness. Music allied with the Venetians; later he went over to the Milanese, was also one of his chief interests, and in 1867 he took his doctor’s and, although he again joined the Venetians, the latter never degree, acting for many years as examiner for musical degrees at forgave his intrigue with their enemies, and in 1441 they dethe University of London. In 1879 he published his Philosophy prived him of his dominions. He died in a monastery in 1447. POLESIE (i.e., “along the forest”), the largest and most of Music. He died on Dec. 30, 1900. POLE. For pole-star see Ursa Major; for polar regions Arc- sparsely populated province of Poland. Area, 16,319 sq.m. Pop. TIC and ANTARCTIC; for magnetic poles see MAGNETISM. See (1921) 880,000. The bulk of the inhabitants are Ruthenians—the also BATTERY, CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, GEOMETRY, POLE-VAULTING and so-called Polesians or Pinchuks, forming a special branch of the Ukrainian nationality, and belonging to the Orthodox Eastern SPHERE. POLE AND POLAR, in mathematics. If from a point P Church. The Catholics form only 11-5% of the population, the outside a circle the two tangents to the circle be drawn, the line Jews 11%. Polesie forms an eastward extension of the central Polish plain joining the points of contact is called the polar of the point P, and P is called the pole of the secant line. If P is on the circle, the sloping up to the northern highlands and the plateau of Podolia. two tangents coincide and the polar of P is the single tangent at P. It forms the basin of the Prypet, a tributary of the Dnieper, into which flow numerous slow rivers from the Lithuanian forests of For Q, a point inside the circle, the north, and from the uplands of the south. The falls of the draw two secants to the circle Lower Dnieper hinder the drainage of Polesie, and the deepening through it. The line joining their of the channel of the Dnieper tends to dry up the Pinsk marshes. poles is called the polar of Q. In spring the whole country is flooded and has the appearance of If the polar of P passes through a sea. In reality it consists partly of marshes and lakes, partly Q, the polar of QOpasses through of damp meadows with islands of clay or sand, on which most of P. The same principle applies to the villages are built. In such a dreary plain the main feature any conic. In space there is a is the vegetation, which consists of wide pine forests on the sand corresponding theory of points or on the swamps, with invading firs from the north, of mixed and polar planes as to a sphere or forests and birch groves, and of damp meadows grown with any fixed quadric surface. The grasses, reeds and stunted willows. It is the only remaining home idea is due to Brianchon, who hrst applied it in 1806, but it was developed by Poncelet, and pre- of the beaver in Poland, and the elk is still found there. The sented in final form in 1829. More recently the concept has been inhabitants maintain a precarious existence mainly by fishing extended to other curves-and surfaces, and to other configurations. and hunting. With few horses, there is a special breed of cattle. Polesie originally formed the early Russian principality of POLECAT, the name given to any member of the Musteline genus Putorius (see CARNIVORA). Polecats are confined to the Turov or Pinsk. Conquered by the Lithuanians in 1320, it became, northern hemisphere. The European polecat, P. foetidus, in- after the union with Poland in 1569, the province of Brest habits the whole of the central and northern parts of the conti- Litovsk. The north-west portion formed part of the estates of nent, though now rare in Britain. It is well known in its domesti- the great Polish magnates, the Radziwills and Sapiehas. Wolczyn cated, albino variety as the ferret (g.v.). The wild polecat is dark was the seat of the Czartoryski family. The chief towns are Brest brown above and black below, the face being variegated with Litovsk, pop. (1921) 29,100, the capital; Pinsk, the seat of an white. The fur is long, coarse, and of little commercial value. It ancient Orthodox bishopric; Kobryn, Kamenets Litovsk and Luni1S More powerful than the martin (g.v.) but less active, and rare- nets, a junction of the two railways which traverse the marshes.

POLE

158

STAR—POLICE

POLE STAR or POLARIS, the star nearest the pole in the northern hemisphere. (See Astronomy: The Celestial Sphere.) It is the brightest star in the constellation Ursa Minor (g.v.), hence its Bayer equivalent a, Ursae Minoris. POLE VAULTING, the art of springing over an obstacle with the aid of a pole. Originally a means of passing over obstacles as dikes and brooks, pole vaulting, for height, with the object of clearing a bar supported by two uprights set not less than raft. apart, has become a purely competitive athletic sport. The chief requirements of the athlete are great skill and courage, a high degree of co-ordination, speed and strength, and a good grip. Up to the end of the “eighties” all the world’s record holders in the sport came from the small town of Ulverston, in Lancashire. They gained their records by means of the extraordinary method they had evolved.

It was not really “pole vaulting,” but

rather “pole climbing.” This has now been barred. The pole now employed is of female bamboo, no longer spiked, but has a plugged end which is thrust into a slide-way sunk in the ground a foot in front of a line directly below the cross-bar, and, moreover, a soft sand-pit, top-dressed with sawdust, is provided for the vaulter to land in. The modern pole vaulter approaches the take-off very fast, carrying the pole with his hands about 3ft. apart. As the stride next before the spring is completed he thrusts the point of the pole into the slide-way, and lets the lower hand slip up the pole until it touches the upper hand. He is thus enabled to exert the full pulling power of both arms to raise his body and help the swing-up of his legs. It is noteworthy that this trick, efficiently performed, enabled Gold, former holder of the U.S.A. Western Conference record, to clear 12ft. roin., although the grip of his upper hand upon the pole was no higher than irft. 2in., or Ift. 8in. below the height he actually cleared. Modern vaulters may be divided into two classes: (1) Those who prefer the single action in which the legs swing upwards and to the side in one single bound. This style requires great speed, and, using it, Charles Hoff (Norway) cleared 13ft. r13in. (Fin-

land, Sept. 27, 1925).

(2) Those who prefer the double action.

See H. F. Schulte, Pole Vaulting (1927); F. A. M. Webster, Athletics

of To-Day (1929).

POLICE.

(F. A.M. W.)

The term police designates that executive civil

force of a state to which is entrusted the duty of maintaining public order and of enforcing regulations for the prevention and detection of crime. In a perfect system of civil administration

the function of the police should be to curb the liberty of the ` subject only when it degenerates into licence—and any material variation from the standard is to be deprecated as being arbitrary and tyrannical.

A civil organization, established by authority, for maintaining the essential tranquility of the state and the security of its citizens in their lawful occupations

is of high antiquity and has place

alike in Egyptian, Greek and Roman law. In Rome, however, it was not until the time of Augustus that the police became a special institution in the city. In the hands of his unworthy successors it speedily became a terrible instrument of tyranny, justifying the dictum of Chateaubriand “la police par sa nature est

antipathique a4 toute liberté.”” Upon the fall of Rome all traces of police administration disappeared under barbarian rule, only again to be revived in the Capitularies of Charlemagne which contain a large number of police regulations concerning weights and measures, tolls, markets, the sale of food, grain and cattle, the burial of the dead, and measures to be taken in time of famine and pestilence. A recrudesence of anarchy on the death of the emperor of the

West destroyed all these, but soon after the settlement of the Normans in France, that enterprising race established a highly repressive police system calculated to restore public safety at the expense of public liberty, and this system formed the basis of the police code introduced by William the Conqueror into England. Prior to the Norman conquest and for some time thereafter, the system of “frank pledge” was of general obligation in England. This institution provided that each district tithing should be divided up into associations of ten persons who were jointly answerable for the good behaviour of, or damages done by any one of themselves. It seems probable (so far as London is concerned) that the existing police regulations of the Saxon kings, modified perhaps by an infiltration of Norman ordinances, were continued after the conquest. The Charter of William the Conqueror to the city dated 1078 expressly providing “I acquaint you that I will ye be

In this style the athlete’s feet reach a point above the bar before the pole has arrived at a vertical position. At this stage the vaulter shoots his legs still higher by means of a strong arm-pull on the pole. He next turns his body face downwards by means of kicking one leg forward and the other back, and converts his pulling force into a pushing force. The bar lies in the concavity all law-worthy as ye were in King Edward’s days.” An ordinance of the stomach, so that the feet, on one side, and his head and of the 13th year of Edward I. (set out in the Liber Albus) enacts shoulders on the other side, are below the level of the bar. The that strict watch and ward should be kept in London “by strong athlete finally carries his body clear of the cross-bar by pushing men with good arms” for the maintaining of the King’s peace, In strongly upwards from the upright pole. In this style, Sabin W. 1585 an Act was passed for the better governance of the city Carr, Yale university (U.S.A.) in 1927 established a world’s and borough of Westminster and this statute was re-enacted and record of 14ft., which R. Lee Barnes, U.S.A. (1928), using the extended in 1737, only to be succeeded in 1777 by yet another Act single action, increased to r4ft. r4in. containing wider and stricter provisions. The use of the bamboo pole has added approximately a foot In spite of repressive measures until the end of the 18th century to the records, and modern methods have been responsible for the conditions alike of London and the provinces were deplorable. another r18in. or so. The tremendous importance of speed in the Robbery and violence were rampant everywhere, highwaymen run is shown by the fact that the height obtained by the infested the roads, footpads lurked in the streets, whilst, but too swing-up of the body supported by the hand-grip upon the pole often, both watchmen and innkeepers were accessories to the comis proportional to the square of the velocity when running and, mission of crime. At the commencement of the 19th century it therefore, an addition of speed equivalent to 4 of a second was computed that there was one criminal to every 22 of the less in rooyds. means an addition of over qin. to the height of population. Such was the state of affairs when, in 1829, Sir Robert the swing-up. Thus it is found that a man capable of running Peel laid the foundation of that organization on which is based rooyds. in 12secs. will attain a height of oft. gin. by merit of his the existing metropolitan police system. At first it encountered speed, whereas the man who can cover rooyds. in risecs. should, much opposition and was denounced as an insidious attempt to according to accurate mathematical calculation, attain a height enslave the people by arbitrary and tyrannical methods. This in swing-up of r1ft. 7in., and, allowing for his centre of gravity unfavourable impression, however, soon diminished, especially as being 3ft. above the ground at the moment of making his spring, the conviction of criminals and speedy reduction in the number should be able to clear a cross-bar raised 14ft. 7in. above the of offences evidenced the efficiency of the new force. Subsequent level of the ground, which is approximately equal to the world Acts of parliament extended the system throughout Great Britain. record of Sabin W. Carr (14 feet) if allowance is made for air Statutes passed in 1839 and 1840 permitted the formation of resistance. a paid county police, to be appointed by the justices of the peace N. Dole, U.S.A. (1904), was the first man to beat r2ft., M. S. for the county. Wright, Dartmouth college, U.S.A. (1912), the first to clear 12ft., The Police Act 1856 made the existence of an adequate force while Sabin W. Carr, Yale university, U.S.A. (1927), only has compulsory throughout England and Wales, whilst in Scotland the cleared 14ft., and R. Lee Barnes, U.S.A. (1928) 14ft, 14in. Police Act 1857 and the Burgh Police (Scotland) Act 1892 pro-

POLICE vided and regulated a satisfactory and sufficient police force throughout its counties and burghs. The Criminal Investigation Department, now one of the most active and efficient branches of the police executive came into existence after the establishment of the present system. It is in direct descent from the old “Bow Street runners” who upon special

requisition in the case of serious crime, varied their customary duties at the Bow Street Police Office (as it was then called) by acting as detective officers, either in London or the provinces. The first “detectives” appointed in the new department numbered

only three inspectors and nine sergeants to whom, however, six constables were shortly added as “auxiliaries”; this number was

subsequently enlarged as the manifold advantages of the system became more and more obvious. The system now attracts candidates of superior capacity and education. The latest statistics (Dec. 31, 1927) show the strength of the metropolitan police to be 19,880, including the Criminal Investigation Department and the Thames (river) Police. The establishment of women police in the metropolitan district (not included in this total) comprises 2 inspectors, 5 sergeants and 43 constables; there were also 23,661 special constables attached to the Reserve at the end of 1927. The city of London has its own police establishment (about 1,200) under a commissioner and assistant commissioner; its functions extend over an area of 673 statute acres containing two courts of summary jurisdiction, those of the Guildhall and Mansion House, where the lord mayor and aldermen are the magistrates. The total strength of the regular police force in England and Wales at the date of the latest available report is 57,089, not including 115 attested and 32 non-attested police women. British India is divided into police districts in which the general system of regular police resembles in most respects that of the police of Great Britain. There are, however, certain variations in minor details in the various provinces. The total strength of the police at the last available date

(1924) was 14,083 officers and 182,099 men. All are in uniform, drilled and trained in the use of firearms and may be called upon to perform guasi military duties. Many of the superior and nearly all of the inferior officers and men are Hindus. In Bombay they are chiefly Muslims. The actual organization of the police force is not specifically dealt with by the Indian Penal Code, although it contains many provisions essential to efficiency and confers legal powers on the executive not only to take evidence but also to compel the attendance of witnesses. The system as a whole works satisfactorily, in spite of the fact that throughout India the difficulties of ascertaining the truth, suppressing falsehood and eliciting evidence from reluctant witnesses is very great. In the rural districts, every village headman and watchman as well as the village police officer are required by the code to report to the nearest magistrate or officer in charge at the nearest police station any information respecting offenders. W. W. P.) THE UNITED

STATES

Police organization in the United States had its origin in colonial days. The office of constable, invested with the powers and duties prescribed by the English common law, was established by the inhabitants of townships in the several Colonies. To this day the office of constable remains in rural localities and in many cities. His duties in 1929, however, are largely limited to the service of civil court processes. The first step in evolution from constable to modern police system came in colonial times with the establishment of night watches in the larger cities as a supplementary force and under supervision of constables. In New York the first police arrangements were set up in 1658 by the Dutch colonists, who maintained watchmen under the control of the local burgomaster. When New York passed to English control, a watchmen’s organization under the command of a high constable assisted by subconstables was established. The province of Massachusetts by legislation passed in 1699 provided that, in places where no military watch was in existence, the elected justices of the peace, acting in concert with the select-

169

men of a town, could order the establishment of a suitable watch which would keep the peace from nine o'clock in the evening until sunrise of the next day and designate the places where such watch should be stationed. Provision was also made for a “ward” on Sunday and weekdays. All able-bodied male citizens above the age of 16 years and having certain property qualifications were made liable to keep watch and ward, the watch being night service and the ward day service, upon designation by the local governmental officers. At first no compensation was attached to the office of watch and ward, but later the way was opened for a paid force of regular watchmen. The night watch scheme spread throughout the larger cities of the Atlantic seaboard, and by 1800 had become well established. With the rapid growth in population of cities and mixture of peoples resulting from heavy immigration, the problem of policing became increasingly complex. The night watch was not equal to its responsibilities under such conditions. Loosely organized, untrained, poorly disciplined, without good esprit de corps, the watch was held in low repute by the public. Employment on the watch was determined quite generally on the basis of political partisanship. A day force was created in New York which numbered only 16 regular men in 1844 and 108 special Sunday officers. In addition to these there were employed at that time about 100 mayor’s marshals and 34 constables, two of whom were elected to serve for each of the 17 wards of the city. The night watch consisted of more than 3,100 men. A day watch was created in Philadelphia in 1833 and one for Cincinnati in 1842. The existence of two independently controlled police forces, one for day and the other for night, led inevitably to friction. The New York State legislature enacted, in 1844, a law providing for a consolidated “day and night police.” This action forms the basis of what is known as modern police organization in the United States. Police forces were consolidated and reorganized under a single executive head during the next few years in Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, New Orleans, Baltimore, Newark and Providence. Even after these reorganizations the police were for a time without distinctive uniform and it was not until 1856 that the police forces in New York and Philadelphia adopted a standard uniform. The development of municipal police forces in the United States from this time on was, with a few exceptions, accompanied by a considerable degree of experimentation in respect to the fashioning of administrative control. Police organizations frequently were made the focus of political manoeuvring. Short terms of office for heads of police departments and, in many cases, for the lower offices and even the rank and file were the evil products of this political change. At first the common council of cities shared with mayors in the appointment of the police personnel and direction of their work. Later the mayor came to exercise a larger share of the control. About 1895 the civil service principle was widely adopted as a remedy for merely political changes. On the administrative side, the control of the police organizations in earlier days was generally vested in a board of police commissioners ranging from three to four in number. These boards were usually appointed by the mayor, sometimes subject to the approval of the common council. It was held to be desirable to have bi-partisan control of police affairs in order to guard against domination by one party and the board form offered an opportunity for such a party representation. In a number of instances legislation was passed which took the appointing from the mayor and lodged it with the governor of a State. Generally, however, these moves were held to be in violation of the principle of local home rule. New York, Chicago, Detroit and Cleveland tried and abandoned the State control plan. In 1929, State control over appointment of the police commissioners is found in Boston, Baltimore, St. Louis, Kansas City and St. Joseph, Mo. There is no attempt at inspection of standards of police service by the State nor does the State contribute any moneys to the service. The only benefit expected from State control is that the governor will perhaps appoint administrators free from local political obligations. After 1900 a wide-spread change in the form of municipal

POLICE

160

COURTS—POLICE

government was brought about in cities of the United States. The commission form of government provides a commission of from five to seven men elected to manage municipal affairs, both legislative and executive. Under this arrangement, one of the elected commissioners is designated as director of public safety, having under his immediate charge police and fire administration

and

sometimes

other

more

or less related

functions.

A chief of police serves as executive head of the police force under supervision of the director. Important cities having this form of government are Buffalo, Newark, New Orleans, Omaha, St. Paul and Portland, Ore. Unfortunately it does not guarantee exclusion of politics or permanent tenure. In more recent years an improvement over commission government has come with the adoption of commission-manager charters. Under this scheme the commission serves as a local legislative body and appoints a manager who assumes entire charge of administering municipal departments. The manager in turn appoints a chief of police and all recruits to the police service generally in accordance with civil service regulations. The police have benefited almost without exception by this change. Among the larger cities having the commission-manager plan are included Cleveland, Cincinnati and Dayton in Ohio, Rochester, N.Y., and Norfolk, Va. In all some 300 cities and towns have adopted the city manager plan. In New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, San Francisco and hundreds of other cities, the police are under control of the mayor and his appointees.

Despite all of the change in administrative devices, the plan of internal organization of police departments has remained much the same in all cities. The New York police system has served as the general pattern after which most police forces in the United States have been modelled. A uniformed patrol is distributed over cities on beats or territories as a first line of defence and protection against crime and disorder. The detective

bureau is organized as a separate unit having to do with detection of the more serious crimes and apprehension of offenders. Special units of plain clothes operatives devote their attention chiefly to suppression of gambling, prostitution, illegal sale of narcotics and liquor law violations. Traffic regulation (¢.v.) is a pressing problem in cities of the United States, and requirements in this direction have called for the employment of a large number of men. Policewomen are being employed in increasing numbers to look after the protection of women and children. Most large cities have training schools for instruction of new recruits and in some cases advanced instruction is given to older members of the force. Considerable progress has been made in the keeping of records, installation of systems of communication by signal and in the use of motor equipment in patrol and emergency service. Laboratories for scientific criminal investigation and identification are rapidly coming into vogue. With the passing of political interference definite progress is being made in the direction of professionalizing police service, and a higher type of man is being attracted to the service. State constabularies have been created in Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Texas, West Virginia, Michigan, New Jersey, Colorado, Maryland and Delaware. These organizations recently established were built upon the experiences of municipal forces and so have avoided many difficulties and started on a generally high level of efficiency. Their work lies chiefly in patrol of rural areas and regulation of traffic on important rural highways. There is no Federal palice force designated as such. In the Treasury Department of the Federal Government there are units comprising investigators armed with police powers who look after violations of the prohibition law, smuggling through

customs, illegal narcotic importation and counterfeiting. A corps of investigators is maintained by the Post Office Department

in tracing theft from the mails, illegal use of mails, etc. The Department of Justice maintains a criminal identification section.

The Federal Congress has control over the Washington, D.C. municipal police force.

POWER

Police magistrates are appointed by the Crown. They must have been practising barristers for seven years or stipendiary

magistrates for some place in England or Wales. One police magistrate has the same powers as two justices. The precedent of appointing salaried magistrates was adopted in certain provincial towns under particular acts, and in 1863 the

Stipendiary Magistrates Act enabled towns and boroughs of 25,000 inhabitants and upwards to obtain a stipendiary magistrate. There are at the present time (excluding metropolitan magistrates’ courts) 18 stipendiary magistrates’ courts throughout England and Wales. In the United

States there are

no

so-called

police courts

in the Federal system of courts except in the District of Columbia,

where the President appoints, subject to confirmation by the Senate, two judges of the police court. In the various States, police courts, the presiding official of which is either a judge or

a magistrate, have been created for many cities. They are elected by the voters, and try the violators of municipal ordinances.

POLICE POWER, in American constitutional law, the re-

served or inherent powers of the States to legislate for the health, safety and morals of the community. The requirements of the r4th amendment of the U.S. Constitution that no State shall deprive any person of life, liberty or property without due process of law and the interpretation of that amendment by the Supreme Court to give it a supervisory jurisdiction over all State legislation restricting the exercise of individual rights, brought to the forefront the concept of police power as a basis for sustaining the exercise of novel State legislation. The ultimate test of constitutionality under the due-process clause being the arbitrariness to the judicial mind of the State legislation, the relationship between the legislation and the admitted power of State governments to act for the protection of the community in ways reasonably adapted to secure those ends becomes of acute and decisive importance. Resolving this relationship in terms of traditional concepts of constitutional law, legislation provided that it falls within the police power of the States even though it interferes with property or personal rights does not then run afoul of the due-process clause of the 14th amendment. The ultimate question, of course, remains, namely the extent of the police power viewed in the light of the object sought to be effected by the legislation and the means devised to secure that object. The extent of the police power remains as the least defined of State powers. With a political collectivistic philosophy gradually supplanting the individualistic philosophy of an earlier age, illustrated by the increasing regulatory activities of government, the content of police power becomes an‘ever-broadening one. Supreme Court decisions reflect this change in later cases that overruled earlier decisions declaring unconstitutional State legislation seeking to protect interests not then deemed within the legitimate scope of governmental regulation. The extent of the police power is generally said to embrace the protection of the health, safety and morals of the community. Regulation of the practice of trades directly related to the health of the community, restrictions upon the use of property for sanitation purposes, prohibition of immoral amusements, requiring the installation of equipment designed to protect the safety of employees or the public, the regulation of traffic, the regulation of hours of labour, are all types of governmental activity within the recognized domain of State legislation. The police power, however, extends to purposes not so clearly related to the health, safety or morals of the community. The conservation of natural resources, zoning legislation, the protection of the public against fraud and waste, the enforced destruction of property adapted for illegal uses but capable of permitted uses, are examples of the uncharted scope of the police power. It is commonly said that the police power may not be exercised purely for aesthetic purposes, but as a better understanding of the organization of society

may illustrate an intimate relationship between the promotion of

(R. B. F.) i aesthetical ends and general social welfare, the concept of police

POLICE COURTS, courts of summary jurisdiction held in power may well be enlarged to include purely aesthetic considera-

London and certain large towns in England and Wales by specially

appointed and salaried magistrates.

tions. The Federal Government is said to possess no general police power.

Inasmuch as the Federal Government is one of limited

POLIGNAC—POLISH powers and no general power for the protection of the health, safety and morals of the nation is granted to it under the Constitu-

tion, such a statement is accurate. But the Federal Government in the exercise of its granted powers may and does act for the promotion of ends within the concept of police power, and in this

sense it has full freedom to protect the health, safety and morals of

the community.

There are certain important differences between the exercise The power of eminent domain, constitutionally restricted to employment for of the police power and other inherent State powers.

a “public use,” can only take property by the payment of just compensation. The exercise of the police power may involve an

equal “taking” of property but carries no obligation to compensate

for such a taking. Again under the U.S. Constitution no State may pass legislation impairing the obligation of contracts already

entered into. State action under the police power may, however,

ing with the conimpair the obligation of contracts without conflict as well as property stitutional prohibition, thus “taking” contract

rights without compensation. TIONAL Law.)

(See CONSTITUTION;

CoONSJITU-

of the American See Freund, Police Power (1904); Burdick, Law aoe (1926)

Constitution (1922); Mott, Due Process of Law

e

POLIGNAC, in the Cevennes

è

A.

an ancient French family, which had its seat near Puy-en-Velay

(Haute Loire).

It can be

traced to the oth century, but in r421 the male line became extinct. The heiress married Guillaume, sire de Chalançon (not to be confused with the barons of Chalançon in Vivarais), who assumed the name and arms of Polignac. The first historically important member was Cardinal MELCHIOR DE PoLrrcnac (1661-1742), a younger son of Armand XVI., marquis de Polignac, who became a distinguished diplomatist. In 1695 he was sent as ambassador to Poland, where he brought about the election of the prince of Conti as successor to Jobn Sobieski (1697). In 1712 he was sent as the plenipotentiary of Louis XIV. to the Congress of Utrecht. During the regency he became involved in the Cellamare plot, and was sent to Flanders for three years. From 1725 to 1732 he acted for France at the Vatican. In 1726 he received the archbishopric of Auch, and he died at Paris in 1742. Prince JULES DE PoLrcnac (1780-1847), son of Count Jules (d. 1817), played a conspicuous part in the clerical and ultraroyalist reaction after the Revolution. Under the empire he was

implicated in the conspiracy of Cadoudal and Pichegru (1804), and was imprisoned till 1813. After the restoration of the Bourbons he held various offices, received from the pope his title of “prince” in 1820, and in 1823 was made ambassador to the English court. On Aug. 8, 1829, he was called by Charles X. to the ministry of foreign affairs, and in November became president of the council. His appointment was taken as symbolical of the king’s intention to overthrow the constitution, and, with the other ministers, he was held responsible for the policy which culminated in the issue of the Four Ordinances which were the immediate cause of the revolution of July 1830. On the outbreak of this he fled for his life, but was arrested at Granville and condemned to perpetual imprisonment. The sentence was commuted to one of exile by the amnesty of 1836. During his captivity he wrote Considérations politiques (1832). He spent some years in England, but was permitted to re-enter France on condition that

he did not live in Paris. He died at St. Germain on March 29, 1847,

POLIGNY, a town of eastern France, in the department of Jura, 18 m. N.N.E. of Lons-le-Saunier on the P.L.M. railway. Pop. (1926) 3,404. Under the name of Polemniacum the town seems to have existed at the time of the Roman occupation. It lies in the valley of the Glantine at the base of a hill crowned by the

ruins of the old castle of Grimont, once the repository of the

archives of the county of Burgundy. The church of Montivillard dates from the r2th century and has a fine Romanesque tower.

The church of St. Hippolyte, early 15th century, and a convent-

LANGUAGE

POLISH

LANGUAGE.

161 Together with Polabian—a now

extinct language spoken by the Slavs of the Elbe before they became Germanized——Sorb or Wendish, and Czechoslovak, Polish belongs to the western branch of the Slavonic languages. The nearest relative of Polish is Polabian, with which it forms the Lech group, but in view of the fragmentary character of the remains of that language (a few words and sentences inexactly recorded), it is difficult to state with any detail more than the purely phonological agreements. Those which are shared by the Lech languages and Sorb are: extreme palatalization of consonants before front vowels, the absence of the vowels r and 1,

a particular development of or and ol between consonants, and the tendency to lose the old distinctions of quantity. In all these points there is a contrast with Czechoslovak which to some extent bridges the gap between the western and the southern branches; but the characteristic features of West Slavonic are naturally common to Polish and Czechoslovak. The features which are generally considered as belonging to common West Slavonic are:

the development of 47 and dj to ¢ and dz (Polish and Slovak still have dz, but in Czech the sound has become z); the palatalization of consonants before 7, e, g and z (only partially carried out in Czech, but Slovak agrees more completely with Polish); passage of 1] before back vowels and consonants to a sound like that in English “wall” (preserved also in Slovak dialects and in Old Czech, but the German / prevails in the modern language); loss of zg between vowels, with compensatory development of a long vowel; shortening of long vowels which originally had a falling intonation; and the tendency to throw the stress away from the final syllable. Polish is softer than Czech to the ear, owing to the predilection for palatal and sibilant sounds. The sentence melody, in spite of a regular accent on the penultimate, is in no way disagreeable, and the consonantal groups, which at first seem frightening, are easily pronounced after some practice. The survival of the old nasal vowels imparts to Polish an acoustic effect not unlike that of French. The Slavonic inflexional type has been well preserved: there are seven cases in both singular and plural (the dual has almost disappeared). The verb is of the normal type, except that it has lost the imperfect and aorist. A peculiar feature in the syntax of Polish is the impersonal passive construction, where the logical

subject is put in the accusative after the neuter of the participle. The vocabulary of Polish has been considerably influenced by earlier Czech and also by German and Latin, but in the main the Slavonic character has not been seriously affected, and the number of words from other languages is negligible. Polish dialects are usually divided into two broad divisions. The group to which the literary language belongs has preserved the old pronunciation of sz and 2 (as in English “ship” and “azure” respectively), while the other has altered them to $ and z. Scholars are disagreed on the question of KaSube, which is spoken by fewer than a quarter of a million people in the neighbourhood of Danzig. In its modern form, it is very close to Polish, especially from the point of view of vocabulary, but it has several features which make it possible that at an earlier stage it was more closely connected with Polabian. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The historical grammar of Benni, Łoś Nitsch, Rozwadowski and Ułaszyn (Gramatyka jezyka polskiego—Cracow, 1923) is authoritative. It is slightly smaller than and covers a somewhat different feld from the Polish Language and its History (in Polish), which is part III. of the Encyklopedja Polska (1915). Another excellent historical grammar is that by J. Łoś, Gramatyka polska. The grammar by St. Szober (Lw6w—Warszawa, 1923) is the best descriptive work. The Grammaire de la langue polonaise, by A. Meillet and Mme. de Willman-Grabowska (Paris, 1921) is the best sketch in a western language. The most complete dictionary is that of S. B. Linde (Stounik jezyka polskiego, Lwow, 1854-60), in 6 volumes. The Handwörterbuch der deutschen und polnischen Sprache in 4 vols., by Konarsky, Inlender, Goldschneider and Zipper (1st edition, 1904), is good but bulky. The Dictionnaire complet francais-polonais et polonais-frangais by W. Janusz (Lwow, 1908) is excellent, and better than A. B. ChodZko’s Doktadny slownik polsko-angielski (Berlin,

1912). A Polish Phonetic Reader by Arend-Choinski (London, 1924) church serving as corn market are of some interest. Poligny has a supplements the larger works of Benni and other Polish eae

national school of dairy instruction.

(N. B.

J.

162 POLISH LITERATURE.

POLISH

LITERATURE

The Polish language belongs to

the western branch of the Slavonic tongues, and exhibits the closest affinities with Czech, Slovak and Lusatian Wendish. The earliest connected specimens of Polish prose are: the fragmentary Holy Cross Sermons, and the complete Psalter of St. Florian, both preserved in 14th century mss. which are probably copies of earlier originals. The beginnings of poetry are represented by the Bogurodzica song, a hymn in honour of the Virgin, often sung by the Poles of the middle ages when going into battle. Legend ascribed the origin of the song to St. Adalbert (Wojciech), in the roth century. The oldest ms. of the song is dated 1408. The 1isth century brings a fuller development of religious poetry. A number of devotional songs are preserved, being mostly translations of Latin or Czech hymns. Many of these songs are the work of Ladislas of Gielniów, a Bernardine preacher, and of other friars of the same order. The secular lyrics of the r5th century which have come down to us are not numerous but varied in contents, some being didactic in vein, such as the verses on table manners, some amatory and some

in the nature of historical ballads on important public events; the victory over the German Knights in 1410, the defeat of Poles and Hungarians at the hand of the Turks in the battle of Varna (1444), Tartar invasions and other disasters, a riot of the Cracow citizens who kill an unpopular nobleman (1461)—such are the facts commemorated. The coming controversies of the Reformation period cast their shadows before them in a vivid poem by Andrew Galka, on the doctrines of Wycliffe, which had become known through the Hussite movement in Bohemia. Prose works in the rsth century are scarce: Polish 15th century prose is largely devotional: its longest specimen is a translation of the Bzble made for Sophia, queen of Poland, about 1455; sev-

eral books of the Old Testament only are preserved.

Latin Literature in Mediaeval Poland.—If literature in

Alexander the Great and the stories collected in cycles like the Gesta Romanorum or the Seven Sages. Among the translators who provided this sort of literary food, Bernard (Biernat) of Lublin (c. 1515), takes a prominent place, chiefly by his rhymed paraphrase of Aesop’s Fables and the romantic Life of Aesop. Next to him stands Jan of Koszyczki, who paraphrased the ancient jests associated with the names of King Solomon and his legendary opponent, the shrewd peasant Marculf: these humours of Marchott, as he is called in Polish, are a fine specimen of racy popular speech. So are some religious songs, especially Christmas carols, interlarded, in the fashion of the time, with jocular details from contemporary life. With such literature, still essentially mediaeval in character, we may rank even the elaborate and widely-read Chronicle of the World (1551), written in Polish by

Martin Bielski, as well as his Satires and his allegorical play

Justinus and Constantia, the first morality in Polish. Humanism and the Reformation.—A period justly called “the golden age” of Polish literature was prepared by the spread of Renaissance humanist culture, and of the doctrines of the Reformation. Poland, like other countries, began to produce Latin prose and poetry during the 16th century. The witty and licentious, satirical and erotic epigrams of Bishop Andrew Krzycki (d. 1537), the serious political and moral epistles of the diplomat Joannes Dantiscus (a burgher of Danzig, d. 1548), the tender elegies of Clement Janicki (Janicius), dead in his prime in 1543, rank with the best Latin poetry of modern Europe. The mediaeval historical work of Długosz is surpassed in grace by the humanist Latin of Martin Kromer’s History of Poland (1555). Poland’s greatest political thinker of the period, Andrew Frycz-Modrzewski, used Latin for his work De republica emendanda (1551), a systematic treatise on social philosophy; and as late as the 17th century a Polish jesuit, Mathew Sarbiewski (d. 1640), became known throughout Europe as “the Christian Horace” for the beauty of his Latin religious lyrics. On their travels abroad, Polish students not only perfected their Latin and Greek, but witnessed the new growth of vernacular literatures based on classical models, and this awakened the ambition to rival foreign achievements by Polish verse and prose. Such ambitions were stimulated by a Protestantism which favoured the vernacular. After the council of Trent and the coming of the Jesuits (1564-1565), Protestantism began to decay: but what it had done for national literature remained effective. The Catholic Polish bible of Bishop J. Wujek (1599) has greatly influenced language and style.

Polish is scanty, Latin literature in Poland throughout the middle ages is fairly abundant, especially in the field of history. The first chronicle of Poland written in Latin is an early 12th century work by an anonymous foreign monk, whom tradition called “Gallus.” It tells the story of Poland from the beginnings of the Polish State in the middle of the roth century till 1113. A hundred years later, a continuation of this chronicle was undertaken by Vincent Kadłubek, bishop of Cracow. In the 13th and r4th centuries, the number of chronicles increases: we may single out that of Jan of Czarnków (d. 1389), The Poets of the Golden Age.—The year 1543 is a landmark, which gives a vivid account of conditions in later 14th century Poland. A great centre of intellectual and literary activities was being the date of the appearance of the first important work of created by the foundation of the University of Cracow. The uni- Nicholas Rej of Nagtowice (1505—1569). After a somewhat idle versity was originally erected as a legal college in 1364; in 1400 youth he wrote a long series of poetical works. He turned Calvinist it was reorganised on a broader basis, mainly through the efforts in middle age, and produced a translation of the Psalms. His of Queen Jadwiga, who, by her marriage with Duke Jagielo, principal and most mature works—the Zmage of an Honest Man's united Poland and Lithuania in a powerful monarchy. It is in Life, in verse, and the more elaborate prose Life of an Honest the shadow of Cracow university that Poland’s most distinguished Man—present his moral ideals, being those of a good-natured mediaeval historian, Johannes Długosz or Longinus (1415-1480) country gentleman. The latter work is also known as The Mirror. undertakes his great Latin work on the history of the country. Rej’s popularity was outshone by the fame of Jan KochanowThrough diligent study of the royal and ecclesiastical archives, ski (1530-1584). He resided in Paris, where he met Ronsard. which were open to him, and of the works of native and foreign Returning to Poland, he became in 1564 secretary to the king. historians, Długosz produced in his Historia Poloniae the first His less important early works, among which a paraphrase of monumental work of Polish historiography which unites critical Vida’s poem on the Game of Chess may be singled out, were folscholarship with literary excellence. History is supplemented by lowed by epigrams called Trifes (“Fraszki”) and by numerous the lives of saints, ever popular in the middle ages. Songs varied in tone, idea and form like the Odes of his master Latin poetry in mediaeval Poland, as in other European coun- Horace, yet instinct with modern sentiment. In a longer poem, tries, is represented by church hymns as well as by the Latin The Satyr, he deals with the serious political problems of Poland carollings of the clerici vagantes, As the Renaissance approaches, in his time, in St. John’s Eve (Sobótka) he delights us with the ground for the elegant Latin versification of the humanist pictures of nature and country life. Kochanowski’s only dramatic scholars is prepared. work, The Dismissal of the Grecian Envoys (Odprawa postow

Early Polish Printed Books.—A printing-press was in exist-

ence at Cracow about 1474. But it was only about 1500 that a permanent printing office was established at Cracow by Jan Haller, followed by a number of others. Among the books they printed, Latin are still in the majority; but Polish books begin to appear in Increasing numbers. A large part of them is devotional. Fiction, as elsewhere, is represented by “chap-books” on such subjects of international popularity as the fabulous histories of

greckich} (Eng. tr. Noyes and Merrill, Berkeley, Cal., 1918), is a verse tragedy in the Greek style, with choruses, on a subject from Jizad iii. Another work of Kochanowski’s, his verse paraphrase of the Psalms, remains one of the masterpieces of religious lyrical poetry in Polish, only rivalled among his works by the Treny or Laments for his little daughter Ursula who died in childhood (Eng. tr. Prall, Berkeley, Cal., 1920). Another great

lyrist of the period, Nicholas Sep Szarzyúski (1550-1581) died

POLISH LITERATURE in his prime.

He introduced the sonnet into Polish poetry.

The

163

(c. 1640-1702) who wrote several comedies based on Italian and

Spanish originals, and finally, John Chrysostom Pasek (1630— 1701), the king of Polish diarists, whose adventures in war and peace are embellished beyond the truth, yet simply and spontaneously narrated. The Saxon Period.—The era of baroque is prolonged into the poet and dramatist, acquired fame as a Polish writer by his Pasperiod of political decay and intellectual stagnation covered scenes sad vivid contain but Virgil, and Theocritus torals which imitate reigns of Augustus II. and III. (1697-1763). Specimens of the by from Polish life. with ously literature worth recording, like the unpretending verse of Poland’s Prose Classics of the 16th Century.—Simultane politand first poetess Elizabeth Druzbacka (1695-1765), are isolated in religious The excellence. into rises prose poetry, Polish OrzechowStanisłas this age. But even this darkest period of Polish civilisation is prelate ical controversies of the hot-blooded as Stanislas Konarski’s (1700-1773) ski (1515-1566) were conducted in a style of admirable vigour. illuminated by such efforts conducted by the Piarist fathers schools Górnicki secondary the of Lucas reform by Cortegiano, J s Castiglione’ The version of reform of Polish literary style thorough a for proposals al his and Ecclesiastic (1566) is a fine monument of Polish prose style. emendandis vitiis, (De eloquentiae 1744). (1536Skarga Peter Jesuit the in master its found eloquence cause in The Era of Enlightenment: Poets.—The reign of the last 1612), indefatigable as the protagonist of the Catholic Augustus Poniatowski (1764-1795), is Poland. His Lives of Saints have remained a religious classic; but king of Poland, Stanislas of a period of literary development. Both the general atmosphere of crown the are 1597 in published Sermons ry his Parliamenta conditions of Poland—the his life’s work. It is here that Skarga, exposing the faults of the the age of rationalism, and the peculiar h—gave the literaPolish national character and foretelling the downfall of the imminent danger of ruin to the commonwealt character: satire, as didactic predominantly a period the prophets. of ture Hebrew the with comparison State, challenges elsewhere in Europe, is prominent. Thus, the representative writer FROM BAROQUE TO CLASSICISM of the age, Ignatius Krasicki (1735-1801) was, above all, a satirpoet. Krasicki is a typical eighteenth century prelate of the ical of period a although The Age of Baroque.—The 17th century, not uncommon in western Europe at the time. After his early sort wars and invasions, is rich in literary production. Italian models, poem, Myszeis, on the battle of the rats and mice heroic-comic 17th to give manner, seicento the with all the extravagance of he soon rose to a higher level in his epic satire cats, the against expense the century Polish literature, variety and colour, but at life, Monochomachia. This was followed by a biomonastic on the by censored works, Important elevation. moral and of unity graphical novel, The Adventures of Doswiadczynski, which conclergy, have come to light only in recent times. on the Polish gentry. A second novel, Poets of the 17th Century.—The military events of the tains a good deal of satire didactic in design: it draws Krasicki’s picture more is Podstoli, Pan into (translated épic asso’s T of influence the period, together with the ideal country gentleman. The high-water mark of ‘KraPolish, as was also Ariosto’s, by Peter Kochanowski) inspired a of work is reached in his Satires, the supreme achievement of sicki’s number of epic poems dealing with contemporary history. The classicism in Poland. They are followed by Epistles, century 18th com(1625-96) Potocki Wacław principal poet of the period, work is his Fables, which has made him the popular most his but posed an enormous epic on the Chocim campaign of 1621 against His voluminous prose works include the Poland. of Fontaine La the Turks and followed it up with The New Mercury and The first Polish survey of universal literature. He Sobieski. John of Turks’ Defeat at Chocim on the victories The poet next to him in the favour of his contemporaries, Stanalso left behind in ms. two large collections of minor verse, Tke Trembecki (1735~1812) is Krasicki’s equal in clearness and islas the of aspects all of illustrative both and Garden and Moralia, s of language, but otherwise inferior to him. Tremexpressivenes body huge a of Polish life of his time. Potocki is also the author his Fables and Epistles by perfection of phrase and in excels becki of religious verse, and of several verse romances both original and The fiery satirist Kajetan Wegierski (17 55-84), verse. of melody (1600— Twardowski Samuel by preceded translated. Potocki was after a youth of dissipation, was perhaps prime his in died who stormy 60) author of three interminable rhymed chronicles on the than others by the French writers of the influenced deeply more events of the time. A fantastic verse story of his, The Beautetranslate. The later poets of the period to loved he whom age, Montemayor. from paraphrase a as ous Pasqualina, is noteworthy rationalism to romantic sentiment and from transition the mark A bitter satirist appeared in Christopher Opalinski (1610-56). Karpifski (1741-1825), and Francis Kniaznin His brother Lucas (1612-62) is also a satirist, and a better poet, include Francis as well as a political writer of merit. He wrote also an Art of (1750-1807). Prose Writers of the 18th Century.—Bishop Adam NarusPoetry. Vespasian Kochowski (1633-1700), in Importance next (1733-96), owes his chief title to fame to his ponderous zewicz fought Having refinement. artistic in him to Potocki, surpasses of mediaeval Poland, the first scholarly treatment of the history volumin them of in many Polish wars, he told the story of some Stanistaw Staszyc (1755-1826), a liberal-minded priest, subject. inous epics. But neither these nor his long religious poems are career with powerful pamphlets advocating political his began Kochanowski’s on modelled Psalmody, as important as his Polish and continued it after the partitions of Poland reform, social and verse Psalter, but written in poetic prose and embodying much of research and industry. His felof the poet’s own inner life. A poet of peculiar charm and grace as a scientist and an organiser (1750~1812), surpassed him Kotlataj Hugo Father low-reformer, transwho (1613-93), Morsztyn meets us in the person of Andrew work, as a philosopher. later his in and journalist political a as lated Tasso’s Aminta, Corneille’s Cid, and Marini’s Psyche, and The Theatre.—It was for school theatres that Francis Bohomoinfludeep the of instance first the lyrics, own his in represents, based on French models, chiefly ences of Italian and French literature. Simon Zimorowicz (1608- lec wrote his comedies (1755-60), Rzewuski (1706-1779), Wacław time, same the At 29), a burgher of Lwów, who died young, shines like a meteor Molière. French classical style the in history Polish from tragedies wrote Roxolyrics love his of sentiment poetic by the freshness and it was only with the But residence. his at theatre private the for lanki, His elder brother Joseph Bartholomew (1597-1677), gives in Warsaw in 1765 that us delightful glimpses both of town and country life, and inter- foundation of the first public theatre a permanent footing; and the esting accounts of quiet as well as of stormy times, in his Z dylls. Polish dramatic literature got Bogusławski, himself a popular Wojciech theatre, that of manager 18th Century Prose-——Among prose writers, we may single out: tne Dominican preacher Fabian Birkowski (1 566-1636), a playwright, is the real creator of Poland’s theatrical tradition. It his baroque successor to Skarga; the learned and voluminous Latin was for this theatre that Francis Zobtocki (1754-1821) wrote French obscure on subject-matter for drawing comedies, and Polish writer Simon Starowolski (1585-1656), whose Latin satirical works include the first history of Polish literature; Count Andrew sources, but presenting Polish figures and Polish ways. The

the long descriptive and satirical poems, in Polish and Latin, by townsman Sebastian Klonowicz (1545-1602) are interesting as (or illustrations of the social life of Poland. Simon Szymonowicz Latin elegant an and Lwów, of burgher a Simonides, 1554-1642),

Maximilian Fredro (1620-1697), whose Proverbs are a collection

of maxims and observations comparable with the works of the French moralists of the time; Stanislas Heraclius Lubomirski

Dandy’s Courtship (Fircyk w zalotach) is his masterpiece. The famous comedy The Return of the Deputy (Powrót Posła) by Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz (1757-1841), was written to help the

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LITERATURE

cause of political reform. Niemcewicz himself, aide-de-camp to Kościuszko, made his mark in many fields of literature. His Songs of Polish History (Spiewy historyczne) are still read and recited in schools. His Fables and Satires, comedies and tragedies belong to the 18th century, but by his translations of English ballads and romantic poems, as well as by his novels he heralds the coming of a new age. His Memoirs are a valuable chronicle of the transition period. THE NINETEENTH

CENTURY

The Romantic Era.—Soon after the disappearance of the old Polish State the vitality of the nation was manifested not only by military effort during the Napoleonic Wars, but also by intellectual and literary achievements. The University of Vilna (which had received its charter in 1579) entered on a flourishing period soon after 1800: the great poet Mickiewicz came from the ranks of its pupils. In the South-Eastern part of the borderlands, the Lyceum or public school of Krzemieniec in Volhynia displayed similar activities. In Warsaw itself a “Society of Friends of Learning” came into being in 1800, and a Dictionary of the Polish Language by Samuel Linde was among its many undertakings. Warsaw remained the capital of literary taste, and in the first decades of the century, the classicism of the former age still reigned there. It is represented by the poet and

critic Kajetan Kozmian the author of Polish Georgics (Ziemianstwo), and bishop J. P. Woronicz (1757-1829) who, in his didactic poem Sybilla, drew comforting conclusions from a philosophical survey of Poland’s history. The strong didacticism of the classicist era also inspires the literary activities of Mme. Clementina Hofman (née Tanska), who produced the standard works of Polish educational fiction. At ’the very end of its period classicism still gives Poland one great writer in Count Alexander Fredro (1793-1876) the author of the best Polish comedies. A soldier under Napoleon, he saw the

masterpieces of French classical comedy in Paris and followed Molière. His first piece, Pan Geldhkab, a satire on nouveaux riches, was produced in 1821. He wrote about twenty other comedies, and then abandoned production for fifteen years. At his death, however, he left behind a number of further plays in ms. His best-known works are: Zemsta (The revenge), which satirizes the mania for litigation among country gentlemen; Śluby panieńskie (Girlish Vows); Damy i huzary (Ladies and Hussars, Eng. trs. Noyes, 1925); Mazi zona (Husband and Wife); Dozywocte (The Life Interest) and Pan Jowialski (The old Story Teller). The comedies, mostly in verse, portray the Polish country gentry to which Fredro belonged. Midway between the classicists and the romantics stands the curious figure of Casimir Brodzinski (1791-1835). His verse idyl Wzestaw, in which the manners of the peasants of the district of Cracow are portrayed, is classical in style and diction, but romantic in sentiment. His essay on Classicism and Roman-

ticism and on The Spirit of Polish Poetry (1818) proclaimed the importance of national tradition and popular elements for liter-

ature, and in his lecture On Polish Nationality (1831) he partly anticipated the notion, fully developed by the great romantics, of Poland as a “chosen people.” The boldness of new ideas was combined with supreme power of poetic achievement in Adam Mickiewicz (g.v.) (1798-1855), who soon became the acknowledged leader of the Romantic Movement. Juljusz Słowacki (1809-49) is in many ways more represent-

ative of the essence of Romanticism than Mickiewicz. His genius develops under the influence of Byron. Podróz na Wschód (A Voyage to the East), is a poem in the manner of Childe Harold.

His verse tragedies, Balladyna and Lilla-Weneda are placed in a legendary, pre-historic Poland: Mazepa takes place at the court of a Polish noble of the 12th century. The Polish world of the 12th and 18th centuries is the scene of two further plays of Juljusz

Stowacki, Horsztytiski and Ztota Czaszka (The Golden Skull),

both unfortunately incomplete.

The influence

of Victor Hugo

gives a sensational tinge to Beatrix Cenci. From Shakespeare and Victor Hugo, Stowacki passes under the influence of Calderon: he deals in Calderonian style with events from 18th century

Polish history in his dramas Ksiadz Marek (Father Mark) and

Sen Srebrny Salomei (The Silver Dream of Salomea).

The last

years of Stowacki’s short life were spent among the Polish emi-

grants in Paris. The political and religious doctrines, the illusions, disillusionments and quarrels which agitated that little world, are

mirrored in Slowacki’s satirical epic Bentowski, which occupies, in his creed, spired Duch

career, the place of Don Juan in Byron’s. The mystical which possessed the poet entirely in his latest years, inone of his most sublime works, the unfinished epic Krdl

(The Spirit King). The poet’s complete spiritual philosophy of the mystical period is embodied in a prose treatise Genesis z Ducha (The Genesis from the Spirit), which curiously anticipates, in some of its ideas, the theory of evolution.

Zygmunt Krasinski (1812—1859)!, long considered the equal of Mickiewicz and Stowacki, rose to an extraordinarily high level in his precocious early work. He became absorbed in meditations on the social revolution which after 1830 seemed to be threatening all Europe, and he put his vision of it, at the age of 2I, into a drama Nieboska Komedja (The Un-Divine Comedy) (Eng. tr. Kennedy and Uminska, 1923). Krasinski’s second work, the drama Jridion (Eng. tr. Noyes, 1927), placed in Rome in the second century of our era, has for its subject an attempted revolt of the Greeks against the Roman Empire. The attitude of the Christians, who refuse to fight, is the cause of failure. Krasinski links np his subject with philosophical speculations on the historical mystery of Poland’s sufferings. His creed in this matter is embodied in a visionary poem called Przedświt (The Dawn), in which he extols the passive heroism. of his oppressed country as the earnest of victory in the ideal’sphere. These ideas are repeated in several didactic lyrics called Psalmy Przyszłości (Psalms of the Future). Krasiriski’s waning talent spent itself on political, religious and philosophical pamphlets and lyrics. All the three great Romantic poets had come, for a time under the spell of an emigrant thinker named Andrzej Towianski (17991878) who had woven religious and patriotic mysticism together into the creed of a new sect, making of Poland a “messiah among nations.” Krasifiski’s thought, in particular, also shows close relation to that of August Cieszkowski (1814-1894), the most distinguished and independent of a group of Polish philosophers who were disciples of Hegel. (“Our Father,” selections in English by Dr. W. Rose, 1924.) It is only in the 2oth century that another Polish metaphysician of the Romantic period, Joseph Maria Hoene-Wronski (17781853), who wrote mainly in French, has won an increasing amount of international recognition. Among the lesser romantic poets, the so called “Ukrainian school” forms a group apart. Its earliest representative, Antoni Malczewski (1793-1826), preceded even Mickiewicz as the author of a Byronic tale in verse. His romance Marja (Mary, 1825), breathes all the charm of chivalrous tradition and melancholy steppe landscape associated with Poland’s south-eastern border. Byronic colours are laid on more thickly by Seweryn, Goszczynski (1803-1876) in his verse tale Zamek Kaniowski (Kaniow Castle), full of the horrors of age-old class war between the

Stowacki’s fantastic verse play Kordjan combines reminiscences Ukrainian peasantry and the Polish borderland gentry. In his of a Warsaw conspiracy against the tsar in 1829 with the influence later work, he became a forerunner of realism. of Manfred and of Hamlet. Mickiewicz’s Ksiegi Pielgrzymstwa The third most prolific singer of Ukrainian traditions and land(Books of Pilgrimage), written in biblical prose for the comfort scape in Polish poetry, Joseph Bohdan Zaleski (1802—1886), is of Polish exiles in France, are paralleled by Stowacki’s Anhelii, a lyrical poet of great melody, but fatal facility. In his most amin which the Polish emigrant community in western Europe is bitious effort, the philosophical poem The Spirit of the Steppe represented under the allegorical disguise of a body of exiles in (Duch od stepu) he endeavours to reconcile the Romantic dreams Siberia. It is, however, under the direct influence of Shakespeare See the study by Monica M. Gardner: The Anonymous Poet of that Slowacki attained his supreme poetic triumphs in drama. Poland (Cambridge, 1919).

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LITERATURE

who has described the history and folk-lore of the Balkans. Of historians and essayists, Joachim Lelewel (1786-1861), laid the foundation of modern Polish historical research. Among his plains in the centre of the country with their purely Polish peasan- followers Karol Szajnocha (1818-68), is conspicuous for the try, are the subject of the lyric poetry of Teofil Lenartowicz literary qualities of his work, as shown chiefly in his monographs (1822-1893): although he spent his later years as a sculptor in of Jadwiga and Jagiełło and of Two Years of Polish History (viz., 1647-48). History and literary criticism are combined in the Florence, he never ceased to sing of Polish country life. His counterpart is Wincenty Pol (1807-1872), who sings with brilliant writings of Maurycy Mochnacki, who became the hisequal persistence of the old-world life of the country gentry. A torian of the insurrection of 1830. In Juljan Klaczko, Poland soldier in the insurrection of 1831, he commemorates this in a produced a distinguished student of Dante and of renaissance series of stirring and popular songs (Pieśni Janusza): a Professor art: but his writings were mainly in French. The Period of Realism.—The disaster of the second Polish of geography in his later days, he produces a picturesque descriptive account of Poland in verse (Pieśn o Ziemi Naszej) and several insurrection, in 1863, produced violent reaction against all Romantic dreams both in politics and in literature. The mood of realism geographical works in very vivid prose. What the Ukrainian group did for.the South-East, and Lenarto- was fostered from abroad by the progress of natural science, of economic development, and of political liberalism. in Western wicz and Pol for central Poland, was done for the North-Eastern Europe. The few eminent poets of this age of prose make themdomains of the historical Poland (Lithuania and White Ruthenia) by Ludwik Władysław Kondratowicz, known as Syrokomla (1823— selves the heralds of its ideals. The representative lyrist of the 1862). A son of the minor gentry of those lands, he is at his positivist generation, Adam Asnyk (1830—97) passed in his own best when drawing on his memories of his own youthful sur- career from the romantic exaltation of national martyrdom to the roundings (as in the two charming longer poems on the Early advocacy of positive social work for popular education: he even became the founder of the “People’s School Society” (1891). His Life and School-Days of Jan Deboróg). The romantic inspiration still produced a poet of action in mature lyrics are lyrics of thought rather than feeling, and even Mieczystaw Romanowski (1834-1863), who died a hero’s death in in his nature poetry reflection predominates over enthusiasm. the ranks of the insurgents of 1863. He had shown promise in a Feeling abounds in the verses of his most distinguished contemlonger narrative poem of Polish town life in past ages (Dziewcze porary in Polish poetry, the poetess Marie Konopnicka (1840+ Sacza), but this bears clear traces of the influence of Mickiewicz’ 1916): both in her lyrics and her short stories, the dominant, note epic masterpiece. It is echoes also of the song of the great Roman- is one of profound pity for the poor. In her long epic, Mr. Balcer tic masters that we catch everywhere in the poetry of Kornel in Brazil (Pan Balcer w Brazylji), she tells the story of the Ujejski (1823—1897). He had made his mark, at the age of sufferings of Polish peasant emigrants in the Brazilian forest. The outstanding journalist of this era, Aleksander Świętochowtwenty with the verse tale Marathon. Not long afterwards, the national disaster of the Galician peasant riots of 1846 inspired ski (born in 1849) wages fearless war, both in his articles and him to write a series df elegies entitled The Lamentations of Jere- his dramas, for the liberal ideals. His younger contemporary, miah (Skargi Jeremiego), one of which, the Choral Song became Andrew Niemojewski (1864—1921) was chiefly preoccupied, in his the anthem of national woe. Before fading away utterly, the journalism and his poetry, with the new industrial problem. In the sphere of the novel, Madame Eliza Orzeszko (1842Romantic flame once more leaps up wildly in the enigmatic and convulsive, but intensely inspired poetry of Cyprian Norwid (d. r910), represents peasants, Jews, great industrialists, but she 1885). The poet lived in disregard and neglect, and only came always returns to the life of the Polish country gentry in her Bolesław Prus (real name: Aleksander into his own long after his death through the efforts of a 20th native Lithuania. century critic (Z. Przesmycki). Głowacki, 1847—1912) is, like Dickens, whom he resembles by Of novelists of the romantic period, the very spirit of romance his humour, a child of the city: the scene of his best social novels, seems incarnate in Michael Czajkowski, who began active life as like The Puppet (Lalka) and The Emancipated Woman (Emana Polish insurgent in 1831 and ended it as a Mussulman and a cypantki), is laid in his beloved Warsaw. But he also gave a pasha in the Turkish Army. His novels, chiefly from the history touching account of the peasant’s attachment to the soil in The of Poland’s 18th century wars, are marred by wild improbabilities Outpost (Placowka). In his largest work, The Pharaoh, he perand artificial glitter. Higher literary value distinguishes the works formed a tour de force by expressing modern ideas in a story of of Count Henry Rzewuski (1791-1866), especially his stories ancient Egypt. Poland’s greatest modern writer is Henryk Sienfrom 18th century Polish life The Memoirs of Severin Soplica kiewicz (g.v.) (1846-1916), whose Quo Vadis became known to all the civilised world, while his epic novels from Polish history— and November (Listopad). We are on the road from romance to realism in the novel and The Trilogy and The Knights of the Cross—together with the great plays of Joseph Korzeniowski (1797-1863). His drama The historical paintings of Jan Matejko revived the romantic Carpathian Mountaineers (Karpaccy Gérale) is aglow with the sense. Younger novelists have imitated the extremes of the roman colours of folk-lore, his comedies, such as The Jews (Zydzi) or Miss and Mrs. (Panna mezatka) take us out of the region of old- naturaliste in the fashion of Zola. Adolf Dygasinski (d. 1903) fashioned comic types into the sphere of modern individualism tells depressing stories of peasant poverty in Russian Poland: in character-drawing, and his novels, e.g., The Schemer (Speku- but he achieved his highest successes in his accounts of animal life lant) or The Neighbourhood (Kollokacja) are satiric. in the Polish country-side, chiefly in The Feast of Life (Gody The transition from romance to realism is shown in Joseph Zycia). The high-water mark of naturalisme in Poland is reached Ignatius Kraszewski (1812~1887), whose untiring pen produced in the numerous plays and novels of Mme. Gabrielle Zapolska over 500 volumes of fiction, history, criticism and other literary (d. 1923), an actress. The historical verse play was cultivated with some effect by matter. His historical novels have made him the Scott of Poland: but he deals with Polish contemporary life as well. The picture the illustrious Cracow scholar J. Szujski (1835-83), who, howof the decay of the land-owning aristocracy in Morituri shows deep ever, is notable chiefiy as the author of a monumental History insight. Of his historical novels, those relating to the “Saxon of Poland. He became one of the founders of the so-called period” of the early 18th century—such as Briihl or Countess “Cracow School” of moralising historians, represented beside

of the high dignity of Poland’s sufferings with a moral and Chris-

tian view of her past errors and contemporary fate. Another region of Poland’s historical domains, the Masovian

Kosel—are the best. His infltience on readers and other novelists has been enormous.

_ Inthe field of the historical novel, Kraszewski is almost equalled

m popularity by Zygmunt Kaczkowski (1826-96), who excels in stories of the troublous partitions of Poland. Another popular novelist is Theodor Tomasz Jez (whose real name was Zygmunt tkowski, 1824-1915), an insurrectionary soldier and an exile, *

him with distinction by Walerjan Kalinka

(1826-86).

Among

later members of this group, the historian and jurist Michael Bobrzynski (born in 1849) must be mentioned. While the Cracow school chiefly stressed the faults which contributed to Poland’s ruin, Warsaw historians like Tadeusz Korzon (d. 1917) and Władysław Smoleński (d. 1925) consciously emphasized the positive achievements of the nation. The stormy history of Poland

POLISH

166

SUCCESSION

WAR

in the 18th century found an able exponent in Ludwik Kubala

peasant life: as the result of five years of incessant work there

(d. 1918), whose vivid pages inspired Sienkiewicz. More recently, the history of Poland’s struggles for independence during the roth

appeared his tetralogy “Chłopi” (The Peasants, Eng. tr. by M. H.

century has been treated with brilliant talent in the writings of Professor Simon Askenazy. In recent decades, Count Stanislas Tarnowski, president of the Polish Academy (d. 1917), Professor Peter Chmielowski in Warsaw (d. 1905) and Professor Aleksander Briickner in Berlin (b. 1849) won distinction.

picture of Polish peasant life especially in the Tatra mountains

POLISH WRITERS

OF RECENT

TIMES

The “Young Poland” Group.—During the last decade of the 19th century a whole group of young exuberant talents appeared

together in the forefront of Poland’s literary life Dissatisfied with the utilitarian character of the art and poetry of the preceding period, they organised themselves into an independent body, soon known as “The Young Poland,” with the view of working out a new theory of art, based on absolute individual freedom in form and matter. True to this principle, practically every

one of them tried his best to find his own way of expression. The first among these young poets to gain fame was Kazimierz Tetmajer (b. 1865), whose love lyrics are comparable to the best work of the French Parnassians. The modern poetry of France and Belgium found a gifted and congenial interpreter in the person of Zenon Przesmycki, who wrote under the name of “Miriam” (b. 1861). The most forceful individuality of this group was Stanisław Przybyszewski (1868-1927), who, having spent several years among the young Scandinavian and German writers, came back to Poland in 1898 to become at once the leader of the group

and the editor of their organ, a weekly called Zycie (Life). His dramas full of fatalistic terror, and his prose poems, dealing with the mysteries of love and death, became the fashion of the day. The art editor of the new weekly was Stanisław Wyspianski (1869—1907), a painter of great originality, who became also the foremost Polish dramatic poet of his age His leading idea was to unite in the theatre the arts of painting, of architecture, and of poetic drama. Gradually his attention turned to national subjects, and especially to the problem of national strength and weakness, which is the root of the three dramas, Warszawianka (The

Song of Warsaw), Lelewel, and Noc Listopadowa (The November Night). The Legion, a play of which the tragedy of Mickiewicz as the leader of Polish romanticism is the subject-matter—links the past with the present. In three powerful dramas—HVesele (The Wedding, 1901), W'yswolente (Deliverance), and Akropolis, he deals with Poland’s deliverance Jas Kasprowicz (1860-1926) was no doubt the greatest Polish lyrical poet of his day. With him, as with Thomas Hardy, the problem of evil and human suffering is the predominant subject. This problem finds expression in CArystus (Christ), Na Wsgérsu Śmierci (On the Hill of Death), and finally in the cycle of hymns Gingcemu Światu (To the Perishing World). In his later years, the poet attains the wisdom of a resigned sage, which speaks from every line of his last volumes called Ksiega Ubogich (The Book of the Poor) and Mój Swiat (My World). The mood of spiritual calm is also the dominant note of Leopold Staff (b. 1878), who started his poetical career with Sny o Potedse (Dreams of Might). but struggles with the eternal mysteries are not absent even from his later volumes, e.g. Ucho Igielne (The Eye of the Needle, 1927).

Dziewicki, 1924). This great epic novel gives a rich and vivid

The most talented representative of exoticism in Polish litera-

ture is Wacław Sieroszewski (b. 1858) whose prolonged stay in political exile among the native tribes of north-eastern Siberia resulted in a series of fascinating short stories. An artist of rare

subtlety and literary skill is Wacław Berent (b. 1873). His novels Próchno (Rot) and Ozimina (The Winter Crop) contain a penetrating analysis of the late roth century mood: his later work, Zywe Kamienie (Living Stones) is a rich and interesting picture of mediaeval life. Among disciples of Sienkiewicz, the most talented is Józef Weyssenhoff (b. 1860), whose hunting stories

Soból i Panna (The Sable and the Girl, Eng. fr. Mme. K. ZukSkarszewska, 1928) describe Poland’s Eastern borderland. Literature in Poland After the World War.—With

the reunion of Poland, her literature must lose influence as a national force. But even during the War, there came into being two notable

groups of young poets, one in Poznan (the capital of the western provinces of Poland), another in Warsaw. The latter soon sur. passed the former, and became the centre of a boldly aggressive and joyous view of life. Among these young poets the most promising are J. Tuwim, K. Wierzynski, J. Lechori, A. Stonimski, and J. Iwaszkiewicz.

Another group, headed by E. Zegadtowicz and calling itself Czartak, looks for inspiration to the quietness and retirement of country life, and to the simple piety and legendary traditions of the folk.

In Miss I. K. IHakowicz the new Poland possesses a

poetess of great lyrical charm. The terrible experiences of the war, and of Bolshevism on the Eastern border, found expression in some notable works by such writers as Mme. Z. KossakSzczucka (Pozoga—The Blaze—Eng. tr. 1926). The wanderings of Polish exiles in war-time over the vast territories of European and Asiatic Russia have born literary fruit in the vigorous and racy stories of F. Goetel, as well as in the spirited yarns of wild adventures in Mongolia by F. Ossendowski. Otherwise, the novels written since the War, like the comedies and dramas—the works

of W. Perzynski

and others—deal

with

daily reality.

The

tradition of poetic drama, in the fashion of Słowacki and Wyspianski, is kept up by the verse plays of K. H. Rostworowski, E. Zegadłowicz and L. H. Morstin. The reflective post war mood is shown most ably in the novelist Julius Kaden Bandrowskı. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—In Polish: A. Brückner, Dz:eje Literatury Polskiej w zarysie (2 vols., 3rd ed., 1925, two different abridged versiôns, 1924 and 1928); Dzieje literatury pieknej w Polsce, IL. vols., a co-operative work published by the Polish Academy at Cracow as vols. XXI, and XXII. of its Polisk Encyclopaedia [Encyklopedja Polska] (rst ed. 1918, 2nd ed. 1928); Gabrjel Korbut: Literatura Polska (3 vols, 1921—27, full bibliographies). Zn English: R. Dyboski, Periods of Polish Literary History and Modern Polish Literature (Oxford, 1923-24) Editions of Polish literary classics: Bibljoteka pisarzdw polskich (published by the Polish Academy at Cracow), comprising chiefly works of earlier centuries; Bibljoteka Narodowa, edited by Prof. St. Kot (Cracow), a series of reprints of standard works of all periods, with scholarly introductions. (R. Dv.)

POLISH

SUCCESSION

WAR

(1733-1735),

the name

given to a war which arose out of the competition for the throne of Poland between the elector August of Saxony, son of August II. (the Strong), and Stanislaus Leszcynski, the king of Poland inNovelists.—Brought up under Russian oppression, Stefan stalled 30 years before by Charles XII. of Sweden and displaced Zeromski (1867-1925) indulges in pessimism. The most typical by August the Strong when Charles’s projects collapsed. The of his novels are “Ludste Besdomni” (The Homeless), Popioty claims of Stanislaus were supported by France, Spain and Sar(Ashes), dealing with the Napoleonic period, and the story-cycle dinia, those of the Saxon prince by Russia and the empire, the Wiatr Od Morza (The Wind from the Sea)—with his final work, local quarrel being made the pretext for the settlement of minor Przedwiośnie (Before Springtime) in which he gives a threatening outstanding claims of the Great Powers amongst themselves picture of the new Poland. The war was therefore a typical 18th century “war with a limited The winner of the Nobel Prize for literature in 1924, Włady- object,” in which no one but the éabinets and the professional sław Stanisław Reymont (1868-1925) was a born realist. His armies were concerned. It was fought on two theatres, the Rhine early ambition was to draw a picture of life in a big industrial and Italy. The Rhine campaigns were entirely unimportant, and city. After a stay at Łódz, he produced a novel called Ziemia are remembered only for the last appearance in the field of Prince Obiecana (The Promised Land, Eng. tr. M. H. Dziewicki, 1927) Eugène and Marshal Berwick—the latter was killed at the siege which caused him to be bailed by critics as “The Polish Zola.” of Philippsburg—and the baptism of fire of the young crown Like Zola. but on a larger scale, he afterwards wrote a novel of prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick the Great. In Italy, how-

POLITIAN—POLK ever, there were

three hard-fought—though

indecisive—battles,

Parma (June 29, 1734), Luzzara (Sept. 19, 1734) and Bitonto (May 25, 1735), the first and last won by the Austrians, the

second by the French and their allies. In Poland itself, Stanislaus,

elected king in Sept. 1733, was soon expelled by a Russian army and was afterwards besieged in Danzig by the Russians and

Saxons (Oct. 1734-June 1735). POLITIAN

(1454-1494).

Angelo Ambrogini, known in liter-

ary annals as Angelo Poliziano or Politianus from his birthplace, was born at Montepulciano in Tuscany on July 14, 1454. His father, Benedetto, a jurist of good family and distinguished ability, was murdered by political antagonists for adopting the cause of Piero de’ Medici in Montepulciano; this circumstance gave his eldest son, Angelo, a claim on the family of Medici. At the age of ten the boy came to study at Florence, where he learned Latin under Cristoforo Landino, and Greek under Argyropulos and Andronicos Kallistos. From Marsilio Ficino he imbibed the rudiments of philosophy. His genius for scholarship and poetry was early manifested. At 13 years of age he began to circulate Latin letters; at 17 he sent forth essays in Greek versification; at 18 he published an edition of Catullus.

In 1470 he won for himself

the title of Homericus juvenis by translating four books of the Iliad into Latin hexameters. Lorenzo de? Medici, who was then the autocrat of Florence and the chief patron of learning in Italy, took Poliziano into his household,

made

him the tutor of his

children, and secured him a distinguished post in the University of Florence. Before he reached the age of 30, Poliziano expounded the humanities with almost unexampled lustre even for that epoch of brilliant professors. Among his pupils could be numbered the chief students of Europe, the men who were destined to carry to their homes the spolia opima of Italian culture. Not to mention Italians, it will suffice to record the names of the German Reuchlin, the English Grocyn and Linacre, and the Portuguese Tessiras. Poliziano published the notes of his courses on Ovid, Statius,

the younger Pliny, Quintilian, and the writers of Augustan histories. He also undertook a recension of the text of the Pandects of Justinian, which formed the subject of one of his courses; and this recension, though it does not rank high in the scale of juristic erudition, gave an impulse to the scholarly criticism of the Roman code. His versions of Epictetus, Herodian, Hippocrates, Galen, Plutarch’s Eroticus and Plato’s Charmides delighted contemporaries by a certain limpid fluency of Latin style and grace of manner which distinguished him also as an original writer. Of these learned labours the most universally acceptable to the public of that time were a series of discursive essays on philology and criticism, first published in 1489 under the title of Miscellanea. They had an immediate, a lasting and a wide renown, encouraging the scholars of the next century and a half to throw their occasional discoveries in the field of scholarship into a form at once so attractive and so instructive. Poliziano was not, however, contented with these simply professorial and scholastic compositions. Nature had endowed him

with literary and poetic gifts of the highest order. These he devoted to the composition of Latin and Greek verses, which count among the best of those produced by men of modern times in rivalry with ancient authors. The Mento, in which he pronounced a panegyric of Virgil; the Ambra, which contains a beautiful idyllic sketch of Tuscan landscape, and a studied eulogy of Homer; the Rusticus, which celebrated the pleasures of country life in no frigid or scholastic spirit; and the Nutricia, Which was intended to serve as a general introduction to the

167

Latin diction and in metre moulded to suit the characteristics of the singer’s temperament. Poliziano’s principal Italian works are the stanzas called La Giostra, written upon Giuliano de’ Medici’s victory in a tournament; the Orfeo, a lyrical drama performed at Mantua with musical accompaniment; and a collection of fugitive pieces, reproducing various forms of Tuscan popular poetry. La Giostra had no plan, and remained imperfect; but it demonstrated the capacities of the octave stanza for rich, harmonious and sonorous metrical effect. The Orfeo is a slight piece of work, thrown off at a heat, yet abounding in unpremeditated lyrical beauties, and containing in itself the germ both of the pastoral play and of the opera. The Tuscan songs are distinguished by a “roseate fluency,” an exquisite charm of half romantic, half humorous abandonment to fancy, which mark them out as improvisations of genius. It may be added that in all these departments of Italian composition Poliziano showed how the taste and learning of a classical scholar could be engrafted on the stock of the vernacular, and how the highest perfection of artistic form might be attained in Italian without a sacrifice of native spontaneity and natural flow of language. Beyond the sphere of pure scholarship and pure literature Poliziano did not venture. He was present, indeed, at the attack made by the Pazzi conspirators on the persons of Lorenzo and Giuliano de’ Medici, and wrote an interesting account of its partial success. He also contributed a curious document on the death of Lorenzo de’ Medici. Otherwise, his uneventful life was passed as a house-friend of the Medici, as the idol of the learned world, and as a simple man of letters to whom (with truly Tuscan devotion to the Saturnian country) rural pleasures were always acceptable. He was never married; and his morals incurred suspicion, to which his own Greek verses lend a plausible colouring. He died, half broken-hearted by the loss of his friend and patron Lorenzo de’ Medici, on Sept. 24, 1494. For the life and works of Politian, see F. O. Mencken (Leipzig, 1736), a vast repertory of accumulated erudition; Jac. Mähly, Angelus Politianus (Leipzig, 1864) ; Carducci’s ed. of the Italian poems (Florence, Barbera, 1863) ; Del Lungo’s ed. of the Italian prose works and Latin and Greek poems (Florence, Barbera, 1867); the Opera omnia (Basle, 1554); Greswell, Life of Politian (1805); Roscoe, Lorenzo de Medici (roth ed., 1851) ; J. Addington Symonds, Renaissance in Italy (1875~86), and translations from Poliziano’s poems in

Symonds’s Sketches and Studies in Italy (1879).

(J. A. 8.3; X.)

POLITICAL ECONOMY:

see Economics.

POLITICAL

see Pensions, POLITICAL.

POLITICAL

PENSIONS:

SCIENCE, ARTICLES

ON: see Constr-

TUTION; LEGISLATURE; PARLIAMENT; CONSERVATIVE PARTY; WHIG AND Tory; RepuBLIcAN PARTY; DEMOCRATIC PARTY, etc.

POLK, JAMES KNOX

(1795-1849), 11th president of the

United States, was born in Mecklenburg county, N.C., on Nov. 2, 1795. In 1806 he crossed the mountains with his parents and settled in what is now Maury county, Tennessee. He graduated from the University of North Carolina in 1818, studied law in the office of Felix Grundy (1777-1840) at Nashville, Tenn., in 181920, was admitted to the bar in 1820, and began to practise in Columbia, the county seat of Maury county. After two years of service (1823~25) in the State house of representatives, he represented his district in the National house of representatives from 1825-39. In the party conflicts which succeeded the presidential election of 1824 he sided with the Jackson-Van Buren faction, and soon became recognized as leader of the Democratic forces. He was speaker from 1835 until 1839, when he retired from Congress to become governor of Tennessee. His administration

(1839-41) was successful, but he was unable to overcome the popular Whig movement of that period, and was defeated in 1841 tion, a sincerity of feeling, and a command of metrical resources and again in 1843. When the Democratic national convention which mark them out as original productions of poetic genius met in Baltimore in 1844 he was mentioned as a possible candirather than as merely professorial lucubrations. Exception may date for the vice presidency, but was suddenly brought forward be taken to their style, when compared with the best work of as a “dark horse” and selected to head the ticket. Finding it imthe Augustan or even of the Silver age. But what renders them possible under the two-thirds rule to nominate their candidate, noteworthy to the student of modern humanistic literature is the followers of Van Buren brought forward Polk, who was popthat they are in no sense imitative or conventional, but that they ular in the South, in order to defeat Lewis Cass and James convey the genuine thoughts and emotions of a born poet in Buchanan. George Bancroft, the historian, has asserted that this study of ancient and modern poetry—these are the masterpieces

of Poliziano in Latin verse, displaying an authenticity of inspira-

168

POLK—POLLAIUOLO

suggestion came originally from him, and Gideon J. Pillow, Polk’s intimate friend, did much to bring about the nomination. The unequivocal stand of Polk and his party in favour of the immediate annexation of Texas and the adoption of a vigorous policy in Oregon contrasted favourably with the timid vacillations of Henry Clay and the Whigs. Polk was elected, receiving 170 electoral votes to ros for his opponent Clay. In forming his cabinet he secured the services of James Buchanan of Pennsylvania as secretary of State, Robert J. Walker of Mississippi as secretary of the treasury, William L. Marcy of New York as secretary of war, and George Bancroft, then of Massachusetts, as secretary of the navy. There is no doubt that each of these men, and Bancroft in particular, influenced the policy of the administration, yet the historian, James Schouler, who has made a careful study of the Polk papers, is doubtless correct in saying that the president himself was “the framer of the public policy which he carried into so successful execution, and that instead of being led (as many might have imagined) by the more famous statesmen of his administration and party who surrounded him, he in reality led and shaped his own executive course.” Bancroft’s opinion is that Polk was “prudent, far-sighted, bold, exceeding any Democrat of his day in his undeviatingly correct exposition of Dem-

Briefs (1896), and by E. G. Bourne in an article entitled “The Proposed Absorption of Mexico in 1847-1848,” published in the Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1899, i. 157-169 (1900). Bourne discusses the part which Polk took in pre. venting the complete absorption of Mexico. See also the Diary o}

James K. Polk ... 1845 to 1849 (1910), edit. by M. M. Quaife.

R. L. Schuyler, “Polk and the Oregon Compromise of 1846,” Pol. Sci, Quart., vol. xxvi. p. 443-461 (Lancaster, Pa., 1911) ; E. I. McCormar, James K. Polk (1922); J.S. Bassett, The Southern Plantation Overseey

as Revealed in His Letters (1925); A. Nevins, ed., Polk: The Diary of a President, 1845-49 (1929). (W. R. Sm.)

POLK, LEONIDAS

(1806-1864), American general, was

born at Raleigh, N.C., on April 10, 1806. He was educated at West Point, but afterwards studied theology and took orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1831. In 1838 he became missionary bishop of the South-west, including Arkansas, Indian Ter. ritory, Louisiana, Alabama and Mississippi; in 1841 he was conse-

crated bishop of Louisiana.

His work in the Church was largely

of an educational kind, and he played a prominent part in movements for the establishment of higher educational institutions in the South. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he resigned his bishopric and entered the Confederate army. His rank in the hierarchy and the universal respect in which he was held in the South, rather than his early military education, caused him to be appointed to the important rank of major-general. He fortified ocratic principles.” The four chief events of President Polk’s administration were the post of Columbus, Ky., the foremost line of defence on the the final establishment of the independent treasury system, the Mississippi, against which Brigadier-general U. S. Grant directed reduction of the tariff by the Walker bill of 1846, the adjustment the offensive reconnaissance of Belmont in the autumn. In the of the Oregon boundary dispute with Great Britain by the treaty following spring, the first line of defence having fallen, Polk comconcluded on June 15, 1846, and the war with Mexico and the manded a corps at Shiloh in the field army commanded by Albert consequent acquisition of territory in the south-west and west. Sidney Johnston and Beauregard. In Oct. 1862 he was promoted The first three of these were recommended in his first annual lieutenant-general, and thenceforward he commanded one of the message, and he privately announced to Bancroft his determina- three corps of the army of Tennessee under Bragg and aftertion to seize California. The independent treasury plan originated wards was in charge of the Department of Alabama, Mississippi during Van Buren’s administration as a Democratic measure; it and East Louisiana. He was killed in the fighting in front of had been repealed by the Whigs in 1841, and was now re-enacted. Marietta, while reconnoitring near Pine Mountain, Ga., on June Protectionists contend that the tariff legislation of 1846 was in 14, 1864. See W.M. Polk, Leonidas Polk, Bishop and General (new ed., 1915). direct violation of a pledge given to the Democrats of PennsylPOLKA, a lively dance of Bohemian origin, which at one vania in a letter written by Polk during the campaign to John K. Kane of Philadelphia. Briefly summarized, this letter approves of period (about the middle of the roth century) enjoyed extraa tariff for revenue with incidental protection, whereas the annual ordinary popularity throughout Europe. It is danced to music message of Dec. 2, 1845, criticizes the whole theory of protection written in 2 time. (See DANcE.) POLLACK (Gadus pollachius), a fish that is distinguished and urges the adoption of a revenue tariff just sufficient to meet the needs of the Government, conducted on an economical basis. from others of the cod genus by the long pointed snout, and the It is difficult to determine whether this was always his idea of prominent lower jaw, without a barbel; the colour is greenish, incidental protection, or whether his views were changed after with yellow markings. It ranges from Norway to the Mediter1844 through the influence of Walker and the example set by Sir ranean, but is most abundant southwards; it prefers rocky ground, Robert Peel in Great Britain, or whether he was simply “playing and is piscivorous. It attains a weight of over 20 pounds. POLLAIUOLO, the name of the brothers Antonio and politics” to secure the protectionist vote in Pennsylvania. The one overshadowing issue of the time, however, was terri- Piero, sons of the goldsmith, Jacopo Pollaiuolo, Florentines who torial expansion. Polk was an ardent expansionist, but the old contributed much to Italian art in the rsth century, and of Simone, idea that his policy was determined entirely by a desire to advance architect, the nephew of Antonio. ANTONIO (1429-1498) distinguished himself as a sculptor, the interests of slavery Is no longer accepted. As a matter of fact, he was personally in favour of insisting upon 54° 40’ as the jeweller, painter and engraver, and did valuable service in perboundary in Oregon, and threw upon Congress the responsibility fecting the art of enamelling. He was apprenticed to Bartoluccio for accepting 49° as the boundary. He approved the acquisition Ghiberti, a goldsmith (step-father of the great Ghiberti). It was of California, Utah and New Mexico, territory from which slavery not until later that Antonio took to painting. His chief achievewas excluded by geographical and climatic conditions. Further- ment in that art is the “Martyrdom of St. Sebastian” (1475) more a study of his manuscript diary shows that he opposed the in the National Gallery, London, in the execution of which he efforts of Walker and Buchanan in the cabinet, and of Daniel S. was helped by his brother. Here, too, is the fine small panel of

Dickinson (1800-66) of New York and Edward A. Hannegan (d. 1859) of Indiana, in the Senate, to retain the whole of Mexico,

territory in which slavery might have thrived. At the close of his term (March 4, 1849) Polk retired to his home in Nashville, Tenn., where he died on June 15, 18409. See John S. Jenkins, James Knox Polk (1850), and L. B. Chase, History of the Polk Administration (1850), both of which contain some documentary material, but are not discriminating in their method of treatment. George Bancroft contributed a good short sketch to J. G. Wilson’s Presidents of the United States (1894). He

made copies of the Polk manuscripts and was working upon a detailed biography at the time of his death in 1891. These copies, now deposited in the Public library, New York city, contain a diary in 24 typewritten vols., besides some correspondence and other private

papers,

They have been used by James Schouler in his Hiéstorical

“Apollo and Daphne.” In the Uffizi, Florence, is his “Labours of Hercules.” He aimed, above all, at the representation of the human figure in action, and he ranked as the foremost draughtsman of his time. He is said to have been one of the first artists who had recourse to dissection in his anatomical studies. But it was as a sculptor and metal-worker that he achieved his greatest successes. The museum of Florence contains the bronze group, “Hercules strangling Cacus,” and the terra-cotta bust, “The Young Warrior.” In 1489 Antonio took up his residence in Rome, where he executed the tomb of Sixtus IV. (1493). He died on Feb. 4, 1498, having just finished his mausoleum of Innocent VIII. PIERO (1443-1496) was a painter, probably the pupil of Alesso Baldovinetti. His principal works were his “Coronation of the Virgin,” an altarpiece painted in 1483, in the choir of the cathe-

169

POLLAN— POLLINATION dral at San Gimignano; his “Three Saints,” an altarpiece, and “Prudence” are both at the Uffizi Gallery. SIMONE (1457—1508), nephew of Antonio Pollaiuolo, a celebrated architect, was born in Florence and went to Rome in 1484;

there he entered his uncle’s studio and studied architecture. On his return to Florence he was entrusted with the completion of the Strozzi palace, begun by Benedetto de Maiano, and the cornice on the façade has earned him lasting fame. His highly coloured accounts of Rome earned for him the nickname of ¿l Cronaca (chron-

the stigma of another flower on the same plant (geitonogamy) or to the flower of another plant of the same species (xenogamy). Occasionally hybridization is possible, the pollen of one plant bringing about fertilisation of the ovary of the flower of another species or, more rarely, of the flower of a plant belonging to another genus; cases of hybridization between genera are known for example in cycads (see GYMNOSPERMS) and in orchids.

Cross Pollination

and Dichogamy.—Cross

pollination is

the only possible method in the case of unisexual flowers whether icler). About 1498 he built the church of San Francesco at Monte the plant is monoecious (z.e., with staminate and pistillate flowers and the vestibule of the sacristy of Santo Spirito. In collabora- on the same plant), as in birch, beech, elder, oak, or dioecious tion with Guiliano da Sangallo he designed the great hall in the (i.e., with staminate and pistillate flowers on different plants) as in the case of willows and poplars. In hermaphrodite flowers, Palazzo Vecchio. He was a close friend of Savonarola. See Vasari, Vite (ed. Milanesi) ; Giovanni Morelli, Italian Masters bearing both stamens and carpels, either self-pollination or cross pollination can occur. It is interesting to note however, that many in German Galleries (1883) ; and Maud Cruttwell, Antonio Pollaiuolo (1907). flowers have special arrangements to ensure that the pollinating POLLAN (Coregonus pollan), the only Irish fish of the mechanism, whatever it may be, causes cross pollination and not genus Coregonus, with three forms inhabiting respectively Lough self-pollination. One of the commonest methods to achieve this is Neagh, Lough Erne and the Shannon. The jaws are equal in a separation i time of the sexes—the stamens dehisce and shed their pollen either before or after the stigma is receptive. This front. (See SALMON AND SALMONIDAE.) POLLARD, ALBERT FREDERICK (1869), Eng- separation in time—and it may apply to the separate male and lish professor of history, was born at Ryde on Dec. 16, 18609, female flowers,on the same plant—is known as dichogamy. When and educated at Felsted school and at Jesus college, Oxford. He the stamens ripen first it is known as protandry, the more comwas elected a fellow of All Souls college, Oxford, in 1898. From mon case, while when the stigma is ready first, it is known as 1893 to 1901 he was assistant editor of the Dictionary of National proterogyny. Protandry is very common in insect-pollinated (enBiography. In 1993 he was appointed professor of English history tomophilous) flowers, as in nearly all members of the Comin the University of London, resigning his chair in 1927, to take positae (q.v.) and Umbelliferae, many Labiatae (such as deadup his new appointment as director of the Institute of Historical nettle [Lamium] and Salvia), the Caryophyllaceae, the large willow-herb (Epilobium angustifolium), etc. Proterogyny is Research, and professor of constitutional history. His publications include Thomas Cranmer and the English Ref- found in the horse chestnut (Aesculus), the autumn crocus (Colormation (1898; new ed., 1926); Henry VIII. (1902); Factors in chicum), many Araceae, and in wind-pollinated anemophilous flowModern History (1907; new ed., 1926); Evolution of Parliament ers such as plaintain (Plantago), meadow rue (Thalictrum) and (1920) ; Factors in American History (Cambridge, 1925). many grasses, though here separation in time is very short and POLLARD, ALFRED WILLIAM (1859), English many are self-pollinated as wheat, barley and oats. It is often scholar, was born in London on Aug. 14, 1859, and educated at accepted that cross-pollination is of greater value to the plant than King’s college school, London, and St. John’s college, Oxford. self-pollination in respect of weight and number of seeds; the In 1883 he entered the British Museum as assistant in the dequestion is, however, one of some difficulty. The numerous propartment of printed books, of which he became assistant keeper visions in flowers for aiding cross-pollination and hindering selfin 1909, and keeper from 1919-24. In 1916 he was appointed pollination suggest the superiority of the former process, but there Sandars reader in bibliography in the University of Cambridge, are numerous plants which normally and for generations are selfand in r919 professor of English bibliography at King’s college, pollinated. London. His publications include Bibliographica (1894-96); Early Ilustrated Books (1893); An Essay on Colophons (1905); Shakespeare’s Folios and Quartos (1909); A New Shakespeare Quarto (Richard II.

1598) (1916); A Short Title Catalogue of English Books (1475-1640) with G. R. Redgrave and others (1926).

POLLENTIA, an ancient town of Liguria, Italy, ro m. to the north of Augusta Bagiennorum, on the left bank of the Tan-

WIND

POLLINATION

(ANEMOPHILY)

The method of pollination of the earlier and more primitive flowers was probably by the wind, the insect pollinated flowers being derived from them in later stages of evolution. Some flowers such as plaintain and meadow rue mentioned above, are almost certainly anemophilous by reduction, all their congeners

arus. Its position on the road from Augusta Taurinorum to the being entomophilous; other cases are Poterium among the Rosacoast at Vada Sabatia, at the point of divergence of a road to ceae and Kerguelen’s Land cabbage (g.v.) among the CrucifHasta (Asti) gave it military importance. Decimus Brutus man- erae. Characters of Anemophilous Flowers.—These are such as aged to occupy it an hour before Mark Antony in 43 B.c.; and it was here that Stilicho on March 29, 403, fought the battle with might be expected. The flowers are usually inconspicuous (the Alaric which, though undecided, led the Goths to evacuate Italy. corolla being commonly absent) for there is no advantage in their being easily seen, and they are without the scent or nectar so Considerable remains of ancient buildings still exist. POLLINATION, a term used in botany for the transference common in flowers visited by insects. Furthermore there is usually of pollen (see FLOWER) to the stigma (the receptive surface) of no tubular formation of the flower and no irregularities. On the

the ovary of the flower. Such pollination brings about the fertilisa-

tion of the ovules in the ovary and their subsequent development into seeds; there are, however, a few cases in which parthenogenesis occurs, że., the ovules develop without fertilisation. As the pollen-bearing parts of the stamens are rarely in contact with the

stigma at the time when both of these are ripe, some mechanism is clearly necessary to bring the pollen to the stigma. The means in question is usually wind or insects, though sometimes other agencies such as water or birds may be responsible. The great variety in the form, colour and scent of flowers has been developed in relation to the particular agency of insects. Apart from

the mechanism of pollination we can distinguish two types—selfpollination (autogamy) in which pollen is transferred from the stamens of one flower to the stigma of the same flower; and cross-pollination (allogamy) in which pollen is transferred to

other hand these wind-pollinated flowers form large quantities of

pollen, since the greater proportion when consigned to the air must necessarily be lost. The large quantity of pollen produced by pines and other conifers is well known; in these plants the numerous stamens are massed in male cones often of considerable size, though smaller than the female cones. In other families, such as the grasses, Cyperaceae, Urticaceae, the number of stamens in each flower is small but the anthers are large. Again, in these

flowers the pollen is dry and powdery and does not stick together in small masses as in entomophilous flowers; this enables the pollen to blow about easily. The pollen in this type of flower must be easily removed by the wind; the absence of floral envelopes facilitates this and so do the pendulous catkins (hazel, plane, etc.) which can sway in the wind. In addition the filament of the stamen is usually long so that the anthers hang out of the

170

POLLINATION

flower, and are also versatile (see FLOWER) so that the pollen is protected and concealed by the position of the stamens, by the easily shaken from them. Another common characteristic of the flowers in question is that the stigma is much larger and rougher than that of entomophilous flowers and it is freely exposed to the air so as to increase the chance of reception of the pollen; in maize, for example, the stigma is of very great length. In many catkin-bearing plants the flowering stage occurs before the leaves appear, so that accidental interception of pollen by the leaves is avoided. As already stated dichogamy is quite common in anemophilous flowers but proterogyny is much more common than protandry. INSECT

POLLINATION

(ENTOMOPHILY)

development

of hairs or scales, or by the flower being partially

tubular, as in wallflower where the sepals stand erect and give a tubular form to the lower part of the flower.

(iii.) Class B. Flowers with Fully Concealed Honey.—In this class are the flowers of many Carophyllaceae (such as Gypsophila, Geranium), Polemonium, blackberry (Rubus), eyebright (Euphrasia) mint (Mentha), heather (Calluna). In these the nectar

may be concealed by the stamens, by the calyx, by the receptacle becoming hollowed, or by the petals being united to form a sympetalous corolla. The insect visitors are the smaller bees with a few of the longer tongued flies. This type of flower is clearly the most

effective of the classes so far mentioned. The bees show a high The special characteristics of entomophilous flowers are the at- degree of skill in reaching the concealed honey and mostly confine tractive colour of the floral envelope, the presence of scent and themselves during a given flight to one or a few species of flower, of nectar, and of pollen which is not powdery but sticky and is and thus avoid the great waste of pollen caused by shorter tongued present in comparatively small quantities. The entomophilous is insects, which are liable to carry it indiscriminately from the flower the most common type of pollination in flowering plants and spe- of one species to another. cial floral conformations and irregularities adapted to insect visi(iv.) Class B’ is an extension of Class B and includes the tors are characteristic of the higher families of flowering plants, as flowers of the Compositae, most Dipsaceae and some Campanuwill be seen below. The evolution of flowers and of insects must laceae, in which the flowers have the same length of tube, etc., as have gone hand in hand; such groups as Lepidoptera (butterflies Class B, but are aggregated into an inflorescence, which by the and moths) and Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, etc.) could not have uninstructed might be mistaken for a flower, and which acts like existed without the more elaborate and honey-bearing flowers and a single flower as a unit of attraction. vice versa. Hermann Müller (see Bibliography) has divided (v.) Class F. Lepidoptera Flowers.—This includes those flowers flowers into various classes according to their degree of specialisa- in which the floral tube has been so deepened that short-tongued tion for different insects, so that a brief survey of the types of insects are excluded altogether and in many cases only Lepidoptera insects concerned must be given. can reach the nectar. The alpine moss campion (Silene acaulis), Types of Insects.—There are five important classes of insects for example, is adapted to butterflies, while the bladder campion which visit flowers. The Hemiptera (bugs, etc.) have a few CS. inflata) is adapted to moths and emits a scent at night. To the flower-visiting species but they show no special adaptation to latter class belong also the honeysuckle (Lonicera), tobacco plant flowers; the Coleoptera (beetles) have many species which visit (Nicotiana), evening primrose (Oenothera), and night-scented flowers but they have only short tongues (only a few species with stock and many others. a length of 3 to 6 mm.) and so are able to reach only honey which (vi.) Class H. Bee Flowers, are those which are visited mostly is fully exposed. The Diptera (flies) include many species which by long-tongued bees, the depth of the tube being 6 to 15 mm. visit flowers. The short-tongued ones (with tongues under 4 mm.) The flowers are also often markedly zygomorphic (i.e., having a show no special adaptation to a diet of floral origin and are not special kind of irregularity; see FLower), providing a landing usually clever enough to find any nectar which is not fully ex- place for the bee; others are of such a shape that (as in the snapposed in the flower; many of these flies have also other sources of dragon and broom) it requires an insect like the humble-bee which feeding. The long-tongued flies (such as hover flies or drone is not only “clever” but of considerable size and weight in order flies) have tongues from 4—12 mm. and confine themselves to a diet of nectar, and are clever in discovering it when concealed. The

Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, sawflies, ants, etc.) include a very large number of flower-visiting forms. Bees are the only longtongued members of the group, and it is bees which have played the most important part in the evolution of the more complex flowers. The hive bee (Apis) and the humble-bee (Bombus) have long tongues (over 6 mm.) while most of the other bees have

shorter tongues, z.e., less than 6 mm. The “cleverness” of bees, combined with the length of their proboscis, enables them to find and reach nectar which is deeply concealed in the flower. Bees do not confine themselves to sucking nectar from the flower; they also collect pollen (some flowers provide only pollen and no nectar),

which is carried in small masses attached to the hairs of the hind legs. The Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) are insects with tongues usually about as long as those of bees, but the hawk moths may have tongues, when unrolled, of enormous length. The British hawk moth, Sphinx convolvuli, has a tongue 80 mm. a long and some tropical moths a tongue of 300 mm.

r2 in.). Classes of Flowers.—The entomophilous flowers have been divided by H. Müller into nine classes based on the structure of the flower and its relation to particular insects.

(i.) Class A. Flowers with Exposed Nectar.—In this class come

to open the flower. (vii. and viii.) The D and K classes of flowers include those adapted to small insects; they are pollinated by flies, beetles and small bees.

Lastly, there is (ix.) the Class Po, Pollen Flowers. These provide no nectar, but abundant pollen for which the flower is visited, mainly by bees; examples are Clematis, meadowsweet (Spirea),

rock rose (Helianthemum)

dog rose (Rosa canina), poppy.

In

some flowers, such as Cassia, some stamens provide “‘food-pollen” for insects, other stamens supply the fertile pollen for fertilization. Nectar, Colour and Scent.—Nectar is a watery fluid secreted by certain parts of the flower and sometimes by other parts of the plant, as in the case of the extra-floral nectaries. It contains a sugar (glucose) sometimes to as much as 25%. It is from the nec-

tar that the bee makes honey, which is a manufactured product with nectar as the raw material. As has already been indicated the position of the nectaries (the nectar-secreting glands) is very various; they may be fully exposed or hidden and deeply enclosed. In some cases the nectar is secreted by one organ and collected in another as in Viola, where it collects in the spur but is secreted by appendages of the stamens.

In other cases there is no free nectar

but the insect must pierce with its proboscis the juicy, sapid cells, which in the case of some orchids line the spur. The importance of colour in attracting the attention of insects

most Umbelliferae, many Saxifragaceae, the bedstraws (Galium), is obvious, but it does not follow that the flowers most striking or ivy (Hedera) and such trees as maple, elder and lime. The flowers attractive to our eyes are those most conspicuous or alluring to the are wide open and usually small and the visitors are mostly shortinsect. The problem of the colour-sense of insects has been intongued; they are rarely visited by bees and butterflies. Such vestigated by a number of workers and it seems clear that bees at flowers run the risk of the nectar being washed away by rain. least can distinguish some colours, such as blue and yellow, and ii.) Class AB. Flowers with Partially Concealed Nectar—In do not merely depend on the different brightness between, say, a this class fall the buttercups (Ranunculus), the Cruciferae, the deep purple flower and a light yellow one. In the different flower Strawberry (Fragaria) and the willows (Salix). The nectar is classes (A to H) already defined, there is a tendency to a progres-

POLLINATION sion in colour; the simpler flowers in the A and AB classes tend to

be white or yellow, while in the B class blues and purples are

found. In class H, the bee flowers, blues and purples predominate,

while in class F, the butterfly and moth flowers, pale tints of pink and purple are most common. The special colour markings on flowers, such as the yellow eye of forget-me-not (Myosotis), the darker lines on the petals of the violet and pansy, appear to assist the insect to find the nectar and are known as honey guides. Scent is obviously of great importance and the olfactory sense

of some insects such as moths is very much greater than ours.

J. H. Fabre showed that moths when out of sight of honeysuckle would fly straight to it from a distance of several hundred yards.

K. van Frisch has investigated elaborately the olfactory sense of the honey bee. Bees which had been drilled by association of oil of orange with sugar could pick out this scent from 43 other

ethereal oils. As stated by M. Skene (see p. 172) the general con-

clusion is “that colour is the guide to the flower, and that scent is

useful in enabling the bee, flying among the many flowers of similar

colour, to pick out the species it has formed the temporary habit of visiting.” In this it is helped by the sense of form. SPECIAL MECHANISMS

OF ENTOMOPHILOUS FLOWERS

Pollination of Sage.—Such a plant as the sage (Salvia pratensis) has a typical humble-bee flower. The bee alights on the platform formed by the lower lip of the sympetalous corolla and

pushes its head down the tube to reach the nectar at the bottom.

Each of the two stamens is of special shape; the connective is very large and two-armed, and is hinged to the short flament. The longer arm bears a half anther while the short arm is sterile, the whole stamen having a lever mechanism. The bee, in probing for the honey, comes in contact with the short arm of the lever and in pressing this down brings the half anther at the end of the longer arm down upon its back where the pollen becomes deposited. The flower is protandrous and in a later stage the style elongates and is brought into the same position as occupied by the back of the bee when in contact with the anther. Cross pollination is thus brought about when the bee passes from a younger to an older flower. Papilionaceous Type.—The Leguminosae (Pea family) show a very interesting series of pollination mechanisms. In this familiar . type of flower to which the pea and gorse belong, the essential parts of the flower are enclosed in the keel. The nectar is secreted by the inner sides of the lower part of the staminal tube; one of the ten stamens is usually free and at its base are two openings leading to the nectar. The nectar is thus not only carefully concealed but is also at a considerable depth. Cleverness and length of proboscis are thus required so that as might be expected these flowers are bee flowers. An insect visiting the flower alights on the wings, thus depresses them and, as they are joined this is depressed also. The stigma and stamens are out, the stigma usually first so that it has the chance off pollen from the under-side of the bee and thus pollinated.

to the keel, thus forced of brushing being cross

There are four different types. (1) Flowers in which the stamens and stigma return within the keel so that repeated visits are possible; examples are the clovers, melilot (Melilotwus) and laburnum. (2) Flowers that are explosive, since the style and stamens are confined under tension in the keel and when it is depressed they are released with suddenness, thus scattering pollen on the undersurface of the bee. Only one insect visit is thus effective. Examples are broom (Genista), gorse (Ulex), lucerne (Medicago). (3) Flowers which display a piston mechanism—the pollen is shed early and the heads of the five outer stamens act as a piston so that the weight of the bee on the keel squeezes a

narrow ribbon of pollen through the pore at the apex of the keel. A further pressure causes a protrusion of the stigma which is thus brought in contact with the bee. Examples are lupin (Lupinus), rest harrow (Ononis) and bird’s foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus). (4) Flowers which show a brush mechanism, for the pollen is again shed early and the style, which is provided with a brush of hairs, sweeps the pollen in small portions out of the tip of the keel. Flowers of this type usually allow of repeated insect visits.

I7I

Pinch Trap Flowers—This type of flower is found in the Asclepiadaceae. The pollen is massed together into pollinia and pairs of these are attached to a sort of clip in which the leg of the insect (bees, wasps, etc.) becomes caught. The pollinia are thus carried away to another flower and are likely to come in contact with its stigmatic surface. Pitfall flowers are shown by the cuckoo pint (Arum maculatum), a common British plant, and by Aristolochia and Asarum. In A. maculatum there is a spathe surrounding a spadix which bears a fringe of stif downwardly projecting hairs at the top. These hairs allow the entry of insects but not their return; the insects are thus trapped for a time in the spathe and pollinate the pistillate flowers; later the hairs wither and exit becomes possible. Flies are the common visitors. Piston Mechanism of Compositae.—The flowers of this family show a very efficient pollination mechanism which, with the economy of material resulting from the massing of the flowers into heads and the effective method of seed dispersal, probably explains the dominant position of the family. Pollination of Fig.—The fig shows a very remarkable interrelationship between an animal and plant. The flowers in the fig are unisexual and are borne in numbers together on the inside of the hollow inflorescence, which opens to the outside by a pore. The swollen and fleshy infructescence (as the inflorescence becomes) is the edible fruit; each “seed” being the product of a single flower and in reality a fruit. The female of a small wasp (Blastophaga) enters the inflorescence and deposits eggs in special “gall flowers” incapable of setting seed. The larvae are hatched out and undergo metamorphosis. The male wasps fertilise the female and then die without leaving the inflorescence. The female wasps leave the gall flowers and crawling out through the pore become dusted with pollen from the male flowers in the neighbourhood of the pore. They then enter other figs and pollinate the female flowers, which set seed. The fig and wasp are thus mutually dependent. When Smyrna figs were introduced into California it was found necessary to introduce the caprifig (non-edible fig) containing the wasp Blastophaga. Pollination of Yucca.—This is another case of the complete interdependence of a flower and a moth. The large white flowers of this plant emit their perfume especially at night and are visited by a moth (Pronuba yuccasella). The female moth (see YuccaMOTH) collects pollen from the anthers of the flower and kneads it into a pellet about three times the size of its head. It flies to another flower and, piercing the ovary wall with its long ovipositor, lays a few eggs between the ovules. After this it climbs down the style of the hanging flower and presses the ball of pollen into the stigma; by this means fertilisation is ensured. Only a certain proportion of the seeds are destroyed by the developing insects, which, when mature, eat through the fruit wall, drop to the ground and remain dormant in a cocoon until the next flowering season, when the moth emerges. This seems to be the only method of pollination, for in the absence of the moth the plant is said to be completely sterile. Pollination of Orchids.—The orchids show many and complicated adaptations to pollination by insects. A great impetus to their study was given by the publication in 1862 of Darwin’s monograph on the various pollination mechanisms exhibited by this group. As is well known, in this flower there is generally only one stamen, which is two-lobed, and the pollen is in the form of two stalked masses, the pollinia which the insect carries away stuck to its head. As the insect flies away, the pollinia, if not already properly oriented, execute such a movement as brings them into position to touch the stick stigma of the next flower that is visited. There are, however, a great many variations in the details of this process. Nectar is not usually secreted by the orchid flower, but to obtain a sweet juice the insect has to pierce a special tissue, usually that of the labellum (the posterior petal), which is often spur-like. Heterostylism.—In some cases the plant bears more than one

type of flower. The primrose (Primula vulgaris) and the cowslip (P. veris) are dimorphic, i.e., some plants have flowers with a long style bearing a knob-like stigma at the mouth of the corolla tube and the five stamens stand half-way down the tube: in others

172

POLLIO

GAIUS

ASINIUS—POLLOCK

the flower has a short style with a stigma half-way down the tube while the stamens stand at the top. These two types of flower are known as “pin-eyed” or long-styled and “thrum-eyed” or short styled, respectively. From their correspondence in position, the insect tends to transfer pollen from the thrum-eyed to the stigma of the pin-eyed and vice versa. These two types of pollination are spoken of as “legitimate,” and Darwin showed that this type pro-

duces more seed and more vigorous progeny than “illegitimate” pollination of thrum-eyed stigma by thrum-eyed pollen or pin-eyed stigma by pin-eyed pollen. In trimorphic plants such as the loosestrife (Lythrum Salicaria), there are three types of flower, shortstyled, long-styled and those with styles of intermediate length.

In each type the stamens are in two groups of different lengths; in the first type the stamens are long and intermediate, in the second type they are short and intermediate, and in the third they are short and long. Eighteen possible methods of pollination are

possible, six being “legitimate” and 12 “illegitimate.” Legitimate unions are found to yield a larger amount of seed than illegitimate. POLLINATION

BY AGENCIES OTHER INSECTS

THAN

WIND AND

In some water plants the pollen is brought to the stigma by the agency of water. In Najas the pollen grains sink in the water and are caught by the stigma. In the eel-grass (Zostera), the American water-weed (Elodea canadensis), and others, the pollen floats on the surface and so reaches the female flowers. In Vallisneria, the male and female flowers are on separate plants and the male becoming detached and floating free on the surface of the water, may reach and become entangled with the fixed larger female flowers, with the result that the anthers come in contact with the projecting stigmas. In some cases animals other than insects are responsible for pollination. In some countries pollination by birds (humming birds, honeysuckers and sun birds) plays a considerable part. These ornithophilous flowers, as they are called, are not very different from insect flowers, many bird flowers being also visited by insects. A landing place is, however, not necessary, as the birds sip the nectar while hovering. The flowers are scentless, and the styles, stigma and filament often rigid. The colour red seems to be predominant in flowers of this type. Examples of ornithophilous flowers are Strelitzea regina in South Africa, species of Salvia and Erythrina in South America. In Java, species of Freycinetia and in Trinidad Bauhinia megalandra, are said to be pollinated by bats.

SELF POLLINATION (AUTOGAMY) Self pollination is effected in various ways. In the simplest case the anthers are close to the stigmas, covering these with pollen when they open; this occurs in a number of small annual plants, also in Narcissus, Crocus, etc. In snowdrop and other pendulous

flowers the anthers form a cone around the style and the pollen falls on to the underlying stigmas, or in erect flowers the pollen

Cleistogamy.—The

extreme

case

of autogamy

is that of

cleistogamous flowers which must necessarily be self-pollinateg. The sweet violet (Viole odorata), the wood sorrel (Oxalis acetosella), Lamium amplexicauli and other British plants bear, in addition to the ordinary flowers, small bud-like flowers (cleisto-

gamous flowers) which never open. The pollen germinates in the anthers and the pollen tubes pierce the walls and so reach the

stigmas and the ovules are fertilised. Some plants such as Salvig cleistogama produce only cleistogamous flowers. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The

classical compendium

on flower pollination m

English is P. Knuth, Handbook of Floral Pollination (Oxford, 1906, original German edition, 1898-1905). where a great mass of data is brought together. Good brief reviews of the subject are given jp M. Skene, The Biology of Flowering Plants (1924) ; Kerner and Oliver, The Natural History of Plants (1895); the earlier editions (e.g., the

2nd of 1904) of J. C. Willis, A Dictionary of Flowering Plants. Most text books of botany give some review of the subject. The earliest work on the subject was C. K. Sprengel’s book entitled Das entdechie Geheimnis der Natur in Bau und in der Befruchtung der Blumen (Berlin, 1793) ; Sprengel’s first observation in this field was that of the presence of hairs in the throat of the corolla of a species of Geranium, which, he concluded, were for the purpose of preventing the nectar being washed out by rain; from this he was led on to consider the function of corolla markings such as the yellow centre of forget-me-not which he interpreted as honey guides to the insects. For the distinction of flower classes see H. Miiller, The Fertilisation of Flowers (London, 1883). For the colour sense and olfactory sense of bees see K. von Frisch, Der Farbensinn und Formensinn der Biene (Jena, 1914) and Uber den Geruchsinn der Biene (Jena, 1919). For a review of ornithophilous flowers see F. Werth, “Kiirzer Uberblick uber die Gesamtfrage der Ornithophilie,” Bot. Jahrb. (7915). B.)

POLLIO

GAIUS

ASINIUS

(76 3.c-a.v. 5; according to

some, 75 B.C.—A.D. 4), Roman orator, poet and historian. In 54 he impeached unsuccessfully C. Porcius Cato. In the civil war Pollio sided with Caesar, was present at the battle of Pharsalus (48), and commanded against Sextus Pompeius in Spain. He subsequently threw in his lot with M. Antonius, for whom he governed Gallia Transpadana. In superintending the distribution of territory amongst the veterans, he saved Virgil’s property from confiscation. In 40 he helped to arrange the peace of Brundisium by which Octavian (Augustus) and Antonius were for a time reconciled. In the same year he was consul; it was now that Virgil addressed the famous fourth eclogue to him. Next year Pollio conducted a successful campaign against the Parthini, an Illyrian people who adhered to Brutus, and celebrated a triumph on Oct, 25. From the spoils of the war he constructed the first public library at Rome, in the Atrium Libertatis, also erected by him (Pliny, Nat. hist. xxxv. 10). Thenceforward he withdrew from active life and devoted himself to literature. He seems to have maintained an attitude of independence, if not of opposition, towards Augustus. He died in his villa at Tusculum, regretted and esteemed by all.

Pollio was a distinguished orator; his speeches showed ingenuity and care, but were marred by an affected archaism (Quintilian,

may fall on to the stigmas which lie directly beneath the opening anthers (e.g., Narthecium). In very many cases the pollen is carried to the stigma by elongation, curvature or some other movement of the filament, the style or stigma, or some other part of the flower, or by correlated movements of two or more parts. For

Virgil (cl. viii. 10) declared to be worthy of Sophocles, and a prose history of the civil wars of his time from the first trium-

instance, in many flowers the filaments are first directed outwards so that self pollination is not possible, but later incline towards the stigmas and pollinate them (e.g., numerous Saxifragaceae, Cruciferae and others); or the style which first projects beyond the anthers, shortens later on, so that the anthers come into contact with the stigmas (e.g., species of Cactaceae); or the style

See Plutarch, Caesar, Pompey; Vell. Pat. ii. 36, 63, 73, 76; Florus iv. 12, 11; Dio Cassius xlv. ro, xlviii. 15; Appian, Bell. civ.; V. Gardthausen, Augustus und seine Zeit (1891), i.; P. Groebe, in Pauly-Wis-

bends so that the stigma is brought within the range of the pollen (e.g., species of Oenothera, Epilobium, most Malvaceae, etc.). In Mirabilis Jalapa and others the filaments and styles finally be-

inst. x. I, 113; Seneca, Ep. 100). He wrote tragedies also, which

virate (60) down to the death of Cicero (43) or later. His writ-

ings are lost except a few fragments of his speeches (H. Meyer, Orat. = frag., 1842), and three letters to Cicero (Ad. Fam. X. 31-33).

sowa’s Realencyclopädie (1896), ii, pt. 2; Teuffel-Schwaben, Hist. of

Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), § 221; M. Schanz, Geschichte der römischen Literatur, pt. 2, p. 20 (2nd ed., 1899); Cicero, Letters, ed. Tyrrell and Purser, vi. introd. p. 80; E. D. Pierce, A Roman Man of Letters (New York, 1922).

come intertwined, so that pollen is brought in contact with the

POLLOCK, the name of a great English legal family. The

end of the life of a flower which during its earlier stages has been capable only of cross-pollination. This is well seen in the case of the flowers of the Compositae, where the stigma lobes later bend round and come in contact with the pollen held by the brush of the

well-known members are: SIR JONATHAN FREDERICK POLLOCK (1783-1870), chief baron of the exchequer. Born on Sept. 23, 1783 in London, the son of David Pollock, saddler, of Charing Cross, he was educated at St. Paul’s and Trinity college, Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1809. He took silk in 1827, and in 183: was member of parliament for Huntingdon. He was

stigma. Self-pollination frequently becomes possible towards the

style below.

POLL-TAX—POLO attorney-general under Peel in 1834, and again in 1841; in 1844

he succeeded Abinger as chief baron of the exchequer, and sat until 1866, when he retired. He died at Hatton, Middlesex, on

Aug. 23, 1870. His greatest judicial triumph was in Egerton v. Brownlow. See Sir F. Pollock (2nd Bart.) and article in the Dict. Nat. Biog.

Personal Reminiscences

(1887),

SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK (1845), born on Dec. ro, 1845, was educated at Eton and Trinity college, Cambridge. He was called to the bar in 1871, and was Corpus professor of Jurisprudence at Oxford from 1883—1903. In 1914 he became judge

of the admiralty court of Cinque ports, and in 1920 he was

173

tion of thermionic valves.

Caesium oxide (Cs.0) is present to

the extent of 30%-36%, the amount varying somewhat owing to partial replacement by other alkalis, chiefly sodium. It crystallizes in the cubic system, it is colourless and transparent, and has a vitreous lustre. There is no distinct cleavage, and the fracture is conchoidal, so that the mineral closely resembles quartz in general appearance. The hardness is 64 and the specific gravity 2-90. It occurs sparingly, together with the mineral “castor” (see PETALITE), in cavities in the granite of Elba, and with beryl in pegmatite veins at Andover and Hebron in Maine. (L. J. S.)

POLO,

MARCO

(c. 1254-1324), Venetian traveller, was

grandson of Andrea Polo of San Felice, and son of Nicolo Polo. made a King’s Counsel. His legal textbooks are standard works: The three Polos were presumably “noble,” for Marco the traveller he wrote some of the legal articles in the Encyclopedia Britannica. is officially so styled (nobilis vir). The three sons of Andrea Polo His works include Digest of tha Law of Partnership (1877); now were engaged in commerce; the eldest suggests, by his will, a long the Partnership Act; Law of Torts (1887, 2nd ed., 1923); Possession in the Common Law (with Wright, 1888); History of English Law business partnership with Nicolo and Maffeo. About 1260, Nicolo with his wife and Maffeo were at Constan(with Maitland, 1895); and many other, including an edition of Selden’s Table Talk (Selden Soc. 1927). tinople. The two brothers were led in their trading operations to POLL-TAX. A tax levied on the individual, and not on the Crimea, and eventually to Bukhara, where they joined some property or on articles of merchandise, so-called from the old envoys returning from a mission from Kubla Khan, with whom English poll, a head. Raised thus per capita, it is sometimes they journeyed to Cathay. (See CHINA.) It was the first time called a capitation tax. The most famous poll-tax in English his- that the khan had met Europeans and he was delighted with the tory is the one levied in 1380, which led to the revolt of the peas- Venetian brothers, whom he sent back to the pope, with letters ants under Wat Tyler in 1381, but the first instance of the kind requesting the despatch of a body of educated men to instruct was in 1377, when a tax of a groat a head was voted by both clergy his people in Christianity and the liberal arts. Kubla saw the and laity. In 1379 the tax was again levied, but on a graduated value of Christianity as a political weapon, and it was only when scale. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, paid ten marks, and the Rome failed him that he fell back upon Buddhism as his chief scale descended from him to the peasants, who paid one groat civilizing instrument. On arriving at Aere in April 126ọ, the brothers learnt that no each, every person over 16 years of age being liable. In 1380 the tax was also graduated, but less steeply. For some years after new pope had been appointed after the death of Clement IV. in the rising of 1381 money was only raised in this way from aliens, the previous year; they therefore returned to Venice. The papal but in 1513 a general poll-tax was imposed. This, however, only interregnum being exceptionally long the brothers resolved after produced about £50,000, instead of £160,000 as was expected, but two years, to start again for the East, taking with them Nicolo’s a poll-tax levied in 1641 resulted in a revenue of about £400,600. son, Marco. They were furnished with letters authenticating their During the reign of Charles II., money was obtained in this way delay, but hearing of the papal election soon after their start, they on several occasions, although in 1676-77 especially there was a returned to execute Kubla’s mission. The new pope, however, good deal of resentment against the tax. For some years after could supply but two Dominicans, who soon lost heart and turned 1688 poll-taxes were a favourite means of raising money for the back. Leaving Aere about Nov. 1271, Polo’s book indicates that the prosecution of the war with France. Sometimes a single payment was asked for the year; at other times quarterly payments were party proceeded to Hormuz (Hurmuz) at the mouth of the Perrequired. The poll-tax of 1697 included a weekly tax of one penny sian gulf, with the purpose of going on to China by sea; but that, from all persons not receiving alms. In 1698 a quarterly poll-tax abandoning their plans, they returned northward through Persia. produced £321,397. Nothing was required from the poor, and Traversing Kerman and Khurasan they went on to Balkh and those who were hable may be divided roughly into three classes. Badakshan and ascended the upper Oxus through Wakhan to Persons worth less than £300 paid one shilling; those worth £300, the plateau of Pamir (a name first heard in Marco’s book). including the gentry and the professional classes, paid 20 shillings; These regions were hardly described again by any European while tradesmen and shopkeepers paid ten shillings. Non-jurors traveller (save Benedict Goes) till the expedition in 1838 of were charged double these rates. Like previous poll-taxes, the Lieut. John Wood of the Indian navy. Crossing the Pamir the tax of 1698, the last, did not produce as much as was anticipated. travellers descended upon Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan (KhuMany of the states of the United States of America raise tan). These are regions which remained almost absolutely closed money by levying poll-taxes, or, as they are usually called, capita- to our knowledge till after 1860, when the temporary overthrow of tion taxes, the payment of this tax being a necessary preliminary the Chinese power, and the enterprise of British, Russian and other explorers, again made them known. to the exercise of the suffrage. See S. Dowell, History of Taxation and Taxes in England (1888), From Khotan the Polos passed on to the vicinity of Lop-Nor, vol. iii, and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History (1896), vol. ii. (For reached for the first time since Polo’s journey by Prjevalsky Am. Tax see C. B. Fullebrown, Taxation, 1914; E. R. Seligman, Essays in 1871. Thence the desert of Gobi was crossed to Tangut, the in Taxation, 1925.) region at the extreme north-west of China, within and without POLLUX, IULIUS, of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek gram- the Wall. In his account of the Gobi, or desert of Lop, as he marian and sophist of the 2nd century a.D. He taught at Athens, calls it, Polo describes the waste, strikingly reproducing the dewhere, according to Philostratus (Vit. Soph.), he was appointed scription of the superstitious terrors of Suan T’sang, who crossed to the professorship of rhetoric by the emperor Commodus on the desert six hundred years earlier. account of his melodious voice. His only surviving work is the Early in 1275 the Venetians were cordially received by the Onomasticon, a Greek dictionary in ten books, which supplies Great Khan at Shangtu, and Marco made rapid progress. The much rare and valuable information on classical antiquity. “young bachelor” studied the languages of the Khan’s subjects The chief editions of the Onomasticon are those of W. Dindorf and soon entered the public service. G. Pauthier found in the (1824), with the notes of previous commentators, I. Bekker (1846), Chinese annals a record that in 1277 a certain Polo was nomicontaining the Greek text only, and Bethe (1900). There are monogtaphs on special portions of the vocabulary; by E. Rohde (on the nated as a second-class commissioner or agent attached to the theatrical terms, 1870), and F. von Stojentin (on constitutional imperial council, a passage which we may apply to the young antiquities, 1875). Venetian. On his public missions he travelled through the provPOLLUX or POLLUCITE, a rare mineral, consisting of inces of Shansi, Shensi, and Szechuen, and the wild country on hydrous caesium and aluminium silicate, H.Cs,Al,(SiO,)., and, the borders of Tibet, to the remote province of Yunnan, called being the richest source of caesium, in demand for the construc- by the Mongols Karajang, and northern Burma (Mien). Marco,

174

POLO

during bis stay at court, had observed the khan’s interest in strange countries, and his disgust at the stupidity of envoys and commissioners who could tell of nothing but their official business. He made notes on facts likely to interest Kubla, which, on his return, he related. He encountered many semi-civilized and barbarous tribes, many of which interested Kubla greatly. Marco rose rapidly in favour and was often employed on distant missions as well as in domestic administration; he held for three years the government of Yangchow; on another occasion he visited Kangchow, the capital of Tangut, just within the Great Wall, and perhaps Karakorum on the north of the Gobi, the former residence of the Great Khans: also Ciampa, or southern CochinChina; and perhaps, once more, on a separate mission to the southern states of India. We are not informed whether his father and uncle shared in such employments, though they rendered great service to the khan, in forwarding the capture of Siang-yang (on the Han river) during the war against southern China, by the construction of powerful artillery engines—a story, however, perplexed by chronological difficulties. The Polos had become rich, and after their exile they began to dread what might follow Kubla’s death. The khan, however, was deaf to suggestions of departure and the opportunity only came by chance. Arghun, khan of Persia, a grand-nephew of Kubla, lost in 1286 his favourite wife. Her dying injunction was that her place should be filled only by a lady of her own Mongol tribe. Ambassadors were despatched to the court of Peking to obtain one. The lady Cocacin (Kukachin), a maiden of seventeen, was chosen. The overland road from Peking to Tabriz was then imperilled by war, and Arghun’s envoys proposed to return by sea. Having met the Venetians, and being eager to profit by their experience, they begged the khan to send the Franks in their company. He fitted out the party nobly for the voyage, sending friendly messages to the potentates of Christendom, including the pope, and the kings of France, Spain and England. They sailed from Zaiton or Amoy harbour in Fukien (probably the modern Changchow), then one of the chief Chinese havens for foreign trade, in 1292. The voyage involved long detention on the coast of Sumatra, and in south India, and two years or more passed before they arrived in Persia. Two of the three envoys and most of their suite died by the way; but the three Venetians survived all perils, and so did the young lady, who had come to look on them with filial regard. Arghun Khan had died before they left China; his brother reigned in his stead; and his son Ghazan married the lady. The Polos went on by Tabriz, Trebizond, Constantinople and Negropont to Venice, arriving about the end of 1295. The first biographer of Marco Polo was John Baptist Ramusio, who wrote more than two centuries after the traveller’s death. We need not hesitate to accept as a genuine tradition the substance of his story of the Polos’ arrival at their family mansion in St. John Chrysostom parish in worn and outlandish garb, of the scornful denial of their identity, and the stratagem by which they secured acknowledgment from Venetian society. We next hear of Marco Polo in a militant capacity. Jealousies had been growing between Venice and Genoa throughout the 13th century. In 1298 the Genoese prepared to strike at their rivals on their own ground, and a powerful fleet under Lamba Doria made for the Adriatic. Venice equipped a larger fleet under Andrea Dandolo. The crew of a Venetian galley at this time amounted to 250 men, under a comito or master. On one of the galleys of Dandolo’s fleet Marco Polo served as sopracomito or gentleman commander. The hostile fleets met before Curzola Island on Sept. 6, and engaged next morning. The battle ended in victory for Genoa, and Marco Polo was taken there as a prisoner. The captivity lasted less than a year, and Marco returned to Venice in July or August 1299. His captivity was the immediate cause of his Book. Up to this time he had related his experiences among his friends; and from these stories he had acquired the nickname of Marco Millioni. Yet he had written nothing. The narratives not only of Marco Polo but of other famous mediaeval travellers seem to have been extorted from them by pressure, and written down by other

hands. In the prison of Genoa Marco Polo met Rusticiano or Rustichello of Pisa, also a captive of the Genoese, who was a respectable literary hack; he wrote down Marco’s experiences at his dictation. We learn little of Marco Polo’s history after this captivity: at his death he left a wife, Donata, and three daughters, Fantina, Bellela and Moreta. One last glimpse of the traveller is gathered from his will. On Jan. 9, 1324, he sent for a priest and notary to make his testament, and died the same day. He was buried, ac. cording to his wish, in the Church of St. Lorenzo. The archives of

Venice have yielded a few traces of our traveller. Besides his own will just alluded to, there are the wills of his uncles, Marco and Maffeo; a few legal documents connected with the house property in St. John Chrysostom, and two or three entries in the record of the Maggior Consiglio. Another document is a catalogue of curiosities and valuables in the house of Marino Faliero, which mentions

several objects that Marco Polo had given to one of the Faliero family. The most tangible record of Polo’s memory in Venice is a portion of the Ca’ Polo—the mansion where the three travellers, after their long absence, were denied entrance. The court in which it stands was known in Ramusio’s time as the Corte del millioni, and now is called Corte Sabbionera. That which remains of the ancient edifice is a passage with a decorated 13th century archway. No genuine portrait of Marco Polo exists. There is a medallion portrait dated 1761 on the wall of the Sala dello Scudo in the ducal palace. The oldest professed portrait is one in the gallery of Monsignor Badia at Rome, which is inscribed Marcus Polus venetus totius orbis et Indie peregrator primus. It is a good picture, but of the 16th century. The Europeans at Canton have absurdly attached the name of Marco Polo to a figure in a Buddhist temple there containing a gallery of ‘“Arhans” or Buddhist saints, and popularly known as the “‘temple of the five hundred gods.” The Venetian municipality obtained a copy of this on the occasion of the geographical congress at Venice in 1881. Polo was the first traveller to trace a route across the whole longitude of Asia, describing kingdoms which he had seen; the first to speak of the court at Peking; the first to reveal China in its wealth and vastness, and to tell of the nations on its borders; the first to tell more of Tibet than its name, to speak of Burma, Laos, Siam, Cochin-China, Japan, Java, Sumatra, etc.; the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, Ceylon, India, but as a country seen and partially explored; the first in mediaeval times to give any distinct account of the Empire of Abyssinia, and of the island of Sokotra, and to mention Zanzibar and Madagascar; whilst he carries us also to the remotely opposite region of Siberia and the Arctic shores, to speak of dog-sledges, white bears and reindeerriding Tunguses. Within the traveller’s own lifetime, we find the earliest examples of the practical and truly scientific coast-charts (Portolant), based upon the experience of pilots, mariners, merchants etc. In two of the most famous of the 14th century Portolani, we trace Marco Polo’s influence—in the Laurentian or Medicean Portolano of 1351 (at Florence), and in the Catalan Atlas of 1375 (now at Paris). Both represent a very advanced stage of mediaeval knowledge, a careful attempt to represent the known world on the basis of collected fact, and a disregard for theological or pseudo-scientific theory; in the Catalan Ailas, as regards Central and Further Asia, and partially as regards India, Marco Polo’s Book is the basis of the map. His names are often much perverted, and it is not always easy to understand the view that the compiler took of his itineraries. Still we have Cathay placed in the true position of China, as a great empire filling the southeast of Asia. The trans-Gangetic peninsula is absent, but India proper is for the first time represented with a fair approximation

to correct form and position. The map of Fra Mauro (1459) gives a much less accurate idea of Asia than the Carta catalana.

Columbus possessed a copy of the Latin version of Polo’s book made by Pipino, and on many pages of this there are manuscript

notes in the admiral’s handwriting, testifying to the influence of the work of the Venetian merchant upon the discoverer of the new world. As to the alleged introduction of important inven-

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6. The beginning of a run by the Argentine team against the Quidnuncs in a Whitney Cup final 7. A throw-in to restart the game

POLO tions into Europe by Polo—although the striking resemblance early European block-books to those of China seems clearly indicate the derivation of the art from that country, there is reason for connecting this introduction (any more than that

of to no of

gunpowder or the mariner’s compass) with the name of Marco.

In the 14th century not only were missions of the Roman Church established in eastern China, but a regular overland trade was carried on between Italy and China. Many a traveller other than Marco Polo might have brought home the block-books, and some

might have witnessed the process of making them. This is the less to be ascribed to Polo, because he so curiously omits to speak of the process of printing, when, in describing the block-printed paper money of China, his subject seems absolutely to challenge

a description of the art.

The book indited by Rusticiano is in two parts. The first, or pro-

logue, as it is termed, is unfortunately the only part which consists of

actual personal narrative.

It relates the circumstances which led the

two elder Polos to the khan’s court, together with those of their second journey (when accompanied by Marco), and of the return to the west

by the Indian seas and Persia. The second part consists of a series of

chapters of unequal length and unsystematic structure, descriptive of the different states and provinces of Asia (certain African islands and regions included), with occasional notices of their sights and products, of curious manners and remarkable events, and especially regarding the Emperor Kubla, his court, wars and administration. A series of chapters near the close treats of sundry wars that took place between various branches of the house of Jenghiz in the latter half of the 13th century. There is now no doubt that the original was written in French. A manuscript in rude and peculiar French, belonging to the National Library of Paris (Fonds Fr. 1116), which was printed by the Société de géographie in 1824, is evidently either the original or a close transcript. It shows characteristics of the unrevised product of dictation which would necessarily have disappeared in a translation or revised copy. Eighty-five mss. of the book are known, and their texts exhibit considerable differences. For a discussion of these see the authorities quoted in the bibliography. We know from Gilles Mallet’s catalogue of the books collected in the Louvre by Charles V., dating c. 1370-75, that five copies of Marco Polo’s work were then in the collection; but on the other hand, the 202 known mss. and the numerous early printed editions of “Mandeville,” with his lying wonders, indicates a much greater popularity. Dante, who lived twenty-three years after the book was dictated, never alludes to Polo; nor can any trace of Polo be discovered in the book of his contemporary, Marino Sanudo the Elder, though he is well acquainted with the work of Hayton the Armenian. “Mandeville” himself, who plundered right and left, hardly ever plunders Polo. The only literary works we know of the r4th century which show acquaintance with Polo’s book or achievements are Pipino’s Chronicle, Villani’s Florentine History, Pietro d’Abano’s Conciliator, the Chronicle of John of Ypres, and the poetical romance of Baudouin de Sebouro. BIBLIoGRAPHY.—The Recueil of the Paris Geographical Society (1824), vol. i, giving the text of the fundamental ms. (Nat. Libr. Paris, Fr. 1116; see above), as well as that of the oldest Latin version; G. Pauthier’s edition, Livre ... de Marco Polo ... (Paris, 1865), based mainly upon the three Paris mss. (Nat. Libr. Fr. 2810; Fr. 5632; Fr. 5649; see above) and accompanied by a commentary of great value; Baldelli-Boni’s Italian edition, giving the oldest Italian version (Florence, 1827) ; Sir Henry Yule’s edition, which in its final shape, as revised and augmerted by Henri Cordier (. .. Marco Polo ... London, 1903), is the most complete storehouse of Polo learning in exist-

ence, embodying the labours of all the best students of the subject, and giving the essence of such works as those of Major P. Molesworth Sykes (Ten Thousand Miles in Persia, etc.) so far as these touch Marco Polo; the Archimandrite Palladius Katharov’s “Elucidations of Marco Polo” from vol. x. of the Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1876), pp. 1-54; F. von Richthofen, Letters to Shangai Chamber of Commerce; E. C. Baber, Travels . . . in Western China; G. Phillips, Identity of . . . Zaitun with Changchau in T’oung

Pao (Oct. 1890), and other studies in T’oung Pao (Dec. 1895 and July 1896). There are in all ro French editions of Polo as well as 4 Latin

editions, 27 Italian, 9 German, 4 Spanish, 1 Portuguese, 12 English, 2 ussian, I Dutch, xıBohemian (Czech), 1 Danish and r Swedish. See

also E. Bretschneider,

Mediaeval

Researches from Eastern Asiatic

Sources, 1, 239, 167; il. 8, 71, 81-84, 184; Léon Cahun, Introduction a Phistoire de PAsie, 339, 386; C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 15-160, 545-547, 554, 556-563; R. Allulli, Marco Polo

(1923). (H. Y.; X.) POLO, the most ancient of games with stick and ball. Its

name is derived from the Tibetan pulu, a ball. Hockey, the Irish national game of hurling, and possibly golf and cricket, are derived from polo. The latter was called hockey or hurling on horse-

back in England and Ireland respectively, but historically hockey and hurling are polo on foot. The earliest records of polo are Per-

sian, From Persia it spread to Constantinople, eastwards through

175

Turkestan to Tibet, China and Japan. From Tibet polo travelled to Gilgit and Chitral, possibly also to Manipur. Polo also flourished in India in the 16th century. Then for 200 years its records in India cease, till in 1863 polo came into Bengal from Manipur by way of Cachar. Chronology of Modern Polo.—Polo was first introduced to India in 1863 by Maj.-Gen. Sherar. He brought two teams of Manipuri natives from Manipur to Calcutta, where they played an exhibition match. In 1869 polo was brought to England by the roth Hussars. In 1871 the first recorded match took place on Hounslow Heath between the 9th Lancers and the roth Hussars with eight players on each side. An account of this match appeared in the Morning Post in July 1871. In 1873 the numbers on each side were reduced to five. A match under these conditions took place at Lillie Bridge. The first code of rules was drawn up by the committee of the Hurlingham Club in 1874. In 1876 the height of ponies was fixed by Hurlingham at 14-0 hands and the Champion Cup was inaugurated at Hurlingham with five players on each side. In 1877 the first inter-regimental tournament was held in India, and in 1878 at Hurlingham. In the same year the first county cup tournament and the first Oxford v. Cambridge match were held at Hurlingham, and the first All-Ireland open cup at Phoenix park, Dublin. In 1882 the number of players on each side was reduced to four. In 1884 John Watson introduced the back-hand stroke to Hurlingham from India, and placed the players at No. r, No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4 or back, thus laying the foundation of the modern combination game. In 1886 John Watson took the first team to America and won the Westchester Cup. He taught the Americans the back-hand stroke and the rudiments of the combination game. In 1888 the height of ponies in India was raised from 13-2 to 13-3. In 1895 the height of the ponies was raised by the Hurlingham committee to 14-2 and an official measurer appointed. In 1902 an American team first visited England and was defeated by England by two matches to one. In India the height of ponies was raised to 14-1. In 1909 America won the cup at Hurlingham. In 1910 handicapping was introduced into English polo, and offside was abolished. Both these Innovations were copied from America. India adopted these alterations. In rg1z and 1913 England was defeated in America. In 1914 England beat America in America, and brought the cup back. In 1919 the height limit for ponies was abolished. In 1921 America regained the cup from England. In the same year a committee sat in London during the summer and evolved a code of universal rules. This code of rules has been adopted wherever polo'is played, with local modifications as regards height of ponies and the duration of matches. In 1924 and 1927 England was defeated in America. The Game.—A full-sized ground should not exceed 300yds. in length by zooyds. in width, if unboarded; and 3o0oyds. in length by 16oyds. in width, if boarded. The goals are not less than 2s5oyds. apart, and each goal 8yds. wide. Polo is played with four players on each side, on exactly the same principles as hockey or association football. A match lasts about one hour, divided into periods of play; during the intervals ponies are changed. In England seven periods of eight minutes are played for a full match; in America, eight periods of seven-and-a-half minutes. The players are placed at No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, or half-back, and No. 4 or back. So there are two forwards and two backs. But during the course of the game as the players pass the ball to one another these places are being constantly changed. The modern game is a most elastic one, but there should always be one player in each place. Two umpires are required in a first-class match to award the penalties for infringement of the rules, and in an important tournament a referee at the side of the ground decides disputes if the umpires disagree. The

Development

of the Method

of Play.—Previous

to

John Watson’s teaching, the method of play was for one man on each side to be the goalkeeper, and for the others to play forward and to hit the ball when and how they could. He introduced the back-hand stroke, and placed his men at No. 1, No. 2, half-back or No. 3, and back.

He also taught them to combine

and hit to each other. But he taught the game on rather wooden

176

POLO

and inelastic lines. Then the brothers Peat appeared on the scene, and soon found out and demonstrated how to play the game in a more scientific manner and with such success that they won the champion cup at Hurlingham on eight occasions. Then came the era of the Freebooters’, Rugby, Old Cantab and Roehampton teams, and of the various good regimental teams, such as the 7th, roth, 11th, 13th and 2oth Hussars, the 9th and 17th Lancers and the Inniskilling Dragoons. The training both of men and ponies was rapidly improved. A very scientific game was developed, accurate combination being carefully taught; but too much importance was probably directed to defence, the principles of attack not being sufficiently developed.

While this was going on in England, ‘polo was being rapidly improved in India, and many very fine players were produced there. The ponies were then much smaller, and consequently much more easy to train and ride. The grounds are harder and much easier to hit the ball on; also as the game is played in India all the year round far more practice is possible. Everything seemed to be in a satisfactory state as regards the game till 1900, when English polo players got a rude awakening from the American team at Hurlingham, who defeated the English representatives very easily. The Americans had never adopted the offside rule. They consequently developed a very much faster game. They also perfected strokes that had hardly been attempted elsewhere. They met the ball on possible occasions and hit under their ponies’ necks instead of hitting back-handers from the side of the ground. They played a most elastic game, hitting harder and passing more accurately. They had developed the science of the attack, galloped faster, and were much more accurate goal hitters. In rọrọ the Hurlingham Club decided to profit by the lessons learnt from the Americans in 1909, and made two most important alterations in their rules, Offside was abolished and handicapping was introduced. The abolition of offside quickened up the game to a very great extent, and the institution of handicapping resulted in much harder and more even matches. The periods of play were shortened from ten to eight minutes, seven periods being played for a match instead of six. English polo probably reached its zenith in 1914 when the English team which visited America brought the cup back. The Effects of the World War.—Then came the World War which gave a set-back to English polo from which it has not yet recovered. The expenses of polo have vastly increased since the pre-war years. In 1919, owing to the pony wastage of the war, the troubles in Ireland, formerly the chief source of supply of high-class ponies, and the fact that the breeding of ponies in both England and Ireland had almost ceased, it was impossible to supply the demand for 14-3 ponies of the right stamp. This necessitated the abolition of the height limit. The big thoroughbred pony now in use in first-class polo is more expensive to buy, dearer to keep and much more difficult to train and to ride. Also, undoubtedly, the abolition of offside and the institution of handicapping has made the game more expensive. For the handy pony of moderate speed is now quite useless in an ordinary good game, and the handicap entails far more close matches, which means that more ponies are required. In spite of this polo is in a very flourishing condition. In Great Britain it is played at Hurlingham, Ranelagh, Roehampton, and at some 30 county clubs affiliated to the County Polo Association. It is played throughout the British empire, wherever sufficient players can collect together to make up a game. It is played all over India; many of the maharajahs and chiefs keep up teams in the native States. It is played on the Continent, and is fast becoming a national game in the U.S.A. Polo Centres and Tournaments.—London has for a number of years attracted most of the best players of the world. During the season, May 1 to July 31, matches and tournaments for every class of player are held at Hurlingham, Ranelagh and Roehampton. These clubs maintain seven grounds, as well as three at Worcester park as an overflow. Since the war, first-class teams from America, India and the Argentine have taken part in the various tournaments, and as a rule there are two or three first-class

English teams competing in all the principal events such as the

Whitney Cup, the Champion Cup, the Ranelagh Open Cup and the Roehampton Open Cup. The second and third-class players are catered for equally well in a variety of lesser competitions:

the soldiers have their own tournaments, z.¢., the inter-regimenta] at Hurlingham, the Subalterns’ Cup at Ranelagh and the handi-

cap military tournament at Roehampton. The whole organization is well-nigh perfect, controlled by professional polo managers, India has good tournaments at far separated places such as Calcutta, Delhi, Meerut, Amballa, Rawalpindi, etc., but there is no place in India where good polo can be concentrated for a lengthy period as in England. In England a good player can play at Mine. head, Somerset, in April; he can then go to London for May, June and July; then come the county tournaments beginning at Cowdray in Goodwood week, Rugby in the first week in August, Cirencester, Cheltenham, Tidworth, and he can finish up with a month of good games at Minehead. A keen player can, weather permitting, get nearly six months on end of match play. Organization.—The “Hurlingham Club Rules” and the “General and Field Rules of the U.S.A. Polo Association” are now practically identical, and except for minor differences, such as height of ponies and the duration of matches and periods of play, the Hurlingham rules are followed all ‘over the world. The Hurlingham Polo Club committee consists of 38 members: 10 nominated by the Hurlingham Club; 5 by the Army Polo committee; 5 by the Indian Polo Association; 5 by the County Polo Association; 3 by the All-Ireland Polo Club; 2 by the South African Polo Association; 2 by the Egypt, Sudan and Palestine Polo Association; 2 by the New Zealand Polo Association; 2 by the Ranelagh Club; 2 by the Roehampton Club. There are two sub-committees: (1) general purposes, (2) handicapping. Five stewards are appointed annually, whose duties are similar to those of the ‘Stewards of the Jockey Club.” The County Polo Association legislates for

everything connected with county polo clubs in England, and to this body are affiliated practically every polo club in Great Britain. This organization was started in 1899. For the purposes of organization, England and Scotland are divided into four divisions, each with an honorary divisional secretary, viz., Northern, 6 clubs; Midland, ro clubs; SouthEastern, 7 clubs; South-Western, 7 clubs—total 30. The Army Polo Association committee, consisting of five members, is responsible as a sub-committee of the Hurlingham Club for the army organization. The Indian Polo Association, which sends five representatives to serve on the Hurlingham committee, is the governing body of Indian polo. This body organized and despatched the Indian Army teams to America in 1927. Breeding

of Polo Ponies.—The

interest of the breeding of

polo ponies is supervised by the National Pony Society. This society edits a stud book for all kinds of riding ponies, and holds an annual show at the Agricultural Hall, Islington. The society gives prizes and medals at many shows for polo pony classes. It has done for 35 years, and is still doing, a great work for the encouragement of the breeding of the best class of riding pony. Up to the year 1909 nearly all the best polo ponies used in the game were bred in Ireland, England and Australia. The latter were chiefly used in India. In India, until about 1888, country-breds were relied on chiefly, very good animals, not more than 13-2 in height. Then Arabs began to be bred in greater numbers, only to be superseded in their turn by walers from Australia, which were imported in large numbers by dealers to Calcutta and Bombay. When the height was raised to 14-1 in 1902, only the very best Arabs and a few country-breds produced on the Government and regimental farms could compete with the Australian pony in highclass tournaments. Large numbers of easy, handy, rather common ponies were imported from 1892 to about 1909 from the Argentine to England. They were cheap and easy to play, but as a rule rather deficient in pace. Occasionally an absolutely firstclass pony appeared, but they were few and far between. But in the last 20 years the class of pony bred in the Argentine has improved out of all recognition. Several generations of thorough-

bred stallions have been used to such an extent that as good ponies as can be obtained anywhere are produced and exported.

Many quite thoroughbred ponies are bred in the Argentine, and

POLONAISE—-POLOTSK the remainder of the best animals have only a far back strain of the native pony in their pedigree on the dam’s side. The best

E77

£60. In 1891, Egyptian ponies were purchased in Cairo for an average of from £20 to £25. Some of these were sold at Tatter-

times by the following: Foxhall P. Keene, John E. Cowdin, Thomas Hitchcock, R. L. Agassiz, J. M. Waterbury, Jr., Lawrence Waterbury, Harry P. Whitney, Louis E. Stoddard, J. Watson Webb, Malcolm Stevenson, Devereux Milburn and Thomas Hitchcock, Jr. The U.S. Polo Association had in 1928 86 members, these including the U.S. army, the Intercollegiate Association and several others which, in turn, had their member organizations. The handicap list of that year showed a total of 2,572 handicapped players in the country, 1,274 civilians, 1,152 on the army list and 146 on the Intercollegiate list. After America, in 1909, won her first victory in the international series with England, the rules were assimilated. The Americans took over the British rule permitting the hooking of mallets, and

sall’s in 1893 for from 150 to 250 guineas apiece.

In 1897 ata

the English abandoned their offside rules and adopted the handi-

sale at Spring Hill, Rugby, by the brothers Miller, 32 ponies fetched an average of £281, the then record price being reached by Sailor—750 guineas. In 1913, in America, the duke of Westminster’s best ponies were sold at from £600 to £700 apiece. In 1924 the first great rise in prices took place at an auction at Long Island when the English ponies fetched enormous prices. One pony sold for no less than $10,000, ż.e., £2,000. In 1925, the Argentine ponies belonging to an Argentine team which won the

cap system. At the close of the World War in 1918 all effort at limiting the size of ponies was abandoned. At first Americans played with native horses, mainly found in the South-west and descended, in part, from the Spanish barb left by those who penetrated that part of the United States in its early history. To-day, though Texas and Wyoming produce a great many polo horses, the thorough-bred is much in demand, with English and Irish blood prominent in a certain line of mounts. The ponies of Argentina have become perhaps the most popular among the higher-rated players. This is the result of visits to the United States by Argentine teams in 1922 and 1926. (R. F. K.)

ponies are, whatever their nationality, thoroughbred or very nearly so. Probably the ideal breeding is for the sire to be thoroughbred and the dam nearly if not quite thoroughbred of the hardy old Irish stock. The National Pony Society in England, and the polo

breeding societies in America and the Argentine are doing a great work in proving that polo ponies can be bred to type. The Price of Ponies.—The increase in the price of polo ponies is illustrated by the following figures.

In 1890 when the 17th

Lancers left India they sold their very large stud of polo ponies by auction at an average price of about rupees 800, ż.e.,

Champion Cup were sold on the same scale. In 1927 all records

were broken, over $11,500 being paid for a single first-rate pony. BretiocRAPHy.—Accounts of the oriental forms of polo will be found in the following works: Persia: Firdousi’s Shahnama; A. Shirley, Travels in Persia (1569); J. Chardin, Voyages en Perse (1686) ; W. Ouseley, Travels in various countries of the East, particularly Persia (1810). There are many allusions to polo in the poets, notably Nizami, Jami and Omar Khayyam. Constantinople: Cinnamus Joannes epitome rerum ab Ioanne et Alexio Comnenis gest. (Bonn, 1836). India: Azn-7-Akbari (1555); G. F. Vigne, Travels in Kashmir, Ladakh and Iskardo (1842); A. Durand, The Making of a

Frontier (1899). Gilgit and Chitral: “Polo in Baltistan,” The Field (1888). Manipur: W. McCulloch, Account of the valley of Manipore and the Hill Tribes (Calcutta, 1859). China and Japan: H. A. Giles, Advérsaria Sinica (Shanghai, 1905) ; B. H. Chamberlain, Things Japanese (1898) ; the Ku Chin T’u Shu (Encyclopaedia).

For the modern form of the game see J. Moray Brown, Riding and Polo, Badminton Library (revised and brought up to date by T. F. Dale, 1899), and Polo (1896); G. J. Younghusband, Polo in India

(1897), Tournament Polo (1897), Tournament Polo (1904); T. F.

Dale, The Game of Polo (1897); H. de B. de Lisle, Hints to Polo Players in India (1897); T. B. Drybrough, Polo (1898, revised 1906) ; E. D. Miller, Modern Polo (1903); H. L. Fitzpatrick, Equestrian Polo, in Spalding’s Athletic Library (1904); W. Buckmaster, “Hints on Polo Combination,” Library of Sport (1909); W. C. Forbes, As to Polo (1920); W. B. Devereux, Position and Team Play in Polo (1924); Hurlingham Club, Rules of Polo; Register of Ponies; Polo and Riding Pony Society Stud Book (12 volumes). Periodicals: Bailey’s Magazine; The Polo Monthly. The American Polo Association and the Indian Polo Association issue annual publications. (E. D. M.)

United States.—Attack has always been stressed in American play. The system of fractional fouls also aided speed. Instead of stopping the game on a foul, as at present, and allowing a free hit from varying distances for the- goal, a fraction was deducted from the offending side’s score and play continued without a break. In 1888 what has since been regarded as perhaps the most important legislative contribution to the sport came with the first handicapping of players. The game, until that time, had been pretty well monopolized by the better players and H. L. Herbert conceived the idea of the handicap to make possible a Wider spread of play. The handicap, low at the start of a player’s career, increases with his ability. Thus the beginners are

able to play with the more experienced players on a far more even footing. Only the international matches and the open tournaments are played without handicap. In a game the handicaps of all four players are totalled and the team handicaps

compared. One team (unless the totals are even) then receives

the difference in total handicap. The handicapping system almost immediately resulted in new tournaments and new clubs, among them Myopia and the Dedham Polo and Country Club, two of the most famous of the Boston district. Up to 1928 ten goals was the highest rating ever given to a Player. This has been held in the American game at varying

POLONAISE,

a stately ceremonious dance, usually written

in ł time. As a form of musical composition it has been employed by such composers as Bach, Handel, Beethoven, and above all by Chopin. It is usual to date the origin of the dance from the election (1573) of Henry duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. of France, to the throne of Poland. The ladies of the Polish nobility passed in ceremonial procession before him at Cracow to the sound of stately music. This procession to music became the regular opening ceremony at royal functions, and developed into the dance.

The term is also given to a form of skirted bodice, which has been fashionable for ladies at different periods.

POLONIUM,

a radioactive element of atomic number 84

and atomic weight (estimated) of about 210, also known as radium-F since it is one of the decomposition products of radium. (See RADIOACTIVITY.)

POLOTSK, a town of White Russia, at the confluence of the

Polota and Dvina, in 55° 29’ N., 28° 49’ E. Pop. (1926) 21,455. It is on a railway junction and has saw-milling and timber industries and a flour-mill. Its position between central Russia and the west made it a storm centre, and little of the ancient town remains; both the upper castle, which had seven towers, and the lower one are in ruins and its 12th century cathedral fell in ruins in the 18th century. Polotesk or Poltesk is mentioned in 862 as one of the towns

given by the Scandinavian Rurik to his men. In 980 it had a prince of its own, Ragvald (Rogvolod or Rognvald), whose daughter is the subject of many legends. It remained an independent principality until the r2th century, resisting the repeated attacks of the princes of Kiev; those of Pskov, Lithuania, and the Livonian Knights, however, proved more effective, and Polotsk fell under Lithuanian rule in 1320. About 1385 its independence was destroyed by the Lithuanian prince Vitovt. It was five times besieged by Moscow in rs500~18, and was taken by Ivan the Terrible in 1563. Recaptured by Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, 16 years later, it became Polish by the treaty of x582. It was then a large and populous city, and carried on an active commerce. Pestilences and conflagrations were its ruin; the plague of 1566 wrought great havoc among its inhabitants, and that of 1600 destroyed 15,000. The castles, the town and its walls were burned in 1607 and 1642. The Russians continued their attacks, burning and plundering the town, and twice, in 1633 and 1705, taking possession of it for a few years. It was not definitely annexed to Russia until 1772, after the first dismemberment of Poland. In 1812 its inhabitants resisted the French

POLTAVA—POLYBIUS

178

invasion, and the town was partially destroyed.

POLTAVA,

a former government of Russia, now in the

Ukrainian S.S.R. (g.v.).

POLTAVA, a town in the Ukrainian S.S.R., on the right bank

of the Vorskla river, in 49° 36’ N., 34° 35’ E. Pop. (1926) 88,749. It is the centre of an agricultural district in which grains, sugar-beet, tobacco, vines and orchard fruits are grown. Leather is the chief manufacture, and there is an annual fair for the sale of skins, leather and leather goods. Other industries include smelting, stocking manufacture, distilling and brewing. The town is on the railway and is a grain collecting centre. The Russian annals mention Poltava in 1174 under the name of Ltava. In 1430 it was given, together with Glinsk, to the Tatar prince Leksada by Gedimin, prince of Lithuania. Under the Cossack chief, Bogdan Chmielnicki, it was the chief town of the Poltava “regiment.”

Very frequently polyandry is modified in a monogamous direction, one, usually the first, husband being the chief husband: nay, in various cases any other man with whom he shares his wife acts as husband and master of the house only during the absence of the true lord. Where fraternal polyandry prevails the eldest brother is commonly regarded as the principal husband: he chooses the wife, and the contract he makes may implicitly confer matrimonial rights on all the other brothers. Among many

polyandrous peoples the various husbands live or cohabit with their common wife in turn; and if they are brothers the eldest one is sometimes expressly said to take the lead.

Among many polyandrous peoples there are said to be more men than women, and their polyandry has in several cases been directly attributed to this fact; and even if some of these state. ments, in the absence of statistical data, are more or less hypo-

Peter the Great defeated Charles of Sweden in the neighbourhood of Poltava in 1709.

thetical, there are others the accuracy of which is past all doubt,

POLTERGEIST: see Psycuicat REsearcH, POLTORATSK: see ASHKHABAD. POLYAENUS, a Macedonian, who lived at Rome as a

Tibet it has been said to obtain as a necessary institution, serving the end of checking the increase of population in regions from

rhetorician and pleader in the 2nd century A.D. When the Parthian War (162—5) broke out, Polyaenus dedicated to the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus a work, still extant, called Strategica or Strategemata, a historical collection of stratagems and maxims of strategy written in Greek and strung together in the form of anecdotes. It is not strictly confined to warlike stratagems, but includes also examples of wisdom, courage and cunning drawn from civil and political life. The work is divided into eight books (parts of the sixth and seventh are lost), and originally contained goo anecdotes, of which 833 are extant. His works on Macedonia, on Thebes, and on tactics (perhaps identical with the Strategica) are lost. The best edition of the text is Wölfflin and Melber (Teubner Series, 1887, with bibliography and editio princeps of the Strategemata of the emperor Leo); annotated editions by Isaac Casaubon (1589) and A. Coraés (1809); I. Melber, Ueber die Quellen und Werth der Strategemensammlung Polyäns (1885); Knott, De fide et fontibus Polyaeni (1883), Eng. trans. by R. Shepherd (1793).

POLYANDRY, the system under which a woman is married to several men at the same time (Gr. moħús, many, and drip, man). Cases of it have been noticed among certain South American Indians, and in North America among some Eskimo, the Tlingit, the Aleut and the Kaniagmiut on the Alaskan coast. In an old description of the conquest of the Guanches in the Canary islands in 1402 it is said that in the Island of Lancerote most of

the women have three husbands, “who wait upon them alternately by months.” Sporadic cases of polyandry have been found in Madagascar, among a few peoples on the African continent, in some places of the Malay archipelago and among certain South Sea islanders; while in the Marshall islands and the Marquesas it has been practised on a much larger scale. In Tibet polyandry has prevailed from time immemorial, the husbands being as a rule brothers, who live together with their common wife as members of the same household. Fraternal polyandry is more or less frequent in vast districts of the Himalayan region from Assam to the dependencies of Kashmir, chiefly among people of Tibetan affinities, and in South India, where its prevalence among the Todas of the Nilgiri hills has attracted special attention; and it existed throughout the interior of Ceylon until it was prohibited by the British Government about the year 1860. Among the Nayars or Nairs of Cochin, Malabar and Travancore we meet with polyandrous unions of a different, non-fraternal type, the prevalence of which has been testified by a large number of travellers from the beginning of the 15th century onwards. According to Nayar usage every girl, before she attained puberty, was subjected to a certain marriage ceremony, after which the nominal husband went his way and she was allowed to cohabit with any Brahman or Nayar she chose; usually she had several lovers, who cohabited with her by agreement among themselves but did not live with her. Strabo asserts that polyandry prevailed

in Arabia Felix, and some modern scholars think that they have found confirmation of this statement in Sabian and Minaean inscriptions.

But polyandry has also been traced to economic

motives.

In

which emigration is difficult and also keeping the family property together; and similar reasons have been assigned for polyandry in Ladakh, Bhutan, South India and Ceylon. The polyandry of the Tibetans, the Himalayans and some peoples in the south of India seems also to be partly due to the dangers or difficulties

which would surround a woman left alone in her home during the prolonged absence of her husband. The peculiar polyandry of the Nayars is most probably connected with their military organization, which prevented them living the ordinary life of a husband and father of a family. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Census of India, 1901 and 19113 W. H. R. Rivers, The Todas (1906); E. Thurston, Ethnographic Notes in Southern India (1906); H. Miiller, Untersuchungen uber die Geschichte der polyandrischen Eheformen in Stidindien (1909); L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, The Cochin Tribes and Castes, vols. i. and ii. (19091912); E. Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage, vol. iii. bibl. (1921); R. Briffault, Tke Mothers, vol. i. bibl. (1927). (E. W.)

POLYANTHUS, one of the oldest of the florists’ flowers, is

probably derived from P. variabilis, itself a cross between the common primrose and the cowslip; it differs from the primrose in having the umbels of flowers carried upon a stalk. The florists’ polyanthus has a golden margin, and is known as the gold-laced polyanthus. The chief properties are a clear, unshaded, blackish or reddish ground colour, an even margin or lacing of yellow extending round each segment and cutting through its centre down to the ground colour, and a yellow band surrounding the tube of exactly the same hue as the yellow of the lacing. The plants are quite hardy, and grow best in strong, loamy soil tolerably well

enriched with well-decayed dung and leaf-mould; they should be planted about the end of September or not later than October. For the flower borders what are called fancy polyanthuses are adopted. These are best raised annually from seed, the young crop each year blooming in succession. See T. W. Sanders, Encyclopaedia of Gardening (1912) ; L. H. Bailey, Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (1914—27).

POLYBIUS

(c. 201-c.

120 »B.C.), Greek historian, was

born at Megalopolis in Arcadia, being the son of Lycortas, tht friend and successor of Philopoemen as leader of the Achaean League. The precise dates of his birth and death are not known, but they can be inferred approximately. We have his own statement (xxiv. 6) that in 181 3.c., when he was appointed along with Lycortas and Aratus as an ambassador to Egypt, he was

still under the legal age, which appears to have been 30 (xxix. 9). According to Cicero, Ad Fam. v. 12, Polybius wrote a special his-

tory of the Numantine War, which ended in 132 3.c. Lastly in Lucian, Macrob. 22 we read that he died in consequence of a fall from his horse at the age of 82. The more notable events of his life may be briefly stated. On the death of Philopoemen in Messenia (182 B.C.) he took a leading part in conveying home the urn which contained his ashes (Plu-

tarch, Philopoem. 21). In 169, during the war between the Romans and Perseus of Macedonia, when it was decided to send an Achaean force to assist the consul Q. Marcius, Polybius was appointed to command

the cavalry.

He was among the envoys

POLYBIUS sent to consult with the consul, and, although the proffered

179

tific school, it follows that the chief interest lies, not in the assistance was declined, he remained for a time in the Roman question of origins, in the legendary or semi-legendary traditions, camp (xxviii. 13). The turning point in his life came when by which states or nations, like individuals, when they have Perseus was finally defeated by the Romans at Pydna in 168. achieved greatness, are fain to decorate their origins, but in the Polybius was one of 1,000 leading Achaeans who were carried actual transactions of historical times, the plain matters of fact to Rome, at the instigation of Callicrates, on the charge of having which appeal to the plain man. This seems to be undoubtedly been lukewarm in their support of the Roman cause. what Polybius means by the term “pragmatic” by which he sevWhile the others were distributed among the Italian towns, eral times characterizes his History. Thus in criticizing PhyPolybius was allowed, through the influence of L. Aemilius Paul- larchus he writes (ii. 56. 7. seg.): “Endeavouring to excite his lus, and his sons Fabius (Q. Fabius Maximus Aemilianus) and readers to pity and to make them sympathetic with his narrative, Scipio (P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus minor) to remain in Rome he introduces embracing of wives, disordered hair, baring of (xxxii. 9., Pausan. vii. 10. 2). With Scipio he formed a close breasts, tears and lamentations of men and women haled away friendship and to his influence with Scipio it was due that in sx with their children and aged parents. This he does throughout p.c., the remnant of the Achaean exiles obtained permission to his whole history, seeking always to giye a vivid picture of horreturn to their homes (xxxv. 6). Polybius himself, after a short rors. The ignoble femininity of this design may be left out of the stay in Achaea, joined Scipio in Africa in 147 and was present at question; but we must consider what is proper and profitable in the siege and destruction of Carthage in 146. Meanwhile the history. It is the function of the historian not to astonish his mistaken attempt of the Achaean League to assert its independ- readers by prodigies nor to hunt up all possible tales and recount ence of Rome had ended in disaster and the remaining public all the concomitants of his subjects, as tragedians do, but to work of Polybius was devoted to alleviating so far as possible narrate in their verity the things actually done and said, how for his counirymen the consequences of their policy, and to modest soever they may be. For the end of history is not identical facilitating the establishment of order under the new régime with that of tragedy, but quite the contrary. In tragedy the end xl, 8-10). is by the most plausible language to astonish and move the The as in which he accomplished this was such as to earn audience temporarily. In history the end is by real facts and real the gratitude of his compatriots, as was attested by the statues speeches to instruct and persuade for all time the lovers of erected in his honour at Mantineia (Pausan. viii. 9. 1.), Pal- knowledge: since in the former the leading motive is the plausible, lantium (Pausan. viii. 44. 5), Tegea (Pausan. viii. 48. 8), Megal- even if the plausible be false, for the deception of the spectators; opolis (Pausan. viii. 30. 8)—where the inscription recorded that in the latter the leading motive is truth for the benefit of the stuhe “had roamed over all the earth and sea, and had been the ally dent.” of the Romans and had made them cease from their anger against What Polybius himself means by “Pragmatic history” (i. 2. Greece”—Acacesium, the inscription declaring that “Hellas would Tocakal wndika ouuBadrecGar wepuxe Trois pidouabotory 6 Tis never have come to grief, if she had obeyed Polybius in all things, mpayparıkis teroplas Trpóros) is illustrated by his remarks (iii. and, having come to grief, she found succour through him alone” 47) on those who have written of Hannibal’s crossing of the (Pausan. viii. 87. 2). The base of a statue erected to him by Alps: “Wishing to astonish their readers by their marvellous Elis was discovered at Olympia in 1877 with the inscription: account of the localities, they fall into two faults which are most ù róis y “HAelwy TloAvBiov Avedpra MeyandoroxXirnp. foreign to all history; for they are compelled to tell falsehoods The Histories (‘Ioropiat), on which his reputation as a historian (Wevdodoyetv) and to contradict themselves. On the one hand now rests, were In 40 books. Of these the first five are extant. they introduce Hannibal as a general of inimitable daring and For the remaining books we have excerpts from a collection of prudence, while they show him admittedly the most imprudent; passages from the Greek historians, which was made by the order and on the other hand, unable to reach a dénouement or an issue of Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 1oth century; excerpts from their own mendacity, they introduce into pragmatic history of vi-xvili. contained in another compilation of uncertain date, gods and the children of gods. . . . Ignorant of these things they first printed at Basle in 1549; and a fragment of xi., 13~16, in say that a hero (że. a demigod) appeared and showed the Carthaginians the roads. Hence, naturally, they find themselves a Berlin papyrus (3rd century A.D.). The original intention of Polybius was to narrate the history in the same position as the writers of tragedies. For the dénoueof the 53 years (220-168 B.c.)—from the beginning of the Han- ments of their dramas need a god and a machine, because their nibalic War to the defeat of Perseus at Pydna—in which Rome first premises are false and contrary to reason; and historians made herself mistress of the world. The first two books are must be in like case and must represent gods and heroes appearing prefatory—a “preparation” (arpoxaracxevy I. 3)—dealing with when their premises are improbable and false.” Polybius (iii. 6) insists on the distinction between the remoter the earlier history of Rome, the first Punic War, and contemporary events in other parts of the world. But the opening chapter causes (airiai) of events and their immediate origins (4pxai) and of Book III. indicates an intention to modify his original plan in the same spirit he emphasizes the necessity of taking a comby adding an account of the manner in which the Romans exer- prehensive or synoptic view of history, regarding history as a cised their supremacy down to the destruction of Carthage in unity in so far as the interests of different nations mutually 146 B.c. Thus the history of the period 168-146 B.C. appears to interact: “In previous times the actions of the world were sporadic . . . now history is, as it were, an organic whole; the have occupied the last ten books. Scientific Conception of History.—With regard to the func- affairs of Italy and Africa are intertwined with those of Asia and tion of the historian, Polybius is one of those who consider history Greece and all have reference to one end” (i. 3). It is this conto be—in the phrase of Dionysius—‘philosophy teaching by ex- ception of history which leads Polybius to prefix to his more amples.” Thus he says in i. 35: “Whereas there are for all men immediate subject the preparatory narrative of his first two two ways of improvement, to wit by one’s own disasters or those books: “The peculiarity of our study and the marvel of our of others, the former is the more vivid, the latter is the less harm- times is this. Just as Fortune (riyy) has bent almost all the ful. Therefore, one should never willingly choose the former, affairs of the world to one end and has inclined them to one and since the improvement which it brings is fraught with great danger the same goal, so by means of history we must bring under one and pain, but one should always pursue the latter, since in it one conspectus for our readers the agency which Fortune has emcan discern the better way without hurt. And it is therefore to ployed to accomplish the whole. For this consideration it is be considered that the best education for real life is the knowledge chiefly which incited and stimulated me to undertake my history, of affairs which accrues from practical history (rpayyuarixt coupled with the fact that no one in our time has attempted a ‘aropia) which alone, without personal hurt, makes men on every general history: otherwise I had been much less eager in this accasion and in all circumstances, true judges of the better way.” direction. But when I see that many writers occupy themselves From this conception of history, which differs little, if at all, with particular wars and some of the actions connected with them, from that of Thucydides or the modern historian of the scien- while no one, so far as I know, has even attempted to examine

POLYCARP

180

the general and comprehensive economy of events—when and whence they originated and how they attained fulfillment—lI considered it absolutely essential not to omit or allow to pass unnoticed the most beautiful and at the same time the most beneficial exhibition of the power of Fortune. For many as are her innovations and unceasingly as she engages in the affairs of men,

more than serious purpose and moral earnestness, is required in the historian to whom the world will gladly listen.

absolutely never has she wrought such a work or engaged in such a struggle as in our time. This cannot be seen from sectional

BrsriocrapHy.—Editio princeps, Bks. i-V., Opsopoeus (Koch), (Hagenau, 1530). Chief editions: Ernesti, 1763-64; Schweighduser, 1793; Bekker, 1844; Biittmer-Wobst, 1889-1905; Hultsch, 1867-1, Selections from Polybius, ed. Strachan-Davidson (Oxford, 1888); W, W. Capes, The History of the Achaean League (1888). Other litera. ture: Wunderer, Polybios-forschungen (1898-1909); Cuntz, Polybios und sein Werk (Leipzig, 1902) ; R. v. Scala, Dze Studien des Polybios

histories—unless it be that one who visits the most eminent indi-

lation in Loeb Series, W. R. Paton.

vidual

cities or sees

them

represented

in a picture, imagines

straightway that he understands the form of the whole world, and its general position and arrangement” (i. 4).

Sources of Information.—Starting with the initial advantage of being himself conversant with public affairs, Polybius seems to have taken pains unusual for his time to equip himself with the knowledge requisite to ensure accuracy. In the first place he was a careful student of the practice of war, and indeed wrote a treatise on Tactics (ix. 20. 4. cf. Arrian, Tact. i. 1., Aelian, Tact. i. 2; iii. 4; xix. 10). He had an extensive first-hand acquaintance with geography (cf. the inscription on his statue at Megalopolis as quoted above); he accompanied Scipio in many campaigns (Arrian, Tact. l.c.) and, as he tells us himself, “it was mainly for this reason that I undertook the dangers and discomforts incident to travel in Africa and Spain and also Gaul and the Outer Sea (Atlantic) adjacent to those lands, in order that I might correct the ignorance of my predecessors in those matters and make known those parts of the world to the Greeks” (iii. 59). He also tells us (iii. 48) in discussing Hannibal’s passage of the Alps, that he had himself seen the region and had travelled over the Alps for the sake of information and observation. His intimate study of constitutional matters is shown by his account of the Roman constitution in Book VI. Finally he made diligent use of the documentary and monumental evidence accessible ,to him. Thus in iii. 33, after giving the numbers of Hannibal’s forces with a detail “suggesting the plausible mendacity of a

(Stuttgart, 1890) ; I. B. Bury, Ancient Greek Historians (1909). Trans-

POLYCARP

(A. W. Ma.)

(c. 69—-c. 155), bishop of Smyrna and one of

the Apostolic Fathers, derives much of his importance from the fact that he links together the apostolic age and that of nascent Catholicism. The sources from which we derive our knowledge of the life and activity of Polycarp are: (1) a few notices in the

writings of Irenaeus, (2) the Epistle of Polycarp to the Church at Philippi, (3) the Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp, (4) the Epistle

of the Church at Smyrna to the Church at Philomelium, giving

an account of the martyrdom of Polycarp. Since these authorities have all been more or less called In question and some of them entirely rejected by recent criticism, it is necessary to say a few words about each.

Sources-——1. The Statements of Irenaeus are found (a) in his Adversus haereses, iii. 3, 4, (b) in the letter to Victor, where Irenaeus gives an account of Polycarp’s visit to Rome, (c) in the letter to Florinus—a most important document which describes the intercourse between Irenaeus and Polycarp and Polycarp’s relation with St. John. The genuineness of (c) is not uncontested, but it is generally accepted, 2. The Epistle of Polycarp—Though Irenaeus states that Polycarp wrote many “letters to the neighbouring churches or to certain of the brethren” only one has been preserved, viz., the well-known letter to the Philippians. The epistle is largely involved in the Ignatian controversy (see Icnarrus). The rehabilitation of the Ignatian letters in modern times has, however, practically destroyed the attack on the Epistles of Polycarp. The date of the epistle depends upon the date of the Ignatian letters and is now generally fixed between 112 and 118. The language in this letter is simple but powerful. 3. The Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp.—tThis epistle has of course historian” he explains that he took the numbers from a record in been subjected to the same criticism as has been directed against the other epistles of Ignatius (see Icnatrus) ; the general criticism, may bronze left at Lacinium (in Bruttium) by Hannibal himself. In now be said to have been completely answered by the investigaXvi. 15 he appeals to the evidence of a despatch preserved in the tions of Zahn, Lightfoot and Harnack. Some modern scholars feel a prytaneum of Rhodes; and the manner in which he quotes the difficulty about the peremptory tone which Ignatius adopts towards terms of the treaty which ended the first Punic War (i. 62) and Polycarp. There was some force in this argument when the Ignatian Epistles were dated about 140, as in that case Polycarp would have of that between Hannibal and Philip (vii. 9) implies that he is been an old and venerable man at the time. But now that the date is either translating or quoting a translation of an original document put back to about 112 the difficulty vanishes, since Polycarp was not which he possibly obtained from official sources. much over forty when he received the letter. 4. The Letter of the Church at Smyrna to the Philomelians is a most His enlightened conception of the function of history, his careful preparation for his task, entitle Polybius to an honourable important document, because we derive from it all our information regard to Polycarp’s martyrdom. Eusebius has preserved the place among historians. The completely impartial historian is an with greater part of this epistle (iv. 15), but we possess it entire with various ideal, certainly unattainable and perhaps undesirable. No very concluding observations in several Greek mss., and also in a Latin serious charge on this ground is made against Polybius, nor can translation. The epistle gives a minute description of the persecution such charges in any case be either confuted or confirmed authori- in Smyrna, of the last days of Polycarp and of his trial and martyrtatively. He has himself at all events forestalled criticism: “That dom; and as it contains many instructive details and professes to have been written not long after the events to which it refers, it has always historians may incline the balance in favour of their own country been regarded as one of the most precious remains of the 2nd century. I would allow—not that they should make statements which Certain recent critics, however, have questioned the authenticity of the contradict the facts. There are enough errors of ignorance to narrative. The more moderate school of modern critics—e.g., Light-

which historians are liable and which a man may hardly avoid. But if we write falsely from intention—be it for country or for friends or for favour—what better are we than those who make their living by such means? . . . On this tendency readers should keep a watchful eye, and historians themselves should guard against it” (xvi. 14). The main criticism directed against Polybius from Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1st century, B.c.) to the present day is made on the ground of style. Dionysius, from the standpoint of a strict Atticist, writes of the later Greek historians who have so far neglected style that they “have left behind them compositions which no one endures to read to the end—Phylarchus, Duris, Polybius” (Dionys. De comp. verb. iv.). The modern reader, from a more general sLandpoint, would be inclined to think that his defects of style have been exaggerated. But his unfamiliar vocabulary, his intentional rejection of the picturesque concomitants of historical events, his anxiety to point a moral, combine to render him less popular than his merits deserve: one more proof that something more than knowledge, more than accuracy,

foot (Ignatius and Polycarp, 1589 seq.), Harnack (Gesch. d. altchrist.

Lit. II. i. 341), and Krüger (Early Christian Lit., 1897)—is unanimous in regarding it as an authentic document, though it recognizes that here and there a few slight interpolations have been inserted. Besides these we have no other sources for the life of Polycarp.

Life.—Polycarp must have been born not later than the year

69, for on the day of his death (c. 155) he declared that he had served the Lord for eighty-six years (Martyrium, 9). Irenaeus tells us that in early life Polycarp “had been taught by apostles and lived in familiar intercourse with many that had seen Christ”

Gil. 3, 4).

This testimony is expanded in the remarkable words which Irenaeus addressed to Florinus: “I saw thee when I was still a boy (rats érw) in Lower Asia in company with Polycarp . . . I can even now point out the place where the blessed Polycarp used to sit when he discoursed, and describe his goings out and his comings in, his manner of life and his personal appearance and the discourses which he delivered to the people, how he used to speak of his intercourse with John and with the rest of those who had

seen the Lord, and how he would relate their words. And everything that he had heard from them about the Lord, about His miracles and

POLYCARP about His teaching, Polycarp used to tell us as one who had received it from those who had seen the Word of Life with their own eyes, and all this in perfect harmony with the Scriptures. To these things I used to listen at the time, through the mercy of God vouchsafed to me, noting them down, not on paper but in my heart, and constantly by

the grace of God I brood over my accurate recollections.”

These words establish a chain of tradition (John-PolycarpIrenaeus) which is without a parallel in early church history. Polycarp thus becomes the living link between the Apostolic age

and the great writers who flourished at the end of the 2nd century. Recent criticism, however, has endeavoured to destroy the

force of the words of Irenaeus. Harnack (Chronologie, i., 325329), for instance, attacks this link at both ends. (a) The connection of Irenaeus and Polycarp, he argues, is very weak, because Irenaeus was only a boy (ats) at the time, and his recollections therefore carry very little weight. The fact, too, that he never shows any signs of having been influenced by Polycarp and never once quotes his writings is a further proof that the relation between them was slight. (b) The connection which Irenaeus

tries to establish between Polycarp and Jobn the apostle is probably due to a blunder. Irenaeus has confused John the apostle and Jobn the presbyter.

Polycarp was the disciple of the latter,

not the former. In this second argument Harnack has the support of a considerable number of modern scholars who deny the

Ephesian residence of John the apostle.

But in spite of much

modern criticism there seems to be no solid reason for rejecting the statements of Irenaeus and regarding Polycarp as the link between the Apostolic age and the first of the Catholic fathers. Though Polycarp must have been bishop of Smyrna for nearly half a century we know next to nothing about his career. We get only an occasional glimpse of his activity, and the period between irs and 155 is practically a blank. The only points of sure information which we possess relate to (xr) his relations with Ignatius, (2) his protests against heresy, (3) his visit to Rome in the time of Anicetus, (4) his martyrdom. His Relations with Ignatius.—Ignatius, while on his way to Rome to suffer martyrdom, halted at Smyrna and received a warm welcome from the church and its bishop. Upon reaching Troas he despatched two letters, one to the church at Smyrna, another addressed personally to Polycarp. In these letters Ignatius charged Polycarp to write to all the churches between Smyrna and Syria (since his hurried departure from Troas made it impossible for him to do so in person) urging them to send letters and delegates to the church at Antioch to congratulate it upon the cessation of the persecution and to establish it in the faith. The letters of Ignatius illustrate the commanding position which Polycarp had already attained in Asia. It was in the discharge of the task which had been laid upon him by Ignatius that Polycarp was brought into correspondence with the Philippians. The Church at Philippi wrote to Polycarp asking him to forward their letters to Antioch. Polycarp replied, promising to carry out their request and enclosing a number of the letters of Ignatius which he had in his possession. Polycarp’s Attack on Heresy.—All through his life Polycarp appears to have been an uncompromising opponent of heresy. We find him in his epistle (ch. vii.) uttering a strong protest against certain false teachers (probably the followers of Cerinthus).

IŜI

constantly on his lips, “Oh good God, to what times hast thou spared me, that I must suffer such things!” Polycarp’s Visit to Rome.—It is one of the most interesting and important events in the church history of the 2nd century that Polycarp, shortly before his death, when he was considerably over eighty years old, undertook a journey to Rome in order to

visit the bishop Anicetus. Irenaeus, to whom we are indebted for this information (Haer. iii. 3, 4; Epist. ad victorem, ap. Euseb. v. 24), gives as the reason for the journey the fact that differences existed between Asia and Rome “with regard to certain things” and especially about the time of the Easter festival. Unfortunately all he says is that with regard to the certain things the two bishops speedily came to an understanding, while as to the time of Easter, each adhered to his own custom, without breaking off communion with the other. We learn further that Anicetus as a mark of special honour allowed Polycarp to celebrate the Eucharist in the church, and that many Marcionites and Valentinians were converted by him during his stay in Rome.

Polycarp’s Martyrdom.—Not many months apparently after Polycarp’s return from Rome a persecution broke out in Asia. A great festival was in progress at Smyrna. The proconsul Statius Quadratus was present on the occasion, and the asiarch Philip of Tralles was presiding over the games. Eleven Christians had been brought, mostly from Philadelphia, to be put to death. The appetite of the populace was inflamed by the spectacle of their martyrdom. A cry was raised, “Away with the atheists. Let search be made for Polycarp.” Polycarp took refuge in a country farm. His hiding-place, however, was betrayed and he was arrested and brought back into the city. Attempts were made by the officials to induce him to recant, but without effect. When he came into the theatre, the proconsul urged him to “revile Christ,” and promised, if he would consent to abjure his faith, that he would set him at liberty. To this appeal Polycarp made the memorable answer, “Eighty and six years have I served Him and He hath done me no wrong. How then can I speak evil of my King who saved me?” These words only intensified the fury of the mob. They clamoured for a lion to be let loose upon him there and then. The asiarch, however, refused, urging as an excuse that the games were over. When they next demanded that their victim should be burned, the proconsul did not interfere. Timber and faggots were hastily collected and Polycarp was placed upon the pyre. With calm dignity and unflinching courage he met his fate and crowned a noble life with an heroic death. Eusebius in his Chronicon gives a.D. 166 as the date of Polycarp’s death, and until the year 1867 this statement was never questioned. In that year appeared Waddington’s Mémoire sur la chronologie de la vie du rhéteur Aelius Aristide, in which it was shown from a most acute combination of circumstances that the Quadratus whose name is mentioned in the Martyrium was proconsul of Asia in 155~156, and that consequently Polycarp was martyred on Feb. 23, 155. Waddington’s conclusion has received overwhelming support amongst recent critics. His views have been accepted by (amongst many others) Renan (Antéchrist,

in the flesh is antichrist; and whosoever shall not confess the testimony of the Cross is of the devil; and whosoever shall pervert

1873, p. 207), Hilgenfeld (Zeitschr. f. wiss. Theol., 1874, p. 325), Gebhardt (Zeitschr. f. kist. Theol., 1875, p. 356), Lipsius (Jahrb. f. prot. Theol., 1883, p. 525), Harnack (Chronologie, i. 334—356), Zahn (Zeitschr. f. wiss. Theol., 1882, p. 227), Lightfoot (Ignatius and Polycarp, i. 629—702) and Randell (Studia biblica, 1885, i. 175). Against this array of scholars only the following names of

resurrection nor judgment, that man is the first-born of Satan. Wherefore let us forsake their vain doing and their false teaching and turn unto the word which was delivered unto us from the

Keim (Aus dem Urchristentum, p. 90), Wieseler (Die Christenverfolgungen der Caesaren, 1878, p. 34) and Uhlhorn (Studia

_ For every one who

shall not confess that Jesus Christ is come

the oracles of the Lord to his own lusts and say that there is neither

beginning, Polycarp lived to see the rise of the Marcionite and Valentinian sects and vigorously opposed them. Irenaeus tells us that on one occasion Marcion endeavoured to establish relations with him and accosted him with the words, “Recognize us.” But Polycarp displayed the same uncompromising attitude which his master John had shown towards Cerinthus and answered, “I recognize you as the first-born of Satan.” The steady progress of the heretical movement in spite of all opposition was a cause of deep sorrow to Polycarp, so that in the last years of his life the words were

importance can be quoted in support of the traditional view—

Biblica, 1890, ii., 105-156). The problem is too complex to admit of treatment here. There seems to be little doubt that the case for the earlier date has been proved. The significance of Polycarp in the history of the Church is out of all proportion to our knowledge of the facts of his career.

The violent attack of the Smyrnaean mob is an eloquent tribute to his influence in Asia. “This is the teacher of Asia,” they shouted, “this is the father of the Christians: this is the destroyer of our gods: this is the man who has taught so many no longer to sacrifice and no longer to pray to the gods.” And after the execu-

182

POLYCHAETA—POLYGLOTT

tion they refused to deliver up his bones to the Christians for burial on the ground that “the Christians would now forsake the Crucified and worship Polycarp.” Polycarp was indeed, as Polycrates says, “one of the great luminaries” (ueydda orovxeta) of the time. It was in no small degree due to his staunch and unwavering leadership that the Church was saved from the peril of being overwhelmed by the rising tide of the pagan revival which swept over Asia during the first half of the 2nd century, and it was his unfaltering allegiance to the Apostolic faith that secured the defeat of the many forms of heresy which threatened to destroy the Church from within. Polycarp had no creative genius. He was a “transmitter, not a maker.” As Irenaeus says (iii. 3, 4), “Polycarp does not appear to have possessed qualifications for successfully conducting a controversial discussion with erroneous teachers . . . but he could not help feeling how unlike their speculations were to the doctrines which he had learned from the Apostles, and so he met with indignant reprobation their attempt to supersede Christ’s gospel with fictions of their own devising.” It is this that constitutes Polycarp’s service to the Church, and no greater service has been rendered by any of its leaders in any age. BıeLrocrRaeuY.—]. B. Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, pt. ii. (2nd ed., 1889). Polycarp is dealt with in i. 417-459, 530-704; li. 897-1086; G. Volkmar, Epistula Polycarpi Smyrnaei genuina (Zürich, 1885); T. Zahn, Forschungen zur Geschichte des Kanons, &c., iv. 249, 2793 J. M. Cotterill, “The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians,” Journ. of Philol. (1891), xix., 241-285; Harnack, Chronologie der altchristlichen Litteratur (1897), and authorities quoted in the text. See also APOSTOLIC FATHERS. (H. T. A.; X.)

POLYCHAETA,

a class of segmented worms

(Annelida,

g.v.). The name refers to the numerous bristles present along the sides of most species. The class includes the common lug worm (Arenicola) and the sea-mouse (Aphrodite).

POLYCLEITUS, the name of two Greek sculptors of the

conspicuous. The Amazon of Polycleitus survives in several copies, among the best of which is one in the British Museum.

The masterpiece

of Polycleitus, his Hera of gold and ivory, has of course totally disappeared. The coins of Argos give us only the general type,

Waldstein has identifed the head of a girl in the British Museum as belonging to this type. The want of variety in the works of Polycleitus was brought as a reproach against him by ancient critics. Varro says that his statues were square and almost of one pattern. Except for the statue of Hera, which was the work of his old age, he produced scarcely any notable statue of a deity. His field was narrowly limited; but in that field he was unsurpassed. 2. The younger Polycleitus was of the same family as the elder, and the works of the two are not easily to be distinguished, Some existing bases, however, bearing the name are inscribed in characters of the 4th century, at which time the elder sculptor cannot have been alive. See A. Furtwängler, Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture (Eng. trans, 1895); P. Paris, Polycléte (Paris, 1895); Mahler, Polyklit und seine Schule (Athens, 1902).

POLYCRATES, tyrant of Samos (c. 535-515 B.c.). Having won popularity by donations to poorer citizens, he took advantage of a festival of Hera, which was being celebrated outside the walls, to make himself master of the city (about 535 B.c.). After getting rid of his brothers Pantagnotus and Syloson, who- had at first shared his power, he established a despotism which is of great importance in the history of the island. He equipped a fleet of 100 ships and so became master of the Aegean basin, This ascendancy he abused by numerous acts of piracy which made him notorious throughout Greece; but his real aim was the control of the archipelago and the mainland towns of Ionia. He maintained an alliance with Lygdamis of Naxos, and dedicated to Delos the island of Rheneia. He also defeated a coalition of

school of Argos; the first belonging to the fifth century, the sectwo great naval powers of the Asiatic coast, Miletus and Lesbos. ond to the early part of the fourth. 1. The elder and best known Polycleitus was a contemporary of He made an alliance, probably commercial in object, with Amasis Pheidias, and in the opinion of the Greeks his equal. Whether he of Egypt. But the squadron he sent to Amasis’ support against was actually a pupil of Ageladas is disputed; at any rate he carried Cambyses of Persia, being composed of political opponents of on the tradition. He made a figure of an Amazon for Ephesus Polycrates, suspected treachery and returned and attacked Polywhich was regarded as superior to the Amazon of Pheidias made crates. After a defeat by sea, Polycrates repelled an assault at the same time; and his colossal Hera of gold and ivory which upon the walls, and subsequently withstood a siege by a joint stood in the temple near Argos was considered as worthy to rank armament of Spartans and Corinthians assembled to aid the with the Zeus of Pheidias. It would be hard for a modern critic to rebels. He maintained his ascendancy until about srs, when rate Polycleitus so high: the reason is that balance, rhythm and the Oroetes, the Persian governor of Lydia, who had been reproached minute perfection of bodily form, which were the great merits of for his failure to reduce Samos by force, lured him to the mainthis sculptor, do not appeal to us as they did to the Greeks of the land and put him to death by crucifixion. Beside the political and commercial pre-eminence which he sth century. He worked mainly in bronze. As regards his chronology we have data in a papyrus published conferred upon Samos, Polycrates adorned the city with public by Grenfell and Hunt containing lists of athletic victors. From works on a large scale. He was also a patron of letters; he colthis it appears that he made a statue of Cyniscus, a victorious lected a library, and Anacreon lived at his court. athlete of 464 or 460 B.c., of Pythocles (452) and Aristion (452). POLYGALACEAE, a family of dicotyledonous herbs, He thus can scarcely have been born as late as 480 B.c. His statue shrubs and small trees, comprising ten genera and about 700 of Hera is dated by Pliny to 420 B.c. His artistic activity must species, not represented in New Zealand, Polynesia and the Arctic thus have been long and prolific. His two great statues, ideal ath- zone, but otherwise cosmopolitan. Polygala vulgaris is the British letic types rather than portraits, are the Diadumonos and the milkwort (q.v.), and P. Senega, the Senega snake-root, a North Doryphorus, copies of both of which are common. The Dory- American medicinal plant. In North America some 50 species are phorus was known as the Canon, because it embodied the correct found, chiefly in the southern and western United States. proportions of the ideal male form. The completest copy is from POLYGLOTT or POLYGLOT, a book which contains side Pompeii, and there is a copy of the Diadumonos from Vaison in by side versions of the same text in several languages (Gr. moris, the British Museum. Both are late Roman copies, unpleasantly many, and yA@rra, tongue). The most important polyglotts are heavy and square and in marble, thus giving little idea of the finish editions of the Bible, or its parts, in which the Hebrew and Greek of Polycleitus’ work in bronze. This has been enforced by the dis- originals are exhibited along with the great historical versions. covery at Delos, by the French excavators, of a diadumenus of The famous Hexapla of Origen, in which the Old Testament far more pleasing type and greater finish, which also goes back to Scriptures were written in parallel columns, probably suggested Polycleitus. The excavations at Olympia have widened our knowl- the later polyglotts, but though it gives six texts it is itself only edge of his early work. Among the bases of statues found on in two languages. In the 16th and 17th centuries polyglotts bethat site were three signed by Polycleitus, still bearing on their came a favourite means of advancing the knowledge of Easter surface the marks of attachment of the feet of the statues. This languages as well as the study of Scripture. The series began at once gives us their pose; and following up the clue, A. Furt- with the Complutensian printed by Arnaldus Guilielmus de Browangier has identified several extant statues as copies of figures cario at the expense of Cardinal Jimenez (g.v.) at the university of boy athletes victorious at Olympia set up by Polycleitus. at Alcal4 de Henares (Complutum). This contained for the Old

Among these the Westmacott athlete in the British Museum is Testament the Hebrew text, Latin Vulgate and the Septuagint

POLYGNOTUS—POLYGONS and Chaldee versions with Latin renderings; for the New Testament, the Greek and Vulgate Latin. The six volumes bear dates ranging from Jan. 10, 1514, to July ro, 1517, but the work did

183

this type of flower occurs in the Californian genus Pterostegza. The flower of rhubarb (Rkewm) is derived from this by doubling in the outer staminal whorl and that of the dock (Rumex) by doubling in the outer staminal whorl and suppression of the inner

not receive the papal sanction till March 1520, and was apparently not issued till 1522, probably because of the Imperial priv- whorl. Dimerous whorled flowers occur in Oxyria (mountain ilege obtained by Erasmus for his Greek Testament in 1516. The sorrel), another arctic and alpine genus, the flowers of which Antwerp Polyglott, printed by Christopher Plantin (1569-72, in otherwise resemble those of Rumex. In the acyclic flowers a g vols. folio), under the patronage of Philip II. of Spain, added pentamerous perianth is followed by five to eight stamens as in a new language to those of the Complutensian by including the Polygonum. The perianth leaves are generally uniform and green, Syriac New Testament. Next came Le Jay’s Paris Polyglott white or red in colour. They are free or more or less united, and (1645), which embraces the first printed texts of the Syriac Old persist till the fruit is ripe, often playing a part in its distribuTestament and of the Samaritan Pentateuch. It has also a series tion, and affording useful characters for distinguishing genera or of various Arabic versions. The last great polyglott was that edited by Brian Walton, published in London in 1657. This is much less beautiful

than Le Jay’s, but includes the Syriac

of Esther and of several apocryphal books, Persian versions of the Pentateuch and Gospels, and the Psalms and New Testament in Ethiopic. It was in connection with this polyglott that E. Castell produced his famous Heptaglott Lexicon (2 vols. folio, London, 1669). Of the numerous polyglott editions of parts of the Bible it may suffice to mention the Genoa psalter of 1516, edited

by Giustiniani, bishop of Nebbio.

This is in Hebrew, Latin,

Greek, Chaldee and Arabic, and is interesting from the character

of the Chaldee text, being the first specimen of Western printing in the Arabic character. (A. W. P.) POLYGNOTUS, famous Greek painter, c. 470-440 B.C., son of Aglaophon, was a native of Thasos, but was adopted by the Athenians, and admitted to their citizenship. He painted for them, in the time of Cimon, a picture of the taking of Ilium on the walls of the Stoa Poecile, and another of the marriage of the daughters of Leucippus in the Anaceum. In the hall at the entrance to the Acropolis other works of his were preserved; and he collaborated with Mikon in paintings of Greeks and Amazons in the Theseum. The most important, however, of his products were his frescoes in the Lesche erected at Delphi by the people of Cnidus. The subjects of these were the visit to Hades by Odysseus, and the taking of Ilium. Fortunately the traveller Pausanias has left us a careful description of these paintings, figure by figure (Paus. X. 25-31); and we may form some idea of their style from contemporary vase decorations. The foundations of the building have been recovered in the course of the French excavations at Delphi. From this evidence some modern archaeologists have tried to reconstruct the composition of the paintings. The figures were detached and seldom overlapping, ranged in two or three rows one above another; and the farther were not smaller nor dimmer than the nearer. We learn also that Polygnotus employed but few colours. His excellence lay in the beauty of his drawing of individual figures; but especially in the “ethical” and ideal character of his art. His work must have had the same grandeur as the contemporary sculptures of Olympia, combined apparently with a new delicacy; for he is praised for his transparent garments, his head-dresses of variegated colours, and his speaking expressions. He was the great representative of Greek painting of the fifth century B.C., as Pheidias was of sculpture.

POLYGONACEAE,

in botany, a family of dicotyledons,

containing 40 genera with about 750-800 species, chiefly in the north temperate zone, and represented in Great Britain by three genera, Polygonum, Rumex (dock, g.v.) and Oxyria. They are mostly herbs characterized by the union of the stipules into a sheath or ocrea, which protects the younger leaves in the bud stage. Some are climbers, as, for instance, the British Polygonum Convolvulus (black bindweed). In Muehlenbeckia platyclada, a na-

live of the Solomon islands, the stem and branches are flattened,

forming ribbon-like cladodes jointed at the nodes. The leaves are alternate, simple and generally entire; the edges are rolled back in the bud. They are generally smooth, būt sometimes, especially i Mountain species, woolly. The small regular, generally hermaphrodite flowers are borne in large numbers in compound inflotescences, the branches of which are cymose. The parts of the flower are whorled (cyclic) or acyclic. The former arrangement

may be derived from a regular trimerous flower with two whorls of perianth leaves, two staminal whorls and a three-sided ovary—

species. Thus in the docks the three inner leaves enlarge and envelop the fruit as three membranous wings one or more of which bear on the back large fleshy warts. The number of the carpels is indicated by the three-sided (in dimerous flowers two-

sided) ovary, and the number of the styles; the ovary is unilocular and contains a single erect ovule springing from the top of the floral axis. The fruit is a dry one-seeded nut, two-sided in bicarpellary flowers, as in Oxyria. The straight or curved embryo is embedded in a mealy endosperm. The flowers are wind-pollinated, as in the docks (Rumex), where they are pendulous on long slender stalks and have large hairy stigmas; or insect-pollinated,

as in Polygonum or rhubarb (Rheum), where the stigmas are capitate and honey is secreted by glands near the base of the stamens. Insect-pollinated flowers are rendered conspicuous chiefly by their aggregation in large numbers, as for instance in bistort (Polygonum Bistorta), where the perianth is red and the flowers are crowded in a spike. In buckwheat (¢.v., P. Fagopyrum) the numerous flowers have a white or red perianth and are perfumed; they are dimorphic, z.e., there are two forms of flowers, one with long styles and short stamens, the other with short styles and long stamens. In other cases self-pollination is the rule, as in knotgrass (P. aviculare), where the very small, solitary odourless flowers are very rarely visited by insects and pollinate themselves by the incurving of the three inner stamens on to the styles. Polygonaceae is mainly a north temperate order. A few genera are tropical, e.g., Coccoloba, which has 125 species restricted to tropical and sub-tropical America. Polygonum has a very wide distribution spreading from the limits of vegetation in the north ern hemisphere to the mountains of tropical Africa and South Africa, through the highlands of tropical Asia to Australia, and in America as far south as Chile. Most of the genera have, however, a limited distribution. In the British Isles, Polygonum has 14 species; Rumex (12 species) includes the various species of dock (g.v.) and sorrel (R. Acetosa); and Oxyria digyna, an alpine plant (mountain sorrel), takes its generic name (Gr.éévs, sharp) from the acidity of its leaves. Rheum (rhubarb, q.v.) is central Asiatic. In the United States the largest genus is Eriogonum, containing about 200 species, all natives of America, and most of them in the western United States. The other prominent genera occurring in America are Rumex (docks), Persicaria (smartweeds), and Polygonum (knotweeds). Fagopyrum (buckwheat) and Rheum (rhubarb or pie-plant) also are abundant, but they are natives of the Old World. POLYGONAL AND POLYHEDRAL NUMBERS: see FIGURATE NUMBERS. POLYGONS. A polygonal line, also called a broken Line, joining the point A: to the point A» is any finite set of points Aj, , Án and the segments Aid, AzA, . . . , An-14dn. In this and the following definition of a polygon the phrase “a point A;” means a point associated with the symbol A; and the phrase “a segment A;A;’’ means the segment, whose ends are the points which are the associates of the symbols A; and A; respectively, associated with the symbol AiA;. A segment is the set of all points of any (straight) line which are between any two points of that line. Each of the latter points is called an end of the segment. A polygon is any finite set of points A142, . . . , An and the 2)

e.

+

e

segments AjAo, A2A3 ... , An-1 An, Andi.

The points Az and

segments Aidis Anı, 2=1, 2,... , %, are called respectively the vertices and sides of the polygon; similarly for a polygonal

line.

184

POLYGONS

The terms polygonal line and polygon are used also with meanings which are different from, although closely related to, those given above. A polygon as defined may have one of two senses assigned to it so that the first end and the second end of each side is specified in such a way that the vertex A; is either the first

end of the side A;A;_: and the last end of the side A;_ A; if 7=1, and AnA; if i=, or vice versa. A polygon with such an assignment of a sense is called an oriented or a sensed polygon. In an obvious way an oriented polygonal line is defined. Thus two sensed polygons or polygonal lines are associated with each polygon or polygonal line. In the sequel the phrase the oriented (or sensed)

side AB of a sensed polygon indicates that A is the first end of the

oriented side 4B of that oriented polygon, and B the second. Polygonal lines and polygons according to the first definition are referred to as unoriented or unsensed polygonal lines and polygons respectively. In formulating a third meaning of the terms

polygonal line and polygon it should be emphasized that the elements involved in the above definition are points and segments associated with symbols so that an unoriented or oriented polygon is neither a set of points and segments nor a set of points. The word polygon also is used to signify either certain sets of points and segments or certain set of points. The distinctions just pointed out although delicate are logically essential and even practically important. For the purpose of this article the single word “polygon” denotes any set of points which consists of the points which are the associates of the symbols Ai, Ao, ..., An and the points which belong to the segments which are the associates of the symbols A;Ai,1, 7=1, 2, ...,% and AnA of the first definition; z.e., the definition of an unsensed polygon. Similarly in the case of a polygonal line. The above definitions are of broad scope and define abstractions which are based on the phenomenon of the motion of a particle from point to point along intermediate rectilinear stretches. Important specializations of these ideas are the so-called simple polygons or polygonal lines according to any of the definitions given. A simple unoriented polygon is any unoriented polygon which is such that none of its vertices is an end of more than two of its sides and no side of the unoriented polygon contains a vertex or a point which belongs to another side of the unoriented polygon. The definitions of simple unoriented polygonal lines, simple oriented polygonal lines and polygons as well as those of simple polygons and polygonal lines in conformity with the third definition are apparent and consequently are not stated formally. Alternative definitions for the several concepts defined or indicated above may be given; for example a simple polygon may be defined as a finite set of points and segments such that (a) every point of the set is the end of two and only two segments of the set, (b) each end of every segment of the set is a point of the set, (c) no segment of the set contains a point of the set or a point of another segment of the set and (d) no (proper) subset of the given set satisfies (a), (b) and (c). It is easy to show that this definition is equivalent to the one indicated in introducing the third formulation of the idea of a polygon and it is valuable in that it admits of immediate generalization to the idea of a polyhedron in space.

Place of Polygons in Mathematics.—The theory of poly-

gons as a special chapter in mathematics is chiefly concerned with the classification of unoriented and oriented polygons all of whose elements,—that is, vertices and sides—are in the same plane. The corresponding question for space concerns polyhedrons and is taken up in the article on Sotms, Geometric. Polygons whose elements are not in one plane have not as yet formed the subject of any interesting theory. Such polygons, as well as

plane polygons, however, serve as important aids, as in the study of continuous curves in general. This is largely because of the

fact that any continuous arc contains the vertices of a polygonal line, the length of whose sides are all less than any preassigned positive number, and which is simple if the arc is simple. In particular, the length of an arc of a curve is defined by means of the lengths of the inscribed polygonal lines——that is, polygonal lines which join the ends of the arc and whose vertices are on the

arc and have an order which conforms to one of the two senses

along the arc. In the geometry of the Euclidean plane, plane polygons,—that is, those having all of their points in one plane— take on an added significance because of the fact that the Ey.

clidean plane is separated into two regions by any simple poly. gon that is contained in it. This is a consequence of the basic fact that a line separates the Euclidean plane. Unless it is stated otherwise it is understood that in the following all configurations

are in the Euclidean plane. A region is a set of points such that

any point of the set is the centre of a circle which has only points

of the set in its interior and such that the set is not composed

of two sets having the latter property and also having no points in common. It follows easily that any two points of a region are joined by a simple polygonal line which is contained in the

region.

A precise statement of the important fact mentioned

above is that if P is any simple plane polygon, then the plane is composed of P and two regions which have no points in common with each other or with P. One of these regions is of infinite extent and the other is not. A region such as the latter is re. ferred to as a polygonal region and also as the interior of the

polygon concerned and the latter is called the boundary of the polygonal region. Every circle which has a point of the boundary of the polygonal region as centre contains points of the region and any point which is such that any circle having it as centre contains points which belong to the region and also points which do not is a point of the boundary of the region. This property of the boundary of any polygonal region is used as the defining property of the boundary of a region in general. As a further consequence should be mentioned the fact that any polygonal region plus its boundary is composed of a finite number of triangles and their interiors, which have no points in common, and the vertices of the triangles are vertices of the bounding polygon. A region which is not a polygonal region is, however, approximated

to by polygonal regions according to the following theorem: If X is any region, then there exists a sequence of polygonal regions 21, 22, 23, °° + ,2n, °° ° such that (a) 2, and its boundary is contained in 2 and also in 2,4; for all (positive integral) values of n and (b) each point of 2 is contained in all but a finite number of the polygonal regions 2,. This theorem is easily proved by using as the polygonal regions regions which are composed of congruent squares which are formed by two sets of parallel lines, the lines of each set being equally spaced and intersecting orthogonally those of the other set. These acts Indicate the importance of polygonal lines and polygons

in the study of more general configurations. THE THEORY OF PLANE POLYGONS The Interior, Exterior and Peripheral Angles of a Plane Polygon.—We now proceed to the special theory of plane polygons. As remarked above, this theory concerns itself largely with unoriented and oriented polygons. In the case of a simple poly-

gon the meaning of “an interior angle of a polygon” is immediate in virtue of the theorem concerning the separation of the plane by the polygon. This meaning leads to an interesting generali- ` zation in the case of an oriented polygon. In proceeding to this generalization and to related ideas it should þe stated that all of the terms used are not defined with the mathematical completeness that would be possible with a greater allowance of space, but it

has been aimed at least to indicate clearly the way to that com-

pleteness. Now it can be proved that if P is a simple oriented polygon and A any vertex of P then for the positive (counter-

clockwise) rotation of any side AB of P about its first end A, in accordance with the sense of P, which transforms the side AB into the other side of P having A as an end and which has 4

magnitude not exceeding 2 radians, then the points on the intermediate positions of AB which are within a certain distance of A are all in the interior of the polygon determined by P if the sense of P is the same as that of the rotation and all in the exterior in the contrary case.

(Note that senses of oriented polygons are

compared only in the case of simple oriented polygons.) Accordingly the interior angle at any vertex A; of any oriented polygon P is defined as the positive angle (rotation) which has A, as its vertex and whose initial side contains the side of P which has As

POLYGONS as its first end, say the side A;Ai+:1, whose terminal side contains the side with the ends Az and Ai—1, if 7-21, and An, if i=1, and whose magnitude does not exceed 27. (See fig. 1.) Further if A; is any vertex of an oriented polygon P and the frst end of the oriented side A:Ai4: of P then there is a rotation about Az of the half-line having A, as its initial point and having

the same direction as the oriented side A;_14; (¢—1==" if i=1), that is the half-line of the line through Ai_i and Az, which has

A; as its initial point and which does not contain A4_i, into the half-line which contains the side

A;Aiq1 Which has a magnitude greater than —a and less than or equal to m and there is another such rotation which is positive and has a magnitude not exceeding 27. The former angle

(rotation) is called the exterior

angle and the latter the peripheral angle of the oriented polygon

185

any intermediate polygon of the deformation. In the case of oriented polygons it is also required that sense be preserved by the deformation. Two oriented polygons that are transformable one into the other by a continuous deformation satisfying the first condition have the same value for e. If instead of the first condition the second is satisfied the oriented polygons have the same value for a’. If the deformation satisfies both the first and second conditions then the two oriented polygons are related so that if the magnitudes of one of two corresponding interior angles is less than ~ then the same is true of the other. Corresponding results for unoriented polygons follow easily. An interesting classification of unoriented polygons which satisfy the conditions on the intermediate polygons of the deformations satisfying all three conditions and which, in addition, have no vertex as the end of more than two sides and no side containing a vertex or a point belonging to more than two sides is that in which any unoriented polygon in one class is deformable into any other or into the symmetric image of any other in that class by a continuous

Fig.

1.—CONTINUOUS

TION OF AN ORIENTED WITH FIVE VERTICES

DEFORMA-

POLYGON,

P at the vertex A; If œ: Bi, Y: are respectively the magnitudes of the interior, exterior and peripheral angles of the oriented

polygon P at the vertex A; then a;+ßb:=r and aity:=r or 3r according as æ; is or is not less than 7.

If a; is less than r

then y;is and conversely. If the sum of all the 6; is set equal to 2am and the sum of all the y; to 2a’7 then a and a’ are integers

or zero as a simple consideration shows and a’ —a is the number of interior angles of P whose magnitudes are greater than or equal to m. If P’ and P” are two oriented polygons which differ

only in orientation and if œ’, Bé, yë and æi, Bi’, yi’ are respectively the magnitudes of the interior, exterior and peripheral angles of P’ and P” at the vertex A; then a;/+-a;"=a7, Bi +B’ =oand yi +y//=27. Hence the value of a for P” is the

negative of its value for P’ while the value of a’ for P” is the number of vertices of P’ (or P’’) minus the value of a’ for P’. Classification of Plane Polygons.—In

the classification of

deformation satisfying all three of the above conditions. For unoriented polygons of 4, 5 and 6 vertices there are respectively 3, II and 7o classes under this classification. Non-metrical and Metrical Theories. Regular Polygons. Area of Polygons.—-It should be pointed out that the above theory of the classification of unoriented and oriented polygons holds without essential modification in a more general plane than the Euclidean for only the order relations of the Euclidean plane are essential. Between this theory and the corresponding theory in the projective plane there are, because of the diferent kinds of linear order, some essential differences, but both theories are non-metrical. By making use of the metric properties of the Euclidean plane the consideration of regular polygons, oriented or not, becomes possible; also the question of the area of polygonal regions arises. An unoriented polygon is regular if any side is congruent to any other side and any angle of the polygon, ż.e., the figure consisting of a vertex and the two consecutive sides having that vertex as an end, congruent to any other “angle” of the polygon. The regular polygons are convex and there exists a circle circumscribed about and another inscribed in every regular polygon. Those regular polygons that are nót simple also are called star polygons. If n points which are equally spaced on the circumference of a circle and numbered in order along that circumference are joined by segments so that the 7-th point is joined to the (z+d)-th point, where d is a fixed positive integer, then the polygon resulting is a regular polygon for which the value of a, defined above, is d. Thus the number of “types” of regular poly-

oriented polygons the numbers a and a’ have been used to define the so-called types of such polygons. It is obvious how they may be used in the classification of unoriented polygons. There exist oriented polygons of any number of vertices for which the value of ais any number whose absolute value does not exceed $(#—1) except that for a triangle a cannot be zero. A more detailed scheme of classification is according to the values of a and g=a’—a. Tf all of the interior angles of an oriented polygon have magnitudes which do not exceed v then the polygon is called gons of # vertices is half of the number of positive integers a convex oriented polygon. The unoriented polygon P is convex which are less than and prime to n. Other kinds of regular if and only if P with a sense assigned to it is convex. Both of polygons have been studied with particular reference to their these definitions are in conformity with the important notions of classification along the lines explained above. For instance, there a convex simple polygon and a convex polygonal region. A con- are the polygons which have the property that the figure comvex region is a region such that all of the points of any segment posed of any vertex and the two sides of the polygon which have that vertex as an end is congruwhose ends belong to the region belong to the region also. A ent to any other such figure and simple polygon is said to be convex if it is the boundary of a also the polygons which are such convex region, which is then a convex polygonal region. As that the figure consisting of any theorems we have: A line which does not contain a side of a side and two adjacent angles of convex simple polygon contains not more than two points of the polygon is congruent to any the polygon and conversely. Also, no point of a convex simple polygon is on a particular one of the two sides of the line which FIG. 2.--DEFORMATION OF A POLY- other such figure. These polygons have an even number of GON OF FOUR VERTICES INTO THREE contains any side of the polygon and conversely. vertices and a circle is circumAnother method of classification of unoriented and oriented TYPES polygons uses the notion of the continuous deformation of such scribable about any of those of the former kind and inscribable in polygons. Any one of two unoriented polygons with the vertices any of those of the latter. Assuming the fact that the area of any plane simple polygon dı, An, ..., Anand Bi, Bz, . . . , Bn respectively is deformable continuously into the other so that the vertex A; corresponds to or rather polygonal region is the sum of the areas of the triangles the vertex B; and the side A;zAgu1 to the side BsBiy1. To obtain of any finite set of triangles which have no interior points in comsubclasses of unoriented polygons continuous deformations of mon and which are such that every point of the polygonal region such polygons, which satisfy any or all of the following conditions, belongs to a triangle of the set or to the interior of one and every are used: (1) no intermediate polygon of the deformation has point of any triangle of the set or of the interior of any belongs two consecutive sides which lie in the same line and which have to the polygonal region or its boundary the notion of the area of

no points in common;

(2) neither of two consecutive sides of ahy intermediate polygon of the deformation is contained in the other; and (3) no point is common to more than two sides of

any plane unoriented or oriented polygon is approached. In the case of an unoriented or oriented polygon in general there is no region uniquely determined as in the case of simple polygons. In

186

POLYGYNY

the following only the case of oriented polygons is considered for that essentially covers the case of unoriented polygons. If the area of a triangle according to the usual meaning is o then the area of

matter is how far theory and practice coincide. We have reason to suspect that one of the wives is for a time the favourite.

that triangle with a sense assigned to it is defined as o or —o according as that sense is positive or negative, 7.e., the same or not the same as the counterclockwise sense along the circumference of a circle. Using the symbol Aide - + + A, to denote

yny does not seem to be practised on a large scale by any of the lower hunters and food-collectors, except some Australian ang

Lower Culture Groups.—Among the uncivilised races polyp.

Bushman tribes, nor by any incipient agriculturists, at least among those of the lower type. On the other hand, a considerable number of these low hunting and slightly agricultural tribes—such as some of the South American Indians, the aboriginal tribes of the Malay

Peninsula, most of the Andaman islanders, the Veddas of Ceylon, certain tribes in the Malay archipelago, most of the Negritos of the Philippine islands, and some at least of the Central African Pygmies—are represented as strictly monogamous. Among the higher hunters polygyny is more frequent, although in the major. ity of their tribes it is practised only occasionally; and exclusive monogamy is very rare, though perhaps not unknown. Among

pastoral peoples there seems to be no one who can be regarded as strictly monogamous; and both among them and the higher agriculturists polygyny is undoubtedly more frequent than among the hunters and incipient agriculturists, although cases of regular

FIG. 3.—-DEFORMATION DIFFERENT TYPES

OF A POLYGON

OF

FIVE

VERTICES

INTO

ELEVEN

the oriented polygon with the vertices A1, A2, - - - , Anand the sensed sides 4;Asi1, the area of the oriented polygon A,A2 +: An is defined as the sum of the areas of the oriented triangles OAiA2, OA2As, + + + » OA,Ax where O is any point of the plane. It is, of course, proved that the value of the area thus defined does not depend on the position of O and that if Aida +--+ Ag is simple, this definition agrees with the area of a simple polygon according to the fundamental definition. An oriented polygon P determines a finite number of polygonal regions in its plane which have no points in common and whose boundaries are composed of points belonging to P. One and only one of these regions is of infinite extent. Now the following interesting facts

monogamy are more frequent among the higher agriculturists than among the higher hunters. The cases in which polygyny is represented as “general” are comparatively much more numerous among African than among non-African pastoral peoples and higher agriculturists. Polygyny is at its height in Africa, both in point of frequency and in number of wives. King Mtéssa of Uganda and the king of Loango are said to have had 7,000 wives, This is apparently the high-water mark of polygyny anywhere, Archaic Civilizations.—Polygyny, or a sort of concubinage hardly distinguishable from genuine polygyny, is found among

most peoples of archaic civilization. In China there are, or have been, besides the legal principal wife, so-called wives “by courtesy” or lawful concubines. In Japan concubinage of the Chinese type existed as a legal institution until 1880. In ancient Egypt polygyny seems to have been permitted but to have been unusual, except in the case of kings. The Babylonian Code of Hammurabi assumes that marriage shall be monogamous; yet “if a man has married a wife and a sickness has seized her,” he may take a second wife; and if she remained childless he might take a concubine. Among the Hebrews a man could in any circumstances have a plurality of wives, and there was no difference in the legal status of different wives, nor was there any limit to the number of Wives a man might take. In Arabia Mohammed ordained that

pertain: Let the regions, or cells, of finite extent be denoted respectively by 51, Se, - - + , Sz, and let the area of the cell S; a man’s legal wives should be not more than four. Polygyny according to the fundamental definition of the area of a polyg- has been permitted among many of the Indo-European peoples— onal region be o; so that o; is a positive number; then there among ancient Slavs and Teutons, the ancient Irish and the Vedic exists a set of numbers cj, Cz, + - - , cx which are either integers Indians—though it seems to have been as a rule confined to kings or zero such that the area of the oriented polygon P is or chiefs or nobles. None of the Hindu law-books restricts the City +C2o2-+ ... exon. Further, c; is the number of com- number of wives a man is allowed to marry; yet some preference plete positive revolutions minus the number of complete is often shown for monogamy, and at the present day most castes negative revolutions made by the radius vector, having any object to their members having more than one wife, except for point O of S; as its initial point, as its terminal point describes some cogent reason. On the other hand, there can be little doubt once the oriented polygon P in the assigned sense. c; is called that monogamy was the only recognized form of marriage in the coefficient of the cell S; Greece; concubinage existed in Athens, but it was well distinBIBLioGRAPHY.—M. Briickner, Vielecke und Vielflache (Leipzig, guished from marriage, conferring no rights on the concubine. Rox900); H. G. Forder, The Foundations of Euclidean Geometry, ch. 10, rr (London, 1927) ; E. Steinitz, Encyklopaedie der mathematische Wis- man marriage was strictly monogamous; liaisons between married men and mistresses were not uncommon by the close of the senschafien, Bd. iii., heft 9 (Leipzig, 1922) ; O. Veblen and J. W. Young, Projecitve Geometry, vol. ii., ch. ix. (New York, 1918); C. Wiener, Republic, but such a relation was not considered lawful concuUber Vielecke und Vielflache (Leipzig, 1864). G binage in after-time.

POLYGYNY, the system under which a man is married to

several women at the same time (Gr. rodds, many, and yur7,

woman), popularly called polygamy (yapyos, marriage), which derivatively also includes the practice of polyandry. Polygyny is nowhere the exclusive form of marriage, and among most peoples who practise it the large majority of men live in monogamy. It may be modified in a monogamous direction both from the social and the sexual point of view. Very frequently one of the wives, generally the one first married, holds a higher position than the rest or is regarded as the principal wife. In some cases this position implies certain sexual privileges; but more often we are told that it is the custom for the husband to cohabit with wives in turn, or that this is actually required of him. Another

Christian and Modern Times.—Polygyny has been found

even in Christian Europe. No obstacle was put in the way of its practice by kings in countries where it had occurred in the times

of paganism. In the middle of the 6th century Diarmait, king of Ireland, had two queens and two concubines. Polygyny was frequently practised by the Merovingian kings. Charlemagne had two wives and many concubines; and one of his laws seems to imply that polygyny was not unknown even among priests. In

later times Philip of Hesse and Frederick William II. of Prussia contracted bigamous marriages with the sanction of the Lutheran

clergy. In 1650, soon after the Peace of Westphalia, when the population had been greatly reduced by the Thirty Years’ War, the Frankish Kreistag at Nuremberg passed the resolution that

187

POLYHEDRON—POLYMERIZATION thenceforth every man should be allowed to marry two women. with The Anabaptists and the Mormons have advocated polygyny ur. fervo ious much relig Causes.—One cause of polygyny is an excess of marriageable women; we may safely say that whenever there is a marked and

more or less permanent majority of women in a savage tribe polygyny is allowed.

But while the existence of available women

makes polygyny possible, the direct cause of it is generally the man’s desire to have more than one wife. There are various reasons for this desire. Among many of the simpler peoples the husband has to abstain from his wife not only for a certain time every month, but during her pregnancy, or at least during the

latter stage of it, and after child-birth until the child is weaned, which often means an abstinence lasting for a couple of years or more. Other causes of polygyny are the attraction which female

youth and beauty exercise upon the men, the latter’s taste for variety, their desire for offspring—which is one of the principal causes of polygyny in the East—and the fact that polygyny con-

iributes to a man’s material comfort or increases his wealth, and thereby also his social importance and authority, through the labour of his wives. The usefulness of wives as labourers partly

fore restricted to organic compounds. Formaldehyde (q.v.), CHO, a gas which is usually sold as a 40% aqueous solution (“formalin”), polymerizes to paraformaldehyde, probably (CH20)z, when the solution is concentrated. When this is carefully heated it gives rise to trioxymethylene, (CH:20)3, a white crystalline solid which is also formed spontaneously and rapidly by anhydrous liquid formaldehyde when kept below its boiling point (—21° C). Further, when formalin is kept with milk of lime at the ordinary temperature, it gradually changes to “formose,” “methylenitan,” or “œ-acrose,” a complex mixture of sugars of the formula CgHi2O. or (CH20)¢. Acetaldehyde (q.v.), CH;-CHO, also gives rise to 2 number of polymerides, e.g., (1) aldol, CH;-CH(OH)-CH;-CHO, which is produced by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid or of zinc chloride at the ordinary temperature, (2) paraldehyde, (C2H.0)s, formed by the addition of one drop of concentrated sulphuric acid; it has a much higher boiling point than acetaldehyde (124° C as compared with 21° C), and is used as a soporific, (3) metaldehyde, also (C2H4O)3, produced by the action of acids at low temperature, a crystalline solid which sublimes unchanged but is reconverted to acetaldehyde on long heating. Acroletn,

accounts for the increasing practice of polygyny at the higher grades of economic culture. But it should also be noticed that economic progress leads to a more unequal distribution of wealth, and this, combined with the necessity of paying a bride price the amount of which is more or less influenced by the economic conditions, makes it possible for certain men to acquire several wives while others can acquire none at all.

CH: :CH. CHO,

a volatile liquid, polymerizes slowly to disacryl, a white amorphous mass: or when warmed with alkalis it gives metacrolein, (C:H40)s, a solid melting at 45° C which is of use in the manufacture of synthetic resins (g.v.). Cyanic acid, cyanamide and their derivatives furnish examples BIELIOGRAPHY.—L. T. Hobhouse, G. C. Wheeler, and M. Ginsberg, of ready and complex polymerization. The acid is N:C:OH The Material Culture and Social Institutions of the Simpler Peoples (or HN:CO), isomeric with fulminic acid (C:N-OH); at ordinary (1915); Nobushige Hozumi, Ancestor-Worship and Japanese Law temperatures its aqueous solutions rapidly give cyamelide, a (1913) ; K. v. Amira, “Recht,” in H. Paul’s Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, vol. iji. (1900) ; P. W. Joyce, A Social History of Ireland, white, porcelain-like insoluble mass. The esters of cyanic acid vol. ii. (1903); J. Jolly, Recht und Sitte (1896); L. Beauchet, are unknown, but the isomeric isocyanic esters, e.g., CHs‘N:C:0, Histoire du droit privé de la République Athénienne, vol. i. (1897); rapidly polymerize to isocyanuric esters Th. Mommsen, Römisches Strafrecht (1899); E. Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage, vol. ìi. (1921); R. Briffault, The Mothers, vol, ii. (1927). (E. W.)

POLYHEDRON: see Soxips, GEOMETRIC. POLYMERIZATION, in chemistry, is the process whereby two or more atoms or molecules of the same substance unite to give a more complex molecule; the resulting “polymeride” therefore has the same percentage composition as the original substance, but a molecular weight which is 2, 3 or 4, etc., times as great. This is the sense in which the term was originally used (see the articles ISOMERISM and AssocraTIon). But there is a tendency to restrict its use to cases in which the chemical and physical properties of the substance are altered in the process, the

/N(CHs)-C CKy (CH) -C opN-CHs. Cyanuric acid on distillation gives cyanic acid,

oe

N=C-OH. HO-C

aa

N — 3N:C-OH, x> ZG N—C-0OH

and was the first polymeride to be investigated (Wöhler). Cyanuric chloride is formed when cyanogen chloride is kept in a

CClI=N—CCl term association being conveniently applied to cases in which it —| || + Cyanamide, CN:NH:2 or has not hitherto been possible to distinguish clearly between the sealed tube: 3CICN . N==CCI-—N properties of the simple and the more complex substance. Moreover, once a substance has polymerized it is not readily reconverted to the simpler compound, whereas in association the two NH:C:NH, :C:NH, is y j HN:C(N™ :C NH.CN is converte converted into dicyandiamide, are in a constant state of change into one another, ż.e., they are in equilibrium. Water (qg.v.) is undoubtedly a mixture of (prob- on standing or on evaporation of its aqueous solution; either of

ably) H:O, (H:O), and (H:O); molecules which have not yet

been obtained as separate liquids; it is therefore said to be associated. On the other hand when acetylene gas, C2He, is passed through a red-hot tube, some of it is polymerized into liquid benzene, CsHs; or when the volatile, mobile liquid isoprene, CsHa, is warmed, or even kept for a short time, it polymerizes first to dipentene, CjpHis, and then to a rubber-like substance, (CsHs)n, of very high molecular weight (see TERPENES). In these two cases the properties of the polymerides are very different from those of the original substances, and separation of the two is easy. It should be emphasized, however, that there is no very clear line of demarcation between association and polymerization, and the distinction is chiefly one of convenience. Cases of polymerization among inorganic substances are dealt With under the heading of AssocrATION, since it is only in a few cases, such as sulphur and phosphorus, that different polymerides,

e.g., Sa, Se and Sg, can be identified and shown to have different Properties (see Artotropy). The following examples are there-

,

these gives tricyantriamide, or melamine, Nen

ys

P

, On

N

N—C-NH:

heating at 150° C. Further, just as acetylene gives benzene, so bromoacetylene, CH:CBr, gives tribromobenzene, CsHsBrs, but even more readily, since the change in this case occurs at the ordinary temperature. Many of the higher olefines (see CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC: Aliphatic Division) polymerize readily under the

influence of dilute acids; thus isoamylene, CsHio, gives di- and

tri-isoamylenes, CioHeo and CisHsgo. Esters of cinnamic acid slowly polymerize on keeping, but more rapidly in sunlight, to truxillic and truxinic esters: C;Hs-C—CH:CO2Et C.He-CH—CH:COsEt or 2CsH;-CH:CH:-CQsEt C.Hs-C—CH:-COEt EtO,C:-CH-—CH-C.Hs

188

POLYMETHYLENES—POLYNESIA

The foregoing examples illustrate the great variety of possibili-

ties in polymerization. Many synthetic resins which are finding increasing industrial application, owe their characteristic properties to the fact that their high molecular weight is the result of (A. D. M.) polymerization.

POLYMETHYLENES:

see CHEMISTRY, ORGANIC, Homo-

cyclic Compounds.

POLYNESIA, a term sometimes used tọ cover the whole of

the oceanic islands in the central and western Pacific, but properly for the eastern of the three great divisions of these islands.

For a full account of the structure, geology, climate, flora, fauna and economic conditions of Polynesia, see the treatment of the various island groups under the comprehensive article PACIFIC ISLANDS.

ETHNOLOGY This area of the Central Pacific region includes the numerous groups and small islands situated south of the Equator, and falling roughly between 170° east and 110° west longitude. The two islands of New Zealand (g.v.) being the largest and most important, other groups are the Hawaiian (U.S.A.), Society and Marquesas (French), Tonga (British), Samoa (British and U.S.A.). Origin.—The origin of these people is still debatable. They are migrants, and not native to the soil; they have no relation with the negroid people of Melanesia, nor to date has any evidence been shown that they came from the American continent. Proof, however, does exist that their earliest home was to the westward, and possibly in the distant past, the east coast of India may have seen the departure of this race of navigators, for their traditions show how they sailed from island to island in open canoes of great size. That the Polynesians have no trace of the religions of the East is evidence of their very early migration. Their gods are those of primitive peoples, uncontaminated by the ritual of the later Buddhist and Hindu religions. Aptitude for working in stone led to the establishment of imposing temples, which, as these people receded further from their original home, decreased in importance, and degenerated into rude structures, the most favoured forms of which were rectangular mounds faced with

stone faced terthe Pyramids of and right across time the resting place of these migrants, whence again they were forced by fresh intruders of Malayan stock to find new homes further eastward. Traditions are still retained of a mythical land of their forefathers away to the westward, called Hawaiki (which linguistically can be connected with the word Java as we know it to-day) and to which the souls of the dead return. Moreover, all the important islands possess a certain locality whence these departed souls commence their journey, and strangely these localities are invariably situated to the westward. Recent investigations among the Nagas of Assam, and archaeological research by the French Colonial Government in Cambodia, indicate that there is a linking up with the immigrants, particularly with the Nagas, who today, apart from their stone-working craft, practise many customs that are Polynesian. The extensive stone remains in the Carolines and Ladrones are evidence of their presence, and it is by this route that the Pacific was occupied. The occurrence of these in Melanesia, especially in the New Hebrides, where circles of Dolmens occur, and in the Solomons, where primitive stone objects have been found, and again in south-east Papua where well worked “prehistoric” objects are known, all indicate that wandering bands of these people settled for a time, but were

stone blocks, superimposed on which were small races. This method of building is linked up with Egypt and the temples in many parts of India, the Pacific to Central America. Java was for a

unable to stand against the negroid races. The skill in navigation of these people is such that not only was New Zealand known to the natives of Tahiti, but certain individuals successfully made the return voyage. The traverse from Hawaii to Tahiti was equally well known, and entailed a course of 1,750 nautical miles.

Physical Characteristics—The Polynesians generally are of good appearance and average stature, but are inclined to stoutness when past middle age (though this in the females is con-

sidered a point of beauty). The hair is long and black, the eyes black and expressive, whilst the body colour ranges from brown

to nearly black. Tattooing is much in evidence, taking the place of clothing, although they never go entirely naked. Great personal cleanliness is observed, except, perhaps, in New Zealand, and as

most of the inhabitants reside near the shore, sea bathing is much indulged in; a plentiful application of scented cocoanut oil to the body after the bath gives their skins a healthy and lustrous appearance. The open-air life arising from the construction of their houses, which in the temperate groups consists almost entirely of a massive thatched roof supported on posts, has operated to produce an unusually fine race;

conditions, however, to-day

have much altered, to the detriment of the people. Speech making comes easily to all Polynesians, the large number of vowels in the language permitting a ready flow of words. Throughout the region a common language was spoken, whilst a specialized form

was in use (particularly in Tahiti) for addressing superiors (see POLYNESIAN LANGUAGES.) Religion.—Religious observances were an established part of the life of these islanders, and through the gods, the chiefs and priestcraft wielded much power.

The same gods in slightly vary-

ing forms were common to all the groups. The attributes of these gods differed widely, also the forms of worship. The old gods,

such as Tangaroa, god of the sea, Ra, the sun god, Jo, the supreme, being probably familiar to their ancestors, prior to the migration from India, became over-shadowed by gods of later creation, locally evolved in the islands, and dealing more directly with the needs of everyday existence, and sun worship survived in out of the way places in the Pacific, which is additional proof of the Indonesian origin of these people. Material reproductions of these “ereat gods” were seldom made, although a fine wooden figure of Tangaroa is possessed by the British Museum. The Polynesian rendered homage to a lesser class of gods, who were more nearly approachable and were the patrons of his daily acts of life. For the Polynesian, most inanimate objects had a “soul,” the Atua or spirits had considerable power, and their help was sought as intermediaries with the great gods. The souls of great people occupy a similar position in the world beyond, and may be invoked by the living. Thus thousands of native gods came into existence, any curious shaped stone or tree might become the residence of a spirit to which offerings of fruit and pigs would be made, human bodies were in some groups a necessary adjunct at all important religious festivals. (See ANrmism, Mana.) Social Structure.—Society was remarkably well organized, chieftainship was hereditary and women held rank according to their birth; descent was invariably through the father, although the reverse is in evidence as one approaches the border of Polynesia. The supreme chief held unlimited power, derived in great measure from his association with the gods, and on occasions undertook the réle of the divinity himself. Below the ruling caste were the landowners, whilst in Tonga and Samoa the artizan class was well organized and esteemed. The various trades they engaged in were recognized and they formed a close guild, whose members were also hereditary. Social conditions varied considerably, and when the chief occupation of the men was fighting, these trades were not so elaborated; considerable etiquette surrounded the chiefs, general assemblies were held, and the proceedings were orderly. Cannibalism was not generally practised, except in New Zealand and the Marquesas; in the former it was certainly of a comparatively late introduction. The finest technical productions were those of cannibals, for the native Maori and Marquesan art is easily superior to anything in the Pacific. As a people con-

versant with the stone-working craft, although lacking metal tools, massive stone sanctuaries were erected, dedicated to various gods, a high conception of future life was prevalent, the spirit being required to undergo certain trials before admittance to its final abode. After death the body was dealt with in several ways, cave

burial was practised where circumstances permitted. Mummification has been reported from Samoa, Tahiti and rarely from New Zealand, whilst the remarkable system of Tabu (g.v.) was in vogue throughout the whole area, resting entirely in the hands of

the chiefs and priests. This power was enormous, and it perme-

BY COURTESY

OF THE

PLATE I

PO LYNESIA

b

METRO-GOLDWYN-MAYER

PICTURE

HOUSES

CORPORATION

AND

PALM

GROVES

1. A native hut with thatched roof is shown near a grove of coco-nut palms 2. A characteristic native house, built of hardwood posts, plaited palm leaves with a reed thatched roof 3. View of a Polynesian harbour bordered with palm trees

4. Harvesting coco-nuts in a palm grove, Tahiti

bamboos

and

OF THE

POLYNESIAN

5. A native village sheltered

ISLANDS by palm trees.

The houses are built with

hardwood posts and bamboos and are roofed with palm or other leaves 6. Natives climbing coco-nut trees in Tahiti. The native loops himself to the tree with rope to prevent falling and climbs by gripping the trunk

with his toes

Prate IT

fon ea

BY

POLYNESIA

a

Ge

COURTESY

OF

(i,

2)

THE

PARAMOUNT

FAMOUS

LASKY

CORPORATION,

NATIVES

(3)

OF THE

THE

METRO-GOLDWYN-MAYER

MARQUESAS

PICTURE

CORPORATION

ISLANDS,

POLYNESIA

1. Boy of the Marquesas climbing a coco-nut palm 2. Native Marquesan woman

3. Group of Marquesans with their tribal chief (left)

POLYNESIAN

LANGUAGES

189

ated the life of the people. The elaboration of this remarkable social institution is evidence of its antiquity. From the pounded

compound or aspirated consonant wk which sounds very like an aspirated v, as in whaka-, the prefix of causative verbs. A tabular

root of the kava plant (Piper mythisticum) a slightly stimulating drink was universally prepared. Its use was a subject of much ceremony, and the proceedings at these functions were attended with strict decorum.

view of the phonetics of the chief Polynesian languages follows. A. Vowels

Society Group.—When Cook made his first landing in 1769

the natives had reached a state of civilization as highly developed as any in the Pacific. But morally and physically they had degenerated from the bold navigators of an earlier time, indeed they had evolved a life of semi-indolence and sensuality, from which the present people have never really recovered. In personal appearance and character, the Tahitians follow closely the general Polynesian type, and under less advantageous conditions would have evolved the sterling characteristics

common

to the race.

The

interior of the islands is to all intents and purposes deserted, whilst the ever diminishing native population is scattered in small

groups of houses along the shore. In Tahiti the native still con-

forms in many ways to the old conditions. The chiefs enjoy considerable esteem and the royal house of Pomare persists even to-

day. Its subjects are but a handful of diseased, listless people, doomed to extinction in a generation or so.

g

a | 2]g

¢5

m

N

as

Pi

Q

8]

xy

£

3

Rarotongan Mangareva PaumotuTahiti Nukuhiva &

S

aa“ O w

QA oa.

8 S38.

wna O A

=O & 32

n~

ss=

F&O G =a

8,08 FO Q

Thus, e, z, and o are constant; a and u variable. But so jealously are vowel-values guarded by Polynesian speakers that these changes are constant within the bounds set by any particular language and it is possible for the speaker of one idiom to say definitely what form a word will take in another whose phonetic system he knows.

Tongan Group.—The people of this group are notable among Polynesians for their high standard of intelligence. They formerly showed great skill in war and domestic arts. Canoes from this

B. Consonants

group have in comparatively recent times travelled long distances, and settled their occupants at far away islands. Ellice and Rotumah

probably derived their present inhabitants from Tonga, whilst

many of the smaller islands in the outlying Solomons, New Hebrides, and even the Loyalty group, have been influenced by storm-blown canoes from Tonga. The search for suitable canoe timber led to the exercise of Tongan influence in the Fijis.

Society in Tonga is much like that of the rest of Polynesia. Hereditary chiefs wield great power and the people are divided into well ordered classes where trades are hereditary. The gods were numerous and both sexes could officiate in the priesthood. To-day, the Tongans enjoy a limited monarchy and form a contented and healthy colony. They number about 20,000, inhabiting some 150 large and small islands. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Brigham, (Honolulu,

1900);

J. Cook,

Index

to the

Narrative

Islands

of Voyages

of the

Pacific

(1773-84);

W.

Ellis, Polynesian Researches, 2 vols. (1830); A. C. Caillot, Les Polynésiens orientaux (Paris, 1909); Elsdon Best, The Maori (Wellington, N. Z, 1924). A. Fornander, The Polynesian Race (1878-85); B. Thomson, The Diversions of a Prime Minister (1894). (H. G. B.)

POLYNESIAN

LANGUAGES,

a general term for one

branch of the great Oceanic family of speech, the other branches being Melanesian, Micronesian and Indonesian. These four divisions are so clearly marked off from each other and so definitely spring from one common parent that it is customary to refer to the individual languages of each group as mere dialects. The existing differences between the languages as we know them, however, are such as to justify the use of the term languages. The principal members of the Polynesian group are (a) Samoan (probably the oldest form of Polynesian speech extant), (b) Maori, (c) Tahitian, (d) Hawaiian, (e) Tongan, (f) Mangarevan, (g) Nukuhivan (of the Marquesas Islands) and (h) the dialects of the Paumotu archipelago. From these main tongues dialects and sub-dialects have developed until Polynesia has almost a hundred variants of the original tongue. Phonetics.—The Polynesian languages are amazingly rich in vowels with striking consonantal poverty. Although possessing only the five vowels a, e, i, o, u, in a short and long form the musical register of the Polynesian voice is so wide as to produce the illusion of numberless variants of these vowels. The 7 in particular is occasionally so shrill that no European can satisfactorily reproduce it.

The consonants are k, £, p, s, (h), L (v), #, 2, m, f, (v), (w). No single Polynesian tongue contains all these consonants, those m parentheses being alternatives in some languages for the letter immediately preceding. Fakaafo is one of the richest of these tongues having k, £, p, $, f, v, L ù, n, m; most of the others

lack two or three of this number.

Fakaafo Hawaiian

Tongan Maori

Rarotongan Paumotu Mangareva

k b

Nukuhiva

ae oe he

h

a OH why

h w

g

ax

BS

l n

n m

SBmrs Hay! aw Wreayo~ PR > ws & ~ ernan Şa S=zrwWrea

Variability is much more frequent among the consonants than with the vowels, which are the backbone of Polynesian speech. & is constant except in Hawaiian, Samoan and Tahiti speech where it 1s replaced by a glottal check; ¢ is constant except in Hawaiian where it becomes k, e.g., Maori tavate, a man, Hawaiian kanaka, Nukuhiva Renata, enata. P, n and m do not change at all and J and r appear alternately. The Samoan and Fakaafo s for 2 in the other languages, betrays the sibilant sound of 4 before a weak vowel (an analogy is found in Luchuan and Japanese hizo, fito, pronounced shto). All the changes illustrated in the table are regular and very few exceptions are found.

Morphology.—Syllables

in Polynesian tongues may begin

with a consonant or a vowel but must always end in a vowel. From this it results that many vowels come together in words of several syllables; extreme cases are hooiaioia, mowa, kauikeaouli. Here, however, each successive vowel is a syllable, there being no true diphthongs in these languages. There is no vowel elision, and the accent (penultimate), is very light, so that each syllable is clearly enunciated. But owing to the Polynesian distaste for consonants many homophones are created, mostly consisting of two vowels, é.g., Nukuhivan ua means “rain,” “two,” “to heat,” “lobster,” etc., from elision, the original words being uka or usa, rua, ura, and uka. The genius of the language can be clearly seen from the borrowings from foreign languages, chiefly from English, e.g., the Word “quarter” appears as żuata, “governor” as tavana or kavana, “doctor” as taote, etc. In normal words, when compounds are made the accent shifts so as to fall still on the penultimate syllable, e.g., Samoan, áve

to give, averia to be given; Hawaiian, idhe to hear, lohéa to be heard. But there are exceptions to the rule of penultimate accent, which must be learnt by practice only; most of these, which are not numerous, arise from the difficulty of distinguishing

between homophones or from the need of distinguishing a com-

Maori has, in addition, a mon word from one which has become fapu as the name of a

190

POLYNESIAN

chief or other prominent person. One phenomenon of Polynesian speech deserves attention, viz., reduplication, complete or partial. Many new words are built up in this way and delicate nuances are conveyed by the doubling of a single syllable. In Maori haere conveys the idea “going,” haerehaere means “roaming about, take a walk”; Samoan tufa, “divide,” yields, tufatufa, “to split up into many pieces,” etc.; Maori inu, “to drink” gives iinu, “to tipple, soak’’; Tahiti paraz, “to speak” gives paraparau, “to chatter”; from Tonga nofo, “to live” comes nonofu, “to live with someone.” Adjectives are treated in the same way: Rarotongan nui, “big” gives nunui, “very big”; Hawaiian Jz, “small,” gives lili, “very small.” Word-building is simple. From tama, “a child” and ariki, “a chief” is made tamariki, “a son” (lit. a princeling, noble child); from fama, ‘‘a child” and wakine, “a woman,” comes tamahine, “a daughter, a girl”; urttaata, “an ape” is made up of uri, “a dog,” and żaata, “a man.” The article differs from language to language; the indefinite

article is usually identical with the numeral one, (sa, se). This is not used, however, unless absolutely necessary, although the definite article (Samoan, o le or le; Hawaiian, he; Maori, te; Tahiti, Rarotongan, Mangarevan, Nukuhiva e), usually appears before a noun. Maori has a plural article ña (nga), and the other languages have prefixes which mark the noun as plural although nouns undergo no change in form from singular to plural. There are cases in the language marked by prefixes. The noun as agent is preceded by ko (’o), the genitive is occasionally still shown by position (as was the original method) although the prefixes na, a, no, o are now usually employed. The dative case is shown by a prefixed particle ki (before proper names and pronouns kia) and the accusative (when it is marked at all) is preceded by ¿ or jia. The particle preceding the noun in the ablative case is e and in one or two languages there are other prefixes, but these do not actually form part of a genuine declension. The vocative case is marked by the syllable e preceding

the name or noun. The adjective suffers no change in any of the languages and it follows its noun except when it is used as a predicate when it precedes it; Samoan leau tele, “a big tree.” When the adjective follows its substantive as attribute, the plural of the whole phrase is accomplished by the reduplication of the adjective: Maori, ika pai, “a good fish,” ika papai, “good fish”; Hawaiian, kale nui, “a big house,” hale nunui, “big houses.” The pronouns are complex in Polynesian speech, there being singular, dual and plural forms with inclusive and exclusive varieties. The normal forms are:— ist person

ee

Plural

as inclusive)

; .

inclusive) (exclusive)

. .

aku la -rus ma-rua ta-toru ma-ioru

2nd person

3rd person

koe ko-rua MO-TUG ko-toru

ia, na ra-rual

mo-toru

na-rua ra-toru Na-toru

These forms vary according to the dialect and the consonantchanges tolerated therein. There are full and contracted forms for the possessive and demonstrative pronouns which are also complicated. The interrogative pronoun serving many purposes is wat (Maori and Hawaiian); wai (Tahiti); hai (Tongan); and ai for the other dialects, used only for living things and for inanimate objects, asa (Maori, Hawaiian, Nukuhiva); ka (Tongan); aa (Rarotongan}, and ë in the other tongues. There is no relative pronoun in any of the languages—either it remains unexpressed or a circumlocution is employed with the personal or demonstrative pronoun. The Polynesian verb, like the noun and adjective, undergoes no change in form, and all moods and tenses are indicated by

participles prefixed to the root form of the verb. The verb has no special form to distinguish it from other parts of speech and, indeed, many adjectives are used as verbs without change. The passive voice is constructed from the active by the use of the participle prefix ia (hia, la, kia, kina, mia, etc.); the causa-

LITERATURE tive is similarly produced by the prefix faa (whaka, ho'a, aka, etc.). A desiderative is formed by the prefix fia (fie, hia), and one verbal suffix exists whereby a reciprocal form is made (-aki, -faki, -laki, -taki, -rakt). The present indicative is shown by the participle e or te, the future by a, and the preterite by na. The moods are few and vary greatly between the languages, the most common being ia (kia, ke) for the conjunctive: a, ka, kite, pea, poo, ahiri, ina, etc., for the conditional and fau (Tonga only) for the potential. The particle ana, a’a makes the participle. Numerals |

dle =

¢/ si] 4

3

oe

8

a

a

E

S

cole | A

c ©

1 | kahi | tasi | tast tahu 2 | lua |lua | lua ua 3 | kolu | tolu | tolu tolu 4|ka |fe Ifa Ja 5 | lima | lima | lima | nima 6 | ono | ono | ono ono 7 | kiku | fitu | fitu fitu 8 | walu | valu | valu valu 9 | iwa |iva | 20 hiva 10 | ’umt| fulu | sefulu | honofulu|

b |

$

xS | 8ʻi | 3g

:

=

Z

tahi rua toru wa rima ono witu waru

iwa rahuru|

©

fe

S

A

aid =

tai liaki | tahi rua | rua ua toru toru | tou a ha Ja, ha |rima |rima | ima ono ono ono tiu hitu | fitu, hitu |varu |varu | vau

iva iva iva ñauruj akuru | onohuu

The word for “five” (lima) is the general word for “hand” in Polynesia, the word for “ten” is borrowed from Malay puloh. The identity between the words of the languages is rarely so close as it is with the numerals and a few terms of relationship. The ordinal numbers are formed by placing the definite article before the cardinals, e.g., Tahiti, o te rima (lit. “the five”) “fifth”; Samoan, o le lua, “the second,” etc. Vocabulary.—The Polynesian tongues are rich in terms of relationship, in names of natural objects, fish, birds, plants, flowers and phenomena of nature, all the winds and zephyrs, all kinds of clouds, waves, streams, hills, shores and so on having special names. There is a shortage of abstract terms, metaphor is common, a concrete noun doing double duty. Maori and Samoan, however, in the philosophical chants (see POLYNESIAN LITERATURE) have developed a defnitely abstract vocabulary. There is a decided lack of direct, forceful words and in translation from European languages it is difficult to turn decisive phrases into Polynesian equivalents. The vocabularies suffice for all ordinary purposes and a little ingenuity often turns an English phrase into a telling South Seas equivalent. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The Journal of the Polynesian Society (Wellington, N.Z.), a quarterly publication in which many excellent sketches of the grammar of Polynesian languages have appeared is most important. For early researches into Polynesian speech see Wilhelm von Humboldt,

Uber die Kawi-Sprache etc. (1836-39) ; Lorrin Andrews, A Grammar

of the Hawaiian Language (Honolulu, 1854) ; Friedrich Miiller, Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, li. part 2 (1882). The dictionary par excellence is Edward Tregear’s Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary (Wellington, N.Z. rodak) wherein is to be found the most complete bibliography of Polynesian linguistic works. See also Meillet and Cohen, Les Langues du Monde (1924), pp. 450-435.

(A.N.J W.) POLYNESIAN LITERATURE. A few decades ago this title would have been deemed an anachronism, or worse, but since the publication of the Sacred Songs of the Hula by Dr. N. B Emerson under the title Unwritten Literature of Hawaii (1909), it has been generally conceded that the Polynesians, like other illiterate races, may have a literature in the truest sense of that term. The old Polynesian priests with their extraordinary mem-

ories held every word of the old traditions as flawlessly as papyrus or paper could have done; the proof of this lies in the presence, in texts taken down from native lips, of words so archaic that even the hierarchs have forgotten their meanings. It soon came

to be realized that this wealth of literature was rapidly dying with the chiefs who were its last repositories, and numerous legends and collections of songs were taken down from the lips of the kahuna or sorcerers.

IQI

POLYNOMIAL The literature of the Samoan islands is probably older than that of any other part of Polynesia and is wonderfully akin to the old

Maori philosophical chants. The Creation Song in Samoan is not

only interesting as folk-lore; it is a marvellously dignified piece of poetic literature. Long genealogies interspersed with legends of

philosophic and historic import are now available in Roman script, providing much material for the study of the history and languagedevelopment of the Pacific islanders. Many migration songs and legends are known and there is still time to collect others. The whole text of the ‘ava ceremonial and similar ritual texts are now in our hands and there is reason to believe that a close study of others in process of being collected will prove of the greatest possible value in the solution of problems of migration and tribal mixing. Maori literature is of two kinds, philosophic and traditional-

historical. The Maori Chant of Eternity is, in places, identical

with the Samoan Creation Song but has a definite individuality. Speculation on life and its problems appears in many of the legends centred round M auz, the great common Polynesian Ancestor, the Divine Angler, whose hook caught on the islands of New Zealand and brought them to the surface as an abode for his children. Hawaiki, that mysterious, far land, renowned in Polynesian song, is vaguely glimpsed, now as a paradise to which men’s souls shall go, now as the Eden from which the ancestors

of the singers emerged countless centuries before. The stories of the creation of the cosmos and its peopling are all before us in Maori speech, put together with a reverence and delicacy of

phrase worthy of any literature. Hawaiian literature is essentially romantic. The kula, a religious

the article, a polynomial in one variable is a sum of terms, each consisting of a power of the variable multiplied by a coefficient independent of the variable, or, as an extreme case, a single such term; in a polynomial in several variables, each term contains a power of one of the variables or a product of powers of two or more of them. By a power in this connection is meant a power with exponent equal to a positive whole number or zero. The highest exponent that occurs, or, in the case of more than one variable, the highest value attained by the sum of the exponents in a single term, is the degree of the polynomial. Thus ax?+-dx£-+c is a polynomial of the second degree in x (if a0), and + 3xy?— 8x54 is a polynomial of the seventh degree in v and y. The latter is also said to be of the fifth degree in x, and of the fourth degree in y. Having fundamentally a relative sense, the definition is applicable to characterize the manner of dependence on quantities which may themselves be more or less complicated expressions of any form. Thus ax?+bst+c, a(r+Vx)?+d(1+Vx) +e,

a/x?+-b/x-+-c, a (log x)?+b log x+c are polynomials with respect to x, 1+ Vx, 1/x, and log x respectively, though the last three are not polynomials with respect to x; and axt+bx?+c, a polynomial in x, can also be regarded as a polynomial in x’. The sum, difference, or product of two polynomials is a polynomial; their quotient in general is not. Polynomials and quotients of polynomials are known collectively as rational functions. In elementary algebra, expressions coming under the more technical definition of polynomials are studied largely in connection with the equations formed by setting them equal to zero. If f(x) denotes the polynomial

performance, was in its essence an ebullition of joyous animal-

spirits, outflowing toward Nature.

The “abandonment” seen by

some in the dance and in the words of the songs is largely imaginary although it is undeniable that much of the hula and mele literature of Hawaii is made up of protracted double-entendres. In the Hawaiian one can observe a close love of nature through understanding; the trees wave in a warm breeze and the sunlight glints on azure waves because the singer is happy and because the gods are weaving anew their ancient spell of poetic song. Even the dread voice and searing tongue of Pele, the awful volcanogoddess, can be wooed by song and dance, to rest. The allusions in the songs and prose of Hawaii point to a long cultural experi-

axa

where azo,

l-a

. o. + an-10-- dn,

the equation f(x)=o has n roots, fi, Fa, ... 3 fn

(which may or may not be all different from each other); and then f(x) can be factorized in the form

f(~%)==a0(x—11) (4—72) ... (4—Tn).

Thus every polynomial of the mth degree in a single variable can be resolved into m factors of the first degree. A corresponding resolution into factors of the first degree is not possible in general for polynomials in more than one variable. A polynomial (such as x?-++) which cannot be expressed as a product of polynomials ence and deep reverence for tradition. -The lyrics of Hawaii rank of lower degree is said to be irreducible. Every polynomial which is not itself irreducible can be resolved into irreducible factors, high among the pure rhapsodies of the world. The literature of other Polynesian islands is largely a repetition and apart from the order of the factors, and from factors which of that outlined above. The traditions of Tonga supply lacunae are merely constant, can be so resolved in only one way. It is an important fact in trigonometry that the cosine of n in the stories of Samoa and New Zealand and those of Tahiti times an angle, when z is a whole number, can be expressed as a supplement those of Hawaii and the Gambier islands. In all, however, they are distinctive songs and chants, as full of beauty polynomial of the nth degree in terms of the cosine of the angle itself; e.g., as they are of scientific interest. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Sir George Grey, Polynesian Mythology and Ancient Traditional Mythology of the New Zealand Race, Maori text

COS 2%=2 COS? x—1, COS 3%=4 cos? X—3 cos 4X, cos 4%=8 cos* x—8 cos? x-+1.

A. Bastian, Die heilige sage der Polynesiey (1881); A. Kramer, Die Samoa Inseln, texts in Samoan and German (1902); N. B. Emerson, Unwritten Literature of Hawai (Washington, 1909); M. W. Beckwith, The Hawaiian Romance of Laieikawai, Hawaiian text and translation (1912); N. B. Emerson, Pele and Hiiaka (1915); Fornander Collection of Hawaiian Antiquities and Folk Lore, memoirs of the Bernice Pauahi museum (Honolulu, 1916). (A. N. J.W.)

The sine of nx can be expressed as the product of sin x by a polynomial of degree »—1 in cos x; when z is odd, but not when v is even, it can also be expressed as a polynomial of the mth degree in sin 4; e.g.,

(1855); W. W. Gill, Myths and Songs from the South Pacific (1876) ;

POLYNOMIAL, in elementary algebra, an expression composed of two or more terms combined by operations of addition or subtraction. Thus 4a+7b+c and 2+a—V (3xy) +32? are polynomials. A polynomial of two terms is called a binomial, and one of three terms is called a trinomial. An expression consisting of a single term is called a monomial.

_ The word polynomial is often used with a more technical meanIng, particularly in higher mathematics, to characterize the

manner of dependence of an expression on one or more quantities

regarded for the time being as independent variables. Importance

attaches then to the nature of the operations performed on the variables, rather than to the number of terms, and monomial expressions of suitable form are admitted as special cases. Under this interpretation, which will be adopted throughout the rest of

sin 2x=2 sin x COS x, sin 3%=sin x (4 cos? y—1)=3 sin y4 sin? y. The relation between algebra and trigonometry was emphasized by Vieta (1540-1603), who contributed largely to the advancement of both branches. Analytic geometry is largely concerned with the geometric interpretation of the equations obtained by setting polynomials in the co-ordinates equal to zero. In the plane, an equation of the first degree, of the typical form Ax-+By-++-C =o, represents a straight line; ż.e., if (x, y) are the rectangular co-ordinates of a point, all points whose co-ordinates satisfy the equation lie on a straight line, and all points of the line have co-ordinates satis-

fying the equation.

The conic sections (g.v.),—ellipse, circle

(which may be regarded as a special case of the ellipse), parabola,

hyperbola

(gg.v.), and certain “degenerate”

forms

(pairs of

straight lines)—are represented by equations of the second degree,

POLYP—POLY PODIUM

1Q2

esas aaa

of the polynomials of Legendre (1752-1833) or Legendre’s ¢o.

of the form

Ax?+Bay+Cy?+Drt+Ey+F =o, where in particular cases one or more of the coefficients may be equal to zero. Descartes (Géoméirie, 1637) and his contemporary, Fermat, are regarded as the founders of analytic geometry (q.v.). The curves represented by equations of the third degree were systematically studied by Newton (1704). In three dimensions, an equation of the first degree, 4x-+By+Cz+D=o0, represents a plane, and one of the second degree a quadric surface—ellipsoid, sphere (a special case of the ellipsoid), hyperboloid (of one sheet or of two sheets), paraboloid (elliptic or hyperbolic), cone, cylinder (gg.v.), or, as a degenerate form, a pair of planes. The theory of the transformation of homogeneous polynomials, or forms (see ALGEBRAIC Forms) by linear substitutions in the variables, and of the invariants and covariants associated with such transformation, is an important branch of modern algebra with numerous applications. For example, if x, y in the polynomial ax?+-bxy+cy? are expressed, in terms of a new pair of variables u, v, by the relations 2 = au-+ Bu,

efficients.

These may be defined as the coefficients of successive

powers of r in the power series for (1—2xr--r*)~4. One of their most striking properties is that the product of any two of them, integrated over the interval from —1 to -++-1, gives zero. The theory of Legendre series is still under investigation. Approxima. tions in terms of the polynomials of Hermite (1822-1901) are of importance in the theory of probability. Weierstrass (1885)

|proved t

that an arbitrary continuous function can be uniformly

approximated accuracy.

by a polynomial

with

any

assigned

degree of

a. menman

y= yu-+ dv,

The ordinary process of simple interpolation (q.v.), is equiva-

lent to the replacement of the tabulated function by a polynomial

of the first degree, over the interval in which the interpolation is performed. Formulae for interpolation by means of higher differences depend for their derivation on the fitting of polynomials of higher degree to the tabulated values. Formulae of numerical integration or mechanical quadrature likewise depend on the fitting of polynomial approximations. In connection with the use of polynomials for interpolation, it is an important fact that, if the values of a polynomial of the mth degree are tabulated for

equally spaced values of the variable, the nth differences are conwhere ad—Py=1, it is found that ax?+bxy+cy’ is identically stant. Consider for example the following table of values of the equal to an expression of the form Azv?+ Buv-+Cv?, in which polynomial y=x?+7x+3: B?—44AC=b—4ac, a fact which is of fundamental significance in analytic geometry. More generally, for any values of a, ĝ, Y, 6, L=O YS 3 Ay=8 Be—4AC=(ad— By)? (b*—4ac). I II A*y =2 The expression b?—4uc, itself a polynomial in terms of the coefficients a, b,c, is called an tnvariant. Polynomials in one variable are the simplest class of functions from the point of view of the calculus, because the rules for their differentiation and integration are particularly simple, and are obtained immediately from the definitions of these processes. The result of differentiating or integrating a polynomial with respect to its independent variable is always a polynomial. In the modern theory of functions (see FUNCTION), any polynomial is a continuous and analytic function of its variables. If a function of a single complex variable z is analytic for every finite value of z, and becomes infinite when z, represented by a point in a plane, goes to infinity in an arbitrary manner, the function is necessarily a polynomial. One of the chief investigators of the properties of polynomials during the roth century was the Russian mathematician Chebichev (Tschebyschef) (1821-94). Among theorems discovered only recently may be mentioned (a) the one which states that, if a polynomial of the mth degree in x does not exceed a number L in absolute value for values of x in the interval from —r to +1,

the absolute value of its derivative can not exceed nL/V1—x in the same interval (S. Bernstein, 1912), and (6) some results on the relation between the roots of a polynomial and those of its derivative in the complex plane (J. L. Walsh, Annals of Mathematics, 1920, and subsequent papers in the Bulletin and Trans-

actions of the American Mathematical Society). Applications.—Apart from their specific properties, poly-

I0 2

21

2 I2

3

33

4

47

5

63

2 I4

16

2

The first column contains values of x, and the second, the corresponding values of y. The entries in the third column, obtained by subtracting each y from the following, are the first differences. The last column is made up of the differences of the first differences, which are called second differences, and in the present instance are all equal. It is clear that by means of this property the table could be continued further, without direct substitution in the original formula. (See CALCULUS OF DIFFERENCES.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. Weber, Lehrbuch der Algebra (1895); A. A. Markoff, Differenzenrechnung (Leipzig, 1896); G. Chrystal, Algebra (1898, 1901) ; M. Bôcher, Introduction to Higher Algebra (1907); D. E. Smith, History of Mathematics (Boston, 1923); W. Le R. Hart, College Algebra (1926); L. E. Dickson, Modern Algebraic Theories (1926). (D. Ja.)

POLYP, the name applied technically to an individual animal of given form, which is of frequent occurrence among those creatures known as the Coelenterata (e.g., sea anemone, coral polyp, Hydra). The form of a polyp is outlined in the article COELENTERATA, and further information will be found in the articles HYDROZOA, SCYPHOZOA and ANTHOZOA.

nomials are of fundamental importance from their use in the POLYPHEMUS, the most famous of the Cyclops, son of approximate representation of other functions. The standard functions of elementary analysis can be represented by power series Poseidon and the nymph Thoösa. Odysseus, having been cast | ashore on the coast of Sicily, fell into the hands of Polyphemus, (see Serres), of the form who shut him up with twelve of his companions in his cave and cot ciztcxext . . . (Maclaurin’s series), blocked the entrance ‘with an enormous rock. Odysseus at length or, more generally, succeeded in making the giant drunk, blinded him by plunging a burning stake into his eye while he lay asleep, and with six of Cotc1(x—a) +62(x—2)*-+-03(x—a2)?-+ . . . (Taylor’s series), his friends (the others having been devoured by Polyphemus) which reduces to the preceding when a=o; the sum of an infinite made his escape by clinging to the bellies of the sheep let out to series Is by definition the limit approached by the sum of a finite pasture. See CYCLOPES; Acts; ODYSSEUS. number of its terms, as the number of terms is taken larger and POLYPODIUM, in botany, a large genus of true ferns (q.0.) larger, and the sum of a finite number of terms of a power series is containing 600 species, widely distributed throughout the world, a polynomial. Representation by power series can be made the but specially developed in the tropics. The name is derived from basis for a systematic treatment of analytic functions of a com- Gr. roħùvs, many, and róĝov, a little foot, on account of the footplex variable. Another important form of development in series, like appearance of the rhizome and its branches. The species differ theoretically applicable with greater generality, proceeds in terms | greatly in size and general appearance and in the character of the

POLY PUS—POLY TECHNICS

195

that by reason of the increase in the funds and the diminution or extinction of the objects of these charities the income was far with a membrane (indusium). The common polypody (P. vul- more than sufficient to provide for all the proper objects of such City of London pare), of Europe and Asia, is widely diffused in the British Isles, charities. The outcome of the report was the the act prothings, other Among densely1883. Act, Charities creeping, Parochial the etc.; where it is found on walls, banks, trees, 107 parishes of the City of London in charities the that vided ones fertile the fronds, cut y pinnatel deeply bears scaly rootstock body hearing on the back the bright yellow naked groups of sporan- should, after seven years, be administered by a corporate Parochial Charities. Schemes were gia. It is also known as adder’s foot, golden maidenhair and (the trustees) of the London of the secular part of the income wood-fern. There are a large number of varieties, differing chiefly drawn up for the utilization of the charities towards the estabconsolidation the from | derived (origim cambricu var. in the fofm and division of the pinnae; of polytechnics and kindred institutions. nally found in Wales) has the pinnae themselves deeply cut into |lishment and maintenance the trustees, the charity comnarrow segments; var. serratum has the pinnae serrate. Besides ! Before handing over the funds to out of the corpus of the grants capital certain made | missioners virgin(P. the well-known polypody of Eastern North America janum), very similar to the foregoing, several other species occur | charities. They also made offers of annual endowments for the establishment of institutions in a number of districts generally in the southern and western States. approximately the POLYPUS, a term signifying a tumour which is attached by on condition that an amount representing was subscribed for capitalized value of the endowment offered a narrow neck to the walls of a cavity lined with mucous memcapital purposes. Local committees were set up to secure the brane. (See TUMOUR.) POLYTECHNICS. Polytechnic is a term used in modern foundation of institutes in the various parts of London. Valuable phraseology to describe an educational institution equipped to sites were given by private benefactors and subscriptions were teach many scientific and technological processes (Gr. mous, received from city companies, charities and other voluntary sources towards the cost of building. Altogether, including grants many, and 7Téxv7, an art). The word, however, has no common made by the charity commissioners and the trustees of the London France, In countries. other in or Britain Great in either meaning Parochial Charities, over £500,000 was secured for capital exthe name école polytechnique was applied in 1795 to the Ecole present time the trustees of des Travaux publics, which had been founded by the National penditure while from 1900 to the have Parochial contributed over £1,000,000 Charities London the exalmost the against protest a as earlier year Convention a clusive devotion to literary and abstract studies in places of towards the maintenance of the polytechnics. The general aim of the polytechnic institutions may be stated higher education. The école polytechnique was devoted largely briefly to be the promotion of industrial skill, general knowledge, In engineering. military and civil for recruits to the instruction of belonging. to Germany also, numerous technical colleges were founded for a health and well-being of young men and women like purpose. In Switzerland, the Zurich Polytechnikum has been the poorer classes by (1) instruction in the general rules and provided by the Federal Government as an institution of uni- principles of the arts and sciences and the practical application of such rules and principles in any handicraft, trade or business; versity rank teaching commercial and industrial processes. In London, the word polytechnic connotes an institution pro- (2) instruction in such other branches and subjects of art, science, viding not only technological instruction in many forms, but also language, literature, general knowledge, as may be approved by one which has definite social and civic ideals. In the report to the the governing body; (3) instruction and practice in gymnastics, special committee on technical education of the London County drill, swimming and other bodily exercises; (4) facilities for the Council in 1892 Llewellyn Smith (mow Sir Hubert Llewellyn formation and meeting of clubs and societies; (5) provision of Smith, G.C.B.) defined a polytechnic institute in London as an library, museum and reading rooms. The London County Council was empowered under the Techni“institute carrying out the double purpose of providing evening recreation and education for persons of both sexes engaged in cal Instruction Act, 1889, to give grants-in-aid to the polytechnics, industry in the day. Such of these institutes as already exist and and since then an increasing percentage of their revenue has been others for which funds are now being collected are governed by, derived from public moneys. The passing of the Education Act, or for the most part conform to, certain schemes of the charity 1902, as applied to London by the act of 1903, has tended to commissioners framed under the City Parochial Charities Act, diminish the distinction between the polytechnics, which are and most of them are endowed to some extent out of the funds “aided” or partly supported by the London County Council, and of the city parochial charities applicable under that act to the other technical institutes which are “maintained” or entirely benefit of the ‘poorer classes’ of London.” In other parts of supported by the London County Council. The Education (ConEngland the term “polytechnic” is frequently used as an alterna- solidation) Act, 1921, empowers the London County Council, in tive title for a technical school; in Glasgow it is the name appro- common with other local education authorities, to promote social priated by a large and popular store or shop. In America the word and physical well-being and to co-ordinate all forms of education is seldom used; for a discussion of American technical education within its area. The social and recreative activities, a characteristic feature of the organization of the polytechnics, created by see ENGINEERING EDUCATION and TECHNICAL EDUCATION. The London Polytechnics.—The London polytechnics, with reason of the funds granted by the trustees of the London Parotheir distinctive purpose and organization, spring from the social chial Charities, are likely, therefore, to be developed in other ideals of Quintin Hogg, an old Etonian, who, in 1865, began classes institutions. The distinction between a polytechnic and a technifor street urchins under the Adelphi arches by the side of the cal institute is slowly becoming managerial rather than educaThames. Later, in 1882, he purchased a disused building in Regent tional. The greater part of the expenditure of polytechnics is now street which had been called the Polytechnic, and had enjoyed an met by a grant from the London County Council, towards which ephemeral popularity as an institution for the exposition of the Board of Education contributes 50%. Towards building and Pepper’s Ghost and other scientific novelties. This enterprise equipment the London County Council has, in the past, conrapidly developed from an evangelistic effort into an educational tributed over £600,000, while its maintenance grants to these institution which provided instruction in many subjects and pro- institutions amount to nearly £350,000 a year. The table on next page shows the chief polytechnic institutions moted spiritual, intellectual, athletic and social ideals. In 1927 the Regent street polytechnic was attended by over 13,000 day in London and the number of students and gross expenditure of and evening students, taught by 350 full-time or part-time each polytechnic. The expenditure is met by students’ fees to the extent of 19%, lecturers and instructors, while its social activities covered by grants from the London County Council and Board of Eduathletics and social organizations of all kinds. The success achieved by the Regent street polytechnic led to cation to the extent of 70%, and by income from other sources the formation of other institutions, which were also called “poly- (including the City Parochial Foundation) to the extent of 11%. Battersea, Chelsea, Northampton, Northern and Woolwich technics.” In 1878 a royal commission was appointed to report on the parochial charities of the City of London, as it appeared polytechnics, together with the City of London college and Sir frond; the sori or groups of spore-cases (sporangia) are borne on

the back of the leaf, are globose and naked, that is, are not covered

POLYTONALITY—POLYZOA

194

No. of students, | Gross expendi1927

ture, 1927

2,940

54,451

í Battersea polytechnic .

Borough polytechnic Chelsea polytechnic City of London college. Northampton polytechnic . Northern polytechnic . Regent street polytechnic

. .

4,069 2,627 2,450 2,546

.

Sir John Cass technical institute Woolwich polytechnic .

3:380 13,328

1,246 2,440

57,140 39,074 24,845

41,620

50,667 133,855

15,996 44,880

John Cass Technical institute, present students for the internal degree examinations of the University of London, certain members of the teaching staff ranking as recognized teachers of the university. The subjects taught embrace the chief technological and commercial processes required for industrial and scientific processes in the London trades, varied according to local requirements. Careful attention has been given by the London County Council to secure that in the larger polytechnics and technical institutes there should be an organized concentration of effort; that an institution whose circumstances were such that it could with advantage, for regional or other reasons, specialize in

branches of instruction affecting one trade or group of trades should seek development in the direction suitable to it, rather than indulge in competition in other directions in which adequate provision is made by another institution. In accordance with these principles the governing bodies have accepted suggestions from the London County Council involving important revisions in the educational programmes of the different institutions. Evening classes for commercial instruction have, in many cases been transferred to the council’s evening institutes. Various branches of technology and art have been concentrated at certain institutions, and secondary schools previously housed in certain poly-

technics have, with one exception, been removed. Most of the polytechnics have now developed characteristic features. Battersea polytechnic has important departments of engineering and chemistry and also a training college for domestic science teachers. The Borough polytechnic has achieved notable success in the training of the artisan; it also conducts an important school of bakery and confectionery in co-operation with

the National Association of Master Bakers and Confectioners. At the Chelsea polytechnic there is a natural science department and a chemistry department (including a school of pharmacy); there is also a training college for physical education. The City of London college deals exclusively with commercial studies and the marketing of commodities. Engineering, telegraphy and telephony, aeronautics and technical optics are taught at Northampton polytechnic. The Northern polytechnic has an important architectural and building department and also gives instruction in the rubber and musical instrument trades. The programme at Regent street polytechnic embraces a wide field of activity and includes important departments of architecture, art, chemistry, commerce, engineering, modern languages, photography, carriage and motor-body building, hairdressing and

tailoring; a large secondary school for boys is also conducted at the polytechnic, There is an important chemistry department at the Sir John Cass Technical institute and among the special fea-

POLYTONALITY, a comparatively recent addition to musi. cal terminology, signifying the simultaneous employment of con. flicting keys. (See Harmony; Kev.)

POLYXENA, daughter of Priam and Hecuba. The shade of

Achilles appeared to the returning Greeks in the Thracian Chersonese and demanded Polyxena, who was put to death on his tomb.

As a prominent leader he claimed a prominent female

prisoner for his share of the booty, as Agamemnon did Cassandra (g.v.). Hence, in Philostratus, Dictys and other late authors, the story of a romantic affection between Achilles and Polyxena. VESTIBULE

aanh

OPENING oF VESTIBULE,

ANUS

INFOLDED TENTACLES

GANGLION

STOMACH OESOPHAGUS

STOLON

FIG. 1.—ENTOPROCTA; ON RIGHT

POLYZOA.

SHOWING

PEDICELLINA

ON LEFT, AND LOXOSOMA

A group of animals so called from the fact that

numerous individuals, formed by budding, remain united in a colony. They were mostly included in the Zoophyta of the older naturalists, in consequence of their . plant-like appearance, a feature which is emphasized in their alternative name, Bryozoa, or moss-like animals. They are here regarded as a primary group of invertebrates, although they have been placed with the Brachiopoda in a larger group, Molluscoidea—an association which rests on insufficient evidence. Certain characters FROM KRAEPELIN, “DIE sUuSS. of their larvae suggest that they may be WASSER BRYOZOEN IN ABHAND- distantly related to the Mollusca and RotiLUNGEN AUS DEM GEBIETE DER NATURWISSENSCHAFTEN" (FRIED fera. They are pre-eminently marine, but ERICHSEN, DE GRUYTER) a small proportion are confined to fresh FIG. 2.—ECTOPROCTA water. A colony may have a diameter of a Left, Gymnolaemata (PaJudicella), right, Phylao- foot, but this size is exceptional in recent tolaemata (Lophopus) forms; and in many cases the longest measurement does not exceed an inch, the individuals (“zooecia”) being commonly less than a millimetre long. The walls are generally stiffened with calcareous matter, and the Polyzoa are accordingly represented by numerous fossil species. It is probable that as their study advances they will take an increasingly important part in the determination of

the geological age of strata. They may be defined as aquatic

animals, forming colonies by budding, with ciliated tentacles which can be infolded or retracted into a depression of the body-wall, with a U-shaped alimentary

canal and a ganglion lying between the mouth and anus. dustries. Engineering is the foremost subject of instruction at the Woolwich polytechnic, and special courses are held for apprentices FROM THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF MICRO- Specific excretory organs ale found in the Entoprocta alone. at the Royal Arsenal. Provision was made under the original SCOPICAL SCIENCE Classification.—Sub-class 1. schemes of the Charity Commission for the erection of the North- FIG, 8.—CYCLOSTOMATA (cRIsIA), (the Entoprocta——Lophophore Western polytechnic in Kentish Town. Owing to the delay in AFTER HARMER securing the site and later owing to war difficulties, building part bearing the tentacles) circular, including both mouth and operations for the erection of this polytechnic were only com- anus. Tentacles infolded, during retraction, into a “vestibule, menced in 1927. The building is now nearing completion and the which can be closed by a circular muscle. Body-wall not calc polytechnic will be opened in 1929. Birkbeck college was con- fied, body-cavity absent. Definite excretory organs present. Re nected with the polytechnic movement, but this connection ceased productive organs continuous with ducts, which open into the in 1920, when the college became a School of the University of vestibule. Loxosoma (fig. 1), marine, is unique among the Polyzoa in the London, in the Faculties of Arts and Science, for evening and

tures are classes in petroleum technology and the fermentation in-

part-time students.

(G. H. Ga.)

fact that the colony consists merely of a single individual, with

ER tant saben nt e EY SOMIT

195

POLYZOA each bud its system of buds, which are produced in two series, size, and nearly breaking off on reaching maturity. It is of minute Sipunalways occurs on other animals, Sponges, Polychaet and cta, culid worms, Ascidians or even Polyzoa. As in other Entopro or the individual consists of a muscular stalk bearing a “calyx”

body, which contains the viscera and bears the tentacles. Pedicel series linear a d in arrange uals individ the has marine, 1), ina (fig.

closed by a chitinous operculum (fig. 5). Polymorphism usually occurs, certain individuals being modified as “ovicularia” or “vi-

bracula.” A prominent, globular “ovicell’”’ is commonly found at

the distal (“upper”) end of the fertile zooecium, serving as an ex-

ternal brood-cavity in which an egg develops. This order is first known in the Mesozoic period (Jurassic), but its species become extremely numerous in the Cretaceous. In the Tertiary period,

on an attached, narrow “stolon.” The calyces are deciduous and can be regenerated, a process analogous to the formation of “brown bodies” in the Ectoprocta. Urnatella, a fresh water species. Sub-class II. Ectoprocta——Lophophore circular or shaped like a horseshoe (fig. 2), including the mouth but not the anus. Tentacles retractile into a delicate, flexible “introvert” (“tentacle-sheath”) of the body-wall (fig. 6). Remainders of the

ox PA — ae _ -n

body-wall membranous

or calcified, the

body-cavity spacious, containing the reFIG. 4.—CTENOSTOMATA, productive organs, which are not con-

{BOWERBANKIA) organs absent.

tinuous with ducts.

ORIFICE

TENTACLE SHEATH

GANGLION

Anus PARIETAL

EVERTEO

MUSCLES

TENTACLE

SHEATH

Specific excretory

Zooecia usually closely apposed to their neigh-

COMMUNICATION PORES

bours, with which they are in organic connection by means in of threads of living tissue, traversing “communication-pores”

the separating walls. There is naturally no evidence as to the anatomy of the two exclusively fossil Orders. Tribe I. Gymnolaemata. Lophophore circular (fig. 2), without anan “epistome” or lip. Body-cavities not continuous with one

other, body-wall not muscular, Order 1. Trepostomata. Fossil, Palaeozoic. Zooecia long, coherent, their cavity traversed by many transverse partitions, which colbecome more numerous near the terminal orifice. Surface of The ony with regularly distributed elevations or “monticules.” , reference of these organisms, which include the Monticuliporidae to the Polyzoa has been disputed, but the characters of the primary individual of the colony are in favour of this association. Order 2. Cryptostomata. Fossil, Palaeozoic. Zooecia usually shorter than in the Trepostomata, sometimes with transverse partitions. Orifice at the bottom of a vestibular shaft, which may be traversed by diaphragms. This order, which includes the net-like Fenestellidae, has been regarded by palaeontologists as ancestral to the Cheilostomata. Order 3. Cyclostomata. Zooecia elongated, prismatic or cylindrical (fig. 3), with terminal, typically circular orifice, of the full width of the tubular part. The ovicells are modified, greatly enlarged zooecia, and, in the recent species investigated, contain numerous embryos, produced by the division of a single, primary embryo. The polypide is protruded with the aid of a “membranous sac,” which surrounds it. The Cyclostomata are known from early Palaeozoic strata (Ordovician) onwards OPERCULUM and are represented in the Cretaceous by specially numerous species; their highly calcareous zooecia being well preserved as AVICULARIUM fossils. They form a comparatively small on of the recent marine fauna, in Proporti ARIAAND coAVICUL FIG.S OVICELL OF encrusting Which Crisia, Tubulipora, Idmonea, Entalophora, Hornera and Lichenopora are CHEILOSTOMATA

represented by many species. Order 4. Ctenostomata. Walls soft and uncalcified, the orifice

ZOOECIUM

FIG. 6.—CHEILOSTOMATA PIDE RETRACTED; BELOW,

ANASCA (ELECTRA), POLYPIDE EXPANDED

SHOWING

ABOVE,

POLY-

as at present, it is the dominant group of Polyzoa, chiefly marine but occasionally found in brackish water. Representative genera are: Membranipora, Flustra, Onychocella, Cellaria, Scrupocellaria, Bugula, Schizoporella, Retepora, Cellepora. Tribe II. Phylactolaemata. Lophophore horseshoe-shaped (fig. 2), except in Fredericella, the mouth guarded by a lip or “epistome.” Body-wall muscular, uncalcified, the body-cavities continuous with one another. Reproduction sexual and by means of “statoblasts” (fig. 12), internal buds protected by a chitinous shell. Fredericella, Plumatella, Lophopus, Cristatella. ‘The colony can move slowly from place to place in the last two.

Structure of Ectoprocta.—The colony may assume several

distinct forms: (a) Encrusting, the zooecia in close contact with

one another, usually in a single layer, attached to a stone or seaweed by the basal surface, the orifices on the exposed or “frontal” surface, sometimes becoming multilaminar by the addition of new FRONTAL WALL OPERCULUM ORIFICE VESTIBULE TENTACLES TENTACLE-SHEATH COMPENSATION-SAC PARIETAL MUSCLES

STOMACH BASAL WALL

FIG. 7.—CHEILOSTOMATA ASCOPHORA, PROTRUSION OF THE POLYPIDE

ILLUSTRATING

THE

METHOD

OF

layers, each of which completely covers its predecessor, sealing the orifices; (b) erect, with broad lobes or branches, unilaminar or bilaminar, the zooecia correspondingly opening on one or both surfaces. Both these conditions are found in Flustra and its allies, in which there is little calcification and the branches are flexible. cona from separately arising zooecia the or erect and delicate, Retepora is a highly calcified unilaminar type, the branches of marine, are preceding The ia). necting stem (Amathia, Bowerbank form an elegant network. In other genera the branches are which ocbut Victorella and Paludicella, belonging to the second group, arranged all round the curved surfaces; cur in fresh water. Certain Palaeozoic fossils (Rhopalonaria, cylindrical, the orifices resembling Hydroids, mostly unilamslender, more and erect (c) Vinella) have been referred to this order. often with flexible joints; (d) branches, cylindrical with or inar the ortfiice Order 5. Cheilostomata. Much or little calcified,

being closed by a membranous “collar” (fig. 4), with folded walls, which surrounds it. Encrusting or erect and broadly lobed, the zooecia connected with one another (Alcyonidium, Flustrella);

196

POLYZOA

not rigidly attached, unilaminar, discoidal or conical. The zooecium of the Cheilostomata (fig. 6) resembles a shallow box, having the “orifice” near the distal end, the one further from the base or commencement of the colony. The orifice is the external opening of a thin-walled “tentacle-sheath,” really a flexible, uncalcified part of the body-wall, pushed into the body-cavity. The tentacles arise from the blind end of the retracted sheath; and these parts, with the Ushaped alimentary canal and the nerve-ganglion which lies between the mouth and anus, constitute the “polypide.” Retrac-

tion of the tentacles takes place rapidly by means of retractor muscles, but protrusion is a more gradual process and is effected by “parietal muscles,” the contraction of which increases the fluid pressure in the body-cavity and forces out the tentacles. Some part of the body-wall must accordingly be flexible, and in the division Anasca (fig. 6) this is the whole or part of the frontal surface. In the Ascophora (fig. 7) most of the frontal wall is calcified and rigid, but the part which lies on the proximal side of

(fig. 5) or stalked (fig. 9), and they show a wide range of form, in different species, The “vibracula” (fig. 11), which are found in a small number of Cheilostomata, have the operculum transformed into a long “seta,” which sweeps through the water. In Caberea the vibracula of a branch have been observed to move in unison, but this is exceptional. The avicularia and vibracula appear to be defensive organs, and they doubtless ward off the attacks of some predacious animals. They probably pre-

vent the overgrowth of the colony by en- bre EA crusting organisms, by discouraging the MATA (STEGANOPRELLAY attachment of larvae, and they may also Above, operculum, below,

serve to keep the colony clean, by dis- mandible of avioularium

FROM THE “QUARTERLY SCOPIC SCIENCE”

JOURNAL

OF

MICRO-

FIG 8.—CHEILOSTOMATA; REGENERATION OF THE POLYPIDE (CAR-

the operculum has been pushed BASEA), AFTER HARMER in as a very delicate “‘compensation-sac,” into the basal wall of which the parietal muscles are inserted. The contraction of these muscles dilates the sac, into which water enters from the outside, and the mechanism of protrusion is thus the same as in the Anasca. In the erect Ctenostomata the whole body-wall is flexible, and the parietal muscles produce their effect by passing from one part of it to another, across the body-cavity. In the Phylactolaemata the flexible body-wall is itself muscular. The calcareous Cyclostomata have a special, rather complicated arrangement for protrusion (see Borg, 1926).

Regeneration of the Polypide—rThe duration of life of the

polypide does not correspond with that of the zooecium, which has a succession of polypides. This curious fact is probably the

result of the absence of definite excretory organs, the function of which seems to be performed largely by the stomach. The wall of this organ becomes charged with brown granules (probably excretory), and after a time the entire polypide degenerates, decreasing in size and ultimately becoming a small, rounded

genera in which they attain their highest development. The avic. ularia may be “vicarious,” in series with the zooecia, which they may surpass in size, the mandibles being often much larger than the opercula (fig. 10); or they are “adventitious” (fig. s), when they occur as appendages of ordinary zooecia. They are either “sessile,” closely attached to the zooecia

VESTIGIAL POLYPIDE

lodging foreign particles which might otherwise settle on it. Reproduction.—The reproductive organs occur in the bodycavity in Ectoprocta; and organs of both sexes may be produced by a single zooecium, simultaneously or

successively. The colony seems to be gen-

erally bisexual, even when testes and ovaries are found in different zooecia. The ciliated larvae, in this group, rarely possess an alimentary canal, If this is present they are known as Cyphonautes, a common, constituent of the floating fauna, especially of coastal waters. If it is absent the tissues are charged with nutritive yolk. In either case, the larva attaches itself, loses its larval organs and becomes the ‘“‘ancestrula” or first zooecium of the colony, developing a polypide as an internal bud. The ancestrula buds off other zooecia, which repeat the process, thus building up the colony; l1.—-CHEILOSTO- and the zooecia develop their polypides in FIG. MATA, VIBRACULUM OF the same way as the ancestrula. In species CABEREA with a Cyphonautes the egg develops in the water, but in most cases it develops in the parent colony. The

characteristic “ovicells” of Cheilostomata

(fig. 5) are external

brood-spaces into which the egg passes when it is laid, and are formed in part by the distal end of the fertile zooecium, but principally by the CLOSING frontal surface of the succeeding zooecium. FLOATING RING MUSCLE The egg passes from the body-cavity to the exterior (in the few cases where the process has been observed) through the “brown body” (fig. 8), which “intertentacular organ,” a ciliated tube owes its colour to these granules. between the bases of the two tentacles The substances of nutritive value nearest the anus, or through a pore found have probably been absorbed, for in the same position. The Cheilostome ovifuture use, by the cells which cell nearly always contains a single egg, but surround the degenerating polyin the Cyclostomata the ovicell (fig. 3) AFTER HARMER pide. An internal polypide-bud contains very numerous embryos, which FIG. 9.—CHEILOSTOMATA; LEFT, is simultaneously developed, and STALKED AVICULARIA OF CORNI. have been produced by the fission of a In some species its stomach en- COPINA, RIGHT, OF BUGULA primary embryo, developed from an egg. velopes the brown body, which passes into its cavity and is In Phylactolaemata the polypide is proAFTER KRAEPELIN rejected with the faeces. In other cases the brown body remains duced by the larva while it is still free, Fie 12 —STATOBLASTS as an inert mass in the zooecium, and the occurrence of several several polypides occurring in Cristatella or pHyLAcTOLAEMATA brown bodies indicates a corresponding number of degenerated before the larva attaches itself. Another Above, Plumatella; below, polypides. form of reproduction is found in this Pectinatella Polymorphism.—In the majority of Cheilostomata, certain group, where the zooecium produces internal buds from the “funizooecia have merely a vestige of a polypide, and the operculum, culus,” a cord connecting the blind end of the stomach with the now known as the “mandible,” and its muscles become modified body-wall. These special buds are known as “statoblasts” (fig. for prehension. These units are known as “avicularia,” from their 12), and each is protected by a strong chitinaus shel], the outer resemblance to the head of a bird, in Bugula (fig. g) and other part (“annulus”) of which is modified as a ring containing alr-

POMBAL— POMERANIA cells which enable the statoblast to float on the surface of the water when it becomes free. In temperate latitudes this happens

in the late summer or autumn, and the statoblast develops into a new colony in the ensuing spring. BIBLIOGRAPHY. —G. Busk, Catalogue of Marine Polyzoa in the British Museum pts. i-iii. (1852, 1854, 1875) and “Report on the Polyzoa,” pts. i., ii, Challenger Reps., pts. xxx. 1/50 (1884, 1886); G. J. Allman, Monograph of the Fresh-water Polyzoa, Roy. Soc. (1836); T. Hincks, A History of the British Marine Polyzoa (2 vols., 1880); K. Kraepelin, “Die deutschen Siisswasser-Bryozoen,” i., ii., Abkandl. Naturw. Ver. Hamburg, Festschrift and Bd. xii. (1887, 1892); E. C. Jelly, Synonymic Catalogue of the Recent Marine Bryozoa (1889); S. F. Harmer, “Polyzoa,” Cambridge Nat. Hist.,

ii, 463

(1896), general account,

and “The Polyzoa

197

districts south and south-west of the Caspian, but it has been so long cultivated that it is difficult to say whether it is really native in Palestine and the Mediterranean region. The antiquity of the tree as a cultivated plant is evidenced by the references to the fruit in the Old Testament, and in the Odyssey, where it is spoken of as cultivated in the gardens of the kings of Phaeacia and Phrygia. The fruit is frequently represented on ancient Assyrian and Egyptian sculptures, and had a religious significance in connec-

of the Sibega

Expedition,” pts. i, ii, Szboga Reps., Monogr. xxviii. a,b (Leyden 1915, 1926); J. M. Nickles and R. S. Bassler, “Synopsis of American Fossil Bryozoa, including Bibliography and Synonymy,” Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv., No. 173 (1900) ; K. A. von Zittel, Text-book of Palaeontology, i., 314 (1913); F. Borg, “Studies on Recent Cyclostomatous Bryozoa,” Zool. Bidrag fran Uppsala, x. (Uppsala, 1926).

(S. F. H.)

POMBAL, SEBASTIAO JOSE DE CARVALHO E MELLO, Marovess or (1699-1782), Portuguese statesman, was born at Soure near Pomba, on May 13, 1699. He was the son of Manoel

de Carvalho

e Athayde,

a country gentleman

(fidalgo) and of his wife D. Theresa Luiza de Mendonca e Mello. In 1739 he was sent as Portuguese ambassador to London, where he remained until 1745.

He was then transferred to Vienna.

In

1749 he was recalled to take up the post of secretary of State for foreign affairs and war. The appointment was ratified on Aug.

3, 1750, by King Joseph, who had succeeded John V. in that year. Carvalho’s career from 1750 to 1777 is part of the history of Portugal. Though he came into power only in his srst year, without previous administrative experience, he was able to reorganize Portuguese education, finance, the army and the navy. He also built up new industries, promoted the development of Brazil and Macao, and expelled the Jesuits. His complete ascendancy over the mind of King Joseph dates from the time of the great

Lisbon earthquake (Nov. 1, 1755). In Sept. 1770 he was made marquess of Pombal. His severe administration had made many enemies, and his life had been attempted in 1769. Soon after the death of King Joseph, in 1777, Pombal was dismissed from office; and he was only saved from impeachment by the death of his bitterest opponent, the queen-mother, Mariana Victoria, in Jan. 1781. On Aug. 16, a royal decree forbade him to . teside within 20 leagues of the court. He died at Pombal on May 8, 1782. See in addition to the works dealing with the period 1750-77 and quoted under PortucaL: History; S.J.C.M. (Pombal), Relação abreviada, etc. (Paris, 1758) ; Memoirs of the Court of Portugal, etc. (1765); Anecdotes du ministère de Pombal (Warsaw, 1781); Administration du marquis de Pombal (4 vols., Amsterdam, 1787); Cartas ...do marques de Pombal (3 vols., Lisbon, 1820-24); J. Smith, Count of Carnota, Memoirs of the Marquess of Pombal, etc. (1843); F. L. Gomes, Le Marquis de Pombal, etc. (18609); B. Duhr (S.J.), Pombal, etc. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1891); C. J. de Menezes, Os Jesuitas e o marques de Pombal (Oporto, 1893).

POMEGRANATE.

The pomegranate (Punica Granatum)

is of exceptional interest by reason of its structure, its history, and its utility. The genus is the only representative of the family Punicaceae. The plant forms a tree of small stature, or a bush, with opposite or alternate, shining, lance-shaped leaves, from the axils of some of which proceed the brilliant scarlet flowers. These are raised on a short stalk, and consist of a thick fleshy cylindrical or bell-shaped calyx-tube, with five to seven short lobes at the top. From the throat of the calyx proceed five to seven roundish, crumpled, scarlet or crimson petals, and below them very numerous slender stamens. The pistil consists of two rows of carpels placed one above another, both rows embedded in, and partially inseparate from, the inner surface of the calyx-tube. The fruit, which usually attains the size of a large orange, consists of a hard

leathery rind, enclosing a quantity of pulp derived from the coats

of the numerous seeds. This pulp, filled with refreshing acid juice, Constitutes the chief value of the tree. The more highly cultivated forms contain more of it than the wild or half-wild varieties. The tree is wild in Afghanistan, north-western India, and the

POMEGRANATE (PUNICA GRANATUM), A. BRANCH WITH FLOWERS, B. TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH FRUIT SHOWING SEEDS, C. YOUNG FRUIT

tion with several Oriental cults, especially the Phrygian cult of Cybele. It was well known to the Greeks and Romans, who were acquainted with its medicinal properties and its use as a tanning material. The name given by the Romans, malum punicum, indicates that they received it from Carthage, as indeed is expressly stated by Pliny; and this circumstance has given rise to the notion that the tree was indigenous in northern Africa. On a review of the whole evidence, botanical, literary and linguistic, Alphonse de Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants) decides in favour of its source in Persia and the neighbouring countries.

POMERANIA

(German, Pommern),

a territory of Ger-

many and a maritime province of Prussia, bounded on the north by the Baltic, on the west by Mecklenburg, on the south by

Brandenburg, and on the east by the Border Province (Grenzmark Posen-West Preussen) and by Poland. Its area is 11,663 sq.m., and the population in 1925 was 1,915,086, showing a density of 164 inhabitants to the square mile. Pomerania is one of the flattest parts of Germany, although east of the Oder it is traversed by a range of low hills, and there are also a few isolated eminences to the west. Off the west coast, which is very irregular, lie the islands of Riigen, Usedom and Wollin; the coast of Farther Pomerania is smooth in outline and is bordered with dunes, or sandbanks. Besides the Oder and its affluents, the

chief of which are the Peene, the Ucker and the Ihna, there are several smaller rivers flowing into the Baltic; a few of these are navigable for ships, but the greater number only carry rafts. The soil of Pomerania is for the most part thin and sandy, but patches of good land are found here and there. The principal crops are potatoes, rye and oats, but wheat and barley are grown in the more fertile districts; tobacco, flax, hops and beetroot are also cultivated. Horses for farmwork, sheep for both wool and mutton, cattle, pigs, geese (for flesh and feathers) are features of local agriculture. Owing to the long line of coast and the numerous lakes, fishing forms an important industry. Linenweaving is practised as a domestic industry. Ship-building is

POMFRET—POMORZE

198

carried on at Stettin and at several places along the coast. The chief commercial ports of Pomerania are Stettin, Stralsund and Swinemiinde. Education is provided for by a university at Greifswald and by numerous schools. History.—In prehistoric times the southern coast of the Baltic seems to have been occupied by Celts, who afterwards made way for tribes of Teutonic stock. These in their turn were replaced, about the end of the sth century A.D. by Slavonic tribes, the Wilzi and the Pomerani. The name of Pomore, or Pommern, meaning “on the sea,” was given to the district by the latter of the tribes about the time of Charlemagne. Originally it seems to have denoted the coast district between the Oder and the Vistula. Afterwards Pomerania extended much farther to the west, while being correspondingly curtailed on the east, and a distinction was made between Slavinia, or modern Pomerania, and Pomerellen. The latter, corresponding substantially to the present province of West Prussia, remained subject to Poland until 1309, when it was divided between Brandenburg and the Teutonic Order. The history of Pomerania, as distinct from that of Pomerellen, consists mainly in a succession of partitions and in constant hostilities with the elector of Brandenburg, who claimed to be its immediate feudal superior. During the Thirty Years’ War Pomerania was devastated and by the peace of Westphalia the elector of Brandenburg acquired eastern Pomerania (Hinterpommern), and the western part (Vorpommern) was awarded to Sweden. In 1720 Swedish Pomerania was curtailed by extensive concessions

and on the S. by Scapa Flow, the land is less than 2 m. across, The west coast is almost unbroken, the bays of Birsay and Skaij]

being the only bays of any importance, but the east and south shores are much indented.

The highest points of the watershed

from Costa Head to the Scapa shore are Milldoe to the north. east of Isbister and Wideford Hill to the west of Kirkwall. There are also a few eminences towards the south-west, Ward Hill (880 ft.) in the parish of Orphir being the highest peak in the island. There are numerous lakes, some of considerable size and most of them abounding with trout. Kirkwall, the capital of

the Orkneys, In Harray, point by the where in the

and Stromness are the only towns. the only parish in the Orkneys not trenched at some sea, Norse customs have survived longer than else. group save in North Ronaldshay.

The antiquities of Pomona are of great interest. The examples of Pictish remains include brochs, chambered mounds and weems, or underground dwellings afterwards roofed in. North-east of Stromness, and within a mile of the stone circles of Stenness, stands the great barrow or chambered mound of Maeshowe. The tumulus has the form of a blunted cone, 300 ft. in circumference,

and at a distance of go ft. from its base is encircled by a moat. The ground-plan shows that it was entered from the west by a passage, which led to a central apartment, the walls of which ended in a beehive roof. The barrow is variously ascribed to the Stone Age and to roth century Norsemen. The stone circles forming the Ring of Brogar and the Ring of to Prussia, but the district to the west of the Peene remained, Stenness lie 44 m. N.E. of Stromness. The Ring of Brogar, once in the possession of Sweden until the general European settle- known as the Temple of the Sun, stands on a raised circular ment of 1815. Then Sweden assigned her German possessions to platform of turf, surrounded by a moat and a grassy rampart. Denmark in exchange for Norway, whereupon Prussia, partly by The ring originally comprised 60 stones, varying from 9 to 14 it. purchase and partly by the cession of the duchy of Lauenburg, finally succeeded in uniting the whole of Pomerania under her rule. See F. W. Barthold, Geschichte von Rigen und Pommern (Hamburg, 1839-45); the Codex Pomeraniae diplomaticus, edited by K. F. W. Hasselbach and J. G. L. Kosegarten (Greifswald, 1862); H. Berghaus, Landbuch des Herzogtums Pommern (1865-76) ; K. Mass, Pommersche Geschichte (Stettin, 1899); J. Bugenhagen, Pomerania, edited by O. Heinemann (Stettin, r900); M. Wehrmann, Geschichte von Pommern

(Gotha 1904-6).

POMFRET,

JOHN

(1667-1702), English poet, born at

Luton, became rector of Maulden, Bedfordshire, in 1695, and of Millbrook in the same county in 1702. His poems were printed in Johnson’s English Poets (1779, vol. xxi.).

POMMER

or BOMBARD,

the alto, tenor and basses of

the shawm or schalmey family, and the forerunners respectively of the cor-anglais, bassoon or fagotto, and double bassoon or contrafagotto. (See Bassoon, OBoE and SHAWM.)

POMO.

This group of American Indians, speaking seven

dialects of Hokan (g.v.) lineage, on Russian river and Clear lake, California, is noted for its basketry, which is perhaps the finest and most varied made on the continent. The general culture was central Californian as typified by the Maidu (g¢.v.). The Pomo have decreased from about 8,000 to 800. See S. A. Barrett, Univ. Calif. Publ. Am, Arch. Ethn., vols. vi., vil. (1908); E. W. Gifford, ibid., vol. xviii. (1926); E. M. Loeb, zbid., xix. (1926).

POMONA,

an old Italian goddess of fruit and gardens.

Pomona had a special priest at Rome, the flamen Pomonalis, and a sacred grove near Ostia, called the Pomonal.

POMONA, a city of Los Angeles county, California, U.S.A,

33 m. E. of Los Angeles, at an altitude of 850 feet. It is served by the Santa Fe, the Southern Pacific, and Union Pacific and electric railways, and by motor-coach lines. Pop. 13,505 in 1920 (88% native white); in 1930 it was 20,804 by the Federal census.

It is one of the principal shipping points in the State for citrus fruits and canned fruits. At Claremont, 4 m. N., is Pomona college, incorporated under the auspices of the Congregational churches of Southern California in 1887. Pomona was founded by fruit-growers In 1875 and was chartered as a city in 1875.

POMONA

or MAINLAND,

the Orkneys, Scotland.

in height, set up at intervals of 17 ft. Only 13 are now erect. The Ring of Stenness—the Temple of the Moon of local tradition —is of similar construction. The Stone of Odin, the great monolith, pierced by a hole at a height of 5 ft. from the ground, which figures so prominently in Scott’s Pirate, stood 150 yd. to the north of the Ring of Stenness.

POMORZE

or POMERANIA

(ze., “along the sea”), a

province of Poland, bounded on the north by the Baltic, on the east by East Prussia, on the south by the provinces of Warsaw and Poznan, on the west by Germany. Area, 6,324 sq.m.; pop. (1921), 939,000. The greater part is occupied by the low Baltic plateau. Pomorze, which has been, in modern times, very incorrectly called West Prussia and the “Polish corridor,” consists of two quite distinct units. West of the Vistula is Eastern Pomerania, which was colonized by Poland when West Pomerania became a German colony, was seized by the Teutonic Order in 1309, recovered by Poland in 1466 and held till 1773, when it was seized by Prussia. East of the Vistula is the territory of Chelmno or Kulm, a Polish border province ceded to the Teutonic Order in the 13th century and recovered in 1466. Both these territories

remained mainly Polish despite the colonizing efforts of the Prussian Government in the roth century. Danzig, which had a German majority, was made into a Free State by the Treaty of Versailles; mixed areas decided their future by a plebiscite, and the remaining territory was reunited to the other parts of Poland, to which it is essential as the only outlet of Poland on the sea. The Prussian rule of over 140 years has left a German minority, forming 18-5% of the population, while the Poles form 81%. Pomorze is mainly an agricultural country, its industries depending on agriculture. Together with Poznan, it was formerly one of the chief sources of foodstuffs for Germany. The peasant is highly educated and well organized, the agricultural co-operative societies having been a great economic and national asset. Forestry is well organized in the great Tuchola forest. Distilling, brewing and sugar refining are important industries. The province is famous for stock-breeding, having a greater number of sheep per acre than any other part of Poland.

The fisheries are

extensive, but not well organized. The province is well served

central and largest island of by railways, but suffers from being cut off from its former capital,

Pop. (1921), 14,083.

It is 25 m. long

from N.W. to S.E. and 15 m. broad from E. to W.; area, 190 sq.m.; but where the coast is cut into, on the N. by Kirkwall Bay

Danzig. A constantly growing traffic by rail and river descends to Danzig, and new ports to cope with it are in course of develop-

ment at Tczew and Gdynia. The chief towns are Torun (pop.

POMPADOUR—POMPEII 39,300), Grudzianz (pop. 33,800) in the east; Chojnice, Puck, Tuchola, Starograd and Swiecie in the west.

POMPADOUR, JEANNE ANTOINETTE POISSON LE NORMANT D°’ETIOLES, Marquise pe (1721-1764), mistress of Louis XV., was born in Paris on Dec. 29, 1721, and baptized as the legitimate daughter of Francois Poisson, an officer in the household of the duke of Orleans, and his wife, Madeleine de la Motte, in the church of St. Eustache; but she was educated at the charge of a wealthy financier and farmer-

general of the revenues, Le Normant de Tournehem. He declared

her “un morceau de roi,” and specially educated her to be a king’s

mistress.

This idea was confirmed in her childish mind by the

prophecy of an old woman, whom in after days she pensioned

for the correctness of her prediction. In 1741 she was married to a nephew of her protector and guardian, Le Normant d’Etioles,

who was passionately in love with her, and she soon became a

queen of fashion. The king met her at a ball given by the city

to the dauphin in 1744, and he was immediately subjugated. She at once gave up her husband, and in 1745 was established at

Versailles as “maîtresse en titre.” Louis XV. bought her the estate of Pompadour, from which she took her title of marquise (raised in 1752 to that of duchess). She was hardly established firmly in power before she began to mix in politics. Knowing that the French people of that time were ruled by the literary kings of the time, she paid court to them, and tried to play the part of a Maecenas.

Voltaire was her

poet in chief, and the founder of the physiocrats, Quesnay, was her physician. The command of the political situation passed entirely into her hands; she it was who brought Belle-Isle into office with his vigorous policy; she corresponded regularly with

the generals of the armies in the field, as her letters to the Comte de Clermont prove; and she introduced the Abbé de Bernis into the ministry in order to effect a very great alteration of French politics in 1756. The continuous policy of France since the days of Richelieu had been to weaken the house of Austria by alliances in Germany; but Mme. de Pompadour changed this hereditary policy for the alliance with Austria which brought on the Seven Years’ War, with all its disasters.

But it was to internal politics that this remarkable woman paid most attention. She made herself indispensable to Louis. She died on April 15, 1764, at the age of forty-two. See Capefigue, Madame la marquise de Pompadour (1858); E. and J. de Goncourt, Les Mattresses de Louis XV., vol. ii. (1860); and Campardon, Madame de Pompadour et la cour de Louis XV. au milieu du dix-huitième siècle (1867). Far more valuable are Malassis’s two volumes of correspondence, Correspondance de Madame de Pompadour avec son père M. Poisson, et son frère M. de Vandiéres, etc. (1878), and Bonhomme, Madame de Pompadour, général d'armée (1880), containing her letters to the Comte de Clermont. See also P. de Nolhac, La Marquise de Pompadour (1903).

POMPEII, an ancient town of Campania, Italy, near the river Sarnus, almost at the foot of Mt. Vesuvius.

Its foundation

was ascribed by Greek tradition to Heracles, in common with the neighbouring city of Herculaneum, but it was not a Greek colony.

Strabo, in whose time it was a populous and flourishing place, tells us that it was first occupied by the Oscans, afterwards by the Tyrrhenians (i.e., Etruscans), to whom it probably owes its rectangular ground plan, and Pelasgians, and lastly, by the Samn-

ites. (See CAMPANIA.) No doubt, Pompeii shared the fate of the neighbouring cities, and afterwards passed in common with them under the yoke of Rome. But its name is only mentioned incidentally during the wars of the Romans with the Samnites and

Campanians only when a Roman fleet landed near Pompeii in 309 B.C. and made an unsuccessful marauding expedition up the river valley as far as Nuceria. At a later period, however, it took

a prominent part in the Social War (91-89 B.c.), when it withstood a long siege by Sulla, and was one of the last cities of Cam-

pania that were reduced by the Roman were admitted to the Roman franchise, was settled in their territory in 80 B.c. by Veneria Pompeianorum), and the whole

arms. The inhabitants but a military colony Sulla (Colonia Cornelia population was rapidly

Romanized. Before the close of the republic many Roman nobles acquired villas in the neighbourhood, among them Cicero, whose

199

letters abound with allusions to his Pompeian villa. The same fashion continued under the empire, and during the first century of the Christian era, Pompeii had become a flourishing place with a considerable population. In A.p. 59 a tumult took place in the amphitheatre between the citizens and visitors from Nuceria. Many were killed and wounded on both sides. The Pompeians were punished for this violent outbreak by the prohibition of all theatrical exhibitions for ten years. A painting on the walls of one of the houses represents this event. Four years afterwards (a.D. 63) an earthquake vented its force especially upon Pompeii, a large part of which, including most of the public buildings, was either destroyed or so seriously damaged as to require to be rebuilt. The inhabitants were still actively engaged in repairing and restoring it, when the whole city was overwhelmed by the great eruption of Vesuvius (g.v.), A.D. 79. Pompeii was merely covered with a bed of lighter substances, cinders, small stones and ashes, which fell in a dry state, while at Herculaneum the same substances, being drenched with water, hardened into a sort of tufa, which in places is 65 ft. deep. The whole of this superincumbent mass, attaining to an average thickness of from 18 to 20 ft., was the product of one eruption, though the materials may be divided generally into two distinct strata, the one consisting principally of cinders and small volcanic stones (called in Italian lapilli), and the other and uppermost layer of fine white ash, often consolidated by the action of water from above so as to take the moulds of objects contained in it (such as dead bodies, woodwork, etc.), like clay or plaster of Paris. It was found impossible to rebuild the town, and its territory was joined to that of Nola. But the survivors returned to the spot, and by digging down and tunnelling were able to remove all the objects of value, even the marble facing slabs of the large buildings. In the middle ages, however, the very site was forgotten. Ruins and inscriptions were found by the architect Domenico Fontana in making an underground aqueduct across the site in 1594—1600, but only in 1748 a more careful inspection of this channel revealed the fact that beneath there lay entombed ruins far more accessible than those of Herculaneum. Only in 1763 systematic excavations were begun; the work, which had received a vigorous stimulus during the period of the French government (1806-14), was prosecuted under the Bourbon kings (1815-61). Since 1861 it has been carried on under the Italian government on a system devised by G. Fiorelli, according to which the town 1s for convenience divided into 6 or g regions, which are subdivided into insulae (blocks), the gates, streets and houses being also named for convenience, though often incorrectly. The town was situated on rising ground less than a mile from the foot of Vesuvius. This eminence is itself due to an outflow of lava from that mountain, during an eruption in prehistoric times, for we know that Vesuvius had been quiescent ever since the Greek settlements in this part of Italy. The area occupied by the ancient city was of an irregular oval form, and about 2 m. in circumference. It was surrounded by a wall, which is still preserved for more than two-thirds of its extent, but no traces of this are found on the side towards the sea, and there is no doubt that on this side it had been already demolished in ancient times, so as to give room for the free extension of houses and other buildings in that direction. It consisted of two parallel stone walls with buttresses, about 15 ft. apart and 28 in. thick, the intervening space being filled with earth, and there being an embankment on the inner side. These walls are strengthened at intervals by numerous towers, occupying the full width of the wall. They appear to have been added at a later period, probably that of the Social War. Similar evidences of the addition of subsequent defences are to be traced also in the case of the gates, of which five have been cleared, while at least one (and perhaps three) more are unexcavated. The general plan of the town is very regular, the streets being generally straight, and crossing one another at right angles or nearly so. But exceptions are found in the south-west corner, where a small irregular group of streets represents the

original Oscan settlement, and on the north-west in the street

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13 14 15

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Casa di Meleagro Casa del Centauro

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20, 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

Casa di Adone

Casa dı Marco Lucrezio Casa del Centenario Casa di Obelho Firmo Tempio dı Giove Mercato Casa del Balcone Pensite Casa di Marte e Venere Casa di Balbo 28. Porta Marina 29. Tempio di Apollo 30. Edificio di Eumachia

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leading from the Porta Ercolanese (gate of Herculaneum) to the forum, which, though it must have been one of the principal thoroughfares in the city, was crooked and irregular, as well as very narrow, in places not exceeding 12 to 14 ft. in width. Another excevtion is to be found in the Strada Stabiana (Stabian Street) or Cardo, which, owing to the existence of a natural depression which affects also the line of the street just east of it, is not parallel to the other north and south streets. The other main streets are In some cases broader, but rarely exceed 20 ft. in width, and the broadest is about 32 ft., while the back streets running parallel to the main lines are only about rq ft. (the standard width of a Roman highroad). They are uniformly paved with large polygonal blocks of hard basaltic lava, fitted very closely together, though now in many cases marked with deep ruts from the passage of vehicles in ancient times. They are also in all cases bordered by raised footways on both sides, paved in a similar manner; and for the convenience of foot~passengers, these are connected from place to place by stepping-stones raised above the level of the carriage-way. The careful investigation in recent years of the buildings in the eastern portion of the Strada dell’ Abbondanza has shown that previous conceptions of the appearance of the exterior of the houses were entirely erroneous. The

upper stories were diversified by balconies, open loggias, colonnades, etc., while the lower portions of the façades were painted, often with scenes of considerable interest. The streets were also

diversified by fountains, small water-towers and shrines. The first-mentioned of the two principal streets was crossed, a little before it reached the forum, by the street which led directly

to the gate of Nola (Strada delle Terme, della Fortuna, and di Nola). Parallel to this last to the south is a street which runs from the Porta Marina through the forum, and then, with a sight turn, to the Sarno gate, thus traversing the whole area of the city from east to west (Via Marina, Strada dell’ Abbondanza,

Strada dei Diadumeni). These two east and west streets are the two decumani. The population of Pompeii was mixed; both Oscan and Greek inscriptions are still found up to the last, and evidences of the presence of Jews are not lacking—such are a wall-painting, probably representing the Judgment of Solomon, and a scratched inscription on a wall, “Sodoma, Gomora.” From the number of skeletons discovered, about 2,000 persons may have perished in the city itself in the eruption of aD. 79.

The whole portion of the city which lies to the west of the Strada Stabiana, towards the forum and the sea, has been completely excavated. It is over one-half of the whole extent, and that the most important portion, inasmuch as it includes the forum, with the temples and public buildings adjacent to it, the thermae, theatres, etc. The greater part of that on the other side of the Strada Stabiana remains still unexplored, with the exception of the amphitheatre, a small space in its immediate

POMPEII

201

neighbourhood and the buildings on each side of the Strada dell | plan is curious, the internal arrangements being adapted for the performance of the peculiar rites of this deity. Close to this was Abbondanza and the Strada di Nola. the small temple of Zeus Milichius. The temple of the Fortune of The forum at Pompeii was the centre of the life and movement of the city. Hence it was surrounded on all sides by public buildings or edifices of a commanding character. It was not, however, of large size, only 467 ft. in length by 126 in breadth (excluding the colonnades). The nature of its pavement, composed of broad

Augustus (Fortuna Augusta), which stood north of the Forum, suffered very severely from the earthquake, but we learn from existing remains that its walls were covered with slabs of marble,

and that the columns of the portico were of the same material.

The fifth temple, that of Venus Pompeiana, to the west of the basilica, was in process of rebuilding at the time of the eruption. Before the earthquake of 63 it must have been the largest temple of the whole city. It was surrounded by a large colonnade, and these porticos were originally surmounted by an upper storey, the number of marble columns in the whole block has been traces of the staircases leading to which still remain. Both this reckoned at 296. Venus was the protectress of the young men of portico and the adjacent buildings were undergoing a process of Pompeii, who had formed a society for gymnastics and other restoration after the earthquake of 63, involving material changes sports. They met in a hall (the Schola Iuventutis Pompeianae) in the original arrangements, which was still incomplete at the in the Strada dell’? Abbondanza. All the temples above described, except that ascribed to Hertime of their final destruction. The north end of the forum, where alone the portico is wanting, is occupied in great part by the cules, which was approached by steps on all four sides, agree in imposing temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, or Capitolium. being raised on an elevated podium or basement—an arrangeIt was raised on a podium to ft. high, and had a portico with six ment usual with all similar buildings of Roman date. Among Corinthian columns in front. This magnificent edifice had, how- the other public buildings, the most conspicuous are the theatres, ever, been evidently overthrown by the earthquake of 63, and is of which there were two, placed, as was usual in Greek towns, in in its present condition a mere ruin, the rebuilding of which had close juxtaposition with one another. The largest of these, which not been begun at the time of the eruption. On each side of it was partly excavated in the side of the hill, was in great part cased were two arches, affording an entrance into the forum, but capable with marble, with seats of the same material for about 5,000 specof being closed by gates. On the east side of the forum were four tators. It was erected in Roman times by two members of the public edifices. ` The first (from the north), is a macellum or meat- same family, M. Holconius Rufus and M. Holconius Celer, both market, consisting of a rectangular court surrounded by a colon- of whom held important municipal offices at Pompeii during the nade, with a twelve-sided roofed building (tkolus) in the centre. reign of Augustus. Their work was only a reconstruction of a On the south side were shops, and in the centre of the east side more ancient edifice (probably sth cent. B.c.), while its first a chapel for the worship of the imperial house. Next to this alteration belongs to the “tufa” period, and three other periods comes the sanctuary of the Lares of the city, a square room with in its history can be traced. The smaller theatre (for 1,500 speca large apse; and beyond this a small temple. Beyond this again, tators) was erected by two magistrates specially appointed for bounded on the south by the Strada dell’ Abbondanza, is a large the purpose by the decuriones of the city, soon after the estaband spacious cloth-exchange, erected by a priestess named lishment of the Roman colony under Sulla. It was permanently Eumachia. It is an open court, oblong, surrounded on all four covered. Adjoining the theatres is a large rectangular enclosure, sursides by a colonnade; in front is a portico facing the forum, and on the other three sides there is a corridor behind the colonnade rounded by a portico, at first the colonnade connected with the with windows opening on it. On the south side of the Strada dell’ theatres, and converted, about the time of Nero, into the barracks Abbondanza was the Comitium. At the south end of the forum of the gladiators. Remains of armour and weapons were found in are three halls side by side, similar in plan with a common facade some of the rooms, and in one, traces of the stocks used to con—the central one, the curia or council chamber, the others the fine insubordinate gladiators with three skeletons in them (63 offices respectively of the duumvirs and aediles, the principal were found in the whole building). The amphitheatre was erected officials of the city; while the greater part of the west side is by the same two magistrates who built the smaller theatre, C. occupied by two large buildings—a basilica, which is the largest Quinctius Valgus and M. Porcius when no permanent edifice of a edifice in Pompeii, and the temple of Apollo, which presents its similar kind had yet been erected in Rome itself, and is indeed the side to the forum. The former, a building of the 2nd cent. B.c., oldest structure of the kind known to us. It is in great part exwas an oblong edifice divided by columns into a central hall and cavated in the surface of the hill, instead of the seats being raised a corridor running round all the four sides with a tribunal opposite on arches. Nor are its dimensions (460 by 345 ft.) such as to the main entrance; and, unlike the usual basilicae, it had, instead place it in the first rank, nor are there any underground chambers of aclerestory, openings in the walls of the corridor through which below the arena. The seating capacity was about 20,000 (for illuslight was admitted, it being almost as lofty as the nave. The tration see AMPHITHEATRE). Among the more important public buildings of Pompeii were temple was an extensive edifice, having a comparatively small cella, raised upon a podium, and standing in the midst of a wide the public baths (thermae). Three different establishments of this space surrounded by a portico of columns, outside which again character have been discovered, the first, the baths near the forum, is a wall, bounding the sacred enclosure. Between this temple though the smallest of the three, is Im some respects the most and the basilica the Via Marina leads off direct to the Porta complete and so well preserved that we trace without difficulty all the separate apartments described to us by Roman authors— Marina. The remains of five other temples have been discovered. The the apodyterium, frigidarium, tepidarium, caldarium, and so on. most interesting, though the least perfect, is not only by far the (See Bartus.) The greater thermae (the so-called “Stabian” most ancient edifice in Pompeii, but a true Greek temple (6th baths), which were originally built in the 2nd century B.C., and century B.c.). Unfortunately only the foundation and a few repaired about 80 B.C., are more extensive and combine a palaestra Doric capitals and other architectural fragments remain; they in the centre and other apartments for exercise or recreation. An were coated with brightly painted stucco. The reverence attached inscription records the repair and restoration of the edifice after to it in later periods is shown by its being left standing in the the earthquake of 63. These two establishments were inadequate midst of a triangular space adjoining the great theatre, which is to supply the wants of the inhabitants, and a third edifice, the sosurrounded by a portico, so as to constitute a kind of forum (the called central baths, at the corner of the Strada Stabiana and the so-called Foro Triangolare). Not far off, and to the north of the Strada di Nola, but on a still more extensive scale, intended for great theatre, stood a small temple, dedicated to Isis, rebuilt men only, was in course of construction in A.D. 79. after the ruinous earthquake of 63. It is interesting as the only Far more interesting is the insight afforded us by the numerous temple of Isis that has come down to us in a good state of pre- private houses and shops into the ordinary life and habits of the servation. The decorations were of somewhat gaudy stucco. The population of an ancient town. The houses at Pompeii are genflags of travertine, into which was

let an inscription in large

bronze letters, shows that it was only intended for foot-passengers. It was adorned with numerous statues. It was surrounded on three sides by a series of porticos supported on columns; and

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POMPEII

erally low, rarely exceeding two storeys in height; the upper storey is generally of a slight construction, and occupied by small rooms, serving as garrets, or sleeping places for slaves. From the mode of destruction of the city these upper floors were in most cases crushed in and destroyed. The principal living rooms, as well as those intended for the reception of guests or clients, were all on the ground floor, the centre being formed by the atrium, or hall, which had an opening in the centre—the compluvium, socalled because the rain from the roofs was collected by it and fell

into a basin (the impluvium).

In the larger houses it was often

surrounded with columns. Into this opened other rooms, the entrances to which, rarely protected by doors, were only closed by curtains. At the back was a garden. Later, under Greek influences, a peristyle with rooms took the place of the garden. All the apartments and arrangements described by Vitruvius and other ancient writers may be readily traced in the houses of Pompeii, and in many instances these have for the first time enabled us to understand the technical terms and details transmitted to us by Latin authors. We must not, however, hastily assume that the examples thus preserved to us by a singular accident are to be taken as representing the style of building in all the Roman and Italian towns—in fact, the excavations at Ostia (g.v.) have shown us the contrary. We know from Cicero that Capua was remarkable for its broad streets and widespread buildings, and it is probable that the Campanian towns in general partook of the same character. At Pompeii indeed the streets were not wide, but they were straight and regular, and the houses of the better class occupied considerable spaces, presenting in this respect no doubt a striking contrast, not only with those of Rome itself, but with those of many other Italian towns, where the buildings would necessarily be huddled together from the circumstances of their position. Even at Pompeii itself, on the south side of the city, where the ground slopes somewhat steeply towards the sea, houses are found which consisted of three storeys or more, and with the inner walls painted black (with white designs on

them) owing to the brilliancy of the light. The excavations have provided examples of houses of every

description, from the humble dwelling-place of the artisan or proletarian, with only three or four small rooms, to the stately mansions of Sallust, of the Faun, of the Golden Cupids, of the Silver Wedding, of the Vettii, of Pansa, etc.—the last of which is among the most regular in plan. But the general similarity in their plan and arrangement is very striking, and in all those that rise above a very humble class the leading divisions of the interior, the atrium, tablinum, peristyle, etc., may be traced with unfailing regularity. In all the more considerable houses in Pompeii the front, where it faces one of the principal streets, is occupied with shops, usually of small size, and without any communication with the interior of the mansion. In general the shop had a very small apartment behind it, and probably in most cases a sleeping chamber above it, reached by a staircase. The front of the shop was open to the street, but was capable of being closed with wooden shutters. Not only have the shops of silversmiths been recognized by the precious objects of that metal found in them, but large quantities of fruits of various kinds preserved in glass vessels, various descriptions of corn and pulse, loaves of bread, moulds for pastry, fishing-nets and many other objects too numerous to mention, have been found in such a condition as to be identified without difficulty. Inns and wine-shops appear to have been numerous; one of the latter we can see to have been a thermopolium, where hot drinks were sold. Bakers’ shops are also frequent, though arrangements for grinding and baking appear to have formed part of every large family establishment. In other cases, however, these were on a larger scale, provided with numerous querns or hand-mills of the well-known form, evidently intended for public supply. Other establishments on a large scale were fullonscae (fullers’ shops), where all the details of the business were illustrated by paintings still visible on the walls. Dyers’ shops, a tannery and a shop where colours were ground and manufactured are of special interest, as is also the house of a surgeon, where numerous surgical instruments were found, some of them of a very ingenious and elaborate description, but all made of

bronze.

A blacksmith’s shop was also found, with many tools

that had been brought in for repair: here were discovered the remains of a groma, the instrument used by Roman land-surveyors which has been successfully reconstructed (Della Corte in Mony.

menti dei Lincei, 1922). Another curious discovery was that of the abode of a sculptor, containing his tools, as well as blocks of marble and half-finished statues. Of the numerous works of art discovered in the course of the excavations the statues and large works of sculpture, whether ip marble or bronze, are inferior to those found at Herculaneum, but

some of the bronze statuettes are of exquisite workmanship, while

the profusion of ornamental works and objects in bronze and the

elegance of their design, as well as the finished beauty of thei

execution, are such as to excite the utmost

admiration—more

especially when it is considered that these are the casual results

of the examination of a second-rate provincial town, which had, further, been ransacked for valuables (as Herculaneum had not) after the eruption of 79. The same impression is produced in a still higher degree by the paintings with which the walls of the private houses, as well as those of the temples and other public

buildings, are adorned, and which are not merely of a decorative

character, but in many instances present us with elaborate compositions of figures, historical and mythological scenes, as well

as representations of the ordinary life and manners of the people, which are full of interest to us, though often of inferior artistic execution. It has until lately been the practice to remove these to the museum at Naples; but the present tendency is to leave them (and even the movable objects found in the houses) in sity with all due precautions as to their preservation, which adds

immensely to the interest of the houses; indeed, with the help

of careful restoration, their original condition is in large measure reproduced. In some cases it has even been possible to recover the original arrangement of the garden beds, and to replant them accordingly, thus giving an appropriate framework to the statues, etc., with which the gardens were decorated, and which have

been found im situ. The same character of elaborate decoration,

guided almost uniformly by good taste and artistic feeling, is displayed in the mosaic pavements, which in all but the humbler class of houses frequently form the ornament of their floors. One of these, in the House of the Faun, well known as the battle of Alexander, presents us with the most striking specimen of artistic composition that has been preserved to us from antiquity. The architecture of Pompeii presents in general a transitional character from the pure Greek style to that of the Roman Empire. The temples (as already observed) have always the Roman peculiarity of being raised on a podium of considerable elevation; and the same characteristic is found in most of the other

public buildings. All the three orders of Greek architecture—the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian—are found freely employed in the various edifices of the city, but rarely in strict accordance with the rules of art in their proportions and details; while the private houses naturally exhibit still more deviation and irregularity. In many of these indeed we find varieties in the ornamentation, and even in such leading features as the capitals of the columns, which remind one rather of the vagaries of mediaeval architecture than of the strict rules of Vitruvius or the regularity of Greek edifices. One practice which is especially prevalent, so as to strike every casual visitor, and dates from the early years of the empire, is that of filling up the flutings of the columns for about one-third of their height with a thick coat of stucco, so as to give them the appearance of being smooth columns without flutings below. The architecture of Pompeii suffers from the inferior quality of the materials generally employed. No good building stone was at hand; and the public as well as private edifices were constructed either of volcanic tufa, or lava, or Sarno limestone, or brick

(the latter only used for the corners of walls). In the private

houses even the columns are mostly of brick, covered merely with a coat of stucco. Marble was sparingly employed. These materials are used in several different styles of construction belonging to the six different periods which Mau traces in the architectural history of Pompeii. 1. That of the Doric temple in the Foro Triangolare (6th cen-

203

POMPEIUS tury B.C.) and an old column built into a house in Region vi.,

while others are in New York).

insula 5; also of the older parts of the city walls—date uncertain

peiana di P. Fannio Sinistore; Rome, 1901.) Another, closer to Pompeii, in the so-called Villa Item, contains remarkable life size frescoes representing scenes of initiation into the mysteries of Dionysus or of Orpheus. The road leading towards Herculaneum is bordered on both sides for a considerable extent by tombs, in many instances monuments of considerable pretension, and of a highly ornamental character, which present in the highest degree the advantage common to all that remains of Pompeii, their perfect preservation. There appears to have been in the same quarter a considerable suburb, outside the gate, extending on each side of the road towards Herculaneum, apparently much resembling those which are now found from thence to Naples. Other suburbs were

(Sarno limestone and grey tufa). 2. That of the limestone atriums (outer walls of the houses of

ashlar-work of Sarno limestone, inner walls with framework of

limestone blocks, filled in with small pieces of limestone). Date before 200 B.C.

3. Grey tufa period; ashlar masonry of tufa, coated with fine white stucco; rubble work of lava. The artistic character is still

Greek, and the period coincides with the first (incrustation) style of mural decoration, which (coming from Asia Minor or Greece

perhaps by way of Sicily) aimed at the imitation in stucco of the

appearance of a wall veneered with coloured marbles.

No wall

paintings exist, but there are often fine floor mosaics. To this belong a number of private houses (¢.g., the House of the Faun),

and the colonnade round the forum, the basilica, the temples of Apollo and Jupiter, the large theatre with the colonnades of the Foro Triangolare, and the barracks of the gladiators, the Stabian baths, the Palaestra, the exterior of the Porta Marina, and the interior of the other gates—all the public buildings indeed (except the Doric temple mentioned under [1], which do not belong to the time of the Roman colony). Date, end of 2nd century B.c.

4. The “quasi-reticulate” period—walling faced with masonry not yet quite so regular as opus reticulatum,

and with brick

quoins, coinciding with the second period of decoration (the architectural, partly imitating marble like the first style, but without relief, and by colour only, and partly making use of architectural designs framing pictorial scenes, which are conceived as seen through openings). It is represented by the small theatre and the amphitheatre, the baths near the forum, the temple of

Zeus Milichius, the Comitium and the original temple of Isis, but only a few private houses. This style probably owes much to Hellenistic theatrical decoration. Date, from 80 B.C. until nearly the end of the Republic. s. The period from the last decades of the Republic to the earthquake of a.D. 63. No homogeneous series of buildings—we find various styles of construction (quasi-reticulate, opus reticulatum of tufa with stone quoins, of the time of Augustus, opus reticulatum with brick quoins or with mingled stone and brick quoins, a little later); and three styles of wall decoration fall within its limits: the later stage of the second, already mentioned, the third or ornate, with its freer use of ornament and its introduction of designs which suggest an Egyptian origin (originating in the time of Augustus), and the fourth or intricate, with a return to architectural forms, dating from about a.p. 50. Marble first appears as a building material in the temple of Fortuna Augusta (c. 3 B.C.). 6. The period from the earthquake of A.D. 63 to the final destruction of the city, the buildings of which can easily be recognized. The only wholly new edifice of any importance is the central baths. Outside the Porta Ercolanese, or gate leading to Herculaneum, is found a house of a different character from all the others, undoubtedly a large villa; its remains are of interest as aiding us in understanding the description of ancient authors, such as Vitruvius and Pliny, of the numerous appurtenances frequently annexed to houses of this description. In the cellar of this villa were discovered no less than twenty

skeletons, and fourteen in other parts of the house. Almost all the skeletons and remains of bodies found in the city were discovered in similar situations, in cellars or underground apartments—those who had sought refuge in flight having apparently for the most part escaped from destruction, or having perished under circumstances where their bodies were easily recovered by

(See F. Barnabei, La Villa pom-

situated at the harbour and at the saltworks (salinae). No manuscripts have been discovered in Pompeii. Inscriptions have been found in considerable numbers, and give much information concerning the municipal arrangements of the town, as well as the construction of various edifices and other public works. The most interesting of these are such as are written in the Oscan dialect, which appears to have continued in official use down to the time when the Roman colony was introduced by Sulla. From that time the Latin language was the only one officially employed. Still more curious are the numerous writings painted upon the walls, which have generally a semi-public character, such as recommendations of candidates for municipal offices, advertisements, etc., and the scratched inscriptions (graffiti), which are generally the mere expression of individual impulse and feeling, frequently amatory, and not uncommonly conveyed in rude and imperfect verses. In one house also a whole box was found filled with written tablets—diptychs and triptychs—containing the record of the accounts of a banker named L. Caecilius Iucundus. See A. Mau, Pompeii: its Life and Art (trans. by F. W. Kelsey, znd ed., New York and London, 1902; 2nd revised edition of the German original, Pompeii in Leben und Kunst, Leipzig, 1908) with Axhang (1913), with full references; and, for later excavations, Notizie degli Scavi and Römische Mitteilungen, passim. A. W. Van Buren in Classical Journal xv. (1919-20) 404-416, and Companion to Pompeian Studies (American Academy in Rome, 1927); W. Engelmann, New Guide to Pompei (Leipzig, 1925); A. Ippel, Pompeu, ib. id.; T. Warscher, Pompei, etm Fiihrer durch die Ruinen. For the inscriptions on the tablets and on the walls, Corpus inscriptionum latinarum, vol. iv. For the paintings, see E. Pfuhl, Masterpieces of Greek Drawing and Painting (tr. J. D. Beasley, London 1926); M. Della Corte, Case ed abitanti a Pompeiz (Pompeit, 1926). (E. H. B.; T.A.)

POMPEIUS,

GNAEUS,

surnamed Srrazo

(squint-eyed),

Roman statesman, father of the triumvir. He was successively quaestor in Sardinia (103 B.c.), praetor (94), propraetor in Sicily (93) and consul (89). He fought with success in the Social War, and was awarded a triumph for his services. Probably towards the end of the same year he brought forward the law (lex Pompeia de Gallia transpadana), which conferred upon the inhabitants of that region the privileges granted to the Latin colonies. During the civil war between Marius and Sulla he seems to have shown no desire to attach himself definitely to either side. He set out for Rome; the engagement which he fought before the Colline gate, although hotly contested, was indecisive. Soon afterwards he was killed by lightning (87). See Plutarch, Pompey,

1; Appian, Bell. civ. i. 50, 52, 66-68,

80;

Vell. Pat. ii. 21; Livy, Epit. 74-793; Florus iii. 18,

POMPEIUS, GNAEUS, surnamed Macnus (c. 75-45 B.C.), the elder son of the triumvir. In 48 B.c. during the civil war he commanded his father’s fleet in the Adriatic. After the battle of Pharsalus he set out for Africa with the remainder of the Pompeian party, but, meeting with little success, crossed over to Spain. Having been joined by his brother Sextus, he collected a considerable army, the numbers of which were increased by the Pompeians who fled from Africa after the battle of Thapsus (46). Caesar, who regarded bim as a formidable opponent, set out

the survivors. It has been found possible in many cases to take casts of the bodies found. An interesting farm-house (few examples have been so far discovered in Italy) is that at Boscoreale excavated in 1893-94, against him in person. A battle took place at Munda on March which contained the treasure of one hundred and three silver vases 17, 45, in which the brothers were defeated. Gnaeus managed to how in the Louvre. The villa of P. Fannius Synhistor, not far off, escape, but was soon (April 12) captured and put to death.

Was excavated in 1900; it had fine wall paintings, which were exSee Pseudo-Oppius, Bellum hispaniense, 1-39; Lucan, Pharsalia, ix. ported, and sold by auction in Paris (some now in the Louvre, | 12ọ; Dio Cassius, xliii. 28—40.

204.

POMPEIUS—-POMPONAZZI

POMPEIUS, SEXTUS, surnamed Macnus (75-35 B.c.), the younger son of the triumvir. After his father’s death he continued the struggle against the new rulers of the Roman empire. From Cyprus, where he had taken refuge, he made his way to Africa,

and after the defeat of the Pompeians at Thapsus (46) crossed over to Spain. After Caesar’s victory at Munda (45), he abandoned Corduba (Cordova), though for a time he held his ground in the south, and defeated Asinius Pollio, the governor of the province. In 43 he was proscribed by the triumvirate and put himself at the head of a fleet manned chiefly by slaves or proscribed persons, with which he made himself master of Sicily, and from thence rayaged the coasts of Italy. Rome was threatened with a famine, as the corn supplies from Egypt and Africa were cut off by his ships, and it was thought prudent to negotiate a peace with him at Misenum (39), which was to leave him in possession of Sicily, Sardinia and Achaea, provided he would allow Italy to be freely supplied with corn. But the arrangement could not be carried into effect, as Sextus renewed the war and gained some considerable successes at sea. However, in 36 his fleet was defeated and destroyed by Agrippa at Naulochus off the north coast of Sicily. After his defeat he fled to Mytilene, and from there to Asia Minor. In the attempt to make his way to Armenia he was taken prisoner by Antony’s troops, and put to death at Miletus. See Dio Cassius, xlvi—xlix.; Appian, Bell. ctv. iv. 84-117, V. 2-143; Vell. Pat. ii. 73-87; Plutarch, Antony; Livy, Epit. 123, 128, 129, 1313 Cicero, Philippica, xiii., and many references in Letters to Atticus.

POMPEY, the common English form of Pompeius, the name of a Roman plebeian family. Pompeius, GNAEUS (106-48 B.c.), the triumvir, the first of his family to assume the surname Macnus, was born on Sept. 30, in the same year as Cicero. When only 17 he fought together with his father in the Social War. He took the side of Sulla against Marius and Cinna, but for a time, in consequence of the success of the Marians, he kept in the background. On the return of Sulla from the Mithridatic War Pompey joined him with an army of three legions, which he had raised in Picenum. Thus early in life he connected himself with the cause of the aristocracy, and a decisive victory which he won in 83 over the Marian armies gained for him from Sulla the title of imperator. He followed up his successes in Italy by defeating the Marians in Sicily and Africa, and on his return to Rome in 81, though he was still merely an eques and not legally qualified to celebrate a triumph, he was allowed by general consent to enjoy this distinction, while Sulla greeted him with the surname of magnus, a title he always retained and handed down to his sons. Latterly, his relations with Sulla were somewhat strained; after Sulla’s death he resisted the attempt of the consul M. Aemilius Lepidus to repeal the constitution. In conjunction with A. Lutatius Catulus, the other consul, he defeated Lepidus when he tried to march upon Rome, and drove him out of Italy (77). He retained his army, and jockeyed the senate into sending him to Spain pro consule (though he had as yet held no magistracy) to deal with Sertorius. Pompey was fighting in Spain from 76 to 71. After Sertorius had fallen a victim to assassination, Pompey easily defeated his successor Perperna and put an end to the war. On his way back he met and cut up a body of slaves, part of Spartacus’ defeated forces, in flight northwards. He demanded a triumph, and permission to stand for the consulate. The Consul.—The senate was inclined to grudge it, so he entered into a coalition with Crassus, and as both had armies at the gates, there was no more to be said. Pompey and Crassus were consuls together in 70, and that year saw the work of Sulla undone; the tribunate and censorship were restored, and the administration of justice was shared between the Senate, the equites, and the éribuni aerariz. Pompey rose still higher in popularity, and on the motion of the tribune Aulus Gabinius in 67 he was entrusted with an extraordinary command over the greater part of the empire, specially for the extermination of piracy in the Mediterranean, by which the corn supplies of Rome were seriously endangered, while the high prices of provisions caused great distress. He was completely successful; the price of corn fell immediately on his ap-

pointment, and in 40 days the Mediterranean was cleared of the pirates. Next year, on the proposal of the tribune Manilius, his powers were still further extended, the care of all the provinces in the East being put under his control for three years together with the conduct of the war against Mithridates VI., who had recovered

from the defeats he had sustained from Lucullus and regained bis dominions. Both Caesar and Cicero supported the tribune’s pro. posal, which was easily carried in spite of some opposition in the

senate.

Pompey was entirely successful.

Mithridates was beaten

and driven into the Crimea, and there was a general settlement of affairs in the East. Syria and Palestine were annexed in 64 and 63, Tigranes of Armenia submitted and was confirmed as a vassal king, and an agreement was reached with Phraates of Syria where.

by the Euphrates marked the boundary between them. Pompey, now in his 45th year, returned to Italy in 61 to cele. brate the most magnificent triumph which Rome had ever wit. nessed, as the conqueror of Spain, Africa and Asia. Politics.—This triumph marked the turning-point in his career As a soldier everything had gone well with him; as a politician he was a failure. He found a great change in public opinion, and the

people indifferent to his achievements abroad. The senate hada

unique chance to secure his support, but refused to ratify the arrangements he made in Asia or to provide money and lands for distribution amongst his veterans. In these circumstances he drew closer to Caesar on his return from Spain, and became reconciled to Crassus. The result was the first triumvirate. He was married to Caesar’s daughter Iulia, and as yet the relations between the two had been friendly. Pompey was now in fact ruler of the greater part of the empire, while Caesar had only the two provinces of Gaul. But being no political tactician, Pompey made no use of this advantage, and ‘all this time the balance of power was steadily turning in Ceasar’s direction. The senate and the aristocracy disliked and distrusted Pompey, but they felt that, should things come to the worst, they might still

find in him a champion of their cause. Hence the joint rule of Pompey and Caesar was not unwillingly accepted, and anything like a rupture between the two was greatly dreaded as the sure beginning of anarchy throughout the Roman world. In ss Pompey was consul again, in accordance with the arrangement with Caesar when the triumvirate was renewed at Luca in 56. As proconsul he should have left for his province, but he remained in charge of the corn-supply, virtually master of Rome, and governed Spain by his legati. With the death of Pompey’s wife Iulia (54) and of Crassus (53) the relations between him and Caesar became strained, and soon afterwards he drew closer to the conservative party and married into the house of Scipio. In 52, in the utter disorder that followed the death of Clodius, he was elected sole consul, carried through the trial of Milo, and started a programme of administrative and provincial legislation threaten-

ing Caesar’s position. Civil War.—The crisis arrived with the approaching end of Caesar’s command at the end of 50. Pompey nearly compromised by accepting the Parthian command and leaving Rome, but Marcellus forced his hand, and civil war began. Pompey, wisely or unwisely, abandoned Italy.

His cause, with that of the senate

and aristocracy, was finally ruined by his defeat by Julius Caesar in 48 in the neighbourhood of Pharsalus. That same year he fled with the hope of finding a safe refuge in Egypt, but was treacherously murdered by one of his old centurions as he was landing. He was five times married, and three of his children survived him—Gnaeus, Sextus, and a daughter Pompeia. BIBLioGRAPHY.—Ancient: Plutarch, Pompey; Dio Cassius; Appian; Velleius Paterculus; Caesar, De belo civili; Strabo xii, 555-560; Cicero, passim; Lucan, Pharsalia.

Modern: Histories of Rome in general (see Rome: Ancient History

ad fin.); works quoted under Cagsar and Cicero. Also G. Boissier, Cicero and His Friends (Eng. trans., A. D. Jones, 1897) ; J. L. StrachanDavidson’s Cicero (1894); Warde Fowler’s Julius Caesar (1892); ©.

W. Oman, Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Republic (1902); notes in Tyrrell and Purser’s Correspondence of Cicero.

POMPONAZZI, PIETRO (Perrus Pomponatius) (1463-

1525), Italian philosopher, was born at Mantua on Sept. 16. 1462, and died at Bologna on May 18, 1525. He took his M.D.

POMPOSA—PONCE at Padua in 1487 and was

elected extraordinary

professor

of

philosophy. From about 1495 to 1509 he occupied the chair of natural philosophy and when the schools of Padua closed, he took a professorship at Ferrara where he lectured on the De anima. From 1512 to his death he was at Bologna where he produced all his important works. In 1516 appeared his De immortalitate animi, which gave rise to a storm of controversy between the orthodox Thomists, the Averroists headed by Agostino

Nifo, and the so-called Alexandrist School. The treatise was burned at Venice, and Pomponazzi himself ran serious risk of death, Two pamphlets followed, the Apologia and the Defenso-

rium, wherein he explained his paradoxical position as Catholic and philosophic

materialist.

His

last two

treatises,

the De

incantationibus and the De fato, were posthumously published in an edition of his works printed at Basel. See A. H. Douglas, Philosophy and Psychology

of Pietro Pompo-

nassi (1910) ; J. A. Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy; L. Ferri, La Psicologia di P. Pomponazzi (1877) ; Uberweg, Grundriss der Gesch. i der Philosophie p. 1-3.

POMPOSA, an abbey of Emilia, Italy, in the province of

Ferrara, 2m. from Codigoro, which is 30 m. E. of Ferrara in the delta of the Po. The fine church, a work of the 6th century, re-

built in the 11th, with interesting sculptures and terra cotta decorations on the façade and a splendid Romanesque campanile 163 ft. high (1063) contains a good mosaic pavement

(1036) and

interesting frescoes of the 14th century—a “Last Judgment” of

the school of Giotto and others; and there are also paintings in the refectory.

It was abandoned in 1650 on account of malaria.

See G. Agnelli, Ferrara e Pomposa (Bergamo, 1902), and F. R. Hiorns in Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects xxxiv.

(1927) 355 S@q. POMPTINE MARSHES, a low tract of land in the province

of Rome, Italy, varying in breadth between the Volscian mountains and the sea from ro to 16 m., and extending north-west to south-east from Velletri to Terracina (40 miles). In ancient days this tract was fertile and contained prosperous cities (Suessa Pometia, Ulubrae—perhaps the mod. Cisterna—etc.), but it had already become unhealthy at the end of the Republican period. Attempts to drain the marshes were made by Appius Claudius

in 312 B.C., when he constructed the Via Appia through them and at various times during the Roman period. A canal ran through them parallel to the road and was used in preference to the road during the Augustan period. Trajan repaired the road, and Theodoric did the same some 4oo years later. But in the middle ages it had fallen into disrepair. Popes Boniface VIII, Martin V., Sixtus V., and Pius VI. all attempted to solve the problem, the last-named reconstructing the road admirably. By a law passed in 1919 the special provisions for the obligatory improvement of the Roman Campagna had been extended to the Pomptine territory. See T. Berti, Paludi pontine (Rome, 1884); R. de Ja Blanchére, Un Chapitre d’histoire pontine (Paris, 1889).

PONCA CITY, a city of Kay county, Oklahoma, U.S.A., on the Arkansas river, at an altitude of 1,000 ft., 90 m. N. by E. of Oklahoma City. It is on Federal highway 77; has a municipal

airport and is an airmail station on the Chicago-Dallas route; and is served by the Rock Island and the Santa Fe railways. The population in 1927 was 17,025, (special enumeration of the

Federal census bureau), in 1930, 16,136. It is the largest city of the historic Cherokee Strip; the trading point for six Indian tribes ; and the centre of the greatest producing “‘light’-oil area in the world, with a daily output of about 200,000 barrels (1928). The city has immense oil refineries (including that of the Marland company, with a daily capacity of over 50,000 barrels) and casinghead gasolene plants; large grain elevators and flour mills; the most northerly cotton-gin in the United States; and various

other industries. E. W. Marland makes his home here, where he

maintains a 300-ac. bird refuge and game preserve, public gardens, public golf course, and a recreation park and country club for his

employees. Nine miles south-west is “ror” Ranch (110,000 ac.) established by Colonel George W. Miller in 1879 as a cattle range, and transformed into the largest diversified farm and ranch in the

DE LEON

205

world and one of the most scientifically conducted. The Miller brothers hold an annual round-up at the ranch, and a “wild west show” tours the country and abroad. The site of Ponca City was visited by one of Lieutenant Pike’s companions in 1806. The city was founded on Sept. 16, 1893, when the Cherokee Strip was opened to settlement, and was incorporated in 1899. Oil was discovered in 1911. In 1928 the city had an assessed valuation of $7,340,416 and bank deposits aggregating $6,457,000. The city owns its electric light plant, the profits from which meet all the expenses of the municipal government, and no general municipal tax has been levied since 1923.

PONCE, the largest and most important city on the southern

coast of Porto Rico and the second city in size and importance on the island. The population in 1928 was 47,004. The population of the municipal district in 1920 was 71,426. Although the name of the city appears in public documents since early in the history of Spanish colonization, it was not until 1836 that it became an independent municipality. After that its growth increased and its importance was greatly magnified. Ponce was one of the first places at which the American forces landed in Porto Rico during the Spanish-American War. They were most cordially and enthusiastically welcomed by the citizens. They took possession of the city, after having entered into an agreement with the Spanish forces who withdrew into the interior of the island. Ponce has an agreeable climate, the temperature being moderated by the constant breezes prevailing during the greater part of the year. Industrially and commercially it is one of the foremost cities of the island. It is the principal shipping port on the Caribbean sea, and has an increasing commerce with the southern

islands and the northern countries of South America.

This im-

portance has been recognized by the Government at Washington, and extensive improvements of the harbour are now under way under the direction of the U.S. service. Ponce is a well managed city and its streets, plazas, parks and

recreation grounds are well kept and attractive. Its public build-

ings and private residences are well built, and the beautiful setting among the tropical foliage and blossoms excite admiration. The city is on the line of the American railroad, and is the terminus of important highways, north, east and west. There are several banks and some important commercial and industrial firms, producing cigars and cigarettes, bay rum, mineral waters, hats, shoes, clothing, laces, embroidery, cut diamonds, foundry and iron products, ice, brick, chocolate, soap and candy. The city has water-works, electric light and power, telegraph, telephone and cable service. It has two daily newspapers and several weekly publications. (H. M. T.)

PONCE DE LEON, JUAN

(c. 1460-1521), discoverer of

Florida, was born in Servas, Spain, about 1460. He took part in the Moorish wars and then sailed for America with Columbus on his second voyage (1493). In 1509 he conquered Porto Rico and was appointed governor. As soon as the island was under control and pacified he set out with three ships to search for the land of “Bimini,” wherein, as the Indian legend told him, there was a fountain with waters of marvellous curative power. On Mar, 27, 1513, he discovered the mainland which he named Florida because the day was Easter Sunday (Pascua Florida). He landed north of the present site of St. Augustine on April 2, and on April 8 took possession in the name of the Spanish king. He afterwards explored the coast southward to the cape and up the west shore of the peninsula to at least 27° 30°, and perhaps to where the coast trended westward. He returned to Spain in 1514, and received an appointment from Ferdinand V. as governor of “The Island of Florida.” In 1521 he set out to conquer and colonize his possession but the fierceness of the natives prevented his success. In a sharp engagement Ponce de León was mortally wounded and his force driven to the ships. He died in Cuba in June 1521.

See F. A. Ober, Ponce de León (1908); Justin Windsor. Narrative

and Critical History of America, vol. ii. chap. iv. (1886) ; “The Track of Ponce de Leon,” Amer. Geog. Soc. Bulletin, xlv., pp. 721-735 (1913); Boletin histérico de Puerto Rico, Ano I; pp. 118-161 (1914),

PONCELET—PONIATOWSKI

206

PONCELET, JEAN VICTOR (1788-1867), French mathe-

in the French

senate

and chamber.

The

chief crops are

matician and engineer, was born at Metz on July 1, 1788. From

grains, rice, earth-nuts anda little indigo. The territory is traverseq

1808 to 1810 he attended the Ecole polytechnique, and afterwards, till 1812, the Ecole d’application at Metz. He then became lieuten-

by a branch of the South Indian railway from Villapuram. The

ant of engineers, and took part in the Russian campaign, during which he was taken prisoner and was confined at Saratov on the Volga until 1814, when he returned to France. During his imprisonment he began his researches on projective geometry which led to his great treatise on that subject. This work, the Trazté des propriétés projectives des figures, which was published in 1822 (2d ed., 2 vols. 1865-66), is occupied with the investigation of the projective properties of figures (see GEOMETRY), and entitles Poncelet to rank as one of the greatest of those who took part in the development of the new geometry of which G. Monge was the founder. Poncelet developed the principle of Duality, and discovered the circular points at infinity, so causing the principle of continuity to be recognized. From 1815 to 1825 he was occupied with military engineering at Metz; and from 1825 to 1835 he was professor of mechanics at the École d'application there, In 1834 he became a member of the Académie; from 1838 to 1848 he was professor to the faculty of sciences at Paris, and

and lit by electricity; the water-supply is derived from artesian wells. There is a college, and a fine Court of Appeal building was begun in 1927. Pondicherry was founded in 1683 by Frangois Martin, on the site of a village given him by the governor of Gingee. In 1693 the Dutch took Pondicherry, but restored it, with the fortifica.

from 1848 to 1850 commandant of the École polytechnique. He died at Paris on Dec. 22, 1867. Poncelet’s works include Cours de méchanique, appliquée aux Machines (1826); and Mémoire sur les roues hydrauliques à aubes les (1826). See J. Bertrand, Eloge historique de Poncelet 1875).

PONCHIELLI, AMILCARE

(1834—1886), Italian musical

composer, was born near Cremona on Sept. 1, 1834, and studied at the Milan Conservatoire. He attained his fame with La Gioconda (1876), written to a libretto founded by Arrigo Boito upon Victor Hugo’s tragedy, Angelo, Tyran de Padoue. La Gio-

conda was followed by JI Figliuol prodigo (1880) and Marion Delorme (1885). In 1881 Ponchielli was made maestro di cappella of Piacenza cathedral. He died at Milan on Jan. 17, 1886. POND, JOHN (c. 1767-1836), English astronomer-royal, was born about 1767 in London. After leaving Trinity college, Cambridge, he settled at Westbury near Bristol, and began to determine star-places with a fine altitude and azimuth circle of 24 ft. diameter by E. Troughton. His demonstration in 1806 (Phil. Trans. xcvi. 420) of a change of form in the Greenwich mural quadrant led to the introduction of astronomical circles at the Royal Observatory, and to his own appointment as its head. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society on Feb. 26, 1807; he married and went to live in London in the same year, and in 18xr succeeded Maskelyne as astronomer-royal. Under Pond the instrumental equipment at Greenwich was completely changed, and the number of assistants increased from one to six. The superior accuracy of his determinations was attested by S. C. Chandler’s discussion of them in 1894, in the course of his researches into the variation of latitude (Astron. Journ. Nos. 313, 315). Pond received many academic honours. He published eight folio volumes of Greenwich Observations,

translated Laplace’s Systéme du monde (in 2 vols. 8vo., 1809), and contributed thirty-one papers to scientific collections. His catalogue of 1,112 stars (1833) was of great value. He retired in 1835 and died at Blackheath on Sept. 7, 1836, and was buried beside Halley in the churchyard at Lee. See Mem. Roy. Astron. Soc. x. 3573 Proc. Roy. Soc. iii. 434; Penny Cyclopaedia (De Morgan); F. W. Bessel, Pop. Vorlesungen, p. 543; Report Brit. Assoc. i. 128, 136 (Airy); Sir G. Airy’s Autobiography, p. 127; Observatory, xiii. 204, xxii. 357; Annual Biography and Obittary (1837); R. Grant, Hist. of Phys. Astron. p. 491; Royal Society’s Cat. Scient. Papers; Maunder, The Royal Observatory Greenwich.

POND, a small pool of standing water; the name is usually applied to one for which the bed has been artificially constructed. The term is a variant of “pound” (¢.v.), an enclosure.

PONDICHERRY, the capital of the French possessions in

India, situated on the Coromandel or western coast, 122 m. by

rail S. by the with a with a

of Madras. The territory, which is entirely surrounded British district of South Arcot, has an area of 113 sq.m. population (1921) of 175,168. It is ruled by a governor, Privy Council, and a General Council, and is represented

town (pop. 46,535) is well laid out with fine public buildings

tions greatly improved, in 1697, at the peace of Ryswick. Ip 1748 Admiral Boscawen laid siege to it without success, but in 1761 it was taken by Colonel Coote from Lally. In 1763 it was restored to the French. In 1778 it was again taken by Sj

Hector Munro, and its fortifications destroyed.

In 1783 it was

retransferred to the French, and in 1793 recaptured by the Eng. lish. The treaty of Amiens in 1802 restored it to the French, but it was retaken in 1803. In 1816 it was restored to the French,

PONDO, a Kafir people who have given their name to Pondoland, the country comprising much of the seaboard of Kaffraria, Cape province, immediately to the south-west of Natal.

PONDWEED,

a popular name for Potamogeton natans, a

cosmopolitan aquatic plant found in ponds, lakes and ditches, with broad, more or less oblong-ovate, olive-green, floating leaves, The name is also applied to other species of Potamogeton, one of the characteristic genera of lakes, ponds and streams all over the world, but more abundant in temperate regions, embracing about go species. It is the principal genus of the family Potamogetonaceae, and contains plants with slender branched stems, and submerged and translucent, or floating and opaque, alternate or | opposite leaves, often with mem| branous united stipules. The ! small flowers are borne above the | water in axillary or terminal spikes; they have four stamens, which bear at the back four small herbaceous petal-like structures, and four free carpels, which ripen to form four small green fleshy fruits, each containing one seed within a hard inner coat; the seed contains a large hooked embryo. An allied genus ZanmFROM STRASSBURGER, “LEHRRUCH DER BOTchellia, occurring in fresh and ANIK FUR HOCHSCHULEN” (GUSTAV FISCHER) PONDWEED (POTAMOGETAN NATbrackish ditches and pools in ANS), SHOWING FLOWERING STEM Great Britain and nearly throughAND LEAVES out North America, and also

widely elsewhere in temperate and tropical regions, is known as horned pondweed, from the curved fruit.

PONGEE, a plain-weave fabric made entirely of tussah or

wild silk, originated with the Chinese in ancient times.

Within

the last half century its sphere of usefulness has’ been considerably broadened due chiefly to the fact that during that time the standard width has been increased from 18 to 36 or more inches, and the variety of colours extended. The Japanese buy from the Chinese the wild silk and work it up in their own plants. Shantung, a comparatively new and popular variety of pongee, derives its name from the province which is the centre of the wild silk industry. It differs from true pongee in that the former must always be a plain weave, while Shantung may include many types, even adding coloured threads by way of decoration. Because of the ease with which they can be laundered and their

durability the pongees are among the most practical of all silks. PONIARD, a dagger, particularly one of small size, used for

stabbing at close quarters. The French word poignard, from which the English is a 16th century adaptation, is formed from poing, fist, in which the weapon is grasped. (See DAGGER.)

PONIATOWSKI, the name of a Polish princely family of

Italian origin, tracing descent from Giuseppe Torelli, who married about 1650 an heiress of the Lithuanian family of Poniatov. whose name he assumed.

STANISLAUS PONIATOWSKI (1677—1762), only belonged to the

PONIATOWSKI— PONSONBY family by adoption, being the reputed son of Prince Sapieha and

a Jewess. He was born at Dereczyn in Lithuania, and was adopted

by Sapieha’s intendant, Poniatowski.

Attaching himself to the

party of Stanislaus Leszczynski, he became major-general in the army of Charles XII. of Sweden, who also employed him as diplomatic intermediary to the Sultan. He next became governor

of the duchy of Zweibrücken, Bavaria. After the death of Charles XIL in 1718 he visited Sweden; and was subsequently reconciled

PONS, JEAN LOUIS (1761-1831), French astronomer, was born at Peyres (Hautes Alpes) on Dec. 24, 1761. He entered the Marseilles observatory in 1789, and in 1819 became the director of the new observatory at Marlia near Lucca, which he left in 182s for the observatory of the museum at Florence. Here he died on Oct. 14, 1831. He spent his time searching for comets, of which he discovered a record number; some bear his name, é.g., Pons-Winnecke’s comet.

with Leszczynski’s rival on the throne of Poland, Augustus II.,

who made him grand treasurer death of Augustus II. he tried Leszczynski, but presently gave by whom he was made governor Aug.

of Lithuania in 1724. On the to secure the reinstatement of his allegiance to Augustus III., of Cracow. He died at Ryki on

3, 1762.

a son Stanislaus Augustus became king of Poland. (See STANISLAUS II.) Of the other sons, Casimir (1721-1780) was his

brother’s chancellor; Andrew (1735-1773) became feldzeugmeister in the Austrian service; and Michael (1736-1794) became archbishop of Gnesen and primate of Poland. Joseph Anthony (g.v.), son of Andrew, became one of Napoleon’s marshals. STANISLAUS PONIATOWSKI (1757-1833), son of Casimir, was grand treasurer of Lithuania, starost of Podolia and lieutenantgeneral of the royal army. In 1793 he settled in Vienna, and subsequently in Rome, where he made a magnificent collection of antique gems, subsequently sold. He died in Florence, Feb. 13,

1833, and the Polish and Austrian honours became extinct. His natural, but recognized, son, JOSEPH MICHAEL XAVIER FRANCIS JOHN PoNIATOWSKI (1816-1873), was born at Rome and

in 1847 was naturalized as a Tuscan subject. He received the title of prince in Tuscany (1847) and in Austria (1850). He represented the court of Tuscany in Paris from 1848, and he was made a senator by Napoleon III., whom he followed to England in 1871. He also wrote numerous operas. He died on July 3, 1873. His son, Prince Stanislaus Augustus, married and settled in Paris. He was equerry to Napoleon III., and died in Jan. 1908.

PONIATOWSKI, JOSEPH ANTHONY (1763-1813), Polish prince and marshal of France, son of Andrew Poniatowski and the countess Theresa Kinsky, was born at Warsaw in 1763. He served with distinction in the imperial forces against the Turks in 1788, then becoming major-general and subsequently lieutenant general in the Polish army under his uncle, King Stanislaus. In 1789 he commanded the Ukrainian division; and after the proclamation of the constitution of May 3, 1791, was made commander-in-chief. Aided by Kosciuszko, he conducted the operations against Russia with much skill, but when the king acceded to the confederation of Targowica (see PoLanp: History), at the same time guaranteeing the adhesion of the army, Poniatowski, and most of the other generals threw up their commissions and emigrated. During the Kosciuszko rising he again fought gallantly for his country under his former subordinate, and after the fall of the republic lived in retirement. After the evacuation of the Polish provinces by Prussia, Poniatowski became commander of

the National Guard, and on the creation of the grand duchy of Warsaw he was nominated war minister. During the war of 1809, he operated successfully against the Austrians. In Napoleon’s campaign against Russia in 1812 Poniatowski commanded the fifth army corps; and after the disastrous retreat of the grand army remained faithful and formed a new Polish army of 13,000 men, with which he joined the emperor at Lützen. In 1813 he guarded the passes of the Bohemian mountains and defended the left bank of the Elbe. As a reward for his brilliant services at Leipzig he was made a marshal of France and entrusted with the duty of covering the retreat of the army, in the course of which he perished, fighting heroically against over-

whelming odds. His relics were conveyed to Poland and buried in Cracow Cathedral, where he lies by the side of Tadeusz

Kosciuszko and Jan Sobieski. Poniatowski’s Mes souvenirs sur la campagne de r7g2 (Lemberg, 1863) is of historical value.

See Correspondence of Poniatowski (ed. E. Raczynski, Posen, 1843) ;

ronislaw

Dembinski,

Stanislaus

Augustus

and

Prince

Joseph

207

Oniatowski in the light of their Correspondence (Fr.; Lemberg, 1904) ; Szymon Askenazy, Prince Joseph Poniatowski (Pol.; Warsaw, 1905).

See M. R. A. Henrion, Annuaire biographique, i. 288 (1834) ; Memoirs Roy. Astron. Soc. v. 410; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomie, p. 709; J. C. Poggendorff, Biog. lit. Handworterbuch.

PONSARD,

FRANCOIS

(1814-1867), French dramatist,

was born at Vienne, Isére, on June 1, 1814, and studied law. His translation of Manfred was published in 1837. His play Lucréce was represented at the Théâtre Français on April 1, 1843. This date marks a reaction against the romantic style of Dumas and Hugo. He received, in 1845, the Academy’s prize for a tragedy “to oppose a dike to the waves of romanticism.” Ponsard combined the liberty of the romantics with the sober style of earlier French drama. The success of his plays was aided by the impersonation of many of the principal rdéles in them by Rachel. He followed up Lucréce with Agnés de Méranie (1846), Charlotte Corday (1850), and others. L’Honneur et Vargent, one of his most successful plays, was acted in 1853, and he became an academician in 1855. In 1866 he obtained great success with Le Lion Amoureux, another play dealing with the revolutionary epoch. His Galilée, which excited great opposition in the clerical camp, was produced in 1867. He died in Paris on July 7, 1867. His Oeuvres complètes were published in Paris (3 vols., 1865-76).

See C. Latreille, La Fin du théâtre romantique et François Ponsard après des documents inédits (1899).

PONSONBY OF SHULBREDE, ARTHUR AUGUSTUS WILLIAM HARRY PONSONBY, ist Baron (1871), British author and politician, was born on Feb. 16, 1871, and educated at Eton and at Balliol college, Oxford. In 1894 he entered the diplomatic service, and after holding posts in Constantinople and Copenhagen, returned in 1902 to join the staff of the Foreign Office. In 1906 he became principal private secretary to Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, and two years later was elected Liberal M.P. for Stirling. He represented this constituency until 1918, and in 1922 was elected Labour member for the Brightside division of Sheffield, being under-secretary for foreign affairs in the Labour Government of 1924. In the Labour Government of 1929 he was Parliamentary under-secretary for the Dominions, and was raised to the peerage In 1930. His works include The Decline of Aristocracy (1912); Democracy and Diplomacy (1915); Wars and Treaties (1815-1914) (1917); Religion in Politics (1921); Now is the Time (1925). PONSONBY, English family. Ponsonpy, JoHN (17131789), Irish politician, was born on March 29, 1713. In 1739 he entered the Irish parliament, where he became first commissioner of the revenue (1744), a privy councillor (1746), and in 1756 Speaker. Belonging to one of the great families which at this time monopolized the government of Ireland, Ponsonby was one of the principal “undertakers,” men who controlled the whole of the king’s business in Ireland, and he retained the chief authority until the marquess Townshend became lord-lieutenant in 1767. A struggle for supremacy between the Ponsonby faction and the party dependent on Townshend followed, which caused Ponsonby to resign the speakership in 1771. He died on Dec. 52, 1789. His wife was Elizabeth, daughter of William Cavendish, 3rd duke of Devonshire, a connection of advantage to the Ponsonbys. Ponsonby’s third son, Georce PonsonBy (1755-1817), lord chancellor of Ireland, was born on March 5, 1755, and educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. A barrister, he became a member of the Irish parliament in 1776 and was chancellor of the Trish exchequer in 1782, afterwards taking part in the debates on the question of Roman Catholic relief, and leading the opposition to the union of the parliaments. Ponsonby represented Wicklow and then Tavistock in the united parliament; in 1806 he was lord chancellor of Ireland, and from 1808 to 1817 he was the official leader of the opposition in the House of Commons

PONTA

208

DELGADA—PONTEFRACT

He left an only daughter when he died in London on July 8, 1817. George Ponsonby’s elder brother, WILLIAM BRABAZON PonSONBY, 1st Baron Ponsonby {1744—-1806), was also a leading Whig politician, being a member of the Irish, and after 1800, of the British parliament. In 1806 shortly before his death he was created Baron Ponsonby of Imokilly. On the death of his grandson, WILLIAM BrABazon Ponsonsy (1807-1866), the barony became extinct.

PONTA DELGADA, the capital of an administrative dis-

trict, comprising the islands of St. Michael’s and St. Mary in the Portuguese archipelago of the Azores. Pop. (1911), 16,179. Ponta Delgada is built on the south coast of St. Michael’s, in 37° 40’ N. and 25° 36’ W. Its mild climate, and the fine scenery of its mountain background, render it very attractive to visitors; it is the commercial centre, and the most populous city of the archipelago. Great improvements in the harbour were effected after 1860 by the construction of a breakwater 2,800 ft. long.

PONT-A-MOUSSON,

a town of northern France in the

department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nancy by rail. Pop. (1926) 11,105. Dating from the oth or roth century, Pont-a-Mousson constituted a lordship, which was made a marquisate in 1354. It was from 1572 to 1763 the seat of a wellknown university. The Moselle, which is canalized, divides the town into two quarters, united by a 16th century bridge. The church of St. Martin dates from the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. The lower ecclesiastical seminary occupies the building of an old Premonstratensian convent. The town has engineering workshops, blast furnaces, and manufactures of lacquered ware,

paper, cardboard, cables and tin- and iron-ware.

PONTANUS, JOVIANUS

(1426-1503), Italian humanist

and poet, was born in 1426 at Cerreto, in the duchy of Spoleto, and educated, after the death of his father in a civil disturbance, at Perugia. At the age of 22 he went to Naples, where he remained for the rest of his life. He became a friend of the famous scholar Beccadolli, and was introduced by him to Alphonso the Magnanimous, who made him tutor to his sons. Thereafter he was political adviser, military secretary and chancellor to the Aragonese dynasty. He illustrates very clearly the importance of men of letters in Italy. He arrived in Naples a penniless scholar, and became almost immediately one of the most important men in the kingdom. He founded an academy for the meetings of scholars in Naples, which lasted long after his death. In 1461 he married Adriana Sassone, who bore him one son and three daughters and died in 1491. Soon after this he married a girl from Ferrara, only known to us as Stella. He was passionately fond of wife and children, and much of his verse, especially Eridanus, written after his second marriage, tells of his love for them. He outlived Stella also, and died in 1503 at Naples, where a group of life-size terra-cotta figures is still to be seen on his tomb at Monte Oliveto church. Pontanus had a good Latin style and the faculty, rare among his contemporaries, of expressing the facts of modern life, the actualities of personal emotion, in language sufficiently classical yet always characteristic of the man. His ambitious Urania embodies the astronomy of the day. His most original compositions in verse, however, are elegiac and hendecasyllabic pieces on personal topics—the De conjugali amore, Eridanus, Tumuli, Naeriae, Baiae, etc.—in which erotic freedom is condoned by a passionate sincerity. Pontanus’ prose and poems were printed by the Aldi at Venice. For his life see Ardito, Giovanni Pontano e i suoi tempi (Naples, 1871);

for his place in the history of literature, Symonds, Renaissance in Italy (1875, etc.).

PONTARLIER,

a frontier town of eastern France, 36 m.

S.E. of Besançon. Pop. (1926), 11,090. It is situated 2,740 ft. above sea-level on the Doubs, about 4 m. from the Swiss frontier, and forms an important strategic point at the mouth of the defile of La Cluse, one of the principal passes across the Jura. Pontarlier is the junction of railway lines to Neuchâtel, Lausanne, Lons-le-

Saunier, Dôle and Besançon. At Pontarlier the French army of

the East made its last stand against the Prussians in 1872 before

crossing the Swiss frontier. The distillation of herbs, largely grown for kirsch and other liqueurs, is the chief industry.

PONT AUDEMER, a town of north-western France, in th: department of Eure, 39 m. N.W. of Evreux, on the railway t Honfleur. Pop. (1926) 5,636. The town owes its name to Ay domar, a Frank lord, who in the 7th or 8th century bridged thy Risle there. The church of St. Quen, which has fine stained glag of the 16th century, combines the late Gothic and Renaissane styles; its choir is Romanesque. Manufacturing includes th

founding of malleable metal; also glue and paper, cotton-spinniny | and leather goods. There is trade in flax, wool, grain, cattle, cider, paper, iron, wood and coal. The port has a length of over half , mile on the Risle, which is navigable for small vessels from thi point to the Seine (10 m.).

PONTECORVO,

a city of Campania, Italy, in the proving

of Frosuione, on the Garigliano, about 48 m. from Caserta ani 3 m. from Aquino on the railway from Rome to Naples. Pop (1921), 6,010 (town); 11,843 (commune). The principality of Pontecorvo (about 40 sq.m. in extent), once an independent state, belonged alternately to the Tomacelli and the abbots of Monte Cassino. Napoleon bestowed it on Bernadotte in 180,

and in 18ro0 it was incorporated with the French Empire. PONTECOULANT, LOUIS GUSTAVE LE DOVUL. CET, Comte DE (1764-1853), French politician, was bom 4

Caen on Nov. 17, 1764. He entered the army in 1778. A mod. erate supporter of the revolution, he was returned to the Cor. vention for the department of Calvados in 1792, and became commissary with the army of the North. He attached himself to the party of the Gironde, and in Aug. 1793 was outlawed. He refused to defend his compatriot Charlotte Corday, who wrote him a letter of reproach on her way to the scaffold. He returned to the Convention on March 8, 1795, and became its president in July; he was for some months a member of the council of public safety. He was elected to the council of five hundred, but was suspected of royalist leanings, and spent some time in re tirement before the consulate. Becoming senator in 1805, and count of the empire in 1808, he organized the national guard in Franche Comté in 1811, and the defence of the north-eastem frontier in 1813. He sat in the upper house under the Reston. tion. He died in Paris on April 3, 1853. See his Souvenirs historiques et parlementaires 1861-65).

PONTEFRACT

1764-1848

(4 vob,

(pronounced and sometimes written “Pon:

fret”), market town, municipal borough, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 21 m. south-west from York, served by th L.M.S. and L.N.E. railways. Pop. (1931) 19,053. It is well sitvated, on an eminence, near the junction of the Aire and the Calder The most important remains are the ruins of the famous castle

situated on a rocky height, and containing in all eight round towers. The remains are principally of Norman date, and an unusual feature is the existence of various subterranean chambers in the rock. Below the castle is All Saints church, which suffered severely during the siege of the castle, but still retains some work of the 12th century. In 1837 the tower and transepts were fitted for divine service. The church of St. Giles is of Norman date, but most of the present structure is modern. In Southgate is an ancient hermitage and oratory cut out of the solid rock, which dates from 1396. At Monkhill there are the remains of a Tudor building called the Old Hall. A grammar school of ancient found: tion, renewed by Elizabeth and George III., occupies modem buildings. The town hall (r8th century) occupies the site of one erected in 1656, which succeeded the old moot-hall dating from Saxon times. Among other buildings are the court house, the market hall, the assembly rooms, and large barracks. The found tion of the principal almshouse, that of St. Nicholas, dates from before the Conquest. Trinity Hospital was founded by Sir Robert Knolles (d. 1407). At Ackworth is a Society of Friends’ schol (1778), in the foundation of which Dr. John Fothergill (171% 1780) was a prime mover. There are extensive gardens and nuts

eries in the neighbourhood of Pontefract, and liquorice is grow for the manufacture of the celebrated Pomfret cakes. The tow possesses iron-foundries, sack and matting manufactories, tat neries, breweriés, corn mills and brick and terra-cotta works.

The remains of a Roman camp have been discovered near Par

PONTEVEDRA—PONTIANUS tefract. At the time of the Domesday Survey Tateshall (now Tanshelf, a suburb of the town) was the chief manor while Kirkby, afterwards the borough of Pontefract, was one of its members. The change of status was

probably owing to the founding by

IIbert de Lacy, of a castle at Kirkby.

The town was known as

Pontefract in 1140 when Archbishop Thurstan died there.

The

manor remained in the Lacy family until it passed by marriage to Thomas, duke of Lancaster, who was beheaded after the battle of Boroughbridge. His estates were restored to his brother Henry,

200

and he was forced to lay siege to the fort. The siege continued for fve months, marked by desultory attacks and sorties. Schooners sent through Lake Erie with supplies and provisions were captured by the Indians, but Pontiac could not prevent reinforcements from

Fort Niagara under Capt. Dalzell from reaching Detroit. However, when the besieged made a night attack on the Indian encampment, Pontiac, apprised of their coming, inflicted heavy losses on them at Bloody Run, July 31. The Indians were unused to making

long sieges and, after a few months, several of the associated tribes made peace, With his own Ottawa, Pontiac continued to camp around Detroit until Oct. 30 when, hearing that no aid from the French coulé be expected owing to the signing of the peace treaty with the English, he withdrew to the Maumee river. Pontiac’s larger plan was more successful. Of the 12 fortified castle. During the Wars of the Roses the town was loyal to Henry VI., and several of the Yorkist leaders were executed here after posts attacked by the Indians, all but four were captured; most the battle of Wakefield. It was taken by Robert Aske, leader of of the garrisons were massacred; several relief expeditions were the Pilgrimage of Grace, in 1536. In 1642 the castle was gar- nearly annihilated, and the frontiers were desolated and plundered, risoned for Charles I. and sustained four sieges, the second in Col. Bouquet, however, succeeded in defeating the Indians at 1644, being successful, but two years later it was retaken by the Bushy Run, when on his way to relieve Forts Pitt and Ligonier, royalists, who held it until after the execution of the king, when and in 1764, he led a second expedition into Ohio from Pennsy]lthey surrendered to General Lambert and the castle was destroyed. vania, and forced the Indian tribes to sue for peace and release Roger de Lacy in 1194 granted a charter and in 1484 Richard their prisoners. Pontiac still hoped to arouse other tribes to conIII. incorporated the town. The market rights are still held tinue the fight, but after another year he saw that the English under his charter. The privilege of returning two members to were the real masters of the situation and, on behalf of the tribes parliament which had belonged to Pontefract at the end of the lately banded in his league, he concluded a treaty of peace and 13th century was revived in 1620-21. Between 1885 and 1918 amity with Sir William Johnson at Oswego, N.Y,, July 25, 1766. it returned one member, when its representation was merged in Pontiac, laden with gifts from the enemy, returned to his home on the Maumee. He met his death in 1769 at the hands of an that of the county. PONTEVEDRA, a maritime province of north-western Illinois Indian bribed by an English trader to murder him at CahoSpain, before 1833, a part of Galicia. Pop. (1920), 533,419; kia (nearly opposite St. Louis). His death occasioned a bitter area, 1,695 sq.m., showing a density of population, 314 inhabitants war among the Indians, and the Illinois group was all but annihiper square mile. The surface is mountainous. The coast-line is lated by his avengers. Pontiac was one of the most remarkable deeply indented; navigation is rendered difficult by fogs in summer men of the Indian race in American history, possessing a comand storms in winter. Large agricultural fairs are held in the chief manding energy and force of mind combined with subtlety and towns, and there is export of cattle to Great Britain and Portugal, craft, and a power of organization. BisLIoGRAPHY.— See Francis Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac with hams, salt meat and fish, eggs, breadstuffs, leather and wine. (Boston, 1851; roth ed, 1905); Handbook of American Indians Vigo is the chief port and there are harbours at Bayona, Carril, (Bureau of American Ethnology, vol. ii., 1910). Marin, Villagarcia and elsewhere among the deep estuaries of the PONTIAC, a city of Illinois, U-S.A., on the Vermilion river, coast. At Tuy the Spanish and Portuguese railways meet. 92 m. S.W. of Chicago; the county seat of Livingston county. It of province Spanish the of capital the PONTEVEDRA, Pontevedra; on the Tuy-Corunna railway, and on the river Lerez, is on Federal highway 66, and is served by the Chicago and Alton, which here enters the Ria de Pontevedra, an inlet of the Atlantic. the Illinois Central and the Wabash railways. Pop. 6,664 in 1920 Pop. (1920), 26,944. The name of the town is derived from the (87% native white); in 1930, 8,272 by the Federal census. It is ancient Roman bridge (poms vetus) of twelve arches, which spans the trading and shipping point for a rich agricultural region; has the Lerez near its mouth. Pontevedra is mainly built of granite, creameries, chick-hatcheries, and factories making shoes, farm and still partly enclosed by mediaeval fortifications. There is an implements, automobile accessories, lamps, lampshades and conactive trade in grain, wine and fruit: cloth, hats, leather and crete culverts; and is the seat of the State reformatory. The city was founded in 1837 and incorporated in 1872. pottery are manufactured.

earl of Lancaster, on the accession of Edward III., and the manor has since then formed part of the duchy of Lancaster. The town took part in most of the rebellions in the north of England, and in 1399 Richard II. was imprisoned and secretly murdered in the

PONTIAC

(c. 1720-1769), famous chief of the Ottawa In-

dians and leader in the “(Conspiracy of Pontiac” in 1763-64, was born about 1720, probably on the Maumee river, in what is now northwestern Ohio. His father was an Ottawa, and his mother an Ojibwa. By 1775 he had become a chief of the Ottawa and a

leader of the loose confederacy of the Ottawa, Potawatomi and Ojibwa. As an ally of France, he possibly commanded the Ottawa in the defeat (1755) of Gen. Braddock. In 1760 he met Maj. Robert Rogers, then on his way to occupy Michilimackinac and other forts surrendered by the French, and agreed to let the English troops pass unmolested on condition that he should be treated with respect by the British. Like other Indians he soon

realized the difference between French and English rule—that the Indians were no longer welcomed at the forts and that they would ultimately be deprived of their hunting grounds by encroaching English settlements. French hunters and traders encouraged Indian disaffection with vague promises of help from France; and In 1762 Pontiac enlisted the support of practically all the Indian tribes from Lake Superior to the lower Mississippi for a joint move to expel the British. He arranged for each tribe to attack the fort nearest to it in May 1763, and then to combine to wipe

out the undefended settlements, Pontiac himself decided to capture Detroit, but his carefully laid plans for a surprise attack on ay 9 were betrayed to the commanding officer, Maj. Gladwin,

PONTIAC (pén’ti-ac), a city of Michigan, U.S.A., 26 m. N.W. of Detroit, on the Clinton river and Federal highway 10; the county seat of Oakland county. It is served by the Grand Trunk and electric railways, and by motor coach and truck lines. The population was 34,273 in 1920 (83% native white) and was 64,928 by the Federal census in 1930. Pontiac is an important automobile-manufacturing centre, in the midst of a picturesque summer-resort region. ‘There are 11 state parks and some 4a0 lakes in the county. In Orchard lake (5 m. S.E.) is Apple island, formerly the home of the famous chief Pontiac, and on its shores

are ancient burial mounds of the Sac, Huron and Wyandot Indians. The city’s factories (making chiefly automobiles, motor trucks, automobile engines, parts, bodies, tops, and accessories,

radios, drop forgings, interior finish, paint and varnish) had an output in 1927 valued at $201,184,621. The assessed valuation of property for 1927 was $59,037,261. Bank clearings in 1926

ageregated $50,500,000.

The Eastern State hospital for the in-

sane (1878) is situated here, in beautiful grounds of 500 ac. Pontiac was laid out in 1818, became the county seat in 1820 and was

chartered as a city in 1861, In £870 the population was 4,867; in 1990, 9,767; in I9I10, 14,532; and in the decade 1910~20 it increased 136%. Since 1911 the city has had a commission-manager.

PONTIANUS, pope from 230 to 235. He was exiled by the emperor Maximinus to Sardinia, and in consequence of this sen-

210

PONTIFEX—PONTORMO

tence resigned (Sept. 28, 235). He was succeeded by Anteros.

neighbourhood. There is a church of the 14th, 15th and 16th cen. turies, once attached to a Carmelite convent; an old castle is occy.

important priesthood of ancient Rome, being specially charged with the administration of the jus divinum; i.e., that part of the civil law which regulated the relations of the community with the deities recognized by the State officially, together with a general superintendence of the worship of gens and family. The name is clearly derived from pons and facere, but whether this indicates any special connexion with the sacred bridge over the Tiber (Pons Sublicius) cannot now be determined. The college existed under the monarchy, when its members were probably three in number; they may be considered as legal advisers of the vex in all matters of religion. Under the republic they emerge into prominence under a pontifex maximus, who took over the king’s duties as chief administrator of religious law, just as his chief sacrificial duties were taken by the rex sacrorum; his dwelling was the regia, “the house of the king.” During the republican period the number of pontifices increased, probably by multiples of three, until after Sulla (82 B.c.) we find them 15; for the year 57 B.c. we have a

pied by the Aétel de ville. The local costumes, trimmed with the

PONTIFEX.

The collegium of the pontifices was the most

complete list of them in Cicero (Harusp. resp. 6, 12). Included in the collegium were also the rex sacrorum, the flamines, three assistant pontifices (minores), and the vestal virgins, who were all chosen by the pontifex maximus. Vacancies in the body of pontifices were originally filled by co-optation; but from the second Punic war onwards the pontifex maximus was chosen by a peculiar form of popular election, and in the last age of the republic this held good for all the members. They all held office for life. The immense authority of the college centred in the pontifex maximus, the other pontifices forming his consilium or advising body. His functions were partly sacrificial or ritualistic, but these were the least important; the real power lay in the administration of the jus divinum, the chief departments of which may briefly be described as follows: (1) the regulation of all expiatory ceremonials needed as the result of pestilence, lightning, etc.; (2) the consecration of all temples and other sacred places and objects

dedicated to the gods by the State through its magistrates; (3) the regulation of the calendar both astronomically and in detailed application to the public life of the State; (4) the administration of the law relating to burials and burying-places, and the worship of the Manes, or dead ancestors; (5) the superintendence of all marriages by confarreatio; i.e., originally of all legal patrician marriages; (6) the administration of the law of adoption and of testamentary succession. They had also the care of the State archives, of the lists of magistrates, and kept records of their own decisions (commentarii) and of the chief events (annales). It is obvious that a priesthood with such functions and holding office for life, must have been a great power in the State, and for the first three centuries of the republic it is probable that the pontifex maximus was in fact its most powerful member. The office might be combined with a magistracy, and, though its powers were declaratory rather than executive, it may be described as quasi-magisterial. Under the later republic it was coveted chiefly for the great dignity of the position; Julius Caesar held it for the last 20 years of his life, and Augustus took it after the death of Lepidus in 12 B.c., after which it became inseparable from the office of the reigning emperor. For further details see Marquardt, Staatsverwaltung, ill. 235 eb seq.; Wissowa, Religion w. Kultus der Römer, sor seq.; Bouché-Leclercq, Les Pontifes, passim.

PONTIVY, a town of western France, in the department of

Morbihan. Pop. (1926) 6,375. Pontivy had its origin in a monastery founded in the 7th century by St. Ivy of Lindisfarne. The town, at the confluence of the Blavet with the Nantes-Brest canal, has distinct parts—the old town and that to the south known as Napoléonville and built by Napoleon I. as military headquarters for Brittany. The ancient castle (1485) of the dukes of Rohan, whose capital the town was, is a museum.

PONT-L'ABBÉ, a town of western France in the department

of Finistère, 13 m. S.W. of Quimper by rail. Pop. (1926) 5,309. The town stands on the right bank of the estuary of Pont-l’Abbé, 2m. from the sea. Its port carries on fishing, imports timber, coal, etc., and exports mine-props and the cereals and vegetables of the

bright-coloured embroideries for which the town is noted, are among the most striking in Brittany; the bigouden or headdress of the women has given its name to the inhabitants. PONTOISE, a town of northern France, capital of an arron. dissement of the department of Seine-et-Oise, 18m. N.W. of Paris on the railway to Dieppe. Pop. (1926) 9,266. Pontoise existed ip

the time of the Gauls as Briva Isarae (Bridge of the Oise). It was destroyed by the Normans in the 9th century, united with Nor. mandy in 1032, and acquired by Philip I. in 1064. Capital of the

French Vexin, it played a conspicuous part in the wars between the French and the dukes of Normandy and in the Hundred Years’ War. The English took it in 1419, and again in 1437. In 1441 Charles VII. took it by storm after a three months’ siege,

After belonging to the count of Charolais down to the Treaty of Conflans, it was given as a dowry to Jeanne of France when she was divorced by Louis XII. The parlement of Paris several times met in the town; and in 1561 the states-general convoked at

Orléans removed thither after the death of Francis II. During

the Fronde it offered a refuge to Louis XIV. and Mazarin. Henry III. made it an apanage for his brother the duke of Anjou. Later

it passed to the duke of Conti. Down to the Revolution it remained a monastic town. Two churches alone remain: St. Maclou, a 12th century church, restored in the 15th and 16th centuries, and containing a fine holy sepulchre of the 16th century; and Notre-Dame, of the close of

the 16th century, with the tomb of St. Gautier, abbot of Meulan in the r2th century. Trade is in grain and in flour ground by numerous water-mills on the Viosne; a well-known fair is held in November. At Mériel, near Pontoise, there are remains of the r2th century Cistercian abbey of Le Val.

PONTOPPIDAN, ERIK (1698-1764), Danish author, was born at Aarhus on Aug. 24, 1698. He studied divinity at the University of Copenhagen, and for some time acted as a travelling tutor. In 1735 he became one of the chaplains of the king. In 1738 he was made professor extraordinary of theology at Copenhagen, and in 1745 bishop of Bergen. He died on Dec. 20, 1764. His principal works are: Theatrum

$262,109,805 75 119,Q07,502.65

$84,02 2,702.67

|

| Classes of mail:

| First class

í

Second class

|

Third class

$345,284,235.14

.

34,984,799.98

68,504,245.32

| Fourth class .

17,600,5 26.24

| Penalty . Franked . sit | Free for the blind .

AY

14.5,878,886.60 21,373:395-59 6,263,620.66 520,691.23

31,974 48

31,974.49

Total mail .

607,863,107.52

628,095.300.48

20, 232,192.96

Foreign

|

.

Registry . o

Nf

|

O.D.

.

:

Special delivery

Money order . Postal savings Total special services |

i

20,5575170.37 11,247,626.52

8,515,804.84

9,955,833.55

10,020, 307.04

64,473-49 8,573:33 1.67

56,219,355-38

77,608,406.16

.53 12,038,365 9:315:298.07

21,389,050.78

41,621,243-74

681,674,686.14 1,636,862.04

719,775,958.96 2,121,271.12

20,101,172,82 484,409.08

683,311,548.18

712,897,130.08

29,585,581.90

Total related Unrelated . Grand total.

EN

G

795,703,700.64

Total mail and special services Unassignable

ater

931,693.24 aA

664,082,462.90

RSS

2,902,323.80

25,646,950.23

17,073,618.56 1,533,904.14

SR

1,93 2,327.85

9,204,658.79

:302,334.-93

iid

6, 263,620.66 §20,691.2 3

SS

Special services:

$83,174,429.39

4,3%5,268.24 45479,585.76 35772,779-31

72,909,513.56

141,399,300.84

pe

2

17,592,223.24

5,072,152.32

have been published was 1,139,000,000 or nearly 180 per head of the population. The newspaper rate is fixed at the low rate of (1896-1925) ; Statutes at Large of the United States; Postal Laws and 1d, per ro oz,; and an unusual feature of the postal service is a Regulations (1825 seq.); Lindsay Rogers, The Postal Power of specially low rate of postage for books printed in Australia, which ENI Congress (1916) ; and Annual Reports of the ver are conveyed at one-half the rate applicable to other books; the same principle is applied also to magazines and periodicals. The POSTAL SERVICE OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE aggregate length of the air routes is 3,487 miles and further conIn the early days of Colonial expansion the postal services siderable developments are in contemplation; the rates are modestablished overseas were in theory and to a large extent in erate and the traffic is steadily increasing, South Africa.—A regular postal service was established in practice under the direct control of the Postmaster General of Great Britain. Reasons of practical convenience and the de- South Africa immediately after the British occupation of the velopment of autonomy in the Dominions and Colonies, gradually Cape in 1806. Regular communication was established between led to the establishment of independent postal services. At the Cape Town and important centres by Hottentot posthoys. The present time the British Empire comprises some 55 distinct postal foot messengers were later replaced by horsed Post Orderlies; but administrations each responsible solely to its own Government. it was not until a comparatively recent period that the developCanada.--The Canadian Post Office, before the Declaration of ment of railways made rapid local communication possible on an Independence, was combined with that of the other North Ameri- extensive scale. The various States of South Africa maintained their separate can Colonies, and after the separation it continued to be administered by the Post Office of Great Britain. In spite of the Post. Offices until the formation of the Union in 1910, when a obvious difficulties of effective control, it was not until 1851 that centralized Postal Administration was established. The inland letter rate is xd. per ez., and the postcard rate $d. it was abandoned and separate autonomous services were established in the different provinces, to be replaced by a centralized For parcels of 1 Jb. and over the rate is 6d. per lb.; but South Post Office on the foundation of the Dominion in 1867. Canada Africa has introduced the interesting experiment of an agriculin December 1928 restored: the 2 cent rate on letters exchanged tural parcel post, the rates on which vary from 3d. for 14 lb. tọ within the Empire which had been in abeyance since the War. 1s,/~ for rr lb. The agricultural post includes fruit, grain, tea, Canada has an extensive internal Money. Order Service with a poultry, meat, etc., but perishable or semi-perishable products turnover of some $370,000,000 a year, and a considerable Savings such as butter, eggs and lard are excluded, Some 659,900 parcels Bank business; the Parcel Post is a relatively recent service, hav- annually are sent out by this service, A Cash on Delivery service ing been established only in rg14. A still later development is the has recently been introduced and though still small is increasing at a rapid rate. Cash on Delivery service established in 1922, The total volume of postal trafic for 1928 amounts to 309,Australia.—The history of the Australian Post Office goes back to 1810, when the first Post Office was opened in Sydney. 000,000 articles of all kinds, or 40 per head of the population, Each State developed on its own lines, though joint action was, The Post Office shows a small margin of profit. South Africa, alone among the Dominions, is responsible for of course, essential in some matters of common interest. The State services were developed on the general lines of the English the whole of her sea communication with Great Britain in both directions; she also maintains the only Sea Post Office which still Postal service. _ Regular sea communication with Great Britain was established operates between Great Britain and any part of the Empire. New Zealand.—The New Zealand Post Office is a comparain 1846, the overland route being utilized in 1850, while a regular sea service with the American Continent dates back to 1866. The tively modern growth, as it was not till 1854 that the first Posthigh cost of transport in relation to general costs is evident from master General was appointed. In r901 she advanced the idea the statistics of expenditure, as no less than 28% of the total of Universal Penny Postage, which was actually submitted to, postal budget represents expenditure on the conveyance of mails. though not adopted by, the Postal Union Congress of Rome in The volume of traffic is considerable; the total number of postal 1906. New Zealand, however, adopted Penny Postage not only packets of all kinds delivered in the last year for which statistics within the Empire but also with every Foreign country which

Letter Books of the Postmaster General, mss. in Post Office Department; J. D. Richardson, Messages and Papers of, the Presidents

318

POSTER

would accept it, even on a unilateral basis; and when she reestablished the Imperial penny postage in 1923, the same measure was also extended to a number of foreign countries. In 1905 she sanctioned the use of postal franking machines instead of postage stamps, and succeeded in 1920 in obtaining the general adoption of such machines by the Postal Union generally. In 1908 she established postal services by motor, and in 1909 introduced automatic stamp-selling machines. The Postal business is heavy in relation to the number of the population. The number of articles of all kinds delivered in 1928 was over 244,000,000, or 181 per head. India.—A postal service was first established in India by Clive in 1766; but it was mainly intended for official correspondence, and this principle was followed for many years during the gradual

At the present rates, however, the Postal service shows a cop.

siderable annual profit; in 1927 the balance of the “compte d'erploitation” amounted to nearly 300,000,000 francs.

The parcel post (colis postaux) though nominally a postal service, is operated by the Railway Companies. There is a pa. ticularly low rate (1 f. 25 for 5 kilos, or 23d. per rz Ib.) for th local service in Paris; and the rates for the whole of France ap moderate.

One of the most recent undertakings of the French Post Office is the postal cheque system, which of late years has developed rapidly and is now a recognized feature of French finance, Ac. cording to recent statistics there are about 370,000 depositors, and the annual sum paid in to postal cheque accounts is abou 161,000,000,000 francs. Germany.—Since the formation of the North German Posts! extension of British rule in India. It was not until 1837 that it was considered to be sufficiently developed to warrant the estab- Union, developed later into the Post Office of the German Empire

lishment of a monopoly in favour of the official post. The Indian Post Office is governed by legislation based mainly on the English model. The area to be served is immense, and the cost of transport relatively heavy; moreover the policy of uniform rates irrespective of distance, adopted in England in 1840, was accepted in India as early as 1854, and the aim of the Government has been to fix the rates at as low a point as possible, the Post Office never having been expected to make any considerable

Germany has taken a prominent part in postal development. Fo; the year 1927-28, the letter traffic amounted to 7,687,000,00 articles, in addition to which 309,000,000 parcels and ove

POSTAL SERVICES IN OTHER COUNTRIES France.—The establishment of a State post in France goes back to 1464, though its early history is very obscure. Improvements were made from time to time in organization, e.g., by Richelieu in 1627 and Mazarin in 1643; but the system of farm-

inexpedient. The actual powers of the Post Office Administration are, however, very considerable. For example, it fixes the estimates of expenditure, decides on all questions of borrowing for post office purposes, of redemption of debt and of the investment of the Postal Cheque Office balances, settles the rates of pay of certain classes of Post Office employees, determines whether new classes of business are to be undertaken, and, what is most important

2,000,000,000 newspapers and periodicals were handled in the post, the total number of postal packets thus reaching the total of 164 per head of the population. The Post Office conducts also a Money Order service with a turnover of 3,677,000,000 marksa year, an extensive Cash on Delivery service with a turnover only profit. Moreover, although the population is very large, the letter- slightly less, and a Postal cheque service with 922,000 accounts, writing element is not very considerable. Although the number of The Reichspostfinanzgesetz (Imperial Post Office Finance Act} letters delivered annually is about 1,300,000,000, this represents of 1924 changed the constitution of the Post Office and the an average of only 4 letters per head per annum. Post Office service was separated from the general financial organisation and work has, however, in recent years shown a steady and consider- established on an independent basis analogous to that of a comable increase, the volume having doubled in a period of about 20 mercial company. The Post Office can now no longer look to the years. At the present time the inland letter postage is 1 anna Treasury to recoup any losses. (rd.), the postcard rate 4 anna, and the newspaper charge for a The Administration is in the hands of a Minister, who is an weight of 8 tolas (34 oz.) is only + anna. A considerable parcel Imperial official paid from Imperial funds and is responsible to post service is maintained at comparatively low rates, a parcel Parliament for the general results of the service. The Minister of 20 tolas (12 oz.) being conveyed for any distance for the low is assisted by an Administrative Council of 41 members reprecharge of 2 annas (2d.). sentative of the Reichstag, the Reichsrat, the Ministry of Finance, A Money Order Service with an annual turnover of nearly 90 the staff of the Post Office, and of commercial interests. crores of rupees (about £67,000,000) is maintained, and the value The Minister is required to consult the Council, but the depayable (Cash on Delivery) post, which has been established in cisions of the latter are not necessarily binding. It cannot increase India for over 50 years, is also highly developed, the annual the estimates of expenditure presented to it by the Minister value being over 27 crores of rupees (about £20,000,000). without his concurrence, and the latter may also refer to the

ing, which was tried in England for a short time in the 17th century, persisted in France till the Revolution, when it was swept away and a Committee appointed to manage the postal service. Napoleon in 1804 replaced the Committee by a single Director General; and his organization has remained in general outline unchanged. Of recent years, however, the Post Office has rarely been entrusted to an independent Minister; it has usually been attached to another Ministry—Treasury, Public Works or Commerce and Industry; and its immediate chief is sometimes an under-secretary of State, sometimes a secretary-general drawn from the permanent Civil Service. The financial conditions since the war have made the stabilization of postage rates a matter of some difficulty; but they are now, generally speaking, fixed on the pre-war basis, having regard to the altered value of the franc. The inland letter rate begins at

Government

for decision any resolution which he judges to be

from the public point of view, fixes rates of postage and telegraph

and telephone charges. The result of this organization is a close attention to the financial results of the undertaking. While questions of organist tion and administrative economies are carefully studied, the ques tion of rates is kept under constant observation; and when it was found that the maintenance of the old rate of 10 pf. (1d.) for the letter post could not be justified, the Administration in August 1927 raised the rate by 50% (to 15 pf.) and carried out corresponding alterations in other postal rates. The postal traffic for 1927-28, however, showed an appreciable increase over the previous year, and the contribution of the Post Office to the 50 c. (1d.) per 20 grammes; but the rate on heavy letters is Exchequer was 70,000,000 marks (£3,500,000) for the year. relatively low; and on a letter weighing 1,500 grammes (about F 34 lb.), the maximum weight, the charge is only 5 fr. 20, or about POSTER. A poster is a printed, written or illustrated anto4d. The domestic letter rates apply to the whole of the nouncement publicly exhibited. Its usual function is to call attenFrench Colonies. tion to goods or service; but, to fulfil that object completely, 1t The lowest postage rate is that applied to newspapers. News- has not merely to arouse attention; it must provoke interest an papers which have been “routed” by the publishers are accepted create a desire for purchase. However attractive pictorially at the rate of 4 centime (,4,d.) for delivery in the Department of textually a modern poster may be, commerce, the chief patron 0 Publication and neighbouring departments or x centime (s4d.) poster art, finally judges a design by its value as a link in the cham for the whole of France and the Colonies. of salesmanship.

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MARYLAND

PHARMACEUTICAL

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The upper one is by Robert E. Lee, the lower by Lucian Bernhard

POSTER The poster is seldom given entire responsibility for influencing the public; rather is it regarded as a form of “reminder” adver-

tising—an ally of the press advertisement, the creator of a 1avour-

able atmosphere.

The average “commercial” poster is intended

to influence two groups——the retailer, who, it is hoped will stock

the advertiser’s goods, and the public who will purchase them. Posters have a very wide range of duties to perform in addition to

selling goods. They deliver every kind of message, to every type of “audience,” in an infinite variety of styles. Actually, the poster or placard can trace its ancestry back almost to the dawn of civilization. History.—Egyptian wall-paintings, mural decorations and in-

scriptions, produced over 3,000 years B.C., have been discovered by archaeologists, much of this work, together with that of the

early-Babylonian, Assyrian, Greek and Roman craftsmen, displaying a precision of line and a decorative beauty which are the envy and despair of the modern poster-designer. Tablets of wood, papyrus and parchment were also used, in ancient Egypt, Greece or Rome, for the purpose of issuing announcements, while it is the lettering of the Trajan column which has inspired the finest types

of poster lettering of to-day. Later Developments.—In later days, the sign-board was adopted as a form of advertisement, the hanging sign being a picturesque feature of mediaeval architecture throughout Europe. Written handbills were an additional means of enabling the shopkeeper to bring his goods and service to the notice of the public, and vast possibilities were suddenly presented to him by the invention of printing, by Gutenberg, before 1450, and by its

introduction into England by The first letterpress poster land; and shortly afterwards, issued in poster form. During

Caxton in 1476. soon made its appearance in Engin France, a royal proclamation was the 17th century, the general use of

posters was forbidden, but in time their value to the community was recognized, official restrictions were removed, and the first pictorial posters made their appearance. These were illustrated by wood-cuts, Pedlars and packmen, hucksters and showmen, strolling players and proprietors of booths, also used handbills and minlature posters, decorated by wood-cuts; and these simple, primitive illustrations have formed part of the artistic inspiration of the leading poster designers of to-day. The wood-cut was, however, destined to be superseded by lithography (g.v.) as a medium for the designing and printing of posters. Invented in 1796, and developed for printing purposes by Senefelder, the new art of drawing and engraving on stone, metal plates and “transfer” papers, opened up possibilities almost as vast as those which followed the invention of the printing press. The first lithographed posters are interesting as historical curiosities only, the earlier wood-cuts possessing infinitely more character. Lithography was seized upon as a means of producing a more elaborate, “highiy-finished” form of illustration, and it is to France that we have to turn for the earliest lithographed posters of quality. The modern poster began with Jules Chéret, a Frenchman, born in Paris in 1836, self taught as a draughtsman. He served his apprenticeship as a lithographer in England, and when 30 years old became interested in announcements of theatrical managers and placards put out about that time urging recruiting for armies. In 1867 the world saw the first modern poster of Chéret’s, an announcement of a play enacted by a young woman, then 22 years

old, who was to make her name immortal—Sarah Bernhardt. The poster announced a fairy play, entitled: La Biche au Bois. The first Chéret posters, with their filmy female figures seemingly floating in space and flaming colours, excited interest, held attention, and caused favourable comment. Orders for Chéret’s posters came from music halls, dealers in cigarettes, drinks, toilet articles, newspapers, circuses, charity fétes, and the streets were

gladdened with merrily dancing figures. Chéret designed more

than 1,000 posters, the best of which can be found in books de-

voted to the art. The poster spread from France to Germany. Later it travelled across the Pyrenees to Spain, and from France to Switzerland, and

over the Alps into Italy, from France to Belgium, and across the

319

English channel

to England,

across

the North

sea to Holland,

and from Germany it found its way to Austria-Hungary, the poster invasion finally reaching Russia and travelling across the Baltic sea to Norway and Sweden. From the British Isles and the Continent of Europe, the poster went to the United States, and later to Canada, thence to Australia. In England the first to attract attention by his posters was Frederick Walker, who in 1871 made a poster for the dramatized version of The Woman in White. Members of the Royal academy were

attracted to the newly discovered medium,

Millais exhibited pleased England

“Bubbles,” immensely.

advertising a soap. Then

and Sir John

This poster

followed Aubrey Beardsley,

with his weird posters, Walter Crane, R. Anning Bell, the “Beggarstaff Brothers” (James Pryde and William Nicholson), J. W. Simpson, Gordon Craig, Dudley Hardy, Maurice Greifenhagen, J. Hassall, Will Owen and others. In Germany Ludwig Hohlwein won not only a national, but an international reputation, and books of his posters are sold throughout Europe and America; his posters are so compelling that he is regarded as a master of his craft. Other German poster artists whose work reached the highest standards include Otto Fischer, Sattler, Speyer, T. T. Heine, Max Klinger, Dasio, Hofmann, Franz Stück and L. Zumbrusch. Leon Bakst, the Russian genius, and H. Cassiers, Belgian, have done much to bring renown to their native lands by their posters of distinction. Japan’s greatest poster artist is Toyókuni. The poster, as it is known to-day, did not exist in the United States previous to 1889, except for the theatrical and circus posters made by Matt Morgan. Posters began in the United States in the gos, when Louis Rhead and Will H. Bradley began to produce their decorative placards. These were used principally for the announcements of magazines and the books of publishers. Later business and commerce saw the great value of poster advertising, and enlisted the services of Maxfield Parrish, Ethel Reed, Will Carqueville, J. J. Gould, Howard Chandler Christy, J. C. Leyendecker, Frank Hazenpflug, James Montgomery Flagg, Charles Dana Gibson, and others. On the poster panels of to-day, in the United States, may be seen the work of Harrison Fisher, Linn Ball, G. C. Beall, Norman Rockwell, Fred Stanley, William Oberhardt, Fred Mizen, Clarence F. Underwood, Karl Johnson, F. Nelson Abbott, Arthur von Frankenberg, John E. Sheridan, Harry Morse Mayers, Hadon Sundblum, John O. Brubaker, Charles E. Chambers, McClelland Barclay, Lucille P. Marsh and other noted artists. With the outbreak of the World War posters took on a new significance in all nations actively engaged in the struggle. In countries where there was not conscription, posters were most effectively used to stimulate recruiting. Before conscription in England (during the first stages of the war), more than 2,500,000 posters were posted in the British Isles alone to get men to enlist, the posters representing the work of about roo artists. Taking a lesson from Great Britain, the Governments of the countries actively engaged in the war spoke to their nationals through the medium of the poster, appealing to the civilian population in behalf of subscriptions to the war loans, the conservation of food, aid for the organizations engaged in war work, such as hospitals, milk funds, destitute dependents, the Red Cross, the Y.M.C.A. and other activities that war entails. Brangwyn and Spencer Pryse produced work for Britain and Belgium which was full of dignity and nobility. In France, Steinlen, Faivre, Willette, Poulbot and Fouqueray appealed to the patriotism of their countrymen. In Germany the belief in force

and might was hammered into pictures by Engelhard, Louis Oppenheim, Puchinger, Otto Leonard and Wobhlfeld. Austria’s actions were justifed or defended and her causes championed by Krafter, Arpellus, Buo and Kurthy. Standards.—In the half century or more since the poster became a popular means of outdoor pubiicity, women have been predominant in many of the posters displayed. The irresistible charm of childhood illumines many posters. Birds and animals are also favourites with poster designers. But whatever is

pictured on a poster, this courier of commerce must have these

320

POSTE

RESTANTE—POST-IMPRESSIONISM

important features: it must be new and interesting, have attention-value, simplicity of design, brevity of text, good composition, pleasing colours, and “selling power”—the latter usually achieved through expression of a basic link of interest between the product and the public. Great strides have been made in the development of the poster as an organized advertising medium. Modern business in America has discarded the old-fashioned and unkempt “billboard,” and posters of various sizes are no longer made. Due to the Outdoor Advertising Association of America, there has come the standard structure in two sizes surrounded by a green moulding as a frame for the poster. These standard panels are found in over 16,000

cities and towns in the United States. Many of these structures are illuminated. In Great Britain, hoardings, though not standardized, have greatly improved in character and design, under the influence of the British Poster Advertising Association. In Germany a poster hoarding is practically unknown, the design being shown on special advertising kiosks or pillars, France uses both kiosks and hoard-

ings. (See PAINTING; ADVERTISING.)

dentally killed in Cambridge by a steam lorry on July 14, 19% Postgate ranks very high among Latin scholars, but some of hie due reputation was lost him by his vehement methods. Of these an example is to be found in his great Corpus Poetarum Latino. rum, He expelled the writings of Ausonius from the Corpus on grounds which, though stated in mellifluous Latin, amount ty little more than that he thought him a bad poet. Some have seen

traces of the same vehemence in certain of the emendations in his Propertius (1894) and Tibullus (1905); he was, however, un. doubtedly a very eminent critic and his article on Textua, Criticism (written for the 11th edition of the Encyclopedig

Britannica, and substantially retained in this) is a classic ypon its subject. His greatest successes were achieved in reforming the teaching

of Latin.

His New Latin Primer (1888, last ed. 1918) and his

Sermo Latinus (1889, 1913) became widely used because of their simple methods. In particular he took a leading part in chasing out the old Victorian pronunciation of Latin-——a mass of false quantities and mispronunciations which had no relation to the established facts of ancient pronunciation. He was largely re.

sponsible, not only for the adoption of the reformed scheme by

BrpiiocRapHy.—C. M. Price, Posters (1913), Poster Designs (1922) ; H. C. Duce, Poster Advertising (1912) ; P. V. Bradshaw, Art in Advertising (1925); Alexander, Spielman, Bunner and Jaccaci, The Modern Poster (1895); P. Pollard, Posters in Miniature (1897); J. Pennell,

the Classical Association, but for the organization and propaganda which secured its general acceptance. Before his death Postgate had the pleasure of knowing tha

examples of the work of distinguished poster artists include: Prof. H. K.

the old pronunciation had been practically entirely wiped out of

Liberty Loan Poster (1918), an essay on the poster.

Books containing

Frenzel, Ludwig Hohlwein (1926) ; H. Furst, Frank Brangwyn (1924) ; J. Klinger, Cosl-Frey and Willrab, Poster Art in Vienna (1923); E.

McKnight Kauffer, The Art of the Poster (1925). The Poster, the national magazine of outdoor advertising and poster art, is issued monthly in Chicago by the Outdoor Advertising Association of America.

(A. Stp.; P. V. B.)

POSTE RESTANTE, a facility, generally provided at post

offices, for the receipt and care of postal packets addressed to be called for. There are usually strict regulations to prevent abuse or fraud. In the United Kingdom, it is stipulated that the words “to be called for” or “Poste Restante” should appear in the address, and it is notified that the facility is intended solely for the accommodation of strangers and travellers, and that even they may not use it for more than three months. Postal packets addressed to initials, or to fictitious names, or to a Christian name without a surname, are not taken in at the Poste Restante. Postal packets may not be re-directed from one Poste Restante to another in the same town or from a private address to a Poste Restante in the same town. Re-direction from a Poste Restante is not undertaken for more than 14 days, unless a longer period, not exceeding three months, is specified on the form of application. All persons applying at a Poste Restante are required to furnish sufficient particulars to prevent mistakes and to ensure delivery to the proper person. Where a ship is in question the name of the vessel should always be mentioned. The words “General Delivery” in the United States are synonymous with the words “Poste Restante.” A general delivery window is maintained at every post office in the United States and is used for handling mail bearing as a part of its address the endorse-

ment “Transient,” “To be called for,” “General Delivery,” or other words indicating that it is intended for a transient person, such mail to be delivered upon application and identification. At those post offices where delivery carrier service is maintained, residents who use the general delivery window are required to furnish in writing their names and addresses and the reasons for desiring to use the general delivery instead of the carrier service. Minors are required to furnish the names of their parents or their guardians whose written consent must accompany the application. POSTGATE, JOHN PERCIVAL (1853-1926), English

classical scholar and Fellow of the British Academy, was the son

of Dr. John Postgate (1820-81), the initiator of the laws against the adulteration of food. He was educated at King Edward’s school, Birmingham, and Trinity college, Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1876. He was elected to a fellowship at the college, where he was classical lecturer (1884-1909). He was professor of comparative philology at London (1880-1010) and Latin professor at Liverpool university (1909-20). He was acci-

British scholastic and learned life and, as he said, that “even 3

lawyer had been known to pronounce nist prius without making 4 false quantity,” Postgate’s chief works, besides those mentioned above, were editions

of Catullus (1894), Virgil (1912), Phaedrus (1920) and part of Lucan

(1896, 1917); How to Pronounce Latin (1907); Translation and Translations (1922) ; Prosodia Latina (1923) ; Guide to the Accentustion of Greek (1925). The Corpus was published in parts in 1893,

pied 1904 and 1905. See S. G, Owen, J. P, Postgate (British Academy, 1927),

POST-IMPRESSIONISM.

The essential difference between

impressionism and post-impressionism is perhaps best explained by the description of the former as an objective outlook which results in the rendering of the image received on the retina, and of the latter as the mental image expressed in accordance with a subjective outlook. In other words, whilst impressionism is based on strict fidelity to natural appearances, the need of post-impressionism consists, in the main, of absolute attachment to the personal

vision, and, in reality, is the expression of the matter received through the glass of impressionism to be subsequently subjected to an individual thought process. The statement which emerges from the artist as a result of this process might well be termed

expressionism, were it not that this name is more exclusively reserved for the excessively brutal German contribution to the movement under consideration. Post-impressionism (a term coined on the occasion of the first exhibition of the work of Cézanne, van Gogh and Gauguin in London, in rg1r) provides an alterm-

tive which, if less apt, has the merit of being safe. Post-impressionism was as much a revolt against the naturalism

of the impressionists, as impressionism was a revolt against the tyrannical academic formula. It replaced analysis by synthesis.

It despised representation and gave the artist unbridled licence to

amplify and distort the forms of nature, acknowledging no law but the artist’s sense of fitness in arranging and organizing th

contents of his picture so as to express with the greatest possible directness and intensity the material and spiritual significance 0! his subject—the “treeness” of the tree, as Roger Fry has it, and the “‘wallness” of the wall. Delivered from all restraint and rules.

the post-impressionists were able to proceed by leaps and bounés

on their excursions into the realms of synthesis and abstraction.

to the utter bewilderment of a public which, accustomed to judg

ing art by the degree of its verisimilitude to nature, were left floundering hopelessly when attempting to fathom the meaning of

these startling artistic manifestations. A quarter of a century was enough to secure for the initiators and leaders of post-impressionism a position among the beacon lights of European art. Cézanne, van Gogh and Gauguin are now referred to as “the glorious triumvirate” and “the old masters al

POST-IMPRESSIONISM

BY COURTESY

OF (3) THE

RE{D AND

LEFEVRE

GALLERY,

LTD

, IN THE COLLECTION

OF WR

AND

MRS

POST-IMPRESSIONISM l. “Nude” by Georges Braque, contemporary French painter, in his early days a follower of Picasso, and a prominent leader in Cubist research

2. “Les Baigneuses’’ by Paul Gauguin (1848-1903), French, one of the three leading painters in the post-impressionist movement.

S

COURTAULD,

PHOTOGRAPHS,

PLATE

(1, 2, 4, 5, 6) COPR.

H. BONNAIRE

AND CUBISM was to make more clearly perceptible than it is in nature the sense of the third dimension, of volume and weight.

In the collection of Mr.

and Mrs. S. Courtauld

His revolt

4. ‘‘The Yellow Chair” by Vincent Van Gogh (1853-90), a Dutch painter

against impressionism took the form of a return to decorative pattern,

who derived his technique from the Impressionists but went on to

and to the two-dimensional design characteristic of Far Eastern Art. The painting illustrated is an example of the work of Gauguin’s later years, which were spent in the Marquesas Islands

more abstract and subjective methods of expression : : , 3 i ; : 5. “Arlequin au Violon” by Pablo Picasso (1881), Spanish painter, famous as one of the leading exponents of Cubism. His work is characterized by abstraction of form and an aesthetic expression entirely separated from the physical appearance of objects

3. “L'Homme à la Pipe” by Paul Cézanne (1839—1906), French painter, one of the so-called “Glorious Triumvirate’ (Gauguin, Cézanne and Van Gogh) who were the initiators of post-impressionism, Cézanne’s endeavour in portraiture and still life as well as in landscape painting

6. “La Jeune Fille à la poupée” by Paul Cézanne

POST-IMPRESSIONISM post-impressionism.” Their once despised, numerous, and by no means invariably successful paintings are in most of the galleries oi modern art, and thousands of pounds are willingly paid for

321

whatever he depicted, and its relation to other things presented with it, but he kept to the accepted ideas of representation, which

were discarded by his cubist followers, Picasso, Braque, Dérain canvases for which the artists, during their lifetime would willingly and Leger, who evolved a new language from Cézanne’s suggestion of space. It was a form of art that had nothing whatever have accepted a few hundred francs. Cézanne.—Cézanne, who at the beginning of his career threw to do with realism, and demanded concentration on aesthetic in his lot with the Impressionists, upon whose technique he matters to the absolute exclusion of outside practical appearances formed his own, was among the first to realize the limitations and accepted canons of judgment. Cubism bears out Ruskin’s imposed by the Impressionists’ scientifically truthful rendering of theory that an artist may deny other truths to the end that one colour and atmosphere. His dissatisfaction with what he considered truth may be more apparent. Like impressionism, the name “cubism” was first used in a the superficiality of impressionist productions led him to express, more basically and with greater structural firmness, the essential derogatory sense; it was Henri Matisse who, in 1908, applied it to character of the countryside which forever offered him new vistas, a painting in which the subject had received treatment of a new wonders for his interpretation. His endeavour, in portraiture markedly cubical character. About as far from the impressionist and still life, as well as in landscape painting, was to accentuate objective approach as anything could possibly be, cubism is really yolume and weight—to make the third dimension more clearly a stride—albeit a long stride, beyond the subjective outlook of the and immediately perceptible to the beholder’s eye than it is in post-impressionists, in that it takes no heed of visual appearance, actual mature, where we are left to guess by experience and by and renders what are thought to be essential realities in pure memory of touch. To him is due the dictum that all forms in abstract form. Picasso, the most prominent follower of the cubist nature can be reduced to the cube, the cylinder and the pyramid. gospel, and, indeed, the creator of certain of its elements, is the Van Gogh.—Like Cézanne, van Gogh derived his technique exponent of scientific cubism in its purest sense. Another form of from the impressionists; and like Cézanne, he was anything but cubism, less pure, is that which is best described as physical, since a facile worker, his heavy hand being but an inadequate instru- its fundamentals are culled from visualized realities. For example. in those of Picasso’s works which are based on ment for conveying his passionate aesthetic reaction to the thing sen. Of him it may truly be said that he did not paint, but rather physical appearances, the objects are presented in a way at least battled with colour and essential line with a frenzy that took no sufficiently realistic to enable their perception by the ordinary count of finished execution. His pictures are executed in furiously beholder, although he may be at a loss to account for the shapes energetic cross-hatchings of pure Prussian blue, emerald green, which they assume. Their recognition, incidentally, at once disorange and yellow, with a daring justified only by the brilliant places the work from the category of cubism in its strict sense, harmonies evolved from a palette on which he found no room for for that entails matters of line and colour wholly unrelated to neutral tints. His brushwork can only be likened to vigorous objects and figures, since the cult does not intend realism to enter hatchet-strokes, corresponding to the elemental force of his emo- into the question. tions. There was something uncanny in his power to perceive and Braque stands, to some extent, as the codifier of Picasso’s invento express the essential nature of any object or scene or person by tions, acting as an editor of his snipe-like movements. Thus, the which his aesthetic impulse was stirred. Inanimate things became products of Picasso are sobered down and reduced to a state of somehow invested with a soul and witha life of their own—a sun- uncompromising logic before being handed on as standardized flower, a wicker-chair, a cypress tree, or whatever it happened to material. be. He was a visionary who found a deep meaning in the humblest The art of Fernand Leger is concentrated upon the mechanical objects which his art invested with his own tortured spirit, and age into which we are advancing. Working in the gay colours of which he made eloquent of his own emotions. Van Gogh was the contemporary life, he extracts excellent design from the solid precursor of expressionism. strength of the mechanized world by which he finds himself enGauguin.—The third member of the great triumvirate, Paul veloped. Gauguin, was a close friend of van Gogh, but of a less impulsive Albert Gleizes is a devotee of two-dimensional treatment, and ind more reflective turn of mind. Where van Gogh would shout his attitude to a flat surface is that it has no need of the addition and even shriek, Gauguin was content to talk, and his words of a sculptural third, for the presence of such constitutes a denial carried more weight, for they were more considered. If Cézanne of its very nature. This painter, too, does not regard painting as a devoted his life to the search for volume, and van Gogh for form of representation, but of presentation of the spirit of the material and spiritual significance, Gauguin’s revolt against im- artist, and not of physical matter. Metzinger, Herbin and Lhote pressionism took the form of a return to decorative pattern, to are others of the cubist persuasion, which has demanded, in its two-dimensional design as practised by the artists of the Far East. time, every conceivable form of liberty. Orphism, purism, synHe based his effects on abstract form and colour, not on repre- chronism, simultaneism, integralism, dadaism and numeralism, sentational truth or on over-accentuation of some particular truth. all have had their day, and now the parent bids fair to follow ignoring the colour of nature, and relying, for the expression of them into oblivion. But although cubism may prove to have been his ideas upon his memory more than upon models, he produced a blind alley, it has been, and still is, an invaluable discipline for trst in Brittany, then in Tahiti, those splendours of harmonious artists In general and had its definite use in saving art from the decoration against which no arguments founded on convention can rut of academic pedantry. ever prevail. It was his belief that, before the spirit of a place Futurism.—Italian futurism, initiated, heralded and extolled tould be interpreted, it needed study in all its parts during what he by the eloquent poet Marinetti, and practised by Boccioni, called a “period of incubation.” Some proof of the peace Gauguin Severini, Carra, Russolo, Balla, and other disciples of the founder, found in his retreat can be seen in the restful nature of his was really an offshoot of cubism, although the connection was not paintings. admitted in the futurist manifestos. It differs from cubism in so Matisse-——Of the second generation of post-impressionists, far as cubism is concerned with static conditions, whilst futurism Henri Matisse went farther even than Gauguin in reconciling is essentially dynamic. This dynamism aims at cinematographic Western art with the Chinese. He aims “at convincing us of the effects, oblivious of the impossibility of creating on a flat surface reality of his forms by the continuity and flow of his rhythmic line, the illusion of the sequence of movement. Thus, by depicting a by the logic of his space relations, and, above all by an entirely new horse with 20 legs in various positions to indicate the movement use of colour.” His is an art of extreme synthetic simplification, of the gallop, the futurist endeavours to express the action of the teducing objects almost to symbols, and disdaining any approach gallop, but does not get beyond the representation of a static tamake-believe of reality. It depends entirely on arabesque and horse with 20 legs. Any attempt to change an art of space into iS hot concerned with the third dimension. an art of time must needs prove abortive. The dynamic intention

Cubiem.—Cézanne had used colour in block form because, by that Means, he could best express his feeling for the weight of

of the futurists also finds expression in “force-lines,” that is to gay in lines, radiating, swirling, wedge-shaped, to indicate either

322

POST-MORTEM—-POSTUMIA-GROTTE

the direction of movement, or the manner in which objects would disintegrate in obedience to the force indicated by their form. Another tenet of futurism denies the validity of the resemblance of a portrait to the sitter. To the futurist, a painting of one object covered by another in such a manner that both are visible, is a method of indicating his total disbelief in opacity, whilst a dozen people can be, at the same time, and in turn, ten, three, five in number, as well as simultaneously mobile and immobile. Paintings of a box, firmly shut but at the same time disclosing its contents, also are admissible. Pictures must be looked, not at, but through, and the spectator must feel himself to be in

the midst of them. In England, Marinetti’s fiery eloquence enlisted for a time a small following, which included C. R. W. Nevinson, who adapted with great skill the futurist formula for a series of remarkable War paintings.

Vorticism.—The

sionism

was,

chief English contribution to post-impres-

however,

the work

of the short-lived

group

of

“Vorticists” who, led by Wyndham Lewis, adopted a modified method of cubism, and included among their number William Roberts, Edward Wadsworth, and F. Etchells. In England, as in most countries, these innovators were regarded as incompetent cranks and charlatans, until their employment in connection with the Canadian war memorials and the Imperial War Museum brought them official recognition and public fame. _ Expressionism—In Germany the post-impressionist movement took root and spread with surprising rapidity. Its most abstract form is to be found in the art of the Russian-born W. Kandinsky, who has explained his outlook in a book entitled The Art of Spiritual Harmony. Pechstein, Marc, Nolde, Kokoschka and Corinth are the most prominent figures among the German expressionists, among whom must also be counted Marc Chagall, notwithstanding his Russian birth. Certainly it would seem that the German activities which correspond to those of the post-impressionist painters in other Euro-

work, in the form of sculpture, pottery, and mat designs, by

peoples who, throughout the ages, have known no art teaching çr

influences save those, possibly, of a conquering but equally primi. tive tribe. From the Congo, Bakota, Benin and other districts of lesser-known Africa, masks and figures have found their Way to

Europe, there to reveal to eager searchers for a means of express, ing much without complication, wonders of form and rhythm

which were bound to receive the investigation of serious artists, In the same way that Gauguin found stimulation in the vibray colours of the Polynesian mat-makers, so Jacob Epstein, and ty a lesser degree, Ossip Tadkine, have been helped to fuller expres sion by deep study of negro sculpture. In almost everything—buildings, furniture, dress, design in the home or theatre, and especially, perhaps, in that powerful moder

factor, advertising—the effect of post-impressionism and its more

successful descendants is very marked, whilst the benefits accry. ing to sculpture and the minor arts—woodcuts, engravings, posters,

wallpapers and others—have already altered the trend of publie thought, and freed it to such extent as slow and inartistic official.

dom will allow, from the morass of insincerity and vulgarity which had all but swallowed it up. (See IMPRESSIONISM, PAINTING.)

BrsiiocrapHy.—J. Meier-Graefe, Modern Art (1908) ; C. J. Holms, Notes on the Post-Impressionist Painters (1910); F. T. Marinetti, Ze Futurisme (Paris, 1911); Roger Fry, Form and Design, Prefaces ty Catalogues of 1st and 2nd Post-Impressionist Exhibitions, Grafton Galleries, 1911 and 1912; Boccioni, Pittura Scultura Futuriste (Milan,

1914); G. Coquiot, Cubistes, Futuristes, Passeistes (Paris, 1914): W. Kandinsky, The Art of Spiritual Harmony (1914); A. J. Eddy, Cubism and Post-Impressionism (1915); W. H. Wright, Modern P intine

(1916); Hermann Bahr, Expressionismus

Notre Art Dement

(Munich, 1920); F. Lehel

(Paris, 1926); F. Rutter, Evolutton in Modern Ar:

(1926); R. H. Wilenski, The Modern Movement in Art (1927); Jan

Gordon, Modern Cubism.

French Painters; A. Gleizes and Jean Metzinger, (P. G. K)

POST-MORTEM: see Autopsy. POSTULATE, in philosophy, is now generally used in the

wide sense of any fundamental assumption that is indemonstrable pean countries should be accorded some distinguishing title of and yet necessary if the requirements of knowledge or of practical their own. The term “expressionism,” therefore, serves the purpose life are to be satisfied. In this sense Kant, for example, spoke of as well as any other, unless one were found which denotes a com- the postulates of the practical reason; and nowadays the so-called bination of truth, bestiality, creation and destruction—all ex- Laws of Thought are commonly described as postulates. The pressed in a manner in which a snarling brutality obscures many usage in mathematics is, or used to be, rather different. In philfiner feelings. At the same time it must be admitted that the artist osophy, too, people sometimes employed the term “axiom” rather to whom the expressionists owe so much, the Swiss, Ferdinand than postulate for the Laws of Thought and similar theoretical Hodler, cannot very well be held responsible for the excesses principles, the term “axiom” being defined as “a self-evident committed by his imitators or contemporaries. truth.” But there is no virtue in claiming self-evidence for what Man and his relation to the world which contains him have been is recognised to be indemonstrable. See Axiom, Txoucnut, Laws subjected by Hodler to every thought-process of which his clear oF, Kant.

brain is capable, and the resulting statements are models of simplicity, precision and originality. Hodler does not attempt to put the unreasoning at ease by being intimate with them, but compels them, rather by an almost holy power, to use their own

imagination.

Another artist, who with Hodler, Cézanne and van

Gogh, left his mark upon the evolution of German expressionism, was the Norwegian, Edward Munch, whose achievement in paint-

ing leads from the subjective naturalism of the late roth century to the post-impressionist tendencies of the present day.

In America the new art-gospel of post-impressionism or expressionism was popularized mainly by the activity of Jules Pascin, a Bulgarian by birth, who had been working from 1905 onwards for the Munich paper Simplicissimus and living in France until 1914, when the World War made him seek for a new home in the

United States. He is equally distinguished as an illustrator and

as a painter, and his work, though always maintaining a very personal note, shows in turn the influence of Daumier, Cézanne, Degas, Renoir and Picasso. He resorts extensively to distortion for the definite purpose of forceful emphasis, and is in this respect

related to the German expressionists.

Effect on Other Arts.—Post-impressionism, in its attempts at synthesis, drew on the past to as great an extent as any other movement, but, ignoring the representational tricks discovered by succeeding generations, adopted only the basic, elementary facts of the unsophisticated and consequently more sincere primitive races. Exploration has brought to light comparatively modern

POSTUMIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of northern Italy,

constructed in 148 B.c. by the consul Spurius Postumius Albinus.

It ran from the coast at Genoa through the mountains to Dertona. Placentia (the termination of the Via Aemilia Lepidi) and Cremona, Just east of the point where it crossed the Po. From Cremona the road ran eastward to Bedriacum, where one branch ran left to Verona and thence to the Brenner, the other right ta Mantua, Altinum and Aquileia. The military occupation a Liguria depended upon this road, and several of the more important towns owed their origin largely to it. Cremona was its central point, the distances being reckoned from it both eastwards and westwards.

POSTUMIA-GROTTE

(formerly Adelsberg, Slovene Post-

ojina), a town in the province of Trieste, Italy (from which it is

51 m. E. by rail). Pop. (1921) 4,532. It is the frontier town ot

Italy on the railway to Lubiana, Graz and Vienna. About a mule from the town is the entrance to the famous stalactite cavern oi Postumia, the largest in Europe. The cavern is divided into several branches. The river Piuca enters the cavern 6o ft. below its mouth. In the Sala da ballo (ballroom) grotto a great ball is an-

nually held on Whit-Monday, when the chamber is brilliantly

illuminated. Beyond this, a mile from the entrance, the so-called

Elysian fields are reached, from which a view of over zoo yd. i

length can be obtained. The finest of all, however, is the Grote del Paradiso. These caves are now joined by a tunnel to th

Grotta Vera, and with the abyss of the Piuca, which can be

323

POTASHES— POTASSIUM saversed in a boat. The stalactite formations assume fantastic|

Sir Humphry Davy’s Experiment.—To

Sir Humphry Davy

shapes. The length of the passages known is nearly 14 miles. These subterranean wonders were known as far back as 1213 (the

b

belongs the merit of isolating this element from potash, which itself had previously been considered an element. On placing a

earliest names found in it date from 1250) and were probably visited by Dante, who certainly knew the lake of Circonio (Cerk-

piece of potash on a platinum plate, connected to the negative of a powerful electric battery, and bringing a platinum wire, connected to the positive of the battery, to the surface of the potassium a vivid action was observed: gas was evolved at the upper surface of the fused globule of potash, whilst at the lower surface, adjacent to the platinum plate, minute metallic globules were formed, some of which immediately inflamed, whilst others

niza) in which the Javornik is reflected. But the cavern remained undiscovered in modern times until 1818. The Magdalene grotto

i celebrated for the extraordinary subterranean amphibian, Pro-

vus anguinus, irst discovered there. It is about a foot in length,

lives on snails and worms and is provided with both lungs and gills.

POTASHES,

the crude potassium carbonate obtained by merely tarnished.

ixiviating wood ashes and evaporating the solution to dryness,

in operation at one time carried out in iron pots—hence the nme from “pot” and “ashes.”

The

term

potash or caustic

potash is frequently used for potassium hydroxide, whilst such

i phrase as sulphate of potash is now appropriately replaced by

potassium sulphate. (See POTASSIUM.) POTASSIUM [symbol K (from kalium), atomic number 19, atomic weight 39-105], a metallic chemical element, belonging 1g the group termed the metals of the alkalis. Although never found free in nature, in combination the metal is abundantly and widely distributed. In the oceans alone there are estimated to be 1,141X 10! tons of sulphate, K2SO., but this inexhaustible store is not much drawn upon; and the “salt gardens” on the coast of France lost their industrial importance as potash-producers when the deposits at Stassfurt in Germany came to be worked.

These deposits, in addition to common ing minerals: sylvine, KCl;

salt, include the follow-

carnallite, KCl/MgCl.-6H2O

(trans-

parent, deliquescent crystals, often red with diffused oxide of (hard crystalline iron); kainite, K2SO.MgSO.MgCl-6H20 masses, permanent in the air); kieserite MgSO.H.0

(only very

slowly dissolved by water); besides polyhalite, MgS0O.-K2SO04-2CaSOg-2H20,

and anhydrite, CaSOQz; salt, NaCl, and some minor components. These potassium minerals are not confined to Stassfurt; larger quantities of sylvine and kainite are met with in the salt mines of Kalusz in the eastern Carpathian Mountains. Important deposits are being worked in Thuringia and Baden, and others occur at Wittelsheim (Alsace) and at Suria (Catalonia, Spain). There are also undeveloped resources in Chile, Peru and Brazil. The Stassfurt minerals owe their industrial importance to their solubility in water and consequent ready amenability to chemical operations. In point of absolute mass they are insignificant compared with the abundance and variety of potassiferous silicates, which occur everywhere in the earth’s crust; orthoclase (potash felspar) and potash mica may be quoted as prominent examples. Such potassiferous silicates are found in almost all rocks, both as normal and as accessory components; and their disintegration furnishes the soluble potassium salts which are found in all fertile soils. These salts are sucked up by the roots of plants, and by taking part in the process of nutrition are partly converted into oxalate, tartrate, and other organic salts, which, when the plants are burned, are converted into the carbonate, K2COQ3. The

“vinasse” of beet-sugar factories, z.¢., the material left in the retorts after the distillation of the fermented molasses, also consists largely of potassium salts (chiefly the carbonate) and the potash

In 1808 Gay-Lussac and Thénard obtained the metal by passing melted potash down a clay tube containing iron turnings or wire heated to whiteness, and Caradau effected the same decomposition with charcoal at a white heat. Electrolytic methods are now generally employed for the manufacture of potassium. The Castner process used for sodium (q.v.) is somewhat unsatisfactory for potassium, but has been rendered more suitable by various modifications. Fused potassium hydroxide is electrolysed by means of a sheet-iron anode and an ironwire cathode, the latter being surrounded by a cylinder of magnesite in order to prevent metallic potassium diffusing into the hydroxide in which it tends to dissolve. The temperature is kept as low as possible and air is excluded. The molten hydroxide may be replaced by a readily fusible mixture of potassium chloride and fluoride. The metal, however, is not in great demand, for it is generally found that sodium (g.v.), which is cheaper, and, weight for weight, more reactive, will fulfil any purpose for which potassium may be desired. Pure Potassium.—Pure potassium is a silvery white metal tinged with blue; but on exposure to air it at once forms a film of oxide, and on prolonged exposure deliquesces into a solution of hydrate and carbonate. Perfectly dry oxygen, however, has no action upon it. (See Dryness, CHEMICAL.) At temperatures below o° C it is hard and brittle; at the ordinary temperature it is so soft that it can be kneaded between the fingers and cut with a blunt knife. Its specific gravity is 0-865; hence it is the lightest metal known except lithium. It fuses at 62-5° C and boils at about 760°, emitting an intensely green vapour. It may be obtained crystallized in quadratic octahedra of a greenishblue colour, by melting in a sealed tube containing an inert gas, and inverting the tube when the metal has partially solidified. When heated in air it fuses and then takes fire, burning into a mixture of oxides. Most remarkable, and characteristic for the group it represents, is its action on water. A pellet of potassium when thrown on water at once bursts out into a violet flame and the burning metal fizzes about on the surface, its extremely high temperature precluding absolute contact with the liquid, except at the very end, when the last remnant, through loss of temperature, is wetted by the water and bursts with explosive violence.

The reaction may be written 2K-+-2H.O=2KOH-+Hbp,

and the flame is due to the combustion of the hydrogen, the violet colour being occasioned by the potassium vapour. The metal also reacts with alcohol to form potassium ethoxide, while hydrogen escapes, this time without inflammation:

K+-C.H;-OH = C.Hs-OK--H. When the oxide-free metal is heated gently in dry ammonia it is ls either utilized directly as a manure or in the manufacture of soft gradually transformed into a blue liquid, which on cooling freezes soaps, or it is refined by fractional crystallization. It is a remark- into a yellowish-brown or flesh-coloured solid, potassamide, able fact that, although in a given soil the soda-content may pre- KNH>. When heated to redness the amide is decomposed into dominate largely over the potash salts, the plants growing in the ammonia and potassium nitride, NKs3, which is an almost black soiltake up the latter: in the ashes of most land plants the potash solid. Both it and the amide decompose water readily with formaicalculated as K.O) forms upwards of 90% of the total alkali. tion of ammonia and caustic potash. The metal dissolves in liquid The Proposition holds, in its general sense, for sea plants like- ammonia to give a blue solution. Potassium at temperatures wise. In ocean water the ratio of soda (Na2Q) to potash (KO) from 200° to 400° C occludes hydrogen gas, the highest degree § 100:3-23 (Dittmar); in kelp it is, on the average, 100:5-26 of saturation corresponding approximately to the formula KH, iRichardson). Ashes particularly rich in potash are those of but it seems probable that KH is the only compound formed. uming nettles, wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), tansy (Tan- In a vacuum or in sufficiently dilute hydrogen the compound wetum vulgare), fumitory (Fumaria officinalis) and tobacco. from 200° upwards loses hydrogen, until the tension of the free According to Liebig, potassium is the essential alkali of the gas has arrived at the maximum value characteristic of that imal body; and it may be noted that sheep excrete most of the temperature. The hydride is used for the manufacture of potaspotassium which they take from the land as sweat, one-third of sium formate which results from the action of moist carbon the weight of raw merino consisting of potassium compounds. dioxide: KH+-CO,=H-CO2K.

324

POTASSIUM COMPOUNDS

oxide gives potassium

Oxides and Hydroxide.——Potassium forms two well-defined oxides, K2O and K.O,, whilst several others, of less certain exist-

ence, have been described. The monoxide, K,0, may be obtained by strongly heating the product or burning the metal in slightly moist air; by heating the hydroxide with the metal:

carbonate

and oxygen

at temperaturs

below 100°.

A violent reaction ensues with phosphorus and su.

phur,

many

and

metals

are

oxidized

by

it, some

with

incandescence. Halogen Compounds.—Potassium fluoride, KF, is a very del.

iquescent salt, crystallizing in cubes and having a sharp salina

taste; it is formed by neutralizing potassium carbonate or hydrox. 2KOH+ 2K = 2K.0+H); ide with hydrofluoric acid and concentrating in platinum vessel or by passing pure and almost dry air over the molten metal. It forms the acid fluoride KHF; when dissolved in aqueous hydroIt forms a grey brittle mass, having a conchoidal fracture; it is very deliquescent, combining very energetically with water to fluoric acid, a salt which at a red heat gives the normal fluoride form caustic potash. Potassium hydroxide or caustic potash, KOH, formerly considered to be an oxide, may be obtained by dissolving the metal or

monoxide in water, but is manufactured by double decomposition from potassium carbonate and slaked lime: K2CO3+Ca(OH)»

= 2hOH+

CaCQs,

and hydrofluoric acid. Other salts of composition KF.2HF an¢ KF.3HF, have been described by Moissan. Potassium chloride, KCl, also known as muriate of potash,

closely resembles ordinary salt. It is produced in immense quan. tities at Stassfurt from the so-called “Abraumsalze” (waste salts)

When hydrogen chloride is passed into a solution of potassium chloride the salt is completely precipitated as a fine powder, Ji the original solution contained the chlorides of magnesium or calcium or sulphate of potassium, all impurities remain in the

or by electrolytic methods similar to those used for sodium hydroxide. (See ALKALI MANUFACTURE.) In the former case, a solution of one part of the carbonate in 12 parts of water is mother-liquor (the sulphur as KHSO,), and can be removed by heated to boiling in a cast-iron vessel by means of steam-pipes washing the precipitate with strong hydrochloric acid. The sai and the milk of lime added in instalments until a sample of the crystallizes in cubes of specific gravity 1-995; it melts at abou filtered mixture no longer effervesces with an excess of acid. 800° and volatilizes at a bright red heat. It is extensively emThe mixture is then allowed to settle in the iron vessel, access of ployed for the preparation of other potassium salts, but the air being prevented as much as practicable, and the clear liquor largest quantity (especially of the impure product) is used in is syphoned off. The liquors after concentration in iron vessels the production of artificial manures. are evaporated in a silver dish, and the residual oily liquid is then Potassium bromide, KBr, may be obtained by dissolving bromine poured out into a polished iron tray, or into an iron mould to pro- in potash, whereupon bromide and bromate are first formed, duce the customary form of “sticks,” and allowed to cool. The evaporating and igniting the product in order to decompose the solid must be at once bottled, because it attracts the moisture bromate: and carbonic acid of the air with great avidity and deliquesces. 6KOH-+ 3Brp= 5KBr+KBrO;+3H20; 2K BrO;= 2KBr-+-30, Nickel basins are better adapted than iron basins for the pre- (cf. CHLORATES); but it is manufactured by acting with bromine liminary concentration of potash lye. The latter begin to oxidize water on iron filings and decomposing the iron bromide thu: before the lye has come up to the traditional strength of specific formed with potassium carbonate. In appearance it closely regravity 1-333 when cold, while nickel is not attacked so long as sembles the chloride, forming colourless cubes which readily dis the percentage of real KOH is short of 60. For the fusion of the solve in water and melt at 722°, It combines with bromine tọ dry hydrate nickel vessels cannot be used; in fact, even silver form an unstable tribromide, KBrs. is perceptibly attacked as soon as all the excess of water is away; Potassium Iodide—Potassium iodide, KI, is obtained by dis absolutely pure KOH can be produced only in gold vessels. Glass solving iodine in potash, the deoxidation of the iodate being ` and (to a less extent) porcelain are attacked by caustic potash facilitated by the addition of charcoal before ignition, proceeding lye, slowly in the cold, more readily on boiling. as with the bromide. The commercial salt usually has an alkaline Solid Caustic Potash.—Solid caustic potash forms an opaque, reaction; it may be purified by dissolving in the minimum amount white, stone-like mass of dense granular fracture; specific gravity of water, and neutralizing with dilute sulphuric acid; alcohol is 2-1. It fuses considerably below and is perceptibly volatile at a red now added to precipitate the potassium sulphate, the solution heat. At a white heat the vapour breaks down into potassium, filtered and crystallized. It forms colourless cubes which are hydrogen and oxygen. It is extremely soluble in even cold water, readily soluble in water, melt at 685° and yield a vapour of and in any proportion of water on boiling. On crystallizing a normal density. It is sparingly soluble in absolute alcohol. Both solution, the hydrate KOH-2H2O is deposited; 2KOH-9H:O and the iodide and bromide are used in photography. Iodine dis2KOH-5H2O have also been obtained. The solution is intensely solves in an aqueous solution of the salt to form a dark brow “alkaline” to test-papers. It readily dissolves the epidermis of liquid, which on evaporation over sulphuric acid gives black the skin and many other kinds of animal tissue—hence the former acicular crystals of the tri-iodide, KI3. The salt is very deliquesapplication of the ‘‘sticks” in surgery. A dilute potash readily cent; it melts at 45°, and at 100° decomposes into iodine and emulsionizes fats, and on boiling saponifies them with formation potassium iodide. For the oxyhalogen salts see CHLORATE, of a soap and glycerin. All commercial caustic potash is contami- CHLORINE, BROMINE and IODINE. nated with excess of water (over and above that in the KOH) Carbonate of Potash, popularly known as “potashes,” was and with potassium carbonate and chloride; sulphate, as a rule, originally obtained in countries where wood was cheap by is absent. A preparation sufficing for most purposes is obtained lixiviating wood ashes in wooden tubs, evaporating the solution by digesting the commercial article in absolute alcohol, decant- to dryness in iron pots and calcining the residue; in more recent ing S evaporating the solution to dryness and fusing in silver practice the calcination is carried out in reverberatory furnaces vessels, This product, known as “crude potashes,” contains, in addition The peroxide, K:04, discovered by Gay-Lussac and Thénard, to carbonate, varying amounts of sulphate and chloride and alse is obtained by heating the metal in an excess of slightly moist insoluble matter. Crude potash is used for the manufacture ol air or oxygen, or better by melting the metal in a flask filled with glass, and, after being causticized, for the making of soft soap nitrogen and gradually displacing this gas by oxygen: the first For many other purposes it must be refined, which is done by formed grey film on the metal changes to a deep blue, and then treating the crude product with the minimum of cold water re the gas is rapidly absorbed, the film becoming white and after- quired to dissolve the carbonate, removing the undissolved part wards yellow.

It is a dark yellow powder, which fuses at a high

temperature, the liquid on cooling depositing shining tabular crystals; at a white heat it loses oxygen and yields the monoxide. Exposed to moist air it loses oxygen, possibly giving the dioxide, K:O2; water reacts with it, evolving much heat and giving caustic potash, hydrogen peroxide and oxygen: whilst carbon mon-

(which consists chiefly of sulphate), and evaporating the clear

liquor to dryness in an iron pan. The purified carbonate (which still contains most of the chloride of the raw material and othet impurities) is known as “pearl ashes.” Most of the carbonate

which occurs in commerce is made from the chloride of the Stas* furt beds by an adaptation of the “Leblanc process” for conve

POTASSIUM ion of common salt into soda ash. (See ALKALI MANUFACTURE.)

i Chemically pure carbonate of potash is þest prepared by igniting

pure bicarbonate in iron or (better) in silver or platinum vessels, or else by calcining pure cream of tartar. The latter operation furnishes an intimate mixture of the carbonate with charcoal, from

345

|

K2S03-2H2O is obtained as oblique rhombic octahedra by crystallizing the solution over sulphuric acid. Potassium sulphate, K2SQ;, a salt known early in the 14th

which the carbonate is extracted by lixiviation with water and

century, was styled in the 17th century arcanum or sal duplicatum, being regarded as a combination of an acid salt with an alkaline salt. It was obtained as a by-product in many chemical reactions,

aitration. The filtrate is evaporated to dryness (in iron or plati-

and subsequently used to be extracted from kainite, one of the

num vessels) and the residue fully dehydrated by gentle ignition. The salt is thus obtained as a white porous mass, fusible at a red

heat (838° C) into a colourless liquid, which solidifies into a white

opaque mass. The dry salt is very hygroscopic; it deliquesces into an oily solution (“oleum tartari”) in ordinary air. The most saturated solution contains 205 parts of the salt to 100 of water and

hoils at 135°. On crystallizing a solution monoclinic crystals of :K,COx3H20 are deposited, which at 100° lose water and give a white powder of K2CO3-H20; this is completely dehydrated at 110°. The carbonate, being insoluble in strong alcohol (and many other liquid organic compounds), is much used for dehydration of

the corresponding aqueous preparations. The pure carbonate is constantly used in the laboratory as a basic substance generally, for the disintegration of silicates, and as a precipitant.

The in-

Stassfurt minerals, but the process is now given up because the salt can be produced cheaply enough from the chloride by decomposing it with sulphuric acid and calcining the residue. To purify the crude product it is dissolved in hot water and the solution filtered and allowed to cool, when the bulk of the dissolved salt crystallizes out with characteristic promptitude. The very beautiful (anhydrous) crystals have the habit of a double six-sided pyramid, but really belong to the rhombic system. They are transparent, very hard and absolutely permanent in the air. They have a bitter, salty taste. The salt is soluble in water, but insoluble in caustic potash of sp.gr. 1-35, and in absolute alcohol. It fuses at 1,078°,

The crude salt is used occasionally

in the

manufacture of glass. The acid sulphate or bisulphate, KHSQu,, is readily produced by fusing thirteen parts of the powdered normal salt with eight parts of sulphuric acid. It forms rhombic

dustrial preparation serves for the making of flint glass, of potash soap (soft soap) and of caustic potash. Potassium bicarbonate, KHCOs, is obtained when carbonic acid is passed through a cold solution of the ordinary carbonate as long 4g it is absorbed. Any silicate present is also converted into bicarbonate with elimination of silica, which must be filtered off.

pyramids, which melt at 197°. It dissolves in three parts of water of o° C. The solution behaves as if its two congeners, KSQ, and H2SQy, were present side by side uncombined. An excess of alcohol, in fact, precipitates normal sulphate (with little bisulphate) and free acid remains in solution. Similar is the be-

The filtrate is evaporated at a temperature not exceeding 65°;

haviour of the fused dry salt at a dull red heat; it acts on silicates,

after sufficient concentration it deposits on cooling anhydrous crystals of the salt, while the potassium chloride, which may be

present as an impurity, remains mostly in the mother-liquor; the rest is easily removed by repeated recrystallization. The bicarhonate forms large monoclinic prisms, permanent in the air. When the dry salt is heated to 190° it decomposes into normal carbonate, carbon dioxide and water.

Sulphur Compounds.—Potassium sulphide, K2S, was obtained hy Berzelius in pale red crystals by passing hydrogen over potassium sulphate, and by Berthier as a flesh-coloured mass by heating the sulphate with carbon. When it is prepared by treating potash with sulphuretted hydrogen and adding a second equivalent of alkali, a solution is obtained which on evaporation in a vacuum deposits crystals of KeS-sH»O. The solution is strongly caustic. it turns yellow on exposure to air, absorbing oxygen and carbon {dioxide and forming thiosulphate and potassium carbonate and iberating sulphuretted hydrogen, which decomposes into water and sulphur, the latter combining with the monosulphide to form higher salts. The solution also decomposes on boiling. The hydrosulphide, KHS, was obtained by Gay-Lussac on heating the metal in sulphuretted hydrogen, and by Berzelius on acting with sulphuretted hydrogen on potassium carbonate at a dull red heat. It forms a yellowish-white deliquescent mass, which melts on heating, and at a sufficiently high temperature it yields a dark red liquid, It is readily soluble in water, and on evaporation in a vacuum over caustic me it deposits colourless, rhombohedral crystals of 2KHS-H,O. The solution is more easily prepared by ‘aturating potash solution with sulphuretted hydrogen. The solution has a bitter taste, and on exposure to the air turns yellow, wt on long exposure it recovers its original colourless appear-

ance owing to the formation of thiosulphate. Liver of sulphur or

hepar sulphuris, a medicine known to the alchemists, is a mixture of various polysulphides with the sulphate and thiosulphate, in variable Proportions, obtained by gently heating the carbonate with sulphur in covered vessels. It forms a liver-coloured mass.

In the pharmacopoeia it is designated potassa sulphurata.

Potassium sulphite, K2SO3, is prepared by saturating a potash ‘olution with sulphur dioxide, adding a second equivalent of potash, and crystallizing in a vacuum, when the salt separates as ‘mall deliquescent, hexagonal crystals. The salt K,SO3H,O may he obtained by crystallizing the metabisulphite, K:S.0; (from ‘hur dioxide and a hot saturated solution of the carbonate, ot from sulphur dioxide and a mixture of milk of lime and potastum sulphate) with an equivalent amount of potash. The salt

titanates, etc., as if it were sulphuric acid raised beyond its natural boiling point. Hence its frequent application in analysis as a disintegrating agent. The sulphate is also used in alum manufacture; fertilizer and medicine. For the salts of other sulphur acids, see SULPHUR. Potassamide, NHK, discovered in 1811, is obtained as an olive green or brown mass by gently heating the metal in ammonia gas, or aS a white, waxy, crystalline mass when the metal is heated in a silver boat. It decomposes in moist air, or with water, giving caustic potash and ammonia, in the latter case with considerable evolution of heat. For the nitrite, see NITROGEN; for the nitrate, see SALTPETRE; and for the cyanide, see Prussic Acip; for other salts see the articles wherein the corresponding acid receives treatment.

Analysis,

etc.—All

volatile potassium

compounds

impart a

violet coloration to the Bunsen flame, which is masked, however, lf sodium be present. The emission spectrum shows two lines, Ka, a double line towards the infra-red, and Kf in the violet. The chief insoluble salts are the perchlorate, hydrogen tartrate and

chloroplatinate (platinichloride); and the difference in solubility between the potassium and ammonium salts of “eikonogen” enables a separation to be effected, most other salts of these two radicals being similarly soluble. The atomic weight was determined by Stas, Richards and Stahler. MEDICINE

Pharmacology.—Numerous salts and preparations of potassium are used in medicine; viz.. Potassiz Carbonis (salt of tartar), dose 5 to 20 gr., from which are made (a) Potessit Bicarbonas, dose 5 to 30 gr.; (b) Potassa Caustica, a powerful caustic not

used internally.

From

caustic potash are made:

(1) Potassti

Permanganas, dose 1 to 3 gr., used in preparing Liquor Potassti Permanganatis, a 1% solution, dose 2 to 4 dr., (2) Potassti lodidum, dose 5 to 20 gr., from which are made the Linamenium Potasstt Iodidi cum Sapone, strength 1 in io, and the Unguentum Potassii Iodidi, strength 1 in 10. (3) Potassit Bromidum, dose 5 to 30 gr. (4) Liquor Potassae, strength 27 gr. of caustic

potash to the oz. Potassii Cztras, dose ro to 40 gr. Potassti Acetas, dose 10 to 60 gr. Potassit Chloras, dose 5 to 15 gr., from which is made a lozenge, Trochiscus Potassii Chloratts, each containing 3 gr. Potassiti Tartras Acidus (cream of tartar), dose 20 to 60 gr., which has a subpreparation Potasstt Tartras, dose 30 to 60 gr. Potassiz Nitras (saltpetre), dose 5 to 20 gr. Potassii | Sulpkas, dose to to 40 gr. Potassti Bichromas, dose ¥}5 to + gr.

326

POTATO

Toxicology.—Poisoning by caustic potash may take place or

poisoning by pearl ash containing caustic potash. A caustic taste in the mouth is quickly followed by burning abdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhoea. with a feeble pulse and a cold clammy skin. The treatment is washing out the stomach or giving emetics followed by vinegar or lemon juice and later oil and white of egg. Therapeutics.—Externally: Caustic potash is a most powerful irritant and caustic; it is used with lime in making Vienna paste, which is occasionally used to destroy morbid growths. Liquor potassae is also used in certain skin diseases. The permanganate

of the tuber; and the free end is the “crown” or “rose end” o “seed end.” The terminal bud, z.e., the eye at the seed eng i usually the strongest and develops the strongest shoot. The eyes may be deep set or level with the surface producing a smooth potato.

Composition of Potato.—The composition of the tuber naturally varies with the variety and in part with the conditions of growth. Potatoes contain about 75% of water, 12-15¢ 4

of potash is an irritant if used pure. Its principal action is as an antiseptic and disinfectant. If wet it oxidizes the products of decomposition. It is used in the dressing of foul ulcers. The 1% solution is an antidote for snake-bite. Internally: Dilute solutions of potash, like other alkalis, are used to neutralize the poisonous effects of strong acids. In the stomach potassium salts neutralize the gastric acid, and hence small doses are useful in hyperchlorhydria. Potassium salts are strongly diuretic, acting directly on the renal epithelium. They are quickly excreted in the urine, rendering it alkaline and thus more able to hold uric acid in solution. They also hinder the formation of uric acid calculi. The acetate and the citrate are valuable mild diuretics in Bright’s disease and in feverish conditions, and by increasing the amount of urine diminish the patho-

logical fluids in pleuritic effusion, ascites, etc. In tubal nephritis they aid the excretion of fatty casts. The tartrate and acid tartrate are also diuretic in their action and, as well as the sulphate, are valuable hydragogue saline purgatives. Potassium nitrate is chiefly used to make nitre paper, which on burning emits fumes useful in the treatment of the asthmatic paroxysm. Lozenges of potassium chlorate are used in stomatitis, tonsilitis and pharyngi-

tis; it can also be used in a gargle, ro gr. to ır fl.oz. of water. Its therapeutic action is said to be due to nascent oxygen given off, so it is local in its action. In large doses it is a dangerous

poison, converting the oxyhaemoglobin of the blood into methae~ moglobin. Internally the permanganate is a valuable antidote in opium poisoning. The action of potassium bromide and potassium iodide has been treated under bromine and iodine (g.v.). All potasstum salts if taken in large doses are cardiac depressants;

they also depress the nervous system, especially the brain and spinal cord. Like all alkalis if given in quantities they increase metabolism.

POTATO

is the well known crop plant known botanically as

Solanum tuberosum and belonging to the family Solanaceae, Its value as food is due to the habit of developing underground a number of slender leafless branches which swell at the free ends into tubers, z.¢., potatoes. Their stem-like nature is not only known by their origin, but by the fact that they bear leaf-buds— the so-called “eyes,” which later develop into ordinary shoots. The tubers are usually formed underground, but may appear on stems above ground. Darkness and low temperature appear to favour tuber-formation, as does also any checking of the growth of the shoots or fruits. It has been suggested that the formation of tubers is associated with the presence of certain fungi, but this is unproven; of the 1,200 species of Solanum less than a dozen have the property of forming tubers. When the young tubers are exposed to light they become green and are acrid to the taste and develop solanine, a poisonous chemical substance. The ripe tuber, when cut across, shows an outer cork skin or periderm, a thin cortical layer bounded internally by a ring of vascular bundles, and a thick medulla divided into an external and an internal portion. The internal medulla is usually star-shaped and is poorer in starch and in solid matter generally and is richer in water.

FROM BAILLON, “HISTOIRE DES PLANTES" (BONNAIRE) POTATO GROUND

(SOLANUM TUBEROSUM), SHOWING STEMS AND TUBERS (POTATOES)

WHOLE

PLANT

WITH

UNDER-

A. Single flower. B. Fruit cut across to show placenta and ripening ovules, C. Longitudinal section through flower. D. Two ripe stamens opening and shedding pollen. E. Longitudinal section through ovary. F. Fruit

starch, and from 2~24% of protein material, together with 1 small amount of ash. The normal potato contains only a small quantity of sugar (about 0.3%), but exposure to frost markedly increases the amount: the sweetness of “frosted” potatoes is familiar. If the tuber is analysed in part it is found that the dry matter decreases as we pass inwards In one type analysed the percentage of dry matter in the cortex, outer medulla, and inner medulla respectively, was 22-20, 19-41 and 14-92. The desirable qualities of a potato, in England and the United States, are i capacity to develop mealiness on boiling and this largely depend:

on the amount of starch. In France, however, potatoes are rarely boiled but usually cooked in fat, hence there is a demand fora different type of potato with a firm yellow flesh, becoming no mealy but “soapy” on boiling; such a potato is usually low m starch and high in nitrogen content.

Where potatoes are grow

for the manufacture of spirit, as in Germany, the content o starch is of the frst importance. History.—Wild plants of the potato have been found in Chik and Peru but it was certainly cultivated by the inhabitants be fore the arrival of the Spaniards who found it under cultivation in the neighbourhood of Quito. In the Cronica de Peru of Pedro Creea (Seville, 1553) the potato is mentioned under the name “battata” or “papa.” Hieronymus Cardan, a monk, is supposed to have been the first to introduce it from Peru into Spain, from

which country it passed into Italy and thence into Belgium. Cat

The “eye” is usually a group of buds which lie in a slight de- Sprengel, cited by Professor Edward Morren in his biographie pression in the tuber, the depression representing the axil of a sketch entitled Charles de l’Escluse, sa vie et ses oeuvres, states scale leaf. The line above the depression, the “eye-brow” or that the potato was introduced from Santa Fé into England by “eve-yoke,”’ meets the junction of scale leaf and stem; the eye is John Hawkins in 1563 (Garten Zeitung, 1805, p. 346), bu thus an axillary branch with undeveloped internodes. Examination according to Sir Joseph Banks, the plant brought by Drake and shows that the buds are arranged spirally on the tuber, in con- Hawkins was not the common English potato but the swet sonance with the ordinary spiral phyllotaxy of leaves. (See potato. At the time of the discovery of America, we are ted Lear.) The end attached to the stalk is the “stem end” or “heel” by Humboldt, the plant was cultivated in all the temperate pat

POTATO of the continent from Chili to Colombia, but not in Mexico. In 1585 or 1586, potato tubers were brought from what is now North Carolina to Ireland on the return of the colonists sent out

ny Sir Walter Raleigh, and were first cultivated on Sir Walter’s

estate near Cork. The tubers introduced under the auspices of Raleigh were thus imported a few years later than those men-

„imed by Clusius in 1588, which must have been in cultivation

in Italy and Spain for some years prior to that time. The earliest

representation of the plant is to be found in Gerard’s Herbal, published in 1507. The plant is mentioned under the name papus orbiculatus in the first edition of the Catalogus of the same author, published in 1596, and again in the second edition,

which was dedicated to Sir Walter Raleigh (1599). It is, however, in the Herbal that we find the first description of the potato, accompanied by a woodcut sufficiently correct to leave no doubt whatever as to the identity of the plant. In this work ip. 781) it is called “Battata Virginiana sive Virginianorum, et

Pappus, Potatoes of Virginia.”

In 1629, Parkinson, the friend and associate of Johnson, had published his Paradisus, in which (p. 517) he gives an indifferent figure of the potato under the name of “Papas seu Battatas Virginjanorum.”’ ~ The cultivation of the potato in England for a time made but litle progress, even though it was strongly urged by the Royal Society in 1663; and it is only comparatively recently that its

cultivation on a large scale has become general. Cultivation.—The potato responds markedly to proper cultivation, but is also peculiarly liable to disease. It is grown on almost any soil, but deep and rich sandy loams or well drained alluvial silts are most suitable. The position of the potato crop in the rotation varies very much in diferent localities, but potatoes do particularly well after a short fallow or old grass. It is necessary to have a good tilth in the soil and it is well rec-

347

do little damage.

The disease generally shows itself first as

purplish brown or blackish patches on the leaves, often appearing first near the top or margin. In damp weather the under sides of the patches may show delicate white threads, the hyphae of the fungus; under such conditions also the dark coloured patches

spread rapidly and the whole foliage may be transformed into a moist black mass. Leaves badly attacked give off an offensive odour detectable at a considerable distance. The minute white threads which make up the body of the fungus branch and produce large numbers of pear-shaped structures, the spores of the fungus. These spores become detached and are carried by movement of the air to other plants, where they germinate and the threads resulting pass through the stomatal pores of the leaf and each starts a new discoloured patch. Under suitable conditions a new crop of spores may be produced a few hours after infection, so the fungus can spread with great rapidity. In addition to moisture, temperature is important. Muggy conditions, z.e., warm, moist air with a mean temperature of about 70° F are very conducive to the spread of the disease, while a temperature above 77° F persisting for a few days will retard its development. Under wet conditions the haulms (stems) are attacked and the disease soon attacks the tubers, the spores

being washed down into the soil.

The tubers first show the

affection in the form of discoloured rusty patches. If the attack is serious, other minute organisms invade the blighted tubers and it decays as an evil-smelling, slimy mass. There has been considerable discussion as to the cause of the appearance of the disease year after year. It is now recognized that the trouble is due to the planting of diseased tubers. If the seed tubers are boxed the diseased tubers are likely to be recognized by their abnormally early or weak sprouting. Infection may also result from diseased tubers left in the ground after digging. Preventive

Measures

Against

Blight.—There

are

no

ognized that no other crop is so good a “cleaning” crop in its varieties which are completely immune to blight, though some capacity to smother weeds. To potatoes a supply of potash is show considerable resistance, e.g., in England those of the Presiparticularly important ard where farmyard manure cannot be liberally supplied a dressing of potash fertilizer should be given.

Of nitrogenous fertilizers it has been shown that in England 1 cwt. sulphate of ammonia per acre would increase the yield by 1 ton. Varieties.—There are now many hundreds of varieties on the market; they are usually divided into First Earlies, Second Earlies, Mid-season or Early Main Crop, and Main Crop or Late Varieties. Among the First Earlies it has been found in England that among the heaviest croppers are Epicure, Duke of York, Sharpe’s Express, Immune Ashleaf, and among the second Early and Main Crop Varieties Ally, King George, Great Scott. It is important that the seed should be free from disease and of the night “seed” size. The “seed” should be properly stored and sprouted in a cool, dry and sufficiently lighted place. The sprouts at planting should be few in number, strong and sturdy, not more than an inch long and of a dark green, purple or blue colour, according 10 the varieties. Degeneration or “Running Out.”—It is commonly held that a variety after being in cultivation for some time degenerates, and this was for long supposed to be an inherent physiological degeneration. It is now recognized that this phenomenon is nearly always, and probably always, the result of infection with

dent type and Irish Chieftain. The only satisfactory commercial method of prevention is the use of a protective spray or dust. Copper sprays in the form of Bordeaux or Burgundy mixtures are commonly used. The former is made from copper sulphate, quicklime and water, while in the second the lime is replaced by washing soda. The aim of the application is to cover the surface of the leaves with a layer which will cause the death of spores there germinating. Two or three applications are usually given, the times depending on the locality. Spraying after an attack has occurred is of value, as it checks the spread of the disease and reduces the damage. Dusting with a dry powder containing copper salts has been tried but is not as effective as spraying. Wart Disease.—This disease is also due to a fungus, Synchytrium endobioticum. It was discovered in 1896 in Upper Hungary, being supposed to be a new form of scab. The earliest definite record of it in England was in 1898, but it is quite possible that it has existed there for some time before. The disease generally shows itself in the tuber, though occasionally the stems and even the leaves show warts. The affected tubers bear warty outgrowths

or become warty masses. The fungus causing the disease is simpler than that causing blight, for it possesses no threads. The warty tissue of the tuber shows thick walled sporangia which, Virus diseases. (See p. 328.) reaching the soil, liberate minute free-swimming cells, zoospores; these penetrate some part of a young potato plant, usually one DISEASES OF THE POTATO eye of the tuber, and develop there, causing the abnormal warty Potato Blight or Late Blight.—This is the most serious of tissue. In the affected tissue thinner walled sporangia, the summer the many diseases to which the potato is heir. It is found in all sporangia, are produced. These discharge to the exterior and the potato growing countries and causes more damage to the liberate fresh zoospores, which cause new infections, and so the potato than all the other diseases combined; it is caused by a process is repeated. The zoospores may unite in pairs and then parasitic fungus, Phytophthora infestans. It seems to have been after infection produce the thick-walled resting sporangia and irst noticed in Europe and North America about the year 1840 these, when they escape into the soil, are the source of infection ind by 1845 it had become widespread. In 1846 the disease was so for new crops. The disease is easily spread by infected soil and rampant in Irelard as to cause the potato crop to fail almost tubers, and the winter sporangia pass through the alimentary completely, with a resultant famine. The disease is markedly canal of animals unharmed. Contamination of the soil is very sasonal in its effect, but always present in Britain; wet seasons persistent and even if no potato crop is grown on such soil it areparticularly favourable to the disease, and half the crop may has been known to remain infected for twelve years; in fact, the lost if precautions are not taken, while in dry summers it may time required for a soil to lose infectious power is unknown.

POTATO

226

Soil sterilization would, of course, destroy the sporangia, but no practical method of treatment in the held is known. Fortunately, varieties of potato are known which are immune, i.e., completely resistant to wart disease. As a result of extensive trials in England, over two hundred varieties have been shown

to be immune and rather more susceptible.

Among the resistant

English varieties are Early:—Di Vernon, Snowdrop, Immune Ashleaf, Boston Comrade; Second Early:—Arran Comrade, Great Scott, Ally: Late:—Tinwald Perfection, Rhoderick Dhu, Majestic. The disease is a notifiable one in Great Britain and is the subject of an order (Wart Disease of Potatoes Order, 1923) by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Powdery Scab of Potatoes.—This disease, also known as Corky Scab, is due to a minute parasite known as Spongospora subterranea. Generally, the disease appears as small, rough scabs on the skin and doing little damage, but in severe cases the flesh of the tuber may be seriously damaged. The scabs contain masses of spores arranged in a peculiar manner and known as spore balls; these escape into the soil and are the source of fresh infections. Contaminated soil can retain its infecting power for a number

of years.

Treating the infected tubers with a weak solution of

formalin and treating the soil with flowers of sulphur have been

found useful; liming the soil only increases the disease. Potato Scab.—-This disease, often known as common scab of potato, is an entirely different disease from Powdery Scab. It is caused by various species of Actinomyces. The disease is particularly troublesome on sandy and gravelly soils and on alkaline soils. Humus is important in preventing serious attacks of scab and the addition of grass mowings has been shown in England to have a striking effect.

Dry Rot of Potatoes.—This disease attacks the tubers during

storage. It is due to a fungus, Fusarium caeruleum. The fungus can penetrate through an unbroken skin, but the disease usually starts from a wound, so that a badly handled crop is particularly liable to suffer in store. Sclerotinia Disease—-This disease is not confined to the potato, but attacks a number of other plants. It is due to a fungus belonging to the group Ascomycetes (see FUNGI) and is known as Sclerotinia Sclerotiorum. It is most troublesome under damp conditions, and in Ireland, next to blight, it is the most serious disease of the potato. The disease usually appears as patches of white fungus threads on the stem, often near the ground. Under damp conditions these threads develop rapidly and white cushions are produced, which later turn hard and black; these are the sclerotia. They are a resting stage of the fungus and remain dormant in the soil until the next spring. The stem generally is invaded and sclerotia are formed in the hollow of the stem, as well as externally. In the early summer these sclerotia sprout and produce small stalked cups which, when ripe, shoot out spores into the air. These spores, scattered by the wind, can infect the older leaves of the plant; infection, however, appears also to be by mycelium present in the soil. If diseased plants are collected and burnt, the spread of the disease is prevented and the sclerotia do not get into the soil. Soil which has become badly infected may be sterilized, but this is only possible in greenhouse

work

or on a small scale;

otherwise

a susceptible

crop should not be grown on such a soil for at least three years. In Ireland late planting has been found to be helpful in keeping the disease in check. Another disease of definite parasite nature

may be mentioned here, viz., Black-leg of potatoes, which is due

to a bacterium, Bacillus phytophthorans, and characterized by a

rotting and blackening of the base of the stem.

The chief pre-

ventive is the use of healthy seed. Virus Diseases of the Potato.—For the nature of these diseases seg article Prants: Pathology of. They are infectious

[CULTIVATIOy

healthy tissue or by an appropriate insect biting first the ui. eased and then the healthy plant.

The two chief virus disease.

of potatoes are Mosaic and Leaf-roll. troublesome

Mosaic has probably hee

for many years, but it has only recently been tie,

ognized as a distinct disease. It is found all over Europe and i

North America. The usual symptom is the mottling of the foliage; the leaves, instead of being uniformly green, show areas

of different colour (different shades of green or slight yellowness, i.€.,a mosaic; the leaves may also show some crinkling. In case; of severe

attack the plants

may

be dwarfed,

and the yie'g

markedly reduced. Under hot and dry conditions the mosai symptom is not so marked and may disappear altogether. Tha disease is carried from season to season in the tuber. Infection

from plant to plant takes place by means of aphides (green fly.

feeding first on infected plants and then on healthy ones. Ther

is considerable difference among varieties insusceptible to attack In controlling this disease, the healthiness of the “seed” tuber: is of the first importance, as infected plants not only give re. duced yields but also, through aphides, are the cause of infection of healthy plants. Early weeding out (roguing) of diseased plants may be helpful, but is usually not economically practicable Potato Leaf-roll.—This disease is very common in Britain and in potato-growing countries generally. It is characterized by the rolling up over the upper surface of the edges of the leaflets those of the lower leaves generally showing this symptom first: later the rest of the foliage may or may not show the “rolled” effect. Another symptom is that the leaves are thicker and drier than is normal. The rolled leaves are found to be much fuller of starch than the normal leaves; this is, no doubt, related to the fact that the channels in the stem (7.e., the phloem), which normally carry away the elaborated products from the leaves become disorganized sooner or later. In severe attacks of the disease the plant may be badly stunted. As in the case of the mosaic and the other virus diseases described above, the disease

can be transmitted by aphides (green fly) and possibly by other insects as well. f Insect transmission is the common method of infection in nature, but infection can also be produced by grafting together of healthy and diseased tubers or other portions of the plant. The control methods are similar to those to be employed against

mosaic. The “seed” should be free from the disease and no tubers should be saved from affected plants. Roguing as soon as diseased plants can be distinguished and during the growth of the crop can be employed with advantage where the plants are grown especially for seed. See W. W. Robbins, Botany of Crop Plants (Philadelphia, 1924): A. W. Gilbert, Tke Potato (1917); R. N. Salaman, Potato Varietss (1926); “Cultivation and Diseases of Potato,” Sectional Booklet 30. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (1928). (V. H. B.

POTATO: CULTIVATION, PRODUCTION AND FRADE. After much investigation it seems to be accepted that the original habitat of the wild potato is either Peru or Chile, where it grows wild on the cool plateaux high up on the Andes Here it has grown for centuries and supplied the stocks which have been distributed to most countries of the world. Unfortu nately, the exact history of its introduction to other countries has been lost and the few historical stories that remain prove to have very little solid foundation when investigated by modem workers. Sir Walter Raleigh, for instance, in 1585, is sald te have brought back the potato from Virginia, yet on investigation it appears that the true potato did not reach Virginia until over a hundred years after this date. Nor could Raleigh have ob tained the potato from Peru, for his ships apparently neve! visited that country. Sir John Hawkins is also credited with having introduced the potato in 1565. Investigation shows that

diseases in which no actual parasite has yet been observed. the

the potatoes carried by Hawkins were the “sweet potato,” Ipo-

usually accepted explanation being that the parasite is so small

moea batatas, and not the ordinary potato, Solanum tuberosum.

(ultramicroscopic) as to escape observation under the microscope. In some virus diseases infection can be brought about by the simple transference, as by a needle prick, of the sap of a diseased

Certainly his ships passed through the straits of Magellan m

plant to a healthy one: in many other cases infection is not so simple and can only be secured by grafting infected tissue on to

as we know it. Claims are also made for Drake in this connection.

1578 and turned northwards, looting the coast towns of Chile

and Peru, after which he returned to England across the Pacifit and Indian oceans, thereby completing his second renowned trip

POTATO

CULTIVATION]

round the world. There is however no record that potatoes were brought on his ship the “Pelican,” and indeed it was not until

1286 that he is alleged to have introduced the potato. The Germans are exponents of the Drake story, for there stands in Offen-

purg, Baden, a monument inscribed: “Sir Francis Drake, introducer of the Potato into Europe in the year of our Lord 1580.”

Ir is probable, however, that it was the Spaniards who gave the notato to Europe. However that may be, after cultivation improvement in Europe, stocks spread to North America Australia, for these new countries seem to have got potatoes Europe and not direct from South America. Potato Breeding.—The original potato of Chile and Peru

329

tubers. The crops from the heavy clays and the light sands are small, though much can be done in improving these by using long dung. This causes better aeration and drainage of the heavy

|develops

clays, and a water retaining capacity in light sands. Generally, the potato plant is very accommodating in its habits, but only its best crops in well aerated soils which at the same time are always moist. It is because of these facts that potato culture, the world over, is largely practised on sandy loam and

and and via

the peats, as seen in Cambridge,

was

Early potatoes are often grown on other soils, but for these crops the site and temperature is of more importance than soil. In some cases these early soils are planted each year to potato

than three cen-

in Spain and in Florida, U.S.A., must have produced potatoes

turies’ work, though most of the improvements were made after 1845, when potato disease focussed attention on the crop. In that vear the potato “blight” reached Europe, and caused such de-

tional, for in ordinary cases the potato crop is included in a three

iong. deep-eyed, and of poor flavour. In the hands of plant breeders, the shape, colour and quality have been much improved; the present tubers express the results of more

struction of the potato crops in Ireland as to cause a famine and much loss of life. This gave a great impetus to the search for yarieties resistant to disease. Perhaps the first most important introduction was the variety “Victoria” raised and introduced by William Paterson of Dundee. Victoria was a great and successful cropper and proved the parent

of many other great potatoes that have come since, including Champion, Up-to-Date, Great Scott and Ninetyfold. Working simultaneously, the Rev. Goodrich of New York introduced in

1857 the Garnet Chili, a variety which became famous throughout America, where it is still cultivated. The Garnet Chili was the parent of Early Rose, an early variety famous throughout

America and Europe. Early Rose in turn gave Burbank and Early Ohio, both largely cultivated in America, and Magnum Bonum, a very popular potato of England and North European countries. Actually the Magnum Bonum was bred from Early

Rose by J. Clark of Christchurch. Clark also grew Abundance, Epicure and Ninetyfold, varieties still of great importance. The second wave of potato blight came in 1870 and caused much destruction amongst the existing varieties. This had some effect and breeders concentrated on securing more resistant forms.

Nicol of Arbroath then introduced the Champion, a great cropning resistant variety which soon became largely grown throughout Scotland and Ireland and in time in most potato districts of the world. It is, however, to Archibald Findlay of Scotland that the greatest credit must be given, for he was successful in giving to the world many successful varieties, of which the Upta-Date and British Queen are still widely grown. The Up-toDate especially made both Scotland and Ireland famous for potatoes, from whence this variety was exported to all parts of the world. In more recent times, 1907—1928, Donald McKelvie has been the chief potato-breeder, and his introductions of Arran Chief, Arran Comrade, Arran Consul and Arran Banner are now fast establishing themselves in all countries. German breedtts raised Richter’s Imperator, the President and Paulsen’s July, ell of such great merit as to justify wide cultivation. Potatobreeders in America did good work. Mention has already been made of Goodrich’s Garnet Chili and of the Early Rose by Albert Breese, There were many others. C. G. Pringle, by careiul efforts in crossing, bred Alpha, Adirondack, Ruby and Snowlake, all of which gradually spread over America and Europe;

Luther Burbank produced the Burbank.

York originated many

E. L. Coy of New

sorts, of which the Early Puritan and

White Elephant soon gained a great reputation.

E. S. Carman

produced Rural New Yorker No. 2 and Carman No. 3.

Potato Soils.—Potatoes may be grown on any kind of soil;

but production seldom proves remunerative except from what may be termed “potato soils.” These soils are difficult to define,

though easily enough recognised by practical farmers. Deep rich sandy loams, such as the red soils of East Lothian, Scotland, or

the well drained alluvial “silts” and “warp” lands of Lincolnshire, England, are excellent for potato cultivation. Some of the

black peaty soils, provided they are well drained and do not dry

‘ut in the summer time, also yield heavy crops of low quality

Lincolnshire

and Lancashire

(England), Ulster (Ireland), eastern Germany, and America.

crops, and some land in Ayrshire, Scotland, in Cornwall, England,

continuously for many years.

These cases are, however, excep-

or four course rotation, generally following in Europe a corn crop, though in America the potato crop almost invariably follows a leguminous crop. Preparation and Management of the Soil.—Where potatoes follow the cereal crop, cultivation should begin with an autumn cleaning followed by a deep winter ploughing and spring cultivation to give a moderately fine tilth. In April, the ridging plough is used to throw the soil into ridges between which lie the furrows (distance between the furrows being about 27 inches) into which the potato-sets will go; before these are put out it is customary to scatter the dung and artificial fertilisers in the furrows, so that they lie close to the potato-sets. These sets are placed by hand at intervals of ten inches to one foot in the furrows. This done, the ridging plough is driven down the ridges which are split so that the soil falls into the furrows on either

side and so covers the sets. Cultivation is continued to keep down weeds. In recent years potato-planting machines have been introduced and in’the use of these some modification is necessary. The land is ploughed, cultivated and left flat, for these machines are able to cut their own drills, place the potato-set in position and refill the drill as they proceed across the field. Manures for the Potato Crop.—Dung is always beneficial to the potato crop, and within reason the greater the dressing the larger the crop. In practice not more than twenty tons per acre can be spared; often it has to be cut down to ten or twelve tons and where this is done the deficiency should be made good by using some other substance. Seaweed for instance is an excellent substitute and is much used by the potato-growers of Scotland, Ireland and Cornwall. Inland growers, unable to obtain this, have to use artificial fertilisers and a note concerning these Is necessary. Most experimenters are agreed that a compound fertiliser which contains potash, phosphates, and nitrogen is desirable, but the exact proportion In which they should be mixed is a matter of controversy. The following mixture per acre may generally be depended upon to produce good crops:— 2 cwt. sulphate of ammonia, 6 cwt. super phosphate. 2 cwt. sulphate or muriate of potash.

The muriate of potash is usually cheaper than the sulphate of potash, and in most seasons is as effective though there is some basis for stating that the quality of the tubers is usually higher where the sulphate is used. In the trials conducted at the Rothamsted experimental station (England), the nitrogen fertilisers proved over a period of years the most consistent in their action, giving every year, with rare exceptions, an increase of about 20 cwt. of potatoes per cwt. of sulphate of ammonia used, whatever the season and whether farmyard manure was used or not. At Rothamsted there was curiously little variation from season to season in the maximum yield of potatoes, obtainable by good manuring. Their maximum was Ir to 13 tons per acre, and usually 4 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia and 4 cwt. of sulphate of potash per acre was neces-

sary to secure this. Economy of either ammonia or potash reduced the yield. The action on other soil would probably os somewhat different.

339

POTATO

[CULTIVATION

Healthy Seed for the Planter.—The importance of using | really well lighted every bud will not grow, but just two or three “good seed’? cannot be over-emphasized, and the term “good | strong, sturdy, short green sprouts will develop. The boxes + seed” needs careful definition. A potato tuber of any size when planting time should be taken to the fields and the tubers cars. planted is capable of giving a crop, but in practice it is found fully placed in the drills leaving the sprouts unbroken. Protection Against Disease.—Wherever grown, the potato most economical to select for seed tubers weighing approximately two to three ounces in weight. These tubers are too small crop seems to be subject to attack by blight, Phytophthora in. to be used for eating, and when planted give as good results festans, This disease attacks and kills the leaves, and haulm, ang as those from larger sets. In fact if larger tubers are used in bad cases also attacks the tubers. The loss then is twofolg they may be cut into pieces. Eighteen hundredweight of seed for when the foliage is killed growth ceases and little or nm of this size is sufficient to plant an acre of land. If the “seed” further development takes place, and where tubers are also x. has been raised in red soils, silts or sands, the tubers are clean tacked crop wastage occurs. The disease is less troublesome ir and have bright clean skins; such seed is often spoken of in- countries where the atmosphere is dry, but in those where humi: correctly as “good seed.” If the seed has been raised from heavy or wet summer conditions prevail blight causes much annual lo. clays or peaty soils it is dark, dull, but not necessarily inferior. unless precautionary measures are taken. Good appearance may have commercial value, but it apparently Firstly, seed tubers infected with blight should be discarded has little or no influence on the capacity of the seed for crop pro- for if planted they cause a recurrence of the disease; but, a duction. The factors influencing this are two: (i) The history it is difficult to see tubers only slightly infected some may ge of the crop from which the seed is selected, and (ii) its treatment planted and in consequence the crop should be sprayed to preven: between the autumn when it was lifted and the spring when it infection and to limit the spread of blight when it occurs. The is planted. Scientific research has discovered that “seed” selected spray must be applied before the blight makes its appearance. from plants affected with “virus” diseases such as leaf-roll, it must adhere to the leaves and be preventive against the fungus mosaic or crinkle, usually reproduce plants suffering from these penetrating into the tissues of the leaves. In practice Bordeauy diseases. Unfortunately “seed” infected with these “virus” dis- mixture (copper sulphate combined with lime) or Burgundy eases cannot be distinguished by examining the tubers, and it is mixture (copper sulphate combined with washing soda) are used now known that many nice looking samples of so-called “good as sprays; and there is some experimental evidence to show tha seed”? may be highly infected with virus diseases. A sample of both are equally efficient. seed needs to be true to variety, so that on planting a true stock For small areas the sprays are best applied by means of 4 may be grown. It is almost impossible for experts to recognise knapsack machine, which must be provided with a nozzle that varieties by an examination of the tubers alone—and here again throws a fine misty spray. The Irish growers usually use these the past history is the reliable guide. If the parent crop was a small knapsacks. For the first spraying 120 gal. per acre, or true stock also free from leaf-roll, mosaic or crinkle, the seed three-quarters of a gallon per rod is sufficient, though for second selected from it will have a good history and a good potential and subsequent spraying 160 gal. per acre or one gallon per rod capacity; if the parent crop was mixed or had much infection will be needed to cover the larger amount of foliage. In Engthe seed from it will be distinctly inferior. land, Scotland, Germany, Canada and the United States, it is Potato crops grown in the colder and wetter districts are customary to use horse machines or even motor spraying mi known to be freer of “virus” diseases than those of the warmer chines, each capable of spraying many drills of potatoes at one and drier regions and in consequence the former districts are time. Formerly, these wet sprays were always used; but in recent the better areas in which to grow potatoes for seed. These “virus” years dry spraying or dusting has become popular in England diseases are not peculiar to any country or region; they exist America and Canada. A machine is used—hand, horse, or motor in England, Scotland and Ireland and are very injurious in —for blowing a very fine powder containing copper salts on to France, throughout Southern Europe, Canada and America. To the leaves when they are somewhat moist with dew or fine rain. combat this pest and to raise the standard of potato cultivation This method is more economical of labour, it can be carried many countries—including America, Canada, the Netherlands, out in districts where water is scarce but is not so effective as England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State— wet spraying in preventing attacks of blight. The exact dates at have established systems of seed-potato-certification under which which the spraying should be done vary with each district; the fields of potatoes are examined by inspectors and certificates first must be applied before blight usually appears. The first given for those crops that reach a certain specified standard. spraying would need to be made in the south-west of England In 1927, the following quantities of potatoes were given by June 15, though July 15 would probably be early enough for certificates for seed:— Lincolnshire and Ireland. Periods for European countries, the United States and Canada vary in similar ways. Acres Acres In America and Canada, where the Colorado beetle exists, lead England and Wales 8,300 North Ireland 5,000 arsenate is added to the Bordeaux mixture to poison the beetles Scotland . . 63,000 Irish Free State 3,000 In America and Canada similar schemes have made great de- when they come to eat the foliage; for if this is not done they velopment. In 1919 there were 475,308 bushels of certified seed devour all foliage of the growing crop leaving the potato field bare grown in the United States; by 1924 the demand for this seed as the road. Harvesting the Potato Crop.—The task of lifting the potato was so great that over 7,500,000 bushels were produced. Treatment of Seed.—The ‘‘seed tuber’ contains food sup- tubers from the soil, and gathering them into bags is no light plies for the development of its buds, which are not all of the task and causes much demand for labour at potato-harvest times. same vigour. Under the best treatment, these food supplies In Ireland, and also in France, much of the crop is still dug out would be used for the development of a few of the strongest with hand forks: in England and Scotland the “potato spinnet”— buds. In practice much wastage occurs, for seed potatoes are a digging machine that throws tubers and soil into the air—t often allowed to produce long shoots which get broken off, and much used. Hand gathering of the tubers has still to be made in consequence other buds, usually weaker ones, are forced to and large gangs of Irish workers are brought over for this sprout. The best treatment is one that preserves the first sprouts, purpose. Similarly in Germany gangs of Polish peasants are Mand this can be done by causing the buds to make slow growth troduced for the potato-harvest. In the United States and in in bright light, when short and sturdy sprouts are produced. In Denmark machines have been constructed that will dig the potapractice, soon after lifting time, the seed with the bud end upper- toes, riddle out the tubers from the soil and either leave the

most should be placed in shallow boxes 2 ft. long, x ft. wide tubers collected together in rows or in the more complicated and 74 in. deep, of which only the bottom 3 in. is boarded. form the machine also gathers the tubers into boxes or bags. World Production.—Though a plant for the cooler regions, The boxes may be stacked in tiers in a cool place where light is freely admitted. During frosty weather the boxes must be pro- the potato has made rapid development as a food crop, and a tected in the house heated with stoves. If sprouting houses are a world’s crop, now exceeds, in point of total production, that

of any other table food plant grown. The potato area and output

isvery large, as the following statistics indicate :— Potato Area and Output, 1926

Areain hectares A Europe:

Germany

.

-=

-

2,759,715

Spain st

ee

A ad N.

A

Ireland Italy

.

Poland .

7

331

POTATO

PRODUCTION]

-

+

eS

ee eee a

©

OS

a

| Production in pee quintals sue —— |—~] 300,306,860

eeie hs ie

108.8

FAA

continuous

cultivation

and judicious manuring

with fertilizers

they have been rendered fertile for potatoes, which are grown in great quantities and largely used for making (a) farina, or (b) alcohol. The varieties of German potatoes are many though curious to relate the English variety—Magnum Bonum—is very |largely grown. In spite of the large home production imports of | potatoes are made annually. (H. V.T.) |

THE

UNITED

STATES

Potatoes, sometimes distinguished from sweet potatoes as white

f

or Irish potatoes, hold frst rank among the vegetables produced

321,459

48,067,161

149°5

in the United States. The average annual production approximates

352,300

23,110,000

65-6

eee

ey

aed

re

ees net

oe

S

nearly 400,000,000

bushels.

bu., a per capita production of about

four

Americans eat comparatively fewer potatoes than the

people of northern Europe, probably because of a greater diversity

of other vegetables available to them. Per capita consumption for

n

food is about three bushels, The late or main crop is grown mostly in the States bordering Canada where climate and soil are most favourable. The States leading in production are Minnesota, New York, Maine, Michigan, Wisconsin and Pennsylvania. Note.—1 hectare= 2-47 acres; 1 quintal=220-4 lb. Every State produces potatoes at some season but the surplus comIt will be noticed that the higher yields, Great Britain and | mercial crop is grown mostly in the above-named States. Idaho, Ireland 149-5 quintals per hectare, Germany 108-8 quintals, Po- | Colorado, California, Florida, South Carolina, New Jersey and land 105-4 quintals, Canada 100 quintals, are made in countries | Virginia ship many carloads to distant markets when potatoes from with climates that may be classed as cool, and that the yields | the North are scarce. The southern States grow the crop for rapidly drop off in the warmer countries, France 76-2 quintals, | northern markets in the winter and spring when the temperature USA. 76-1 quintals, Italy 65-6 quintals and Bolivia 11-7 quintals. | is comparatively cool. Potato soils along the Atlantic seaboard are There is an important oversea trade in potatoes. Europe in | mostly of sandy loam and conduce to early-maturing, bright1926 imported 10,850,000 quintals of potatoes and exported 11,- | skinned, high-quality tubers. $22,000 quintals, the balance exported being 972,000 quintals, Varieties grown commercially are mainly those which were which is a little less than the normal. North and Central America | originated by pioneer potato breeders 30 to 50 years ago. Some of imports 2,552,000 quintals and exports 2,287,000 quintals. The | these are products of hybridization, some were discovered as e Bolivia

a eee

E 264,000

A ra 3,090,000

ae 11-7

warm continents of South America, Asia and Africa are likewise | accidental mutations or “sports”; most of them represent chance deficit zones, and each imports about 500,000 quintals of potatoes | seedlings. More recently, a few improved strains have been selected

annually. Potatoes are so apt to carry diseases with them that | from existing varieties. These are higher yielding and have been most countries now insist that all potatoes imported must be | given new variety names. The varieties Green Mountain, Norcross ` accompanied with health certificates and to that extent trade is | and Triumph originated by hybridization; Pearl and Late Beauty hampered. of Hebron by mutation; Early Rose, Early Ohio, Burbank, Beauty The demand in England and Wales is not satisfied by the home | of Hebron, Delaware, Sir Walter Raleigh, Carman No. 3, Rural crop and supplies are sent from both Scotland and Ireland where | New Yorker No. 2 and Carman No. 1 as chance seedlings; while supplies are always largely in excess of the home needs. In most | Heavyweight and No. 9 are the result of strain selection for high seasons the British Isles as a whole are almost self supporting in | yield. Dr. William Stuart of the United States Department of potatoes. Imports of early kinds however are brought in from | Agriculture has classified American varieties into 12 groups the Canary isles, Spain, France and the Channel islands in the | largely on the basis of tuber characters, season of maturity and

early months when people have tired of eating “old” tubers. blossom colour. These groups are Cobbler, Triumph, Early MichiCommercial production of the main crop potatoes (varieties | gan, Rose, Early Ohio, Hebron, Burbank, Green Mountain, Rural, Great Scott, King Edward, Arran Chief, Majestic and Kerr’s | Pearl, Peachblow, and Up-to-Date. Each group is named for the Pink) is centred in Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, Lancashire and Dur- | leading variety in it and contains all of the commercially imham, in England, and Forfar, Fife and Perth in Scotland, and in | portant varieties of the respective type which it represents. StandCounties Down and Antrim in Northern Ireland. The potato | ard late varieties of great importance are Green Mountain, Sir soils in all these places is light working which seems necessary | Walter Raleigh, Carman No. 3, No. 9, Heavyweight, Russet ior cheap production. Some of these potatoes—the Lancashire, |Rural and Burbank. There is also a mid-season variety grown and a part of the Lincolnshire and Irish crop—are produced in | extensively in Florida, Spalding Rose 4. The most imporblack peat soils which are very suitable for this crop, but the | tant early varieties are Irish Cobbler, Bliss Triumph, and Early tubers are dull and dark in appearance and sell at lower prices | Ohio. Varietal adaptation to regional production is contingent than the crops of bright-skinned tubers from the red sandstones, | mainly upon climate and market preference. Green Mountain is silts and limestone soils. very susceptible to disease, drought, and high temperature. It is

Potatoes are grown throughout France, though in some of the | best suited to cool climate and light loamy soil both of which are departments the soils are not well suited to this culture and acre- | found in the north-eastern States. When well grown it commands ages are small. In other departments, Vienne, Rhin, Saéne-et- | a premium price over all other varieties in Eastern markets. The Loire, Loire, Haute-Loire, Loire Inférieure, Maine-et-Loire and | Cobbler variety 1s similar in its requirements. Bliss Triumph

Morbihan considerable areas are planted for commercial produc- | seems to be more resistant to high temperatures than Cobbler. von. In certain specially favoured places such as St. Malo, Brit- | Varieties of the Rural type are notably resistant to drought and

tany and also in the Rhône valley, quick-growing varieties are | are more resistant to heat and to blight rot than the Green

planted to give an early supply to the markets not only of France, |Mountain varieties.

but also of England. A trade of substantial size in early potatoes Rotation and Soils.—Potatoes are usually grown in a rotation S now been built up. series of two or more other crops; the one preceding is preferably Potato production in Germany is of two kinds. The crop of | a legume. Type and length òf rotation depend on the kind of t west is grown mainly for table purposes, that of the east mainly | agriculture practised. In the famous Aroostook County section for industrial purposes—though naturally much variation to this | of Maine, where the potato is the major crop, a three-year rotation “curs at times. In eastern Germany there exist vast tracts of | of potatoes, oats and clover is used. Clover is considered an ideal light sandy soil of little use for grass or cereal production, but by | crop to precede potatoes because it leaves in the soil an organic

332

POTATO

It is good practice to green-sprout seed potatoes after dism. fection. This is essentially a germination test which results jy

residue rich in nitrogen. Alfaifa and sweet clover commonly precede potatoes in the rotations used in the central and western

States. In most of the New England and Middle Atlantic States, timothy sod containing clover residue is ploughed before potato planting. Frequently, the sod residue is too scanty to be of much benefit to the potato crop. Along the Eastern seaboard, potatoes are commonly grown year after year on the same soil. Little or no stable manure is available, the growers depending on rye or rye and vetch as winter green manure crops to maintain the soil humus supply. In the South, velvet beans, soy beans and cow-peas are used for the same purpose. Rotation is necessary in many sections where the soil reaction is nearly or quite alkaline to avoid infection of the tubers with the common scab disease. In these sections, growers avoid the use of lime and effort is made to use commercial fertilizers which increase soil acidity. Recent soil studies show that the potato thrives best on slightly acid soil. It is advisable to sweeten potato soils only when and to the extent necessary to promote the growth of legumes in the rotation. Friable, well aerated soils rich in humus are best for this crop. Where necessary to use heavy soils, fall ploughing is advised so that frost action may assist in pulverizing the soil particles. Light soils should be spring ploughed. Stable manure, when used, may be applied previous to ploughing but the manure should be well decomposed by potato planting time. Thorough seed-bed preparation by harrowing to eliminate weeds is much better than harsh and frequent cultivation during the growing season. Seed.—Good seed is true to name, high yielding, free from disease, and well adapted to the region in which it is to be used. Much effort is usually necessary to get and keep seed of such quality in America. Growers in the South buy nearly all of their seed from producers in the North and the maritime provinces of Canada. This is necessary because southern-grown potatoes are seriously devitalized by heat and virus diseases. An extensive industry in the production of certified seed has developed in the northern States and Canada to meet this need. Approximately 13,000,000 bu. of certified seed were produced in the United States

more perfect stands of plants, less disease, and usually in INcreage! earliness. The method is to expose the seed tubers to subdued

sunlight for three to four weeks before planting. The tubers should be spread on a smooth, dry floor in a layer not over two or three tubers deep. This permits the development of short, thick, tough green sprouts which are resistant to adverse soil conditions afte planting. Green-sprouting also permits the elimination of diseaseg weak-sprouting and dormant tubers. Both cut and uncut tubers are planted depending on the size of the tubers, the cost of seed

quality of seed and cost of labour. About 20 bu. of seed can he cut by hand in a day. Some mechanical cutters permit of greater speed, but more seed is wasted and less accuracy results. Lar: tubers must be cut for the sake of economy. Whole tubers smaller than one ounce in weight should not be used. Small whole tuber;

may be as good for seed as large whole seed cut provided they contain no more disease and originate from high yielding plants, Seed pieces should be cut large enough to insure at least one vig.

orous healthy sprout.

cause they are more rapid in their effect. The two first mentioned chemicals are applied either in hot or cold solution, the time of immersion of tubers being dependent on the temperature of the solution used. Detailed directions for treatment should be obtained and observed for each method used. Treatment of uncut rather than cut tubers is advised.

Pieces weighing less than one ounce ate

subject to drying out when planted in hot dry soil and may result in weak plants or missing hills. Blocky-shaped seed pieces with a minimum of cut surface are preferred. Experiments have proved that the eyes from the basal and the apical end of the tuber are

of equal value for seed. It is well to store cut seed for a day or two to allow the cut surface properly to suberize or cork over, This corking-over is best accomplished by storing the cut tubers in an atmosphere of relatively high humidity and high temperature. The use of such drying materials as hydrated lime, gypsum and sulphur to cause rapid drying is no longer recommended. Fertilization of the potato is a very important factor in production. In the Eastern and Southern States chemical fertilizers make up nearly one-third of the total cost of production. On the sandier soils along the Atlantic seaboard, a ton to one and one-half tons of a complete analysis fertilizer is commonly applied, Westward and on heavier soils, a less quantity of an analysis containing less nitrogen and potash is used. In the first mentioned regions, a 5-8-7 analysis is recommended while on the newer and heavier soil types 4-12—4, 5~-10-5 or these same analyses in double strength are the general rule. When stable manure is applied liberally, as in the dairy regions, commercial nitrogen may not be needed. In using a ton or more of fertilizer to the acre, half is commonly broadcast just before planting, the other half being applied in the drill row at planting time. Modern potato planters are equipped to distribute fertilizer on each side of the seed piece and well mixed with the soil to avoid possible burning of the potato sprouts. In recent years, there has been a rapidly increasing tendency to use double strength fertilizers in correspondingly decreased acre applications,

and Canada in 1927. Most of this was of the varieties Green Mountain, Irish Cobbler, Rural and Bliss Triumph. Certification is done by governmental or State institution agencies after due inspection of plants and tubers made during the growing season. In the South, where the growing season is long enough to produce two crops, a second crop is grown during the cooler months of fall. This is used to some extent as seed to plant the main crop, Seed potatoes should be kept in a dormant condition during storage by placing them under conditions of medium humidity, darkness, and low temperature. Immediately after harvest, potatoes are in a resting condition and cannot be made to germinate at once. This rest period lasts about six to eight weeks after which the tubers will sprout if conditions are favourable, Storage experiments have shown that dormancy can be maintained for six to eight months at temperatures ranging from 32° to 40° Fahrenheit. When higher temperatures foster sprout development, the tubers become shrunken, lose vitality and each successive generation of sprouts is weaker than the preceding one. In fact, seed vigour in stored tubers can be measured, to a degree, by noting the character of the sprouts; if small, and originating from many eyes, the seed may be adjudged weak. Long storage sprouts should not be allowed to develap and where present must be removed before treating and preparation of the seed for planting. It is a common procedure to disinfect uncut seed potatoes against such tuberborne diseases as common scab, rhizoctonia (black scurf), and black-leg. This is done at any time up to planting date, preferably when the tubers are in a clean, dormant condition. Various disinfectants and methods are used. Corrosive sublimate (mercuric bichloride) and formaldehyde have been most used. More recently, organic mercury compounds have become popular be-

[UNITED STATES

Planting dates for the main commercial crop from November

in southern Florida and Texas to June in Maine depending on regional climate and latitude. It is desirable to plant at such date as will allow the period of blossoming and tuber-setting to come

in relatively cool weather. In regions subjected to late blight infection, the early planted crop is most likely to escape while at the same time it may be correspondingly more subject to injury from flea-beetles and leaf hoppers. High labour cost has resulted

in the extensive use of machine planters in America during recent years. Probably over two-thirds of the commercial acreagt is now so planted. Two types of planters are employed: a picket type requiring only one man, and a platform or automatic feeding type requiring two men. These machines can be adjusted to spate the hills at desired distances in the row. Straighter rows and immediate covering of the seed pieces are additional advantages of ‘

machine planting over the hand method. Four inches is the depth of planting recommended, the best depth being shallower on heavy

emmae

|soils and deeper on light soils. Planting is done either in check: | rows to allow of cross cultivation for effective weed control orm , drills with the hills close together in the row. The latter method | |

is used by the majority of growers, requires somewhat more sett.

| and usually results in higher acre yields. The average amount of i ij

seed used is approximately

12 bu. to the acre, the range beint

(NITED STATES]

POTATO

from six to 25. Experiments indicate that for most conditions of

soil fertility and moisture, larger amounts of seed up to 18 or 20

tu. cam be profitably used. Cultivation for weed control is impor-

vant as the potato plant is very subject to weed competition. On

333

to use small veneer baskets to fill barrels to be hauled to the storage or warehouse on underslung wagons locally known as “‘Jiggers.”’

Much of the crop in the North is still immature when

yields reduced when harsh, deep, late season cultivation results in

killing frost ends the growing season. Such immature tubers should be allowed to dry or cure an hour or two on the ground before being handled. This reduces the peeling and surface injury of the tubers which would otherwise result. Approximately one-half of the late crop is put into storage at harvest time, the remainder

aration and early season cultivation rather than late is therefore

being marketed at once. The lack of storage facilities and the need

tions of cultivation after the plants become well established because the extensive surface root system of the potato intercepts

crop is marketed at once or at least never stored in any but very temporary storage. House cellars and barn basements are used for

conserved by the maintenance of a surface soil mulch. Shallow cultivation of heavy soils to break the crust which forms after heavy rains is desirable, however, to provide soil aeration and

storage in most States except Maine where specially constructed bank storage buildings are used. Potatoes should be stored under conditions of low, even temperature and medium humidity. The actual freezing temperature is about 28° F, but both seed and

the contrary, the plant may be seriously checked in growth and cutting off the extensive, lateral, fibrous root system and disturbs the developing tubers between the rows. Thorough seed-bed prep-

recommended. Moisture conservation is not one of the prime func-

the rising soil moisture which has heretofore been thought to be

for cash return on the crop makes this necessary.

The Southern

permit absorption of later rains. Ridging of the rows is commonly practised, especially on heavy soils. This affords an effective

culinary quality of the tubers can be maintained best within a temperature range of 34° to 40° Fahrenheit. Higher temperatures means of weed control, easier digging of the crop, run-off of excess increase the respiration rate, hasten the tubers into sprouting surface water and a degree of protection of the tubers from late and thereby increase shrinkage. In commercial storage strucplight spores which might otherwise be washed through the soil tures, ample wall and ceiling insulation is necessary for protection from the plant. Sulky or riding cultivators for early season cul- against freezing and to provide against condensation of moisture. tivation and hillers or horse-hoe ridgers for “‘laying-by” are used. Sufficient ventilation to remove excess moisture and foul air is Diseases and Insect Pests of the Potato.—These are very also necessary. The tubers are most commonly stored in piles. numerous. The diseases are classed as fungous, bacterial and Storage in bags is not recommended. Grading and Marketing.—Government estimates show that virus. The most serious fungous disease is late blight (Phytophthora infestans), this being prevalent throughout the northern and about 509% of the potato crop enters trade channels. Of the renorth-eastern States where warm muggy days and cool nights dur- mainder, about 209% is reserved for food on the farm where grown, ing the late growing season are conducive to its development. In 129% for seed, while the remaining 189% is fed to livestock or diswet years, the crop is seriously reduced by this disease through a carded as worthless. About one-half of the surplus crop is shipped reduction in the foliage growth and rotting of the tubers. It is in box cars and refrigerator cars, the rest being trucked to nearby controlled by application of Bordeaux mixture to the foliage either markets. Formerly, bulk shipments were most common, the present in wet spray or dry dust form. Several applications under high tendency being to use bags of 150 or 120 |b. capacity. Southern pressure throughout the growing season are necessary for good re- potatoes are shipped mostly in ventilated stave barrels each holdsults. This treatment is also the principal means of controlling ing 11 pecks or 165 Ib. of potatoes. Receipts for potatoes from early blight, flea-beetles, leaf-hoppers and tip burn. ‘Other fungous various regions are much influenced by factors affecting market diseases of importance are early blight, wilt, rhizoctonia and com- quality such as brightness and colour of skin, uniformity of size mon scab. The two last-named reduce the market value of the and freedom from defects in the tubers. Such defects as scab, dry crop by their effect on the appearance and culinary quality of the rot, sunburn, freezing injury, wire-worm holes, hollow-heart, tubers. Their control is by seed treatment, already referred to, and growth cracks, and second-growth tubers are sometimes serious. by crop rotation. Black-leg is the most important bacterial dis- Government standards for grading potatoes have been estabease, its name being derived from the blackened soft-rot which it lished in the United States. These standards stipulate both the size causes in the base of the stalk and the stem-end of the tuber. requirements and the freedom from defects necessary for each Several virus diseases cause marked losses throughout the United grade. The three grades established are U.S. Number r, U.S, States by their effect in reducing foliage growth. The principal Number 2, and U.S. Fancy. Most potatoes shipped as graded are ones are mosaic, leaf-roll, and spindle tuber. Yields are reduced labeled U.S. Number 1 and price quotations are usually made on (E. V. H.) from one-fourth to two-thirds depending on the disease and its this basis. Production in Russia.—At the beginning of the century Russeverity. These are most easily avoided by the use of seed which comes from plants free from virus the previous year. Certified sia (including Poland) was occupying the frst place among all seed ordinarily contains a minimum of these diseases. They are countries in regard to its acreage under potatoes. After the World spread from plant to plant, principally by sucking insects such War Russia lost a whole series of potato growing tracts, and as aphis and leaf-hoppers. The four principal insect pests are Col- the potato area now is said to be similar to that of Germany. orado potato beetle, flea-beetle, leaf-hopper, and aphis. The first Because of the poor technique, the yields of potatoes in Russia two are biting or leaf-eating insects and are controlled by applying are small. Of early varieties Early Rose and Kaiser Krone are arsenical poisons such as Paris green, arsenate of lead, and arsen- important. Of main crops (a) (Yellow tubers) Imperator, Maeker, ite of soda to the upper leaf surface. The last two are sucking in- Silesia, Magnum Bonum and Champion, and (b) (Red tubers) sects which work on the under surface of the leaves and must be Wohltmann, Daber, Sachsioka Zwiebel, Bismarck and (c) (Blue controlled by contact sprays. Bordeaux mixture containing nico- tubers) Blaue Riesen, Myshka and Sinjukha. By-products of Potatoes.—In most countries the crop is used tine sulphate (Black-leaf 40) is applied to the under surface of the entirely for human consumption, but in a few some of the crop leaves for control. Harvesting and Storage.—The labour costs involved in har- passes into factories—both small and large—where it is manuVesting potatoes comprise an important item in the cost of produc- factured into (a) Dried potatoes, (b) Farina, or (c) Alcohol. (a) Dried Potatoes.—Factories for drying potatoes exist in Ireton. Most of the commercial crop is now dug by chain-elevator diggers some of which are equipped with small gas-engine attach- land, England, Germany, France and the U.S.A., and these proments and many of which are hauled by tractors. To a very duce potato soups, potato crisps and flakes, and in Germany,

limited extent, combined digger and picker machines are used

cattle foods.

where the acreage is large and the soil is free from large stones. In

Britain as determined from the figures published in the report of the Royal Society is as follows: water 77-92%, dry matter 2208%, so that it requires three and a half to four tons of raw potatoes to produce one ton of dried potatoes. The drying of potatoes for the manufacture of some special food, such as potato crisps or flakes, may increase in America and England, but the crop is

the South the crop is gathered by negroes who are paid according

‘a the number of barrels gathered. In the northern States. extra y labourers are employed on a daily wage basis. Slatted crates À lding one bushel are commonly used for gathering the crop

m most of the late crop States.

In Maine it is customary

The average composition of the potato as grown in

POTATO-LIFTER—POTEMKIN

33+

too costly and uncertain for the establishment of an industry on anything like the size that exists at present in Germany. In Germany, starting in 1908 with three drying factories, the numbers grew until there were S41. The industry is carried on almost exclusively by farmers on their own farms.

(b) Farina—When potatoes are peeled, the flesh dried and ground into flour, there is produced a white powder known as potato starch or farina.

Farina can be made also from the sweet

potato, from rice, wheat and maize, so it is somewhat difficult to find out exactly what tonnage of potato is converted annually to farina. It is known however that farina is produced from potatoes in Germany, France, Holland and the United States. Germany is the chief “farina” producing country. The production is carried out mainly in small farm factories though there are a few large town factories. In The United States starch is made in the main from small, blemished and diseased potatoes and in consequence the “farina” is of low quality. The industry is confined to 7o factories in the county of Aroostook and 17 in the two States of Wisconsin and Minnesota. The production of starch in recent years has been as follows: 20,000,000 pounds in 1921, 18,000.000 pounds in 1922, 13,400,000 pounds in 1923 and 33,900,c00 pounds in 1924. Since then the production has been on a somewhat smaller scale. In Holland, potato-starch production would be about 30,000 tons annually. The varieties of potato, President, Thorbeck, Rigenheimers and Red Star, are recognized by the manufacturers as best for this purpose. (c) Alcohol-—In Germany, Sweden and the United States, potato starch is fermented to produce alcohol, which is then collected by distillation. Production of potato alcohol in Germany has been as high as 100,000,000 gallons. (H. V. T.)

POTATO-LIFTER:

POTATO

see Harvestinc MAcHINERY.

RACE, a contest, in which the winner is the

first who collects in a basket or other receptacle a number of potatoes, usually eight, placed two yards apart along a straight line, and then crosses a line five or ten yards farther on.

POTATO SPIRIT. The use of the potato instead of grain as the source of supply of alcohol for commercial use has, during the past century, developed into an important industry, particularly in Germany where it is now a prominent feature in the organization of the agriculture of the country. In great measure it is carried on by the mutual co-operation of the farmers who supply to joint-owned distilleries the potatoes to be converted into alcohol, receiving later the spent wash and residues which are rich in nitrogenous matter and of considerable value as a cattle food. Extensive breeding of cattle is thus facilitated, resulting In a heavy production of manure useful in the cultivation of the potatoes. In 1913 there were in Germany eight million acres of land devoted to potato cultivation. Three million tons of the crop were used for the manufacture of sixty-seven million gallons of alcohol, this representing about 80% of the total alcoholic production of the country. In 1928 the industry had not recovered from the effects of the war, and in order to ensure that the supply of crops necessary for human and animal food should not be diverted to the production of alcohol, the price which might be paid for potatoes to be used for the latter purpose was restricted by the Government. The underlying principle in the production of alcohol from potatoes is the saccharification by means of malted barley or acids of the starch of which there is usually about 20%. One thousand kilograms of potatoes produce spirit approximately equivalent to 74 litres of alcohol. The details of the process show considerable variation. In one method extensively adopted the potatoes, after being cooked by steam heating and reduced to a homogeneous pulp in a mill, are mixed with malt and water. After the mass has been maintained at a temperature of about 60° C for 3—q hours yeast is added and fermentation takes place. Distillation is accomplished by a process of steam heating, the mass being agitated meanwhile.

In another method the potatoes after being reduced to a pulp in @ rasping machine are partially drained of their natural water. Boiling water and malt are added, the mass being allowed to stand for 3~4 hours. The clear liquid and subsequent washings are fer-

mented with yeast and the spirit distilled off in the usual manner This method has considerable advantages over that first describe

the distillation from the liquid being cleaner and the residy;: paste being excellent as a cattle food. The spirit thus obtained by direct distillation is liable to act in a deleterious manner upon the animal economy. It has a stro odour and taste of fusel oil, amyl alcohol and isobutyl alcohol in

particular being present in considerable proportion. This may be almost completely rectified by distillation in a patent still,

(F. G. H. T.) POTATO WAR, the name given by the Prussians to the War of the Bavarian Succession in 1778-79 (Kartoffelkrieg). The Prussians and a Saxon contingent, commanded by Frederick the Great and his brother Prince Henry, were opposed to two Au. trian armies under Loudon and Lacy. The operations consisted

almost entirely of manoeuvres which had for their object the ob. taining or the denial to the enemy of food-supplies. The war thus acquired the name of Kartoffelkrieg. Its duration was from July

3, 1778, to the assembly of the congress of Teschen on March to, 1779, and its total cost £4,350,000 and 20,000 men to all parties, The war may be studied from a military point as an extreme ex.

ample of what Clausewitz calls “war with a restricted aim.” POTCHEFSTROOM, a town in 26° 30° S., 27° 40 E., akitude 4,436 ft., 88 m. by rail S.W. of Johannesburg. Pop. (whites: in 1921, 8,189; in 1926, 9,336; non-European (1921), 4,244 ni tives, 224 Asiatics, 708 coloured. The town is built on the banks of the Mooi river, 15 m. above its junction with the Vaal. Gold occurs in the neighbourhood. The town was founded in 1838, and is the oldest town in the Transvaal. In 1862 it was the scene oi civil war and surrendered after the loss of one man. In 18814 British garrison was besieged in a fort 25 yd. square, and surrendered after the loss of a third of its strength on March 19, 10 days after the Boer commander had learned that an armistice had been proclaimed. Potchefstroom is now developing as an educational centre. It has several high schools, a training college. a university college, the latest constituent of the University oi

South Africa, and an agricultural school. The latter is situated on the Government experimental farm, 3,500 ac. in extent. POTEEN, called also potheen, potsheen and potyeen, the terr usually applied in Ireland to any potable spirit illicitly distilled ir a pot still—poit’in, pota or pot. Illicit distillation was extensively practised in the roth century, particularly in the inaccessible dis tricts of the island, but it has in great measure, been suppressed The character of the substances used in preparing the wash, whic! is fermented preparatory to distillation (see WHIsKy, RUM, ete.) varies greatly. Whilst malt and barley chiefly are used the spin is often obtained by the fermentation of molasses or other sac charine matter. The method of fermentation, the type of stil employed, the rate of distillation and the proportion of distillat to wash, depending as they do upon the circumstances and wish 0 the distiller, are also lacking in uniformity. This absence of stant

ardization in materials and methods results in great variationi the composition of the resultant spirits. Generally they mayt stated to fall into two classes approximating to whisky, whe malt and barley are used, and to rum when the wash is of a mol saccharine nature. The proportion of secondary ingredients almo invariably is high, however, even when compared with pot st spirits made by reputable firms. Allen, in a series of analys presented to the Select Committee on British and Foreign Spirit recorded 128-8 grains of amyl alcohol in poteen as compared wi! an average of 56 grains in eight samples of Irish whisky. (F. G. H. T.) POTEMKIN, GRIGORY ALEKSANDROVICI Prince (1739-1791), Russian statesman, was born at Chizbei

near Smolensk. He was educated at the Moscow University, 2! in 1755 entered the “Reiter” of the Horse Guards.

His particip

tion in the coup d'état of July 8, 1762, attracted the attention:

the new empress, Catherine II., who made him a Kammerjunk

and gave him a small estate. He distinguished himself in t Turkish War of 1769, and in 1771 he became Catherine’s pr= favourite. Catherine bestowed on him the highest honow among others the post of commander-in-chief and govern

POTENTILLA—POTHOOK

339

“New Russia” (Ukraine). In 1775 he was superseded | the difference of electric potential between two points. The term dovsky; butbut thethe relations relati between potentiometer is usually applied to an instrument for the measureby Zavadovsky; Catherine and her former lover continued to be most friendly, ment of steady or continuous potential difference between two

general mn the empress OeS graces

and his influence with her was never seriously disturbed by any

points in terms of the potential difference of the terminals of a

of her subsequent favourites.

standard voltaic cell of some kind, such as a Clark or Weston cell but alternating current potentiometers are in use. (See INSTRUMENTS, ELECTRICAL.)

l

Potemkin’s correspondence with the empress was uninterrupted. He was deeply interested in the question of the southern boundaries of Russia and consequently in the fate of the Turkish Em-

pire. In 1776 he sketched the plan for the conquest of the Crimea which was subsequently realized and he was busy with the socalled “Greek project,” which aimed at restoring the Byzantine

Empire under one of Catherine’s grandsons.

In many of the

kalkan states he had well-informed agents. After he became field

marshal, in 1784, he introduced many reforms into the army, and built a fleet in the Black Sea, which, though constructed of

very bad materials, did excellent service in Catherine’s second Turkish War (1787-92).

His colonizing system was exposed to

very severe criticism, yet it is impossible not to admire the results of his stupendous activity. The arsenal of Kherson, begun in 1778, the harbour of Sevastopol and the new fleet of fifteen liners and twenty-five smaller vessels, were monuments of his genius. But there was exaggeration in all he attempted. He spared neither men, money nor himself in attempting to carry out his gigantic

scheme for the colonization of the south Russian steppes; -but he never calculated the cost, and more than three-quarters of the design had to be abandoned when but half finished.

Catherine’s famous expedition to the south in 1787 was a triumph for Potemkin; for he concealed all the weak points of his administration. On this occasion he received the title of prince of

Tauris. The same year the second Turkish War began, and the founder of New Russia acted as commander-in-chief.

But the army was ill-equipped and unprepared; and Potemkin, in an hysterical fit of depression, would have resigned but for the steady encouragement of the empress. Only after Suvarov had valiantly defended Kinburn did he take heart again, and besiege and capture Ochakov and Bender. In 1790 he conducted the

military operations on the Dniester and held his court at Jassy with more than Asiatic pomp. In 1791 he returned to St. Petersburg where, along with his friend Bezborodko (g.v.), he made vain efforts to overthrow the new favourite, Zubov. The empress grew impatient and compelled him (1791) to return to Jassy to conduct the peace negotiations as chief Russian plenipotentiary. On Oct. 5, while on his way to Nikolayev, he died in the open steppe, 40 m. from Jassy. Potemkin was indubitably the most extraordinary of all the Catherinian favourites. He was an able administrator, licentious, extravagant, but loyal, generous and magnanimous. Nearly all the anecdotes related of him by Helbig, in the biography contributed by him to the journal Minerva (1797-1800), and freely utilized by later biographers, are absolutely worthless.

POTENZA (anc. Potentia), a town and episcopal see of Basil-

icata, Italy, capital of the province of Potenza, 103m. by rail E. by S. of Naples. Pop. (1921), 13,895 (town); 18,482 (commune). Situated 2,700ft. above sea-level on an isolated hill above the Basento (anc. Casuentus), it is much exposed to winds and has a far more northerly climate than its position (40° 40’ N.) implies, and is one of the coldest towns in Italy. The ancient Potentia lay some 47oft. lower, by the river, at the intersection of the road leading west to the Via Popillia and north-east to the Via Appia, with the Via Herculia. Potentia must be distinguished from Potentia in Picenum, on the Adriatic coast. In 1694 there was a severe earthquake; and the more terrible earthquake which on Dec. 16 and 17, 1857 passed through southern Italy, and in Basilicata alone killed 32,475 persons, laid the greater part of Potenza in ruins. It was also damaged by the earthquake of 1910. In 1860 it was the first town to rise against the Neapolitan Government. POTGIETER, EVERHARDES JOHANNES (18081875), Dutch prose writer and poet, was born at Zwolle, in Overyssel, on June 17, 1808. He started life in a merchant’s office at Antwerp. In 1831 he made a journey to Sweden and then settled in Amsterdam. With Heije, the popular poet of Holland in those days, and Bakhuizen van den Brink, the historian, Potgieter founded De Muzen (“The Muses,” 1834-1836), a literary review, which was, however, soon superseded by De Gids (“The Guide”), a monthly, which became the leading magazine of Holland. In it he wrote, mostly under the initials of ““W. D.——x,”” a great number of articles and poems. The first collected edition of his poems (1832-1868) appeared in 2 vols. (Haarlem, 1868-1875), preceded by some of his contributions to De Gids, in 2 vols. also (Haarlem, 1864), and followed by 3 vols. of his Studien en Schetsen

(“Studies and Sketches,” Haarlem, 1879). Potgieter’s favourite master among the Dutch classics was Hooft, whose peculiarities in style and language he admired and imitated. In Holland Potgieter’s influence has been very marked and beneficial; but his own style, that of ultra-purist, was at times somewhat forced, stilted and not always easily understood. The

best edition

of Potgieter’s

executor J. C. Zimmermann

works

is that by his friend and

(19 vols., 1885-90).

(1699-1772), French JOSEPH POTHIER, ROBERT jurist, was born at Orleans on Jan. 9, 1699. He studied law for the purpose of qualifying for the magistracy, and was appointed in 1720 judge of the presidial court of Orleans. This post he held See V. A. Bilbasov, Geschichte Katharinas II. (Berlin, 1891-1893); for fifty-two years. He paid particular attention to the text of C. de Lariviére, Catherine la Grande d'après sa correspondance the Pandects, his Panaectae Justinianae in novum ordinem 'Paris, 1895); Anonymous, La Cour de Catherine II. Ses collabora(Paris and Chartres, 1748-1752) being a classic in the digestae teurs (St. Petersburg, 1899) ; A. V. Lopukhin, Sketch of the Congress of Jassy, rzor (Rus.; St. Petersburg, 1893); The Papers of Prince study of Roman law. In 1749 he was made professor of law in Potemkin, 1744-1793 (Rus.; St. Petersburg, 1893-1895). (R. N. B.) the university of Orleans. He wrote many learned monographs POTENTILLA, in botany, a numerous genus of plants of on French law, and much of his work was incorporated almost the rose family (Rosaceae, g.v.), comprising about 300 species, textually in the French Code Civil. He died March 2, 1772. Of his numerous treatises the following may be especially mentioned: mostly herbs, widespread in north temperate and Arctic regions,

many of which are cultivated as border and rock-garden plants. Various species bear brilliantly coloured flowers and graceful

foliage. A soil of a good loamy staple, enriched with rotten dung

is the most suitable. Potentillas may be increased, though not very freely, by parting them into as many pieces as there are

crowns, the side growths being those which can usually be thus separated. This may be done in autumn or spring, and the plants will generally bloom the following season. The species and some ot the varieties reproduce true from seed, and are readily increased y that means. Nine wild species occur in the British Isles and more than so in North America, many of which are called cinque-

foil or five-finger.

POTENTIOMETER, an instrument, due to J. C. Poggenti, for the measurement

of electromotive

force and also of

Traité des obligations (1761); Du Contrat de vente (1762); Du Contrat de bail (1764); Du Contrat de société (1765) ; Des Contrats et de mandat de prét de consomption (1766); Du Contrat de depôt (1766); Du Contrat de nantissement (1767), etc. His works have several times been published in collected form (edited by Giffrein, 1820-24; by Dupin, 1823-25, and by Bugnet, 2nd ed. Ir vols. 1861-62). See Dupin, Dissertation sur la vie et les ouvrages de Pothier (Paris, 1825), and Frémont, Vie de R. J. Pothier (Orléans, 1850).

POTHOOK, 2 metal hook, frequently S-shaped, for suspend-

ing a pot over a fire. While one extremity is hooked to the handle

of the pot, the other is caught upon an iron crane moving on a pivot over the fire. Modern cooking-ranges have obviated the necessity for this arrangement, but it is still to be seen in great numbers of country cottages and farmhouse kitchens all over

England, and in small artisans’ houses in the west midlands and

POTI—POTOSI

33

the north. In the elementary teaching of writing the “pothook” is a script of similar shape.

POTI, a seaport of Russia, in the Georgian S.S.R., in 42° 10 N.. 41° 38° E., on the Rion river, on the Black Sea coast, in a marshy and malarial district. Pop. (1926) 14,109. During west and south-west gales the harbour is very difficult to approach. There are berths for eight or ten large steamers and an elevator for loading manganese, the chief export from the Kvirili valley. The town is linked by rail with Baku, and a line along the coast northwards is planned (1928). It is also proposed to erect oil refineries and to link the town by pipe line with Grosniy and Baku. The town has a saw-milling industry. The ancient Phasis, a commercial colony of the Greek city of Miletus stood on this site. In 1578 Sultan Murad III, of Turkey, built a fortress here, destroyed during a war with Persia. In 1640 the Imeretians attacked the town. (See Grorcia.) Poti was a great slave market. It was captured by the Russians in 1812 and in 1829 re-captured and annexed.

POTIOREK, OSKAR

(1853-

), Austro-Hungarian gen-

eral of artillery, was born at Blieburg, Carinthia, in 1853. His career was chiefly spent on the general staff, where he held the post of chief of the section of operations, and later that of deputy

to the chief of the general staff, Count Beck.

After Beck's re-

tirement he was in command of the III. Corps, in 1911 army inspector and governor (Landeschef) in Bosnia and Hercegovina. As such, he was officially responsible for countenancing the fateful visit of the heir to the throne to Serajevo, out of which the World War ensued. In the offensive taken by Austria against Serbia in the winter of 1914, which eventually broke down after great initial success, his judgment was also found wanting. He was then relieved of his command.

POTLATCH, an Indian term, denotes the lavish feasts es-

pecially characteristic of the Tlingit, Kwakiutl, and other tribes of the North-west Coast of America. The potlatch is given by one chief or clan to another, and is marked by great profusion of food and gifts, often accompanied by destruction of some of the property of the hosts, as in the breaking of highly prized copper plaques, an act which adds greatly to their fame. The keynote of such excesses is the exaggerated respect which these Indians show for wealth in use—an attitude shared by many other savage peoples and not without its cultural value. It is a matter of honour to accept any invitation to a potlatch, and to give a grander feast in return. Refusal involves loss of prestige and rank. Rivalry in feast-giving may become so intense that a man will beggar himself and relatives in the effort to win renown. But the potlatch is not a mere wasteful orgy, it maintains differences of chieftainship and rank, binds together kinship groups, and offers a medium for repayment of debts, thus serving as an institution of real importance in social and economic life. See F. Boas, Ethnology of the Kwakiutl, Part I., 35th Ann. Rept. Bureau Amer. Ethnology (1914); Swanton, Social Conditions, etc., of Tlingit Indians, 26th Ann. Rept. zbid. (1905) ; Marcel Mauss, “Essai sur le Don,” L’Année sociologique, ns. I. (1924).

POT-METAL.

The glass employed in “stained-glass” win-

dows is coloured in the making by tinting the glass in the melting-

pot with various metallic oxides. This self-coloured glass, which may or may not be afterwards painted or decorated, is called pot-metal. (See STAINED GLASS.) POTOCKI, STANISLAW FELIX (1752-1805), Polish politician, son of Franciszek Salezy Potockí, palatine of Kiev, was born in 1752. Through family influence, he became grand standard-bearer of the Crown at the age of twenty-two. In 1782 he was made palatine of Russia, in 1784 a lieutenant-general, and in 1789 purchased the rank of a general of artillery. Liberal, enlightened, a generous master and a professed patriot, he had awakened great hopes; but he identified the public welfare with the welfare of the individual magnates, and when elected to the Four Years’ Diet, schemed to divide Poland into an oligarchy of autonomous grandees exercising the supreme power in rotation (in fact a perpetual interregnum). The election of Malachowski (q.v.) and Kazimierz Sapieha as marshals of the diet still further alienated him from the Liberals; and he retired to Vienna whence

he continued to carry on an active propaganda against the new ideas. He protested against the constitution of May 3, 17g! and after attempting fruitlessly to induce the emperor Leopoii

to intervene, proceeded with his friends in March 1792 to%

Petersburg, and subsequently with the connivance of the empress Catherine formed the confederation of Targowica (May y 1792), of which he was the marshal, or rather the dictator, dire. ing its operations from his castle at Tulczyn.

When the May

constitution was overthrown. Potocki (March 1793) went on; diplomatic mission to St. Petersburg; but, finding himself duped he settled down at Tulczyn. He wrote On the Polish Succession (Pol.) (Amsterdam, 1789); Protest against the Succession to thy Throne (Pol.) (ibid. 1790); and other political works.

POTOMAC,

a river in the east central part of the Unites

States, having its source in the Allegheny mountains and fio. ing south-east into Chesapeake bay. It is formed by the union of its north and south branches, about 15m. S.E. of Cumberlané

(Md.).

The main stream has a length of about 450m. and i:

navigable for large vessels for 113m. above its mouth.

From the

junction of its two branches until it reaches Harper’s Ferry the Potomac river separates Maryland from West Virginia, A Harper’s Ferry it receives the waters of the Shenandoah river and cuts through the Blue Ridge mountains in a gorge noted for its beauty. From this point to its mouth it forms the boundary between Virginia and Maryland. The stream crosses the Bly Ridge mountains at an elevation of about 245ft., and at George. |

town (Washington, D.C.), 62m. distant, it meets tidewater. 0} this descent about goft. occurs about 15m. above Washington a: the Great Falls, a series of rapids about a mile long and including a cataract about 3s5ft. high. Three and a half miles above Wash. ington are the Little Falls, which mark the head of navigation,

At Washington there are two channels, with respective depths at mean low water of 18 and 21ft. Large sums have been spent since 1870 on improving these channels. A few miles below the city the river broadens into a deep tidal estuary from 24 to 7m wide; and channels 24ft. deep and 2zooft. wide through all the shoals were secured by the project of 1899. The Anacostia river or “East Branch,” which flows into the Potomac just south af Washington, is navigable for large vessels for about 2m. and for small scows and lighters as far as Bladensburg (Md.), 83m. above

its mouth. Improvements (begun in 1902) have produced a channel 21ft. deep at mean low water and 38oft. wide. The Chesapeake and Ohio canal, from Georgetown to Cumberland (Md.), follows the Potomac closely on the Maryland side. The

shipments over the Potomac below Washington in 1925 were 2,439,365 tons valued at $54,042,300, the principal commodities being naval ordnance and supplies, gasolene and kerosene, sand and gravel and other building materials. The shipments on the Anacostia river in 1925 were valued at $12,385,175.

POTOROO

or RAT KANGAROO,

any member of the

diprotodont marsupial sub-family Potoroinae (see MARSUPIALIA'

None of them exceeds a rabbit in size. They inhabit Australia ané Tasmania, are nocturnal, and feed on leaves, roots, and bulbs, which latter they dig up with their forepaws. About ten species

are known. The members of the type genus (Poforous) run, rather than leap, and do not use the hind feet for kicking. In the gent:

Bettongia the tail is prehensile.

POTOSI, a, department of Bolivia occupying the south-westem angle of that republic, bounded N. by Oruro, Cochabamba and Chuquisaca, E. by the two last departments and Tarija, S. by Argentina and W. by Chile and Oruro. Pop. (rors estimate’. 530,748 the larger part Indians; area 45,031 sq.m. The easter part of the department is traversed north to south by the eastem

branch of the Andes, locally known as the Cordillera de lo Frailes and the Sierras de Chichas. Spurs and broken ranges project eastward from these, between which are the headstreart of the Pilcomayo and Guapay, the first flowing south-east to the La Plata, and the second north-east to the Madeira and Amazon

The Pilcomayo itself rises in the department of Oruro, but several of its larger tributaries belong to Potosí—the San Juan, Cots

gaita and Tumusla in the south, and Cachimayo in the north The western part of the department belongs to the great Bolivian

POTOSI—POTTER itiplanicie, or southern extension of the Titicaca basin 3 barren, saline waste, almost uninhabitable. gering on the transverse

In the north, bor-

ridge of which the Cerro

de Tahua

117457 ft.) forms a part, 1s the depression known as the Pampa

deEmpeza, 12,080 ft. above sea-level. Near the southern frontier is another transverse ridge, in part formed by the Sierra de Lipez, and in part by apparently detached groups of high peaks; i: jg a waterless desert like the Puna de Atacama. Potosi is essentially a mining department, though agriculture and grazing occupy some attention in the eastern valleys. The

plateau there is rich in minerals, especially silver and copper. The Huanchaca-Pulacayo group of mines, situated on the slopes of the eastern Cordillera, about 13,600 ft. above sea-level, over-

iooking the Pampa de Empeza, n Bolivia, and ranks next to the eroduction. Between 1873 and silver, of an estimated value of 'he Portugalete mines, once very

has the largest output of silver Broken Hill mine of Australia in rgoz it yielded 4.520 tons of £23,200,000. Farther south are productive, and near the Argen-

‘ine border are the Lipez mines. East of the Cordilleras are the famous “silver mountain” of Potosi, once the richest silver mine in the world; the snow-capped peak of Chorolque (18,452 ft.), which is claimed to have the highest mine in the world 18,000 ft. shove sea-level; Porco, a few miles south-west of Potosí; Guada‘ape. Colquechaca and Aullagas. Besides silver most of these mines yield tin, copper and some other metals, and are now being norked chiefly for their tin. The production of minerals in these famous centres has recently been eclipsed by the enormously

rich deposits of tin at Uncia and Llallagua in the same department. The department is traversed by the Antofagasta & Bolivia railway and by the recently opened line from Uyuni to the

Argentine frontier at La Quiaca.

A branch line of the former

also runs to Potosi via Porco, and within 30 m. of the city of Sucre (g.v.). Besides Potosi, the capital of the department, the principal towns are Huanchaca-Pulacayo (pop. about 10,000); Uyuni, ọ m. from Huanchaca, 12,100 ft. above sea-level, a small town but an important railway junction and commercial centre on the waterless plain, the shipping point and supply sation for an extensive mining region; and Tupiza (pop. about 3.000), a prettily situated town near the Argentine frontier, on a small branch of the San Juan river, 9,800 ft. above sea-level.

POTOSI, a city of Bolivia, capital of the department of Potosi, 4; m. S.W. of Sucre, or 106 m. by the post-road. est.), 30,122.

Pop. (1924,

Potosi stands on a barren terrace on the northern

slope of the Cerro Gordo de Potosí, 13,612 ft. above sea-level, and is one of the highest towns in the world. The famous cerro irom which its name is taken rises above the town to a height of 13.381 ft., a barren, white-capped cone, honeycombed with mining shafts. The foundation of the city dates from 1547, two years siter the first discovery of silver on the cerro by an Indian herder. Charles V. conferred upon it the title of “villa imperial.” From 1345 to 1800 the crown tax of one-fifth upon the mineral product amounted to £32,600,000, showing an acknowledged output of £163,000,000. The total output to 1864 has been estimated at more than £400,000,000, but the annual output at the beginning of

the 20th century barely exceeded

400,000

oz.

The town

is

regularly laid out with streets crossing each other at right angles. The age-begrimed buildings many of which are unoccupied and in ruins, are commonly of adobe. A large plaza forms the conventional centre, around which are grouped various religious ediices, the government house, town hall, national college, the old ‘toyal mint” dating from 1585, and the treasury. The city has a

massive, plain cathedral, which in part dates from early colonial umes, and in part from the closing years of Spanish rule. The water supply is derived from reservoirs

constructed during the

years of the city’s greatest prosperity. Potosi, long accessible from the outside world only by rough mountain roads, now has rail connection with Rio Mulato on the Antofagosta-Bolivia line and an additional railway is under construction to Sucre.

337

It is of tin have been found and many of the mines have re-opened,

In 1611 the

population of Potosi was reported to be 160,000, which probably included the whole mining district. A part of the diminution since then is explained by the fact that the great majority of the mines on the cerro were abandoned, In recent years valuable deposits

POTOTAN, a municipality (with administration centre and 62 barrios or districts) of the province of Iloilo, island of Panay, Philippine Islands, on the Jaluar river, and located along the railway, about 17 m. N.E. of Iloilo, the provincial capital. Pop.

(1918), 25,869. The principal industries are the cultivation of sugar, corn, rice, tobacco and abaca, and the breeding of cattle, carabao and horses. In 1918, it had three sugar mills; and 105 household industry establishments with outputs valued at 21.900 pesos. Of the 14 schools, 12 were public. The language spoken is a dialect of Bisayan.

POTSDAM, a town, the administrative capital of the Prus-

sian province of Brandenburg, and formerly one of the residences of the German emperor, situated on the river Havel, 16 m. S.W, of Berlin, on the main line of railway to Magdeburg. Pop. (1925) 64,093.

It is also connected with the capital by two local lines

and by a steamboat service through the chain of lakes formed by the river. Potsdam, originally Poztupimi, a Slavonic fishingvillage, is first mentioned in 993. A town in the rath century, it was unimportant until the great elector built a palace here between 1660 and 1682; and even at the close of his reign it only contained 3,000 inhabitants. The elector Frederick William I. greatly enlarged Potsdam, and his stiff military tastes are reflected in the monotonous uniformity of the streets. Frederick the Great continued his father’s work, and is the real creator of the splendour of the town. The palace, a large quadrangular building of the 17th century, is chiefly interesting for the numerous relics it contains of Frederick the Great. It also contains reminiscences of Voltaire, who resided here for several years. The principal churches are the Nikolaikirche; the Church of the Holy Ghost, built in 1728; and the Friedenskirche, or Church of Peace, erected in 1845-50, to which is attached a mausoleum. Among other conspicuous buildings are the military establishments; the town hall; and the Brandenburg gate. Potsdam has manufactures of chemicals, furniture, chocolate, soap, tobacco and surgical and musical instruments. Market-gardening affords occupation to many of the inhabitants,

and the cultivation of winter violets is a specialty. The Havel

is well stocked with fish. observatory.

POTSDAM,

To the south of the town lies the

a village of St. Lawrence county, New York,

U.S.A., on the Raquette river, Federal highway 1: and the New

York Central railroad, 30 m. E. of Ogdensburg. Pop. (1925) 4,472; in 1930, 4,136. It is the seat of the Clarkson College of Technology (1896), a State normal school (1869) with which is incorporated the former Crane Normal Institute of Music, and is the centre of a large dairy industry and of several electric power developments. Settlement here began in 1803 and the village was

incorporated in 1831. It gives its name to deposits of a reddish sandstone studied here first by Emmons in 1838-42.

POTT, PERCIVALL

(1714-1788), English surgeon, was

born in London on Jan. 6, 1714. He became assistant surgeon St. Bartholomew’s in 1744 and was full surgeon from 1749 1787. He died in London on Dec, 22, 1788. The first surgeon his day in England, excelling even his pupil, John Hunter,

at till of he introduced various important innovations in procedure, doing much to abolish the extensive use of escharotics and the actual cautery that was prevalent when he began his career, A particular form of fracture of the ankle which he sustained through a fall from his horse in 1756 is still described as Pott’s fracture, and his book, Some few Remarks upon Fractures and Dislocations,

published in 1768 and translated into French and Italian, had a far-reaching influence in Great Britain and France. ‘‘Pott’s disease” is a spinal affection of which he gave an excellent clinical description in his Remarks on that kind of Palsy of the Lower Limbs which is frequently found to accompany a Curvature of the Spine (1779).

There are several editions of his collected works; that published by Sir James Earle in 1790 contains a sketch of his life.

POTTER, ALONZO

(1800—1865), American bishop of the

Protestant Episcopal Church, was born at Beekman (now La Grange), N.Y., on July 6, 1800. He graduated in 1818 at Union

POTTER—POTTERY

338

college, where he became tutor and then professor of mathematics

after a brief period spent in studying theology at Philadelphia. He was rector of St. Paul's, Boston, from 1826 to 1831, when he returned to Union as professor of philosophy and political economy, becoming vice president of the college in 1838. He was consecrated bishop of Pennsylvania on Sept. 23, 1845, and died on board ship in San Francisco harbour on July 4, 1865. By his publication with G. B. Emerson of The School and the Schoolmaster (1842) and by lectures Potter did much to extend and better public school education. He was particularly interested in work for young men and in temperance reform.

As a legislator in

AND

PORCELAIN

myth. Among his finest works on a small scale are a cattle piece (1653) in the Duc d’Arenberg’s collection, and a simils, though earlier, picture in the Munich Pinakothek. Hofstede de Groot enumerates 177 works by Potter. He worked with feverish application, as though he were aware of the short span of lite that was granted him. He executed a series of some twenty etch. ings, mainly of animals, which are simple and direct in methi and handling. Potter’s works have been engraved by Bartolozzi, Danckert, Visscher, Le Bas and others. There are two of his paintings at the National Gallery, three in Buckingham Palace and a fey jn the duke of Westminster’s collection. On the continent g

the church he was wise and progressive. He established the Philadelphia Divinity school (1861), and laboured for the “Hospital of | Europe the most numerous and representative examples are ty be found at the Rijks Museum in Amsterdam, the Hermitage jp the Protestant Episcopal Church in Philadelphia.” See M. A. De Wolfe Howe, Memoirs of the Life and Services of the Rt. Rev. Alonso Potter, D.D. (1870).

Leningrad and the Dresden Gallery.

His brother, HORATIO POTTER (1802-1887), was born in Beekman, N.Y., Feb. 9, 1802. He graduated at Union college in 1826 and was successively rector in Maine, professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Washington (now Trinity) college at Hartford, Conn., rector in Albany and after 1854 provincial bishop of New York. Failing health put an end to his active ser-

Hague, 1867); Haux-fortes de Paul Potter, by Georges Grate Duplessis; and an old but interesting volume, Paul Potter, peintre de

vice in 1883, when his nephew, H. C. Potter (qg.v.), became his assistant.

He died in New York city Jan. 2, 1887.

POTTER,

HENRY

CODMAN

(1834-1908), American

Protestant Episcopal bishop, the son of Bishop Alonzo Potter, was born in Schenectady, N.Y., on May 25, 1834. In October 1883 he was consecrated assistant to his uncle, Horatio Potter,

bishop of New York, whom he succeeded in 1887. He died in Cooperstown, N.Y., on July 21, 1908. During his administration the corner-stone of the cathedral of St. John the Divine was laid (Dec. 27, 1892). As rector of Grace church he worked to make it an “institutional church” with clubs for working men and girls, day nurseries and kindergartens. He won fame on the centennial of Washington’s inauguration by his address on the dangers and corruptions of the spoils system. See Harriette A. Keyser, Bishop Potter, the People’s Friend (1910), and the official] biography by George Hodges (1915).

POTTER, PAUL (1625-1654), Dutch animal painter, was born at Enkhuizen, Holland. He was instructed in art by his father, Peter Potter, a landscape and figure painter of some merit, and by Nicolas Moeyaert, of Amsterdam. Other masters and influences are mentioned by various writers, but more than any other of his contemporaries he learnt through direct study from nature. In 1646 he went to Delft, where he became a member of the gild of St. Luke. At the age of twenty he settled at the Hague, and there marriéd in 1650. He was patronized by Maurice, prince of Orange, for whom he painted the life-size picture of the “Young Bull,” now one of the most celebrated works in the gallery of the Hague. In 1652 he was induced by Burgomaster Tulp of Amsterdam to remove to that city. He died Jan. 15, 1654. His paintings are generally small; early in life, however, he attempted, but with ill success, to work on a monumental scale, as in the “Bear Hunt” at the Rijks Museum and the “Boar Hunt” of the Carstanjen collection, Berlin. Even the famous

(P.G. K.)

See Paulus Potter, sa vie et ses oeuvres, by T. van Westrheene (the

Pécole hollandaise, by C. L. F. Lecarpentier (Rouen, 1818); Hofstede

de Groot, Catalogue of Dutch Painters (1912).

POTTERIES, THE, a name applied to a district of north Staffordshire, the principal seat of the china and earthenware industry in England. It lies in the upper part of the Trent basin For a distance of 9 m. from south-east to north-west, and about 3 m. from north-east to south-west, the district resembles one great town, but the chief centres are Burslem, Hanley, Longton, Stoke-on-Trent, Fenton and Tunstall. These towns were amalgamated in 1910 as one municipal borough under the name of Stoke. on-Trent, which was raised to the dignity of a city in 1925. New. castle-under-Lyme, though not sharing in the staple industry. may also be reckoned in the district. In 1769 Josiah Wedgwood founded pottery works at Etruria, now in the parliamentary division of Hanley. The Wedgwoods and the Mintons are the two

most famous family names connected with the china industry of the district. Coal and coarse clay are the only local natural pre ducts used in the industry, the finer clay and other ingredients being brought from Cornwall and elsewhere. Ironstone is raised, and many new industries have been established in the district. POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. The word “pottery” (Fr. poterie) in its widest sense includes all objects fashioned from clay and then hardened by fire; the word “‘porcelain” should only be applied to certain well marked varieties of pottery. Pottery is dependent on two important natural properties of that great and wide-spread group of rocky or earthy substances known as clays, viz., the property of plasticity and the property of being converted when fired into one of the most indestructible of ordinary things. “Ceramics” or “Keramics” (Gr. kepauos, earthenware) isa general term for the study of the art of pottery. It is adoptec

for this purpose both in French (Keramik).

(ceramique)

and in German

INTRODUCTION

fame OR A TE TOA LTT sea mr a

The primitive races took such clay as they found on the surface of the ground, or by some river-bed, and, spreading it out on a stone slab, picking out the rocky fragments, then beating !t with the hands, with stones or boards, or even treading it with their feet, proceeded to fashion it into such shapes as need or

“Equestrian Portrait of Tulp” formerly in the Six collection, Amsterdam, is awkward and stiff and hard in handling. His animals are accurately designed, and the landscape backgrounds fancy dictated. Fired in an open fire, such pottery may be buf. are introduced with spirit and appropriateness. His colour is drab, brown or red—and those from imperfect firing become clear and transparent, his execution firm and finished without smoked, gray or black. For ages tools and methods remained ot being laboured, His view of nature is purely objective and un- the simplest—the fingers for shaping or building up vessels, 3 emotional; he painted with the greatest directness and sim- piece of mat or basket-work for giving initial support to a larget plicity the things he saw before him, and his paintings of horses vase—until some original genius of the tribe found that by and cattle are so individualized that they become faithful portraits starting to build up his pot on the flattened side of a boulder of the animals. The best among his small portraits of horses are he could turn his support so as to bring every part in successio? in the Louvre and in the Schwerin Gallery; and certain of his under his hand, and thus the potter’s wheel was invented. studies are the most brilliant of all. At first this simple hand-made pottery was hardened by drying The earliest dated picture of importance is “Abraham Enter- in the sun, but the increasing use of fire soon brought out the ing Into Canaan” (1642), at the Germanic Museum in Nuremberg, in which he makes the Scriptural subject an excuse for painting the patriarch’s herds, just as in his “Orpheus” of 1650

(Rijks Museum, Amsterdam) he makes similar use of the Greek

fact that a baked clay vessel became as hard as stone. Different districts produced different colours of clay, and thus colout

decoration arose. On this substructure all the pottery of the las 4,000 years has been built, for behind all Egyptian, Greek #

TCR PTCA CAI Rte TCE LTCC, ETC LO OLA AN EA onc lmnop I a

nes

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN

A? COURTESY

Of

THE TRUSTEES

OF THE

BRITISH

MUSEUM

DECORATED

POTTERY

OF ANCIENT

GREECE

AND

ITALY

I. Attıc oenochoe or jug, with a moulded design representing a sacrifice. 4th cent. B.C. 2. Roman (Arretine) krater or mixing bowl, bearing a design of the Seasons. lst cent. B.C.

3. Attic black-figure amphora or two-handled sileia. 6th cent. B.C.

jar, signed by the potter Exekias, showing Achilles slaying Penthe-

4. Attic red-figure krater attributed to the painter Myson, showing Tripod. 5th cent. B.C.

Heracles and Apollo struggling for the Delphic

PramI

sual

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN

Chinese pottery we find the same primitive foundations.

339

prepared by beating and kneading with the hands, feet or simple

In subsequent articles on this subject we find that the Egyp- | mallets of stone or wood. Care is taken that all stones and hard tians evolved schemes of glowing colour—brilliant glazes fired | particles are picked out. In ancient pottery, the clay, well on objects, shaped in sand held together with a little clay, or |tempered with water, was almost invariably used without any

actually carved from rocks or stone; the Greeks produced their | additional material.

From this pure clay, vessels were shaped by

marbles of plastic form, and then turned the plastic clay into | scooping out or cutting a solid lump or ball, by building up piece mmitations of metal forms; the Romans spread some knowledge | by piece or by squeezing cakes of clay on to some natural object of the craft over all the empire, but with its fall pottery was | or prepared mould or form. The potter’s wheel, though very

forgotten along with its greater achievement.

Egypt and the | ancient, was a comparatively

late invention, arrived at inde-

Near East continued the splendours of their glorious past, and | pendently by many races of men. In its simplest form it was gazed and painted pottery was still made by traditional methods. | a heavy disk pivoted in a central point to be set going by the Many interesting kinds of decorated pottery were made at Old | hand, as the workman squatted on the ground. About the ChrisCairo, Alexandria, Damascus, in Syria, Anatolia and elsewhere | tian era, and in Egypt apparently, a much larger disk, which the ‘on which the later Moslem potters founded their glorious works}. | potter could rotate with his foot, was introduced; this gave the Meantime, in the farther East, the Chinese—the greatest race | potter an opportunity to use both hands in the manipulation of of potters the world „has ever seen—were quietly gathering | the clay. In the 17th century the wheel was spun by means of a strength, until from their glazed, hard-fired pottery there emerged | cord working over a pulley, and in the roth century the steam ‘he marvellous, white translucent porcelain, one of the wonders | driven wheel was introduced. The rotating process completed, the piece is removed from the of the mediaeval world. With the dawn of the 15th century, the state of affairs was | the wheel and set aside to dry. When it is about leather-hard, it practically this: In European countries proper, we find rudely | may be recentred carefully on the wheel (the old practice), or fashioned and decorated wares in which we can trace the slow| placed in a horizontal lathe (16th century) and turned down to development of a native craft from the superposition of Roman | the exact shape and polished to an even, smooth surface. Many methods on the primitive work of the peoples. The vessels were | Greek vases have obviously been “thrown” in separate sections. mostly intended for use and not for show; were clumsily fash- | So too with the Chinese; many of their forms have been made in joned of any local clay, and if glazed at all then only with coarse | two or three portions, subsequently joined together and finished iead-glazes, coloured yellow or green; in no case above the level | on the outside as one piece. (See TERRA-CoTTA.) Firing.—The type of kiln used by the potters of ancient Egypt of workmanship of the travelling brick- or tile-maker. The finest expression of this native style is to be found in the Gothic tile | or Greece have not entirely vanished from present day use; it

“avements of France, Germany and England. is only in the civilized countries of the modern world that they As early as the 12th century the superior artistic pottery of | have been replaced by improved and perfected devices. The ‘he Moslem nations had already attracted the notice of Europeans | potters of certain sections of the Near East and of Japan remain as an article of luxury for the wealthy; and we may well believe | content with the crudest and most primitive types of kilns. the traditional accounts that Saracen potters were brought into | With the organization of the pottery as a factory industry in the Italy, France and Burgundy to introduce the practice of their art, | 18th century, improved kilns were introduced, and the type of while Italian potters certainly penetrated into the workshops of | kiln now used in civilized countries is a verticle furnace from eastern Spain and elsewhere and gathered new ideas. ro to 22 ft. in diameter and of similar height, capable, therefore, During the rsth and 16th centuries, Chinese porcelain also | of containing at one firing a quantity of pottery that would have began to find its way into Europe, and by the whiteness of its | formed the output of a mediaeval potter for a year. Gas-fired substance and its marvellous tramslucence excited the attention | kilns and ovens are now being used or experimented with in every of the Italian majolists and alchemists. The first European imi- | country, and their perfection, which cannot be far distant, will vation of this famous oriental porcelain of which we have indubi- | improve the most vital of the potters’ processes both in certainty table record was made at Florence (1575-85) by alchemists or | and economy.

potters working under the patronage, and, it is said, with the

Glazes.—We can only consider as glazes those definite super-

active collaboration of Francesco de’ Medici. This Florentine | ficial layers of molten material which have been fired on the clay porcelain was the first of those distinctively European wares, | substance. Glazes are as varied as the various kinds of pottery. made in avowed imitation of the Chinese, which form a connect- | and it must never be forgotten that each kind of pottery is at ing link between pottery and glass, for they may be considered | its best with its appropriate glaze. The most important types of ether as pottery rendered translucent or as glass rendered opaque | glaze are (1) alkaline glazes, e.g., Egyptian, Syrian, Persian, etc.,

by shaping and firing a mixture containing a large percentage of | the oldest and most uncertain; (2) lead glazes, the most wideglass with a very little clay. spread in its use and the best for all ordinary purposes; (3) _ During the 18th century not only was there a very large trade | felspathic glazes, the glazes of hard-fired porcelains, generally in imported Chinese and Japanese porcelain, but there was a | unsuited to any other material; (4) salt-glaze, produced by ereat development of porcelain manufacture in Europe. vapours of common salt, the special glaze of stone-wares. The 19th century witnessed a great and steady growth in the Colours.—The primitive potters of ancient and modern times output of porcelain and pottery of all kinds in Europe and the| have all striven to decorate their wares with colour. The simplest, United States. Mechanical methods were largely called in to | and therefore the earliest, colour decoration was carried out in supplement or replace what had hitherto remained almost pure | natural earths and clays. The clays are so varied in composition handicraft. The English methods of preparing and mixing the | that they fire to every shade of colour from white to grey, cream,

materials of the body and glaze, and the English device of re- | buff, red, brown or even to a bronze which is almost black. One

placing painted decoration by machine printing, to a large extent | clay daubed or painted upon another formed the primitive palette carried the day, with a great gain to the mechanical aspects of |of the potter, especially before the invention of glaze. When the work and in many cases with an entire extinction of its | plaze was used these natural clays were changed in tint, and artistic spirit. native earths, other than clays, containing Iron, manganese and The 2zoth century opened with a wider outlook among the | cobalt, were gradually discovered and used. It is also surprising potters of Europe and America. In every country men were | to note that some of the very earliest glazes were coloured glasses

striving once again to bring back to their world-old craft some- | containing copper or iron (the green, turquoise and yellow glazes thing of artistic taste and skill. of the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians). Marvellous work was

|wrought in these few materials, but the era of the finest pottery-

TECHNIQUE

| colour dawns with the Persian, Syrian and Egyptian work that

Ail pottery, whether of ancient or modern times, is made by ' preceded the Crusades. By this time the art of glazing pottery he simplest method. The clay, dug from the earth's surface, is | with a clear soda-lime glaze had been thoroughly learnt. Vases,

340

POTTERY

AND

tiles, etc., shaped in good plastic clay, were covered with a white, highly siliceous coating fit to receive glazes of this type, and

giving the best possible ground for the painted coiours then known.

The colours already spoken of were either clay colours

or what are known as “under glaze” colours, because they were painted on the pottery before the glaze was fired. The earliest glazes of the Egyptians appear not to have. been white, but were coloured throughout their substance, and this use of coloured glazes as apart from painted colour was developed along with the painted decoration by the later Egyptian, Syrian and Persian potters. Green, yellow and brown glazes were almost the only artistic productions of the mediaeval European potters’ kilns, and their use everywhere preceded the introduction of painted pottery. With the exceedingly refractory felspathic glazes of Chinese porcelain very few underglaze colours could be used; and the prevalence of blue and white among the early specimens of Chinese porcelains is due to the fact that cobalt was almost the only substance known to the potters of the Ming dynasty which would endure the high temperature needed to melt their glazes. Consequently the Chinese were driven to invent the method of painting in coloured fusible glasses on the already fired glaze. They adopted for this purpose the coloured enamels used on metal; hence the common term “enamel decoration,” which is so generally applied to painting in those colours which are attached to the already fired glaze by refiring at a lower temperature. With the introduction of this many-coloured Chinese porcelain into Europe the same practice was eagerly followed by our European potters, and a new palette of colours and fresh styles of decoration soon arose amongst us. It must be pointed out that the colour possibilities in any method of pottery decoration are largely dependent on the temperature at which the colour needs to be fired. The clay colours are naturally more limited-in range than the under-glaze colours, and these in their turn than the on-glaze colours. Metals.—The noble metals, such as gold, platinum and silver, have been largely used since the early years of the 18th century as adjuncts to pottery decoration, especially on the fine white earthenwares and porcelains of the last two centuries. At first the gold was applied with a kind of japanner’s size and was not fired to the glaze, but for the last 150 years or so the metals have generally’ been fired to the surface of the glaze like enamel colours, by mixing the metal with a small proportion of flux or fusible ground glass. There can scarcely be a doubt that the ancient lustres of Persia, Syria and Spain were believed to be a form of gilding, though their decorative effect was much more beautiful than gilding has ever been. The early Chinese and Japanese gilding appears, like the European, to have been “sized” or water-gilt, not fired; and it seems probable that the use of “fired” gold was tayght to the Oriental by the European in the 18th century. To-day “liquid” gold is exported to China and

Japan from Europe for the use of the potter.

(For Egyptian

pottery, see Ecypr: Archaeology and Art, section Ceramics; for Primitive Far Eastern and Near Eastern Pottery, see those sections. See also BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA: ARCHAEOLOGY, and

POTTERY, PRIMITIVE.)

(X.)

GREEK POTTERY The pottery of ancient Greece, prehistoric and historical, is distinguished from all other fictile wares of the same ages by its free development of naturalistic painted decoration. The ceramic painter’s art was so far separated from the potter’s in the classical period, that each could put his signature to his own portion of the work, and there can be little doubt that the best Minoan pottery was equally the joint product of the two craftsmen. This uniformity in Prehellenic and Hellenic ceramics can hardly be

fortuitous,

Though Late Minoan

(Mycenaean)

vase-painting

contains no visible element of design that was adopted by the Geometric artists, the technique of potter and painter passed Intact across the apparent gap in culture that separates the Aegean

ages of Bronze and Iron, and the subsequent revival of naturalistic ornament in the Archaic Greek period shows that something more

PORCELAIN

(GREEK

than mere mechanical skill had been inherited.

Prehistoric Origins—-The technique in which the maste. pieces of classical vase-painting were executed was first perfected in Minoan Crete, but its invention was not Cretan. Painted pot. tery was made in prehistoric Mesopotamia and Egypt long before its appearance in Aegean lands. Pre-Sumerian ware bears decor. tion fired on pale clay in a dark medium of ferruginous ear,

fused with an alkaline flux, and one variety of Egyptian pre.

dynastic pottery has dull white pigment similarly fired on a dark ferruginous wash. Both processes were applied in Early Minoan

pottery; the latter was brilliantly exploited in the polychrome Middle Minoan style (Kamares ware), but the former finally prevailed, because of its greater freedom, in the Late Minoan age.

(See ARCHAEOLOGY; Crete.) At the close of the MM. period when Cretan arts were transplanted to the Greek mainland, the colonial (Mycenaean) fabric of Minoan pottery displaced the inferior and largely hand-made native wares, Helladic, Cycladic and Thessalian, which formerly marked the various cultural regions. (See ARCHAEOLOGY; Greece.) By the end of the Mycenaean age the pottery of the whole Aegean area was uniform, except on its northern and eastern borders, where Danubian and Anatolian influences were preponderant. This latest Mycenaean ware preserves the forms and fabric of the best Minoan models, but its ornament is atrophied. Shells, octopods and seaweed have degenerated into rows of wavy lines, lily and papyrus flowers appear as groups of parallel curves or chevrons, and the rich designs of linked and running spirals give way to bands of single coils, But the clay is finely worked, the pots accurately turned, the firing hard and even, the glaze dense and lustrous. Two Mycenaean fabrics can certainly be distinguished. The more numerous class has a warm yellow clay surface and its black glaze fires red. The smaller group is made of exceedingly smooth pale greenish clay, and painted with brown-fired glaze, which tends to flake away from the close texture of the surface. The latter belongs to the Argolid, and was made from the same white clay that producéd the later Protocorinthian and Corinthian wares. The Geometric Style.—The next historical phase in Greece was the transition from bronze to iron, about rooo B.C., a cultural change that involved the violent downfall of the Mycenaean polity. Arts were generally submerged, but the pottery can be identifed. It is called Submycenaean or Protogeometric, as its elements appear to attach themselves to the old Minoan or the new Hellenic system. The technique is still Minoan and is often brilliant, but many of the pot-shapes are modified and the decorative patterns assume a new character. The surviving Mycenaean motives are resolved into their simplest linear elements, and these tend to combine again in rigid geometric schemes. Another tendency was to abandon painted patterns and cover the whole pot with black glaze. In this potent fallow the new principles of Hellenic art were laid, and the so-called Geometric style sprang rapid and luxuriant. In its mature phase a Geometric vase is covered with narrow horizontal bands of minute and crowded ornament, rows of repeated figures, triangles, 1ozenges, circles, continuous or panelled bands of zig-zags, chequers and, chiefly characteristic, the maeander. This last motive, always drawn in double outline filled with hatching, is probably the key to the origin of the style. It appears at the same period in Italy, in the pottery and bronze work of the Villanova culture, and since there is no evidence of intercourse between the two countries at this date, must have been introduced into both from a common northern source. Its first occurrence in Greece is in isolated bands or panels reserved on necks or bodies of blackglazed pots, a rudimentary form of decoration which was as universal as the former Mycenaean style. Subsequent developments were local, and many styles have been identified in mainland Greece, the Aegean islands and the coast of Asia Minor. The

most elaborate is that of Athens, called Dipylon ware after the cemetery at the city-gate, where the largest vases have been found. These are huge sepulchral jars which sometimes beat among the geometric patterns broader bands or longer panels filled with pictures of funerals, a corpse surrounded by mourners, and processions of chariots, human and animal figures being draws

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MODERN

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EUROPEAN

1. Gres (kaolinic stoneware), about 1925, by Auguste Delaherche, French

2. Porcelain, about 1895, by Arnold Krog, Danish 3. “Sea,” decoration in inlaid clays by W. Staite Murray, English.

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4. Grés, about 1925, by Emile Lenoble, French

5. Porcelain blackcock, about 1915, by Theodor Karner, German

PORZELLAN-MANUFAKTUR,

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PLATE XV

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN

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INTRESSENTER,

MODERN

EUROPEAN

l. Grés (kaolinic stoneware), about 1925, by W. Kage

(forme Aubert) underglaze decoration, made by M. Walter, on silica porcelain

5. “La Peinture” by Chéret, in white biscuit

(forme Rapin)

in faience, designed

by M. Patou, made by M.

Walter

by M. Pihan

AS 4, Vase

(2, 7, 10) THE JULIUS F.

POTTERY

6. Vase

2, Grés, about 1900, by Ernest Chaplet 3. Grès

(8) E. MILNER WHITE, FROM

(3, 4, 5, 6) MANUFACTURE NATIONALE DE SEVRES,

7. Grès by Emile Lenoble.

designed

by Guy

Loe,

French

&. Fire Elementals by W. Staite Murray, 1926. Stoneware bowl with ivory glaze and sepia brushwork. English 9. Porcelain, about 1925, by W. Kage

10. Grès by Auguste Delaherche.

French

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN

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XVI

(4)

PHOTOGRAPH,

PORZELLAN-MANUFAKTUR; STAATLICHE (6)

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PORCELAIN AND POTTERY PLATE XVII

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EUROPEAN]

AND

such wares in quantity to America. Shaw, Pennington and Barnes were the leading potters. Their wares show less individuality

than those of Bristol. Notable among them are the punch-bowls made for skippers with polychrome paintings of their vessels; a

speciality of Liverpool were the delft tiles with transfer prints

in black or red executed by Sadler and Green.

Delft was also

made at Wincanton, Dublin and Glasgow. Tin-enamelled earthenware was made by German potters from

1620 onwards. They learnt the art of maiolica in Venice, amongst them Augustin Hirsvogel of Nuremberg; he is believed to have heen the maker of the owl shaped jugs made apparently for pres-

entation purposes. The earliest known date on German maiolica

is 1526. These early wares were painted in blue, with imitations of Venetian designs, or with figure-subjects derived from contemporary German engravings. Maiolica-painting was applied to the decoration of tilework stoves in the Tyrol, in Austria and especially at Winterthur in Switzerland, where from 1590 to 1740, approximately, a flourishing

maiolica

industry was carried

on

by the Pfau family and others. About 1618 the majolica technique was introduced by Lorenz Speckner in the potteries of Kreussen, in Bavaria (of special note are his drug-pots boldly painted with spirals in blue), and about the same time blue-and-white wares,

especially narrow-necked pear-shaped jugs, showing Chinese in-

fuences, were made at Hamburg.

The settlement of two Dutch

potters at Hanau in 1661, and the establishment

of a factory

at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1666 mark the beginning of a second

phase, under Dutch influences, in which the Chinese fashions of the day determined the styles of decoration. Frankfort is notable for large dishes and jars with bold adaptations of late Ming motives in a remarkably clean vivid blue. Faience-factories at

Nuremberg, Bayreuth, Ansbach, Dresden, Berlin, Potsdam and elsewhere are witnesses to the spread of these wares in cheap

PORCELAIN

349

of various colour are often combined in relief decorations. Vessels such as aquamaniles, in rude human or animal form, and jugs modelled into human features, are not unusual. These characteristics are common to France, Germany and England. In France the revival of glaze began in the 13th century, when Savignies, in the neighbourhood of Beauvais, began to become an important centre of production, of which in the 15th and 16th centuries the bluish-glazed wares with applied heraldic and floral ornament enjoyed some esteem; from the rath century LaChapelle-des-Pots near Saintes, was another important centre. Fine earthenware with inscriptions in Gothic characters and floral designs, made after the Italian manner by the sgraffito technique and including Italian shapes such as the albarello jar, appear towards 1500, and shortly after polychrome lead-glazed wares began to be made. Ornamental earthenware finials for gables were produced, especially in Normandy, from late mediaeval times onward. Remains of mediaeval potter’s kilns have been found in England at Nottingham, Lincoln and Cheam, and community of characteristics amongst vessels dug up at Oxford indicate local production; the same is true of York, | and simple pottery must have been made at many other places. BY COURTESY

OF THE YORKSHIRE

MUSEUM

MEDIAEVAL ENGLISH JUG

The

earliest

remaining

wares,

certain tall slender jugs of light

buff earthenware, with a double swell in their profile, are attributed to the 13th century. In the 14th century forms tend to become more squat, glaze and applied or incised decorations appear. Greater refinement of shape is seen in green-glazed jugs of the t5th century, and under the Tudors elaborate moulded heraldic reliefs are found. In Germany the hard-fired semi-vitrified ware known as stoneware was first made, from the 14th century onwards. The earliest specimens are slender jugs, strongly wheelmarked, in a creamy-white body, made at Siegburg near Bonn. Drinking-vessels of great elaboration, often double-walled, the outer wall being pierced with Gothic tracery, were made of a hard brown ware in the 15th century at Dreihausen, Hesse. Floor-tiles form a great part of the output of mediaeval kilns, and were made wherever great churches were being built. Those of France and England have glazed bichromatic inlaid decoration, the German rococo forms for the wares. Disseminators of this technique were tiles, mostly unglazed, showing stamped or moulded designs. TileJohann Eberhardt, Ludwig Ehrenreich and Johann Tannich; the work was used in Germany for architectural details also, and latter, trained under Hannong at Strasbourg, worked afterwards in especially for stoves. French and German Lead-glazed Earthenware.—With several factories, notably at Kiel and Mosbach. From Germany the manufacture of faience spread to Scandinavia; flourishing the arrival of the renaissance in France pottery rose in that counfactories at Copenhagen, Sleswick, Rörstrand near Stockholm and try to a higher level-of general esteem, and two highly specialized Herreböe in Norway produced chiefly blue-and-white wares show- experimental developments took place. One of these passed withing Dutch and Chinese influences; large tea-trays, sometimes out lasting influence on ceramic history, that of the famous soused as table-tops, and punch-bowls in the form of a bishop’s called Henri II. ware; the place of its production was for long mitre are conspicuous amongst their output. At the Marieberg a mystery but it is now known to have been made at St. Porchaire factory, Stockholm, founded in 1758, the enamel-painted faience in Poitou, approximately from 1525 to 1560. It is of a fine whitish of Strasbourg was successfully imitated. Hollitsch in Hungary clay, with a cream-coloured glaze, and decorated with designs also produced enamel-painted faience of good quality closely built up from impressions of metal stamps like those of a bookg binder and inlaid in the manner of niello with darker clays; ta resembling that of Strasbourg. Mediaeval Pottery of North-west Europe—The mediaeval the later examples touches of blue, green and purple pigment are’ pottery of western Europe is unpretentious and often crude in added. The early forms are imitations of metalwork; later, salttechnique, but shows at the same time great virility and dignity cellars, standing cups and ewers were built up like architecture in of form. Glaze had passed entirely out of use in the Dark Ages. miniature with applied reliefs and statuettes and inlays imitating On later wares, when present, it is a soft galena glaze, sometimes tile pavements. Devices of Francois I. and Henri II. and the stained brown with iron or green with copper. Decoration is crescents of Diane de Poitiers appear on many of the pieces. Of greater significance was the work of Bernard Palissy (g.v.). elected by scratching with a point, or by impression with cut After years of experiment he made coloured lead glazes, blue, stamps or the application of reliefs such as overlapping scales or strips of clay pressed on with the potter’s thumb, or rough green, purple and brown, of an excellence never attained before. foral and heraldic ornaments shaped in moulds; painting with His earlier wares were decorated with casts from the smaller ted, brown and white clay pigments is the exception, but clays fauna and flora of the district of Saintes. Later he adopted

imitation of blue-and-white and five-colour porcelain. Potsdam was the first place to attempt to simulate Chinese “powdered blue? on faience. Tankards with baroque panelled designs or somewhat crude polychrome renderings of Chinese landscapes were made extensively at Erfurt and minor factories in Thuringia. In the 17th century glass-enamellers such as Johann Schaper and Abraham Helmhack of Nuremberg took to decorating in their own homes (as “Hausmaler’’) faience obtained “in the white” from the factories. Their paintings of landscape or scriptural and other figure-subjects in black monochrome (schwarzlot) or bright polychrome are often of extraordinary fineness of execution. From their work arose the adoption of overglaze enamel-painting in the potteries themselves. This prepared the way for the third phase, the spread of French influences from Strasbourg and Marseilles, seen in coloured naturalistic floral decoration and French

=

POTTERY

350

AND

PORCELAIN

[EUROPEAN

reliefs of figure subjects or formal designs. He was succeeded by two sons and by several potters who early in the 17th century made wares in his manner, including statuettes after bronze originals, at Avon and Fontainebleau, and at Manerbe (Calvados). Earthenware with a rich dark brown lead glaze, in forms copied from metalwork, was made towards 1600 at Avignon. Contemporaneously with Palissy various potters in south Germany were making polychrome earthenware of a similar type, but combining a white tin enamel with coloured lead glazes. This technique was employed specially in the production of stovetiles, which from about 1550 onwards were commonly decorated

tles, Electors of the Empire, etc.) painted in the vivid colour

with figure-subjects

these famous works, including busts of Prince Rupert and others and figures of classical deities, are amongst the most remarkable

of biblical or allegorical

reference, reflect-

ing the all-pervading religious pre-occupations of the time, rendered in relief under a renaissance arched recess. Potters known as Hafner, who worked in this manner, were settled at Nuremberg (Paul Preuning and others) and also at Salzburg and elsewhere in Austria. Besides stoves they made jugs with applied reliefs (sometimes including figures in the round in a recessed niche) and bright-coloured glazes. An analogous ware, made from about 1550 at Neisse in Silesia, is characterised by designs rendered by means of deeply-incised outlines separating the coloured glazes and enamels. In the ryth century the wares of the Hafner in Central Europe fell to the level of peasant pottery, which, however, has often great aesthetic value. German and Flemish Stoneware.—Artistic stoneware began to be made at Cologne about 1540. It is characterised by the ferruginous brown stain of its salt glaze. Its commonest form is that of a round-bellied jug with a bearded man’s mask applied on the front of the narrow neck, a form which under the name Bartmann or “greybeard” became common in most stoneware potteries. Small applied medallions resembling the Roman coins frequently dug up in the city and its neighbourhood, and coiled

branches with small oak leaves and acorns, are also frequent motives of decoration. About 1566 one of the Cologne workshops was removed to Frechen, where the manufacture especially of greybeards for Rhenish wine, exported in quantity to England and elsewhere, lasted into the 18th century. At Siegburg the mediaeval white stoneware took on a renaissance dress about 1550; the place was famous for its tall slightly-tapering tankards (Schnellen) with heraldic and figure reliefs in three adjacent vertical panels, the finest being the work of the Kniitgen family. Raeren, near Aix-la-Chapelle, was also a centre of the industry; its wares are deep brown-glazed, and (at a later stage) grey ware with cobalt-blue colouring in places. The characteristic productions are jugs, often of large dimensions, with elaborate mouldings and reliefs which generally take the form of a frieze, either continuous or broken into arcading, round the belly and sometimes also the neck. Jan Emens and Baldem Mennicken were the most gifted of the Raeren potters. Soon after 1600 the potteries of Siegburg (sacked by the Swedes in 1632) and Raeren declined, and many of the potters migrated to the Westerwald district near Coblentz, where at Grenzhausen and Hohr the industry

lasted

till it was

super-

sr courtesy oF THE DIRECTOR OF THE VIC-

seded by earthenware of the ‘R!* AND ALBERT MUSEUM English type late in the 18th cenMGO COLOGNE STONEWARE tury. The Westerwald stoneware is grey in body, and its relief decorations, in which figure subjects tended to give place to formal floral motives, are picked out with colouring in cobalt blue and occasionally also in manganese purple. Stoneware, mostly inferior imitations of the Rhenish, was made in the 17th and 18th centuries at Bouffoualx and elsewhere in the south Netherlands. Kreussen in Bavaria produced in the ryth century a chocolate-brown stoneware with reliefs (of the Apos-

of the contemporary enamelled glass. Altenburg in Saxony anc Bunzlau in Silesia also made relief-decorated stoneware. English Stoneware

importation of German

and Lead-glazed Earthenware.—The

stoneware in the 17th century led t,

various attempts to imitate it in England. The most conspicuoys was that of John Dwight, an Oxford scientist, who set up a pot. tery at Fulham about 1670 in which he made not only bottles ang mugs in stoneware of various colours but also statuettes, modelled by an unknown artist (perhaps the sculptor, Grinling Gibbons) in white or dark brown

clay with a thin coating of salt-glaze-

achievements in the history of plastic art. Stoneware of good quality, with a lustrous brown glaze, decorated with stamped, incised and moulded designs, often dated, was made at Nottingham from about 1695 onwards by John Morley and others of that family. Similar ware was made later at Chesterfield and Swinton. Another experimenter in stoneware was Francis Place, who worked about 1685 at York. Dwight had competitors also in the brothers Elers, two Dutch silversmiths who made teapots in a fine redbodied ware, imitating Chinese boccaro ware, at Bradwell Wood near Newcastle-under-Lyme; their work was of great importance in its revolutionary effect on the output of the North Stafford. shire potteries. Mediaeval traditions in the production of coarse red earthenware with decoration in white “slip” (that is, clay diluted to a

creamy consistency) were followed throughout the 17th and 18th centuries in many small potteries throughout England. Wrotham in Kent produced “tygs” (drinking-vessels with several handles) and posset-pots with neatly applied pads of clay stamped with initials or floral devices, animals and birds. At Bethersden near

Ashford the inlay technique of the mediaeval tiles was adopted for pottery. By working with a comb the different coloured clays in a semi-liquid state on the surface of the wares, marbled and feather patterns of real distinction were often produced. No attempt at lightness and refinement of shape was made in the district until the advent of the brothers Elers, which stimulated the local potters to improve their technique. Soon after 1700, in response to the demand newly created by the introduction of tea-drinking, John Astbury was making tea-services, with small stamped reliefs in white on a red ground, and similar wares in a harder fired drab stoneware, from which about 1720, by the introduction of ground flints into the body, the Staffordshire white salt-glaze ware was evolved. A further advance came with the introduction of the process of casting the wares in plaster moulds with relief designs. About 1750 “marbled” wares were made by mixing clays of different colours, also ‘“‘tortoiseshell” ware with mottled glazes, and tea-services in the form of cauliflowers and pineapples coloured after nature; such wares were produced especially by Thomas Whieldon, who in 1753 took into partnership a young potter destined later to revolutionise the industry. This was Josiah Wedgwood (g.v.). His new productions were “black basaltes” ware, an improvement on the black unglazed stoneware of the district, and jasper ware, a fine stoneware stained with blue, green, lilac and other colours and generally decorated with applied cameo reliefs in white. For shapes

and decoration he drew upon the recently-published repertories of Greek vases, conforming entirely to the neo-classical taste of the period. He engaged John Flaxman and other sculptors to provide him with designs. An important part of his output were small medallions with portraits or other reliefs, made for mounting in furniture or as jewellery. For decorating his Queen’s ware he introduced transfer printing, sending it at first

to Liverpool to be printed by Sadler and Green. Wedgwood had many competitors who produced imitations of most of his wares; in Staffordshire, Adams, Neale, Turner and Palmer were the most important. Cream-coloured ware of good quality was made from

about 1770 onwards at Leeds and elsewhere in Yorkshire; pierced decoration is its most characteristic feature. Earthenware figures emulating those of the porcelain factories were made at Burslem from about 1765 onwards by Ralph Wood, his son Ralph, and his 4

EUROPEAN]

POTTERY

AND

grandson Enoch, and by many other Staffordshire potters.

The

earliest, painted in coloured glazes in the manner of Palissy ware,

are mostly from models by a French artist, John Voyez, who generally copied the figures of Cyfflé of Niderviller; they have

considerable artistic merit. Lead-glazed earthenware

of good

quality was also made in the late 18th century at Liverpool, Bristol, Swansea, N ewcastle-on-T'yne and Sunderland. A variety made ‘a many places is the so-called silver lustre ware, coated with plati-

num, in imitation of silver plate. After 1800 the English earthen-

(B. Ra.) wares were rapidly degraded. EUROPEAN PORCELAIN TO END OF 18TH CENTURY From the time of its first appearance in Europe, at the latest in the sth century, Chinese porcelain was regarded by potters as in the highest degree worthy of imitation. Admiration for its whiteness led to the use of a white enamel or slip-covering on the earthenwares of Italy and other countries, whilst its translucency and vitrified texture misled the potters into supposing that a substance of the nature of common glass entered into its composition.

Attempts to imitate it in this way were made in small manu-

factories at several places—as at the glass-making centre of Venice and elsewhere in Italy, more particularly at Florence, where a factory was started under the patronage of Francesco de’ Medici, not later than 1581. Medici porcelain was decorated, as a rule in a soft blue only, with motives drawn from Italian maiolica in combination with Chinese elements imitated from wares of the type made for export to Persia. The manufacture

PORCELAIN

351

saucers, pomade-pots and other small objects, as well as flower-

pots of considerable size, were the chief productions of St. Cloud: they were as a rule tastefully and substantially potted with a fine feeling for the qualities of a rather yellowish but pleasant-toned material. Plum-sprays amongst other motives in relief were sometimes copied from blanc de Chine, for which this French porcelain has often been mistaken. Fluting and scale-pattern were also favourite decorations. Painting in turquoise-blue, red, yellow and green was inspired by Japanese Kakiemon porcelain. Boldly modelled figures inclining to the grotesque were done. St. Cloud (which was founded by Pierre Chicaneau in 1677) came to an end in 1768. Very similar porcelain, as a rule indistinguishable from the St. Cloud, was made in Paris at a factory in the Rue de la Ville-’Evéque and at Lille. Porcelain of distinctive character was made at Chantilly, where a factory was founded in 1725 by Louis-Henri of Bourbon, duc de Condé. Here for the first twenty years or so the material was singular in being covered with a glaze made opaque with oxide of tin. At its best Chantilly is of a beautiful creamy white colour. “Kakiemon” patterns were freely copied in designs of great charm. The Meissen styles of flower-painting (g.v.) and the formal “Indian” and naturalistic “German” flowers were adapted in the French taste, as were some of the figure-models of the same factory. In the later Chantilly, coloured grounds were imitated from Sèvres and the tin-glaze was given up; slight decoration in underglaze blue was favoured for cheaper wares. The factory ceased to make soft-paste about the end of the century.

is supposed to have been continued at Pisa; later and not dissimilar porcelain is to be attributed to Candiana near Padua. No

The factory at Mennecy-Villeroy, near Paris, was a continuation of one in the Rue de Charonne in Paris, founded in 1735 by settled manufacture was, however, in existence before the latter Francois Barbin, who removed his establishment to Mennecy in part of the 17th century. Edme Poterat of Rouen and his son 1748 to place it under the patronage of Lotis François de NeufLouis were granted a privilege in 1673, whilst another factory ville, duc de Villeroy. The earliest of Barbin’s productions were founded in 1677 at St. Cloud near Paris had by the end of the in Rouen-St. Cloud style, but later a great variety of small obcentury grown to considerable size. These artificial porcelains, jects was made and enamelled in colours of a singular freshness, fred at a low temperature and made translucent with the aid of a amongst which a purplish rose-pink is prominent. At its best, previously fired glassy mixture or frit, were of the type now Mennecy porcelain is of unsurpassed quality, mellow in tone known as soft-paste (pate tendre). They remained the character- and texture and of a warm white colour. Some charming figures istic porcelains of France for nearly a hundred years, and some- were made. The factory was removed in 1773 to Bourg-la-Reine what similar compositions were widely used in England, Italy and ceased to make porcelain about 1790. The beauty of material characteristic of the French soft-pastes and Spain during the 18th century. Meanwhile in Germany the insight of Tschirnhausen and was achieved in the highest degree in the productions of the royal Böttger (see below) had perceived that porcelain of Chinese type factory at Vincennes, which was removed to Sévres, between Paris could be made only with potters’ materials, and by experiments and Versailles, in 1756. This factory was established in 1738, with the fusing of clays were discovered, first, a hard red stone- under the patronage of Orry de Fulvy, by two workmen named Dubois, who, however, failed to produce porcelain. A workman ware, and in 1709 true, that is, named Gravant eventually succeeded, in 1745, and a company was hard-paste, porcelain, which is formed with a subvention from Louis XV., who finally in 1759 essentially a high-fired mixture took over the factory, which enjoyed certain exclusive privileges of the fusible and non-fusible (such as the use of gilding) amounting to a monopoly. The Royal silicates of alumina, called by the proprietorship ended, with the Revolution, in 1793, but the Chinese petuntse and kaolin, establishment has continued under State control to the present and in English china-stone and day. The Vincennes productions at first consisted chiefly of porchina-clay. From the manufaccelain flowers in imitation of those of Meissen, intended for ture founded at Meissen upon mounting in ormolu. Meissen styles of painting were copied in Botiger’s discovery sprang others this early period, though the forms, largely in rococo style, were making hard-paste at Vienna and designed by the court-goldsmith Duplessis. Jean-Jacques Bacheother places in Germany, at Venlier supervised the painting and gilding, whilst the chemist Hellot ice, St. Petersburg and elsewhere Hard-paste began to be made at STAFFORDSHIRE SLIP WARE: DEC- was in charge of the technical side. Painting in panels reserved on Sèvres in 1769 but did not en- ORATION MADE WITH WHITE CLAY a coloured or diapered ground enriched with gilding, soon became tirely displace the pate tendre un- DILUTED TO CREAMY CONSISTENCY the characteristic Sévres decoration, and the succession of the til the beginning of the roth century. In England hard-paste ground colours is the chief feature in the chronology of the great was independently rediscovered before 1768, but it was used in a period of 40 years from 1749 onwards. The dark gros bleu, probsingle manufacture only and was superseded towards the end of ably imitating Chinese powdered-blue, was introduced in 1749 the 18th century by a universally-adopted hybrid composition in and abandoned im favour of the brighter bleu de roi about 1756.

which china-clay was partially replaced by the ashes of calcined bones, an ingredient which had for some time previously been used In a characteristic type of English soft-paste. France—The rare porcelain attributed to the Poterats of Rouen resembles in decoration the blue-painted faience of the same city, and similar painting in Louis Quatorze style is characteristic also of much of the St. Cloud porcelain. Jugs, cups and

Turquoise-blue (bleu céleste), yellow (jaune jonquille) and green grounds made their appearance in 1752, 1753 and 1756 The rose Pompadour (miscalled in England rose du Barry), invented by Chrouet, appeared in 1757 and went out of fashion in seven years. The favourite painting in monochrome (ezcamaieu) was at first generally in crimson, later in blue. Particulars of many of the painters and the marks used by them

352

POTTERY

AND

may be found in several books of reference. Late in the period, about 1780, an enameller named Cotteau invented the so-called jewelled decoration in which drops of coloured enamel were fused over gilding. Glazed and coloured figures were made in the early years of the factory in rivalry with Meissen, but about 1751 Bachelier introduced biscwst or unglazed porcelain as a medium for novel work for which the painter Boucher made designs to be executed by Blondeau and others. The sculptors Falconet and la Rue in the earlier period, and Pajou and Boizot in the later, created many models for execution in Sévres biscuit. The influence of Boucher is apparent throughout in the painting and modelling, whilst the so-called Louis Seize neo-classical style began to replace the rococo soon after the transfer to Sévres in 1756. For technical skill and perfection, and for delicacy and taste (if not for more vital qualities) Sévres porcelain is unsurpassed. Soft-paste at all times has the merit of absorbing enamelcolours into its easily-fusible glaze, and this is nowhere more evident than on Sévres china. Though soft-paste was the medium of the finest Sévres productions, hard-paste was made occasionally (from kaolin found after long search at St. Yrieix near Limoges) as early as 1769 and finally superseded the other altogether in 1804, when the newly appointed director Brongniart gave up the manufacture of the more costly material with a view to repairing the financial distress of the factory, caused by the Revolution. Hard-paste became the medium of a style marked by a severe and even pompous classicism, shared also by a number of other factories which had sprung up in the latter part of the 18th century in Paris and the neighbourhood, largely under the patronage of members of the Royal family. Rue Thiroux, La Courtille, Rue de Bondy (“Manufacture d'Angoulême’) and Rue Popincourt (Nast’s factory) were the chief. Other French factories making hard-paste and equally concerned to imitate Sévres, were at Lille, Etiolles, La Seynie, Boissette, Limoges and Valenciennes. Hard-paste of distinctive character was made at the faience factories of Strasbourg and Niderviller and of Joseph Robert at Marseilles. The first-named was closed at the instance of Vincennes in 1753 and Paul Hannong, its proprietor, crossed the frontier to found the Frankenthal factory. Some soft-paste of fine quality was made also at Sceaux, Orleans, Arras and St. Amand-les-Eaux, whilst at Tournai (which was part of France in the 18th century) soft-paste was used for wares inspired as much by Meissen as by Sèvres.

Germany.—tThe discovery of hard-paste by Johann Friedrich Bottger was the result of experiments into the vitrification by heat of clays and rocks, conducted by him in association with Ehrenfried Walther Tschirnhausen, with whom he had been concerned in the establishment of a faience factory at Dresden. Like almost all scientists of the time, Böttger believed in the possibility of transmuting base metals into gold, and he was kept, virtually a prisoner, in the service of Augustus the Strong, King of Saxony, who hoped to benefit by the exclusive property of his alchemist’s secrets. The first important product of Béttger’s labours was a hard red stoneware, comparable with the so-called buccaro of Yi-hsing in China. First produced in 1708, it was quickly developed into a medium capable, by cutting and polishing, of expressing much of the baroque taste of the time. Silvering and gilding and a black glaze, invented by Böttger, were sometimes added to it. Imitations were made at Plaue-an-der-Havel, and at Bayreuth, The first glazed white porcelain was produced by Böttger alone in 1709; its regular manufacture did not begin until four years later. The earliest specimens inclined to a smoky tone, and the decoration (for which Irminger, a goldsmith, was responsible) of applied acanthus leaves, masks and rich mouldings, was similar to that of the red ware. In 1710 the manufacture was removed to the Albrechtsberg at Meissen, but the making of the white porcelain was not fully mastered until 1715. Though without adequate financial support, Böttger succeeded in the four years before his death in 1719 in perfecting his material and in inventing a wide range of enamel colours, including a rare pale-violet lustre-colour almost peculiar to the factory and much used in the subsequent period.

PORCELAIN

[EUROPEAN

In 1720 the painter Johann Gregor Heroldt was appointed director, and in the next 20 years introduced many new decora. tions—chinoiseries in gold and colours, landscape- and figure. subjects, as well as adaptations of Japanese and Chinese flowers (indianische Blumen) and other designs. Purple and red mop. ochromes were used in a novel style. About 1740 Heroldt introduced the naturalistic deutsche Blumen. ‘Though underglaze bye was never thoroughly mastered, many new colours were com. pounded for use as grounds, often richly gilt in barogue style with panelled decoration. Almost every ground colour used else. where later on was employed at Meissen under Heroldt. The appointment as modeller of Johann Joachim Kaendler in 1731 marked the beginning of a period of great development in

the plastic decoration. The king had constantly pressed fo; colossal figures in porcelain which Kaendler’s predecessor, Gottlob Kirchner, had failed to produce to his satisfaction. Kaendler succeeded with these so far as the natural unfitness of the medium would allow; and then proceeded to create a succession of new forms for table-ware—plates, tureens, sweetmeat-stands, cande-

labra, etc.—with modelled ornament, as well as a range of highly individual small figures.

It was the court custom to group wax

or sugar models on the dinner-tables, and Kaendler, helped by

Friedrich

Elias Meyer,

Johann

Friedrich

Eberlein and Peter

Reinicke, created many porcelain figures for use in the same way. Some subjects were novel in being drawn from contemporary life, embodying a satirical or witty commentary. Kaendler was the first to understand the potentialities of glaze and colour in the make-up of the porcelain figure, which in his hands was never merely monumental sculpture reduced in scale. French rococo

was not without influence on Kaendler’s style after about 1740, but he remained essentially a baroque sculptor, and continued to work for the factory until his death in 1775. . Meissen remained the premier porcelain factory in Europe

until the Seven Years’ War, which broke out in 1756, when

Frederick the Great virtually sacked the place. Technically excellent work was done under the direction of Count Marcolini (1774-1813), but the former position was never regained. Sèvres fashions were copied, and an artist actually from Sévres, MichelVictor Acier, made many characteristic models in the sentimental style, whilst an academic sculptor, Christoph Jiichtzer, made biscuit figures in the classical manner. Following the fashion set in Saxony, many other German princes sought to establish or patronise china-factories, and by 1760 no fewer than eight had come into existence in this way. Broadly, Meissen styles prevailed until about 1760, when Sevres fashions and the neo-classical began to predominate. The dependence upon Meissen and Sévres, however, was very much less than a superficial view would indicate. In 1718 a runaway Meissen workman, Christoph Konrad Hun-

ger, enabled Claude du Paquier to start a factory at Vienna, which was in 1744 sold to the state. Much of du Paquier’s china was decorated by independent enamellers (Hausmaler); the factory’s own styles were remarkable for the frequent use of a black (Schwarzlot) and other monochromes in rich baroque designs. Mayerhofer became director in 1751. Vienna figures of the period about 1760 have a very distinct and airy charm. Fn 1784 a pros perous period began under the directorship of Konrad von Sorgenthal. A modeller Anton Grassi (who had previously made some lively enamelled figures) began to use biscuit with success, whilst in the last decade of the century was made the porcelain with elaborate miniature pictures in the style of oil paintings, with rich gilding and coloured grounds which was formerly considered the best, and still is the most famous, Vienna work.

At Berlin, a wool manufacturer Wilhelm Kaspar Wegely made porcelain of fine quality, including figures, from 1752 to 1757. 4

few years later, a financier named Gotzkowsky started a factory which in 1763 was taken over by Frederick the Great. Berlin table-wares tend to favour simple colouring with a special fond: ness for pink diaper (Mosdik) borders. Some good figures were made by Friedrich Elias Meyer (brought from Meissen in the Seven Years’ War), his brother, Christoph, and others.

_

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PLATE XXVIII

PORCELAIN AND POTTERY

POTTERY

CHINA]

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the wet clay had been wrapped in matting or some coarse textile. This mat-marked pottery evidently had a long life, for it was still made in Chou and Han times. The next important discovery belongs to the Yin dynasty

(1401-1122 B.c.). On the site of the Yin tombs near An-yang

in Honan were found pieces of a white pottery, and of carved ivory and bone. The pottery, doubtless made of kaolinic

earth, has been carved like the ivory and

hone with the conventional designs and angular fret patterns which are usually as-

sociated with pre-Han bronzes.

Complete

vessels of this kind of carved white ware

must have had a striking appearance, if indeed the fragments ever formed part of pottery vessels and were not, as has been suggested, moulds for the use of the bronze maker. For the rest all the pre-Han pottery which we know is funeral ware of a rough

and not very interesting type, and generally following the forms of the more precious bronze vessels for which it was doubtless a substitute. It is frequently *mat-marked,” and much of it is roughly

coloured with unfired pigments.

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Dynasty

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920) .—The Han pottery, though our knowl-

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advance

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technique.

BY COURTESY OF GEORGE FOPOULOS, ESQ.

EUMOR-

HANWELL

From

the

George

Eumor-

Many of the Han vessels, such as the wine fopoulos Collection vases (Plate XXIV., fig. 5), are of elegant form, and they are

PORCELAIN

361

by no means easy to differentiate the glazed pottery of the Han and of the immediately succeeding periods. There are, however, certain flask-shaped bottles with green and brown lead glaze over well moulded reliefs which, though certainly post-Han, are probably earlier than the T’ang dynasty. Some of them are remarkable for their Western types of ornament, such as dancing and piping figures, which would be at home in a Herculaneum frieze, surrounded by vine scrolls. Similar designs are seen on late Hellenistic pottery; and this doubtless was the source from which the Chinese potters drew their inspiration. There is yet another kind of glazed ware which belongs to this interval, and which is apparently of purely Chinese origin. It is a kaolinic stoneware of hard grey body with a high-fired glaze of greenish brown tint. Specimens of this ware analysed by H. W. Nichols of Chicago were pronounced to be a kind of protoporcelain. In other words they are believed to contain the elements of porcelain, though in an unperfected state. Dr. M. Nakao holds that the glaze of this ware is a wood-ash glaze evolved from the accidental gloss which often forms on pottery fired to a high temperature in a wood-fed furnace, as in the case of the Early Korean pottery (see p. 369). It is practically certain that this kaolinic pottery with its glaze of feldspar and wood ashes forms a stage in the evolution of true porcelain which we know the Chinese to have discovered by the T’ang dynasty. Indeed it is highly probable that porcelain was evolved from this material at some period in the interval between Han and T’ang. It may be added that the colour of the glaze was probably due to iron impurities in the clay, and that this glaze is the beginning of the celadon green glazes which owe their colour to iron. The T’ang Dynasty (618-906) .—In the great T’ang dynasty the Chinese empire reached its widest expansion, and China was without doubt the greatest and most civilized power in the world. It was an age of splendour for all the arts, and the potter’s art was

ornamented with artistic designs in a variety of ways, by painting with unfired pigments, by stamping, by the application of reliefs in no way behind the rest. Oddly enough Chinese ceramic literawhich have been separately formed in moulds, and by incising. ture has little to tell us of the T’ang potters. But Chinese ceramic Glaze is now used, apparently for the first time, a transparent lead literature is a comparatively modern growth and the secrets of glaze of yellowish tone which is coloured green with copper oxide T’ang pottery, only recently laid bare, were known in Europe aland variegated by the use of liquid clays or slips of different col- most as early as in China. It was in fact largely due to the excaours. The underlying body of the glazed ware is usually red and vations made by European railway engineers during the past quarthis showing through the transparent glaze gives a brown or red- ter of a century that the contents of many T’ang tombs came to light, and what we know of T’ang dish brown surface, when the glaze has not been coloured green by pottery, as in the case of the the use of copper. Probably this lead glaze was introduced from earlier wares, is practically limwestern Asia, where it was in use in late Roman times; for the ited to the sepulchral wares. Chinese were in touch with the Roman empire in the Han dynasty. Naturally these do not show the Many of the pottery objects recovered from Han tombs are of T’ang potters in the most favourdeep archaeological interest, for they include, besides the household able light, but they enable us to and ritual vessels, models of the buildings, implements, live-stock see the great progress which had and even human beings, which had bebeen made in ceramic technique longed to the household of the deceased. and to realize the artistic capabilFurther it is noteworthy that the potters ities of T’ang craftsmen. They who supplied this funeral furniture make it clear too that Western evinced much artistic skill in the way in influences were active in China in which they conventionalized their models. this enlightened age, for we freThus the granary tower and the well-head quently find the traces of late (Plate XXIV., fig. 9) are transformed into Hellenistic, Sassanian and Persian picturesque objects and even the model of art in the forms and designs of the kitchen stove is not devoid of omathe pottery of this period. mental qualities. FROM THE GEORGE EUMORFOPOULOS COLLECOf the T’ang funeral pottery Han to T’ang (A.D. 220—-618).—To TION the interval between Han and T’ang be- FLASK OF BUFF STONEWARE WITH the figures of human beings, birds group of figures and BROWN GLAZE; T’ANG PERIOD OR and animals are modelled in a BY COURTESY OF THE BRITISH longs a considerable EARLIER MUSEUM lively and spirited fashion, esother beings (Plate XXVI.; fig. 1, 5,6) and PROTO-PORCELAIN VASE pecially those of horses (Plate XXI.) and camels, dancing girls animals are in many ways the most attrac(3RD OR 4TH CENTURY) tive of all the Chinese grave goods (Plate and musicians (Plate XXVI., fig. 3). They are usually of a white XXI., Dog at bottom). Some of them are little later in date than or pinkish white clay, soft where lightly fired but some occasionthe Han dynasty; but they evidently range over a long period, for ally are baked to considerable hardness. Some of them are unwhole sets of figurines of this class in the Toronto museum are glazed and tricked out with red, black and blue pigments. Others known to have been found in tombs of the Liang dynasty (AD. are covered with a thin transparent lead glaze of faint yellowish 502-557). There are, besides, wine jars, vases, incense burners and tint, while on the more elaborate this glaze is coloured with washes, toilet boxes of the 3rd and 4th centuries which are finely painted in streaks or mottling of green, amber yellow or blue. The flesh unfired pigments with a style and execution not unworthy of the parts of the glazed figures are commonly left without glaze (Plate paintings on silk. The Han lead glaze continued in use, and it is XXIX.) and in tbis case they are painted with the pigments men-

POTTERY

262

AND

tioned above. Besides the figures, vases, ewers, bowls, cups and dishes of various kinds are found in the tombs; and among them are amphora-shaped jars of strikingly Hellenistic form (Plate

XXIX., fig. 3) and ewers of Sassanian type with a bird’s head below the lip, a form common again in Persian pottery of a slightly later date. The glazes used on the figures appear also on these vessels, sometimes in monochrome, more often in mottled colours (Plate XXIV., fig. 5), but they rarely cover the EES Aae a whole exterior of the As here vessel, stopping as a rule ee vie in a wavy line short of the base. The base of the T’ang vase is usually flat and shaved at the edge. The decoration of Fang pottery is chiefy effected by moulding in relief, by applying reliefs + . * `

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FROM

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GEORGE

EUMORFOPOULOS

DISH OF THE T’ANG

COLLECTION

DYNASTY

fig. 4). Painting with a brush was also used not only for the application of pigments on unglazed wares, but in rare instances for decorating in black under a green glaze. The T’ang pottery so far discussed shows a considerable advance on its predecessors in the use of coloured lead glazes; but it is also apparent that great strides were now made with the harder, feldspathic glazes which were fired at a much higher temperature. The important excavations on the ọth century site of Samarra on the Tigris (see F. Sarre, Die Keramik von Samarra,

PORCELAIN

[CHINA

chocolate brown, verging on black, a watery green and a brown splashed with frothy grey.

But the progress of the T’ang potter is not to be measured by improved technique alone. The beauty of the vase-forms which

he threw on the wheel places him in the front rank of potters, and

his incised and moulded ornaments prove him to have been a trye ceramic artist.

In the half century which intervened between the T’ang and Sung dynasties ceramic history records the manufacture of two

interesting wares, both of which are still a puzzle to the student.

One is the celebrated Ch’ai ware which was reputed to have been “thin as paper, resonant as a musical stone and blue as the sky

seen between the clouds after rain.” This was an imperial ware

made for a few years only in the neighbourhood of K’ai-féng Fy in Honan; and apparently no complete specimen of it remained above ground even in the 16th century. The traditional description of it suggests a kind of porcelain, and modern opinion holds that it probably belonged to the ying ching class of ware which will be described presently. But this is only a theory and, it must be added, a theory which is by no means universally accepted, The other is the pi sé (secret colour) ware made at Yüeh Chou, the modern Shao-hsing Fu in Chekiang, for the princely house of Chien. It is generally agreed that this was a porcelain or semiporcelain with grey green glaze of the celadon type. The Sung Dynasty (960-1279).—The Sung dynasty was another Augustan age of Chinese art, and ceramic writers in after years described the Sung porcelains in reverential terms as the classic wares of China. Collectors treasured them with loving

care, so that not a few have survived above the ground and we are not dependent entirely on excavated funeral goods for our estimate of the Sung potter’s skill. Something too is recorded of the history of the more noted Sung factories, and slender as is the information given it has enabled the modern student to attempt a

reasoned, though not yet assured, classification of the principal

types, namely the Ju, Kuan, Ko, Ting, Lung-ch’tian, Chiin, Chien and Tz’ Chou, with a few subsidiary wares in addition. The Imperial Ju ware was made at Ju Chou, near K’ai-féng Fu in Honan, for a brief period at the beginning of the z2th century; but we gather that it belongs to a type of ware which was made at several potteries, e.g., in the districts of T’ang Téng and Yao on the north of the Yellow river—besides at Ju Chou itself. The Ju Chou ware, however, excelled the rest and doubtless the imperial works were manned by picked Ju Chou potters. The Chinese descriptions of the Imperial Ju ware, which was already extremely scarce in the 16th century, leave us in some doubt as to its exact nature, but the most plausible theory is that it was of the ying ching type. The term ying ch’ing, which means misty blue or green (the colour word ch’ing connoting both blue and green), is applied by the Chinese to-day to a soft-looking, bubbly porcelain glaze, white in colour but with a faint tinge of blue or greenish blue which sometimes develops a definite blue tint (Plate XXV., fig. 1). This tinge of colour has been traced to the presence of a minute quantity of iron in the ware. The ying ch’ing porcelain is a relatively low-fired ware and the body has a somewhat granular texture. It varies much in quality, from a coarse material with impure, pearly grey glaze to an exquisite egg-shell porcelain thin and translucent and of a deliciously soft and melting quality. The best specimens are skilfully potted and of elegant shape, and the

decoration, if any, is carved in low relief, incised with a fine point FROM THE GEORGE EUMORFOPOULOS COLLECTION LEFT, PORCELAIN EWER WITH WHITE GLAZE, T'ANG PERIOD; RIGHT, WHITE PORCELAIN BOTTLE WITH UNGLAZED BASE, T’ANG PERIOD

1925, and also below under Persian pottery) revealed quite a number of fragments of porcellanous stoneware and even true porcelain of Chinese make. From them we gather that these advanced ceramic products were not only made, but had actually become articles of overseas trade in the T’ang dynasty. They include a semi-porcelain with closely crackled, yellowish white glaze or with green and mottled glazes, or again with the sea-green glaze which we distinguish by the name of celadon; besides pure porcelain with white or ivory glaze. Other high-fired T’ang glazes are a

or pressed out in moulds. It is surmised that some of the finer ying ch’ing porcelain may have been made at the Imperial Ju Chou factory, while the rest comes from the numerous private factories working with more or less skill on the same lines. It must how-

ever be understood that the identification of this ware with the famous Ju porcelain is not yet proved.

_Another type which is still problematical is the Kuan. The name itself leaves room for various interpretations, and the description of it in Chinese works, like most Chinese descriptions, is full of ambiguities. Kuan means imperial, and Kuan ware may

be nothing more than imperial ware of whatever kind. But Chinese writers evidently intended the Kuan wares of the Sung dynasty to be distinctive types. They describe first of all a Kuan ware

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PORCELAIN

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PORCELAIN

303

made in the neighbourhood of the capital, K’ai-féng Fu, for a beautiful than this soft, misty bluish grey porcelain, and nothshort time before 1127, when the Sung court was driven south

of the Yangtze by the Kin Tartars.

The identification of this

northern Kuan is extremely uncertain, though there are reasons

for thinking that it had the opalescent, blue-grey type of glaze which was developed to its full on the Chiin Chou ware (see p.

364). The southern Kuan, made after 1127 in the precincts of the imperial palace at Hang-chou, whither the Sung court had been transferred, so closely resembled the Ko ware, that many Chinese writers do not attempt to discriminate between the Ko and Kuan. The Ko ware is described in some detail in Chinese books. It got its name from the elder of two potter brothers Chang who lived in the Lung-ch’lan district in Chekiang in the Southern Sung period, being in fact the ware of FROM THE GEORGE EUMORFOPOULOS COLLEC- the “elder brother” (ko). It is TION evident, however, that the term Tz'U CHOU VASE, YUAN

DYNASTY

A band of lotus scrol! with one of foliage below, ornaments this buff grey vase which has a black finish

Ko ware was not confined to any

individual’s work, but passed into general use as a generic term for a group of wares made over a long period at various places. Like the Hang Chou Kuan, the Sung Ko ware was made of a darkcoloured clay (we are told by one writer that this clay was actually brought from Hang Chou to the Lung-ch’tian district), and for this reason it has a dark brown edge on the unglazed foot-rim and a brown mouth-rim where the glaze is thin enough to allow the body material to show through it. The glaze itself was crackled, sometimes in a wide network of cracks, sometimes in a close pattern of small crackle which was likened to fish roe. The crackle was further emphasized by staining it with red or black. The colours of the Ko glaze are described as fén ch’ing, hui sé, mi sé which may be rendered grey green, ash colour and millet colour or yellowish, and less intelligibly as tam pai which was probably something of the ying ch’ing colour. Well accredited specimens in Western collections have a blackish body material which gives the traditional “brown mouth and iron foot,” a thick opaque glaze, lustrous and fat, with crackle stained red or black, and of bluish grey, greenish grey or buff grey colours (Plate XXXIV., fig. 1) which tally well with the Chinese descriptions. We read of Ko ware made in the Yiian and even the early Ming periods; and in later times the term Ko glaze was current for all the grey and buf crackled glazes which figure so largely in the Chinese potter’s output. The crackle affected by the Chinese potter from the Sung dynasty onwards was deliberately sought by definite processes and was eventually got under perfect control, so that large or small crackle could be produced at will. It is unlikely that the earlier processes were very reliable, such as the plunging of the ware while still warm into cold water; but the Chinese eventually discovered that the mixing of a certain kind of stone (apparently pegmatite) with the glaze disturbed the relationship of body and glaze sufficiently to ensure crackle, and they learnt to prepare a crackle glaze which was applied in single, double or treble doses according to the size of the crackle desired.

Lung-ch’iian Celadon.—The Lung-ch’iian district in Che-

kiang, the home of the original Ko ware, had long been noted for a beautiful ware which is familiar to us under the name of celadon. It is a porcelain or semi-porcelain of greyish white

body with a thick translucent glaze varying from greyish and

bluish green to sea-green and grass-green. The most precious of the Lung-ch’tian celadons has a delicate bluish grey or greenish sey glaze over a finely potted porcelain body which is almost white. Such was the ware reputed to have been made by the younger Chang at the village of Liu-t’ien in the Southern Sung period; and collectors distinguish it by the Japanese name kinuta,

after a famous vase in shape of a mallet (kinuta), which is pre-

served in a Japanese temple.

Nothing

could be more

subtly

ing is more difficult to render adequately in a coloured reproduction (Plate XXV., fig. 2). It is not known how far back the industry of Lung-ch’iian dates; but the fragments of celadon found on the oth century site of Samarra, in Mesopotamia, may well have been made there. On the other hand we are told that the kilns were transferred to the neighbouring

Ch’u-chou

at the beginning

of the

Ming period and that they flourished there till the end of that dynasty. The output must have been large, and it formed from the earliest time an important item of Chinese export trade. Fragments of celadon are found in the ruins of ancient cities all over the Near East, and we know from actual records that celadon was imported into Egypt and carried thence along the Mediterranean coasts as far as Morocco. FROM THE GEORGE EUMORFOPOULOS COLLECFragments too have been found TION on the coastal sites of East Africa HSUAN TE PORCELAIN STEM-CUP One of the three crimson red fishes as far south as Zanzibar. India painted on the outside, is shown and the East Indies had their share of the trade, and a few pieces of celadon found their way even to western Europe in the middle ages. This justly celebrated ware, the export celadon, was a stoutly built greyish porcelain with a beautiful sea-green glaze of considerable thickness but transparent enough to allow the carved, moulded or incised designs to show through clearly (Plate XXV., fig. 3).

Besides the carved and incised designs which are of great beauty, reliefs moulde@ or applied were effectively used. Sometimes these reliefs—floral medallions, fishes and even figure subjects—were left uncovered by the glaze, and in this case they invariably took on a red or reddish brown colour as a result of exposure to the fire in the kiln (Plate XXV., fg. 3). This browning, caused by the presence of iron in the clay, is to be seen in all parts of the ware which were unprotected by the glaze, such as the base-rims and the large unglazed ring which is often seen on the bottoms of dishes, It was thought at one time that the presence of this ring was a sign

of Ming origin, but it is very doubtful if this rule holds good; and the distinction between Ming, VYiian and Sung celadons, no easy matter, must depend on an appreciation of style and finish. Much help in this delicate task of connoisseurship can be obtained from a study of the other Sung wares, especially the Ting porcelain (see below) with its carved and engraved floral designs which closely resemble those used on the celadons. In the hands of the Sung artists these designs had a freshness and spontaneity which is dulled by BY COURTESY OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM repetition on the Ming wares. PORCELAIN VASE WITH DRAGONS A special type of celadon is variegated by patches of reddish brown derived from iron. This is known as “spotted celadon,” the tobi seiji of the Japanese. Other Celadons.—Though the industry in Chekiang is said to have died out in the 17th century, it was not to be expected that such a beautiful glaze as the sea-green celadon would be allowed to disappear. It was in fact made with slight variations in many other pottery centres. At Ching-té Chén it was used over the white porcelain body for which that place is noted, and the Ching-té Chén celadons have the ordinary white glaze,

364

POTTERY

AND

and sometimes a reign-mark in blue, on their bases. A celadon glaze was used on the Kwangtung stoneware; and there are many specimens with glaze of celadon type but so different in body from the typical Chekiang ware that we must perforce look to some other centre for their origin. If we consult the Chinese books we get little help in this quest. It is true that they speak of a certain T’ung ware, made near K’ai-féng Fu in Honan, as if it were of the celadon class. But the identification of the T’ung is quite conjectural. In the absence of definite indications, we have adopted the term “northern celadon” for one large and important group (Plate XXXVI., fig. 2). It comprises bowls, small dishes, vases, incense burners, etc. with a dry buff grey stoneware body and an olive green celadon glaze. The decoration is carved, incised or moulded, often with much skill and taste; and it closely resembles that of the ying ch’ing, or Ju type of porcelain, a fact which suggests a Honan origin for the ware. This northern origin, however, is not accepted by all authorities. Dr. Nakao, for instance, holds that it is only a variety of the Chekiang celadons, in spite of the very obvious difference between it and the usual Lung-ch’iian types, and he is probably right in supposing that the art of celadon manufacture was introduced into southern Korea from Chekiang, the most accessible Chinese ceramic centre. And it must be admitted that the resemblance between the so-called northern celadon and the Korean (see p. 369) is remarkably close. A stoneware of celadon type but with a pale and watery glaze was made at Sawankhalok in Siam as early as the rath century; and in more recent times good celadon wares, scarcely distinguishable from the Lung-ch’iian, have been made in several parts of Japan. And it may be added that the imported celadon wares were freely imitated in Persia and Egypt; but these imitations, made with the soft Near-Eastern pottery, are easily recognizable for what they are. x Ting Ware—Another of the classic Sung types is the ivory

white porcelain made at Ting Chou in southern Chihli. It is a singularly pure and beautiful ware with a flour-white body,

PORCELAIN

[CHINA

of white slip and a beautiful waxen white glaze closely Crackled and recalling the finer 2’ Ting wares. Much of this ware ty, been excavated on the site of the submerged town of Kiiluhsien

(destroyed by flood in 1108); and many of the specimens hayes

been made additionally quired during burial.

attractive

by pinkish grey stains ac.

The Ting Chou factories themselves, though their fame dieg down after the Sung period, continued in operation, and Tip

ware is mentioned in court records as late as the middle of the

16th century. About this time too a celebrated potter at Ching. té Chén, Chou Tan-ch’iian, made himself a name by his wonderfyj imitations of Sung Ting vessels; and we gather that he had many followers who kept up the traditions of his work at Ching-ta Chén long after his death. Chiin Ware.—Yet another celebrated ware was the Chin. which was made at Chiin Chou in the K’ai-féng Fu district of Honan (Plate XXVIII.). It was in fact, like the white Ting and the green celadon, one of key wares of the Sung dynasty. According to Dr. Nakao it is the type of ware which would naturally result from the firing of a kaolinic body and feldspathic glaze coloured by copper in the oxidizing flame of the typical round kiln of northerm China. The finer Chiin wares have a grey porcellanous body and

a thick opalescent glaze full of bubbles and minute pin-holes (caused by the bursting of bubbles), and displaying a wonderful variety of colours which are due in part to the protean changes of

copper oxide in an oxidizing flame, in part to a trace of iron which is present in the body material, and in part to the play of light in a highly opalescent glaze. Copper under the conditions prevailing in the Chitin Chou kilns was capable of producing a range of colour from blue to blood red, and the Chiin glazes dis-

play endless combinations of these colours suffusing a basically grey glaze. Thus we have in the extremes an even lavender grey

and an almost uniform purplish red, and between these a variety of splashed, streaked and mottled effects of blue, grey, purple and crushed strawberry red. Again the interior of shallow dishes is often frosted over with an opaque, greenish grey; and the Chin glaze is apt to break into irregular V-shaped lines known as earthworm marks, which the Chinese connoisseurs regard as a sign of genuine Sung make. The Chiin ware is strong and heavy, and the

slightly translucent, and a glaze of cream or ivory tint, which, however, tends to run in tears or drops on the outside of the bowls and dishes. A peculiarity of the ware, which it shares with the ying ch’ing, or Ju type, is that the mouth-rims of bowls finer specimens consist mainly of flower-pots (Plate XXVIII, fig. and dishes are often unglazed while the base is covered with glaze, 1) and shallow bowls which could serve as stands for the flowerthus reversing the usual conditions. The rough rims of such ves- pots or alternatively as bulb-bowls. This class of Chiin ware has a sels are generally concealed by a band of silver or copper. The wash of brown glaze on the base and a ring of “spur” marks formed Ting ware was exquisitely decorated with carved or incised de- by the pointed stilts on which the vessel rested in the kiln. It is signs, largely floral (Plate XXXVI., fig. 3, 5, 7) ; and in some cases, moreover usually incised with a series number which ranges from especially in the later periods, the more mechanical method of one to ten and apparently indicates the size, No. 1 being the largest. pressing out the designs in moulds was used with good effect. An “outsize” is indicated by addition of the character ta which Besides the fine ivory white Ting ware there are several va- means large. It is known that the Chiin factories continued active through rieties. One is known as u (earthy) Ting because it has a more opaque and earthy-looking body (PlateXXXVL., fig. 4). This the Sung and Viian dynasties and as late as the 16th century. In kind has a soft, cream white glaze which is usually covered with fact we are not informed when their activity ended. Consequently faint crackle. Chinese writers also speak of Ting wares with there is much difficulty in distinguishing the Sung and later Chin black, red and brown or purple glazes. The two first are probably wares; and the tendency is to call the finer specimens Sung and glazes of the Honan temmoku type (see p. 365); but the purple the coarser Yiian, too little regard being paid to the fact that Ting has so far eluded recognition. There is also mention of a much of the ware must be as late as Ming. All that can be said painted Ting ware, which must have resembled the painted stone- for certain is that the heyday of the Chiin factories was in the Sung and that their reputation faded after the Yiian dynasty. ware of Tz’ii Chou (see p. 365). There is a peculiarly beautiful group of wares which belong to The beauty of the white Ting porcelain encouraged, while its simplicity abetted, numerous imitations, some of which are ad- the Chiin class, and, if fineness is a criterion, also to the Sung mitted by Chinese writers to be practically indistinguishable period. They have the grey porcellanous body of the numbered from the original. There was, for instance, the Southern Ting, Chiin wares, and an opalescent glaze which is, however, thinner made by Ting Chou potters who moved south with the Sung and smoother than the usual Chiin glaze. Its colour is lavender court in 1127 and who seem to have settled in the neighbourhood grey, but it is richly suffused, or splashed, with a lovely plum of Ching-té Chén. Then there were the famous imitations made purple and this purple sometimes dominates the whole surface. by P’éng Chiin-pao at Ho Chou in Shansi; and the Ssii Chou The glaze flows more or less evenly down to the edge of the and Su Chou wares of Anhwei which were bought for Ting ware base-rims and it usually reappears on a small patch on the base. in the Sung dynasty “by persons who liked a bargain.” There Sometimes the purple splashes on this ware are symmetrically are the white wares of Hsiian Chou, and those made at the disposed and even deliberately designed to suggest the forms of “white earth village” near Hsiao Hsien in northern Kiangsu. fishes, birds, animals or fruits, showing clearly that these patches, There were the cream white wares made at Tz’tii Chou which were though doubtless at first accidental, were later brought under regarded as equal to Ting; and we know of a singularly pleas- control. To what factory does this group belong? Is it merely ing stoneware with grey or light buff body covered with a wash a variety of the Chiin Chou ware or is it something else? One of

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MING

THREE-COLOUR

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ENAMEL

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The remarkable painting of the Jotus—each petal of which is executed with a single vigorous brush stroke—and with strong quality of the incised characters, meaning “‘snow,” ‘‘moon,” “wind,” ‘‘flower,’’ make this an outstanding specimen of its type

Prate XXXII

CENTRE

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POTTERY AND PORCELAIN

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MING

DYNASTY

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Upper left: Black rectangular vase bearing Wan Li mark (1573—1619) decorated with enamels. Upper right: three-colour vase and bowl with aubergine ground; 16th—17th century. Centre: Large deep peach-bloom glazed vase decorated with enamels and bearing Hsuan Té mark (1426-35). Lower left: Three-colour jar and cover with turquoise ground; 15th century. Lower right: Five-colour jar and cover; 16th century

CHINA]

POTTERY

AND

the descriptions given of the Northern Kuan ware suggests that it may ‘belong to that obscure category; and some collectors distinguish it as Chiin ware of Kuan type (Plate XXXVI., fig. 6).

Tt is evident that many kilns were at work on the Chün type of ware, and probably in other districts besides Chün Chou, but we have little or no information on this point. We do, however, know that the Chiin wares had many imitators. Good copies were made at Ching-té Chén, probably as early as the Ming dynasty, certainly in the Yung Chéng period of the Ch'ing dynasty (1723-35); but there is little difficulty in distinguishing these later copies which have a white porcelain body and sometimes even a reign-mark. Other imitations made elsewhere can also be detected by variations

of the body material and peculiarities of the glaze. Such are the

Fatshan Chiin ware made at the famous stoneware factories at Shekwan near Fatshan, in Kwangtung (g.v.), in Ming and later times; and the Yi-hsing Chins which were made at Yi-hsing near the Great Lake in Kiangsu, the home of the red stoneware tea-pots. The Vi-hsing imitations have a buff or red stoneware body and a thick opalescent glaze of lavender turquoise colour with or without obviously artificial splashes of purple and crimson.

While easily

distinguished from the real Chiin wares, they are often mistaken for another type which remains to be considered. This is the “soft Chiin” (also called ma chiin by Chinese traders), an attractive ware with light buff body and a beautiful, opaque turquoise or lavender blue glaze closely crackled and suffused here and there with purple or crimson splashes. Where it was made and when are by no means certain; but the shapes of the ware suggest in some cases the Sung and in others the Ming period, and the glaze is of the northern type. A degenerate descendant of this soft Chiin is still made at Yu Chou which is the modern name of Chiin Chou, and probably this was the original home of the ware.

Chien Wares.—Another large and widely distributed group of stoneware is commonly called, for want of a better general term, by the Japanese name temmoku. This name was first given to. the black tea bowls for which Chien-an and afterwards Chien-yang, in Fukien, were noted in the Sung dynasty and even earlier. They are made of a blackish stoneware with a thick treacly glaze of

purplish black shot with brown lines like hare’s fur or mottled

with brown like the breast feathers of a partridge. Their glaze stops in a thick irregular welt short of the base outside and forms ina deep pool on the bottom inside. The “hare’s-fur or partridge” cups were commonly preferred for use in the tea-testing competitions, as their thick structure made the cup cool to handle and their dark glaze showed up the least trace of the green tea dust. In Japan they have always been fashionable in the tea ceremonies. The Chien glaze owes its colour to iron, which under varying conditions produces a reddish brown as well as a black colour. Indeed the brown and black seem to be always struggling for the mastery in the Chien glaze. Sometimes the brown completely dominates the black: sometimes it only emerges in streaks and spots, and sometimes again these spots are crystalline and have a

PORCELAIN

designs—in dull golden brown in the black or dappled glaze. Tz’u Chou.—The last important group of Sung wares takes its name from the great pottery centre Tz’% Chou, once in Honan and now in the south-west corner of Chihli. The Tz’t Chou ware is a grey or buff-grey stoneware, which is usually coated with white slip and covered with creamy glaze The plain cream white Tz’ Chou stoneware has been mentioned among the Ting types, but the ware is more usually decorated with painted or incised designs. The painted designs, floral or otherwise, are laid on with a bold brush in black or brown slip (Plate XXXI., fig. I, 4, 6, 13), sometimes

by the Japanese; while on others it comes out a uniform reddish brown, the kaki temmoku of the Japanese. Another ware which

is Commonly grouped with the temmoku is that believed to have been found on the site of the old Sung potteries at Yung-ho Chén near Ch’i-an Fu, in Kiangsi. In this case the body is a buff stoneware and the glaze is a rather thin blackish brown which flows

evenly to the base and is often mottled with golden brown in tortoise-shell fashion or streaked and dappled with frothy grey.

further feature is painted ornament—prunus blossoms and ‘prays, birds, butterflies, inscribed medallions and symmetrical

supplemented by an ochreous red under

the cream glaze. Painting in enamels—green, yellow and red—over the glaze was also used, occasionally in the Sung period and frequently in later times. The incised, or grafiato, Tz’ Chou ware has many varieties. Simple incised designs are comparatively scarce, the more usual practice being to coat the vessel with white or brown slip which was then scraped away so as to leave the design slightly relieved in white or brown against a buff-grey body. A coating of transparent cream glaze over this produced cream white design on a mouse grey ground, if the slip was white. Where brown was used the slip usually contained the glazing material and the design appeared in brown or black glaze against an unglazed ground (Plate XXXI., fig. 12). Both of these graffiato types have great decorative value. The black and brown painted Tz’u Chou is the commonest type and its merits vary with the quality of the drawing.

The Tz’ Chou potteries have a history which can be traced from the 6th century to the present day, and there will always be room for debate as to the age of particular specimens. Further, most of the Tz’ Chou types were made at other potteries scattered over northern China, and doubtless much that we call Tz’u Chou really belongs to other potteries which worked on similar lines. This will explain variations in the body material of wares of the Tz’ Chou type, and why a red body, quite unlike the original buff grey, is found on some of the most beautiful members of the group, such as the vases with black painted and grafiato designs under transparent green glaze or with black

painted designs under a lovely peacock blue (Plate XXXI., fig. 11). The potters who made these choice objects.must have been among the foremost of their craft, but, though they used the Tz’t Chou methods, their wares differ fundamentally from what we know as Tz’t Chou. Chinese ceramic records name several other Sung potteries in various parts of China, but they are hardly more than names to us and we know little or nothing of their productions. Practically all the Sung wares which we know, however, are comprised in the types already described. The forms, except where they were moulded after those of old bronzes, are simple and elegant, such as come naturally from the hands of a gifted “thrower” on the

potter’s wheel. The character of the classic Sung wares may be summed up in two words, simplicity and refinement. For the purpose of this brief sketch the Yiian dynasty (1280-1368) may be regarded as a continuation of the Sung. The Mongol conquerors had nothing to bring into the stock in trade of the Chinese pot-

silvery sheen.

The black ferruginous glaze is by no means confined to the Fukien factories. It was, and still is, made in many parts of China, chiefly in the north; and one of the northern wares which has this black and brown glaze over a whitish stoneware body is known to collectors as Honan ¢emmoku. The northern black glazes are often of a peculiarly rich and luscious quality, and sometimes they are boldly flecked with lustrous brown and even painted with sketchy designs of flowers and birds in the same brown. On rare specimens the glaze is strewn more or less regularly with silvery crystals, the “oil spots” so greatly prized

365

FROM OULOS

THE GEORGE COLLECTION

EUMORFOP.

MING EWER (1368-1644);

ter except forms and extreme of Further we

task-masters dustry,

a taste for certain Western designs acquired in the other their transcontinental empire. are told that they were hard

and that the ceramic

in common

with

in-

many

others,

etc., went

out of

INCISED DECORATION AND especially the more artistic crafts, lost TURQUOISE GLAZE : k ground under their unsympathetic rule. The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).—In 1368 the Yüan was replaced by the native dynasty of the Ming, which ruled China till 1644; and, when the country had recovered from the interdynastic struggles, the ceramic art took a new lease of life, though under somewhat changed conditions. The Sung monochrome

wares,

the celadons,

Chün

wares,

3266

POTTERY

AND

favour and the old factories sank into obscurity, while the fame

and importance of the great porcelain town of Ching-té Chén,

PORCELAIN Indies, Persia, Egypt and even in Europe.

[CHINA But all the Ming

blue and white, whether made for home or foreign consumption, is distinguished by a freshness and freedom of design which make

near the Po-yang lake in Kiangsi, overshadowed all the rest. The first Ming emperors had their capital in Nanking and the prox- the commonest specimen a desirable possession. Another colour used, like the cobalt blue, under the glaze, is a imity of Ching-té Chén to the seat of government doubtless helped its development. At any rate from this time onwards the red derived from copper. It was a difficult colour to contro} but fine white porcelain of Ching-té Chén was in general demand and it was used with success in several Ming reigns, notably the Hsiian the imperial factory there was rebuilt and reorganized to keep Te (see page 363) and Ch’éng Hua, both as monochrome and ip the court supplied with it; and Chinese ceramic writers thence- designs painted in the same way as the blue and white. Ming Enamelled Wares.—Pictorial designs having become forward speak of Ching-té Chén and little else. The neighbourhood of Ching-té Chén had long been noted for fashionable, means were found to paint them on the glaze as wel] its excellent ceramic wares. It was ordered to supply goods to as under it. The chief advantage in on-glaze painting lies in the the court as early as the 6th century, and it received its present wider range of colours available. The over-glaze colours, com. name in the Ching Té period of the Sung dynasty (1004-07). monly distinguished as enamels, are made of coloured glass ground All that the industry required in the way of material was lavishly to powder and liquefied so as to be usable on a brush (Plate supplied by the neighbouring hills, kaolin (china clay) for the XXXIII., white jar). They are “fixed” in a small stove, or muffe body of the porcelain and peiuntse (china stone) to mix with it at a low temperature which is sufficient to melt the enamel powder and to form the glaze, wood ashes to soften the glaze, and and make it adhere to the glaze without actually melting the latter, cobaltiferous ore of manganese to make the blue for the under- The colours used are leaf green and turquoise green derived from glaze painting and the blue glazes. The staple product of Ching-té copper, a brownish yellow derived from iron, and aubergine purple Chén is the fine white porcelain which has made China a house- derived from manganese, besides which a dry black pigment was hold word throughout the world; and as this ware lent itself pe- obtained from manganese and a thin tomato red (half-way between culiarly well to painted decoration, the vogue for painted porcelain a pigment and an enamel) from iron. The Ming red is apt to berapidly replaced the old Sung taste for monochromes. They fall come iridescent and lustrous; both it and the black are used for into three chief groups, namely blue and white, enamelled wares painting outlines, and the latter was sometimes washed on and and three-colour glazed wares, all of which are essentially pic- covered with transparent green to form a composite black. Gildtorial in their decoration. ing was also used. With this palette the Ming potters produced Blue and White.—The beautiful cobalt blue is one of the few richly coloured porcelain, decorated with pictorial designs and forceramic colours which will stand the high temperature required mal brocade patterns. In some cases the enamels were combined to melt the porcelain glaze, and which consequently can be used with underglaze blue and this colour scheme, though known in under the glaze. Thus the blue colour, painted on the body of the the 15th century, was so popular in the Wan Li period (1573ware and covered with a transparent sheet of glaze, gives a per- 1619) that it has come to be known as the wan li wu ts’ai or fectly protected picture which will last as long as the porcelain Wan Li polychrome. Another type, known as the “red and green itself. The idea of painting porcelain in this fashion was not new family,” is characterized by the absence of blue and the prein the Ming dynasty. It was known to the Sung potters, but it dominance of red and green, and again there are effective comwas only in the Ming dynasty that blue and white became fash- binations of two colours such as red and yellow, blue and yellow, ionable. Nor is the idea necessarily of Chinese origin, for blue blue and green, red and green, red and gold and more rarely painting was certainly known to the Near-Eastern potters as early green and gold. as the oth century, and we have as yet no indication of its use Besides being painted on the glaze the enamel colours were in China at so early a date. In the Ming dynasty, however, the sometimes painted on the biscuit, z.e., the fired but unglazed porceChing-té Chén potters made it specially their own, and their blue lain body; but this technique was commoner in the succeeding and white was not only supplied in large quantities to the imperial dynasty and will be discussed later. court but was exported all over the eastern hemisphere. “Three-colour” Ming Wares.—There are few kinds of ceraDuring certain reigns—Hsiian Té (1426-35), Chéng Té (1s06~- mic ware, Chinese or otherwise, that make such a brave show as 21) and Chia Ching (1522-66)—the native supplies of cobalt the Ming three-colour (san ¢s’at) porcelain (Plate XXX.). Though blue were supplemented by a nominally combinations of three, the glazes which make up the superior blue imported from the colour scheme of this group are dark violet blue, turquoise, Near East and known as Mohamaubergine purple, yellow and a neutral white; and they are used medan blue. This imported main washes over designs set in single-colour ground which is terial was scarce and costly and usually dark blue or turquoise. To prevent the colours from was at first reserved for the overrunning each other the designs are outlined by incised lines Imperial factory, and even so it or by threads of clay (Plate XXXIII., purple vase and bowl), or was usually diluted with the they are carved in open work. The glazes themselves, though common native cobalt. Later on harder than the enamels discussed in the last section, do not require supplies of it found their way the full heat of the porcelain kiln to melt them, and consequently ‘into the hands of the private manthe ware has to be “biscuited” (subjected to a preliminary firing) ufacturers. According to Chinese and then, when the glazes have been applied, fired again in the accounts it varied much in tone, cooler parts of the kiln. They are, in fact, what the French call but the kind best known to us them, glazes du demi-grand feu. is the Mohammedan blue of the The decoration of the three-colour ware is bold; it includes Chia Ching period which is a large floral subjects, lotus and cranes, peonies and peacocks, dark violet blue of great strength and a few set figure subjects such as the Eight Immortals payand intensity. In general the ing court to the God of Longevity, Wang Chih watching the Ming blue is painted in one of BY COURTESY OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM game of chess, etc. The details are often built up in slight te TURKISH POTTERY JUG two ways, either in finely pencilled lief, certain parts such as faces and hands of human figures line drawing or in strongly outlined designs filled in with flat being left unglazed. The glazes are thick and inclined to be washes. The better class of Ming porcelain, made for imperial opaque. Much of the three-colour ware dates from the 15th cenand native use, was potted thin and finely shaped; and this is tury. In the 16th century the glazes tend to become sleeker, now rare and only to be acquired from Chinese collections. But smoother and more transparent, and incised decoration is used. there is a commoner class which was more strongly and roughly The three-colour decoration was not confined to porcelain. fashioned to meet the exigencies of the export trade, and this Excellent specimens of it are seen on both stoneware and earth has been found in considerable quantities in India, the East enware bodies. Indeed some of the most beautiful three-colour

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN

1

Prare XXXIV

rA mo

apagan

M

MAP NN

ME x

gM

AN

Va

NA

We

one á a

bd

wt

a

~

z

E OE

*

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fi EY X

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RBar E

4

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wee et % EE AN

= 3

ant

mene

eee esae re

11 BY COURTESY

OF

(11)

THE

TRUSTEES

HONAN

OF

THE

BRITISH

TEMMOKU

MUSEUM,

FROM

(1-10,

POTTERY, LIGHT

12)

THE

SUNG BUFF

WARREN

E. COX

COLLECTION

PERIOD (960-1280) HAVING AND BROWN BODIES

l. Brushholder with brown “oil spot’? glaze applied so as to leave an open pattern. 2. Gallipot with incised light brown glaze. 3. Gallipot with grooves from the turning and speckled ‘‘tea dust” glaze. 4. Gallipot with even lustrous black glaze. 5. Gallipot jar in dark ‘“‘tea dust’? with silvery design. 6. Jar with beautiful tortoise shell doubly applied glaze and silvery pattern. 7. Graceful bottle with dark lustrous brown glaze and silvery pat-

GREYISH

WHITE,

tern of bird. §&. Jar with thick glaze running black, dark blue and brown. 9, Jar with thick black glaze leaving lower part exposed. Each handle consists of two loops. 10. Pear shaped vase with lustrous black glaze over glaze running thin to a deep blue near base and splashed with iron rust brown patches. 11. Tea bow! with thick “‘hare’s fur’? glaze. 12. Exceptional jar of the deepest plum shade glaze, almost black, on dark brown body

POTTERY

PLATE XXXV

FROM

THE

GEORGE

EUMORFOPOULOS

AND

PORCELAIN

COLLECTION

CHINESE

VASE

Lang Yao sang-de-boeuf vase of the K’ang Hsi period (1662~—1722).

Height 1712 inches

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN

CHINA]

vases have a buff stoneware body and bold floral designs in minutely crackled glazes which include a peacock blue of peculiarly attractive tone (Plate XXX.). Where this group of fine pottery was made is not known; but it is found in widely separated parts of China and may have been made in several factories.

Other Ming Wates.—Though

monochrome

porcelains no

longer held the premier position, they were still made in consider-

able quantity and some of them received

special

notice

from

Chinese writers. The sacrificial red (chi hung) of the Hsiian Te

and Ch’éng Hua periods, a brillant underglaze red derived from

copper, was most noted, and next came the chi ching, an intense

blue glaze of the Hsüan Te period; and a lovely blue glaze of slightly mottled texture is found on some of the Chia Ching

n Aa A wT Pade an H «Wye

porcelains. There were, besides, celadon green, lustrous black (Plate XXXII.) and brown

307

of the K’ang Hsi period. Nien Hsi-yao was appointed by the Emperor Yung Chéng and in 1728 he was given as an assistant the celebrated T’ang Ying, who succeeded him in 1736 and held the post with great distinction till 1749. T’ang Ying left behind him several treatises on the manufacture under his control, and in addition to these we have the letters of the Jesuit father d’Entrecolles which were written from Ching-té Chén in 1712 and 1722,

giving us an intimate picture of the life and industry of the great porcelain centre with its 3,000 furnaces. The period from 1680 to 1749 must be regarded as the most fertile in the annals of Chinese ceramics. The porcelains of this time are distinguished by fine finish and perfect command of material and technique. They do not, however, differ basically from those of the Ming potters, who had little to learn in the essentials of their craft; and on the whole they suffer by comparison with the Ming in the matter of originality and freshness. The Ch’ing wares indeed are often a trifle stale and mechanical. Still they have enjoyed a long period of popularity in Europe, and their relative weakness has only recently become apparent; for we have only recently made acquaintance with the better types of Ming porcelain.

Ch’ing Blue and White.—Old Nanking is a household phrase

in Europe for Chinese blue and white. None the less it is a misnomer, for while much of that ware was transhipped from Nanking, none of it was actually made there. Old Nanking is in fact the blue and white porcelain of Ching-té Chén and chiefly that ag monochromes, the turquoise made in the K’ang Hsi period and imported into Europe by the ive. effect ially espec blue being Dutch and other East India merchants. It was justly famous, for Very beautiful, too, are the pure never was more care expended on the preparation of the ware white porcelains (white was the BRITISH MUSEUM THE OF and the refining of the blue. The best K’ang Hsi blue is pure e (O forms in certa in -clour required LAMP FROM THE MOSQUE OF OMAR sapphire, without the tinge of violet or grey so often observable of ritual qand also by the court in the Ming blue; and it is usually laid on in graded washes which the of made is mention special and ; during periods of mourning) exquisite white “egg-shell” bowls of the reign of Yung Lo (1403- give it its splendid, vibrating depths. As to the painted designs 24) and of the white altar cups of the Hsiian Te and Chia Ching they are mainly Ming themes, when they are not of the formal periods. If any decoration was added to these white wares it was arabesque type; but some of them are of outstanding beauty, faintly carved, incised or traced in white slip under the glaze, a such as the design of ascending and descending branches of flowering prunus reserved in white in a ground of marbled blue which is subtle form of ornament known as am hua or secret decoration.

glazes; and all the demi-grand feu glazes of the three-colour porcelains were used individually

Another and more conspicuous form of slip decoration is traced in white on blue or green glazes in a manner resembling the modern site sur pate. Reliefs in white biscuit and remarkably fine open work distinguish some of the later Ming porcelains, the open work being of such superhuman delicacy that it was called kuei kung or devil’s work. A quantity of stoneware and earthenware was made all over China in the Ming period. The best known are the tile work and architectural pottery which are often finely modelled: they are usually glazed with green, yellow, aubergine

netted over with lines suggesting cracked ice (Plate XXXVLI., fig. 7). The prunus blossom falling on the breaking ice is a symbol of returning spring; and this motive is a favourite one for the decoration of the jars in which gifts of fragrant tea and sweetmeats were sent at the new year—a festival which falls in China three to seven weeks later than in our calendar. The vogue of blue and white seems to have died down at the end of the K’ang Hsi period, for after that time the ware in general sank into mediocrity,

together with silk and tea, soon became an important item of European trade. From this time onwards we note the influence of European taste affecting the Chinese porcelain to a steadily Increasing extent. The Ch’ing Dynasty (1644-1912).—The Ch’ing dynasty of the Manchus replaced the Ming in 1644; but it was not till about 1680 that its rule was firmly established over a pacified tountry. A succession of three able and enlightened emperors— Kang Hsi (1662-1722), Yung Chêng (1723—35) and Ch’ien Lung (1736-95)—-gave China a long period of good rule and

though exceptions must be made of two types. One is the close imitations of Ming blue and white made in the Yung Chéng period; and the other is the so-called “soft paste” blue and white, a ware prepared with “soapy rock” (hua shih), a kind of pegmatite, and exquisitely painted with the finest brushwork and the purest blue under a soft-looking crackled glaze. Another name given to this porcelain is “steatitic,” in the belief that the hua shih was soap-stone or steatite. It was an expensive ware and chiefly used for small objects such as snuff bottles and the furniture of the writing table, in which the Chinese literati take special delight. Famille Verte.—This is the name given to the K’ang Hsi porcelain decorated in transparent enamels (Plate XXXVII, Fan temple jars). These enamels are in the main the same as those used in the Ming period, but there are a few differences. The iron red is a coral rather than a tomato red, the yellow is clearer than the brownish Ming yellow, there are additional shades of green, and the Ming turquoise green is replaced by a beautiful violet blue enamel. The enamels are either painted over the glaze or washed over black-outlined designs painted direct on the unglazed porcelain or biscuit. The latter process was not unknown in the Ming period, but most of the existing specimens, though often miscalled

patronage. The imperial porcelain factory at Ching-té Chén was managed by a series of exceptionally capable directors. Ts’ang Ying-hstian, appointed in 1682, remained in charge till the end

porcelains are enamelled on the biscuit, such as the sumptuous vases (Plate XXXVII.) with grounds of green-black (famille noire), figures and groups. Not unlike the porcelain enamelled on the biscuit is that

purple, turquoise or blue. On parts of the famous Nanking pagoda, built in the beginning of the r5th century, white porcelain was also employed for the same purpose. Many vases and

vessels of everyday use were also made as by-products of the tile works which existed in all large centres of population to supply local needs; but it is hard to distinguish the common pottery of the Ming from that of the earlier and later periods, except where there is a close analogy with some known type of Ming porcelain to help us. In the early years of the 16th century direct contact was established between Europe

and China;

and Chinese porcelain,

the ideal conditions for the development of the arts, which indeed enjoyed at this time an unusual amount of imperial

Ming, belong to the Ch’ing dynasty.

Some of the finest Ch’ing

368

POTTERY

AND

decorated with washes of coloured glazes, chiefly green, yellow and aubergine. This is the Ch’ing version of the Ming threecolour ware; but the Ch’ing glazes are sleek and transparent. Sometimes they are laid on in patches making a motley decoration which is known in the trade as “‘egg and spinach” glaze. Ch’ing Monochromes.—The Ch’ing monochromes comprise the Ming types, close imitations of the old Sung glazes and many

novelties. Among the best known is the lang yao red (Plate XXXV.) which follows the Ming chi hung but has a character of its own, varying from bright cherry red and deep ox-blood (sang de boeuf) colour to a dappled glaze of crushed strawberry tint. This red is called after a potter family of the name of Lang; and, though imitated in subsequent reigns, it was never so well controlled or so fine in colour as on the K’ang Msi porcelain. Another success of the K’ang Hsi period was the “peach bloom” glaze (Plate XXXVIL., upper left corner), pinkish red in colour but flecked with russet spots and broken by passages of green. Between the peach red and lang yao are many shades of maroon and liver colour. Other K’ang Hsi glazes are the mirror-black, the powderblue (Plate XX XVII.) and the pale lavender or clair de lune; and Chinese writers mention turquoise, eel-skin yellow and snake-skin green as specialities of the period. We need not dwell on the many other monochromes—whites,

celadons, lustrous browns, aubergine purples, violet blues and so forth: but there is a group of composite glazes which requires notice. They are formed by washes of enamel over a stonecoloured crackled glaze; and they include “apple-green” (Plate XXXVII.), camellia leaf green, sage green and mustard yellow. Coral red was also used in monochrome, but this and many enamels of the famille rose types belong chiefly to the Ch’ien Lung period, as also do the splashed or flambé reds which came at first by accident but which T’ang Ying succeeded in getting under perfect control. ‘Famille Rose.—In the third decade of the 18th century a revolution took place in the enamelled porcelains. A new palette of colours was introduced, opaque enamels among which rose pinks (derived from gold) are most conspicuous (Plate XXXVII., lower right corner). The Chinese called these new colours juan

ts’ai (soft colours) or yang ts’ai (foreign colours), and we have adopted for them the French name famille rose. The famille rose displaced the famille verte, and it brought with it a new and more

effeminate type of decoration with delicate designs executed with a miniature-like refinement. The colours are seen at their best on the Yung Chêng porcelain with a few sprays of flowers thrown artistically across the white surface. The more elaborate ruby-back dishes and table services with crowded figure-subjects and complicated borders are less satisfactory; but these were painted in the Canton enamelling establishments and were destined for the European trade. At Canton, too, were decorated large quantities of Ching-tê Chên porcelain with coats of arms and other European designs directly ordered by the foreign. merchants. The famille verte enamels, though eclipsed by the famille rose, were not entirely suppressed; and they emerged again in a mixed palette of transparent and opaque colours. These mixed enamels were effectively used by a school of painters who worked in the style of one Ku Yüeh-hsüan, a maker and decorator of glass in the early years of Ch’ien Lung’s reign. Good specimens are rare, for they are prized by Chinese collectors. Other specialities of the Ch’ien Lung period are “lace-work” porcelain with designs deeply incised and forming semi-transparencies; and “rice-grain” porcelain in which the designs are actually cut out of the side of the vessel though allowed to fill up with glaze. A third type, known as graviata, has a covering of opaque famille rose enamel which is diapered with incised scroll-work. The monochromes of the Yung Chéng and Ch’ien Lung periods include those of the K’ang Hsi with numerous additions, some of which have already been mentioned. Great ingenuity was exercised by the Ch’ien Lung potters in the imitation of natural substances in glaze; the effects of tea dust, iron-rust and bronze are cleverly produced, and enamelled metal, shells, birds’ eggs, grained wood, jade, ivory, etc., are copied so closely as to deceive the eye. But these tours de force are symptoms of an art which had

PORCELAIN

[CHINA

passed its maturity; and after the 18th century the porcelain has little interest, being mainly of an imitative kind. Excep. tions may be made of the Peking medallion bowls, the finer snuf bottles of the Tao Kuang period (1821-50) and some of the imperial porcelains which maintained a high standard of technique

The devastation of Ching-té Chén during the T’ai-p’ing rebellion in 1853 was a crowning disaster to the ceramic industry of Ching Provincial

Porcelains

and

Pottery.—The

bulk of the

Ch’ing dynasty porcelains which have reached Europe is of Ching-té Chén make; but there were many provincial factories

which supplied local needs and which also catered for the sea.

borne trade to India and the East Indies. These provincial wares are generally of a coarse type; but a shining exception is the white porcelain made at Té-hua in the province of Fukien. This is the blanc de Chine of the old French catalogues, which was freely exported from Amoy in the 17th and 18th centuries, and which served as a model for most of the early European porcelains, It is a beautiful, translucent ware with a soft-looking, melting glaze

of milk or cream white, sometimes warmed with a pinkish tinge. and it was chiefly used for ornamental objects such as vases, libation cups, incense burners, figures and groups, less often for table wares. It is decorated, if at all, with slight, applied reliefs, moulded or incised designs, rarely with painted enamels. The Té-hua factories are known to have existed in the last half of the Ming dynasty, and they are still active to-day; and as the character of the ware has changed very little, the dating of specimens will always be difficult. Immense quantities of earthenware and stoneware have been and are still made in every part of China. We know little of the individual potteries, but there are two centres which must be men-

tioned. Yi-hsing, on the west side of the Great Lake in Kiangsu, has been noted since the 16th century for a fine stoneware, chiefly red but also buff, grey and of other colours formed by clever blending of the local clays. The red tea ware of Yi-hsing came to Europe with China tea as early as the 17th century. It was classed at that time with the American buccaro ware; and it was copied closely by Dutch, English and German potters, notably by Böttger at Dresden and by Dwight and Elers in England. The Yi-hsing tea-pots were cleverly fashioned, often. in fanciful shapes, and decorated with reliefs, moulded and incised designs and in some cases with glazes and even enamels. The second centre lies in the province of Kwangtung, the principal potteries being at Shekwan near Fatshan, a few miles west of Canton. The Shekwan ware is a stoneware verging on porcelain; and the standard type bas a thick flocculent glaze of brown

mottled with blue and grey and sometimes with vivid red. Glazes

of the Sung Chün type and celadon green, as already mentioned, besides flambé red were also used; and some of the Shekwan stoneware dates back to the Ming period, though the bulk of it is of comparatively recent date.

The reader is reminded that true Chinese decoration is never meaningless. Its meaning may be directly expressed in semireligious emblems such as the Eight Buddhist Symbols, the attributes of the Eight Immortals, the Eight Precious Things, etc.; or indirectly by motives which suggest good wishes, such as the peach, crane, tortoise and pine (long life), the bat (happiness), the pomegranate (fertility). Again combinations of flowers, animals, etc., can be read rebus-fashion into auspicious phrases; for the Chinese language abounds in homophones and the Chinese delight in puns. They also delight in themes of religious and historical import; and the understanding of their decorative designs involves a deep study of their religion, history and folk-lore. Numerous marks and seals are used on Chinese pottery and porcelain; but for these again the reader must consult special books. The most important and the most frequent of the marks are the reign-names (nien hao) of the emperors; but there are

also potters’ names, phrases of good omen, symbols and the names of halls and workshops, which it would be futile to enumétate without giving the actual marks and their readings.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—General: F. Brinkley, China, Its History, Arts ond

Literature

(1904); W. Burton and R. L. Hobson, Marks on Pottery

and Porcelain

(1912); S. W. Bushell, Chinese Art (2 vols., 1906),

Description of Chinese Pottery and Porcelain (1910), being a tran

POTTERY

AND

PORCELAIN

PLATE XXXVI

ki

eax

eae

Me

FOE ee Pia Yeag ie,

a se

BY COURTESY

oF

(3)

THE

ART

INSTITUTE

OF

CHICAGO;

POTTERY

AND

1. Ko ware,

2. Northern incised 3

and

FROM

g

(1,

2,

6,

7)

THE

GEORGE

PORCELAIN

OF

EUMORFOPOULOS

THE

Celadon

with

SUNG 4. Tu

pale café au Jait

characteristic

design, olive green

5. Ting ware, pure white

COLLECTION,

(4, 5) THE

DYNASTY

Ting

ware

with

WARREN

(A.D. lightly

E, COX

COLLECTION

960-1280) incised

design 6. Kuan ware, pale bluish 7. Ting ware, pure white

grey wt

Prate XXXVII

PO yA

a

enm on

en

pa

POTTERY

a

-

æ

AND

PORCELAIN

`

s

hcRel Raeae

a

‘

; x

wo

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n

Madey tyheed id

Ran

ae

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ig! BeateoeAabCecoh,aa easSree ele SPRY ae

tee4

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A

S

Ltks gs ; tf

ats

aeE oi

kuo | ARRAS

inmat

YORK

OF

Clair-de-lune Amphora.

period. Blue and White Celadon Chrysanthemum

period.

MUSEUM

chrysanthemum

Nein Chih, and rouge cup.

Be ee Be5 OMY aiekate aE

2

PORCELAINS

CHINESE Top Row:

SERS

a

a haa ee te CR Parae

Ee SS once,

Sai?

a

Peet

ence Bt

Cor

Pony

ae

à

Ee, a

EI V

tare

r 4

of the so-called

Famille

Verte

type

(1622-1722) AND

CH’IEN

LUNG

(1736-95)

PERIODS

painted with enamels, the two at the left being called Famille Jaune, and

Famille

Noire

because of their back-ground

colouration.

Bottom

Row:

Powder blue Temple Jar with reserved medallions in enamel decoration. Famille Noire Temple Jar. Famille Rose Temple Jar of later period

with enamel decorations

POTTERY

KOREA: JAPAN]

AND

tion of the T’ao shuo, Oriental Ceramic Art (1899); E. Hannover, Pottery and Porcelain, vol. II., The Far East (1925); R. L. Hobson, Chinese Pottery and Porcelain (2 vols., 1915), Catalogue of the

kumorfopoulos Collection (6 vols., 1925-28), Guide to the Pottery and

Porcelain of the Far East (1924); St. Julien, Histoire et Fabrication de la Porcelaine Chinoise (1856), being a translation of the greater part of the Ching té chén t’ao lu, with notes and additions; E. Zimmermann, Chinesisches Porzellan (Leipzig, 1923). Early Periods: J. G. Andersson, Bulletin of the Geological Survey of

Chine, No. 5 (1923), Memoirs of the Geological Survey of China, Series

4, No. 5 (1925); T. J. Arne, Palaeontologia Sinica (1925), Series D, yol. I„ No. 2; C. Hentze, Les Figurines de la Céramique Funéraire

(Hellerau, 1927); A. L. Hetherington, Early Ceramic Wares of China (abridged ed., 1924); B. Laufer, Chinese Pottery of the Han Dynasty (Leyden, 1909), The Beginnings of Porcelain in China (Chicago,

1917); O. Rücker Embden, Chinesische Frühkeramik (Leipzig, 1922). Later periods: R. L. Hobson, The Wares of the Ming Dynasty (1923), The Later Ceramic Wares of China (1925); A. E. Hippisley, casio 2)the Hippisley Collectzon, Smithsonian Institute, Washing-

ton (1900).

KOREA

The geographical position of Korea makes it a natural link between China and Japan. In close contact with China the Koreans were absorbing Chinese influences from the Han dynasty

PORCELAIN

309

and a tendency to lose shape in the are apt to mar even the best Korean It was probably in the last half of ically Korean method of decorating

firing are two defects which ware. the r2th century that a typthe celadon ware was

first

used, namely inlaying the incised designs with black and white clays. Discreetly used this decoration produced a very charming effect; but it was overdone and soon became hackneyed. The easy but mechanical method of stamping the designs instead of drawing them with the stylus was adopted, and a stiff and crowded ornamentation resulted. To this inferior class belongs the so-called “Mishima” ware with its radiating cord patterns which recalled to the Japanese the lines of their Mishima almanac. Other less usual kinds of decoration on the Korai ware are painting in underglaze red, painting in bold, but often rather crude, designs in brown (rarely in white) in the style of the Chinese Tz’ti Chou pottery, and blending variously coloured clays so as to make a marbled body. Black- and brown-glazea wares of the “Honan temmoku” class are also found in Korea, but, as with the ivory white and ying ch’ing types, their native origin remains to be proved. By the end of the 13th century the Korai pottery had become

definitely

decadent:

the beautiful

celadon

glaze had turned brown and cement-coloured, and the inlaid and brown-painted wares were coarse and clumsy. The Korai dynasty was followed by the Yi which lasted from familiar with the arts of their great western neighbour. But in 1392 to 1910. The capital was removed from Song-do to Seoul actual fact the early Korean pottery, though doubtless its essenand the name of the kingdom was changed to Chosen. But the tials were learnt from the Chinese, developed on lines of its own. It is a hard, slate-grey ware, unglazed except for an accidental country was impoverished by many calamities and the final blow smear of glossy brown which probably came from the wood ashes to its prosperity came with the invasion of the Japanese under in the kiln, and ornamented with large perforations, rather crude Hideyoshi at the end of the 16th century. From this time Korea reliefs and simple incised patterns. This is the ruling type found was virtually closed to the outside world and became a veritable in the tombs of the Silla period, which is generally regarded as hermit kingdom. We know little of the early Yi pottery except extending from the rst to the roth century, though the Silla state so far as it is reflected in Japanese imitations. From these we did not actually become paramount till the 7th century. Naturally would infer that it included a rough kind of red or grey pottery the Silla pottery varies considerably in such a great space of time, with translucent glaze varying from brown to light grey tinged and some of it is potted thin, fired hard and of a neat and almost with pink; coarse mishima, and brown-painted wares which the Japanese call e-goraz (painted Korean); a creamy buff ware with ornamental appearance. The Korai Period (918-1392).—But the heyday of Korean closely crackled glaze; and grey ware with opaque milk white glaze ceramics belongs to the succeeding Koryu or Korai period, when of thin paint-like appearance which the Japanese call koma-gaz. the Korean potters suddenly developed a skill which was the ad- For the rest, specimens of the 17th to 19th century wares in our miration of the Chinese themselves. ‘There can be little doubt collections comprise porcellanous stoneware with crackled grey or that this sudden change was wrought either by Chinese refugees buff glaze, plain or painted with sketchy designs in dull underor by Koreans who had gone to China to study. For the home of glaze blue; and white porcelain painted in underglaze blue and the new industry was in southern Korea, in the Zenra district; red, with occasional relief decoration and open work. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Kamnroku Korai-yaki Gwacho (Album of Korean and, as Dr. Nakao has pointed out, this district is connected by the most convenient sea route with the coast of Chekiang, the Pottery) (1910); N. Nakao, “Old Korai China,” Manchurian Daily News (monthly supplement, Aug.—Oct. 1925) ; B. Rackham, Catalogue home of the Chinese celadon in the imitation of which the Koreans of the Le Blond Collection of Corean Pottery in the Victoria and specialized. The characteristic Korean ware of the Korai period is Albert Museum (1918). a porcellanous stoneware with a celadon glaze which at its best JAPAN resembles blue green ice, but which varies in tone to olive green and brown. A Chinese writer, Hsii Ching, who visited Korea in Japan, like every other country, has its primitive pottery, a 1125 compared this ware in one passage with the secret-colour rough hand-made material sometimes mat-marked like the primi(pi sé) ware of Yüeh Chou and the contemporary Ju Chou por- tive Chinese. A more advanced type is found in the dolmen burials celain (g.v.), and in another passage with the celadon of Lung- which date from the 3rd century B.C. to the 7th A.D. The dolmenchiian. The same writer adds that in form and style it resembled builders were invaders from the mainland, doubtless from Korea, Ting Chou porcelain, a statement of which we quickly realize the and the dolmen pottery closely resembles the Korean wares of truth in comparing the etched, engraved and moulded designs in the Silla period. The development of the potter’s art in Japan the Korean bowls with those of the ivory white Ting ware. Inci- was slow—perhaps it was retarded by the preference for other dentally it may be mentioned here that a white porcelain of materials, such as lacquer, for the articles of every day use—-and Ting type and-a bluish white porcelain of ying ch’ing type have it seems at first only to have moved forward under the stimulus both been found in Korai tombs; but whether they were, all or of foreign influences. The first foreign influence was Korean. The some, made in Korea itself or imported from China are questions next was Chinese, and this must have been felt as early as the not yet decided. The finest Korai ware is undoubtedly the blue 8th century, for the treasure of the Emperor Shomu, preserved green celadon made in the best period which may be placed at Nara, includes a few specimens of motley glazed pottery of between roso and 1170; and it is either plain or delicately dec- T’ang type. In the 13th century Kato Shirazaemon is said to have orated with etched or carved designs (Plate XL.). Sometimes the gone to China to study the work of the Sung potters, and to have glaze is more grass green like the typical Lung-ch’iian celadon or set up kilns in Seto on his return. Reputed specimens of his work olive green like the so-called northern celadon (see above). are tea jars and tea bowls with thick treacly glazes of black, Indeed there are specimens which could hardly be distinguished amber brown, chocolate and yellowish grey colour. This type from this latter ware, were it not for the typical Korean finish of pottery took a firm hold in Japan and variations of the Seto of the base which is shallow and covered with glaze and almost glazes were subsequently made in many factories throughout the always scarred with the marks of the spurs or sand on which the country. A second and more potent wave of Korean influence pece was supported in the kiln. This rough finish of the base flooded Japan after Hideyoshi’s campaigns in the r6th century,

onwards; and Chinese graves of the Han period excavated in Korea prove by their contents that the Koreans must have been

37°

POTTERY

AND

PORCELAIN they appealed strongly to the Dutch taste.

from which he brought back a large number of Korean captives. It happened too that about the same time the famous aesthete Senno Rikiu organized the tea ceremony, which has played ever since an important part in Japanese social life. The masters of the tea ceremony decided that pottery was the most fitting material for the tea vessels; and the Japanese potters soon learnt

Many factories were started in the Arita district, those of the

princely houses of Hirado and Nabeshima being the most noteq.

and the industry soon spread to other provinces.

It was early

established in the Kutani district of the province of Kaga and a a little later period at Seto in Owari, Mino, Kioto and many

other places. The Kaga potteries in the 19th century populgy.

from the Koreans how to meet the demand satisfactorily. Hence the numerous imitations of Korean Yi dynasty wares to which allusion was made in the last section. Indeed many of the best known Japanese potteries, such as those of Karatsu, Satsuma, Shigaraki, Takatori and Hagi, owe most of their importance, and also very often their origin, to Korean teachers. From the 16th century onward Japanese pottery developed rapidly and many new and original types were invented, of which the raku ware is one of the most important (Plate XLII., fig. 8). Though the credit for the invention of raku ware is given to a Korean family settled in the Kioto district, the ware itself is essentially Japanese. It is a soft, hand-made earthenware, re-

ized a special kind of decoration in red and gold; but on the whole

Japanese painted porcelain follows closely on Chinese lines, and

the highest ambition seems to have been to make wares which could be mistaken for Ming porcelain. The Koto factory on the shore of Lake Biwa was noted for its enamelled porcelain in the

middle of the roth century; and good imitations of Chinese cela. don were made in the Arita district at an early date and at Sanda and Kioto since the end of the 18th century. In the early 1gth century remarkably fine porcelain of “egg-shell” thinness was made at Mikawachi, in Seto, Shiba and Mino. Since the reopening of Japan to the foreigner in 1868 vast quantities of pottery and porcelain have been made for the Westem market. These wares, usually overloaded with ornament, do not represent true Japanese taste, which requires that a piece of pot-

quiring only a slight firing, and covered with a peculiarly waxen, treacly and semi-opaque glaze of various colours of which the black and salmon are the earliest and the yellow, green, cream white and mixed colours later. Another successful Japanese creation is the antithesis of the raku ware. It is a hard reddish brown stoneware unglazed as a rule, except for an accidental smear, and evidently well suited for figure modelling. Its habitat is the province of Bizen, where the industry can be traced back to the rqgth century. A fine, hard, buff pottery with closely crackled cream glaze is another Japanese specialty. It is a development of the Korean koma gai, or white ware; and it reached its finest expression in Satsuma. Here and at numerous factories in Kyoto it was used as the vehicle for enamelled decoration. The art of enamelling on porcelain was learnt from China, the story being that Sakaida Kakiemon, an Arita potter, was in-

(PERSIA

tery be made strictly to serve its useful purpose and decorated

soberly in a style appropriate to its form and use. It is not practicable within the compass of this article to describe the work of individual potters, and the mere mention of famous names, such as Banko, Hozan, Dohachi, Eisen, Rokubei and Zengoro Hozen, cannot serve any useful purpose. The potteries are very numerous, being for the most part small family

concerns; and as each had its individual mark or seal and a proper

pride in using it, the list of Japanese potter’s marks is a formidable one, for which the reader must consult works cited below.

BIBLIOCRAPHY.—F. Brinkley, Japan, Its History, Arts and Literature (1904) ; A. W. Franks, Japanese Pottery, Victoria and Albert Museum Art Handbook (1906), Catalogue of the Franks Collection of Oriental | Pottery and Porcelain (1879) ; E. S. Morse, Catalogue of the Japanese structed in it by a Chinese ship’s master about the middle of the ! Pottery in the Museum of Fine Arts (Boston, 190r).

| 1

4

r7th century. One of the most celebrated Japanese potters, whose art-name is Ninsei, adapted its use to the cream glazed pottery and developed a special style of enamelling in purely Japanese taste. Ogata Kenzan, another of the great Japanese ceramic artists, at the end of the 17th century found a way of using enamelled decoration on the soft raku glazes (Plate XXVII., fig. 1). From this time onwards Chinese influence was discounted in thè pottery which displays much originality and a true national style. Japanese Porcelain.—Meanwhile the manufacture of porcelain had started in Japan. Needless to say the technique was learnt from the Chinese, a potter named Gorodayu go Shonzui visiting Ching-té Chén itself to study in the 15th century. Shonzui’s difficulty on his return to Japan was to find suitable raw material and he was forced to work with imported Chinese clays. Not till the beginning of the ryth century did the discovery of the important deposits of porcelain stone on Izumi Yama, in

the Arita district of Hizen, permit the establishment

of the

Japanese porcelain industry on a firm basis. The Arita district was the chief centre of the manufacture; and it was here, at the

seaport Imari, that the Dutch traders obtained the “Old Imari” porcelain with which they flooded Europe. Here too Kakiemon practised his new-found art of enamelling, in a style which is for ever associated with his name. The Kakiemon enamels were soft orange red, grass green and lilac blue, supplemented by pale primrose yellow, turquoise green, gilding and occasionally by underglaze blue; and his decorations are slight and in the best Japanese taste. A few blossoms, a floral medallion, a flowering prunus tree, a banded hedge with birds, quails and millet, a tiger and bamboos (Plate XXVII., fig. 3) a dragon and sometimes children are motives of the nicely balanced Kakiemon designs which have been imitated wherever porcelain has been made (Plate

XLII., fig. 2). The “Old Imari” of the Dutch importers included

another highly specialized but less artistic kind of porcelain. It was painted with masses of heavy impure blue supplemented by red and gold and to a less extent by enamel colours. The designs are irregular and confused, asymmetrical panels enclosed by mixed brocade patterns. Over-loaded, but not without decorative value,

PERSIA AND THE NEAR EAST The ceramic history of the Near East between late Roman and

Islamic times is still obscure. Little Sassanian pottery of any importance has been identified, and the excavations at Constantinople which should tell the Byzantine side of the story have hardly begun. But the continuity of ceramic tradition in these regions is not for a moment in doubt. The most familiar of all the Persian glazes is the blue-green which appears on late Babylonian, Parthian and late Roman wares; while in Egypt there is no real break in the sequence of potters from early dynastic times to the present day, though the chain of evidence is very weak in the period immediately preceding the coming of Islam. The “Gabri” Types.——What is reputed to be the earliest type of mediaeval Persian pottery has been called “Gabri” because it was believed to have been made by the pre-Islamic, fire-worshipping (Gabri) peoples. It is an earthenware with a reddish body which is usually concealed by a coating of white slip (liquid clay) and covered with a transparent lead glaze. The commonest form of decoration was effected by cutting or scratching a design through the slip coating so as to expose the red ware below; and by varying the naturally yellowish colour of the glaze by washes of green and purplish brown, derived respectively from copper and manganese. This technique is probably of Byzantine derivation, but it has been used since in every civilized country and at all periods. The Gabri ware, though often crude and bucolic, is attractive for its bold designs and warm colouring, and in the best specimens the rendering of animal forms among floral scrolls

op RM ne

(Plate XXXIX., fig. 4) and of ornamental inscriptions is highly artistic. In point of date some of it may go back to the early days of Islam (7th century), but the bulk of it may safely be placed between the roth and 13th centuries. In Egypt the same technique was largely used on the armorial pottery of the rst century. Gabri ware has been excavated chiefly in northem Persia, at Zendjan, Rhages and Hamadan; and a kindred ware

reputed to come from Amul, south of the Caspian, is distinguished by the additional colours, yellow and ochreous red. A rare type

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN

wier

sinekee 3 a

we,Pee

Prate XXXVIII

Å

fifa ae

es.

SY COURTESY OF (1, 6, 7) THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM, FROM (2-5) THE GEORGE EUMORFOPOULOS COLLECTION CHINESE 1. Yung Chéng eggshell porcelain 2. Famille verte dish, K’ang Hsi period

PORCELAINS

3. K’ang Hsi group 4. Powderblue bowl

with coloured

glazes

5. Chia Ching jar, blue and white 6, 7. K’ang Hsi vases, blue and white

PLATE XXXIX

POTTERY

AND

PORCELAIN

sine.

vi

nae

aed el To %

n

(3 ` SYoh 3 OR a a

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

TRUSTEES

OF

THE

BRITISH

ey

`

oh

Dae

i

Til

B

MUSEUN

PERSIAN 1. Jug from

“—

LA E ESIR SE; S; Miele

Sultanabad,

13th

century,

POTTERY

decorated with metallic lustre and turquoise glaze. Height 714” 2. Mihrab tile, 13th century, modelled in low relief and decorated with glaze and lustre. Length 12’’ 3. Dish, Rakka or Rhages, 12th century, incised and decorated with glaze. Diameter 1634’ 4. Star tile, 13th century. Length 8”

PERSIA]

POTTERY

AND

reputed also to be of Amul make has painted designs in white on|

PORCELAIN Rhages Ware.—To

DA

return to Persia, the ruins of Rhages have

i background of black slip. A red ware with painting in coloured slips, as well as with incised ornament, has been found in some quantity as far east as Samarkand.

long been a happy hunting ground for pottery seekers, and they have produced wares of great variety and of many periods. There is little doubt that Rhages was an important centre of the ceramic Samarta.—A shining exception to the usual haphazard excava- industry, though very few waste pieces have been found to indiion is the work done by Profs. Sarre and Herzfeld in the ruins cate the presence of kilns. The city, once the capital of the of Samarra on the Tigris, a site which was occupied for about Djebal, was laid waste by the Mongols in 1220, and, though not so years in the oth century. The finds made here are of the completely abandoned till the 17th century, it never recovered utmost historic importance, and they include a variety of inter- from this disaster. The classic period of Persian pottery is from esting pottery types. One is a thin reddish buff earthenware the 12th to the 14th century; and among the fragments found decorated in low relief with formal designs under a green lead at Rhages are some of the most beautiful Persian wares. They glaze and strongly reminiscent of the lead glazed wares of the are mostly made of the sandy white material; and the glaze is late Roman period. Another and more characteristic type is a usually opaque and of a creamy tone, and much of it is finely lose-grained, buff pottery with an opaque greyish white glaze painted with golden brown lustre with or without touches of which is sometimes painted with a dark cobalt blue, sometimes blue. Another beautiful type, specially associated with the name with lustre pigments of golden brown, green or blood red tones. of Rhages, is painted in enamel colours heightened by leaf gilding The blue-painted ware is varied at times with patches of green on a cream white or turquoise blue glaze. The Rhages enamels and manganese brown. The same Samarra body is found with include blue, turquoise, manganese purple, red, green, mixed monochrome white, green and yellow glazes, and also with glazes colours and white, and, with the exception of the blue, they splashed and mottled with green and yellow in the style of the generally have a mat appearance which gives a subdued splendour Chinese T’ang wares with or without incised designs. Indeed it to the colour scheme. The designs on this Rhages enamelled ware is clear that the Samarra potters deliberately set themselves to are pencilled with miniature-like fineness recalling to a great extent copy Chinese wares, fragments of which in company with white the beautiful- workmanship in the manuscript illuminations of and celadon porcelain have been found on the site. But the most the early 13th century. Indeed it has been thought that the important of the Samarra fragments are those decorated with court miniaturists may have assisted at the work. In some cases, especially with the more formal designs, parts of the pattern lustre. Lustre painting is perhaps the chief contribution of the Near are built up in relief and these incrustations are jewelled with East to ceramic decoration. When and where it was first used enamels and gilding (Plate XXXIX., fig. 3). Again the red, white are still debated questions, but one fact at any rate is established and gold are effectively used in tracing formal designs on a fine by the Samarra finds, namely that the process was, fully developed dark blue glaze or on an opaque turquoise glaze which frequently covers moulded reliefs. Enamel colours too are sometimes used in the oth century. The lustre is applied in the form of a metallic salt (derived from copper or silver) which is painted on the on the unglazed water jugs of porous buff earthenware, which are glazed ware and developed at a low temperature in a special kind found all over the Near East and which are often decorated with

of kiln. This process deposits a film of metal on the surface of the ware, in colour golden brown, greenish or red, and when the film is thin enough to allow the light to penetrate it, it glows with beautiful rainbow reflections. The blue-painted and the lustred pottery of the Samarra type have been found at Susa certainly, and, according to report, at Rhages also; and examples of the lustred types have all been found in the waste heaps at Fostat in

Egypt.

Rakka Ware.—Extensive pottery remains, including a number of kiln wasters, have been dug up at Rakka, in Syria, a place situated on the Euphrates about 100 m. E. of Aleppo. Rakka is avery ancient site and one which had considerable importance between the 8th and the 14th centuries. It includes ruins of several cities, one of which was the residence for a time of the Caliph Harun Al-Rashid. The pottery found at Rakka is of a type which became general in the Near East after the roth or r1th century. It has a sandy, white or buff white body, loosely constructed and friable, and it is covered with a clear silicious glaze which became opaque when tinted with certain colours. A bowl of Rakka ware figured in Chatfield Pier’s book is said to have a dated inscription of the year 831: it is painted in black under a pale blue glaze. Other Rakka wares are decorated with a charactenstic brownish lustre; and some of these may date back to the roth or 11th century. Others again have designs in bold relief which is lustred, or covered with opaque turquoise or translucent

bluish green glaze. But the most characteristic type is painted

in black under a pale blue glaze (Plate XLIII., fig. 2) or in blue and black under a clear glaze. Sometimes the glaze is coloured a tne purplish brown with manganese. The blue and black painted

ware 1s common to Syria and Egypt, whence its name SyroEgyptian, and the bulk of it was made between the 13th and the 15th centuries. Kiln sites have also been found at Rakka with remains of

another kind of ware which appears to belong to the 11th or z2th

century. It is white with engraved designs under a clear glaze which is sometimes coloured with dabs of blue. Probably other colours also were used, for specimens of this type reported to come

from Rhages have the same features with the addition of green, yellow and manganese purple.

artistic relief ornament. The ruins of Sultanabad, in Kazvin, have also given us much fine pottery of the classic period, wares painted in lustre with or without blue (Plate XXXIX., fig. 1), decorated in strong relief under blue, turquoise or green glazes, and painted in blue and brown under a clear glaze. The most characteristic Sultanabad type is a variety of the last mentioned, with animals, birds or human figures set in a background of close foliage, outlined in black and washed in with blue. The central motives are frequently speckled with black dots, and parts of the ornament are slightly raised. The beauty of these specimens is further enhanced by the warm grey tone of the glazed ware in the remaining spaces. Chinese influence is frequently observable in the drawing of the figures, and pure Chinese motives such as the dragon and phoenix also appear. These features indicate a date in the second half of the 13th century after the Mongol conquest. Excavations at Khar have produced pottery of the best Rhages types, and it is probable that many other sites could be found equally productive, for there is no doubt that pottery centres were widely distributed throughout Persia and that Rhages and Sultanabad are only two of many. Persian Tiles.—One of the most attractive forms of Persian pottery, the beautiful lustred wall tiles, have been found at Rhages Veramin, Koum, Natinz, Meshed and Kashan, and it is reasonable to suppose that such things were manufactured on the spot. But the wall tiles illustrate almost every phase of Persian ceramic art. Some of the earliest have ornamental inscriptions in strong relief and a coating of monochrome glaze, light blue or green. Next came the splendid lustred tiles, cut into star shapes and decorated with a complete design on each, chiefly consisting of ornamental foliage which sometimes encloses animals, birds and even human figures. An inscribed border usually completes the tile, and many of the inscriptions have the added interest of dates in the 13th and 14th centuries. The designs are sometimes painted direct in the lustre pigment, sometimes reserved in a lustred ground: details are etched with a needle point and parts of the design, especially the borders, are often touched with blue and occasionally with turquoise. It was soon discovered that slight relief gives additional play to the lustre, and reliefs were freely used especially on the

larger mihrab tiles (Plate XXXIX., fig. 2). In place of lustre we “w

374

POTTERY

AND

also find traceries of red, white and gold on dark blue or turquoise glaze as on the Rhages wares. Another characteristic Persian mural decoration is in a mosaic composed of glazed pottery sawn in intricate patterns and embedded in mortar. There are fine examples of this work on buildings of the r4th century. Later the same general effect was produced by the easier method of painting

the design in coloured glazes leaving the outlines dry to represent

mortar.

Before leaving the classic period of Persian pottery mention should be made of the fairy-like effects obtained in the sides of bowls and vases by open work designs into which the glaze has been allowed to run, forming transparencies. This beautiful decoration is seen on white wares which may be as old as the 11th century and on the pottery found at Rhages, Sultanabad and Fostat. It reappears at a later date on the so-called Gombroon

ware (g.v.). Later Persian Wares.—In the post-classical period, from the reth century onwards, the fashions in Persian pottery underwent considerable change. Few of the older styles survived, and those which did are barely recognizable. The body of the ware is the same sandy white material; but it is more highly vitrified and quite often it is translucent in the thinner parts, a condition only occasionally noticeable in the early wares. It is in fact a kind of soft porcelain. Chinese influence is very strong in the decoration. Celadon greens and other colours are copied as monochromes or painted with traceries of white slip: the painted designs in blue and black, or in blue alone, under a clear glaze, so closely follow the Ming blue and white that they are often mistaken for it. The Persian potters even marked their wares with imitations of Chinese seals. Survivals of the old Persian types include decoration scratched through a black slip under a pale blue glaze, painting in black under a blue glaze, and lustre ware, but in every case the character of the designs has changed. As to the lustre ware

it would perhaps be more correct to describe it as a revival, for we have no examples made during the century which preceded the reign of Shah Abbas (1587-1629). On the revived ware the lustre is greenish or reddish brown in colour and its reflections are generally coppery, but sometimes of a beautiful ruby tint. It is applied over a white, or a vivid blue, glaze, rarely over yellow; and the designs are freely drawn trees and plants, among which the cypress occurs frequently, animals and birds and formal patterns, arabesque scrolls, leaf medallions and cable borders. The old device of reserving the design in a ground of

lustre does not seem to have been used. Though this ware is

generally known as Shah Abbas lustre, the only published specimen with a date was made in the year 1651 (or 1673 according to the reading), and a jug in the British Museum has a metal

mount of about 1700.

The ware in fact seems to be a 17th

century revival but there is no evidence that it continued beyond that period. The effective use of pierced ornament filled with transparent glaze on the earlier wares has already been noted. After a long interval it reappears on the white translucent ware of the later periods. The incised patterns are of a simple kind and they are supplcnented as a rule with a few sprays or arabesques in blue and black. This singularly light and elegant pottery has been called Gombroon ware, because it was believed to have been shipped from the port of Gombroon; but it was probably made in many places, and the material differs in no respect from the contemporary ware made all over Persia. The few known dated examples are of a rather coarse type and belong to the early years of the roth century; but the ware was largely made in the 18th and some of it may date back to the 17th century. The late Persian types are no easier to localize than the earlier.

Chardin, who travelled in Persia in the 17th century, tells us that faience in Chinese style was produced all over the country, but that the best came from Shiraz, Meshed, Yezd, Zorende and Kerman. There is an interesting product of Yezd in the British

Museum, a kettle-shaped ewer of fine white ware well painted in blue in Chinese style and inscribed “The Work of Mahmfid Mi’mar of Yezd. The decorator of it the poor Zari. 1025” (=A.

1616). Hannover describes a pottery decorated in blue, green and

PORCELAIN

[PERSIA: TURKEY

a red similar to that used on the Turkish wares (see below) which he believed to be of Kerman make.

Kubatcha in the Caucasus is

also credited with the manufacture of a ware painted in similn colours or in a greyish blue under a glaze which tends to Crackle

A typical specimen of this ware is a dish with a female bust gy. rounded by floral ornament, while others have rather coarse painted designs in the style of Chinese blue and white: but all tha, can be said with certainty is that pottery of this kind has been found in the neighbourhood of Kubatcha. With even less reason a considerable group of post-classical pottery with black designs

under a transparent blue glaze, which is inclined to crackle, have been assigned to Kubatcha; but there is little doubt that this type was made in various parts of Persia and certainly at Damascus

Specimens exist with dates around the year 1500.

The later tile work tends to be pictorial, with hawking figures on horseback and the like in slight relief in a ground of land-

scape and flowers. One of the best examples of the 17th century tile work is in the Victoria and Albert Museum, a large panel made up of many plaques and representing a princess and com} ladies in a garden’ of flowers and cypress trees. In the middle of the 18th century overglaze enamel painting in the colours of the Chinese famille rose came into use on tiles and on ordinary pottery. But the late 18th century and the roth cep.

tury Persian wares are in the main coarse versions of older types, Mention has already been made of the early lustred pottery, the graffiato wares, and the blue and black painted wares of Syrian type found in Egypt, and of the continuity of the potters’ art there

from early dynastic times to the present day. Most of the early

Persian and Syrian types were made in Egypt in the neighbourhood of Cairo; and the finds at Fostat are specially rich in lustre wares of all kinds, in pottery painted in black and blue under a clear glaze, and in monochromes which imitate Chinese porcelain, Turkish and Damascus Wares.—Little is known of the potteries of Asia Minor in the middle ages, but in the 16th century under Ottoman rule they became famous for a pottery which is unsurpassed for its bold designs and powerful colouring. It is directly descended from Persian wares, but it has decided characteristics of its own which reflect the taste and temperament of the Ottoman peoples. It has the standard Near Eastern body of sandy whitish material, but in all the better specimens this body is dressed with a slip of fine white clay. On this the decora-

tion is painted in black outlines which are filled in with brilliant blue, turquoise, green, and either manganese purple or thick red, under a clear glassy glaze. The colours are laid on with a full brush, and the Turkish designs have a distinctive character. They consist chiefly of sprays of certain flowers such as the narcissus, tulip, carnation, rose, fritillary, etc., naturalistically treated, or of arabesques of feathery leaves; and the dishes have borders of spiral clouds. The transition from the old Persian types to the full-blown Turkish ware is abrupt; but a link may be found in the pottery

of Damascus. Outside this important city, kiln sites have been found with remains of a pottery of the r4th century Syro-Egyp-

tian type, painted in blue and black under a clear glaze; and there is a vase with lustred decoration on a blue glaze (like that illus-

trated by Plates XLI. and XXXIX.) bearing legend “painted by

Yussuf of Damascus” which implies a knowledge of the lustre technique among the Damascenes. Pottery painted in black under a blue glaze has been found in some quantity near Damascus and tiles of the same kind of ware adorn buildings in the city. Some of these have delicate Persian scroll-work suggesting a date not later than the rsth century, while other specimens have the large feathery leaf designs which appear on the Turkish wares. Finally Damascus has been credited with the manufacture of the most refined of the wares of Turkish type, distinguished from the rest

by soft colours which include a dull lilac in place of the thick

Turkish red, a delicate turquoise blue and sage green, and also

by a certain Persian flavour in its arabesque ornaments. It must be admitted, however, that the claims of Damascus to a monopoly of this ware are more than doubtful. The most

outstanding

feature

of the pure Turkish pottery

is a brilliant red colour, made with Armenian bole, which is laid

Prate XL

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN

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period (918-1392 A.D.).

design, Korai 5. Vase dark

Height 812”. 2. Mishima ware. 3. Vase, dragon

period. 4. Rare saki bottle with reticulated superstructure. brown painted design on gray clay, greenish glaze. Height

POTTERY 6. Jar, lotus design,

Korai

period.

7. Plaque, celadon with black

10'%"’. with spout and handle, and white inlay. 8. Vase, Korai period. 9. Winepot probably Korean, Korai buff clay, coffee brown glaze of temmoku type, Height 3” 10. Box, inlaid design, Korai period. Height 7”. period.

Prate XLI

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN

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tapering neck, made of light buff pottery covered with a deep blue glaze refired with metallic lustre. Now in the Victoria and Albert Museum

POTTER’S

CLAY—-POTTERY,

on in palpable relief. Its manufacture must have been widely spread over the Turkish dominions, for the ware is found effectively decorating the walls of mosques and public buildings from Adrianople to Cairo. Important centres of the manufacture were at Constantinople, Nicaea, Broussa and possibly in the island of

PRIMITIVE

373

venient for working, are liable through excessive shrinkage to crack in the drying or firing of the pot and must therefore be opened by mixing them with non-plastic materials. Sand is often

Rhodes, though the old tradition that the ware came exclusively from Rhodes has been proved erroneous. The dating of the Turkish ware is established by the tiles on various buildings of which

used to this end, or carbonaceous materials such as chopped grass, cinders, dried cow or donkey dung; frequently old potsherds are ground up for this purpose. In mixing the body, the proportion of clay, opener and water necessarily varies greatly and is judged empirically by the potter.

metal mounts and by still rarer pieces with dated inscriptions.

shaping of the vessel.

From these sources we learn that the best period was in the 16th

by hand, with the aid of a few simple implements; by moulding;

last part of the 17th century, when the designs had become coarse and hackneyed and the ware itself dirty and yellowish. A beautiful mosque lamp of the finest Turkish ware in “Damascus” style in the British Museum bears the date 1549. A ware of such indi-

far the most common. The tools used are few: a wooden beater and large smooth stone for shaping the vessel; a wooden, bamboo or shell knife or scraper for smoothing the surface of the pot; a pebble, coarse brush of fibre or, in Africa, piece of leather for polishing; and a receptacle for water with which to keep the clay moist. The work is usually done on a wooden platter, or the base of an old pot may be used. Sometimes a thick ring of fibre is used as the base. In shaping a pot by hand two techniques, though often combined, must be distinguished: modelling and coiling. The simplest way in which a pot is modelled is that used by the women of the Baronga in South Africa. Having kneaded the body into a very soft ball the woman “makes a hole in it, a wide opening which she enlarges by degrees, hollowing it out more and more and gradually giving it the shape she wishes. . . . It is astonishing to see the beautiful symmetry of these utensils, although these pots are fashioned without the aid of wheel or measuring instrument of any kind.” (H. Junod, The Life of a South African Tribe.) Often the fingers are supplemented by the use of a wooden beater and a large rounded stone which is held on the inside to offer resistance. If the pot is to be a big one, the initial lump of clay may not be enough and more is added to build up the walls of the vessel. Not infrequently the pot is modelled in parts, which are then welded together. In the coiling technique the raw material is rolled out into a slender rope which is coiled upon itself, each coil overlapping the last more and more as the curve of the pot is formed (fig. r). The coils are carefully worked together with the fingers and the unevennesses smoothed away, so that, when the pot is finished, no trace of them is visible except occasionally in faint ridges on the inner surface. This method is particularly common in the Americas, and is also found in East Africa and parts of New Guinea and the west Pacific. The modelled and coiled techniques may be combined; the base of the pot, or even the lower part of the belly as well, is modelled from a lump and the rings or coils built up on this. The use of moulds is found chiefly in the Americas and in North and Central Africa. In North America the Gulf Indians and those of the Great Lakes made large pots in baskets of wilwhich were subsequently “THE ILA SPEAKING low FROM DALE & SMITH, (MAC- burnt PEOPLE OF NORTHERN RHODESIA" in the firing. A similar MILLAN) method is used by some of the FIG. 1.--STAGES IN PRIMITIVE POTtribes in the Sahara, northern TERY PRODUCTION and Somaliland. The Left, rings of clay piled up. Right, Nigeria walis completed by scraping the clay people of the Uele, in the Congo upwards basin, combine moulding and modelling, shaping the belly of the pot over a ring of vegetable fibre, then adding the neck and base. In all these examples a mould is destroyed with every pot made. More advanced is the method by which one mould is made to serve several times. Among the Hausas of Nigeria a pot is inverted and over this a sheet of clay is spread so as to form a bell-like dome. This is then removed from the mould and the shoulders and neck modelled by hand (fig. 2.). They also dig a hole in the ground and mould the belly of the pot in this. Where the base of an old pot is used as a platter on which to work, this frequently

the history has been preserved, by a few specimens with European

century, and that the quality of the ware had deteriorated by the

yiduality could not fail to affect the pottery of other regions, and its influence can be traced on the Persian pottery of the 17th cen-

tury, and particularly on the kind which is called Kubatcha.

Kutahia in Anatolia was till quite recent times a busy ceramic centre. From the 17th century onwards a pottery of Turkish type

was made here, but painted with small patterns—palmettes, scrolls and flowers, scale and leaf diapers, etc.—in lively colours including blue, turquoise, green, yellow and the Turkish red. It isa crisp ware, thinly potted and sometimes engraved with crisscross patterns in the paste. Dated specimens of the years 1719

and 1787 are known. A much more artistic ware painted in shades of blue has also been attributed to Kutahia; but this attribution

rests on the reading of an inscription of a ewer in the Godman collection (Cat. Pl. LV., No. 35) which is given as follows: “This mass cruet commemorates the servant of God, Abraham of Kutahia, Anno Armen: 959” (=A.D. 1510). The date is interest-

ing, but if the reading is correct it still leaves open the question whether the ewer was made at Kutahia or elsewhere. BrstrocraPpHy.—A. J. Butler, Islamic Pottery (1927); O. von Falke, Maiolica (1907); H. Gallois, Islamische Kunst in het GemeenteMuseen (The Hague, 1924); E. Hannover, Pottery and Porcelain, vol. I. (1925); D. Kelekian, Catalogue of the Kelekian Collection (Paris, 1910); E. Kühnel, “Datierte Persische Fayencen,” Jahrbuch der Asiatischen Kunst (Leipzig, 1924); R. Meyer Riefstahl, The Parish Watson Collection of Mohammedan Pottery (1922); G. Migeon, Manuel d'Art Musulman (1927); G. Migeon and Armenag Bey Sakisian, La Céramique d'Asie Mineure et de Constantinople du XIVe aw XVIIe siècles (1923) ; M. Pézard, La Céramique archaique de Islam (1920); G. Chatfield Pier, Pottery of the Near East (1909); F. Sarre, Die Keramik in Euphrat- und Tigris-Gebiet (1921), Die Keramik von Samarra (1925); H. Wallis, Persian Ceramic Art (in the Godman Collection) (1891). (R. L. Ho.)

POTTER’S CLAY: see Cray, EARTHENWARE.

POTTERY, PRIMITIVE.

Receptacles of some kind are

essential to man, however primitive, and are made of basketry, skins, gourds and other suitable natural objects. But over all these pottery has an advantage, for it can be brought into contact with fire and not be destroyed, and it is therefore valuable for cooking purposes. Pottery-making is not universal, however; partly because its construction is not easily carried on under certain cultural conditions, e.g., a nomadic life; partly because it depends upon suitable materials being available, though sometimes potters obtain their clay from other districts. It is absent from large regions of America, and in certain islands of the west Pacific has become a lost art. The knowledge of pottery-making

was, at one time, believed to mark a stage in the cultural development of mankind, but its presence among such peoples as the Andamanese, Eskimo, Bushmen and Hottentots, and its absence among the advanced Polynesians, makes this questionable. The manufacture of pottery falls into five stages: preparing the body or raw material; shaping the pot; drying and firing it; decorating it; and varnishing or in some other way rendering it

non-porous. This last is often lacking in the pot-making of primitive peoples, but the other four processes are found in the manufacture of the simplest wares.

As regards the raw material, it seems that the clay is frequently dug and seasoned for a while before using. Clays vary very greatly.

Those which are highly plastic and hold the water, though con-

Shaping.—The

body being prepared, the next stage is the There are three main ways of doing this:

and by throwing on the potter’s wheel.

Of these the first is by

acts as a mould for the base of the new one. A moulded pot may

374

POTTERY, PRIMITIVE

be made in two or more sections. Among the Babuna of Stanley Pool (Central Africa) the clay is applied to hollow moulds and the parts thus formed are joined together. For making globular water jars in northern Nigeria two slabs of clay are moulded over the lower part of a disused pot or calabash. These are then joined together to form a sphere. A hole is cut out of the top half and out of this the neck and mouth are modelled. An identical method is used in Egypt. (See W. Blackman, “The Making of Pottery in Ancient and Modern Egypt,” an address to the British Association, 1925.) Shaping a pot by means of throwing on the wheel is unknown among primitive peoples, with the possible exception of C) MOULD a tribe on the Lower Congo, among whom we find the rudiments of it. The mechanism consists of a rotating platter raised a few inches from the ground and set in (AFTER A.J. Wl. TREMEARNE. rapid motion by the hand, the clay being MAN. VOL, X, manipulated as on the true wheel (fig. 3). © 7910) A similar device, but used only for slow rotation is reported from Perak. Elsewhere the clay is frequently worked on a FROM A. J. N. TREMEARNE, IN platter or base of a broken pot which can be turned round by hand slowly so that FIG. 2.—POTTERY MAKall parts of the new vessel can be brought ING over inverted within easy reach of the potter’s hands, ‘1.pot,Clay2. spread Clay removed from and in this we may perhaps see the mold and shaped, 3. New beginnings of the wheel. The potter’s pot with roll of clay for wheel is rare and spreads slowly, because modelling mouth primitive potters are able to produce by hand vessels which for fineness and symmetry can rival those which are thrown, and further because the technique of throwing is one of considerable difficulty which it takes many years to acquire. Drying and Firing—wWhen a pot is finally shaped it is necessary to render the clay hard, and this is done by firing it. The material of which a vessel is composed contains a certain amount of free water which can be removed by leaving it to dry or be sun-baked for a time; but it also contams a quantity of combined water which is only liberated at a temperature of from 350°400° C. If only sun-baked, the vessel when filled with water would absorb this and after a short while collapse into a shapeless mass. But when the combined water has been liberated the clay 1s completely decomposed; it is impossible for it to become malleable again and it will hold water safely. Except, therefore, for certain pots which are destined only to contain grain and other dry goods, all vessels must be fired. After being shaped the pot is set aside to dry for some hours. “MAN”

WEDGE FOR HOLDING THE PIVOT FIRM ROTATING WHEEL

THE FIXED BOARD THROUGH WHICH THE FIXED PIVOT PASSES PEGS FOR HOLDING DOWN

BOARD

THe SURFACE OF THE GROUND

(AFTER NOTES ANALYTIQUES OU MUSÉE DU CONGO. Tome 17, Fase. 1, P. 41)

BY COURTESY OF MUSÉE DU CONGO BELGE FIG. 3.—DIAGRAM OF POTTERY

MOULDING

MACHINE

This makes it safer to handle and, were it not done and the pot fired at once, the free water might suddenly turn to steam and the pot be inevitably broken, or, even were this avoided, - the resultant too rapid and probably uneven shrinkage would crack and distort it. For this reason, too, the pots are usually set to dry in a place where there is a free current of air to encourage evaporation. Except among certain Pueblo Indians of America, who, in the process of rendering their pots waterproof, fired them two or even three times, primitive peoples do not seem to do this more

than once. Among the Akikuyu of Kenya Colony the purchase; of

a new pot does indeed burn some grass outside and in it, not as

a second firing, but as a preventive against magical evil influences

which may lurk in the vessel. Usually the firing is done in the open. The pyre is carefully built and the pots stacked so that the heat may circulate freely and affect all parts alike. Ofte,

special light wood is used with heavier logs on top so that it may

not burn away too rapidly and the heat be dissipated. In the Nicobar islands there are special contrivances to prevent the wood from weighing on the pots. The latter are set mouth downwards

and supported some four to five inches off the ground by potsherds THE WHOLE coveren sy LAYER OF FIREWOOD POTS PLACED IN HOLLOW IN GROUND, SURROUNDED AND COVERED WITH CHARCOAL

AIR-PASSAGES DUG THROUGH THE Son. (AFTER NOTES ANALYTiQUES DU MUSEE DU CONGO TOME 11, Fasc, 1,PAGE 14)

BY COURTESY OF THE MUSEE FIG.

DU CONGO

4.—DIAGRAM

SHOWING

PROCESS

OF

BAKING

POTTERY

stuck into the earth. Over the upturned base a wheel-like object is placed, against which the firewood is rested, while below the pots fine wood ash and light kindling is laid. A genuine kiln has only been recorded from the region of the Lower Congo. It seems

to be a beehive shaped structure.

Here the more common prac-

tice is to bake the ware in a hole in the ground.

The “oven” is

fairly elaborate, for charcoal is used and openings are therefore cut through the soil to the chamber that bellows may be employed to sustain the necessary heat (fig. 4). Elsewhere in Africa, as among the Ba-Thonga and Ba-Ila, and also among the Zuñi of America pots are placed in a simple hole or trench and fired with wood. The time taken for firing varies greatly, from about half an hour to one or even two days. Pots which have been fired for only a short time are less durable than others. For this reason the Nicobar islanders supplement the brief firing given to their ware by storing it for a time on a shelf hanging over the fire-place where in the heat and smoke it becomes seasoned There is great diversity of shapes and an amazing similarity in wares widely separated from each other in time and space. One village alone may manufacture several varieties, each for a particular use. Very interesting are the many-mouthed, many-handled types, such as those from the Lower Congo and from Fiji. Some elaborate forms have an utilitarian purpose, others a religious signicance, while others appear to be the outcome of the artist's desire to create something beautiful. In many cases the pots are modelled in imitation of natural or manufactured objects, which before the introduction of ceramics served the people as vessel.

Decoration and Colour.—In most primitive pottery decor

tion is done by means of incised lines, made with a pointed stick.

thumb-nail or coil of rope. Sometimes wooden stamps are used or the “beater” with the aid of which the pot is modelled is

carved or wrapped about with string and the designs may be but the marks thus left on the surface. Where pots are moulded over baskets, or where when still soft they are placed inside bags, the clay will be decorated by the impress of these. The most usual designs are bands of chevrons or other rectilinear skeuomorphs, though animal and plant, and occasionally human motifs, do occur. To increase the effect the incisions are often filled with powdered lime or some other substance which shows up against the dark background of the vessel. Less common are ornaments

applied to the surface such as knobs, scrolls and figurines. To

produce these requires a finer technique, for such additions are.

through unequal shrinkage, very liable to crack, and this probably

accounts for their relative absence except among the products of such skilled potters as those of Central and West Africa. Ih America the effect of simple bands in relief is obtained by ust the coils, of which the pot is composed, as a basis for decoration.

Prate XLII

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN

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JAPANESE Jar, Hagi, Nagato Jar, Kutani,

province, 18th century

Kaga province, 17th century

Jar, Karatsu, Hizen province

Tea bowl, by Goroshichi, Hizen province, c. 1530 fF WN H u Wine

bottle for offerings, Imbe, Bizen province, c. 1780

BOSTON,

(2, 7, 8, 9, 10) THE TRUSTEES

OF THE

BRITISH

MUSEUM

POTTERY 6. Bowl, by Ninsei, Yamashiro

province, c. 1650

7. Teajar, Seto, Owari province

8&8. Incense box, Raku 9. Bottle, Karatsu, Hizen

province, 17th century

10. Dish, Kakiemon, Hizen province, 18th century 1l. Jar for cake, Tada, Suo province, c. 1770

Prate XLII

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN

ereraa

BY COURTESY

OF THE

TRUSTEES

oF THE

BRITISH

MUSEUM

PE

RSIAN DISH 1. Rhages dish, ES decorated in gol d and req On 2. Rakka dish, Cob alt blue ground showing strong . Diameter 14”. Virile design in 10”. llth cen 13th century black on turquo tury ise and gold 3. Rhages dish, iridescence Caused incised and gla by time. zed . Dia meter 15”, 12t 4. Sultanabad dis h century h, incised and glazed. Diameter 10347. 13th cen tury

Diameter

POTTHAST

375

very presence during the manufacture is inimical to it. Thus Raised designs are also produced by pressing out the wall of the among the Sema Nagas of Assam a man may not even speak to a is n, distributio restricted of t from within. Another method, that of scraping away the surface so as to leave the figures in woman thus engaged nor approach her work. Such prohibitions are but part of the means by which success in the work is ensured. relief. This is found on some of the pottery from parts of New Pottery is liable to accidents which are beyond the control of the Guinea. The colour of a vessel is to a great extent dependent upon the worker: however great the care taken many pots become cracked and distorted in the firing. Therefore ftabus are instituted to composition of the body and the method of firing. Of materials guard against such mishaps. What cannot be controlled on the This element. colouring only the in bodies iron is usually resent on being subjected to heat under oxidizing conditions is changed into a red iron oxide and gives a shade varying from yellow to an orange or red. Under reducing conditions, that is if the atmosphere contains little or no oxygen and an excess of hydrogen or

carbonic oxide, the chemical change is different, producing a colour ranging from light bluish grey to a deep, sometimes metallic, black. Usually among primitive peoples no effort is made to produce certain shades by regulating the conditions of the firing, the method used to produce the colour combinations of the famous black-topped ware of pre-dynastic Egypt. A dark colour is often the result of a pot’s being smoked; this may be an un-

intentional incident of the firing, but among the Ashanti it is brought about by setting the vessel, while still red-hot from the furnace, on a heap of dry tinder. This it ignites. Water is then poured on and the pile is left smoking. The smoke permeates the heated clay and deposits on and sometimes through it a mixture of finely divided tar and carbon, rendering it non-porous. Decoration by means of slip is occasionally found, but true

painted pottery is extremely rare among backward peoples.

The

Ba-Thonga produce a bright brown colour from a decoction of

boiled bark, and among the Banyoro of East Africa vessels made exclusively for the king are covered with a mixture of powdered graphite, water and the glutinous juice of a shrub. (This should

perhaps be regarded as a varnish rather than a paint.)

A process

of staining is performed by the Nicobar islanders. While the pot is still hot, strips of unripe coconut husk are laid on it and the acid juice makes a black mark. The pot is then further rubbed over within and without with these same strips moistened, which gives to the unblackened parts a light copper colour.

At Port

Moresby (New Guinea) chewed mangrove root is used for the same purpose. Varnishing.—Fired pots will not absorb water, but are nearly always porous and sweat. They are therefore frequently varnished and this varnish is often decorative as well as useful. Many different methods are employed. In Fiji and Borneo the day while still hot is rubbed over with pine resin and in Central Africa with gum copal; in southern Nigeria the ware is boiled in palm oil, and in Huon Gulf (Mandated New Guinea) it is washed over on the inside with a mixture of sago and hot water. Among the Pueblo of North America the juice of a green cactus is applied externally and pifion juice or pitch is smeared inside, after which

natural must be controlled on the supernatural plane. For this reason the Ashanti will not allow an unbaked pot to leave the village nor count them before firing; among the Ba-Thonga a child must light the pyre and the clay when being seasoned must be placed where none will walk over it. Occasionally certain tabus apply to certain varieties of wares. Among the Ba-Ila only men may make pipes, and among the Ashanti no woman may construct a pot of human or animal design lest she become sterile. The making of ceramics is often the prerogative of certain families or a certain district and any infringement of this may easily cause trouble. Even where this is not so, certain villages become famous for their wares. It is said in a part of British New Guinea that a native can tell from the appearance of a vessel where it was made and even the woman who made it. Trade-marks are sometimes used. In the Nicobars each maker has her own peculiar device which she incises upon her products before firing. Care is taken not to infringe upon the rights of another nor to adopt a design which may be mistaken for one already in use. Trade-marks are also recorded from Port Moresby (New Guinea) where the women produce wares for an important trade with tribes living farther up the coast. ` Considering the many different techniques it is commonly held that pottery was invented independently in many parts of the world. From the practice in America of making vessels by lining basketry moulds with clay it has been surmised that at first baskets were thus lined to render them non-porous and then, when by accident such a basket was destroyed by fire, the resultant clay vessel suggested the making of pottery. The coiling technique of America, too, seems to be closely allied to the coiled basketry of that region. Theories of origins are necessarily speculative but in evolving them it must not be forgotten that, as any one who has made pottery will testify, clay shaped and burnt does not produce a pot. The body must be properly prepared, the vessel properly dried and fired under suitable conditions. The accidental discovery of pottery, therefore, is not so easy as has sometimes been implied. BrsLioGRAPHY.—No

work has yet been written on primitive pot-

making, but the following monographs and articles contain more or less detailed accounts of the methods of individual tribes. (1) Africa. W. Scoresby Routledge, With a Prehistoric People (1910) ; J. Roscoe, The Baganda (1911) and The Bakitara (1923); E. Smith and A. M. Dale, The Ila-Speaking Peoples of Northern Rhodesia (1920); C. K. Meek, The Northern Tribes of Nigeria (1925); P. A. Talbot, The Peoples of Southern Nigeria (1926) ; H. Junod, The Life of a South African Tribe (1927); R. Rattray, Religion and Art in Ashanti (1927); Notes Ana-

the pot is re-fired; while farther north, in the area of the Great Lakes and among the Eskimo, the pots are rubbed over with grease lytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques du Musée du Congo t. I. and coated with a solution of boiled maize. Similar in artistic effect to varnishing but without so great fascicule I. “La Céramique” (of theoretical as well as descriptive interest). (2) America. The following articles in the Fourth Annual Report utilitarian value is the practice of polishing or burnishing the ware, of The Bureau of American Ethnology (1886):—F. H. Cushing, “A but this is only possible where the clay is of a fine body. Study of Pueblo Pottery”; W. H. Holmes, “Pottery of the Ancient Though vessels are the most common pottery products of primi- Pueblos,” “Ancient Pottery of the Mississippi Valley,” “Origin and tive peoples other things are sometimes made. Tobacco pipes Development of Form and Ornament in Ceramic Art” (of theoretical (¢.v.) of elaborate shapes and fine workmanship are found in interest). (3) Further India and Indonesia. E. H. Man, “The NicoIslands,” in Journ. Royal Anthrop. Inst., vol. xxii. (1893); A. R. Africa, and pottery drums made in the shape of large water jars. bar Brown, The Andaman Islanders (1922); J. H. Hutton, The Sema Among the Ba-Thonga and Akikuyu children are adept at making Nagas (1922). (4) General. O. T. Mason, Woman’s Share in Primitive toys and models which are sun-baked, and in southern Nigeria Culture, chap. V. (1894) and The Origins of Invention, chap. Vy (1895); Handbook to the Horniman Museum, The Evolution of the, ` these are made by men and women by plastering the clay over ' a frame-work of corn stalks, by which means remarkably life- Domestic Arts, Part II. (1924). POTTHAST, AUGUST (1824-1898), German historian, like figurines are produced. Sociological and Religious Aspect.—Little attention has as was born at Héxter on Aug. 13, 1824, and was educated at Pader- ' yet been paid by ethnologists to the religious and sociological as- born, Miinster and Berlin. He assisted G. H. Pertz, the editor of pects of pot-making. Generally the craft is confined to one sex, the Monumenta Germaniae historica, and edited the Regesta usually the female, except where the potter’s wheel is used, which pontificum romanorum, 1198-1304 (1874-75). From 1874 te is always operated by men. In so far as domestic utensils are 1894 he was librarian of the German Reichstag. Potthast comhaturally matters which concern women it is not strange that they piled the monumental and indispensable Bibliotheca historica should be the potters, but-this does not explain why, in many medi aevi (1862; new enlarged ed., 1896), a guide to the sources

tases, men are definitely prohibited from potting nor why their

of European history in the middle ages, The work, in the form

POTTO—POULTRY

376

of an index, gives particulars of practically all the historical writers of Europe and their work between 375 and 1500. Potthast died on Feb. 13, 1898.

POTTO, the name of the West African slow-lemurs, Pero-

dicticus, popularly miscalled “sloths.”? The aborted condition of the index finger is their most distinctive feature. The ordinary

potto (P. potto) is about the size of a squirrel, with large staring eyes and a stump of a tail; its colour is rufous brown. Bates’s potto (P. batesi), of the Congo, is nearly allied; the awantibo (P. calabarensis), of Old Calabar, has no tail (see PRIMATES).

POTTSTOWN,

a borough of Montgomery county, Pennsyl-

vania, U.S.A., on the Schuylkill river, 40o m. N.W. of Philadelphia ; served by the Pennsylvania and the Reading railways. Pop. (1920) 17,431 (90% native white) ; by 1930 Federal census it was 19,430. It is the centre for a population of 90,000; and has important manufactures, notably of iron and steel, but including a large variety of other industries. The aggregate factory output in 1927 was valued at $28,454,859; annual retail sales amount to $4,500,000. In an amusement park 3 m. N. are the “ringing rocks,” covering about 300 ac., which give different tones of the musical scale when struck. Pottstown was founded in 1753 by John Potts, and was called Pottsgrove until 1820. It was incorporated as a borough in 1815. In this neighbourhood the first commercially important iron furnace in America was established in 1716.

POTTSVILLE,

a city of Pennsylvania, U.S.A., the county

seat of Schuylkill county; on the Schuylkill river, go m. N.W. of Philadelphia. It is served by the Lehigh Valley, the Reading and the Pennsylvania railways. Pop. (1920) 21,876 (92% native white): 1930 Federal census 24,300. It has a picturesque location (700 ft. above sea-level) at the gap made by the river through

Sharp mountain and is in the midst of the southern (“Schuylkill”)

region of the anthracite coal field. Besides its large coal-mining interests, it has railroad shops and a variety of manufacturing industries, with an output in 1927 valued at $13,189,587. Bank clearings for the year 1927-28 aggregated $34,210,214. The city operates under a commission form of government. The first white family that settled here was massacred by the Indians in Aug. 1780. Permanent settlement dates from about 1795, and soon after that an iron furnace was set up. In 1804 this furnace was bought by John Potts, founder of the borough. Coal was discovered in 1807. The town was laid out in 1816, incorporated as a, borough in 1828, became the county seat in 1851 and was chartered as a city in 1911. It was a centre of the Molly Maguire

(g.v.) disturbances (1854-77) and some of the leaders were tried here and convicted in 1876-77.

POUCHED

MOUSE,

any member of the polyprotodont

marsupial genus Phascologale (see MARSUPIALIA). There are over a dozen species, none larger than a rat. They feed almost entirely on insects. Pouched mice are found throughout Australia, where all the species have uniformly coloured furs, and in New Guinea and the Aru islands; most of the Papuan forms are distinguished by striping on the back. POUGHKEEPSIE, a city of New York, U.S.A., the county seat of Dutchess county; on the east bank of the Hudson river, midway between New York city and Albany. It is on Federal highway 9E, and is served by the New York Central and the New York, New Haven and Hartford railways, river steamers and

ferry to Highland. Pop. (1920) 35,000 (82% native white); 1930 Federal census 40,288. A cantilever railroad bridge, 6,767 ft. long, with approaches, and 200 ft. above the water, spans the Hudson at this point, and a highway bridge there was completed in 1930. Intercollegiate boat-races are rowed on the river annually. The city is built on terraces rising to 200 ft. above the river. On its eastern boundary is the extensive campus of Vassar college (g.v.), and 2m. N. of the city is the Hudson River State Hospital for the Insane (1871). There are several private schools in the city, and several charitable institutions, including a hospital (1878) and a home for old men (1881) founded by the Vassar brothers. The manufactures (valued in 1927 at $22,447,315) are numerous and widely diversified. The city’s assessed valuation for 1927 was $46,068,330. Poughkeepsie was settled by the Dutch about 1698.

AND

GAME

It was incorporated as a village in 1799 and asa city ip 18s

The New York legislature met here in 1778, 1780, 1781, or 1788 and 1795, and here on July 26, 1788, the State Convention ratified the Federal Constitution. The name is a modification of an Indian word.

POULENC, FRANCIS (1899-

_), French composer, wa

born in Paris on Jan. 7, 1899. His first important work, the Rap. sodie Négre, played in Paris in 1917, excited much interest as the

work of so young a composer.

It was followed by Le bestiaire

and Cocardes (1919) and Quatre poèmes de Max Jacob (1921) for solo voice

and

chamber

orchestra.

In 1920-21

he wrote the

comedy-bouffe, Le gendarme incompris, with an ensemble of one violin, one violoncello, one double-bass, one clarionet, one trom. bone and triangle. A ballet, Les Biches (1923) was produced in London as The House-Party.

POULSEN, VALDEMAR

(1869-

_), Danish engineer

was born at Copenhagen, Nov. 23, 1869. He became an assistant in the technical section of the Copenhagen telephone establishment and in 1898 invented the telegraphone, an electro-magnetic phono. graph capable of registering human speech by the alternating

magnetization of a wire. In 1900 Duddell (g.v.) devised his sing.

ing “arc” by connecting an inductance and a capacity with an or. dinary arc; and in 1903 Poulsen invented a modification of thi, by means of which he produced continuous oscillations of fre.

quencies used in wireless telegraph (g.v.), thus solving one of the greatest problems in the science of radio technique. The Poulsen arcs are used by radio stations throughout the world,

POULTRY AND GAME,

The term poultry includes fowls,

ducks (domestic), turkeys, guinea fowl and geese; the word game is usually applied to wild duck, partridges, grouse, pheasants, quails, deer (venison) and other edible wild birds and beasts, Rabbits, hare and pigeons are usually classed with game. Poultry and game may be cooked in a variety of ways: roasted: boiled; grilled; stewed in various forms; boned and made into galantines; baked in pies, puddings, vol-au-vents, pasties, etc.; combined with cereals, jellies and special sauces, or pounded and used for spreading on pastry or bread and butter. Preparation of Game and Poultry.—Poultry and feathered game should be plucked and then singed to remove any stray hairs or feathers. It is easier to pluck poultry when warm. The neck is cut off at the shoulder, leaving the skin. There are two ways to draw poultry. The English loosen the skin around the vent with the point of a knife, lay the bird on a board, back uppermost, make a small incision in the skin of the neck lengthwise, insert the fingers through the opening and draw out the entrails, being careful to avoid breaking the gall. Americans cut a slit from the vent of about two inches and draw out the entrails from there. The gizzard, from which the inner bag has been removed, heart and liver are saved for giblet gravy or used in the stuffing. The bird is then washed thoroughly inside and out with cold water. Chop off the ends of the claws and fold back the pinions in the form of a triangle; turn the bird over and bend back the legs towards the neck. Either pin in place with a skewer (if a small bird) or use a trussing needle and stitch through the bird under the knee-bones, at the same time, securing the flap and pinions. Birds which need larding should then be covered with bacon fat. Roasting.—Birds which require stuffing should be filled with a suitable forcemeat (chopped meat, spiced and seasoned) which ought, if possible, to include the pounded liver of the bird. Turkeys and large fowls (capons) are frequently stuffed with veal and ham forcemeat flavoured with lemon peel and nutmeg or with chestnuts; geese and ducks with sage and onions chopped finely and mixed with other forcemeat ingredients, and ducks are occasionally stuffed with prunes and apples. Roast wild duck, widgeon, teal and most small game birds are generally served with-

out stuffing, though pheasants may be stuffed with chestnuts. To

keep game birds moist while cooking, a small piece of butter ot rump steak is often placed inside the bird. Small birds should be protected with a buttered paper or larding. To roast very small birds, e.g., larks, place them on a skewer. ne The best way to roast a haunch

of venison is to wrap it m

OTHER METHODS]

POULTRY

AND

POULTRY

buttered paper and seal this over with a flour and water paste.

Ordinary dripping is used for basting poultry and venison, but butter is preferable for basting game birds. About 10-20 minutes

before poultry and game have finished cooking remove buttered

paper or larding and dredge with flour. A good gravy with roast poultry or game is essential. Stuffed birds need a thickened gravy. Bread, cranberry, mushroom or chestnut sauce may be served with turkey, and sausages or bacon is a common addition. Roast fowl, pheasant, partridge and grouse are all usually accompanied by rashers of bacon and bread

sauce. Water-cress is used as a served with partridge, pheasant should always accompany roast is substituted for bread sauce in

garnish. Fried breadcrumbs are and grouse. Red currant jelly venison and hare. Apple sauce serving roast goose.

Poultry is boned and stuffed to form a galantine.

Remove the

head and feet; then draw the bird. Divide the skin down the pack with a sharp knife and turn down the flesh from the ribs, breast and side bones, leaving these as bare as possible. Pull legs

and wings carefully out at the sockets, cutting the sinews through

with a knife, and turn these inside out with the rest of the outside skin. Free the skeleton and turn the skin outwards again. Stuff the bird to restore its original shape. Other Methods of Cooking.—All poultry may be boiled in

the same way as butcher’s meat, z.¢., in a well-flavoured stock (see CookERY) and served with different sauces, e.g., boiled chicken and egg sauce. As a general rule, game is not boiled. Both

game and poultry are used for making entrées and these may take the form of elaborate stews (brown stews flavoured with special

condiments, such as mushrooms, truffles, orange peel, vegetables, etc.); salmi of game; timbales (moulds of cold poultry and game); creams (purées with cream and egg liaison); fricassées; blanquettes; spatchcock of game (split bird grilled and served with melted butter to moisten); jellies (cold game and poultry purées formed into shapes and masked with aspic or white sauce, or both mixed together); minced game and poultry formed into rissoles or croquettes and dipped in batter, rolled in pastry or

dipped in egg and breadcrumbs and fried in deep fat.

FARMING

377

divided into two distinct races, viz., Asiatic or sitting varieties, and Mediterranean or nonsitting varieties. The Asiatic varieties are larger and heavier in body and are often claimed to excel in hardiness, thus befitting them for winter egg production. This type of

fowl thrives better than any other in exposed districts, and the laying records of some

of the best known breeds prove their

ability in this direction during winter. In the summer much time is often wasted in broodiness, but this does not always prevent good strains from producing high records. Speaking generally, however, the Asiatic breeds cannot be regarded as good layers; they are usually flesh-producing birds, and the game varieties are included in this group. They also differ in their general characteristics, especially in structure and type of comb, colour of earlobe and flesh. Another noticeable feature in regard to this type of fowl is the shell-colour of the egg, which is usually a shade of brown. In the Mediterranean or nonsitting breeds hardiness is not so pronounced, size and weight are less, and there are differences in head-points, body-shape, and shell-colour of egg, which is almost invariably white. The Main Breeds and Varieties— Although there are over too varieties of poultry embodied under groups one and two, exclusive of bantams, there are nevertheless quite a number which are not worthy of a second consideration from a utility standpoint. Leghorns——This group includes a number of varieties, many of which are of no practical use to the poultry keeper. The White Leghorn is by far the most popular followed by Blacks and Browns, the latter being just useful layers, but in demand for sex-linkage work. Whites are kept in large numbers by commercial egg farmers, and there is no doubt that this variety deserves the position it so ably fills. Blacks are increasing in numbers, but there is not the demand for this variety that might be expected. Anconas, or Mottled Leghorns as they are sometimes called, deserve a higher place in the egg producing world, but for some reason are not favoured by breeders. For egg production only the Leghorn is pre-eminent; growth is rapid, early maturity is assured, and the cost of rearing and maintaining a flock is lower than with

In the making of soups, game and poultry are also used as most breeds. La Bresse.—This breed, especially the white variety, is making foundations, and any game or poultry may be used for making raised pies, ordinary pies, pasties and vol-au-vents. (See Pastry.) headway. They have an advantage over Leghorns in respect of Where sufficient giblets are available these may also be used for the value of the cockerels as table birds, both in their pure state pie-making. To prepare giblets, first scald them and remove any and when crossed with other breeds. outer skins, such as tough skin adhering to gizzards, etc., take out W-yandottes are the most popular of the sitting breeds, and the crop and remove gall. Cut into convenient pieces and partially second most popular breed amongst egg producers and general poultry keepers. There is only one variety in general favour stew before adding to the pie. Rabbits and Hares.—For roasting, rabbits and hares are first and that is the White, although Blacks, Buffs, Silvers and Partcleaned and then filled with stuffing; after which they are sewn up. ridges are bred. In the White Wyandotte we find the excellent Extend the fore-legs straight along the sides and skewer through qualities necessary in a good layer, plus many of the good points the body. Bring the hind-legs forward and bend back the head essential in a table fowl. It is in fact one of our best dual puron to the shoulders and fix into place by passing a skewer through pose breeds, and although it has some bad points, one can easily the mouth into the body. For stewing, brown the meat in the overlook these in favour of other sterling qualities. As a layer of same way as for meat. Rabbits may also be curried. For Jugged large numbers of eggs,—many of which are produced in winter,— hare, skin and clean the hare, joint it and remove the liver; place as a table fowl, or for crossing purposes, it has few equals. in an earthenware pot and add a bunch of sweet herbs, onion Rhode Island Reds, although not as popular as Wyandottes, stuck with cloves, blade of mace, piece of lemon rind, celery seed rank high in the estimation of many poultry keepers. Good strains or stalk of fresh celery, carrot and a few button mushrooms. will produce large numbers of eggs, and their winter laying qualiCover with stock. Cook slowly until the flesh is tender. Strain ties are difficult to surpass. Broodiness during summer is very of the gravy and thicken with flour, pounded liver and some of the pronounced, and more difficult to break than in the case of the blood of the hare. Stir in one tablespoon of red currant jelly, one Wyandotte. Colour is also difficult to maintain in the utility tablespoon of Worcester sauce and a dessertspoon of mushroom flocks, and this tends to give many birds a mongrel look. All ketchup. A wineglass of port wine is frequently added to this dish. breeds have their good and bad qualities, and the Rhode Island Serve with fried or poached forcemeat balls and red currant jelly. is no exception. The pullets develop quickly and lay at an early | POULTRY AND POULTRY FARMING. The term age, but the cockerels are slower growing, and do not fatten so poultry” (from “poult,” Fr. poulet, dim. of poule, a fowl) is readily as Wyandottes. The breed is very useful for crossing purusually regarded as including not only fowls but other domesti- poses, and can be used with success with Leghorns or heavy cated birds kept for the sake of their flesh or eggs. They may be breeds like Wyandottes and Sussex. It is popular for sex-linkage, classified into the following main categories:—(1) Fowls for egg the males when mated to Light Sussex producing a very fine winproduction; (2) Fowls for meat production; (3) Ducks for egg ter layer, whilst the cockerel chicks develop into fine table birds, and meat production; (4) Geese for meat production only; (5) taking on the colour of the female, and the pullets the colour of oleh for meat production; (6) Guinea fowl for meat produc- the male. no’ Sussex.—This breed has long been noted for excellent table The first group, which is easily the most important, may be qualities, and those who have any interest in the table poultry

378

POULTRY

AND

POULTRY

industry realise its value either pure or when used for the production of crosses. The Sussex fowl will improve the table qualities of any breed or variety, and some of the finest quality table birds are the result of using this cross. The breed seems well adapted for heavy soils, and for the production of winter eggs, but, with the exception of the Light variety, eggs are often of secondary

importance. During the past ten years the Light Sussex has been boomed in connection with its egg producing qualities; many strains have been trapnested, and individual records have been good. It is a fine all round, dual purpose breed and each year breeders whose aim is a combination of eggs and flesh, give it more attention. The hens cross remarkably well with some of the popular nonsitting blood, and when mated with the Wyandotte produce good quality chickens.

Rock.—Of the Rock varieties, little attention is being paid in England to any but the Buff. Barreds are seldom bred for egg production, and Whites and Blacks do not find favour in the egg or table poultry trade. Buffs, however, are attractive, and show signs of improvement, both in colour of plumage, and in egg-laying qualities. With careful breeding and selection they should equal the Rhodes in egg laying qualities, and those who keep them speak highly of their unusual winter egg production. For cross breeding the males are good, and it is one of the few heavy breeds useful for sex linkage purposes. The Plymouth Rock is popular in America, where it has proved to be a good egg producer as well as a meat breed. It is a bird of good size, rather long bodied, broad, with a fairly prominent breast. It has a single comb, yellow skin, yellow beak and shanks, and lays a brown-shelled egg. Orpington.—For heavy winter egg production under trying conditions the Buff is hard to surpass. Buffs and Whites have always led the way in the Orpington world as egg producers, and these two varieties have an excellent combination of the qualities required in the dual purpose fowl. Their susceptibility to broodi-

ness in the spring and summer, together with their indifferent foraging qualities, has probably accounted for a general falling off in numbers. Although their table qualities are good, they ‘do not equal the Sussex. The chickens are slower in developing, and do not carry much meat on a somewhat large frame during early stages of growth. In course of time, however, the Orpington breed will develop heavy good-quality chickens, and excellent progeny are obtained by crossing with the Sussex breed or with the Game, Faverolle or Dorking. Faverolles are looked upon as table birds rather than egg producers and are usually not kept in great numbers. Good strains will produce winter eggs in good numbers, but there are long periods of broodiness. To those who wish to produce highest grade table chickens, the breed has unique merit. The chickens develop rapidly and a saleable bird may be guaranteed at 16 weeks. In the Heathfield and other southern districts, where large numbers of table chickens are bred, the Faverolle is used with the Sussex for the production of early maturing chickens, and the progeny fetch high prices at Smithfield. Game in their many varieties play an important part in the production of. table poultry, but the chief varieties used are Indian and Old English for crossing with any of the above heavy breeds. They are unequalled for producing heavy-weight chicks, breast meat being a special feature. Growth, however, is somewhat slower than with some of the other table varieties already mentioned, but time will produce the desired weight. Game males will improve the meat qualities of any table breed, the Indian giving the heaviest type, and the Old English the best quality birds. For farmers who desire to produce a few good quality table chickens at the end of the breeding season, there is no better means of doing this than by using the Game male. Game-Light Sussex chickens rank amongst the sex-linked types, a matter which need not however be considered when breeding for table purposes. Dorkings have played a prominent part in the table poultry industry, and it is hardly necessary to mention the results obtained .from the Game-Dorking cross. It is one of the most popular table crosses, and secures the production of heavy weight and exceptionally full breasted birds.

FARMING

Incubation.—One

tartinett HATCHING

MODERN PRACTICE of the problems which all poultry keepers

have to face every year is the incubating and rearing of Sufficient

eggs and chickens to secure the necessary pullets for replenishing the old stock. Various methods of maintaining the stock at jt.

proper level have been put forward from time to time, such as the

introduction of only a third of the pullets every year, instead of

50%, as is the custom of many.

The latter policy, however, is

sound, and affords an opportunity for cutting rearing expenses ty a minimum. To rear only one-third pullets every year leaves the farmer with far too high a percentage of old birds, which may or may not prove their worth as layers. Artificial incubation presents

no great difficulties nowadays, and even the novice can secure good results if the right machines are used and properly manipulated and the breeding stock is sound.

There is an assortment in incp.

bators on the market, and most of the best makes are capable of giving excellent results. Mammoth machines are steadily forging ahead and taking the place of the smaller types. The main rules governing artificial incubation are applicable to

all types of machines.

There are of course certain points in con.

nection with the working of particular machines which must he adhered to, and it is as well to make a study of the instructions sent out with the machines. Care should first be taken to select a suitable building. It must be ventilated, without draughts; atmos. pheric conditions must be sufficiently moist; and the room tem. perature should be as steady as possible, not falling below 60°, To secure the real benefit of extra: moisture it is essential

to have the room at the desired temperature.

The next point is

to see that all incubators are level, and arranged to secure free access to each one without disturbing the others. The interior and

exterior fittings must be kept clean and in workable condition, and the thermometers should be tested at least once during the season. The machines should be regulated so that the damper or regulating device controls the temperature at 103°, as from the eggs after a few days’ incubation will tend to temperature at least one degree. Many poultry keepers the machines during the early stages, and this has a

the heat raise the overheat harmful

result on the embryos. All machines should be maintained at the desired temperature for 24 hours before filling with eggs. The best quality eggs should be selected, representative of the breed. Size and weight must be studied, and eggs should weigh approximately 24 oz. in the heavy breeds, and 24 oz. in light breeds. Abnormal eggs over a week old should be discarded, as these often fail to hatch. The eggs should be allowed to warm up gradually after they have been placed in the machines; this can be done by lowering the flame for a few hours. On the third moming the eggs should be turned, and from then onwards turn three times daily up to and including the 19th morning. Airing is not essential throughout the period. Moisture must be applied when needed, not later than the end of the first week, and sometimes earlier. The results of the first hatch usually provide a clue as to right amount and period. Eggs should be tested for fertility as early as possible after the seventh day and handled carefully in testing. There should be no interference with the eggs or chicks in the hatching period. Any oversight in management cannot be

rectified at the eleventh hour. The morning of the 22nd day 1s quite soon enough to open the machines; opening earlier than this

tends to liberate the moisture, so essential during hatching. After every hatch the machine should be disinfected and examined.

Rearing.—Rearing is more difficult than hatching, but here

again modern appliances play an important part in successful rearing. There is a choice between anthracite stoves, blue flame hovers, radiators and small unit appliances, and the selection of any of these will depend very largely on the numbers to bereared. Medium sized units of about 250 to 350 chicks under anthracite stoves do well, and slightly smaller numbers under blue-flame hovers. Farmers needing only small numbers of chickens are able to use the small unit outdoor brooders. The main factors to beat in mind are a steady and fairly high temperature (90°) for the first two weeks, to be followed by a steady fall up to weaning stage. Floor draughts must be avoided, and full advantage taker

of sunlight. Cleanliness is most important, and overcrowding must

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7. Dark Cornish Cock

11. Minorca Cock

8. Dark Cornish Hen

‘

LONDON

2. White Plymouth Rock Hen

4, Light Brahma Hen

eer

tai

‘Sct aA $

Hen

12. Black Minorca Pullet

13. Old

English

Game Cock

14. Modern Game Cock

15. Sumatra Game Cock

16. Old English Game Cock

Red

POULTRY

actors FoR successi

AND

POULTRY

not be tolerated. Access to grass runs is advisable after the first

379

FARMING

future expenses are lessened, and in the event of a compuisory

week. As the chicks develop and reach weaning age, the sexes should be separated, and the pullets housed in small flocks of from

sale, satisfactory prices are secured.

Perching accommodation should be provided when three months gid—before, if there is any tendency towards crowding at night. reeding from shell to maturity should be on liberal but economic

The British Egg and Poultry Trade—Great Britain is primarily an importing country, the exports consisting mostly of frozen and dried eggs which have been imported from other countries. A study of the figures for imports of eggs in shell contained in the Annual Statement of Trade during the period 1913 to 1926 shows that if the Irish Free State figures for 1926 be deducted from the total for that year, the imports were less by nearly 18% than in 1913. British home egg production is estimated to have increased by some 609% since 1913. In 1913 Russia supplied over one half of the British total imports, whilst Belgium’s contribution was almost negligible. By 1926, however, imports from Russia had dwindled to about one-seventh of the 1913 quantities, while Belgian supplies had increased nearly thirtyfold. Supplies from France and Italy have fallen off, due partly in the case of the former country, to the prohibition for a period of egg exports, whilst imports from the Netherlands have become considerably greater. The diminution in supplies from Russia is, of course, due to the results of the War and the political upheaval in that country, though some of the imports now received from Poland probably originated from territory formerly in Russia. Imports of eggs into Great Britain from British Empire sources constitute a comparatively small proportion of the whole, being about 23% in 1926. The Irish Free State contributed by far the largest share, due no doubt to its close proximity to Britain, and to the fact that poultry-keeping has always been an important subsidiary of agriculture in Ireland. From Australia, New Zealand and South Africa imports are increasing, but from Canada they have fallen off, as although that country’s production has developed rapidly in recent years, consumption has also greatly increased. In addition to the considerable imports of eggs into the United Kingdom, there is a fairly substantial import trade in dead poultry. The total imports from all sources amounted to nearly 14,000 tons in 1913, and since the War have been increasing, reaching 20,530 tons in 1926. In that year the principal importing countries in order of importance were the Irish Free State, France, Austria and Latvia. Net imports of eggs and poultry into the United Kingdom in 1926 totalled £20,470,c00. The estimated value of home produce for the same year amounted to £26,324,000, this

$0 upwards, the number

depending

upon

the space available.

ines. Ul balanced rations will increase the rearing risks. Feeding—A system which has been successfully practised for a number of years, embodying the dry mash method plus the ysual grain allowance, is as follows:—(a) For the first week give four meals daily of drychick food, composed of 2 parts (by weight) of cracked wheat, 2 parts maize grits, and 1 part pinhead oatmeal.

(b) After the first week allow three meals daily of above, plus a dry mash made up as follows :—3 parts (by weight) of bran, 1 part each of thirds, maize meal, Sussex ground oats, and fine alfalfa, 2 part dried meat, 4 part sterilized bone meal, + part fine charcoal, and 2% of total weight of cod liver oil. The chicks have full access to this mash at all times, with semi-solid butter

milk (one pint milk to two gallons water) to drink. (c) When old enough to leave brooder house, a grain ration of 2 parts

whole wheat, to 1 part cracked maize is given in place of the frst mixture, together with a mash ration slightly different from the one already given, viz., 3 parts bran, 1 part thirds, 1 maize meal, 1 Sussex ground oats, 3 part meat meal, or $ part fish meal, and4 part sterilized steam bone flour. This mash and grain is fed to the birds until they reach the adult stage, when ordinary rations are allowed. If preferred the mash throughout the growing period

can be given in a moist state, but this involves much more labour, especially when large numbers are at stake, and the results do not seem to justify the expense. It is desirable, however, to feed on the lines to be adopted at maturity, and if there is any possibility

of the pullets receiving any wet mash later, then it becomes necessary to educate them to this method. It is more difficult to encourage wet mash reared birds to consume dry mash than vice versa, Before removing pullets to their laying quarters, culling

should be practised on rather vigorous lines. In large flocks there are certain to be a few undesirables, and such birds should be marketed at the earliest possible date. Environment plays an important part in the development of the birds, and the more natural the surroundings throughout the growing period, the more robust will the stock become. Main Factors of Successful Poultry Farming.—The main factors of successful poultry farming may be summed up as follows :—

Business Ability, a most essential quality if one is to make a success of the undertaking. It is probably more important than capital, and without it capital is useless. Knowledge and Experience —This is closely linked up with the foregoing factor and is essential to success. A large percentage of failures can be traced to lack of knowledge and experience. Some prefer’ to begin operations on experience gained under somewhat restricted conditions, but this is undesirable. Capital—No

one

should

commence

operations without

suf-

ficient capital to tide them over the first two years. During this period little or no income is secured, and anything accruing from the venture should be invested in the farm. Quite a high percentage of failures is due to shortage of capital in the early stage. Tenacity of Purpose-—Perseverance is essential, for results are often slow, and at times disappointing, and only those who are prepared to wait patiently for success can hope to succeed. Branch of Industry—In order to secure the best results from

GREAT BRITAIN

being over one-and-a-half times the total estimated value of the

wheat crop for that year. It may be estimated, therefore, that the United Kingdom consumes annually eggs and poultry to the approximate value of £40,000,000, of which one-half is imported. Organisation of the British Industry.—The first effort at organisation in the British poultry industry was made in 1877 when the Poultry club, the oldest society in the country, was originated. A step towards linking together the various existing organisations was taken in 1920, when the National Poultry council was formed to act as the central representative body

of poultry societies, clubs, federations of local societies, societies of co-operators or traders engaged in the distribution of eggs and poultry, and institutions or local authorities engaged in poultry instruction and investigational work. Since its inception, the council has done work of much value to the industry. Concessions have been obtained from railway companies and local authorities; an arbitration board has been set up to settle disputes between poultry-keepers; a legal defence club has been established

to protect poultry-keepers from unfair assessments from rates and taxes; a register of laying trials has been opened, and the

capital invested, one must consider the most lucrative branch of council now proposes to set up a register for individual birds the industry. Pedigree breeding will appeal to some, others will favour commerical egg production, whilst others may have a lean-

ing towards the table poultry side.

The district and markets

whose performance

scribed standard.

in registered laying trials reaches the pre-

An effort has been made to obtain legislation

for enforcing the marking of all imported eggs with an indication

available should solve this problem. As a matter of fact they play avery important part in the establishing of a poultry plant. _ Breeds—This factor is influenced by the above. It is very important to select right breeds. .

of their origin.

the success of the undertaking.

great demand for domestic fowls because of the plentifulness of

Equipment.—Up-to-date equipment will add considerably to It costs more, but labour and

UNITED

STATES

Development of the American Industry.—From the time of the first settlements in the United States to 1825 there was no

POULTRY

280

AND

POULTRY

wild fowl. From then on the poultry industry expanded along commercial lines, largely as a result of cheap grain in the inland districts and improved transportation from those districts to the more‘important consuming sections of the East, and the leading European

breeds

were

imported.

poultry show was held in Boston.

In

1849 the first American

Annual poultry shows through-

out the country increased rapidly, and this tended to create further interest in improved breeding methods. The industry developed particularly throughout the Middle West where grain was cheap and the cost of egg production low. Marketing, however, was limited because of the lack of means of proper preservation. Up to this time, eggs were frequently preserved by immersion in lime water or oil. About 1880 the displacement of the barrel by the 3o-dozen egg case brought about great economy in the marketing of eggs, and in an improved quality of product. The industry has expanded enormously of late, the increase in poultry population from year to year being at a relatively greater rate than the increase in human population. The last census (1925) gives well over 400,000,000 adult chickens on the farms of the-United States. The total number of eggs produced for 1926 was approximately 2,000,000,000 dozen, and the total farm valuation of the poultry industry is well over $1,000,000,000. The industry ranks sixth

in importance among the agricultural industries of the country. The American poultry industry breaks up into four principal regions: (1) The north-eastern section, contiguous to the larger markets, such as New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Buffalo, where the industry has been developed along commercial lines; the big demand for poultry products and the nearness to market have been two favouring factors here. (2) The Pacific coast, whose climate is relatively mild and where other conditions are favourable, provides a surplus over the local requirements, so that a market has to be found in the Eastern cities. While Pacific coast producers compete with the Eastern producers, they have 3,000 m. to ship their eggs and poultry, but conditions of transportation have been so improved in recent years, that the quality of eggs and dressed poultry shipped from the Pacific coast to New York and other Eastern cities has been of a very high order. (3) The Middle West, where the great bulk of the annual poultry crop of the United States is produced, contains about half the human population; it also contains over 70% of the poultry population. Here the farm poultry is the backbone of the industry. There is relatively little commercial development in this section but practically every farm keeps a flock of chickens. As compared with the north-eastern section, the Middle West has the disadvantage of being situated at a greater distance from the more important consuming markets, but it has a decided advantage in the relatively low prices of grain, so that the poultry industry of the Middle West may be regarded as in a fairly stable condition. It is less

FARMING

post, and this resulted in a very great expansion of the hatchery industry. At present several thousand hatcheries are locateġ $ throughout the United States, varying in capacity from abo

5,000 to as many as over 1,000,000 eggs each. It is impossible i determine

the total capacity of the hatcheries

of the PA

but it is safe to estimate that at least 300,000,000 chicks are pry duced there annually.

It seems reasonable to expect still further

expansion of this industry. i Economics of Poultry Production.—It has recently bee al ce . n demonstrated that egg production is relatively more important than poultry meat production. It is important, therefore that particular attention be given to the improvement of the lavin ability of hens. The total annual revenue to be obtained oia flock depends on the breeding quality and the methods used in feeding and management. Breeding is the basis for success because no amount of good feeding and proper management will make poorly bred hens lay well; on the other hand, good feeding is of great importance because it is only through good feeding that a well-bred flock can respond efficiently. Also, proper manage. ment, which includes methods of incubating, rearing and housing as well as sanitation, is of the greatest importance, because ithas been demonstrated that since the major poultry diseases affecting the health of the flock are filth-borne they can be controlled very largely through proper sanitation. The amount of feed consumed per bird depends upon many factors, such as the breed, size of the bird, number of eggs produced, etc. Leghorn hens and those of similar breeds, laying an average of approximately 150 eggs per year, consume from 70 to 85 lb. of grain per year, while

Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds and Wyandottes, laying

approximately 150 eggs per year, consume from 80 to gs lb. of grain per year. The amount of feed the average flock consumes in a year represents approximately 60% of the total cost of egg production; hence feeding methods should be made as eficient as possible. Of vast importance is the time of the year when eggs are produced. For instance, ten eggs laid in November or December are worth approximately twenty isid in April or May. This is because the young pullets which have been hatched in the spring of the year have not yet come into active laying condition in the late summer and early fall, whereas the yearling and older hens are going through a moult, with the result that there is a shortage of fresh eggs during the late summer and early autumn months. A study of the trend in the average monthly farm prices of eggs from 1910 to 1924 shows that the lowest wholesale egg prices prevail in April, and that there is a slight increase in July and August with a more perceptible increase in September. the highest prices being reached in December. It should be realized, therefore, that the season which holds the possibility of the greatest profits is in the late summer and early fall months, apt to undergo the changes characteristic of specialization. (4) In and poultry raisers should do everything possible to have their the Southern States from Arizona to Florida, where the industry, stock laying by October. Efficient methods of production alone up to the present, has not been much developed, there is little do not necessarily bring the highest net returns because marketspecialization, and the farm flocks are small in size, so that produc- ing methods may be very wasteful. The marketing of poultry tion in several of the States frequently does not meet the local meat and eggs can be carried out in the most effective manner demand. The tardy development of agriculture as a whole and when there is a suficient quantity to enable marketing the prothe general reliance on cotton and tobacco as sources of farm ducts frequently, and especially where it is also possible to grade income in this section have prevented the normal development of the product according to size and quality. A flock of 200 to 400 the poultry industry. These conditions however are being remedied birds is particularly desirable in order that the management of the very rapidly. flocks and the marketing of the eggs and dressed or live poultry Improved Marketing Methods.—One important factor in may be conducted on the most economical basis. In America there was developed in 1874 a Standard of Perthe development of the poultry industry has been the improvement in marketing methods, particularly in the transportation of fection, which is revised periodically, and serves as the basis eggs in cold storage cars and the holding of eggs in cold storage of guidance in breeding operations and in judging various classes warehouses. It is now possible to hold eggs in storage for a long of poultry at the poultry exhibitions. The majority of breed time under such conditions as to prevent excessive evaporation possess egg-laying and meat-producing qualities, and many af and maintain their high quality, especially when eggs of superior them also possess beautiful combinations of colour patterns that give chickens an important place in animal breeding. Then agai, quality are placed in storage. Baby Chick Industry.—During the last 20 years, the business the relatively small size of chickens, as compared with cattle. of hatching chicks In commercial hatcheries and shipping them sheep and hogs, makes them particularly adaptable to a wide by express or by parcel post has developed into an enormous variety of conditions. These factors account, in a large measult, industry. Beginning about 1908, and for the next ten years, for the large number of breeds and varieties that exist and for the chicks were shipped by express to various parts of the country. variation in type and colour pattern that has been R A. J.) In 1918, however, it became possible to ship chicks by parcel

381

POUND Duck Industry.—The breeding and rearing of ducks in the rnited States is very largely a farm enterprise and there are

mly a few sommercial sclusively ies, such

sections where the industry has been developed on a

basis. Ducks are raised in the United States almost for the production of meat, although in other counas England and Holland, ducks have been bred for

egg production. Of the various breeds of ducks recognized as standard breeds in the American Standard of Perfection, only the Muscovy, Pekin, Rouen and Runner are kept to any considerable extent, the other

varieties being bred mostly for exhibition purposes.

Pekin Duck.—Imported into America from China in 1873,

this is (1928) the most popular commercial duck in the United States. It is practically the only breed kept on commercial duck

‘mms. On Long Island, in New York State, the duck industry

has been developed on a very extensive scale, many farms keeping

several thousand breeding stock annually and raising as many as zx000 to 100,000 young ducks. Other commercial Pekin duck

‘arms are Situated in different parts of the country, especially

adjacent to some of the larger cities. Young ducks are marketed

usually at from 8 to 12 weeks of age when they weigh from about 4 to 6 Ib. each; at this age and weight they are popularly known as “green ducks,” a term used to designate the very tender quality of the flesh. A very important market has developed for dressed

green ducks, especially in such cities as New York, Philadelphia, Chicago and San Francisco,

and it is expected that there will

aways be a popular demand for duck meat. The standard weights in pounds are: Adult drake, 9; adult duck, 8; young drake, 8; young duck, 7. The plumage colour of the Pekin is creamy white. Runner duck, formerly called the Indian Runner, is especially

adapted for egg production, and has an entirely different structure

from all other breeds of ducks since it is small in body and upright in carriage. The American stocks have descended from stocks that were once common in Holland and Belgium. The standard weights, in pounds, are: Adult drake, 44; adult duck, 4; young drake, 4; young duck, 34. There are three varieties of Runner called the White, Penciled, and Fawn and White.

WORLD PRODUCTION AND TRADE The main facts concerning the world industry are summarized in the following notes, taken mainly from Marketing Poultry Products by E. W. Benjamin (New York, 1925) :— Canada—The 1920 estimate for Canada was a production of 170,000,000 dozens and a consumption of 170,200,000 dozens, thus showing a slight balance of imports. Actually, however, Canada imports many more eggs than this, the 1920 estimate being over 7,000,000 dozens from the United States alone. They substituted these imported eggs for the best of their own products, shipping the latter to Europe under the national Maple Leaf brand. The reputation of Canadian eggs in foreign countries is high, because the Canadian Government has established grading rules for all eggs to be exported. Chinag—Most of the Chinese egg production is in southern China; the hens are small, laying small eggs, and the poor care which they receive undoubtedly causes a relatively low egg production. Exports have been increasing rapidly during the last few years, most of these eggs going to Great Britain, the United States and France. Australia——The Australian eggs are especially large, and some of the highest ege records known have been made in the Australian

gg laying contests. Australia has the commercial advantage of

being in the southern hemisphere, which means that producers can

ship their eggs north during their flush season, to arrive on the markets during the season of scarcity. Russia——Russia and Siberia have tremendous possibilities for the production of poultry and eggs, and the country is developing aconsiderable production of cereals which is essential for any large poultry-producing country. Before the World War, Russia was

exporting very large quantities of eggs to Great Britain, Germany, Austria, Holland, France and Denmark. Germany —Germany imports more eggs than she exports, but stems to occupy the position of an important exchange centre for

eggs coming in from Russia, Austria and Bulgaria, and going out to Great Britain, Holland and France. France—France imports more poultry products than she exports; her principal exporting business is to Great Britain, while she imports from a great many countries, including Belgium, Russia, Turkey, Wales, Germany and Austria. The French people show considerable skill in producing and preparing fancy dressed poultry. Paris and similar markets receive some of the best poultry sold in continental Europe. Ireland—Co-operative organisations have increased the interest in poultry-keeping in Ireland, and English markets have always furnished a convenient and desirable outlet for the eggs produced. Packing and grading have been so standardised in some sections that the eggs have established a good reputation on the English market. Denmark.—The development of the poultry industry in Denmark has been linked with the development of the Danish co-oper-

ative associations. Denmark imports some eggs from Russia which

she re-exports or uses for her own consumption, thus creating a

larger surplus for export to the British markets, which she has sedulously cultivated. Holland.—Holland was formerly an importing country, buying eggs principally from Russia and Germany. Of recent years she has exported large quantities of eggs—in 1027 over 70,000 tons. For information on Poultry and Poultry Farming in the United States, see above. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—General books, T. W. Sturgess, The Poultry Manual (1909); R. Pearl, Diseases of Poultry (1915); B. F. Kaupp, Poultry Diseases and their Treatment (1917); H. R. Lewis, Productive Pouliry Husbandry (1923); R. C. Punnett, Heredity in Poultry (1923); E. G. Brown, The Pouliry-keeper’s Text Book (1924); W. Powell-Owen, The Complete Poultry Book (1924); E. W. Benjamin, Marketing Cae. Products (1925); T. W. Toovey, Commercial Poultry Farming 1920).

E

Pouliry Diseases. T. M. Doyle, Journ. Comp. Path. and Ther. (1925-26-27); Vet. Res. (1926-27); leaflet Fowl Pox (Min. Agr. & Fish., No. 138). Nutrition. E. T. Walnan, Journ. Nat. Pouliry Inst. vol. x. no’s. 9, IO, I2. Costings. A. G. Rushton, “Poultry Keeping on the Farm,” Scot. Journ. (1923); J. A. Venn, An Economic and Financial Analysis of Fourteen East Anglian Farms in 1923-24; R. McG. Carslaw, “A Successful Norfolk Poultry Farm, 1922-26,” Report 5, Farm Econ. Br., Sch. of Agric. Cambs. (P. A. F.)

POUND, ROSCOE

(1870—

), American jurist and edu-

cationist, was born at Lincoln (Neb.), Oct. 27, 1870. He graduated at the University of Nebraska and studied law in the Harvard

law school 1889-90. On his admission to the bar in 1890 he commenced practice in Lincoln, Nebraska. He was commissioner of appeals of the supreme court of Nebraska 1901-03. He was assistant professor of law at the University of Nebraska 1899— 1903, and dean of the law faculty 1903-07; was professor of law at Northwestern university 1907-09, and at the University of Chicago 1909—10. In 1910 he accepted the Story professorship of law at the Harvard law school, becoming Carter professor of jurisprudence there in 1913 and dean in 1916. Pound has written, with F. E. Clements, Phytogeography of Nebraska (1898); Readings on Roman Law (1906); Lectures on the Philosophy of Freemasonry (1915); The Spirit of the Common Law (1921); Criminal Justice in the American City (1922); Introduction to the Philosophy of Law (1922); Interpretations of Legal History

(1923); Law and Morals (1924); and Readings on the History and System of the Common Law, 3rd ed. (1927).

POUND

(1) An enclosure in which cattle or other animals

are retained until redeemed traint until replevied, such pledge or security to compel Animals may be seized or

by the owners, or when taken in disretention being in the nature of a satisfaction for debt or damage done, impounded when (a) distrained for

rent; (b) damage feasant, z.e., doing harm on the land of the person seizing; (c) straying; (d) taken under legal process. The pound-keeper is obliged to receive everything offered to his custody and is not answerable if the thing offered be illegally impounded. Where cattle are impounded the impounder must supply sufficient food and water (Cruelty to Animals Acts, 1849 and 1854) ; any person, moreover, is authorized to enter a place where

382

POUND

STERLING—POURTALES ten shillings, which, like the sovereign and the bank-note Wa

animals are impounded without food and water more than 12 hours and supply them; and the cost of such food is to be paid by the owner of the animal before it is removed. Pounds are almost

legal tender for any amount. ne The rise of the pound against the dollar was short-lived Wa expenditure, Government borrowing, and heavy purchases : munitions from abroad having their inevitable effect. The check

obsolete. (See Distress; REPLEVIN.) Pounp (2)—(a) a measure of weight; (b) an English money of account. (a) The English standard unit of weight is the avoirdupois pound of 7,000 grains. The earliest weight in the English system was the Saxon pound, subsequently known as the Tower pound, from the old mint pound kept in the Tower of London. The Tower pound weighed 5,400 grains and this weight of silver was coined into 240 pence or sense (2) (a pound weight of silver). introduced from France, was in use adopted as the legal standard for gold

20 shillings, hence The pound troy, as early as 1415 and silver in 1527.

upon inflation imposed by the Peel’s Bank Act had been abolished by the institution of the currency-notes, which could be issued without limit. Artificial means were adopted to maintain gold stocks and the pound against foreign currencies. The export of

gold and even its withdrawal from the Bank was discouraged, ang

pound in probably and was The act

the exchange on New York was “pegged” at parity. (See PEGGING THE EXCHANGE.) Foreign securities were mobilized and bought up by the British Government to pay for imports of food ang

munitions, and luxury imports were checked. At home, com. modity prices were “controlled.” Great Britain came out of the war with over £320,000,000 in currency-notes and a huge floating debt, much of which was pure

which abolished the Tower pound (18 Hen. VIII.: the “pounde

Troye which exceedeth the pounde Tower in weight ill. quarters of

the .oz.”) substituted a pound of 5,760 grains, at which the pound

troy still remains. There was in use together with the pound troy, the merchant’s pound, weighing 6,750 grains, which was established about 1270 for all commodities except gold, silver and medicines, but it was generally superseded by the pound avoirdupois about 1330.

inflation, and when the props were removed from the pound the inevitable collapse followed, the relative purchasing power of the

pound, wholesale, being as shown below :—

There was also in use for a short time another

Purchasing power of pound

merchant’s pound, introduced from France and Germany; this pound weighed 7,200 grains. The pound avoirdupois has remained in use continuously since the 14th century, although it may have varied slightly at different periods—the Elizabethan standard was

June 1914 | Dec. 1919 | Apr. 1925 | Feb. 1928 . Flour, Ib. . Potatoes, cwt. .

200 5

Beef, stone

probably 7,200 grains. The standard pound troy, placed together with the standard yard in the custody of the clerk of the House of Commons by a resolution of the House of the 2nd of June 1758, was destroyed at the burning of the houses of parliament in 1834.

4

Cotton, lb.

II3

I45

2

2

3

3

8

19

24

I

2

31

Wool, lb. .

4

IO

3

Copper, lb.

37

19

37

36

Rubber, 1b. Dollars

7 4.87

8 3.67*

II 4.87

15 4.88

Steel rails, cwt.

3

Steam coal, cwt.

In 1838 a commission was appointed to consider the restoration of the standards, and in consequence of their report in 1841 the pound avoirdupois of 7,000 grains was substituted for the pound troy as the standard. A new standard pound avoirdupois was made under the direction of a committee appointed in 1834 (which reported in 1854), by comparison with authenticated copies of the original standard (see Phil. Trans. 1856). This standard pound was legalized by an act of 1855 (18 & 19 Vict. c. 72). The standard avoirdupois pound is made of platinum, in the form of a cylinder nearly 1-35 in. high and 1-15 in. in diameter. It has a groove or channel round it to enable it to be lifted by means of an ivory fork (for illustration see MEASURES AND WEIGHTS) and

126 2

28

4

I0

|

5

2}

2I

27

*Jan. 1920; the following month it fell to 3.2.

In round figures, in early 1920, the pound had lost two-thirds of its value, measured in its internal purchasing power, and onethird of its value as against the dollar. Furthermore, in 1919, when the exchange was “unpegged,” the export of gold had to be prohibited, or else all Britain’s gold stocks would have been lost within a short space of time. Post-war Recovery.—April 1920 to April 1925 was a period of drastic cure. The floating debt was reduced by successive large . is marked “P.S. 1844. 1 lb.” P.S. meaning Parliamentary Stand- budget surpluses; high money rates were imposed to check borard. It is preserved at the Standards Office, in the custody of rowing, and to allow bankers to deflate their swollen balancethe Board of Trade. Copies were also deposited at the Houses of sheets; and a definite and declining limit was set to the issue of Parliament, the Royal Mint, the Royal Observatory and with the currency-notes. By April 1925 the pound was once more upon 4 Royal Society. parity with the dollar, and the export of gold could again be See the Reports of the Standards Commission (6 parts, 1868—73). permitted. The three changes left on the monetary system of outbreak the the country were: that the currency-note remained part of that POUND STERLING. Immediately prior to of the World War the pound sterling circulated in the United system; that by the Gold Standard Act of 1925, neither bankKingdom in two main forms, namely, gold sovereigns and Bank of notes nor currency-notes were redeemable in gold on demand; and England notes. Both were legal tender for any amount, but the thirdly, that the Bank of England was not required to sell gold latter were not issued in smaller denominations than five pounds. in less quantities than 400 oz. fine (equals £1,700 in value). The Currency and Bank Notes Act, 1928 made a further In addition, certain banks, mainly Scotch and Irish, issued their ee a e a A

own notes.

The relative purchasing power of the pound in Britain is shown in the table below. Abroad, it would purchase $4.87; 25.22frs., and 20.43 marks. The Bank of England had a note issue of £55,000,000, of which £30,000,000 was in circulation and the remainder held in the Bank’s own “Reserve.” £38,000,000 in gold was held by the Bank, and an unknown number of sovereigns and half-sovereigns were held by the banks and the public. Gold was free to leave the country and the Bank was bound to redeem its notes in gold on demand. War Results.—With the outbreak of the war, British bankers and financiers called their foreign funds home, and in so doing forced the American exchange for a day or two to above $5.00. Secondly, the public demand for gold ran the Bank’s stock down from 38 to 27 millions, and its “reserve” of notes from 25 to 8 millions. Thirdly, a new form of pound had to be instituted to meet the public demand for currency. This was the currency-

change.

It amalgamated

the bank-notes

and currency-notes into

one issue, controlled by the Bank of England, and permitted the

bank to issue these notes up to a limit of £260,000,000 against securities and not against gold. Also, if the Treasury concurs, this limit to the fiduciary issue may be exceeded for short periods. The pound gained further ground as regards its internal purchasing power, and together with other currencies slowly estab-

lished a new equilibrium. By the end of 1927 the relative purchasing power of the pound, the dollar, the lira and the mark was

roughly in the approximate ratio of 1:5:90:20, that was stipulated

by the new post-war pars of exchange. RENCY.

POURTALES,

COUNT

(See also Money; CurN. E. ©.

FRIEDRICH

VON

(1853-

Switzerland, 1928), German diplomatist, was born at Oberhofen, the army. in service of period brief a After 1853. 24, on Oct. he entered the German Foreign Office in 1880. He was for the seven years immediately preceding the World War, Gemmat Mein '

note, issued by the treasury in denominations of one pound andi ambassador

at St. Petersburg.

He published in 1927,

ei

POUSSIN—POVERTY letste Verhandlungen in St. Petersburg Ende Juli 1914, in which

he relates his last effort to dissuade the tsar from mobilization in July 1914. He died at Bad-Nauheim on May 4, 1928.

POUSSIN, NICOLAS (1594-1665), horn at Les Andelys (Eure) in June 1594. under Quentin Varin, a local painter, till he he entered the studio of Ferdinand Elle, a the Lorrainer L’Allemand. He improved prints after Raphael and Giulio Romano;

French painter, was He learned painting went to Paris, where Fleming, and then of himself by studying and in 1624 he pro-

ceeded to Rome, where he stayed for six years, and married Anna

Maria Dughet, a Frenchwoman. His intimacy with Du Quesnoy, afterwards celebrated under the name of Il Fiammingo, may have led Poussin to the careful study of antique reliefs, many of yhich he modelled. He also attended the academy of Domenichino,

whom he considered the first master in Rome. Among his first patrons were Cardinal Barberini, for whom was painted the “Death of Germanicus” (Barberini palace); Cardinal Omodei, for whom

he produced

in

1630,

the

“Triumphs

of Flora”

(Louvre); Cardinal de Richelieu, who commissioned a Bacchanal (Louvre) ; Vicenzo

Giustiniani,

for whom

was

executed

the

“Massacre of the Innocents,” now in the museum at Chantilly; Cassiano dal Pozzo, who became the owner of the first series of

the “Seven Sacraments” (Belvoir castle); and Fiéart de Chanteloup, with whom in 1640 Poussin, at the call of Sublet de Noyers, returned to France. Louis XIII. conferred on him the title of “frst painter in ordinary,” and in two years at Paris he produced several pictures for the royal chapels (the “Last Supper,” painted

for Versailles, now in the Louvre) and eight cartoons for the Gobelins, the series of the “Labours of Hercules” for the Louvre, the “Triumph of Truth” for Cardinal Richelieu (Louvre), and much minor work.

In 1643, disgusted by the intrigues of Simon

Vouët, Feuquières and the architect Lemercier,

Poussin with-

drew to Rome. There, in 1648, he finished for De Chanteloup the second series of the “Seven Sacraments” (Bridgewater gal-

lery), and also his noble landscape with Diogenes throwing away his Scoop (Louvre); in 1649 he painted the “Vision of St. Paul” (Louvre) for the comic poet Scarron, and in 1651 the “Holy Family” (Louvre) for the duke of Créqui. The finest collection of Poussin’s paintings, as well as of his drawings, is possessed by the Louvre; but, besides the pictures in the National Gallery and at Dulwich, England possesses several of his most considerable works. The “Triumph of Pan” is at Basildon (Berkshire). Other important works are in the collection of Sir Herbert Cook, Richmond; the duke of Bedford, the earl of Carlisle, the earl of Yarborough, the duke of Devonshire, Burdett Coutts and at Longford castle. The Prado, Madrid, the Dresden museum, the Eremitage at Leningrad, possess a number of representative pieces by this prolific master. The prints that a been engraved after his principal pictures amount to upwards of 200. Nicolas Poussin was an eclectic, selecting and combining what

headmired in the classic art of the past. He not only emulated

LINE

worked mainly at Rome, thence making excursions to Milan, Perugia, Castiglione, Florence and Naples. A noteworthy series of works representing various sites near Rome is to be seen in

the Colonna palace; other important works are in the Doria and Borghese palaces; but one of his finest easel-pictures, the “‘Sacrifice of Abraham,” formerly the property of the Colonna, is now in the National Gallery, London. The frescoes executed by Gaspard Poussin in S. Martino di Monti are in a bad state of preservation. Gaspard died at Rome on May 27, 1675. See G. P. Bellori, Le Vite de Pittori, scultori ed architetti moderni (1672); Sandrart, Acad. nob. art. pict., Lettres de Nicolas Poussin (1824) ; Félibien, Entretiens (1666-88) ; P. Desjardins, Poussin (1903) ; W. Friedlander, Nicolas Poussin (Munich, 1914).

POUT or BIB (Gadus luscus), a small fish of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic coast of Europe, differing from its relative, the cod, in the deeper body, larger eye, etc. It is coffeecoloured, with broad, dark transverse bands.

POVERTY

LINE.

CHILDREN MARRY

ne, for decorative arrangement in composition after which mod-

em artists ‘since Cézanne have been striving, in reaction to impressionism, Poussin’s immediate follower was Gaspard Dughet, his brother-in-law and pupil, who through this double bond of

relationship shared the name of Poussin.

| AGE

0

e

5

DIAGRAM

10

AOIN 5

SHOWING

20

AT

35

PAST WORK

AT

LY

25 30

AGES

AND LEAVE HOM LABOURER

CHILDREN BEGIN TO EARN

MARRIES

Titian’s “Bacchanal” and Raphael’s “Stanze” for instance) and

scapes. His influence on French painting was great and lasting. It was felt in the work of successive generations—of David, Ingres, Delacroix, Chassériau, Puvis de Chavannes and Corot, own to modern times. He stands for the classical tradition, for thebalance and harmony in things, for the rhythmic movement of

The words “poverty line” have only

come into use in comparatively recent years, and probably, to the general public, they merely represent a vague social cleavage between people living in varying degrees of security and comfort and people who are constantly exposed to actual privation. To the social student, however, the term has gradually acquired both greater content and greater precision. It was first made familiar by Charles Booth, in his monumental Life and Labour of the People, commenced in 1886. In analysing the population of London, he divided it into eight classes, four of which he defined as poor, the other four as ‘‘above the line of poverty.” “My ‘poor,’” he wrote, “may be described as living under a struggle to obtain the necessaries of life and make both ends meet, while the ‘very poor’ live in a state of chronic want. It may be their own fault that this is so: that is another question; my first business is simply with the numbers who, from whatever cause, do live under conditions of poverty or destitution.” Booth found 30% of the population of London living under such conditions, or “below the line of poverty.” Illuminating, however, as were Booth’s researches, they left the actual basis of the poverty line indefinite. In 1899 Seebohm Rowntree made a somewhat similar investigation into poverty in York, a city with a population at that time of about 76,000. The comparative smallness of the area covered enabled him to undertake a closer analysis of the poverty problem and to distinguish between “primary” and “secondary” poverty. By the former he implied poverty due solely to lack of sufficient income to maintain a family of normal size in a state of physical efficiency, even though all the resources available were economically administered. “Secondary” poverty, on the other

Titian’s glowing colour and the rhythm of Raphael’s design; he iso borrowed figures out of pictures by these -masters (from

Introduced them into his canvases. Yet he was no mere copyist. His conceptions are essentially French, and his characters might bestaged in one of Corneille’s dramas. His art is reasoned and intellectual. The Greek law of unity in space and time is realized. His statuesque figures are ranged parallel to the picture plane as m antique reliefs, The landscape background is similarly arranged; and he applied the principles of figure composition to his land-

383

GASPARD Poussın (1613—1675) devoted himself to landscape painting and rendered admirably the severer beauties of the Roman Campagna. He worked for three years in the studio of his brotherin-law and then came under the influence of Claude Lorrain. He

40 #45

WHICH

THE

OTN 50

55

POVERTY

60

LINE

= 65

7

VARIES

hand, was due to the expenditure of some part of the income on objects other than the maintenance of physical efficiency. Requirements of Physical Efficiency.—In order to fix his primary poverty line it was necessary to calculate the bare minimum requirements of physical efficiency and the cost of satisfying these. The procedure was as follows: The requirements of physical efficiency were classified under three headings: (1) Food, (2) House rent including rates, (3) Household sundries, such as clothing, light, fuel, etc. With regard to food, certain standards, in terms of calories per day, were established, in the light of the latest scientific evidence available,

384

POVERTY

for adult males, adult females, and children of varying ages. The standard adopted for the adult male was 3,500 calories per day,

this being the amount required for men doing moderate work. Due proportions of this were fixed for women,

adolescents and

children. In this way the food required by any given family could be expressed in the terms of a common unit, namely, the calories consumed “per man per day.” The dietary selected by Rowntree to provide the necessary calories was based upon the cheapest rations falling within the Local Government board order for workhouses, and included no alcohol, no tobacco and no meat, with the exception of a little bacon, being less generous than the average dietary required for workhouse purposes. It was then priced according to the cheapest rate ruling in York at that time, and the following figures were adopted as representing the necessary minimum expenditure for food, viz., 3s. each per week for adults, and 2s.3d. each per week for children. With regard to rent, the actual sums then paid were taken as the necessary minimum. As regards household sundries, the sum allowed for a family of father, mother and three children for clothing, fuel and all other sundries was 4s. 11d. per week—a figure arrived at after detailed investigation. Allowing 4s. for rent, these figures totalled up to £1 1s. 8d. a week for a family of five. With the prices ruling on Feb. 1, 1928, this figure becomes £2 1s. 11d., made up as follows:—food £1 3s. 11d.; clothing, fuel, and all other sundries ros. 8d.; rent 6s., and compulsory insurance 1s. 4d. No allowance was made for so much as a tram ride or a postage stamp during the year, or for any expenditure whatever upon moral, mental, or social development, and even the sick club and the funeral club were excluded. The aim was simply to ascertain the lowest cost at which bare physical efficiency could be achieved, if the housewife were a woman of considerable experience, commonsense, and strength of will. Having fixed the primary poverty line, the next step was to ascertain what proportion of the population of York were living in primary and secondary poverty respectively. York’s Ten Per Cent of Primary Poverty, 1899.—In order to do this trained investigators visited every working class house in York, and gathered together with other facts, information which enabled a reasonably accurate estimate to be made of the income of each family. In the course of the visits note was taken of every family which was evidently living in poverty as judged by the housing conditions and the signs of malnutrition. The number of those living in secondary poverty was ascertained by subtracting from the total population found to be living in poverty those whose incomes placed them below the primary poverty line. It was found that 10% of the total population of

LINE

mining area of Stanley.

[THE “NEW STANDAR" These were supplemented a little later

by a similar enquiry into conditions in Bolton, and the results of these researches were published in Livelihood and Poverty in 1915. The lines followed were similar to those of Rowntree, save

that the method of taking samples of each town was adopted in place of the investigation of every household. The results wer

measured by Rowntree’s “poverty line” and also by the authors

“new standard,” based upon that of Rowntree, with certain minor variations—the general effect of which was to make the standard somewhat higher for an adult and somewhat lower for a child

The net ever, was Bowley’s food £1

difference per family between the two standards, how. comparatively slight. With prices ruling on Feb. 1, 1928 standard amounted to £2 1s. 2d., made up as follows-— 2s. 6d.; clothing, fuel and sundries gs. 4d.; rent 8s. od.

and compulsory insurance 1s. 4d. This compares with Rowntree’;

£2 1s. rrd. The conclusion reached by those adopting the new standard, assuming full time wages to be earned in every case, was that in these five towns 11% of working-class families were below the primary poverty line. It should be noted that this figure makes no allowance for loss of earnings due to unemployment, and there. fore it cannot properly be compared with Rowntree’s figures, which were based upon the actual average income over the year, The fundamental principle, however, that of a poverty line de. termined by the requirements of bare physical efficiency, remains precisely the same. Investigation of 1924.—In 1924 a similar investigation was made in the same towns with a view to discovering whether poverty had diminished in the intervening period. The results of

this appear in Has Poverty Diminished? by Prof. Bowley and Miss Margaret H. Hogg. Taking the “New Standard” as the basis of comparison, and allowing for the increase in the cost of living, the investigation showed that the proportion of the working-class population below the primary poverty line had fallen from IL% in 1912-14 to 3-6% in 1923-4, assuming full time wages to be earned in every case, or to 6-5%, assuming that the actual incomes of the families observed during the week of the investigation were equal to their average weekly incomes throughout the year. The latter basis is the more appropriate for purposes of comparison with Rowntree’s figures. Although not claiming exact accuracy, such figures afford strong evidence that the volume of poverty in Britain has continued to diminish throughout the first quarter of the 2oth century. Probably the proportion of the population living below the primary poverty line in 1925 was less than half the proportion in 1900, At the same time the gravity of the position should not be underthe city or 153% of the working-class population were living in estimated. Taking 6-5% of the working-class population as repprimary poverty, and 18% of the total population or 28% of the resenting 4% of the total population, we had in 1924 in the Britworking-class population were in secondary poverty. It may be ish Isles practically 2,000,000 persons living below the standard noted that when the two groups of “primary” and secondary necessary for the maintenance of mere physical efficiency. Morepoverty are taken together we have figures, namely, 43% of the over, the number of different individuals who at one time or other working classes and 28% of the total population of York, which fall below the poverty line is much greater than those who fall below it at a given moment. are readily comparable with the results obtained by Booth. From the national standpoint it is serious that in any given Rowntree, in analysing the immediate causes of primary poverty, showed that more than one half of it was due solely to family the period of greatest want occurs before any of the chil the death of the wage earner, 22% to largeness of family, and dren begin to earn. At that time those living near the poverty line are liable to fall below it, and the stress is most severe upon the the rest to miscellaneous causes. The causes of secondary poverty do not lend themselves to younger children, and women who are bearing children. Accord similar classification, but Rowntree stated them as drink, betting, ing to Bowley and Hogg, even in our improved post-war con ignorant or careless housekeeping, and other improvident ex- ditions, more than one child in six lives below the poverty line at some period, while a smaller proportion of children live belo penditure, and put drink as the predominant factor. it for many years together. i It may be added that subsequent investigators, such as Prof. Nevertheless, there has certainly been a striking reduction m A. L. Bowley and Miss Hogg, have practically ignored the existence of secondary poverty, concentrating rather on the en- the proportion of primary poverty. One of the outstanding chardeavour to estimate the number of those who in any given area acteristics of post-war conditions is the rise in the real wages 0 are compulsorily below the poverty line or are living in primary the lowest paid labour. Between 1913 and 1924 the wages of ur skilled labour approximately doubled, whilst the cost of living was poverty. Later Enquiries.—The enquiries of Booth and Rowntree were only 70% higher. A second characteristic is the reduction = followed by other investigations of particular areas. In 1912 and the average size of the family. The census figures of 1921 showed 1913 investigations were made by Prof. A. L. Bowley and Prof. the average number of children under 14 years of age per“family A. R. Burnett-Hurst into conditions in certain typical provincial to be 1-12 against 1-29 in roxz. Thus, the effect of increas towns, namely, Reading, Northampton and Warrington, and the wages in reducing poverty appears to be twice as great as the

POVINDAH— POWER reduction in the size of families. oe All the above figures refer to Great Britain only. There are no comparable figures for other countries—though undoubtedly the proportion of people below the poverty line is less in the British Dominions and in the United States than in Great Britain. It may

possibly be less in Holland, Denmark and Switzerland; but, in the absence of figures, this is only guess-work.

It is almost cer-

tainly greater in the other European countries, while in Japan,

China and India it is enormously greater, even after making full allowance for differences in climate and national customs. To raise

the standard of living in the East is perhaps the most urgent material task confronting civilisation.

BrstiocraPHy.—Charles Booth, Life & Labour of the People (1892); B. Seebohm Rowntree, Poverty: A Study of Town Life

(1901, 1922) ; L. G. Chiozza-Money, Riches & Poverty (1905); A. L.

Bowley & A. R. Burnett-Hurst,

Livelihood & Poverty

(1915); B.

Seebohm Rowntree, The Human Needs of Labour (1918) ; A. L. Bowley & Margaret H. Hogg, Has Poverty Diminished? (1925) ; A.M. Carr-Saunders and D. Caradog Jones, A Survey of the Social Structure of England & Wales (1927). (B. S. R.)

POVINDAH, a class of warrior nomadic traders in Afghanistan, who belong chiefly to the Ghilzais. Their name, which designates their occupation, is derived from the same root as the Pushtu word for “to graze.” They are almost wholly engaged in the carrying trade between India and Afghanistan and Central Asia. See Census of India 1921, Vol. I. 1924, p. 96.

POWELL,

FREDERICK

YORK

(1850-1904), English

historian and scholar, was born in Bloomsbury, London, on Jan.

14,1850. Much of his childhood was spent in France and Spain.

He was educated at Rugby, and at Christ Church, Oxford, was

called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1844, and married in the same year. He became law-lecturer and tutor of Christ Church, fellow of Oriel college, delegate of the Clarendon Press,

and in 1894 he was made regius professor of modern history in succession to J. A. Froude. He assisted Professor Gudbrandr Vigflsson in his Icelandic Prose Reader (1897), Corpus poeticum boreale (1887), Origines islandicae (1905), and in the editing of the Grimm Centenary papers (1886). He took a keen interest in the development of modern French poetry, and Verlaine Mallamé and Verhaeren all lectured at Oxford under his auspices. He was also a connoisseur in Japanese art. York Powell befriended refugees after the Commune, counting among his friends Jules Vallès the author of Les Réfractaires; and he was also a friend of Stepniak. He died at Oxford on May 8, 1904. See the Life, with letters and selections, by Oliver Elton (1906).

POWELL,

JOHN

WESLEY

(1834-1902),

American

geologist and ethnologist, was born at Mount Morris, N.Y., March

24, 1834. His parents were of English birth, but had moved to America in 1830, and he was educated at Illinois and Oberlin colleges. He began his geological work with a series of field tips including a trip throughout the length of the Mississippi in a rowboat, the length of the Ohio, and of the Illinois. When the Civil War broke out he entered the Union Army as a private, and at the battle of Shiloh he lost his right arm but continued in active service, reaching the rank of major of volunteers. In 1865 he was appointed professor of geology and curator of the museum in the Illinois Wesleyan university at Bloomington, and afterwards at the Normal university. In 1867 he commenced a series of expeditions to the Rocky Mountains and the canyons of the Green and Colorado rivers, during the course of which (1869) he made a daring boat-journey of three months through the Grand Canyon; he also made a special study of the Indians and their languages for the Smithsonian

Institution, in which he founded and directed a bureau of eth-

nology. His able work led to the establishment under the U.S. overnment of the geographical and geological survey of the Rocky Mountain region with which he was occupied from 1870

lo 1879. This survey was incorporated with the United States

geological and geographical survey in 1879, when Powell became

director of the bureau of ethnology.

In 1881, Powell was ap-

pointed director also of the geological survey, a post which he ‘tcupied until 1894. He died in Haven, Me., on Sept. 23, 1902. His principal publications were: Exploration of the Colorado River

335

of the West and its Tributaries (1875), Report on the Geology of the Eastern Portion of the Uinta Mountains (1876), Report on the Lands of the Arid Region of the United States (1879), Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages (1880), Canyons of the Colorado (189s), Truth and Error

(1898).

See F. S. Dellenbaugh, Romance of the Colorado River (New York, 1903), and Canyon Voyage: Second Powell Expedition (New York, 1908) ; Wm. H. Brewer, “Obituary of John Wesley Powell,” Silliman’s Journal, series 4, vol. 14 (1902), pp. 377-383.

POWELL,

VAVASOR

(1617-1670), Welsh Nonconform-

ist, was born in Radnorshire and educated at Jesus College, Oxford. About 1639 he became an itinerant preacher, and for preachIng in various parts of Wales he was twice arrested in 1640. During the Civil War he preached in and around London. In 1646 he returned to Wales, and with a salary granted by parliament resumed his itinerant preaching. In 1650 parliament appointed a commission “for the better propagation and preaching of the gospel in Wales,” and Powell acted as one of the principal advisers of this body. In 1653 he returned to London, and having denounced Cromwell for accepting the office of Lord Protector he was imprisoned. At the Restoration in 1660 he was arrested for preaching, and after a short period of freedom he was again seized, and he remained in prison for seven years. He was set free in 1667, but in 1668 he was again a prisoner, and he died in custody on Oct. 27, 1670. See Tke Life and Death of Mr. Vavasor Powell (1671), attributed to Edward Bagshaw the younger; Vavasoris Examen et Purgamen (1654), by E. Allen and others; D. Neal, History of the Puritans (1822); and

T. Rees, History of Protestant Nonconformity in Wales (1861).

POWER.

The word “power,” as used by the engineer, indi-

cates energy under human control and available for doing mechanical work. The principal sources of power are the muscular energy of men and animals; the kinetic energy of the winds and of streams; the potential energy of water at high levels, of the tides and of waves; the heat of the earth and of the sun; and heat derived from the combustion of fuels. Of these sources of power the winds, waves and solar heat suffer the disadvantage of being essentially intermittent and therefore requiring some method of storage of power if the demand for power is continuous. From the point of view of the size and cost of the power plant, when large amounts of power are required, windmills, wave motors, and solar engines are not adaptable to large-scale power-generation; tidal power, while it may be developed in certain places for large power, usually entails excessive first cost; volcanic power or natural steam has been used in Italy and experimented with in California; hydraulic turbines and heat engines alone permit the construction of compact plants of practically unlimited capacity and of moderate first cost. The commonly accepted unit of power is the horse-power, which was defined by James Watt in 1783 as the equivalent of 33,000 ft.lb. of work per minute. This is about ten times as much work as can be done per minute by a labourer working eight hours per day. The use of domesticated animals was the first enlargement of the power of man and the beginning of his civilization. The use of the wind for sailing vessels was an early development but its use in operating windmills dates from about the r2th century. Water-wheels were known in Greek times and are described by Vitruvius, but their capacity was very small. To the end of the 18th century the largest water-wheels for industrial use did not

exceed

10 horse-power.

The

earliest operative heat engine is

the cannon, used first at the end of the 13th century. The social consequences of its invention were momentous; it had a great

part in the destruction of the feudal system. It represented a greater concentration of power than had been possible previously. Its indirect influence in stimulating the development of the art of cutting metals is of prime importance in the history of the heat engine. The special incentive which gave birth to the steam engine was the desire to remove water from mines (particularly the tin mines of Cornwall). In 1698 Capt. Savery’s engine was patented and a number of his engines were built. They were found to be extravagant in their use of coal. Four years later the first steam engine using a cylinder and piston was devised by New-

comen. It was while repairing a model of this engine that James Watt made the improvements that resulted in the modern steam engine. In 1782 Watt patented a double-acting rotative engine which, for the first time, made steam-power available for driving all kinds of mechanism. The result of this invention was the factory system and the industrial revolution. It became possible also to apply steam-power to navigation and to railroads. The

|

POWER ALCOHOL—POWER OF ATTORNEY

386

next

important

advance

in power

generation

was

the

invention by Fourneyron of the hydraulic (reaction) turbine in 1827, for utilizing the energy of water available under high heads. Impulse water-turbines of the Pelton type, adapted to

use the highest heads, were developed in California about 1860. Hydraulic turbines have now reached a high degree of perfection giving efficiencies in excess of 90%. The largest unit built up to 1928 has a capacity of 100,000 horse-power.

The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is a function of the

maximum and minimum temperatures of the working substance and also of the cycle of operations. The cycle of maximum effciency for given temperature limits is the Carnot cycle. Combustion, which is the source of heat in heat engines, either may occur outside the engine (external combustion) or may occur inside the engine (internal combustion). In external-combustion engines the working substance is distinct from the products of combustion and heat travels to it by conduction through containing walls such as boiler heating-surface. The maximum temperature of the working substance is then limited by the strength of the containing walls at high temperature; in 1928 the practical limit of temperature was about 900° F. With internal combustion the products of combustion are used as the working substance and there is no maximum temperature limit since the containing walls, piston and valves can be water-cooled. The theoretical thermal efficiency of the steam turbine, operating under the limiting conditions of 1928, is about 36%, of the Diesel engine about 50%. The brake thermal efficiencies actually realized are considerably lower. The internal-combustion engine is compact, of light weight, instantly available for use, has low labour cost and no stand-by losses. Its principal disadvantage is that it uses a fuel more costly than coal except in Diesel engines utilizing the cheapest grades of oil. The first practical internal-combustion engine was that of Lenoir (1860). Two years later Beau de Rochas showed that for good efficiency it is necessary to compress the explosive mixture before igniting it; and in 1876 this idea was effectively realized in a successful explosion engine by Otto. The Otto cycle is the standard cycle in automobile, aeroplane and many stationary and marine engines. The fuel used by Lenoir and Otto was coal gas but in 1883 Daimler substituted volatile liquid hydro-carbon fuel (gasolene or petrol) and thereby made the engine available for automotive purposes. The use of less volatile hydro-carbon fuels (kerosene, fuel oil, etc.) was first successfully developed by Hornsby in the Hornsby-Ackroyd engine of 1894. A year later Diesel built his first engine, in which the air is brought up to the temperature of ignition of the fuel by the work of compression alone and fuel is injected in a finely atomized state after the compression is completed. It is possible to burn in it any fuel that can be atomized by high pressure air injection, by spraying under very high pressure through small openings, or by other means. It offers the combination of the cheapest fuel and the highest efficiency of utilization. The Diesel engine was slow in development at first because of many practical difficulties, especially from heat stresses. Its use in the automotive field is just beginning, particularly for trucks. In the aviation field it is particularly desirable in order to diminish the fire risk of the fuel. The principal uses for power up to about 1890 were for driving shafting, pumps, compressors and hoists, for locomotives and for marine propulsion. With the improvements that had recently been made in the use of electricity the power station appeared. Electricity is a means for transmission of power and the only means which is economical for long distances and for complicated systems. The earlier power transmission systems by rope drives, compressed air and water under pressure, were too costly and cumbersome to survive. The maximum size of the electrical units

installed increased rapidly from about 150 kw. in 1886 to 5.009

kw. in 1900. The larger the engine the lower is its rotation speed. La,

|

reciprocating engines are complex, heavy and costly, adapted a

to special conditions.

In 1884 Parsons had taken out a a

for a reaction steam turbine and in 1891 made it into a cop. densing unit and began to supply it to electric-power station.

In 1889 De Laval introduced the first practical impulse stean, turbine. These turbines and those developed from them operate at high speeds of rotation, occupy little space, require no fly.

wheels, are exceedingly simple, and have high steam efficiencies of 208,000 kw. capacity The largest unit built up to 1929 is This is equivalent to 279,000 h.p. or the work of 837,000 horses or over 8,000,000 men working eight-hour shifts. Single power plants develop over 1,000,000 kilowatts. In order to obtain high thermal efficiency it is desirable not only that the maximum temperature of the working substance should

be high but also that the amount of thermal energy available at high temperature should be considerable. This condition exists with a saturated vapour because the abstraction of latent heat

results in change of state without change in temperature. For this reason pressures of 1,400 Ib. per square inch are now being used in a few plants, corresponding to a saturation temperature of nearly 600° F. At the critical pressure the temperature is only a little over 700° F, so that the limit of possible efficiency with steam is nearly reached; higher efficiencies with external-combustion engines can be obtained by the use of a combination of two

working substances or the so-called binary-fiuid system. A large.

scale installation of a mercury-water system has yielded a brake thermal efficiency of about 35%, which is much more than is possible with any steam plant and practically the same as for a good Diesel engine. This system is still regarded as under development. The natural line of progress in power generation would seem to be the development of an internal-combustion turbine. Unfortunately all attempts along this line appear destined to fail until progress in metallurgy has produced some metal which will maintain adequate strength at high temperatures and also until the compression of the charge can be carried out much more efficiently than is possible with present-day centrifugal compressors.

The history of the development of power shows a constant

striving for greater economy, greater compactness of the units and greater capacity of each unit. The present limits of capacity have already been indicated and they will certainly be extended. The cost of power is now becoming so low that no considerable improvement is to be anticipated. In a steam-turbine plant, with a consumption of x lb. of coal per hour per horse-power and with coal at $5 per ton, the cost of the fuel is qp Of the cost of man-power when labour is paid $5 per eight-hour day. The total cost of power, taking all costs into consideration, is only about

skp of the cost of man-power.

In a Diesel engine plant the cost

of power is still lower. See DIESEL ENGINES; ELECTRIC GENERATOR; ELECTRICAL POWER N AGRICULTURE; ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION; ELECTRICAL POWER: NATIONAL

AND

REGIONAL

SCHEME;

ELECTRIC

MOTOR;

ELECTRICAL

Power TRANSMISSION; INTERNAL ComsBusTION Encrves; Motor Car; PoWwER TRANSMISSION: VariPowER TRANSMISSION; PNEUMATIC able Gears; Power Transmission: Mechanical; TURBINE, STEAM; TURBINES, WATER; WATER POWER; WINDMILLS AND E D

. S.

Ma.

POWER ALCOHOL: see ALCOHOL IN INDUSTRY.

POWER AMPLIFIER. In radio work the ratio of the alternating-current power produced in the output circuit to the alternating-current power supplied to the input circuit is known 4sthe power amplification. A power amplifier is an amplifier which 1s capable of producing relatively large power in an output circull.

(See AMPLIFICATION.)

POWER OF ATTORNEY or LETTER OF ATTORNEY 5 @ written authority, usually, though not necessarily, under hand and seal, empowering the person named therein to do some act or acts

on behalf of the principal, which otherwise could only be done by the principal himself. It is either general or special. A general

power of attorney authorizes the agent to act for his principal in

POWERS—POWER all matters, or in all matters of a particular nature, or generally in

respect of a particular business.

A special power of attorney

387

TRANSMISSION

Steam; Motors, Erectric; Hypravtic Motors, and machines are treated in various special articles. For the methods and

mechanisms of distribution or transmission reference should be made to the following articles: I. ELECTRICAL POWER TRANSMISSION death of the principal, and is revocable at his will, even by a 2. HyprRAULIC Power TRANSMISSION verbal notice, unless it has been given for a valuable consideration 3. PowER TRANSMISSION, MECHANICAL to secure some interest of the donee. The law relating to powers 4. PNEUMATIC POWER TRANSMISSION of attorney is a branch of the law of agency. Powers of attorney are used freely in the United States where their form and usage and to the articles ELECTRICAL POWER, NATIONAL AND REGIONAL SCHEMES; ELECTRICITY SUPPLY; ELECTRIFICATION OF INDUSTRY; follow that of England. (See PRINCIPAL AND AGENT.) POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873), American sculptor, the POowER TRANSMISSION : VARIABLE GEARS.

authorizes the agent to represent his principal only in regard to

some particular specified act. A power of attorney expires with

son of a farmer, was born at Woodstock, Vt., on June 29, 1805. In 1819 his father removed to Ohio, where the son attended school

for about a year. After leaving school he found employment in a reading-room in the chief hotel of the town; but, being, in his own words, “forced at last to leave that place as his clothes and shoes were fast leaving him,” he became a clerk in a general store in Cincinnati and afterwards a mechanic in a clock and organ factory. In 1826 he began to frequent the studio of Eckstein, and at once conceived a strong passion for sculpture. His proficiency in modelling secured him the situation of general assistant and artist of the Western museum in Cincinnati, where his ingenious representation of scenes in Dante’s Inferno met with extraordinary success. At the end of 1834 he went to Washington, where his remarkable gifts soon awakened attention. In 1837 he settled in Florence, Italy, where he remained till his death. While he found it profitable to devote the greater part of his time to busts,

POWER

TRANSMISSION,

MECHANICAL

Mechanical transmission of power is effected generally by means of belts or ropes, by shafts or by wheel gearing and chains. Each individual method may be used separately or in combination. The problems involved in the design and arrangement of the mechanisms for the mechanical distribution of power are conveniently approached by the consideration of the way in which the mechanical energy made available by an engine is distributed to the several machines in the factory. By a belt on the fly-wheel of the prime mover the power is transmitted to the line shaft, and pulleys suitably placed along the line shaft by means of other belts transmit power, first, to small countershafts carrying fast and loose pulleys and striking gear for starting or stopping each engine at

will, and then to the driving pulleys (g.v.) of the several machines. Quantitative Estimation of the Power Transmitted —In

his best efforts were bestowed on ideal work. In 1839 his statue of “Eve” excited the admiration of Thorwaldsen, and in 1843 he

dealing with the matter quantitatively the engine crank-shaft may

place among the leading sculptors of his time. Among the best known of his other ideal statues are the “Fisher Boy,” “Il Pense-

as that particular machine is concerned. Let T be the mean torque or turning effort in ft.lb. which the

be taken as the starting point of the transmission, and the first

produced his celebrated “Greek Slave,” which at once gave him a motion-shaft of the machine as the end of the transmission so far roso,” “Proserpine,” “California,” “America” (modelled for the Crystal Palace, Sydenham), and the “Last of his Tribe.” He died on June 27, 1873.

POWER

TRANSMISSION.

The

appliances connected

with installations for the utilization of natural sources of energy may be classified into three groups:—(1) Prime movers, by means of which the natural form of energy is transformed into mechanical energy. To this group belong all such appliances as water turbines, steam turbines, steam engines and boilers, gas producers, gas engines, oil engines, etc. (2) Machinery of any kind which is driven by energy made available by the prime mover. To this group belong all machine tools, textile machinery, pumping machinery, cranes—in fact every kind of machine which requires any considerable quantity of energy to drive it. (3) The appliances by means of which the energy made available by the prime mover is transmitted to the machine designed to utilize it. The term power is used to denote the rate at which energy is transmitted. The unit of power in common use is the horse power, and one horse power means a rate of transmission of 550 foot-pounds per second. In many cases the prime mover is combined with the machine in such a way that the transmitting mechanism is not distinctly differentiated from either the prime mover or the machine, as in the case of the locomotive engine. In other cases the energy made available by the prime mover is distributed to a number of separate machines at a distance from the prime mover, as in the case of an engineer’s workshop. In this case the trans-

engine exerts continuously on the crank shaft when it is making N revolutions per second. It is more convenient to express the revolutions per second in terms of the angular velocity w, that is, in radians per second. The relation between these quantities

is w=2mrN.

Then the rate at which work is done by the engine crank shaft is Tw foot-pounds per second, equivalent to Tw/550 horse power. This is now distributed to the several machines in varying proportions. Assuming for the sake of simplicity that the whole of the power is absorbed by one machine, let Tı be the torque on the first motion-shaft of the machine, and let a be its angular velocity, then the rate at which the machine is absorbing energy is T1w: foot-pounds per second.

A certain quan-

tity of energy is absorbed by the transmitting mechanism itself for the purpose of overcoming frictional and other resistances, otherwise the rate of absorption of energy by the machine would exactly equal the rate at which it was produced by the prime mover assuming steady conditions of working. Actually therefore T1@, would be less than Tw so that Tiwi =n Tw,

where 7 is called the efficiency of the transmission. Considering now the general problem of a multiple machine transmission, if Ti, on, T2, we, Ts, ws,°** are the several torques and angular velocities of the respective first motion shafts of the machines, (Tron+ Tete t+ T3034

Pats -.)=7To

(2)

expresses the relations which must exist at any instant of steady mitting mechanism by means of which the energy is distributed motion. This is not quite a complete statement of the actual to the several machines has a distinct individuality. In other conditions because some of the provided energy is always in cases prime movers are located in places where the natural course of being stored and unstored from instant to instant as source of energy is abundant, namely, near waterfalls, or in the kinetic energy in the moving parts of the mechanism. Here, n neighbourhood of coal-fields, and the energy made available is is the over-all efficiency of the distributing mechanism. We now transmitted in bulk to factories, etc., at relatively great dis- consider the separate parts of the transmitting mechanism. Belts.—Let a pulley A (fig. 1) drive a pulley B by means of a tances. In this case the method and mechanism of distribution become of paramount importance, since the distance between leather belt, and let the direction of motion be as indicated by the the prime mover and the places where the energy is to be utilized arrows on the pulleys. When the pulleys are revolving uniformly, by machines is only limited by the efficiency of the mechanism A transmitting power to B, one side of the belt will be tight and the other side will be slack, but both sides will be in a state of of distribution. | tension. Let ¢ and u be the respective tensions in pounds on the Prime movers are considered in the articles STEAM ENGINE; Internat COMBUSTION ENGINE; Dieset ENGINE; TURBINE, tight and slack side; then the torque exerted by the belt on the

POWER

3288

TRANSMISSION

pulley B is (¢—z)r, where v is the radius of the pulley in feet, and

the rate at which the belt does work on the pulley is (¢—u)rw

foot-pounds per second. If the horse power required to drive the machine be represented by h.p., then

(t—u)rw=550 h.p., (3) assuming the efficiency of the transmission to be unity. This equation contains two unknown tensions, and before either can

[BELT VELOCITY

revolutions per minute (equal to 18-84 radians per second), the pulley on the shaft being 3 ft. diameter.

Assume the engine fly.

wheel to be of such diameter and at such a distance from the driven pulley that the arc of contact is 120°, equal to 2-094 radians

and further assume that the coefficient of friction y=0.3. Then from

equation

(5)

t/u = 62-094

03 == 2.718

a

that is log et/u=

0-6282, from which t/u=1-87, and u=tŁ/1:87. Using this in (3) we

have ¿(1—1/1-87) 1-5X18-84=550X20, from which ż=838 lþ Allowing a working strength of 300 lb. per square inch, the area

required is 2-8 sq.in., so that if the belt is 4 in. thick its width

would be 11-2 in., or if 48, in. thick, r5 in. approximately. The effect of the force constraining the circular motion ip

diminishing the horse power transmitted may now be ascertained

by calculating the horse power which a belt of the size found wil actually transmit when the maximum tension ¢ is 838 Ib. A belt of the area found above would weigh about 1-4 Ib. per foot. The velocity of the belt, v=wr=18-84X1-5=28-26 ft. per second, The term Wv*/g therefore has the numerical value 34-7. Hence

FIG. 1.—SHOWS

BELT

equation (2) becomes (t—34-7)/(u—34-7)=1-87, from which, inserting the value 838 for ¢, u==464-5 lb. Using this value of y in equation (1)

TORQUE

be found another condition is necessary. This is supplied by the relation between the tensions, the arc of contact 6, in radians (fig. 2), the coefficient of friction u between the belt and the pulley, the mass of the belt and the speed of the belt. Consider an element of the belt (fig. 2) subtending an angle d@ at the centre of the pulley, and let ¢ be the tension on one side of the element and (f+dé) the tension of the other side. The tension tending to cause the element to slide bodily round the surface of the pulley is di. The normal pressure between the element and the face of the pulley due to the tensions is ¢ d@, but this is diminished by the force necessary to constrain the element to move in the circular path determined by the curvature of the pulley. If W is the weight of the belt per foot, the constraining force required for this purpose is Wv*d6/g, where v is the linear velocity of the belt in feet per second. Hence the frictional resistance of the element to sliding is (¢—Wv?/g)ud0, and this must be equal to the difference of tensions di when the element is on the point of slipping,

so that ((—Wv?/2) ud0=dt. The solution of this equation is t— Wa?/g

u—-Wr/g

= gH ere,

(4)

Equations (3) and (4) supply the condition from which the power transmitted by a given belt at a given speed can be found. For

ordinary work the term involving v may be neglected, so that

t/u= er,

(838—464'5) X 18:84 X 1°5 55°

= IQ'I5.

Thus with the comparatively low belt speed of 28 ft. per second the horse power is only diminished by about 5%. As the velocity increases the transmitted horse power increases, but the’ loss from this cause rapidly increases, and there will be one speed for every belt at which the horse power transmitted is a maximum. An increase of speed above this results in a diminution of transmitted horse power.

Belt Velocity for Maximum Horse Power.—If the weight

of a belt per foot is given, the speed at which the maximum horse power is transmitted for an assigned value of the maximum tension z can be calculated from equations (3) and (4) as follows:— Let ¢ be the given maximum tension with which a belt weighing W lb. per foot may be worked. Then solving equation (4) for u, subtracting ¢ from each side, and changing the signs all

through: t—u= (t— Wv*/g) (r—e#*).

And the rate of working

U, in foot-pounds per second, is

where ¢ is now the maximum tension and wz the minimum tension, and e is the base of the Napierian system of logarithms, 2-718.

(4) becomes

H.P. =

(5)

Equations (3) and (5) are ordinarily used for the preliminary

design of a belt to calculate 7, the maximum tension in the belt necessary to transmit a stated horse power at a stated speed, and then the cross section is proportioned so that the stress per square inch shall not exceed a certain safe limit determined from practice. To facilitate the calculations in connection with equation (5), FIG. 2.—COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION tables are constructed giving the ratio ¢/u for various values of w and @. (See W. C. Unwin, Machine Design, 12th ed., p. 377.) The ratio should be calculated for the smaller pulley. If the belt is arranged as in fig. 1, that is, with the slack side uppermost, the drop of the belt tends to increase 0 and hence the ratio ¢/z for both pulleys. Example of Preliminary Design of a Belt.—The following example illustrates the use of the equations for the design of a belt in the ordinary way. Find the width of a belt to transmit 20 h.p. from the flywheel of an engine to a shaft which runs at 180

U = (t—u)v= (tv— W/g) (1 —e). Differentiating U with regard to v, equating to zero, and solving for v, we have v= y (tg/3W). Utilizing the data of the previous example to illustrate this matter, =838 1b., W = 1-4 Ib. per foot, and consequently, from the above expression, v=8o ft. per second approximately. A lower speed than this should be adopted, however, because the above investigation does not include the loss incurred by the continual bending of the belt round the circumference of the pulley. The loss from this cause increases with the velocity of the belt, and operates to make the velocity for maximum horse power considerably lower than that given above.

Flexibility——When a belt or rope is working power is ab-

sorbed in its continual bending round the pulleys, the amount depending upon the flexibility of the belt and the speed. If C is the couple required to bend the belt to the radius of the pulley, the rate at which work is done is Cw foot-pounds per second. The value for C for a given belt varies approximately inversely as the radius of the pulley, so that the loss of power from this cause will vary inversely as the radius of the pulley and directly as the

speed of revolution. Hence thin flexible belts are to be preferred

to thick stiff ones. Besides the loss of power in transmission due to this cause, the bending causes a stress in the belt which is to be added to the direct stress due to the tensions in the belt in order to find the maximum stress. In ordinary leather belts the bending stress is usually negligible; in ropes, however, especially wire rope, it assumes paramount importance, since it tends to overstrain the outermost strands and if these give way the life of the rope is soon determined.

Rope Driving.—About 1856 James Combe, of Belfast, intro-

duced the practice of transmitting power by means of ropes Tul

PLATE I

‘TRANSMISSION POWER

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TRANSMISSION POWER PLATE II

POWER

ROPES AND PULLEYS]

TRANSMISSION

ning in grooves turned circumferentially in the rim of the pulley

(fg. 3). The ropes may be led off in groups to the different floors

of the factory to pulleys keyed to the distributing shafting.

shearing stress f pounds per square inch, the relation between the quantities is given by

A

groove was adopted having an angle of about 45°, and this is the angle still used in the practice of Messrs. Combe, Barbour and Combe, of Belfast. A section of the rim of a rope driving wheel showing the shape of the groove for a rope of 13 in. diameter is

T =rDf/x16,

(7)

and the relation between the torque T, the diameter D, the relative angular displacement 0 of two sections L inches apart by

T =COrD*/32L,

(8)

where C is the modulus of rigidity for the material of the shaft. Observe that @ is here measured in radians. The ordinary problems of shaft transmission by solid round shafts subject to

a uniform torque only can be solved by means of these equations. Se Sa = So ees Seeger SSS aA O Sec niecekòen =N

FIG.

3.—GROUP

SYSTEM

OF

ROPE

DRIVE

shown in fig. 4, and a rope driving pulley designed for six 14 in. ropes is shown in fig. 5. A rope is less flexible than a belt, and

therefore care must be taken not to arrange rope drives with pulleys having too small a diameter relatively to the diameter of

the rope. The principles of §§ 3, 4, 5 and 6, apply equally to ropes,

but with the practical modification that the working stress in the rope is a much smaller fraction of the ultimate strength than in the case of belting and the ratio of the tensions is much greater. The following table, based upon the experience of Messrs. Combe, presents the practical possibilities in a convenient form :— Smallest diameter of Diameter of rope

pulley, which should be used with the rope

In.

14 2I

42 66

H.P. per rope for smallest pulley at roo rev. per minute FIG.

5.—DESIGN

OF

PULLEY

FOR

SIX

ROPE

DRIVE

Calculate the horse power which a shaft 4 in. diameter can transmit, revolving 120 times per minute (12°56 radians per second), when the maximum shearing stress f is limited to 11,000 Ib. per square inch. From equation (7) the maximum torque which may be applied to the shaft is T=138,400 inch-pounds.

The speed originally adopted for the rope was 55 ft. per second. This speed has been exceeded, but, as indicated above, for any particular case there is one speed at which the maximum horse From (6) H.P.= E50 00K 2250 = 264. The example may be power is transmitted, and this speed is chosen with due regard I2X550 to the effect of centrifugal tension and the loss due to the con- continued to find how much the shaft will twist in a length of tinual bending of the rope round the pulley Instead of using ro ft. Substituting the value of the torque in inch-pounds in one rope for each groove, a single continuous rope may be used, equation (8), and taking 11,500,000 for the value of C, driving from one common pulley several shafts at different speeds. __ 138,400X 120X32 For further information see Abram Combe, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. =0'057 radians, LI, 500,000 X 3°14 X 256 (July 1896). Experiments to compare the efficiencies of rope and belt driving were carried out at Lille in 1894 by the Soczété In- and this is equivalent to 3°3°. dustrielle du Nord de la France, for an account of which see D. S. In the case of hollow round shafts where D is the external Capper, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (October 1896). Cotton ropes diameter and d the internal diameter equation (7) becomes are used extensively for transmitting power in factories, and T = nf(D*—d*)/16D, (9) though more expensive than Manila ropes, are more durable when and equation (8) becomes worked under suitable conditions. T =COr(D*—d*)/32L. (10) Shafts.—When a shaft transreT torque the that hitherto made mits power from a prime mover tacitly The assumption to a machine, every section of mains constant is rarely true in practice; it usually varies from it sustains a turning couple or instant to instant, often in a periodic manner, and an appropriate torque T, and if w is the angular value of f must be taken to suit any particular case. Again it velocity of rotation in radians rarely happens that a shaft sustains a torque only. There is per second, the rate of transmis- FIG. 4.—SECTION OF RIM FOR ROPE usually a bending moment associated with it. For a discussion of sion is Tw foot-pounds per sec- PULLEY DRIVE the proper values of f, to suit cases where the stress is variable, ond, and the relation between the horse power, torque and angular and the way a bending moment of known amount may be comvelocity is bined with a known torque, see STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. It is Tw= 550 H.P. (6) sufficient to state here that if M is the bending moment in inchThe problem involved in the design of a shaft is so to proportion pounds, and T the torque in inch-pounds, the magnitude of the the size that the stress produced by the torque shall not exceed greatest direct stress in the shaft due to the effect. of the torque a certain limit, or that the relative angular displacement of and bending moment acting together is the same as would be two sections at right angles to the axis of the shaft at a given produced by the application of a torque of distance apart shall not exceed a certain angle, the particular (11) M-+vV(T?+M?) inch-pounds features of the problem determining which condition shall operate the for shaft a designing in in fixing the size. At a section of a solid round shaft where the It will be readily understood that at off taken is power where factory a to power of n distributio diameter is D inches, the torque 7 inch-pounds, and the maximum

390

different places along the shaft, the diameter of the shaft near the engine must be proportioned to transmit the total power transmitted whilst the more remote parts of the shaft are made smaller, since the power transmitted there 1s smaller.

Gearing.

(UNITED stare

POWER TRANSMISSION Pitch Chains.—Gearing is used to transmit power

from one shaft to another. The shafts may be parallel; or inclined to one another, so that if produced they would meet in a point; or inclined to one another so that if produced they would not meet in a point. In the first case the gear wheels are called spur wheels, sometimes cog wheels; in the second case bevel wheels, or, if the angle between the shafts is 90°, mitre wheels; and in the third case they are called skew bevels. In all cases the teeth should be so shaped that the velocity ratio between the shafts remains constant, although in very rare cases gearing is designed to work with a variable velocity ratio as part of some special machines. For the principles governing the shape of the teeth to fulfil the condition that the velocity ratio between the wheels shall be constant, see MECHANICS, § Applied. The size of the teeth is determined by the torque the gearing is required to transmit. Gearing is noisy at high speeds unless special care is taken in the manufacture to secure exact uniformity in pitch. Great impetus was given to the development of improved methods of manufacture by the need of gearing the high speed marine steam turbine to the low speed propeller. The first turbine geared ship the “Vespasian” was described in a paper by Sir Charles Parsons entitled “On the application of the marine steam turbine and mechanical gearing to merchant ships.” Proc. Inst. Naval Architects, Vol. LII. 1910. The motor car gear box, back axle and differential gear call for silent gearing and the demand has brought the manufacture of gearing to a high pitch of accuracy. In the best class of work the gears are ground to exact pitch and shape after hardening. Pitch chains are closely allied to gearing; examples are offered by many automobile engines, e.g., the pitch chain often found driving the large shaft, etc. Pitch chains are used to a limited extent as a substitute for belts, and the teeth of the chains and the teeth of the wheels with which they work are shaped on the same principles as those governing the design of the teeth of wheels. If a pair of wheels is required to transmit a certain maximum horse power, the angular velocity of the shaft being w, the pres-

greater extent than it has done but for the advent of electrica transmission, which made practicable the transmission of powe

to distances beyond the possibilities of any mechanical system,

See W. J. M. Rankine, Treatise on Machinery and Millwork: an W. C. Unwin, Elements of Machine Design; and for telodynamic trans mission see F. Reuleaux, Die Konstrukteur. See also, Daniel Adamsor “Spur Gearing,” Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (1916 Jan—May); R. | McLeod, “Turbine Reduction Gearing and its Production,” Proc, Ins Mech. Eng. (1924 Vol. 2); H. F. L. Orcutt, “Characteristics and uses¢

Ground Gears,” Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (1925 Vol. 2). UNITED

(W.E. D)

STATES

Mechanical power transmission is bound by many assumption and conditions, and the selection and successful operation of th various methods employed are largely dependent upon: (rz) sour and kind of power; (2) character of equipment to be driven; (; horse-power, speeds and ratios; (4) supports and foundations: (:

bearings—their construction, type and spacing; (6) lubricatior (7) shafting—size, quality and material; (8) belting—type, widt

thickness and method of joining; (9) manner of loading and w

loading the power to be transmitted; (10) mechanical and atmo pheric conditions involved;

(11) relation of distribution to prin

mover; (12) alignment; (13) available space; (14) maintenan

facilities. Modern Methods.—Recent years have brought efficient ar economical small-powered prime movers and improvements mechanical power mechanisms. These developments have segr

gated the transmitting of mechanical power into certain grou

which, when employed in proper relation to other essential ope ating factors, make for economy, efficiency and low maintenan Modern mechanical transmission systems can be classified as fi lows: (1) direct motor coupled connection; (2) direct motor b

connection; (3) direct motor chain connection; (4) belt and li shaft group system; (5) gear reduction unit system; (6) op gear connection system; (7) multiple fabric or manila rope s

tems; (8) the variable speed connection unit; (9) the combi tion of one or more of the above systems. Direct motor coupled connections afford compactness and : most extensively employed for the driving of modern machi

tools (g.v.). The connection medium between motor and t power-receiving shaft should be a flexible coupling. Direct motor belt connections employ a belt as the connecti sure P which the teeth must be designed to sustain at the pitch circle is sso H.P./wR, where R is the radius of the pitch circle between the motor and power-receiving shaft of the mechani and are extensively employed for various apparatus and mach of the wheel, whose angular velocity is w. In the case of transmission either by belts, ropes, shafts or tool driving. With this method any ratio up to 6 to 1 is pract gearing, the operating principle is that the rate of working is able from the motor to machine. Direct motor chain connections employ chain of various ty constant, assuming that the efficiency of the transmission is unity, and that the product Tw is therefore constant, whether as the connection between the motor and power-receiving sh the shafts are connected by ropes or gearing. Considering there- of the mechanism. It is successfully operated on machine tc = T2%2; that is w/w:= T:/T1; i.e., the angu- and line shaft drives. Ratios up to 7 to 1 on short centres fore two shafts, Tiwi lar velocity ratio is inversely as the torque ratio. Hence the higher practicable. The group system is extensively used in modern indust the speed at which a shaft runs, the smaller the torque for the transmission of a given horse power, and the smaller the tension operations. Group driving is most practicable from 5 to 5o| on the belts or ropes for the transmission of a given horse power. and if the line is operating at the normal speeds of 150 to. Long Distance Transmission of Power.—C. F. Hirn origin- r.p.m., one belted or chain reduction ‘is sufficient from motoi ated the transmission of power by means of wire ropes at Colmar line. The driven machine can be belted from the line thro in Alsace in 1850. Such a telodynamic transmission consists of countershafts or direct. With this system, the size of the pr a series of wire ropes running on wheels or pulleys supported on mover is based on the aggregate of the running loads of piers at spans varying from 300 to soo ft. between the prime machines driven. Gear reduction unit systems. The electric motor has the in mover and the place where the power is utilized. The slack of the ropes is supported in some cases on guide pulleys distributed ent characteristic of operating at high speed. In many indus! between the main piers. In this way 300 hp. was transmitted operations the power-receiving shaft of apparatus or machin over a distance of 6,500 ft. at Freiberg by means of a series of be driven must run at slow speed. Ratios of 50 to z and 1001 wire ropes running at 62 ft. per second on pulleys 177 in. diameter. are frequent from prime mover to apparatus, therefore the The individual ropes of the series, each transmitting 300 h.p., of the modern gear reduction unit. Ratios such as these if were each 1-08 in. diameter and contained ro strands of 9 wires tempted by the belting and shafting method would require a l per strand, the wires being each 0-072 in. diameter. Similar in- amount of transmission equipment. Spur gear reducers are mi stallations existed at Schaffhausen, Oberursal, Bellegarde, Tortona factured with ratios up to 500 to r and reduce in a straight and Zürich. For particulars of these transmissions with full de- The worm gear reducer has reached a high state of perfect tails see W. C. Unwin’s Howard Lectures on the “Development The single unit can be employed on drives requiring speed re and Transmission of Power from Central Stations” (Journ. Soc. tions of 100 to I. The open gear connection system is employed where extrer Arts, 1893, published in book form 1894). The system of telodynamic transmission would no doubt have developed to a much close centres and moderate ratios are desired such as on §

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TRANSMISSION POWER PLATE IV

POWER

MECHANICAL FACTORS]

TRANSMISSION

machine tools and large apparatus. Composition or non-metallic gears are used on the prime mover shaft to eliminate the noise of high speed metallic gears meshing together. Large apparatus at slow speeds are frequently direct geared to the motor and where

a greater ratio is necessary than is practicable with one reduction, a back geared motor is employed. This type of motor combines

one geared reduction integral with itself.

The multiple fabric rope system is of recent development.

The

ropes are of “V” shaped endless construction and operate on “V” grooved wheels. Ratios up to 7 to 1 and extremely short centres

are possible. It is applicable for direct driving of almost any class of machine or apparatus where adjustment between driver and driven is possible. There are now in use two systems of manila

rope driving: the American or continuous method and the English or multiple method. The American system employs but one continuous rope winding over all of the grooves with the rope on the slack side forming a loop over an idler sheave and a travelling tightener which

automatically

regulates the tension

of all the

wraps of the rope. The English system employs separate and independent endless ropes in each groove of the wheels. The Ameri-

can system will transmit power for great distances and in any direction. The English system is most adaptable for direct high power driving.

Variable speed connection units are used to meet the requirements of numerous industrial operations. Variations in applied speed are absolutely necessary,and the control of this speed change must be smooth or without shock. In modern practice this is accomplished by variable speed motors or by mechanical speed change devices. It frequently happens that it is necessary to em-

ploy a combination of methods of driving because of limited space. The compactness of modern methods is then an advantage. Mechanical Consideration.—Consideration affecting power methods are space, speed, ratios and method of control. Mechanical driving requires space, the amount being dependent on the method employed. If ratios are low and ample centres are available the “group” system of belt driving should be employed. If space is limited and ratios are high, the close coupled installations such as chain, worm or spur gear reducers, multiple rope and direct gear connections should be used. Space governs moderate speed ratios, but available area does not warrant the use of shafting and belting when ratios of 25, 30, 50 and 100 to r are necessary. For

these ratios gear reduction units should be used. The method of control is an important factor since it is frequently necessary to change speeds or shut down the machine during operation and then start under load. Unless a slip ring motor is employed, direct connection by any rigid means should not be used. Shafting should be employed for this service equipped with belting or chains controlled by either clutch or shifters.

Plant Considerations.—Plant considerations affecting power methods are power sources and costs. In industry where power is either purchased or generated, the power source has no effect on the problem, but in plants where natural power has been harnessed by cumbersome methods and modernizing is desired, the problem is somewhat difficult. Here power is distributed by long lines of shafting and numerous wide belts. If the plant is large, the friction load is high and maintenance excessive. By the installation of gear reduction units and short centre devices much shafting and belting can be removed. - First cost of mechanical transmission

equipment should not be considered to such an extent that the cheapest method is the best. In many instances high initial expenditures are economical. In large industrial operations, mainlenance costs are of necessity high, but when good quality transmission equipment is installed it should be given care and atten-

lion. Careless joining, wrong type and size of belting and injurious

dressings are all causes of high maintenance. Inattention to lubrication, poor adjustments, careless installing and overloading cause the maintenance bills to rise on transmission appliances such as bearings, clutches, pulleys and shafting.

Belting.—Power belting is the medium of delivering a given amount of power at a given point at the least cost per unit of time, which should result in the transmission of power at the lowest cost per horse power per year over the longest period of useful service.

391

If the belting fails, the mechanism stops. If the belting slips, the mechanism slows down. It is necessary that the user have some knowledge of the attributes and characteristics of the various power belting materials and the correct atmospheric and mechani-

cal conditions.

(See BELTING.) The open belted short centre driv-

ing installation is not efficient. Its faults have led to the development of modern methods for driving at close centres by flexible shock absorbing non-metallic mediums. The Automatic idler system is a development of the ordinary tightener pulley. Its chief function is to increase the arc of contact on the driving pulley. The fulcrum or idler pulley is applied to the belt so as to equal the belt tension and to increase the arc of contact both permanently and automatically and in accordance with the load transmitted. The permanent increase is attained by the proper location of the idler fulcrum. The automatic increase is accomplished by wrapping every possible inch of belting around the smaller of the two pulleys. The elongation or stretch of the belt due to its elasticity is in synchronism with the variations in the power transmitted; when the power is maximum, the arc and the grip of the belt on the pulley is also maximum. The multiple “V” shaped rubber and fabric rope drive is an adaptation of the English multiple endless rope-driving method with the exception that it employs “V” shaped ropes made of rubber and fabric composition operating on multiple “V” grooved wheels. It is an excellent transmitter of power at close range. The greater the load tension, the greater the adhesion to the grooves of the wedge-shaped belting sheaves, therefore, slip is almost entirely eliminated. This method of driving is successful on short centre work, with centre distances up to 12 feet. It has a range in power capacity from 4 h.p. to 2,000 h.p., depending on the number and size of “V” ropes employed. High Ratio Short Centre Device.—There are occasions for ratios from 15 to r to 30 to x. Solving such reductions by shafting and belting may be out of the question. Worm gear or spur gear reduction units may be too rigid. To meet such requirements a new device has been recently developed, which gives a compact, flexible, short-centre and high-ratio drive. It is composed of a gear, pinion, pulley, spindle and fulcrum arm. The pulley and pinion are keyed to the spindle which is supported by the fulcrum arm centred on the shaft to be driven. The gear is keyed on the shaft to be driven and meshes with the pinion on the spindle. Thus, in the rotation of the spindle by the aid of a belt drive to the spindle pulley, the pinion tends to make an epicyclic movement around the gear wheel with which it meshes, but such movement is restrained when the belt has been tensioned and the continued rotation of the pinion will rotate the gear wheel and operate the apparatus or lineshaft. The degree of tension on the driving belt depends upon the inertia to be overcome in starting the load and in the continued running, so that the belt always retains the correct tension for the power requirements. The chief feature of this method of driving is the absolute automatic load tension on the ordinary open driving belt without the aid of spring or weight controlled idler pulleys. The belt is always in correct tension

because the load controls it. Power Shafting Bearings.—There are various types of bearings manufactured for industrial power transmitting. They are designed to support shafting and the factors which determine the selection of any given design are: (1) diameter and speed of shaft; (2) power transmitted and kind of load; (3) supporting structure; (4) lubrication; (5) space limitations; (6) operating conditions. Bearings are made of iron or steel, bushed or lined with brass, bronze and various anti-friction metals. (See BrarINGS.) When bearings are lined with babbitt metal, as is common practice, the shaft beds itself down and distributes its weight uniformly over the entire bearing surface. Industrial bearings are subjected to “moderate” or “excessive” pressures. Moderate pressures exist in industrial head, line, jack and counter shaft operations if the correct number of bearings are employed for the load demand. Standard bearings for this class of work have ample bearing surface for the pressures involved. Excessive pressures on bearings are due to extreme weight, pull or thrust conditions. Excessive dead load causes extreme weight. Excessive pull is due to

POWER

394

TRANSMISSION

[GEAR EFFICIENCY

high belt or rope tension. Excessive thrust is due to abnormal duty or to faulty mechanical adjustments. Solid babbitied bearings of babbitted cast iron should be used

It can be had either riveted or detachable and is made in single

accommodates itself to shaft movement and possesses vertical

the motor and driven machine. The modern speed reduction gear unit has made possible the elimination of a multiplicity of chains. gears, shafting and belting for ratios such as 15 to x and higher. It

or multiple widths. It is possible to operate this chain at 1,000 f.p.m. and with ratios up to 10 to 1, but it is more desirable from on slow speed shafting under 4,%, in. diameter. Lubrication is an economical and long life standpoint to limit its operating by grease cup or plain oiling. The split flat box type of babbitted speed to approximately 700 r.p.m. and its ratio to 7 to 1. cast iron, furnished with a cap, is employed where moderate The silent chain is manufactured for any reasonable power powers and speeds are involved, but not on shafting over 343 capacity, and is designed for high speeds. Itis therefore employed in. diameter. Grease or oil is used as a lubricant. in connection with motor applications. The silent chain is an The self-oiling rigid pillow block type of babbitted cast iron is assembly of specially designed links which operate on cut tooth designed to feed the oil to the shaft, by the ring, chain, collar or sprockets, generally termed pinion and gear. The silent chain capillary method. This type should be lubricated by the ring, drive is applicable in all channels of industrial operations. It is chain or collar method up to 110 r.p.m. Above this speed the particularly adaptable for direct chain connection between motor capillary system should be used. and machine or motor and line, head or counter Shafting. The The angle self-oiling rigid pillow block type is similar to the most desirable speed for this type of chain is 1,200 to 1,509 self-oiling rigid pillow block except that the split is at an angle of r.p.m. and ratios of 15 to 1 have proven successful. (See Cuan approximately 45°. This bearing should be employed when a MANUFACTURE.) Gear Reduction Units—Motor speeds of 500 to 1,800 reyosevere power pull is directly on the cap. The ball and socket self-oiling pillow block type is of cast iron lutions per minute are too high for industrial purposes, therefore, construction, is equipped with ring or capillary oiling features, some mechanical reduction medium must be interposed between adjustment. It is made in sizes from 144, in. to 448 in. diameter. It is employed for shafting supported from concrete piers or timbers and particularly on line shafting supported from walls of buildings. The adjustable drop hanger is designed to support line shafting. It can also be used for head, jack or counter shafting. It is constructed of cast iron and equipped with a self-oiling bearing. The ball and socket type has vertical adjustment through threaded plungers and side adjustment through slotted holes in the base. The 4-point suspension type can be adjusted both vertically and horizontally but the bearing is held more rigidly than that of the ball and socket type. These types of hangers are manufactured

for shafting 28 in. to 6 in. diameter.

The adjustable ball and socket post hanger type is of cast iron and is equipped with a self-oiling bearing. It is designed for head and line shafting that must be supported from columns. It has vertical adjustment and the bearing can arrange itself to the shaft

movement.

It is made for shafting 48 in. to 6 in. diameter.

(See BEARINGS.) Transmission by chain has progressed to the extent that there is a type of chain for most any service. The general advantages of chain driving are: (1) very high efficiency; (2) relatively high speeds available; (3) reversability; (4) unaffected by heat, cold or moisture; (5) wide power transmitting range; (6) a positive velocity ratio; (7) utility on short or long centres; (8) security from slippage. Detachable malleable iron chain is composed of individual malleable iron links so designed as to allow ease of assembly. It finds application in practically every form of industry where the speeds and ratios are held within 400 r.p.m. and under, and the ratio held to not more than 5 to 1.

Steel Roller Chains—While malleable iron chains have given satisfactory service for the transmission of power in their field, a demand for chains which will operate at higher speeds and carry heavier loads was responsible for the development of a more accurate steel chain. These chains range from a rugged low speed class to machine finished high speed chains.

Light steel roller chain is an accurately pitched chain of light construction, three times the tensile strength of the malleable iron type and operates on the same cast tooth sprockets. It is constructed with medium carbon hot rolled steel side bars. The pins and bushings are of hardened steel and the rollers are of either malleable iron or hardened steel. It is applicable where the speeds and ratios are held within 700 r.p.m. and under, and the ratio held to not more than 5 to 1. Finished steel roller chain is intended for general power transmission purposes and operates on accurately cut sprocket wheels. This chain is manufactured in a number of pitches ranging from 4 to 4 inches. It is constructed with special rolled steel, heattreated side bars. The pins are made from alloy steel hardened and the bushings are steel, case hardened. The rollers are high carbon steel, heat treated and can either be made curled or solid.

utilizes four general types of gearing, namely, the worm, the spur, the herringbone and the bevel. Reduction units using these various types are available in suitable sizes and ratios for almost any power and speed reduction required. Each type has inherent limi-

tations, therefore, care should be exercised based on a knowledge

of the units in question before a selection is made for a particular requirement. One of the most important factors in the successful operation of a speed reduction gear whether it be the worm, spur, herringbone or bevel type, is the connection to the motor and the connection to the shaft of the driven machine or apparatus. The flexible type of coupling is imperative at these points, because it is not mechanically possible to line two shafts perfectly, each

supported on its own bearings, so that both will revolve about the same axis. | The efficiency of a modern worm gear speed reducer is entirely dependent in many cases on the helix angle of the thread of the worm. The greater the helix angle (up to about 42°) the greater the efficiency; and the smaller the angle, the greater the power loss. The worm of a modern reducer is usually integral with an alloy steel shaft with threads hardened and ground. This combination is rigidly supported on ball or roller bearings, the rear bearing being of the double row maximum type, capable of carrying

the full thrust load of the worm in either direction as well as one half the radial load. The other half of the radial load is taken by the forward bearing. The worm gear usually consists of a chilled cast bronze rim shrunk on and pinned to a high grade cast iron centre. The housing of the reducer is cast iron, compact and sealed tight so that the oil in which the gearing operates can be perfectly maintained. Ratios of 60 or 70 to r are common, but beyond this the eficiency drops rapidly. To obtain higher reductions and stil retain the right angle feature of the worm drive, two methods may be employed.

One is to provide an auxiliary shaft supported inde-

pendently, on which is mounted a pinion which in turn meshes with another gear. Another more recent method is to employ a reduction unit specially designed with suitable bearings to permit the mounting of the pinion directly on the slow speed shaft. For special applications and ratios up to 10,000 to 1, the double reduction worm gear unit may be employed. Modern worm gear reduction units can be operated at worm speeds up to 4,000 r.p.m. and are

therefore, suitable for direct connection to steam turbines. The spur gear reduction unit has been evolved to cope with

ratios as high as 500 to x and reduces in a straight line. The spur gear reducer can be classified into two distinct types, the planetary and the non-planetary. The planetary type is capable of giving the largest speed reduction because it consists of spur gears or idlers

radially disposed about a central pinion and in turn mesh with a stationary internal gear. The planetary reducer with single reduction is satisfactory for ratios between 4 and 8 to 1, but should not be considered for ratios of less than 3 to 1. High ratios such as

POWER

VARIABLE GEARS]

‘TRANSMISSION

100, 200, 400 and 500 to x are obtainable in the planetary type by the reductions being doubled or tripled and coupled in series in the

same cast iron housing. The non-planetary type of spur gear reducer has the advantage of giving comparatively low reductions

and keeping the rotational speeds at minimum. Ratios as low as ı to x and as high as 300 to r are practical with the nonplanetary system. This type consists usually of spur gears radially disposed about a central pinion. Each of the spur gears is keyed directly to pinions which in turn mesh with a central gear mounted upon the slow speed shaft. The herringbone gear speed reducer does not possess the right

angle feature of a worm drive nor the “shafts in line” feature of the spur gear reduction unit. It reduces in parallel. The single reduction type is manufactured up to a ratio of 8 to r. In ratios

over this the reduction is obtained in two steps. There are two distinct types of the double herringbone reduction unit. One type consists of two sets of herringbone gears arranged in series. In the other type, the first set of gears is split, one set being cut right and the other left hand. They are mounted far enough apart to

allow the insertion of the final drive pinion between the helical gears. This form of construction equalizes the loads of all bearings as well as making a more compact drive. These two types are manufactured in ratios up to 60 to I. Variable Speed Mechanisms.—Methods both electrical and mechanical have been devised for varying applied speed to apparatus. For many operations of this character, the variable speed motor is ideal, but generally, this type of motor possesses a certain definite range of speed alterations, and therefore is not suitable for close speed adjustment. Fine adjustment is possible with modern mechanical speed transformers. These devices operate in connection with constant speed motors and are most efficient. There are certain phases of industrial operations where speeds must be gradually increased or decreased, otherwise destruction of the product results. For operations such as this, the mechanical speed transformer is imperative. (W. Sta.)

VARIABLE

GEARS

This article is concerned with variable transmission of power, and not merely variable speed transmission, otherwise it would have to include the consideration of a multitude of appliances such as speed indicators, integrators and many kinds of calculating machines. Power transmission gears may be divided into two classes (1)

that in which there is a step by step change and (2) that in which the change is gradually effected and an infinite range of velocity ratio is possible. Step by step variable gears are familiar to all who have passed through an engineer’s workshop, in which lathes, drilling machines and other tools are operated by stepped belt pulleys or trains of wheels of different size, these devices being used to effect variable transmission.

tion in speed by a direct loss of energy and not true variable transmission. The true test of variable transmission is as to whether it fulfils, at any rate approximately, what is called the Law of Work that “what is lost in force is gained in speed” and vice versa.

Thus, for instance, apart from the unavoidable loss of efficiency due to friction, either a train of wheels or a combination of belt pulleys obey the law of work and overcome a greater resistance by a corresponding reduction of speed. On the other hand, if a lesser resistance is to be overcome the rate of operation can be proportionately increased by suitable alteration of the train of wheels employed. Classification of Methods.— In order to understand the different types of variable transmission they may be classified SHOWING STEP under the following heads; FricFIG. 1.—DIAGRAM PULLEY SYSTEM OF BELT DRIVE FOR tional, Mechanical, Pneumatic, AN ORDINARY LATHE Electric, and Hydraulic. Frictional.—Fig. 1 shows the step pulley system, the lower series operating in the headstock of the lathe, and the upper deriving motion from the driving shaft. As the belt is shifted from right to left off and on the different pulleys the speed of the lathe can be increased; or when from left to right the opposite effect is obtained. Corresponding to step by step movement, fig. 2. shows an infinitely variable transmission by pulleys which forms part of the cotton spinning device of Houldsworth invented just a century ago. Here the variation of speed between the driving and driven pulleys is obtained by shifting the belt to and fro along drums of nearly conical form. A modern form of variable transmission was in rọrọ and later applied successfully to motor bicycles. Each pulley has a groove of “V” shape, the driving and driven pulleys being both capable of expansion and contraction, This expansion or contraction is effected by shifting in one direction or another the conical movable side of the pulley. The closer the sides come together the greater will be the effective diameter of the pulley. Powerful springs ensure that the driving belt shall be gripped on both pulleys, an idle wheel running between two pulleys accurately to secure the correct location of the conical surface. A development is now taking place of this type of variable transmission for larger powers. In a useful form variation of the distance apart of the conical sides of a driving and driven pulley

-

put forward for such a clutch as effecting infinitely variable trans-

mission. This, however, is not correct, being only a case of varia-

is effected when

much

power

has to be transmitted by a hand wheel that operates a combina-

tion of worm and worm wheel so

A familiar example on the roads is the motor-car,

in which with very rare exceptions the change of speed is effected by means of a gear box containing a number of different sized pairs of tooth wheels, arranged so that a change of speed can be effected at will by operating a gear lever. On the other hand infinitely variable transmission is less familiar and until comparatively recent times had no particular application except for very light powers. The increasing employment of infinitely variable transmission is due to the fact that the electric motor, steam turbine, and most of all the internal-combustion engine (q.v.) have for many purposes superseded the steam engine. One feature of the greatest value in the steam engine is its flexibility; the inferiority in this direction of other kinds of motive power being very marked. For this reason there have been attempts in recent years to find either by frictional, electric, hydraulic or other mechanical means some practicable and effective form of infinitely variable transmission. Before proceeding to describe various types of variable transmission it must be understood that it is quite possible to vary the speed of transmission by a slipping clutch and claims are often

393

FIG. 2.——DIAGRAM OF A VARIABLE TRANSMISSION BY PULLEYS `

as to turn to other worms and thereby move levers, which respectively operate the movable cheeks of the conical pulleys either inwards or outwards. In all probability the oldest type of infinitely variable gear is that in which a friction roller is moved edgeways to and fro on the disk or circular flat plate. If, as in a certain type of motor-car the

speed of the driven disk is least when the roller is nearest the edge, the greatest driving force is then obtained. On the other hand, when the roller has approached towards the centre of the disk p the greatest speed is obtained with corresponding reduction of driving force. The power transmitted with this gear is however comparatively small as it depends entirely on frictional contact of the surfaces and the wear of the frictional surfaces is considerable. Mechanical.—Variable transmission of mechanical kind can be said to be practically confined to the employment of trains of toothed wheels. The most familiar case of mechanical gearing is

POWER

394

TRANSMISSION

that of a lathe headstock, in which by coupling up the largest step pulley to the spur wheel to the spindle of the headstock a direct

drive is obtained from the speed pulleys. If this coupling is released and by means of a handle shown in the figure the back axle is approached to the main spindle so as to bring into engagement the two pairs of tooth wheels, the driving now takes place through the pinion driven by the step cone pulley through the axle shaft, and back to the lay spindle. Increase of driving force with corresponding reduction of speed is thus obtained which in the pres4 ahi it a ent example is nine times as great as by the direct drive.

rele

Sue

[FLUID TRANSMISSION

the driving effort on the pump. Hydraulic variable gear has been employed for a great variety

of purposes such as cranes, lifts, winches, tipping wagons, rail cars, gun mountings, planing and broaching machines, swing bridges, etc. The chief types of these gears may be distinguished

as parallel and radial.

Fig. 4 shows a section of the Janney-

Williams gear (either pump or motor) which is an example of the former type, and it will be seen that the variation tained by varying the angle of what is known as with the result of altering the stroke of the pistons. is reduced the working pressure can be increased;

in effort is ata swash plate, As the stroke thus when the

e

cg

In a standard type of motor HA car change speed gear box, the engagement of different ratios of spur wheels and pinions is oboS FIG. 3.—VARIABLE TRANSMISSION tained by sliding the teeth side- AS USED IN A LATHE HEADSTOCK ways into mesh with each other. This is called the “clash” engagement. In another type of gear box no such sideway sliding takes place, the teeth of the respective wheels being always in mesh with each other. Change of gear in | this case is effected by sliding the different jaw clutches into FIG. 5.——THE HELE-SHAW RADIAL STROKE PUMP engagement with each other. Pneumatic.—Many attempts have been made to introduce stroke is very small a very great pressure can be produced and pneumatic variable transmission since 1900 by Dunlop, Lenz, consequently great resistance can be overcome. The necessary Lebach and others. The best account of these pneumatic devices valve action is obtained by causing the opening at the inner end of the cylinders to pass in succession the supply and exhaust as applied on a large scale to locomotives was given in La Revue Générale des Chemins de Fer, May 1923, by Brillé. Up to the ports. In the operation of the one radial type pump, the cylinder present these devices, though extremely interesting and ingenious, body revolves about a fixed axis which forms a cylindrical have not proved efficient in practice. Electrical—Various inventors have suggested continuously valve. As the cylindrical body revolves, the working fluid is altervariable electric change speed gear. As already explained a mere nately admitted from and exhausted into the two ports respec: reduction of effort by interposed resistance is not a true variable tively. The fluid comes in under no pressure from the port transmission, and all the most important examples of real variable and is driven out under any required pressure from the port electric transmission as on electric railways, is of essentially a step along the shaft. In order to obtain any required variation of by step nature. Locomotive systems such as Crochat’s mine loco- pressure the frame to which the connecting rod ends are attached motive, the loco-tractor of Moyse, those of Westinghouse, of is made to pivot about the fixed centre by a rod attached to the Sultzer Diesel and Dewa are on the same fundamental principle upper end of the frame. In the middle position there is obviously as the Tilling-Stevens electric transmission, namely, production of no stroke, and when the neutral position is passed the direction of electrical current by a dynamo from an internal-combustion flow is reversed. Two views of another type of radial stroke pump are shown engine and the operation by an electric motor of some form of in fig. 5 (Hele-Shaw Pump), the left-hand view being in half gearing to turn the wheels. Hydraulic.—The last form of transmission, and in its develop- section, the lower portion of which shows ff a revolving case called ment the most recent, is hydraulic transmission. A beautiful de- the “floating ring.” The sectional portion in the view shows that vice by Hastie was described as long ago as 1881. By means of this floating ring is carried on ball races r and r, their object being two springs the stroke of the crank can be altered, when the crank to reduce the frictional wear of the rollers or slippers by allowing the floating ring to rotate freely with the cylinder body, in which pin slides in a groove. When the effort is great the springs are compressed and the the pistons are carried. If the floating ring is moved bodily along stroke is increased correspondingly, enabling a constant hydraulic guides on the line a-b (shown in the other view) the stroke of the pressure to overcome a variable resistance. This resistance may vary within wide limits, with the corresponding economy in the matter of the fluid employed. In the foregoing case the working fluid was water supplied by a high-pressure hydraulic main on the principle first introduced by Armstrong. Modern hydraulic FIG. 6.—THE HELE-SHAW BEACHAM PUMP variable gear in which oil is the FIG. 4.—SECTION OF ONE ELEMENT working fluid has been brought OF THE JANNEY-WILLIAMS HYDRAUpistons and the fluid pressure can be varied as required, just as m into extensive operation chiefly HC VARIABLE GEAR the previous example. An improvement in the foregoing pump has been devised, the to enable electrical power to overcome very variable resistance without causing a rise in the ampères transmitted. The principle Hele-Shaw Beacham pump, in which a central valve is employed. of operation is exactly identical with the generation of electrical a radical change being effected by. what is known in mechanical current by a dynamo, which current is transformed into mechani- science as “inversion.” Instead of pistons operating outwardly and cal effort by an electrical motor. In the case of hydraulic trans- obtaining their stroke from contact with an eccentric enclosing the mission, however, a variable stroke pump is employed to produce whole cylinder body, the pistons are operated from a fixed crank, a flow of incompressible fluid, generally oil, which operates in a the cylinder body surrounding the crank and the pistons working hydraulic motor. Thus it is only necessary to effect a change in inwardly. The variable stroke is obtained by altering the throw of the stroke of the pump when any required hydraulic pressure can the crank, which is otherwise fixed. The crank is in the form ofa be obtained with the great advantage of not unduly increasing live ring mounted with roller bearings on a compound eccentric. tT

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TRANSMISSION POWER

POWHATAN—POYNTER

395

tary to Sir Danvers Osborn, just appointed governor of New York. Osborn committed suicide soon after reaching New York rotation of these two parts in opposite directions with the result (Oct. 6), but Pownall remained in America, devoting himself to that the resultant eccentricity may be varied at will from zero to studying the condition of the American colonies. In 1756 he came maximum. in either direction. This gear was fully described in home, and presented to Pitt a plan for a campaign against the French in Canada, to begin with the investment of Quebec. Engineering, Oct. 16, 1925. Another important feature of the new pump is the fact that In 1757 Pitt appointed him governor of Massachusetts; he was transferred to South Carolina in February 1760. This office he instead of the central plane of the valve ports coinciding with held nominally for about a year; but he never went to South so displaced is it body, cylinder revolving the of plane central the that the central planes of the cylinders and that of the valve ports Carolina, and in June 1760 he returned to England. In 1762-1763 are separated from each other. Fig. 6 is a diagrammatic figure he was commissary-general of the British troops in Germany. which will make the explanation clear. One remarkable effect is He sat in parliament from 1768 to 1780, and died at Bath on the improvement in the matter of silence. The opening and closing Feb. 25, 1805. In 1764 he published (at first anonymously) his of the ports causes water-hammer blows due to the high pressure famous Administration of the Colonies advocating a union of all in an incompressible fluid. These blows are no longer transmitted British possessions upon the basis of community of commercial interests. so as to cause sound vibrations in the enclosing cylinder body. See C. A. W. Pownall, Thomas Pownall, M.P., F.R.S. (1908). BretiocraPpHy-—A. Graham Clarke, Text Book on Motor Car Engineering, vol. i, “Construction” (1911) ; E. Butler, Transmission Gears POYNINGS, SIR EDWARD (1459-1521), lord deputy (1917) ; F. D. Jones, Mechanisms and Mechanical Movements (1918) ; of Ireland, was the only son of Robert Poynings, second son of W.H. Berry, Modern Motor Car Practice (1921) ; G. Constantinesco, the sth Baron Poynings. His mother was a daughter of Sir Variable Transmission for Automobiles (1924); G. H. C. Hartman, (H. S. H.-S.) William Paston, and some of her correspondence is to be found Les Mécanismes (1925). POWHATAN. This group of Algonkin Indian tribes in the in the Paston Letters. Robert Poynings was implicated in Jack tide-water portion of Virginia and southern Maryland had been Cade’s rebellion, and Edward was himself concerned in a Kentish welded into a confederacy by the conquests of an able chief known rising against Richard III., which compelled him to escape to by the same name, shortly before the settlement of Jamestown in the Continent. He attached himself to Henry, earl of Richmond, 1607. His daughter Pocahontas married John Rolfe. After Pow- afterwards King Henry VII., with whom he returned to England hatan’s death they massacred 347 British settlers in 1622. Four- in 1485. By Henry VII. Poynings was employed in the wars on teen years of relentless warfare followed until the Indians sub- the Continent, and in 1493 he was made governor of Calais. In mitted, only to rise again in 1641 and slay 500 whites. This war the following year he went to Ireland as lord deputy under broke them, and though in 1669 2,100 remained of the original the viceroyalty of Prince Henry, afterwards King Henry VIII. 8.000, they have now dwindled to some 700, mixed with negro and Poynings immediately set about Anglicizing the government of Ireland, which he thoroughly accomplished, after inflicting punishwhite blood, and known as Chickahominy, Pamunkey, etc. ment on the powerful Irish clans who supported the imposture of A. L. K. POWIS, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. Before the Perkin Warbeck. He then summoned the celebrated parliament Norman Conquest the Welsh principality of Powis, comprising of Drogheda, which met in December 1494, and enacted the the county of Montgomery and parts of the counties of Brecknock, “Statutes of Drogheda,” famous in Irish history as “Poynings’s Radnor, Shropshire, Merioneth and Denbigh, was subject to law,” subordinating the Irish legislature to that of England, till the princes of North Wales. Early in the 12th century it was its repeal in 1782. After defeating Perkin Warbeck at Waterford divided into upper and lower Powis. In 1283 Owen ap Griffin, and driving him out of Ireland, Poynings returned to England in prince of upper Powis, formally resigned his princely title (nomen 1496, and was appointed warden of the Cinque Ports. He was employed both in military commands and in diplomatic missions et circulum principatus) and his lands to the English king Edward I. at Shrewsbury, and received the lands again as an English by Henry VII., and later by Henry VIII., his achievement being barony. (See Montgomeryshire Collections, 1868, vol. i.) This the negotiation of the “Holy League” in 1513. See Sir Francis Bacon, The History of the Reign of King Henry VII. barony of Powis passed through female inheritance to the family of Cherleton and in 1421 to that of Grey. It fell into abeyance (1641); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (2 vols., 1885) ; J. T. Gilbert, History of the Viceroys of Ireland (Dublin, 1865); in 1551. J. A. Froude, The English in Ireland (3 vols., 1872-74); Wilhelm

The compound eccentric consists of two parts of equal ecceniricity, the stroke-varying mechanism being arranged to effect

In 1587 Sir Edward Herbert

(d. 1594), a younger son of

William Herbert, earl of Pembroke, purchased some of the lands of the barony, including Red castle, afterwards Powis castle, near Welshpool, and in 1629 his son William (c. 1573-1656) was created Baron Powis. William’s grandson, William, the 3rd baron

(c. 1629-1696), was created earl of Powis in 1674 and Viscount

Montgomery and marquess of Powis in 1687. The recognized head of the Roman Catholic aristocracy in England, Powis was

suspected of complicity in some of the popish plots and was imprisoned in the Tower of London from 1678 to 1684. He followed James II. into exile and was created duke of Powis by the dethroned king. William, 2nd marquess, who had a somewhat chequered career as a Jacobite, died in October 1745, and when

ark William, the 3rd marquess, died in 1748 the titles became

extinct. In 1748 Henry Arthur Herbert (d. 1772), who had been made Baron Herbert of Cherbury in 1743, was created Baron Powis and earl of Powis. The titles became extinct a second time when hisson George Edward died in January 1801. George’s sister and heiress, Henrietta Antonia (1758-1830), married Edward Clive (17541829), son and heir of the great Lord Clive. In 1803, he Was Created Baron Powis and earl of Powis. POWNALL, THOMAS (1722-1805), British colonial statesman and soldier, born at Saltfleetby, Lincolnshire, was edutated at Lincoln and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1743. In 1753 he went to America as private secre-

Busch, England under the Tudors, ed. by James Gairdner (1895).

POYNTER,

SIR EDWARD

JOHN, ist Barr. (1836-

1919), English painter, son of Ambrose Poynter, architect, was born in Paris on the zoth of March, 1836. He pursued his art studies in England and in Paris (under Gleyre, 1856-1859), and

exhibited his first picture at the Royal Academy in 1861. In 1869 he was elected an A.R.A., and in 1876 R.A. In the decorative arts he practised freely as a designer in fresco, mosaic, stained glass, pottery, tile-work and the like. He was elected to the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1883. As director for art in the Science and Art Department, and

principal of the National Art Training Schools (now the Royal

College of Art) at South Kensington Poynter proved himself a vigorous and successful administrator. He resigned his office in 1881, and in 1894 became director of the National Gallery. Under his rule the National Gallery of British Art, at Millbank, presented by the late Sir Henry Tate, became a department of the National Gallery. He edited the great Illustrated Catalogue of the National Gallery (1889-1900), in which every picture in the collection. is reproduced. On the death of Sir Jobn Millais in 1896, Poynter was elected president of the Royal Academy, and was knighted. He was made a baronet in 1902. Poynter died in London on July 26, r919. See Cosmo

Monkhouse,

“Sir E. J. Poynter,

P.R.A.;

His

Life

and Work,” Art Annual (1897); M. H. Spielmann, “Sir E, J. Poynter, P.R.A., and his Studies,” The Magazine of Art (1897).

POYNTING— POZNAN

396 POYNTING, JOHN HENRY

(1852-1914), British physi-

cist, was born at Monton, near Manchester, on Sept. 9, 1852. He studied at Owens college, Manchester, and at Trinity college, Cambridge. He was bracketed third wrangler in 1876. Poynting

went as demonstrator in physics to Owens college, but returned to Cambridge in 1878 on his election as fellow of Trinity college. In 1880 he was appointed professor of physics at the Mason college, which afterwards became the University of Birmingham. He retained this post until his death at Birmingham on March 30, I9Qr4. Poynting carried out experiments over a period of 12 years to determine the gravitational constant and the mean density of the earth. He used a balance method and during the course of his experiments added considerable knowledge to the technique of accurate weighing. Poynting’s best known work is that in the papers “On the Transfer of Energy in the Electromagnetic Field” (Phil. Trans. A., 1884) and “On Electric Currents and the Electric and Magnetic Induction in the Surrounding Field” (Paxil. Trans. A., 1888). In the first paper Poynting showed that the flow of energy at a point could be expressed by a simple formula in terms of the electric and magnetic forces at that point. This is known as Poynting’s theorem and the vector is also called by his name. Poynting also wrote papers on radiation and the pressure of light and several books. Poynting’s interests were very wide; he served as a justice of the peace, was chairman of the Birmingham Horticultural Society and acted as dean of the Faculty of Science. He was elected F.R.S. in 1888. See his Collected Scientific Papers, edit. by G. A. Shakespear and G. Barlow (1920).

POZAREVAC

or PASSAROWITZ,

the capital of the

Pozarevac department of Serbia, Yugoslavia. Pop. (1921) 10,625. It lies 8 m. from its harbour, Dubravitsa, on the Danube, The town has no special industry, but being a road centre, is the principal market of a large and fruitful plain. At Lubichevo, 2m. W. is a State model farm, a stud farm, and a nursery for mulberries. Lignite is worked at Kostolats, 7 m. N. by E., and the hills in this district show many traces of Roman mines. Roman coins, sarcophagi and inscriptions are also found. The famous Treaty of Passarowitz between Austria and Turkey was signed here in 1718. The town was taken by the Serbs in the first Serbo-Turkish rising under Kara George in 1804, and in 1815 Prince Milosh of Serbia again defeated the Turks here.

Polish peasants

to hold their own

against their German com.

petitors, and the fact that education has made illiteracy s prevalent in the “Congress Kingdom,” a rarity in Poznan. The marshy tracts afford excellent pasture and support large numbers of cattle, horses, sheep and goats. The mineral resources of the province are small, but the industries, at first purely agricultural such as distilling, brewing, sugar and tobacco, are increasing with

the development of the Polish State. Locomotives are built a Poznan, while Bydgoszcz has become the centre of the timber trade for all Poland, and a timber exchange has been established there, and the first paper mills in Poland. Trade is facilitated py the network of navigable rivers, canals and railways, while the roads are the best in the country.

But trade suffers from th

change of markets due to the transference of Poznan from Ger.

many to Poland. There are not many large towns:—Pognay (169,800), Bydgoszcz (87,800) and Gniezno (25,900). Other towns are Inowroclaw, Ostrów, Leszno, Krotoszyn, Rawicz and the most ancient town of Poland, Kruszwica, situated by Lake

Goplo, rich in legend.

(A. B. Bo.) HISTORY

The history of the province of Western or “Great” Poland, of which Poznan (called by the Germans Posen) is the principal

city (see p. 397), falls within the scope of the article Poramw. One of the oldest towns of the province is Gniezno (German Gnesen), originally the capital of the whole country, and still the seat of the primate of Poland. The tide of German immigration into the province flowed strongly in the 13th and the following

centuries.

The industrious German

settlers were the principal

factor in the development of trade and manufacture in the towns: they also did much to improve agriculture in the country. Since

the re-union of the kingdom of Poland in the 14th century, the province of Poznan shared the fate of the united country.

During the 17th century, a Swedish invasion ruined the prov-

ince, the commercial importance of the city began to suffer in consequence of the one-sidedly agrarian spirit of Polish legislation, and the strenuous efforts of the Jesuits, directed against the

growth of Protestantism, introduced into the life of Poznan the w-

rest of religious feuds, which were prolonged till the 18th century. At the first partition of Poland, in 1772, the districts to the north of the river Notec (German, Netze) fell to the share of Prussia. The rest of the province followed in 1793 and 1795, and was united with the territory acquired in 1772 to form the provPOZNAN or POSEN, a Polish province, bounded north by ince of South Prussia. In 1807, after the peace of Tilsit, the the province of Pomorze, east by the provinces of Warsaw and province was incorporated with the grand duchy of Warsaw, but in Lodz, south and west by Germany. Area 10,268 sq.m.; pop. (1921) 1815 it reverted to Prussia as the grand duchy of Posen. The Prussian regime, during the first decades after the Con1,974,000, of whom 83-1% are Poles, 16-5% Germans and 0.1% Jews. The Jews were formerly numerous in the province, but gress of Vienna, was conciliatory: a Polish nobleman, prince Am migrated to America in the second half of the roth century, when thony Radziwiłł, was appointed lieutenant-governor of the provthe peasants organized co-operative societies. The Germans, who ince; there was a provincial assembly, and there were local had settled under Government support, left after the reconstitu- representative bodies. About 1830, however, a new current set tion of the Polish State, in large numbers, but the population is, in with the presidency of Flottwell: the experiment of settling nevertheless, larger than before the World War. The province, subsidized German colonists on Polish soil—started by Frederick which contains 38 districts, has always formed a territorial unit the Great in the 18th century—-was resumed, and the Polish since the dawn of history as Great Poland (Wielka Polska), the language deprived of its position of equality with German in the seat of the tribe which organized the Polish monarchy, and has Government offices, the Jaw-courts, and the schools. In the '40s, always been one of the most enlightened, influential and patriotic the revolutionary movement spreading throughout Europe, man parts of Poland. It is part of the central Polish plain, and consists fested itself in Prussian Poland and an armed rising in 1848 was of a low plateau intersected by the beds of the rivers Notec, suppressed by military force. A highly reactionary Prussian Warta and Obra. These three rivers drain into the Oder, with Government arose out of the turmoil of the revolutionary year, which the Warta is also connected by the Obra canal. The east and measures of repression against Polish organizations followed. part of the province is in the basin of the Vistula, which is con- But a resolutely anti-Polish policy on a large scale was only origtnected with the Notec by the Bydgoszcz canal. The surface is nated by Bismarck, and was carried out in earnest after the crea dotted with small lakes and ponds, and there are many broad fens tion of the new German empire in 1871. To the landed gentry and swamps. The soil is light and sandy, but much of the land and the clergy, who had been the mainstay of Polish nationalism reclaimed in the marshy districts is very fertile. The greater part so far, there were now added a body of increasingly prosperous of the province is under tillage, but 17-3% is occupied by forests. and enlightened peasants in the country, and a growing, wealthy The principal crops are rye, wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, beets Polish middle class in the towns,—all these ranks of society being and hops. The vine is cultivated in the south-west corner, and united in organized opposition to the policy of Germanizalio. tobacco is also grown. A feature of the country is the efficient Bismarck aimed cruel blows at the Polish clergy in conducting his organization of agricultural co-operative societies, culminating in Kulturkampf against the Catholic element in the Reich; but the the great union under Father Wawrzyniak, which enabled the effect was only to rally the Polish masses more effectually roun

POZNAN—POZZO

DI BORGO

397

rule under Austria had given to their Galician brethren; but their peasantry had reached a much higher level of enlightenment than in the field of education which gradually made the school system that of either Austrian or Russian Poland. In the new Polish of the province thoroughly German while rendering it at the same State, in consequence of all this, the former Prussian province ime democratic, progressive and highly efficient. Similarly, in the represented a solid block of hard-and-fast Nationalism as well as development of the administrative system, improved efficiency of uncompromising devotion to the Catholic Church, whose services to the national cause in Prussian times were gratefully reand thorough Germanization went together. The powers of restance of the Polish element, however, rapidly increased with membered. Gradually, however, the ties of common political life its numbers and its prosperity; and the Prussian Government soon began to produce their effect, and the parliamentary elections of realized that only economic means would serve its ends. In 1888, March, 1928, found the population of former Prussian Poland the Colonizing Commission was established for the purpose of differentiated politically on the same party lines as the rest of the buying up Polish land for German colonists, and it was equipped republic. The new Polish University of Poznan (which had taken with 100,000,000 marks (£5,000,000). The Polish element coun- the place of a German Academy), and other Polish educational tered the attack by co-operative credit organizations, in which and cultural institutions, worked for amalgamation; and it was no both the peasants and the middle class of the town took a promi- longer in any spirit of separatism that the city of Poznan undernent share; and soon the Poles succeeded in buying more land than took to organize a large national exhibition, to be held on the roth they lost. The creation of a subsidized society—the Society of anniversary of Poland’s regained independence, in 1929.

the clergy, who became their leaders in economic as well as in litical organization. More success was achieved by the measures

the Eastern Marches (known as the H.K.T. from the initials of +s founders)——for the promotion of German advance in the east, the great increase of the funds at the disposal of the Colonizing Commission, the creation of a special fund of nearly half a million

marks a year towards a campaign against the Polish middle class

‘a the towns—all proved insufficient, and Biilow, Bismarck’s most

realous successor, brought new legislative means into play: a bill in 1904 forbidding Poles to establish new peasant farms on soil of

their own, and one in 1907 authorizing the Government to dis-

possess Polish landowners by force. These measures were accompanied by no less drastic ones in the field of education and

administration: in 1901, much scandal was roused by the discussion in the Prussian parliament of the incidents at Wrzesnia

(Wreschen), where Polish children had been beaten by German

schoolmasters for refusing to say the Lord’s Prayer in German;

and in 1906, the Prussian Government was made somewhat ridiculous by the strike of some 100,000 Polish school-children, which, in spite of severe proceedings against their parents, continued for nearly a whole school year. In 1908, the notorious “Gagging bill” limited to a minimum the right of Polish citizens to form societies, and altogether forbade the use of Polish at public meetings. The anti-Polish policy of Prussia, although occasionally criticized in the Reichstag, had, on the whole, both a majority of German opinion and the authority of the supreme power in the Reich behind it. But it was largely rendered futile by the disciplined organization of the entire Polish element, as well as by its large and continuous increase in numbers. While the German birth-rate began to fall rapidly, the birth-rate among Polish peas-

ants remained very high; and the political struggle for the land in Prussian Poland resulted in a measure of agricultural prosperity which—in spite of drastic expulsions of foreign subjects, inaugurated by Bismarck in 1885——continued to attract immigrants from other parts of Poland. Prussian Poland shared in the material progress of Germany after 1870, and the World War found this province the most advanced and uniformly wealthy of all the three sections of Poland. Even after all the losses and privations which the province, however out of sympathy with the German cause, had to undergo with the rest of Germany in 1914-18, the Prussian sector of Poland, when it shook off German domination shortly after the Armistice (Dec. 27, 1918), emerged as still the most prosperous of the three; its territory had not been devastated by actual war-

fare, as large portions both of Austrian and Russian Poland had.

This gave the former Prussian Poles a certain advantage over the others ; and they naturally clung to this advantage in the new and

united Polish republic after the Peace of Versailles. A customs

BreLrocraray.—The German case, at the height of the anti-Polish policy on the eve of the World War, was summed up in an elaborate work by L. Bernhard, Das polnische Gemeinwesen im preussischen Staate (Leipzig, 1907). From the Polish point of view, the history of Prussian policy in Poznan has been told by Professor J. Buzek in Historja polityki narodowościowej rządu pruskiego 1815-1908 (Lwów, 1909). For the history of the city of Poznan, see N. Pajzderski,

Poznan (Lwów, 1922, ill.).

POZNAN

(R. Dy.)

or POSEN, capital of the province of Poznan, in

Poland, situated in a wide and sandy plain on the Warta, 180m. W. from Warsaw and rsom. E. from Berlin. Pop. (1921) 169,800, of whom 95% were Poles and 5%, Germans. Before the World War, half the population were Germans, who had been encouraged to settle by the Prussian Government, and who returned to Germany after the restoration of Poland. The city is the centre of a network of railways connecting it with Warsaw, Berlin, Breslau and Torun. It is the centre of one of the five ecclesiastical

provinces of the Catholic Church in Poland, and the seat of the most ancient Polish bishopric, founded in the roth century. The old town (Stare Miasto) and the new town lie on the left bank of the Warta, with large suburbs on the right bank. There are 1s Roman Catholic churches, of which the cathedral contains many works of art and the tombs of the two first rulers of Poland. The town hall (Ratusz), rebuilt in 1552, is a magnificent building in the Romanesque style. A legacy of Prussian rule is the pretentious castle built by William II. There is a large library, the Raczynski library, two museums and a university. Industries are mainly connected with agriculture, such as distilling, brewing, sugar milling, agricultural machinery. Recently the manufacture of locomotives has been established. An annual fair was inaugurated in 1922, and there is an active trade, both by river and rail, in corn, cattle, wood, wool and potatoes. Poznan is one of the oldest cities in Poland and the residence of the first king, Boleslaw the Brave, and of the first Polish bishop. The original settlement was on the right bank of the river, but German settlers in 1250 made the new town on the opposite bank a flourishing commercial centre. A charter in 1394 gave the city staple right for all wares passing from Poland into Germany, and from Germany into Poland. The German element was assimilated, though many foreigners settled there, including a colony of Scots. After the fires of 1536 and 1590, Poznan, formerly Gothic, was rebuilt in Renaissance style. The prosperity of Poznan declined with the economic decline of Poland in the 17th century, but revived in the roth century, partly as the natural centre of a great agricultural region, partly as a bulwark of the Poles in their struggle against German penetration.

POZOBLANCO, a town of southern Spain in the province

Such separatism was grounded on a somewhat distinct mentality

of Cordova, near the head-waters of the Guadamatillas and of other small sub-tributaries of the Guadiana. Pop. (1920), 17,653. Its fairs are famed for their live stock and agricultural products. There are zinc and argentiferous lead mines near by, and manufactures of cloth and leather in the town itself.

which the struggle against Prussian rule had developed. The Poles under Prussia had acquired something of that crude belief in sheer lorce which was characteristi¢ of Germany after 1870. They had hot had the opportunities for intellectual refinement which home

1842), Russian diplomatist, was born at Alata, near Ajaccio, of a noble Corsican family, on March 8, 1764, some four years before the cession of the island to France. He was educated at Pisa,

barrier continued, for a time, to separate the former Prussian province from the body of the new Poland; and a special “Ministry for former Prussian Poland” came into being, which existed for several years.

POZZO DI BORGO, CARLO ANDREA, Count (1764~

398

POZZUOLI—PRACTICE

AND

PROCEDURE

(Paris, 1890); J. B. H. R. Capefigure, Les Diplomates euro péens (4 and in early life was closely associated with Napoleon and Joseph vols., 1843-1847). Bonaparte, the two families being at that time closely allied in POZZUOLI a seaport and episco pal National the to sent delegates two the of one was : (anc. tratePutzors, g.v.), ; politics. Pozzo 74 m. W. ¢ Assembly in Paris to demand the political incorporation of Corsica see of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, in France, and was subsequently a Corsican deputy to the Legis- it by rail. Pop. (1921), 20,304 (town); 24,095 (commune), It lative Assembly, where he sat on the benches of the right until is on the base of a hill projecting into the Bay of Pozzi the events of August 1792. On his return to Corsica he was separated from the main portion of the Gulf of Naples by the warmly received by Paoli, but found himself in opposition to the promontory of Posilipo. The volcanic pozzolana earth (also foung Bonaparte brothers, who were now veering to the Jacobin party. near Rome), used now as in Roman times for making cement and concrete, derives its name from the place. In the middk Under the new constitution Pozzo was elected procureur-généralages Pozzuoli was frequently sacked and also damaged by the comPaoli while government, civil the of chief is, that syndic, manded the army. With Paoli he refused to obey a summons to natural convulsions of 1198 and 1538. It has large ironworks ang melting furnaces; while to the west is a large artillery factory, the bar of the Convention, and the definite breach with the BonaPRABHU, the writer caste of Western India, corresponding to authorities, y revolutionar the supported actively who family, parte dates from this time. Eventually Paoli and Pozzo accepted foreign the Kayasth of Bengal. Numbering only 21,941 in Bombay in help, and from 1794 to 1796, during the English protectorate of 1921, they stand high socially and professionally. PRACTICE AND PROCEDURE. The practice and pro. Corsica, Pozzo was president of the council of state under Sir Gilbert Elliot. When Napoleon sent troops to occupy the island cedure of the High Court of Justice in England is now regulated he was excepted from the general amnesty, and took refuge in by the Judicature Act, 1925 (which repealed and consolidated Rome, but the French authorities demanded his expulsion, and nearly all the former Judicature Acts), and the various rules of gave orders for his arrest in northern Italy. After a short stay in court made pursuant to various Acts passed in and since 1883. London he accompanied in 1798 Elliot (now become Lord Minto) Lest the Judicature Acts and Rules as so framed should not provide for every contingency, it was expressly provided by rule in on an embassy to Vienna, where he lived for six years. In 1804 through the influence of Prince Adam Czartoryski he 1883 that “where no other provision is made by the Judicature entered the Russian diplomatic service. In 1805 he was Russian Act or Rules the procedure and practice existing in 1883 should commissioner with the Anglo-Neapolitan, and in 1806 with the remain in force.” The object of the Judicature Acts and the Rules Prussian army. He was entrusted with an important mission to made thereunder was to improve a system of practice and pro. cedure which had grown up through the centuries. Although Constantinople in 1807, but the conclusion of the alliance between Alexander I. and Napoleon at Tilsit in July interrupted his career. those concerned to defend the ancient order were wont to say He returned to Vienna, but on the demand of Napoleon for his that it made for precision—particularly in the matter of pleadextradition Metternich desired him to leave the capital. He then ings there can be no doubt that its advantages were, or became, retired to London again and remained in England until 1812, hidden under its chief defects—prolixity and technicality. The following is an attempt to state, in outline, the practice when he was recalled by Alexander. He diligently sought to sow dissension in the Bonaparte household, and in a mission to and procedure in the High Court in England. In the performance Sweden he secured the co-operation of Bernadotte against Na- of his task the writer has kept one fact constantly in mind, namely, poleon. On the entry of the allies into Paris he became commisthat if the reason for a particular rule or canon of procedure is appreciated, the rule will be better understood. The rules of prosary general to the provisional government. At the Bourbon restoration Pozzo di Borgo became Russian cedure did not spring into being in a single day: they are the ambassador at the Tuileries, and sought to secure a marriage be- result of years of experience. And it will always be found that tween the duke of Berry and the Russian grandduchess Anna, whether it be sound or not there zs a reason for every rule, howAlexander’s sister. He was present at the Congress of Vienna, and soever technical it may appear to be. during the Hundred Days he joined Louis XVIII. in Belgium, Some Technical Terms.—He who is minded to study the where he was instructed to discuss the situation with Wellington. modern rules of practice and procedure must understand the The tsar dreamed of allowing an appeal to the people of France meaning of various words (often Latin words), and phrases some on the subject of the government of France in accordance with of which are now obsolete. The following brief glossary may his vague liberalizing tendencies, but Pozzo’s suggestions in this suffice. Act on Petition was a term used for a part of the prodirection were met by violent opposition, the duke refusing to cedure in the probate, divorce and admiralty division, now of make any concessions to what he regarded as rebellion; in St. infrequent occurrence. It was more freely used in the old adPetersburg, on the other hand, Pozzo’s attachment to the Bourbon miralty and divorce courts before the Judicature Acts became law dynasty was considered excessive. During the early years of his Answer in English law was, prior to the Judicature Acts, the residence in Paris Pozzo laboured tirelessly to lessen the burdens statement of defence especially as regards the facts and not the laid on France by the allies and to shorten the period of foreign law. It is still applied in divorce proceedings to the reply of the occupation. That his French sympathies were recognized in Paris respondents, and it occurs in the phrase “answer to interrogais shown by the strange suggestion that he should enter the French tories.” (See “Discovery” below.) Assets in English law meal ministry with the portfolio of foreign affairs. the property of a debtor in the hands of his representative sufPozzo’s influence at the Tuileries declined with the accession of ficient for the satisfaction of his creditors or legatees; the word Charles X., whose reactionary tendencies had always been dis- also occurs in the phrase “administration of assets.” (See 0. 55,1 tasteful to him; but at the revolution of 1830, when the Tsar 3, 4.) An Associate is an officer of the supreme court, whose Nicholas was reluctant to acknowledge Louis Philippe, he did duties are to draw up the list of causes, enter verdicts, hand the good service in preventing difficulties with Russia. In 1832 he records to the parties, etc., and generally to conduct the business visited St. Petersburg; the next year he was in London renewing of trials. Assumpsit (Lat. “he has undertaken”) was 4 word his relations with Wellington, and early in 1835 he was suddenly applied to an action for a breach of contract, and was always used transferred to the London embassy in-succession to Prince Lieven. in pleadings by the plaintiff to set forth the defendant's under. Although he did not lose in official standing, Pozzo was aware taking or promise. Hence the phrases “bring assumpsit” or sue that this change was due to suspicions long harboured in various in assumpsit.” quarters in St. Petersburg that his diplomacy was too favourable Declaration in an action of English law was formerly the first to French interests. In London his health suffered, and he retired step in pleading—the precise statement of the matter m respect from the service in 1839 to Paris, where he died on Feb. 15, of which the plaintiff sued. It is also used in other legal con on of title, 1842. He had been made a count and peer of France in 1818. nections, e.g., declaration of insolvency,’ declarati See Ouvaroff, Stein ef Poszo (St. Petersburg, 1846) ; Correspondance diplomatique du comte Pozzo di Borgo et du comte de Nesselrode, ed, by Charles Pozzo di Borgo (2 vols., Paris, 1890-1897) ; Vicomte A. Maggiolo, Corse, France et Russie. Pozzo di Borgo, 1764-1842

declaration (statutory) in lieu of an affidavit; and dying declara: bring tion. In forma pauperis is the legal phrase for a method ofwithout persons of part the on court in case a g defendin ing or

FORMS]

PRACTICE

AND

PROCEDURE

309

assume a jurisdiction which they possess to deal with a matter brought before them. It has in recent years been employed to suits might formerly be filed in chancery by way of information compel municipal bodies to discharge their duties as to providing in the name of the attorney-general. Informations are still filed proper sewerage for their districts, etc. The courts do not preby the attorney-general In revenue cases in the king’s bench. scribe the specific manner in which the duty is to be discharged, Judgment summons is a summons issued under the Debtors Act but do not stay their hands until substantial compliance is estab1869, citing a defendant against whom judgment has been entered lished. Besides the prerogative common law writ there are a number of to appear and be examined as to his means, and to show cause why he should not be committed for non-payment of his debts. orders, made by the High Court under statutory authority, and Summons is, in English law, (1) a command by a superior author- described as, or as being in the nature of, mandamus, e.g., mandaity to attend at a given time or place or to do some public duty; mus to proceed to the election of a corporate officer of a munici(2) a document containing such command, and not infrequently pal corporation (Municipal Corporations Act 1882, s. 225); orders in the nature of mandamus to justices to hear and deteralso expressing the consequence entailed by neglect to obey. Various Forms of “Proceeding.”-—-In the High Court of mine a matter within their jurisdiction, or to state and sign a case Justice, civil actions are begun by obtaining from the officers of under the enactments relating to special cases. At common law mandamus lies only for the performance of the court a document known as a “writ of summons.” In this document are stated the names of the parties and the nature of Acts of a public or official character. The enforcement of merely the claim made (which in the case of liquidated sums of money private obligations, such as those arising from contracts, is not must be precise and particular). It is sealed and issued to the within its scope. But now a mandamus may be granted by an party suing it out, and served on the opposing party, not by an interlocutory order of the High Court in all cases in which it shall oficer of the court but by an agent of the plaintiff. The tenor appear to the court just or convenient that such an order should of the writ is to require the defendant to appear and answer the be made. (O. 53). The remedy which is thus created is an attempt to engraft upon the old common law remedy by damclaim, and to indicate the consequences. Many proceedings in the High Court are initiated by forms of ages a right in the nature of specific performance of the duty summons different from the writ of summons. Of those issued in in question. It is not limited to cases in which the prerogative writ would be granted; but mandamus is not granted when the the High Court three classes merit mention:— 1. For determining interlocutory matters of practice and pro- result desired can be obtained by some remedy equally convenient, cedure arising in “a pending cause or matter.” These are now beneficial and effective, or a particular and different remedy is pro-' limited as far as possible to a general summons for directions, vided by statute. An action for mandamus does not lie against introduced in 1883 so as to discourage frequent and expensive judicial officers such as justices. The mandamus issued in the applications to the masters or judges of the High Court on ques- action is no longer a writ of mandamus, but a judgment or order tions of detail. These summonses are sealed and issued on appli- having effect equivalent to the writ formerly used. (See INJUNCcation at the offices of the High Court. The matters raised are TION.) The jurisdiction of the High Court, derived from the court dealt with by a master with an appeal to a judge in chambers summarily. In matters of practice and procedure there is no of chancery, to decree specific performance of contracts has some appeal from a judge at chambers without leave from him or from resemblance to mandamus in the domains of public or quasipublic law. the court of appeal. Action at Law.—In English law the term “action” at a very 2. For determining certain classes of questions with more dispatch and less cost than is entailed by action or petition. This early date became associated with civil proceedings in the court kind of summons is known as an “‘originating summons,” because of common pleas, which were distinguished from pleas of the under it proceedings may be originated without writ for certain Crown, such as indictments or informations and for suits in the kinds of relief specified in the rules (R.S.C., O. §5, r. 3). The court of chancery or in the admiralty or ecclesiastical courts. The originating summons may be used in all divisions of the High English action was a proceeding commeneed by writ original at Court, but is chiefly employed in the chancery division, where it the common law. The remedy was of right and not of grace. As to a great extent supersedes actions for the administration of a result of the reform of civil procedure by the Judicature Acts trusts or of the estates of deceased persons, and for the fore- the term. “action” in English law now means at the High Court closure of mortgages a similar but not identical procedure was of Justice “a civil proceeding commenced by writ of summons or created with reference to questions of title, etc., to real property. in such other manner as may be prescribed by rules of court” (e.g., by originating summons). The proceeding thus commenced In the king’s bench and probate divisions the originating summons is used for determining summarily questions as to property be- ends by judgment and execution. The stages in an English action tween husband and wife, or the right to custody of children, and are the wriz, by which the persons against whom relief is claimed many other matters (O. 54, rr. 4 B-4 F), but there is nothing to are summoned before the court; the pleadings and interlocutory prevent a summons of this kind issuing in the king’s bench for steps, by which the issues between the parties are adjusted; the

means.

Information

(q.v.)

is a proceeding

on behalf

Crown against a subject otherwise than by indictment.

of the

Certain

the determination of some such question as the construction of a bill of lading. The proceedings on an originating summons are conducted summarily at chambers without pleadings, and the evidence is usually written. In the chancery division when the questions raised are important the summons is adjourned into court. An appeal lies to the court of appeal from decisions on originating summonses. The forms of summonses and the procedure thereon in civil cases in the High Court are regulated by the Rules of the Supreme Court.

3. Certain proceedings on the Crown side of the king’s bench

division are begun by summons, e.g., applications for bail; and m vacation writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition and

certiorari are asked for by summons as the full court is not in session. (See Crown Office Rules, 1906.) Mandamus has always been regarded as an exceptional remedy to supplement the deficiencies of the common law, or defects of justice. The writ is used to compel inferior courts to hear and determine according to law cases within their jurisdiction, e.g., where a county court or justices in petty or quarter sessions refuse to

trial, at which the issues of fact and law involved are brought

before the tribunal; the judgment, by which the relief sought is granted or refused; and execution, by which the law gives to the

successful party the fruits of the judgment. The procedure varies according as the action is in the High Court, a county court, or one of the other local courts of.record which still survive; but there is no substantial difference in the incidents of trial, judgment and execution in any of these courts. An action is said to “le” when the law provides a remedy for

some particular act or omission by a subject which infringes the legal rights of another subject. An act of such a character is said to give a “cause of action.” When the rights of a subject are infringed by the illegal action of the State, an action lies in England against the officers who have done the wrong, unless the claim be one arising out of breach of a contract with the State, or out of an “Act of State.” For a breach by the State of a contract made between the State and a subject the remedy of the subject is, as a general rule, not by action against the agents of the State who acted for the State with reference to the making or breach of a

4.00

PRACTICE

AND

PROCEDURE

[SUMMONS

the contract, but against the Crown itself by the proceeding called Petition of Right. The Writ of Summons.—This is the universal means of commencing an action in the High Court. It is addressed to the defendant, and may be either generally or specially indorsed with

etc., is due, and that, in the belief of the plaintiff there is no defence. If the defendant does not appear, or if he appears and

indorsement is allowed in certain cases of debt or liquidated de-

leave to defend will be given, and the master will then give directions as to the further conduct of the suit. Sometimes it wil appear that the defendant has no answer to part of the claim. In

shows no cause to the contrary, Judgment will be given forth.

with by the master in chambers. Where, however, the defendant appears in answer to the summons and shows by affidavit or other.

a statement of the nature of the claim made. The latter form of

wise that he has a defence, going to the whole cause of action

mand, and gives the plaintiff the great advantage of entitling him to sign judgment in default of appearance by the defendant, and even in spite of appearance unless the defendant can satisfy a judge that he ought to be allowed to defend. No statement of claim is necessary in case of a specially indorsed writ, the indorsement being deemed to be the statement. The writ may be issued

that case the master generally orders payment to the plaintiff's solicitors in a certain time, or judgment in default, and gives directions as to the balance. In rare cases the master will order some part of the money sought to be recovered to be brought

out of the central office or out of a district registry, and the into court as a condition of leave to defend. But a plaintiff ought plaintiff may name on his writ the division of the High Court in not to proceed for summary judgment unless he has substantial

which he proposes to have the case tried. There are special rules governing the issue of writs in probate and admiralty actions. The writ remains in force for 12 months, but may be renewed for good cause after the expiration of that time. Application for renewal should, however, be made before the expiration of 12 months from the date of the writ. Service must be personal, unless where substituted service is allowed, and in special cases, such as actions to recover land and admiralty actions. Service out of the jurisdiction of a writ or notice of a writ is allowed only by leave of a judge. Notice of the issue of a writ, and not the writ itself is served on a defendant who is neither a British subject nor in British dominions. The law is contained in the Rules of the ‘Supreme Court, especially Orders ii—xi. and xiv. Appearance.—Every writ has upon it a memorandum pointing out to the defendant that he must, in due course, enter an appearance, otherwise judgment may be signed against him in default. Appearance is entered by the defendant delivering to the proper officer a memorandum stating the name of his solicitor or

that he will defend in person (O. 12, r. 8). He must give notice

grounds for believing there is no defence to the action. Should it turn out that there is a defence of which he must, or ought to, have known, he runs the risk of having to pay the costs. This (which has just been described) is the celebrated pro.

cedure under Order 14. Unknown to the public, and to a large section of the legal profession, enormous sums of money change hands each year in consequence of orders made by masters in chambers. The successful plaintiff receives a fixed sum for

costs, the amount of which varies according to the amount of the claim.

way.

Claims for £20 and over may be prosecuted in this

In its essence, this procedure, which allows a litigant to

defend himself only when he swears to a defence, is a survival

from ancient times when it was competent for a plaintiff to cause his debtor to be imprisoned unless he could show a defence, Consequently the court always takes a lenient view of any defence

which may be put forward, acting on the principle that if the defendant swears to that which, if true, would constitute a defence, he must not be precluded from putting his case before

the court.

of appearance to the plaintiff or his solicitor. He must give his address for service which, if he has entered appearance in London, must be within 3 m. of the Royal Courts of Justice, and if in a district Registry, the address must be within the district. In the vast majority of cases the defendant leaves it to his solicitor to enter appearance for him. He may enter a conditional appearance if he disputes the jurisdiction of the court, or desires to allege some informality or irregularity in the service of the writ (O, 12, r. 30). -` If the defendant does not enter an appearance and the writ has

Having decided to give leave to defend, the next duty of the master is to say how the case shall be tried, If the issue is clear and simple he has power to send it for trial into the short cause list, In that case it is set down for trial without pleadings, and it comes on for trial before a judge alone in a very short space of time. Where, however, service issues are raised necessitating

been specially indorsed (ż.e., for a liquidated demand) the plaintiff may sign judgment in default for his debt and costs (O. 13, r. 3).

in London or at assizes, If the amount is under £100, however, the case is generally remitted for trial in the county court, the costs being left to the county court judge, If it involves a technical or scientific enquiry, or the examination of accounts,

But this rule does not apply where the defendant is an infani or a lunatic—the court, in the exercise of its parental jurisdiction, prohibiting such litigants from compromising without leave, Where, however, a defendant does not appear to a writ in which

the master may

parties agree, he may order it to be tried before a master, who fixes a time and day and hears the whole case with witnesses, His decision on a reference of this kind is subject to an appeal toa

the plaintiff claims damages or other relief which cannot be

claimed in a specially indorsed writ, the plaintiff can only sign on what is called interlocutory judgment, which leaves the quantum of the damages to be assessed in such manner as the court may think right (O. 13, r. 5). But judgment for the possession of land may be obtained owing to default in appearance. These rules as to default, however, are subject to this—-that any judgment by default may be set aside on such terms as to costs or otherwise as to the court shall seem just (O. 13, r. ro). Asa general rule, however, if the judgment has been regularly signed, it will only be set aside on very stringent terms, and the defendant must show that he has a meritorious defence.

Application for Summary Judgment.—Appearance having

an order for discovery and pleadings, directions are given pro-

viding for those matters and settling the place of trial—whether

send it to an official referee,

Finally, if the

divisional court. From the decision of a master on a summons for judgment, an appeal lies to the judge in chambers, who may reverse or vaty the

master’s order, It not infrequently happens that the party who is unsuccessful before the master carries in fresh evidence before the judge in chambers. From the judge an appeal lies (with leave) to the court of appeal, subject to this, that where the judge has given unconditional leave to defend, there is no further appeal of any kind, Summons for Directions.—In all other cases commenced by

writ and subject to an exception to be presently mentioned, the

plaintiff in every action must take out a summons for directions.

After the defendant has appeared, and before taking any fresh

been entered, the next step is taken by the plaintiff. He issues either a summons for summary judgment or a summons for di-

step in the action, other than applying for an injunction as rê ceiver, or the entering of judgment in default of defence (0. 30,

rections. A summons for judgment cen only be issued, properly speaking, where the action is brought for a liquidated sum, e.g., for money lent, the amount due, or for a cheque or bill of exchange, or where an action is brought by a landlord to recover possession from a tenant whose term has expired or has been duly determined by notice to quit. In all these cases the application must be supported by an affidavit to the effect that the money,

ing summons (O. 39, r, 1 [a]). The plaintiff must issue the şummons within 14 days of the defendant’s appearance, and if ie

r, r, [a] and [b]). In so far aş it is compulsory, this rule does not apply to admiralty actions, nor to an action where the writs specially indorsed, nor to any proceeding commenced hy originat-

does not do so, the defendant may apply to dismiss the action for want of prosecution, On the hearing of that application

PRACTICE

PARTIES: PLEADINGS]

AND

however, the master may give direction (O. 30, r. 8). The master generally deals in the first instance with the fol-

lowing matters: pleadings, discovery, and place and mode of trial. Either party may make application under it to the master

on two days’ notice for further directions, and every interlocutory

application in an action which has to be made before judgment is s made (O. 30, r. 5). Even an application for leave to discon-

tinue proceedings is so made. Generally speaking, the effect of the order made on the appli-

cation for directions is to set the case on its career through the ourts. Parties——All persons may be joined in one action as plain-

PROCEDURE

4.01

in the dispute may apply to be made a party (O. 17, r. 4). Several causes of action may be joined in the same action; but the court may order that there shall be separate trials if the various causes of action which appear upon the record cannot be conveniently tried together (O. 18, r. 1). This rule is subject to one notable exception, namely, that no other cause of action can be joined with an action for the recovery of land, except by leave of the court (O. 18, r. 1).

The Pleadings.—Normally, in an actiom tried in the king’s

bench divisions, “pleadings” are ordered to be delivered. They consist of a statement of claim, the defence (and counterclaim, if any), and reply, and, in rare cases, a rejoinder. No pleading subsequent to defence can, however, be delivered without leave.

tiffs in whom any right to relief arising out of the same transacA pleading is the term applied in English law to the preparation tion is alleged to exist, whether jointly or severally, or in the alternative where, if such persons brought suit separately, a com- of the statement of the facts on which either party to a civil mon question of law or fact would arise (O. 16, r. 1). Should it action founds his claim to a decision in his favour on the questions appear, however, that any such joirider may embarrass or delay involved in the proceeding; and also to the document in which the trial, separate trials may be ordered (7b.). Again, if an action these statements are embodied. The term “pleadings” is used is by accident brought by the wrong plaintiff a new plaintiff may for the collected whole of the statements of both parties; the he substituted or added (O. 16, r. 2). As regards defendant, all term “pleading” for each separate part of the pleadings. The object of the pleadings is to secure that both parties shall persons may be joined as such against whom the right to any rélief is alleged to exist, whether jointly or severally or in the know what are the real issues between them. A plaintiff must (in certain cases) deliver a statement of claim; a defendant must alternative (O. 16, r. 4). If numerous persons having the same interest in the cause or matter desire to assert or defend their put in a defence and he may also plead a setoff ot counterclaim. rights, the court may authorize one or more of them to represent The plaintiff must (in certain cases) reply to the defence, and all (O. 16, r. 9). As a Corollary to the above rules it is important must put in a defence to the counterclaim. The rules of pleading to notice that the court has ample power to strike out parties are so framed as to restrict the length of pleadings as much as

improperly joined, and to add others who should be before the

court in order that the matters in dispute may be effectually determined (O. 16, r. 11). As regards lunatics and infants the rules are strict to prevent afiything in the nature of a settlement or compromise of an action save with the consent of the court or a judge. Money recovered by an infant or lunatic may be kept in court or otherwise protected for the benefit of the party concerned. It has been the law since the days of Henry VIII. that a man may sue in forma pauperis. Formerly he had to show that he was not worth more than £25, his wearing apparel, tools of trade, etc. not being taken into account. He could have a solicitor and

counsel assigned to him.

Now any poor person (i.¢., a person

who is not worth more than £50 or such larger sum not exceeding froo as may be allowed in special circumstances or a person whose usual income is not more than £2 or in special cases £4 a week) may sue or defend without paying court fees and may have a solicitor and counsel assigned to him free of charge. (See generally O. 16 and 22 et seq.) Third Party Procedure.—lIt is obvious that where A has a claim against B, B may have a claim against C which arises, or which he desires to assert, only because A has brought an action against him. It would be unfortunate, and would involve unnecessary expense to all parties if B were bound to refrain from suing C until A had sued him. A remedy for this is provided by what is known as third party procedure (O. 16, r. 48) under which, where a defendant claims contribution or indemnity against

a person not a party to the action, he may, by leave, issue a thitd party notice. To that notice (which corresponds to a writ) the third party must appear, otherwise judgment may go against him

by default (O. 16, rr. 49, 30). If he does appear, suitable directions may be given so that all the questions between all the parties may be tried in the same action (O. 16, r. 52). The third party may bring a fourth party from whom he seeks indemnity subject to a - rules as prevail in relation to third parties (O. 16,

t. 54B).

|

possible. So “every pleading shall contain, and contain only, a statement in a summary form of the material facts on which the party pleading relies for his claim or defence, as the case may be, but not the evidence by which they are to be proved.”

The pleader must confine himself to material facts—but an allegation may be material though it is not necessary. He must confine himself, too, to facts material at that stage of the action. With a view to avoiding prolixity, the rules provide that a contract which is to be implied from a series of letters or conversations, or from various circumstances, may be referred to as a fact without setting out all the letters, etc., in detail. But refererice to those letters, etc., and the substance of material conversation must be given. Matters of law need not be pleaded to. But even though it may necessitate a long and elaborate statement, all material facts must be sét out in a pleading. If material, dates, names and items are not given, the pleader may be ordered to give particulars. A pleading may contain alternative and inconsistent allegations.

As indicated above, particulars may be ordered if a pleading’ is not sufficiently éxplicit. Particulars may be necessary to indicate to the opponent the nature of the evidence required by him. A few examples must suffice. In an action for libel where the

defendant has alleged that the plaintiff is a “swindler,” or a “felon,” pleads that the words are true, he must give particulars showing the nature of the alleged swindle or felony. In an action in which a plaintiff, suing for the balance of monies alleged to be due, gives credit for a lump sum, he must give particulars

showing how the lump sum is made up. Where the plaintiff claims general damages (¢.g., in an action for personal injuries) ‘‘£1,000,” he need not give particulars showing how he arrives at that figure; but if he claims special damage, e.g., “£100 for medical expenses,” consequént upon the injury, particulars will be ordered. It is no answer to a claim for particulars that they are within

the applicant’s own knowledge. He may still desire to know what

facts the other party is going to rely upon m support of his case. Sometimes, however, a litigant asked to give particulars will be

An action does not dbate because of the marriage, death, or bankruptcy, etc., of any party thereto, if the cause of action survives (QO. 17, r. 1), and where any matriage, etc., takes place,

allowed to interrogate his opponent before complying with the

I there is any devolution of estate by operation of law, the

If the plaintiff, for example, asks for an account to be taken

court may order that the husband, personal representative, trustee, or other successor to interest of any party shall be made

aparty and served with notice of the proceedings (O. 17, r. 2). imilarly, any person, who by reason of a marriage, death, bank-

tuptcy or assignment after action brought acquires an interest

order.

But where particulars would bé in vain they will not be ordered.

between him atid the defendant, it is obvious to the deféndant

that all his dealings with the plaintiff will have to be enqitired into. But if the plaintiff claims an account and £160 which he alleges will be due whet thé account is taken, it is clear that the defendant is entitled to know how that figure is arrived at. If,

402

PRACTICE

AND

PROCEDURE

[PAYMENT INTO COURT

when asking for an account, he also asks particulars of money had accept it in full satisfaction (O. 22, r. 5). In the latter case i and received, they will be refused, as the facts will emerge on he accepts it within a certain time (prescribed by O. 22, r n) he may proceed to tax and recover his costs. If he does not s taking the account. to accept it but goes on with his action, and fails to recover anythin merely enough seldom is it defence, the to regard With traverse (i.e., deny or refuse to admit) the matters in the state- more, the defendant will be entitled to all the costs incurred i sequent to the date of payment in. ment of claim. For example, if the plaintiff sets up a contract There is one case in which the defendant ought certainly, in merely defendant the for idle be would it which was in fact made, to deny the existence of a contract. He should confess (i.e., his own interest, to pay money into court. This is where in admit) the contract and avoid.the effect of that confession by set- answer to a claim for a liquidated sum, he has made a tender ting up the Statute of Fraud or Limitations or by setting up before action. Tender of what is due is a complete defence ty (a) that the contract has been duly performed or rescinded; or

(6) that it was illegal; or (c) that some condition precedent to his liability has not been performed. In an action of debt a

mere denial of the debt is expressly declared by the rules to be inadmissible; and in an action for liquidated sums the defence must deny the order or contract, the delivery, or the amount claimed. Again, in an action for money had and received, the defence must deny the receipt of the money, or the existence of those facts which are alleged to make such receipt by the defendant a receipt to the use of the plaintiff. If the defendant desires to deny the right of a plaintiff to sue in a representative capacity, he must do so specifically (O. 21, r. 5). While the defendant should make every denial which is really necessary, he should avoid denying matters which are really immaterial. If he does so, the court has power to make him pay any extra

an action; but where there is a plea of tender upon the record it will not avail the defendant unless he has brought the amount tendered into court. And this ant’s attitude must be that he willing to pay his debt. But court with a plea of tender, action by taking that money

is good sense, because the defend. always was and still is ready ang where money has been paid into the plaintiff cannot terminate the out of court; for he will thereby

admit the defence and the costs of the whole action will be the defendant’s.

But it is not always necessary for a defendant to admit liability

for the sum paid in. In any action of debt he may pay in without

admitting liability (except when he pleads tender). This is a mere offer to secure peace, which may appear with any other defence e.g., a denial of the contract or a plea of performance. The plaintiff may accept it in satisfaction and take it out of cout (O. 22, r. 6) and tax his costs (O. 22, r. 7). If he does not costs occasioned thereby (O. 21, r. 9). With regard to counterclaims, a defendant may counterclaim accept it in satisfaction, the money remains in court to abide not only against the plaintiff but against other parties to the the result of the action (O. 22, r. 6). The danger of denying action, and against a person who is not a party (O. 21, r. I1). liability, however, lies in this, that it puts the plaintiff to the But whereas a counterclaim against a plaintiff and a person proof of his case, and although he may recover no more than already a party is merely delivered, a counterclaim involving a the sum paid in, the defendant may not get his costs of con“third party” must be served on him like a writ. Such third testing those issues. In action for damages (except for libel or party must appear as if he were a defendant to an action, and, slander) the rule is very similar (O. 22, r. 1), but in libel and having done so, may deliver a defence without any leave from slander cases, payment in can only be made in satisfaction (ie. the court (O. 21, r. 14). It is competent for any person who is with an admission of liability} or else by way of compensation and made defendant to a counterclaim to apply to the court for an amends, under the Libel Act 1843. If necessary, as where, for order to exclude the counterclaim, on the ground that it cannot example, the claim. involves several causes of action, particulars be conveniently or properly tried with the original action (O. 21, will be ordered showing how much of a payment in is to be r. 15). If there is a counterclaim on the record, and the original applied to each cause of action. Neither the fact of a payment into court having been made nor action is stayed, discontinued or dismissed, the counterclaim can the amount of such payment must be revealed to a jury (O. 22, r. defences to As 16). r. 21, (O. with proceeded be ss neverthele generally, one or two survivals from ancient times are to be 22). If there has been such a revelation, the court will stop the found in the rules. Thus it is still competent for a defendant, in case and discharge the jury. If more than enough has been. paid certain cases, to plead “not guilty by statute’—as when for in, the excess will be ordered to be repaid to the defendant. To the general rule that it rests with plaintiff to say whether example an action is brought for illegal distress. But it is unsafe he will or will not accept money paid into court, there is an leave. by save added be can plea other no as plea, this to use (See O. 19, r. 12; O. 19, x. 20.) Again, a plea “in abatement” (e.g. exception in any case where the plaintif is an infant or a person that a third person should have been added as plaintiff) is not of unsound mind. Acceptance of a sum paid in involves (or may allowed. Finally in an action for the recovery of land against a involve) a compromise of the action, and the court, exercising defendant who is in possession by himself or his tenant the de- a parental jurisdiction in such matters will refuse to allow a fendant (unless he has some equitable defence) need only plead compromise which may not be fair to the plaintiff. And so the that he is in possession. This puts everything in issue and enables court has power, not only to refuse to allow a compromise, but in court him to raise any defence—even the Statute of Limitations (O. it may provide, by order, for the money being retained infant the of benefit the for of disposed otherwise or invested and Brett) Justice Lord (by this for 21, r. 21). The reason assigned the case may be. is that the plaintiff in an action for recovery of land must recover (until he attains the age of 21) or lunatic as on the strength of his own title and not through any defect in the (See generally O. 22, r. 15.) Reply and Subsequent Pleadings.—The defence having been defendant’s title. “Possession is nine points of the law.” Payment into Court.—There is no part of the procedure in delivered, the plaintiff may find it necessary to deliver a reply. was always entitled to reply—even civil actions more important to the litigant than that which enables Under the old rules a plaintiff issue. But now a mere joinder of issue a, defendant to pay money into court. By a judicious payment if it was only to join 27, r. 13) no reply or subsequent pleading into court a defendant may bring proceedings to an end, and so is unnecessary and (O. etc.) can be delivered without order sur-rejoinder, rejoinder, (e.g., avoid the costs of what may be an expensive action. Further, if except in certain admiralty cases (O. 23). But a reply may be plaintiff’s thc satisfy to enough than more or enough he pays in (to which the reply claim, the plaintiff will have to bear all costs incurred subsequent essential, e.g., where there is a counterclaim is really a defence) or where the defendant has pleaded the to the date of payment in. desires to prove a payThe rules provide that in any action for debt or damages (not, Statute of Limitation, and the ofplaintiff He must not, howstatute. the out case the takes which ment e.g, a mere action for an account) including actions for libel or action in his reply, for that would of cause new a suggest ever, not defence with or defence, before may, slander, the defendant called a “departure.” And the reason denying liability, pay money into court in satisfaction of the be what the old pleaders action the defendant must be enabledto of cause whole or a specified part of the claim (O. 22, r. 1). By so is plain. To a new with the rules. A new cause of acaccordance in defence a in put then may plaintiff The paying in, he admits liability to that extent. amended statement of claim. an in appear therefore must take the money out and proceed with the action (O. 22, r. 5), or tion

PRACTICE

AND

Cases may occur in which, although the plaintiff had a good

ause of action when he issued his writ, something happened afterwards to satisfy his claim or discharge the cause of action. For sample, he may accept payment of the debt sued for, or a

PROCEDURE

403

paid (O. 26, r. 4). Default of Pleading.—The rules of pleading are enforced by this—that if a party does not plead as and when required, he may if he is a plaintiff have his action dismissed, if he is a de-

gm of money by way of compromise of a claim for damages. fendant have judgment signed against him. Thus if a plaintiff Such acceptance or compromise would constitute a defence. If being bound to deliver a statement of claim does not do so within

i takes place before the expiration of the time limited for de-

fence, the defendant may raise it in his defence, signifying that

it arose since action brought (O. 24, r. I1). And even if it arises after that time, the defendant may raise it by leave (O. 24, r. 2). The plaintiff may thereupon “confess” such defence and tax his costs up to the time when it was delivered (O. 24, r. 3) unless the court shall otherwise order. A similar rule obtains with reference to a reply which sets up new matter in defence to a set off or counterclaim. A counterclaim may be founded on facts which have arisen since action brought, but it must be phrased as 30 arising. Discontinuance.—In certain circumstances an action may be discontinued, or a defence withdrawn.

Thus at any time before

receipt of defence, or after receipt thereof before taking any proceeding other than interlocutory (é.g., a summons for particulars), the plaintif may, without leave, by notice in writing dis-

continue the whole action, or withdraw any part of it as against all or any of the defendants, subject to the payment of costs 0. 26, r. I). | Proceedings in Lieu of Demurrer.—In former days it was competent for a defendant to “demur” to the statement of claim

on the ground that it disclosed no cause of action. The result was

that many a claim was defeated and costs were often incurred merely because the plaintiff had not put his case in proper form. Now, however, demurrer is abolished (O. 25, r. 1) but any party may raise a point of law by his pleading, and the point so raised

shall be disposed of at or after the trial subject to this, that if the parties consent or the court so orders the point may be set down for hearing and disposed of before the trial (O. 25, r. 2). If the decision substantially disposes of the whole action, the action may be dismissed (O. 25, r. 3). This course may be conveniently adopted where it is obvious that a serious question arises as to whether the statement of claim as drafted discloses any cause of action; or the defence any answer in law to the claim. Striking Out Pleadings.—The court may order a pleading to be struck out on the ground that it discloses no reasonable cause of action or answer (O. 25, r. 4). In any such case, or if the action or defence be shown by the pleadings to be frivolous or vexatious, it may be stayed or dismissed, or judgment may be entered for the defendant accordingly as may be just (7b.). To succeed in such an application, an objecting party must be able to point to some defect in the pleading itself. The rule is only acted upon in plain and obvious cases. So if in an action on a contract it be clear that there is no contract between the plaintiff and the

the time allowed, the defendant may apply to have the action dismissed for want of prosecution, and on the hearing of the application the court may either dismiss the action or make such order as shall be thought just (O. 27, r. 1). Where the plaintiff delivers his statement of claim after the application has been made, the court will generally make no order save that he pay the costs. The plaintif need not deliver a statement of claim save under an order for directions, for which he must himself apply. If he does not so apply within 14 days of the defendant’s appearance the defendant may have the action dismissed (O. 30, r. 8). A plaintiff may be in default in delivering a reply and defence to a counterclaim. If so, the defendant’s only remedy is to move for judgment under O. 27, r. 11, even when the counterclaim is for a liquidated demand, and even if some other person has been made a defendant to the counterclaim. A defendant may make default either in not entering an appearance, or in not putting in his defence. If he has not appeared, and, the writ not being especially indorsed (7.e., with a claim for a liquidated sum), he has had a statement of claim filed against him in default, he must appear and deliver his defence within ten days of the filing of the statement of claim. Otherwise he may have judgment signed against him with costs (O. 21, rr. 2-9). In such a case, however, if the plaintiff could have signed judgment merely in default of appearance, he can only have such costs as he would have had in that case. In other words, he will not be allowed the costs of the statement of claim. If a defendant has appeared to the writ other considerations arise. If the writ was specially indorsed he must deliver a defence within ten days unless the plaintiff has proceeded for summary judgment (O. 21, r. 6) and in other cases if a separate statement of claim has been delivered he must deliver his defence within the time limited by the summons for directions (O. 21, r. 8). The procedure to be adopted if the defendant has not put in a defence depends upon the nature of the action. (See APPEARANCE, Pp. 400.) Close of Pleadings.—There comes a time in every action when the pleadings are deemed to be closed. Where no reply or subsequent pleading is ordered then within four days of the delivery of the last pleading, or where a reply has been ordered within a certain time, at the end of that period the pleadings are to be deemed closed and all statements therein put in issue

(O. 27, r. 13). This, however, does not apply to a reply to a

counterclaim which is really a defence. Unless the plaintiff obtains leave to reply to a counterclaim, the statements of fact defendant; or no contract valid in law; or that the matter is which it contains shall be deemed to be admitted after the exalready res judicata, or where the statement of claim on the piration of ten days, unless a reply has been ordered, in which face of it shows that there is a good defence, it will be struck out. case, if the order is not complied with, the facts will be deemed But the court will generally give a party leave to amend a to be admitted. Amendment.—In former times the ends of justice were often pleading before striking it out. Apart from the rule above mentioned (and O. 19, r. 25, which enables anything scandalous or defeated, and the litigant was put to an enormous amount of vexatious, or which tends to delay, etc., the trial of an action, to unnecessary expense, because the powers of the court to allow be struck out) the court has inherent jurisdiction to stay all amendment of pleadings were greatly restricted. Now, however, proceedings before it which are obviously frivolous or vexatious the court or a judge may at any time, and on such terms as to ar an abuse of its process. Discontinuance by the plaintiff does costs or otherwise as may be thought right, amend any deficit hot alter a counterclaim, but a counterclaim cannot be set up in any proceedings, and all necessary amendments shall be made after discontinuance. for the purpose of determining the real question or issue raised A defendant may by leave, and only by leave, and upon terms, by or depending on the proceedings (O. 28, r. 12). Withdraw the whole or part of his defence or counterclaim. If Amendment of Pleadings.—The court or a judge may at the defence is withdrawn, the plaintiff can sign judgment in de- any stage of the proceedings allow either party to alter or amend fault of defence. An application so to withdraw may be made his indorsement or pleadings in such manner and on such terms at any time. A cause entered for trial may be withdrawn by as may be just, and all such amendments shall be made as may either plaintiff or defendant upon producing a consent in writing be necessary for the purpose of determining the real question in to the proper oficer (O. 26, r. 2). The plaintif must pay the controversy between the parties (O. 28, r. 1). Under this rule defendant’s costs if he discontinue an action (O. 26, r. 3); and amendment will always be allowed, if it can be made without if he bring another action for the same or substantially the same injustice to the other side. While a new cause of action may be ause, it may be stayed if the costs of the former action are not introduced into the statement of claim by amendment, if the

4.04.

PRACTICE

AND

plaintiff, at the same time seeks to stand on his original claim, leaving his writ unamended, this is practically a discontinuance, for the new claim is wholly unsupported by the writ. Such an amendment will only be allowed on the terms that the plaintiff pays all costs down to the time of the amendment, and that all proceedings are stayed until those costs are paid.

PROCEDURE

[DISCOVERY

firm, and so can the property of individual partnets. This is h

a summary of O. 48A which provides a complete code of alk on the subject.

It must be carefully studied by anyone who i

concerned in an action by or against a firm.

;

Discovery.—The pleadings Rhaving been: closed, the parties;nh

most cases proceed to have discovery, either of facts or docu-

A petition of right cannot be amended unless the amendment is ments or both. The English common law courts were originally such that if the petition had been presented as amended, the fiat unable to compel a litigant before a trial to disclose the facts of the attorney-general would have been granted. To allow an amendment of a petition of right would be to derogate from the prerogative of the Crown. A common informer is but seldom allowed to amend his statement of claim in an action for penalties. Amendment is often allowed on an application to strike out a pleading as embarrassing or because it discloses no cause of action—wut res magis valeat quam pereat. Although, when a statement of claim is delivered the plaintiff may therein alter, modify or extend his claim without any amendment of the writ, he cannot add a claim on a wholly new

and different cause of action except by leave; and if leave be given the writ should be amended. The writ or the statement of claim must be amended in one case, i.e., where the plaintiff recovers by verdict of a jury more than the amount he has actually claimed. Otherwise he cannot recover the amount of the verdict. Amendment may be allowed at any time but it should obviously be made at the earliest possible moment. A defendant may have no answer to the claim as amended. A plaintiff may find it necessary to confess an amended defence and stop his action; or, where the amendment involves a payment of money into court, he may be content with the amount paid in. A plaintiff may, in certain cases, and within a certain time amend his statement of claim, whether indorsed on the writ or not, without leave (O. 28, r. 2). But he cannot, in the exercise of this privilege, add a cause of action which has accrued to him since the writ—although he can do that by leave. Nor can

and documents on which he relied. In equity, however, a differ.

ent rule prevailed, there being an absolute right to discovery of

all material facts on which a case was founded. Now the practice

is regulated by the Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, Order 41

Discovery is of two kinds, namely, by interrogatories and hy

affidavit of documents, provision being also made for the pro. duction and inspection of documents. Where a party to a sy can make.an affidavit stating that in his belief certain specified documents are or have been in the possession of some other party the court may make an order that such patty state on afidavit

whether he has or ever had any of those documents in his pos. session, or if he has parted with them or what has become of them. A further application may then be made by notice to the party who has admitted possession of the documents for production and inspection. Copies also may be taken of the more important documents. There is also discovery of facts obtained by means of interrogatories, z.e., written questions addressed on behalf of one party, before trial, to the other party, who is bound to answer them in writing upon oath. In order to prevent needless expense the party seeking discovery used to have to secure the cost of it by paying into court a sum of money, generally not less than £5, but this rule has been abolished. Objection may be taken to discovery either of a fact or a document on the

ground of privilege or that the matters sought to be discovered are criminatory. Thus all documents and communications passing between a he add new parties. If he has delivered particulars with the litigant and his legal advisers are absolutely privileged and need statement of claim he can amend them under this rule; but not be disclosed. Again, where ah admission of a fact or the particulars delivered otherwise can only be amended by leave. production of a document might involve the admission of a Under this rule a special indorsement can be amended provided criminal offence, the litigant may refuse to give discovery. Where the claim is one which can be specially indorsed. A similar rule the opposite party is not satisfied with an affidavit of documents, (O. 28, r. 3) applies to a counterclaim. But it is important or the answer to an interrogatory, he may, in certain cases apply to notice that any amendment so made without leave may be for a further and better affidavit or answer, and in some cases disallowed—or only allowed upon terms—on the application of the rnaster to whom the application is made will himself erthe other side if the justice of the case so requires (QO. 28, r. 4). amine a document in order to see whether it shall be disclosed It has been stated that amendment to statement of claim or or not. The advantage of discovery lies in this—that it forces a counterclaim without leave can only be made within a certain litigant to reveal his case on oath. It is one thing to make a time. All other amendments to claim or defence, or to any other statement or deny a fact in a pleading. That merely has effect pleading, can only be made by the leave of the court or 4 judge to put the matter in issue. It is a much more serious matter and upon such terms as to costs as may be just (O. 28, r. 6). to have to swear to a fact in an affidavit, because, in the case If an order giving leave to amend be made and the amendment of the answer to an interrogatory, it may be put in evidence by is not made within the time limited or within 14 days of the the opposite party at the trial. Many an action is brought to date of the order, the order is void, unless the time be extended speedy end by an order for discovery, because the litigant by the court or a judge (O. 28, r. 7). Moreover the amended wholly unable to swear to the truth of the claim or defence which pleading must be delivered to the opposite party within the time he has put upon his pleadings. Discovery will not be allowed ii the remedy sought to be inforced is of a penal nature, or if the allowing the same (O. 28, r. 10). l Actions By or Against Firms.—If a firm desires to bring plaintiff is relying on a forfeiture. Evidence on Commission.—Cases often arise in which it 3 an action, or anyone desires to bring an action against a firm, in the firm name, especial considerations arise. Broadly speak- impossible owing to illness or absence to secure the attendance of ing, a firm consisting of more than one person carrying on a a witness at the trial. In such circumstances the court has power business within the jurisdiction may sue or be sued in the firm (conferred by O. 37, r. 5 et seg.) to direct that the evidence he name, but subject to this—that the names of the partners must, taken anywhere before an officer of the court or any other person. if required, be revealed to the other side. Where, however, a It must be shown, however, that the witness will be unable to man carries on business iu a name other than his own, he can attend, either because of illness or because he is out of the junsonly sue in his own name, but he may be sued in the name of diction, and cannot be compelled to attend by subpoena. Even’ his firm. He must, however, reveal his true name if required. plaintiff may be allowed to give evidence on commission, but thi Service of process on a firm may be effected either upon any one is a privilege seldom granted. The evidence of the witness 1! of the partners, or upon the manager at the place of business written down and signed by him and can be put in at the trial of the firm. The person served must be told, at the time, whether In certain foreign countries, where evidence cannot be taken on ' he is served as a partner or as manager. A firm cannot enter commission, it is secured by letters of request, which are sent =. ye an appearance as such: it must appear by one of the partners through the Foreign Office. Admission—Although the pleadings show that everything 5" personally; but an alleged parther may appear with a denial that he is a partner. The property of the firm within the juris- issue in an action, it is competent for either party to give notice diction can be seized in execution of a judgment against the that he admits the truth of the whole or part of his opponents

TRIAL]

PRACTICE

AND

case (O. 32, fr. 1). This secures the costs of proving those facts, and, if the whole cause of action is admitted, enables the party to whom the admission is made to apply for judgment (O. 32, 6). Apart from this, either party may give notice to the other to admit facts and if he refuses to do so unreasonably he may have to pay the costs of the necessary proof of those facts (id. [4]). Similarly notice may be given to admit documents; indeed

PROCEDURE

405

out a jury of any issue requiring prolonged examination of documents or accounts or scientific or local investigation.

3. Trial with assessors, usually in admiralty cases (the assessors being nautical) but rare in other divisions.

4. Trial by an official referee in certain cases involving much detail (R.S.C., O. 36). 5. Where the parties consent, trial may be had of any case in the costs of proving any document may be disallowed if the the king’s bench division before a master in chambers. A speedy trial may be ordered in certain cases (O. 36, r. 1A), notice is not given (O. 32, r. 3). Special Case.—The parties to any cause or matter may concur but the power conferred by this order is sparingly exercised. ‘The "n stating the questions of law arising therein in the form of a parties may be represented in the High Court by counsel or may special case for the opinion of the court (O. 34, r., 1), and the conduct their case in person. The trial is carried on by stating court may order a question of law to be decided either by special to the court the pleadings if any and by opening the plaintiff's case or otherwise before any question of fact is tried (O, 34, r. 2). case. This is followed by the evidence of the witnesses, who are Transfer and Consolidation of Action—Action may be trans- sworn and examined and cross-examined. On the completion of ferred from one division ọf the High Court to another, or from the plaintiff’s case and evidence, the defendant’s case is stated one judge to another by order of the lord chancellor but subject and evidence adduced in support of it, The plaintiff or his lawyer to the consent of the president of the division (O. 59, r. x). has, as a rule, the reply or last word unless the defendant has Causes depending in the same division may he consolidated with called no evidence. If when the trial is called on the plaintiff appears and the defendant does not, the plaintiff may prove his each other (O. 59, r. 8). Application and Proceedings at Chambers.—All applications at case (QO. 36, r. 31). If the plaintiff does not appear, the defendant chambers (i.e,, before a master or a judge) are made by summons may have judgment dismissing the action, and may prove his unless they are made ex parte, that is to say, by one side only. counterclaim if he has one (O. 36, r. 32). But any judgment by Applications at chambers generally are regulated by O. 54, while default may be set aside on terms. At the conclusion the judge sums up the law and facts of the 0. 5s prescribes the rules observed in chambers in the chancery case to the jury and their verdict is returned, or if there is no division. Proceedings in District Registries——-To meet the convenience jury the judge gives judgment stating his conclusion on the law of suitors who do not live in or near London, district registries and the facts involved. He then directs that judgment shall be have been established in various parts of the country. Proceed- entered as he thinks right (O. 36, r. 39), and a memorandum is ings can only be taken in a district registry, in an action in which endorsed on the judgment pointing out that if it is not obeyed, the writ has been issued out of that registry. Broadly speaking, the defendant will be liable to process of execution (O. 41, r. 5). Juries.——In England the trial jury (also called petty jury or the powers of a district registrar are similar to those of a master of the supreme court. In certain cases, however, where an action traverse jury) consists of 12 jurors, except in the county court has been commenced in a registry the defendant can as of right where the number is eight. Women are now summoned as jurors, have it moved to London, and the court has power in all cases but a husband and wife cannot be summoned on the same occato move an action from a registry to London or vice versa. (See sion. A woman may, however, claim exemption on the ground generally O. 35.) As to appeals from district registries see APPEAL. that by reason of pregnancy or some other feminine condition or Proceedings by poor persons under the Matrimonial Causes Acts ailment she is or will be unfit to serve. Either party to the suit may apply to the court for an order that the jury shall consist in district registries are provided for by O. 35a. Trial—The places and mode of trial having been fixed by the wholly of men or wholly of women. In civil but not in criminal order made on a summons for directions, the plaintiff must give cases the trial may by consent be by fewer than 12 jurors, and notice of trial (O. 36, r. 11), and if he fails to do so, within the the verdict may by consent be that of the majority. The jurors are selected from the inhabitants of the county, time prescribed by the rules, the defendant may do so, or else apply to have the action dismissed for want of prosecution (O. 36, borough or other area for which the court to which they are r. 12). Trial follows upon the completion of the steps necessary summoned is commissioned to act. In criminal cases, owing to to bring the parties before the court and to adjust the issues upon the rules as to venue and that crime is to be tried in the neighwhich the court is to adjudicate, which may be summed up in bourhood where it is committed, the mode of selection involves the term pleading. In England the trial is usually in open court, a certain amount of independent local knowledge on the part and it is rare to try cases im camera, or to attempt to exclude of the jurors. Where local prejudice has been aroused for or the public from the hearing. In practice hearing im camera is against the accused, which is likely to affect the chance of a fair only ordered where to try in open court would be to defeat the trial, the proceedings may be removed to another jurisdiction, ends of justice. The essential part of the trial is that there and there are a good many offences in which by legislation the should be full opportunity to both sides for evidence and argu- accused may be tried where he is caught, irrespective of the ment on the questions in dispute. At present in England, as dis- place where he is alleged to have broken the law. tinguished from the rest of Europe, the evidence is ordinarily Exemptions from juries include members of the legislature taken viva voce in court, and affidavits and depositions are and judges, ministers of various denominations, and practising sparingly accepted, whereas under the continental system the bulk barristers and solicitors, registered medical practitioners and i the proofs in civil cases are reduced to writing before the dentists, and officers and soldiers of the regular army. Persons over 60 are exempt but not disqualified. Lists of the jurors are earing. In the High Court of Justice in England several modes of trial prepared by the overseers in rural parishes and by the town clerks in boroughs, and are submitted to justices for revision. When are now used ;— i. Trial by judge with a jury used in the king’s bench division jurors are required for a civil or criminal trial they are sumand in probate and matrimonial cases. There is a right to have a moned by the sheriff or, if he cannot act, by the coroner. For the purpose of civil trials in the superior courts there are jury as a matter of course in actions of defamation, false imPisonment, malicious prosecution, seduction and breach of prom- two lists of jurors, special and common. The practice of selecting ise Of marriage. special jurors to try important civil cases appears to have sprung 2, Trial by a judge without a jury is invariable in the chancery up, without legislative enactment, in the procedure of the courts. The jurors are the judges of fact upon the evidence laid before division and now common in other divisions. Cases in the chancery division are not tried with a jury unless a special order is made them. Their province is strictly limited to questions of fact, and (0, 36, r. 3); and the High Court in cases in which trial without within that province they are still further restricted to matters jury could be ordered without consent still retains the power of proved by evidence in the course of the trial and in theory must 80 trying them, and has also acquired power to direct trial with- not act upon their own personal knowledge and observation

406

PRACTICE

AND

except so far as it proceeds from what is called a “view” of the subject matter of the litigation. While the jury is in legal theory absolute as to matters of fact, it is in practice largely controlled by the judges. Not only does the judge at the trial decide as to the relevancy of the evidence tendered to the issues to be proved, and as to the admissibility of questions put to a witness, but he also advises the jury as to

the logical bearing of the evidence admitted upon the matters to be found by the jury. The rules as to admissibility of evidence, largely based upon scholastic logic, sometimes difficult to apply, and almost unknown in continental jurisprudence, coupled with the right of an English judge to sum up the evidence (denied to French judges) and to express his own opinion as to its value (denied to American judges), fetter to some extent the independence or limit the chances of error of the jury. The appellate court will not upset a verdict when there is substantial and conflicting evidence before the jury. In such cases it is for the jury to say which side is to be believed, and the court will not interfere with the verdict. To upset a verdict on the ground that there is no evidence to go to the jury implies that the judge at the trial ought to have withdrawn the case from the jury. Under modern procedure, in order to avoid the risk of a new trial, it is not uncommon to take the verdict of a jury on the hypothesis that there was evidence for their consideration, and to leave the unsuccessful party to apply for judgment notwithstanding the verdict. The question whether there was any evidence proper to be submitted to the jury arises oftenest in cases involving an imputation of negligence—e.g., in an action of damages against a railway company for injuries sustained in a collision. This statement indicates existing practice but scarcely determines what relation between the facts proved and the conclusion to be established is necessary to make the facts evidence from which a jury may infer the conclusion. The true explanation is

to be found in the principle of relevancy. Any fact which is relevant to the issue constitutes evidence to go before the jury, and any fact, roughly speaking, is relevant between which and the fact

PROCEDURE

[JUDGMENT

exceptions as those just stated, it binds the interest of the debtor

and gives the sheriff such an interest in the goods as will enable him to sue for the recovery of their possession, does not pass the

property in the goods to the sheriff. The goods are in the custoy of the law. But the property remains in the debtor who may get rid of the execution on payment of the claim and fees of the sheriff. The wearing apparel, bedding, tools, etc., of the debtor tg the value of £5 are protected. Competing claims as to the owner. by the proseized ”are broughtea before the courts ship of the goods . s.e cedure of “interpleader.” In the king’s bench division, the sheriff issues a summons before a master in chambers calling upon the execution creditors and claimant to appear and state their respec-

tive cases. If the claim is not admitted by the execution creditor

an issue is directed to try the merits and either party may ask the master to try the issue himself.

This he generally does at the

earliest possible opportunity, for the sheriff being in possession

costs are mounting up. Otherwise the “issue” is reported for trial

to the High Court or county court, the claimant being directed ty

bring the amount of the sheriff’s valuation into court. That money

being in court, the sheriff withdraws. After seizure the sheriff mus retain possession, and, in default of payment by the execution

debtor, proceed to sell. Where the judgment debt, including leg expenses, exceeds £20, the sale must be by public auction, unless the court otherwise orders, and must be publicly advertised, The proceeds of sale, after deduction of the sheriff’s fees and expenses,

become the property of the execution creditor to the extent of his claim. Under the law of bankruptcy, the sheriff, in case of sale under

judgment for a sum exceeding £20 is required to hold the pro. ceeds for 14 days in case notice of bankruptcy proceedings should be served upon him. (See Banxruptcy.) Imprisonment for

debt in execution of civil judgment is now abolished except in cases of default in the nature of contempt, unsatisfied by judgments for penalties, defaults by persons in a fiduciary character, and defaults by judgment debtors. Writ of Elegit-—The writ of elegit is a process enabling the creditor to satisfy his judgment debt out: of the lands of the debtor. It derives its name from the election of the creditor in favour of this mode of recovery. It is founded on the Statute of Westminster (1285, 13 Ed. I. c. 18), under which the sheriff was required to deliver to the creditor all the chattels (except oxen and beasts of the plough) and half the lands of the debtor until the debt was satished. By the Judgments Act 1838 the remedy was extended to all the debtor’s lands, and by the Bankruptcy Act

to be proved there may be a connection as cause and effect. As regards damages the court has always had wide powers, as damages are often a question of law. But when the amount of the damages awarded by a jury is challenged as excessive or inadequate, the appellate court, if it considers the amount unreasonably large or unreasonably small, must order a new trial unless both parties consent to a reduction or increase of the damages to a figure fixed by the court; see Watt v. Watt (1905), 1883 (now replaced by the Bankruptcy Act 1914) the writ no longer extends to the debtor’s goods. The writ is enforceable App. Cas. II5. Judgment and Execution.—Execution is allowed as a matter against legal interests whether in possession or remainder but not of course after judgment except where it has for some reason been against equitable interests in land. When the debtor’s interest is stayed, e.g., where an appeal is pending. (See generally R.S.C. equitable recourse is had to equitable execution by the appointa receiver or to bankruptcy proceedings. (See RSC, O. 42.) A judgment for the recovery of money or costs is enforced, ment as a rule, by writ of fieri facias addressed to the sheriff, and O. 43. Writs of Possession and Delivery.—Judgments for the recovery directing him to cause to be made (fieri facias) of the goods and chattels of the debtor a levy of a sum sufficient to satisfy the or for the delivery of the possession of land are enforceable by judgment and costs, which carry interest at 4% per annum. The writ of possession. The recovery of specific chattels is obtained by seizure effected by the sheriff or his officer, under this writ, of the writ of delivery (R.S.C., O. 47, 48). Writ of Sequestration—Where a judgment directing the payproperty of the debtor, is what is popularly known as “the puttingin” of an execution. The seizure should be carried out with all ment of money into court, or the performance by the defendant possible dispatch. The sheriff or his officer must not break open of any act within a limited time, has not been complied with, or the debtor’s house in effecting a seizure, for “a man’s house is his where a corporation has wilfully disobeyed a judgment, a writ ot castle”; but this principle applies only to a dwelling-house, and a sequestration is issued, to not less than four sequestrators, orderbarn or outhouse unconnected with the dwelling-house may be ing them to enter upon the real estate of the party in default, and broken into. The sheriff on receipt of the writ endorses it on the “sequester” the rents and profits until the judgment has been day, hour, month and year when he received it; and the writ binds obeyed (R.S.C., O. 43, r. 6). Equitable Execution—Where a judgment creditor is othermse the debtor’s goods as at the date of its delivery, except as regards goods sold before seizure in market overt, or purchased for value, unable to reach the property of his debtor he may obtain equitable without notice before actual seizure (Sale of Goods Act 1893, s. execution, usually by the appointment of a receiver, who collects 26, which supersedes s. 16 of the Statute of Frauds and s. 1 of the rents and profits of the debtor’s land for the benefit of the creditor (R.S.C., O. 1, rr. rsA~22). But receivers may be a the Mercantile Law Amendment Act 1856). This rule is limited to goods, and does not apply to the money pointed of interests in personal property belonging to the debtor or bank-notes of the debtor which are not bound by the writ till by virtue of the Judicature Act 1873, s. 25 (8). The plaintiff may seized under it (Johnson v. Pickering, Oct. 14, 1907, C.A.). The apply ex parte, for leave to issue a summons for the appointment mere seizure of the goods, however, although, subject to such of a receiver and for an injunction to restrain the defendant from

PRACTICE

costs]

AND

ating with his property pending the hearing of the summons. Such an application may be heard by a master.

dttachment—A judgment creditor may “attach” debts due by

third parties to his debtor by what are known as garnishee proceedings. A garnishee order mist may be made by a master of the bing’s bench on the application of the judgment creditor. It must

be supported by an affidavit in which the judgment creditor or his solicitor swears positively that there is a debt owing by the garnishee to the judgment debtor—a debitum in praesenti, which

may however be solvendum in futuro. Enormous sums of money

wre “garnisheed” in the course of the year to answer judgments from the king’s bench division. Stock and shares belonging to a judgment debtor may be charged by a charging order, so as, in the first instance, prevent transfer of the stock or payment of the dividends, and ultimately to enable the judgment creditor to

realize his charge.

A writ

of attachment

of the person

of a

defaulting debtor or party may be obtained in a variety of cases akin to contempt (¢.g., against a person failing to comply with an

order to answer interrogatories, or against a solicitor not entering an appearance in an action, in breach of his written undertaking to do so), and in the cases where imprisonment for debt is still

preserved by the Debtors Act 1869 (R.S.C., O. xliv.). Contempt of Court (g.v.) in its ordinary forms is also punishable by summary committal. Another form of execution analogous to the attachment

of a

debt is a charging order. This directs that any stock, funds or shares of a public company in England, standing in the name of a debtor in his own right or in the name of any person in his trust for him, shall stand charged with the payment of the judgment debt and interest. The charge cannot be enforced for six calendar

months after the order (O. 46, r. 1). Interpleader.—This in English law is the form of action by which a person who is sued at law by two or more parties claiming adversely to each other for the recovery of money or goods wherein he has no interest, obtains relief by procuring the rival claimants to try their rights between or among themselves only. Originally the only relief available to the possessor against such adverse claims was by means of a bill of interpleader in equity. The Interpleader Act 1831 enabled the defendant in such cases, on application to the court, to have the original action stayed and converted into a trial between the two claimants. The Common Law Procedure Act of 1860 further extended the power of the common law courts in interpleader; and the Judicature Act 1875 (repealed and re-enacted by the Judicature Act 1925) provides that the practice and procedure under these two statutes should apply to all divisions of the High Court of Justice. The Judicature Act also extended the remedy of interpleader to a debtor or other person liable in respect of a debt alleged to be assigned, when the assignment was disputed. In 1883 the Acts of 1831 and 1860 were embodied in the form of rules by the Rules of the Supreme Courts (1883), O. 47, by reference to which all questions of interpleader in the High Court of Justice are now determined. Interpleader is the equivalent of multiplepoinding in Scots law.

PROCEDURE

407

with a charge set against each entry and often against each letter written. Before the solicitor can recover from his client the amount of his charges, he must deliver a signed bill of costs and wait a month before suing. The High Court has a threefold jurisdiction to deal with

solicitors’ costs:—(1) by virtue of its jurisdiction over them as its officers; (2) statutory, under the Solicitors Act 1843 and other legislation; (3) ordinary, to ascertain the reasonableness of charges made the subject of a claim. The client can, as a matter of course, get an order for taxation within a month of the delivery of the solicitor’s bill, and either client or solicitor can get such an order as of course within 12 months of delivery. After expiry of that time the court may order taxation if the special circumstances call for it, and even so late as up to 12 months after actual payment. Costs as between solicitor and client are taxed in the same office as litigious costs, and objections to the decisions of the taxing officer, if properly made, can be taken for review to a judge of the High Court and to the court of appeal. The expenses of litigation fall in the first instance on the person who undertakes the proceedings or retains and employs the lawyer. It is in accordance with the ordinary ideas of justice that the expenses of the successful party to litigation should be defrayed by the unsuccessful party, a notion expressed in the phrase that “costs follow the event.” But there are many special circumstances which interfere to modify the application of this rule. The action, though successful, may be in its nature frivolous or vexatious, or it may have been brought in a higher court where a lower court would have been competent to deal with it. On the other hand the defendant, although he has escaped a judgment against him, may by his conduct have rendered the action necessary or otherwise justifiable. In such cases the rule that costs should follow the event would be felt to work an injustice,

and exceptions to its operation have therefore been devised. In the law of England the provisions as to litigious costs, though now simpler than of old, are still elaborate and complicated, and the costs themselves are on a higher scale than is known in most other countries. Except as regards appeals to the House of Lords and suits in equity, the right to recover costs from the opposite party in litigation has always depended on statute law or on rules made under statutory authority. “‘Costs are the creature of statute.”

The House of Lords has declared its competence to grant costs on appeals independently of statute. In the judicial committee of the privy council the power to award, in its discretion, costs on appeals from the colonies or other matters referred to it, is given by s. 15 of the Judicial Committee Act 1833; and the costs are taxed by the registrar of the council. The general rule now in force in the Supreme Court of Judicature is as follows:—‘‘Subject to the provisions of the Judicature Acts and the rules of the court made thereunder, and to the express provision of any statute whether passed before or after Costs.—When giving judgment in England, the judge usually Aug. 14, 1890, the costs of and incident to all proceedings in the deals with the costs of the action. The term “costs” denotes the Supreme Court, including the administration of estates and trusts, expenses incurred (1) in employing a lawyer in his professional shall be in the discretion of the court or judge, and the court or capacity for purposes other than litigation; (2) in instituting and judge shall have full power to determine by whom and to what carrying on litigation whether with or without the aid of a lawyer. extent such costs are to be paid. Provided (1) that nothing herein The retainer of a solicitor implies a contract to pay to him his contained shall deprive an executor, administrator, trustee or proper charges and disbursements with respect to the work done mortgagee who has not unreasonably carried on or resisted any byhim as a solicitor. In cases of conveyancing his remuneration proceedings of any right to costs out of a particular estate or ls now for the most part regulated by scales ad valorem on the fund to which he would be entitled under the rules hitherto (ze., Value of the property dealt with (Solicitors’ Remuneration Order before 1883) acted upon in the chancery division as successor 1882), and clients are free to make written agreements for the of the court of chancery; (2) that where an action, cause, matter conduct of any class of non-litigious business, fixing the costs by or issue is tried with a jury, the costs shall follow the event unless a percentage on the value of the amount involved. So far as liti- the judge who tried the case or the court shall for good cause gious business is concerned, the arrangement known as “no cure otherwise order.” (R.S.C., O. 65, r. 1.) The rule above stated applies to civil proceedings on the no pay” is objected to by the courts and the profession as leading to speculative actions, and stipulations as to a share of the pro- Crown side of the king’s bench division, including mandamus, ceeds of a successful action are champertous and illegal. An prohibition guo warranto, and certiorari (R. v. Woodhouse, 1906, English solicitor’s bill drawn in the old form is a voluminous 2 K.B. 502, 540); and to proceedings on the revenue side of that itemized narrative of every act done by him in the cause or matter division (O. 68, r. 1); but it does not apply to criminal proceedings

408

PRACTICE

AND

in the High Court, which are regulated by the Crown office rules of 1906, or by statutes dealing with particular breaches of the law, and as to procedure in taxing costs by O. 65, r. 27, of the Rules of the Supreme Court. The rule is also subject to specific provision empowering the courts to limit the costs to be adjudged against the unsuccessful party in proceedings in the High Court, which could and should have been instituted in a county court, e.g., actions of contract under £100 or actions of tort in which less than £10 is recovered,

unless the plaintiff, claiming a liquidated sum, has taken proceedings under O. 14 in the High Court, in which case he may get High Court costs if he recover over £20.

Costs of interlocutory proceedings in the course of a litigation are sometimes said to be “costs in the cause,” that is, they abide the results of the principal issue. A party succeeding in interlocutory proceedings, and paying the costs therein made “costs in the cause,” would recover the amount of such costs if he had a judgment for costs on the result of the whole trial, but not otherwise. But it is usual now not to tax the costs of interlocutory proceedings till after final judgment. When an order to pay the costs of litigation is made the costs are taxed in the central office of the High Court, unless the court when making the order fixes the amount to be paid (R.S.C., O. 65, r. 23). Recent changes in the organization for taxing have tended to create a uniformity of system and method which had long been needed. The taxation is effected, under an elaborate set of regulations, by reference to the prescribed scales, and on what is known as the lower scale, unless the court has specially ordered taxation on the higher scale (R.S.C., O. 65, rr. 8, 9, appendix N). In the taxation of litigious costs two methods are still adopted, known as “between party and party” and “between solicitor and client.” Unless a special order is made the first of the two methods is adopted. Until very recently “party and party” costs were found to be a very imperfect indemnity to the successful litigant; because many items which his solicitor would be entitled to charge against him for the purposes of the litigation were not recoverable from his unsuccessful opponent. The High Court can now, in exercise of the equitable jurisdiction derived from the court of chancery, make orders on the losing party to pay the costs of the winner as between solicitor and client.

These orders are not often made except in the chancery division. But even where party and party costs only are ordered to be paid under the present practice (dating from 1902), the taxing office allows against the unsuccessful party all costs, charges and expenses necessary or proper for the attainment of justice or defending the rights of the successful party, but not costs incurred through over-caution, negligence, or by paying special fees to counsel or special fees to witnesses or other persons, or by any other unusual expenses (R.S.C., O. 65, rr. 27, 29). This practice tends to give an approximate indemnity, while preventing oppression of the losing party by making him pay for lavish expenditure by his opponent. The taxation is subject to review by a judge on formal objections carried on, and an appeal lies to the Court of Appeal. See ADMIRALTY; APPEAL; ARBITRATION; EviDENCE; COUNTY

PROCEDURE

[UNITED STATE

structed a commission “to provide for the abolition of the present

forms of actions and pleadings in cases at common law; fora uniform course of proceeding in all cases whether of legal or equitable cognizance, and for the abandonment of all Latin and

other foreign tongues, so far as the same shall by them be deemeg

practicable, and of any form and proceeding not necessary to

ascertain or preserve the rights of the parties” (N.Y. Laws, 184

C. 59 § 8). During the following year, the commission reported 3 code which was adopted on April 12, 1848. This measure, which

has served as the model for other codes in the United States wae

largely the work of David Dudley Field, a member of the com. mission. It is often called the “Field Code.”

The chief characteristic and most fundamental part of the code is its single form of action for all cases. The distinctions of the common

law actions and of their forms were abolished: the

separation in procedure of equitable from legal relief was aban. doned. As a substitute, the codifiers planned a blended system of law and equity with only one form of action to be known as the

civil action. In effect, this is the same step taken in England a generation later in the Supreme Court of Judicature Act (1873). The full benefits of this reform have not been attained in all the States, for many courts considered the ancient forms of action to rest upon distinctions fundamental in the law. Furthermore.

some courts have taken a hostile attitude towards the attempted union of actions at law and suits in equity. Here the history and tradition of the separate systems of law and equity have proved strong obstacles to a complete amalgamation. It has therefore often been held that the theory of the action, whether legal or equitable, must be pointed out in the pleadings. In fact, however, the difference between law and equity actions to-day is chiefly in the remedy to be granted and this should not be an objection to the single action or the simpler forms of pleading. Perhaps the obstacle which has seemed greatest to the courts

in preventing a complete union of law and equity is the requirement common to the State Constitutions that the right of trial by jury shall remain inviolate. This is construed to mean a preservation of the jury trial right substantially as it was at the time of the original adoption of the Constitutions. In view of the historical practice of jury trials in courts of law, this means in effect that in modern substitutes for action at law, jury trial is a matter of right, while in equitable claims no such right exists. Many courts in protecting the constitutional right continue to force a division of all actions into “law actions” and “equity actions.” A more convenient rule and one more in keeping with

the code principle is followed in some States, where the question of the form of trial is not allowed to affect the pleading in advance of the trial. If an issue arises at the trial as to the existence of a

right to jury trial in either party, it is then determined by the nature of the issues developed in the pleadings in the light of the historical method of trying such issues. i

Another important characteristic of the code is its emphasis upon pleading facts, not conclusions of law or evidence. Faci pleading was to be substituted for the issue pleading of the common law. This part of the code reform has been comparatively unsuccessful, because no clear line of demarcation exists between statements of fact and statements of law. An additional change wrought by the code is the adoption of the equity principles af COURTS. (W. V. B.) greater freedom of joining parties and of rendering judgments m THE UNITED STATES part for or against the various parties, as the justice of the case The practice and procedure of the courts in the varous juris- may require (the split judgment of equity). In spite of the fact dictions of the United States is derived, in the main, from the that the code reform has not met with the same degree of success English common law system of court administration. But since in all the States, it seems in general to have been in accord wt each State or Territory and the Federal Government, in addition, the desires of the people for simpler judicial procedure. Moder has its own system of courts and its own procedure, a considerable plans for further reform are all in the direction of a greater diversity exists. In general, a reform of the common law pro- simplification of practice. The system inaugurated by the New York Code of 1848 has cedure has occurred in many ways similar to the English reforms of the roth century. The extent of the reform varies in the differ- been adopted in the following jurisdictions: Alaska (1900); At ent jurisdictions. The most important change is that of the so- zona (1864); Arkansas (1868); California (1850); Colorado called code reform of procedure inaugurated by the code of civil (1877); Connecticut (1879); Indiana (1852); Iowa (1851); procedure adopted in New York in 1848 and now in force in 30 Idaho (1864); Kansas (1859); Kentucky (1851); Minnesota (1851); Missouri (1849); Montana (1865); Nebraska (1855 American jurisdictions. The Code Reform.—In 1847 the New York legislature in- Nevada (1860); New Mexico (1897); New York (1848); Nort

(NITED STATES]

PRACTICE

AND

Carolina (1868); North Dakota (1862); Ohio (1853); Oklahoma

(1890); Oregon (1854); Porto Rico (1904); South Carolina (870); South Dakota (1862); Utah (1870); Washington

(1854); Wyoming (1869); Wisconsin (1856); a total of 28 States

and two Territories.

Of the above States four—Arkansas, Iowa, Kentucky and Oregon—still retain a formal distinction between

actions at law and suits in equity, although both are heard in the

me court and by the same judge or judges, The code was

adopted in Florida in the reconstruction days following the Civil

War, but on restoration of the former Government it was supplanted by a modified common-law system. This is the only case Where code pleading, once adopted, has heen repudiated.

The non-code States are generally classified as common-law States and as “quasi code” or “quasi common law” States according to their nearness of resemblance to the common-law system or to the code system. But in no jurisdiction is the common-law system in force in its entirety. All the States have made some approach to the code principles. In the non-code States in general, the formal distinctions between law and equity actions are

maintained, although considerably broken down, especially by the presence of statutes allowing “equitable defences” in actions at law. Often, in these States some distinctions between the forms of action are maintained, as between tort and contract; but even here the minute distinctions of the common law as between trespass and trespass on the case have been abolished.+ The foallow-

ing may be treated as the “quasi code” or “quasi common-law”

States: Massachusetts, Mississippi, Alabama, Maryland, Tennessee, Georgia, Texas and Michigan. The following may he treated as common-law States: Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida,

Illinois, Maine, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Vermont, Virginia and West Virginia, In New Jersey where the

equity and law courts are entirely distinct, a practice act was

adopted in 1912 for the law courts, which was an advanced system

based on the English practice (N.J. Laws, 1912, p. 377). This act has had a, salutory effect on a recent New York revision of the

code (1920). The code of practice in Louisiana is based upon the civil law of that State. Federal Procedure.—-In the Federal courts, jurisdiction at law and in equity, though administered by the same court, has not been blended, partly because of a belief that under the Federal Constitution the separation of the two systems is necessary, This belief, in the light of the decisions, does not seem well founded. A statute passed in rors allows equitable defences in actions at law, and to some extent lessens the difficulties due to the divided system. A uniform simplified procedure in equity for the Federal courts throughout the country has been established under statutes which enact that “the forms and modes of proceeding in suits of equity and of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction in the district courts shall be according to the principles, rules and usages which belong

PROCEDURE § 914 [28 U.S.C.A. § 724; U.S. Comp. St. § 1537]

409 [not appli-

cable to the circuit courts of appeal or to the U.S. Supreme Court]; Camp v. Gress, 250 U.S. 308, 39 Sup. Ct. 478, 1919), The question when conformity is to be had presents a difficult problem. As the Federal courts constitute an entirely independent judiciary system, there can be no conformity in conflict with positive Federal legislation; in any event, the conformity is only “as near as

may be.” Another difficulty is the lack of a unified practice for

all the Federal courts as in Federal equity procedure, In attempting to apply all the differing rules followed in the various States, the conformity practice has served to emphasize the discord. To remedy the situation the American Bar Association has urged the passage of an act by Congress establishing a uniform system of

Federal practice in law and equity under rules made by the Supreme Court, similar to the procedure adopted in 1912 as to equity.” Revisions and Future Pleading Reform.—General revisions of the code have been infrequent, In New York, however, prior to 1920 some changes were made resulting in an increase of the bulk of the code. In 1920 the New York Civil Practice Act was adopted, incorporating certain provisions, such as those for joinder of parties, from the English practice, but retaining many of the undesirable features of the old procedure (N.Y. Laws, 1920, C. 925). While the Practice Act materially reduced the

bulk of the code, it continued the policy of legislative control of the details of practice. Authorities generally agree that procedural

law requires constant revision and that a fundamental step in procedural reform is the placing of power in the judges to make and alter rules of practice, as under the English system.’ This should be accompanied by a centralized system of court administration with the chief justice or other official as directing execu-

tive head. Among desirable incidental reforms of practice may be noted freer joinder of parties and of claims in a single action, greater facility in waiving jury trial, as by failure of a party affrmatively to claim it, pleading in the alternative, clearer provisions as to when jury trial may be had, abolishment of the demurrer, freer amendment of pleadings, procedure for entering judgments summarily in the absence of a bona fide defence (the summary judgment) and procedure for declaring the rights of the parties even though no wrong has actually been committed

(the declaratory judgment). The Function of Pleading.—In pleadings under the code.

emphasis was originally placed upon stating the facts rather than conclusions of law on the one hand or mere evidence on the other. It has been urged that this system of fact pleading should now give way to a plan of notice pleading, a very brief statement designed merely to give notice of the plaintiff’s claim to the oppo-

nent and to the court (C. B, Whittier, “Notice Pleading,” 31 Harv. L. Rev. 501). Notice pleading differs from fact pleading in the main in the degree of generality of statement permitted, to courts of equity and of admiralty respectively,” and which also Thus, instead of describing the particulars of an accident, only the authorizes the U.S. Supreme Court to establish rules of practice. time and fact of the accident are alleged. While brevity to this US. Rev. St. § 913 (28 U.S.C.A. § 723 [U.S. Comp, St. extent is not generally followed in courts of general jurisdiction in

§1536]); U.S. Rev. St, § 917 (28 U.S.C.A. § 730 [U.S. Comp. St. §1543]).

In zor2, by use of this rule-making power

the

Court succeeded in greatly simplifying the equity practice of the lower Federal courts.

On the law side of the Federal courts, difficulties arise because the controlling “Conformity Act” (originally passed in 1872) provides that “the practice, pleadings, and forms and modes of proceeding in civil causes, other than equity and admiralty causes, in the (federal) district courts shall conform as near as may be,to the practice, pleadings and forms and modes of proceeding existing at the time in like causes in courts of record of the

state within which such district courts are held” (U.S. Rev. St. This is true even in Illinois, whose “pleading and practice are not only derived from the common-law system, but they are in fact that

‘ystem, medified, however, by some legislation, which still leaves

em the nearest approach to the English law of procedure, as it

existed before the passage of the Judicature acts, now remaining anywhere in the world” (35 N.Y. State Bar Assn. Rep. 859). Some States provide merely for the joining of counts in trespass and case (Ala. Code, 1907, § 5,320; RI. Gen. Laws, 1923, § 4,874).

the United States, the modern tendency is to place increasing emphasis upon the notice function of all pleadings. This is desirable not only because of the great difficulty in distinguishing facts from law and evidence, but because it comports more with modern ideas of the place of pleading in the judicial system. The legal profession to-day recognizes to an increasingly greater

degree that pleading is not an end in itself but only a means to an end, and that end the administration of justice between litigants. The office of pleading and practice is only as an aid in bringing out the substantive legal relations of the parties. Course of Proceedings in a Legal Action.—Notice to the defendant at the institution of suit and an opportunity to present

his side of the case are essential to the American, as to any system of justice. In many of the States (some of which have 2¥or the history of the movement and copy of the bill see Rep. of Committee on Uniform Judicial Procedure of Am, Bar Assn., 5 AB.A.J. 468 (1919) ; 6 ibid., 509 (1920) ; 48 ABA. Rep. 343 (1923); and later reports of the Association to date. ao authorities collected in Clark, Code Pleading, 33, note 103 (1928).

AIO

PRADIER—PRAEFECT

adopted the code procedure), the traditional practice of issuing a writ in the name of the State directing the sheriff to make the summons is followed. In others, however, the writ of the sovereign is supplanted by a simple written summons to appear, signed by the plaintiff or his attorney and served upon the defendant by anyone not a party—usually by a clerk in the office of the plaintiff’s attormey. Even in these jurisdictions, when the plaintiff claims some extraordinary or provisional remedy, such as attachment of the defendant’s property, arrest of the defendant or an injunction, notice is given in the form of a court order served by some public officer, such as the sheriff. It is necessary that proper service of the summons be had, for unless the defendant is legally

notified of the action, no jurisdiction is acquired over his person. Moreover, unless the action is brought to diction over the subject matter does not pleadings, the first step being the filing complaint or petition (the declaration or

the proper court, jurisexist. Next come the

by the plaintiff of his count of the common law). This contains the names of the parties and the court, a statement of the facts constituting the plaintiff’s cause of action and a demand for the judgment to which he thinks himself entitled. The complaint is served upon the defendant with the summons or after the parties are in court or else is supplied to the defendant by the court clerk. If the defendant desires to defend, his first move is to enter an appearance which may be done, without his presence in court, by a written notice of appearance by his attorney, or by filing an answer to the complaint. By demurring, the defendant may question the legal sufficiency of the complaint. But if the demurrer is abolished as in New Jersey and New York, he moves for judgment and thus raises the same issue. In the defendant’s answer he may deny the plaintiff’s allegations or he may admit them and allege new matter in his defence or as a basis for a counterclaim against the plaintiff. To this the plaintiff under most codes may file a reply (corresponding to the common-law replication) and at this stage the pleadings are generally required by the statute to come to an end. Thereafter follows the actual trial with the production of evidence by the parties, followed by the verdict, if a jury is present, and judgment. If the defeated party so desires he may then take an appeal to some appellate tribunal. (See APPEAL: In the

United States.) When the judgment is finally effective, extensive proceedings are available to secure its enforcement.

Criminal Procedure.—Here again the English practice is the source. Indictment by a grand jury is still an essential step in a criminal prosecution in many jurisdictions for capital and many

other serious crimes. This body varies in number in the different jurisdictions but usually consists of not less than 12 and not more than 23 persons, at least 12 of whom must concur in presenting an indictment. It may act upon its own knowledge, upon an information of the prosecutor or upon a complaint made under oath by a private person before a committing magistrate. The indictment, which is usually prepared beforehand by the prosecutor and given to the grand jury for its consideration, serves as the prosecution’s complaint at the trial. A number of technical rules apply to the indictment, making criminal procedure very rigid. Thus in many jurisdictions unless the indictment describe the offence with great particularity, including its time and place of occurrence and the accused’s name, it may be quashed. Such technicalities are a relic of ancient common-law times when the accused was favoured because of the serious penalties imposed for minor offences. But as the reason for these rules is now gone, authorities to-day advocate a procedure requiring only that reasonable notice of the ground of complaint be given the accused. In a considerable number of States an information by the prosecutor has been substituted for the indictment by the grand jury. An information suffices in the Federal courts except in offences punishable by more than one year’s imprisonment. Trial by jury is usually a constitutional guarantee except in minor offences. But in Maryland and Connecticut the accused may elect a trial to the court if he so chooses. The American Law Institute, an organization of judges, lawyers and law teachers with headquarters in Philadelphia, Pa.. is now engaged as a part of its activities in preparing a model code of criminal procedure. Its first tentative

draft, dated April 9, 1928, indicates that a noteworthy attempt is being made by it to simplify the administration of the crimina] law. BIBLIOCRAPHY.—C. M. Hepburn, Development of Code Pleading ($

Paul, 1897) ; Charles E. Clark, Code Pleading (St. Paul, 1928). 1

Pomeroy, Code Remedies (sth ed., Boston, 192q) ; J. M. Kerr, Pleagin

and Practice in the Western States (San Francisco, 1919) ; W. A. Suth erland, Code Pleading (San Francisco, 1910) ; Bancroft, Code Pleading in the Western States (San Francisco, 1926) and Code Practice ang Remedies (San Francisco, 1927); W. L. Clark, Criminal Procedur,

(St. Paul, 1895) ; First Tentative Draft, Code of Criminal Procedur

with Commentaries, by W. E. Mikell, E. R. Keedy, reporters, Americar

Law Institute (Philadelphia, 1928) ; J. H. Beale, Criminal Pleading an; Practice (Boston, 1899); F. arton, Criminal Procedure, toth ed (San Francisco, 1918); Encyclopedia of Pleading and Practice (Northport, 1895-1902). (C. E. Cr)

PRADIER,

JAMES

(1792-1852),

French sculptor, was

born at Geneva. He was a member of the French Academy, and} popular sculptor of the pre-Romantic period, representing in France the drawing-room classicism which Canova illustrated g Rome. His chief works are the Niobe group (1822), “Atalanta” (1850), “Psyche”? (1824), “Sappho” (1852) (all in the Louvre:, “Prometheus” (Tuileries Gardens), a bas-relief on the triumphal arch of the Carrousel, the figures of “Fame” on the Arc d l'Etoile, and a statue of J. J. Rousseau for Geneva. Beside the above noted works mention should be made of his “Three Graces”

(1821). PRADILLA, FRANCISCO (1848~1921), Spanish painter, was born at Villanueva da Gallago (Saragossa). He studied frst at the Fernando academy, and then at the Spanish academy in Rome, of which he was afterwards director, leading historical painter of modern Spain. In pointed director of the Madrid museum. Though for such large historical compositions as “Joan

and became the 1896 he was ap. he is best known the Mad” (gold

medal, Paris, 1878), and “The Surrender of Granada” (gold medal, Munich, 1883), in which he discarded the heavy colouring of Laurens for a lighter and more atmospheric key, he has painted many excellent genre pictures in the manner of Fortuny. and some decorative compositions in which he follows the example of Tiepolo. The best of these are his decorations in the Murgo Palace in Madrid. Among his best known works are “Elopement,” “Strand at Vigo,” “Procession in Venice,” “La Fiorella,” “Reading on the Balcony,” “Don Alfonso the Warrior.”

and “Don Alfonso the Scholar.” He became member of the Berlin academy and died in Madrid on Oct. 30, 1921. PRAED, WINTHROP MACKWORTH (1802-1839) English poet, was born in London on July 26, 1802, son of William Mackworth Praed, serjeant-at-law. His mother belonged to the New England family of Winthrop. At Eton Praed founded a ms. periodical Apis matina, which was followed by The Etonian (1820-21). After a brilliant career at Trinity college, Cambridge. he joined the Middle Temple, was called to the bar in 1829, and went to the Norfolk circuit. He entered parliament in 1830, and was a member of the short Peel administration in 1834. He died on July 15, 1839, in London.

Praed’s lighter poetry was the perfection of ease, Austin Dobson has justly praised his “sparkling wit, the clearness and finish of his style, and the flexibility and unflagging vivacity of his rhythm” (Ward’s English Poets). It abounded in happy allusions to the characters and follies of the day. His humorous verse found numerous imitators. His poems were first edited by R. W. Griswold (New York, 1844); another American

edition, by W. A. Whitmore,

appeared in 1859;

an authorized edition with a memoir by Derwent Coleridge appeared in 1864; The Political and Occasional Poems of W. M. Praed (1888).

PRAEFECT, the title of various Roman officials, civil and military (praefectus). A praefect was not a magistrate proper: he was the deputy of a superior magistrate.

City Praefect.—The city praefect (praefectus urbis) acted at Rome as the deputy of the chief magistrate or magistrates during his or their absence from the city. He represented the

consul or consuls when he or they were absent on a campaign of

on other public duties, such as the celebration of the annual Latin festival on the Alban Mount. The absence of all the chief

PRAEMUNIRE—PRAENESTE magistrates for more than a single day rendered the appointment of a praefect obligatory; after the institution of the praetorship (367 p.c.) the necessity only arose exceptionally, as it rarely happened that both the consuls and the praetor were absent simultaneously. But a praefect was appointed during the enforced absence of all the higher magistrates at the Latin festival. The right of appointing a praefect belonged to the magistrate whose deputy he was. No formalities in the appointment and no legal qualifications on the part of the praefect were

required. The praefect had all the powers of the magistrate whose deputy he was, but his office expired on the return of his uperior.

411

of the principal duties of this force was that of serving as a fire brigade. The praefectus vigilum besides commanding the cohortes vigilum exercised criminal jurisdiction in cases of incendiarism and offences committed during the night. BreriocRaPpHy.—The

different

praefects

are

fully

discussed

in

Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht (1887), vols. II., III.; see also T. M. Taylor, Constitutional and Political History of Rome (1899); A. H. J. Greenidge, Roman Public Life (1901); J. E. Sandys, Companion to Latin Studies (1921). For the French préfet see PREFECT.

PRAEMUNIRE, in English law an offence so called from the

introductory words of the writ of summons issued to the defendant to answer the charge, ‘‘Praemunire facias A.B.,” etc., 2¢., i Minder the empire a new city prefecture was introduced. Au- “cause A.B. to be forewarned.” From this the word came to be gustus occasionally appointed a city praefect to represent him in used to denote the offences, usually ecclesiastical, prosecuted by means of such a writ, and also the penalties they incurred. From his absence from Italy, although the praetors, or even consuls, remained in the capital. In the absence of Tiberius at Capreae the beginning of the 14th century papal aggression had been particularly active, more especially in two forms. The one, the during the last 11 years of his reign (A.D. 26-37), the city predisposal of ecclesiastical benefices, before the same became magistracy; permanent a became fecture, hitherto temporary, henceforth the praefect held office even during the presence of vacant, to men of the pope’s own choosing; the other, the encouragement of resort to himself and his curia rather than to the courts the emperor in Rome. He was chosen by the emperor; his office of the country. The Statute of Provisors (1306), passed in the allowed not was praefect might be held for years or for life. The to quit the city for more than a day at a time. His duty was the reign of Edward I., was, according to Coke, the foundation of all preservation of peace in the capital; he was, in fact, the chief subsequent statutes of praemunire. This statute enacted “that no of the police, with the superintendence of the streets, markets tax imposed by any religious persons should be sent out of the country whether under the name of rent, tallage, tribute or any and public buildings. He was entrusted by Augustus with a of imposition.” A much greater check on the freedom of kind summary criminal jurisdiction over slaves and rioters, which was gradually extended until it embraced all offences by whomsoever action of the popes was imposed by the Statute of Provisors committed. In the 3rd century a.D., appeals to the emperor in (1350-51) and the Statute of Praemunire passed in the reign of civil cases were handed over to the praefect. An appeal lay from Edward III. The former ordained the free election of all dignithe praefect to the emperor. The praefect commanded the city ties and benefices elective in the manner as they were granted by cohorts (cohortes urbanae), which formed part of the garrison the king’s progenitors. The Statute of Praemunire (the first statof Rome and ranked above the line regiments, though below the ute so called), 1353, enacts “that all the people of the king’s ligeguards (see PRAETORIANS). The military power thus placed in ance of what condition that they be, which shall draw any out of the hands of the chief of the police was one of the most sorely- the realm in plea” or any matter of which the cognizance properly felt innovations of the empire. The changes of Diocletian and belongs to the king’s court shall be allowed two months in which Constantine extended the power of the praefect, in whom, after to answer for their contempt of the king’s rights in transferring the removal from Rome of the highest officials, the whole mili- their pleas abroad. Many other statutes followed that of 1353, but that passed in the 16th year of Richard IT.’s reign is usually tary, administrative and judicial powers were centred. Judicial Praefects.——Under the republic judicial praefects referred to as the Statute of Praemunire. The Royal Marriages (praefecti iuri dicendo) were sent annually from Rome as depu- Act, 1772, is the last which subjects anyone to the penalties of a ties of the praetors to administer justice in certain towns of the praemunire. A peer charged with praemunire is not entitled to Italian allies. These towns were called prefectures (praefec- trial by his peers, but is to be tried by a jury. The most famous turae). After the social war (90-89 B.c.), when all Italy had historical instance of a prosecution of the Statute of Praemunire received the Roman franchise, such prefectures ceased to exist. was that of Cardinal Wolsey in 1520. See E. Coke, Institutes (1628, etc.); J. Reeves, History of English Praetorian Praefects.—Under the empire the praetorians or Law (1783-84) ; H. Hallam, Middle Ages (1818) ; T. E. Tomlin, Law imperial guards were commanded by praefects (praefecti prae- Dictionary (1838); H. J. Stephen, Commentaries on the Laws of torio), who were chosen by the emperor and held office at his England (1841-45) ; W. Stubbs, Constitutional History (1866); J. pleasure. In course of time the command seems to have been F. Stephen, History of Criminal Law of England (1883). enlarged so as to include all the troops in Italy except the corps PRAENESTE (mod. Palestrina), a very ancient city of commanded by the city praefect (cohortes urbanae). Further, Latium, lies 23 m. E. of Rome by the Via Praenestina (see below), the praetorian praefect acquired a criminal jurisdiction which he on a spur of the Apennines facing the Alban hills. To the natural exercised as the representative of the emperor. A similar juris- strength of the place and its commanding situation Praeneste diction in civil cases was acquired by him not later than the owed in large measure its historical importance. Objects in metal time of Severus. Hence a knowledge of law became a qualifica- and ivory discovered in the earliest graves prove that as early tion for the post, which was held by the first jurists of the age as the 8th or 7th century B.C. Praeneste had reached a consider(e.g., Papinian), while the military qualification fell into the able degree of civilization and stood in commercial relations not background. Under Constantine the institution of the magistri only with Etruria but with the East. In 499 B.C., according to militum deprived the praetorian prefecture of its military char- Livy, it formed an alliance with Rome. After Rome had been acter, but left it the highest civil office of the empire. weakened by the Gallic invasion (390) Praeneste joined in a long Various Other Praefects.—The title of “praefect” was struggle with Rome which culminated in the great Latin War borne by various other Roman officials, of whom we may men(340-338), in which the Romans were victorious, and Praeneste

tion the following :— (1) Praefectus Aegypti (afterwards Praefectus augustalis).— The government of Egypt was entrusted to a viceroy with the title of “praefect”? and was surrounded by royal pomp instead

of the usual insignia of a Roman magistrate. He was under the Immediate orders of the emperor.

The exceptional position thus

accorded to Egypt was due to its peculiar character and status as Ea domain and to its very high importance as the granary ome. | (2) Praefectus Vigilum, the commander of the cohortes vigium, a night police force instituted by Augustus (ap. 6). Onc

was punished by the loss of part of its territory. It continued in the position of a city in alliance with Rome down to the Social War, when it received the Roman franchise.

As an allied city it furnished contingents to the Roman army and possessed the right of exile (fus exilii), i.e., persons banished from Rome were allowed to reside at Praeneste. The nuts of Praeneste were famous and its roses were amongst the finest in Italy. The Latin spoken at Praeneste was somewhat peculiar, and was ridiculed by the Romans, e.g., by Plautus. In the civil wars the younger Marius was blockaded in the town by the Sullans (82 3.c.); and on its capture Marius slew himself, the

412

PRAENESTINA—PRAETOR

male inhabitants were massacred in cold blood, and a military colony was settled on part of its territory, while the city was removed from the hill-side to the lower ground at the Madonna dell’ Aquila, and the temple of Fortune enlarged so as to include the space occupied by the older city. Under the empire Praeneste, from its elevated situation and cool salubrious air, became a favourite summer resort of the wealthy Romans, whose villas studded the neighbourhood. Horace ranked it with Tibur and Baiae, though as a fact it never became so fashionable a resi-

praetors; by the Licinian law of 367 B.c,, created who was to be a colleague of the lesser powers, This new magistrate was jurisdiction in civil cases; in other respects those of the consuls. His title was the

a new magistrate was consuls, though with entrusted with the his powers resembled city praetor (praetor

urbanus), and when the number of praetors wąs increased the

city praetor always ranked first. To this new magistrate the title

dence as Tibur or the Alban hills. Still, Augustus resorted thither;

of “praetor” was thenceforward restricted. About 242 B.C. the increase of a foreign population in Rome necessitated the cre. ation of a second praetor for the decision of suits between foreign.

But Praeneste was chiefly famed for its great temple of For-

the provinces of Sicily and Sardinia. The conquest of Spain occasioned the appointment of twọ more in 197. The number of

here Tiberius recovered from a dangerous illness, and here Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius had villas. Amongst private owners were Pliny the younger and Symmachus, tune and for its oracle, in connection with the temple, known as

the “Praenestine lots” (sortes praenestinae). The oldest portion of the sanctuary was, however, that situated on the lowest

terrace but one. Here is a grotto in the natural roçk, containing a beautiful coloured mosaic pavement, representing a sea-scene— a temple of Poseidon on the shore, with various fish swimming in the sea. To the east of this was a basilica in two storeys. As extended by Sulla the sanctuary of Fortune occupied a series of five vast terraces, which, resting on gigantic substructions of masonry and connected with each other by grand staircases, rose one above the other on the hill in the form of the side of a pyramid, crowned on the highest terrace by the small round temple of Fortune. This immense complex, probably by far the largest sanctuary in Italy, must have presented a most imposing aspect, visible as it was from a great part of Latium, from Rome,

and even from the sea. The modern town of Palestrina, a collection of narrow alleys, stands on the terraces once occupied by the temple of Fortune. On the summit of the hill (2,471 ft.), nearly a mile from the town, stood the ancient citadel, the site of which is now occupied by a few poor houses (Castel San Pietro) and a ruined mediaeval castle of the Colonna. Considerable portions of the southern wall of the ancient citadel, built in very massive Cyclopean masonry of blocks of limestone, are still to be seen; and the two walls, also polygonal, which formerly united the citadel with the town, can still be traced. The calendar set up by the grammarian M. Verrius Flaccus in the forum of Praeneste was discovered in 1771. Excavations made in the ancient necropolis, which lay on a plateau surrounded by valleys at the foot of the bill, haye yielded important results for the history of the art and manufactures of Prae-

neste. The famous Ficoroni casket, engraved with pictures of the arrival of the Argonauts in Bithynia and the victory of Pollux over Amycus, was found in 1738. Most of the objects discovered in the necropolis are preserved in the Roman colleçtions, especially in the Villa Giulia, the Museo Pigorini (Collegio Romano) and the Vatican.

ers (peregrini) ar between citizens and foreigners (praetor peregrinus). About 227 two more praetors were added to administer

praetors remained stationary until Sulla’s time (82 B.c.). But in the interval their duties multiplied,

On the one hand, five new

provinces were added to the Roman dominions; on the other new and permanent jury courts (quaestiones perpetuae) were insti. tuted at Rome, over which the praetors were called on-to preside, To meet this increase of business the tenure

of office of the

praetors and also of the consuls was practically prolonged from one to two years, with the distinction that in their second year of office they bore the titles of propraetor and proconsul instead of praetor and consul. The prolongation of office formed the basis of Sulla’s arrangements, He increased the number of the praetors

from six to eight, and ordained that henceforward all the eight should in their first year administer justice at Rome and in their second should as propraetors undertake the government of proyinces. The courts over which the praetors presided, in addition to those of the city praetor and the foreign praetor, dealt with the following offences: oppression of the provincials by governors (repetundarum), bribery (ambitus), embezzlement (pecu-

latus), treason (maiestatis), murder (de sicartis et ueneficis), and forgery (falsi). Later, more provinces were added and more courts constituted, including that of Gallia Cisalpina. Tulius Caesar increased the number of praetors. The praetors were elected, like the consuls by the comitia centuriata (see ComitIA) and with the same formalities. They held office for a year, The insignia of the praetor were those of the higher Roman magistrates—the purple-edged robe (toga praetexta) and the ivory chair (sella curulis); in Rome he was attended by two lictors, in the provinces by six. The praetors elect cast lots to determine the department, which each of them should administer. A praẹętor as a civj} judge at or þefare his entry on office published an edict setting forth the rules and law procedure by which he intended to be guided, These rules were often accepted by his successors, and corrected and amplified from year

to year, became, under the title of the “perpetual” edicts, one of the most important factors in moulding Roman law, Their tendency was to smooth away the anomalies of the civil law by See E. Fernique, Préneste (Bibliothèque des Écoles Françaises, fasc. substituting rules of equity for the letter of the law. 17, 1880) ; Corp. inscr. etrusc. vol. ii.; R. S. Conway, Italic Dialects, i. Under the Empire.—Under the empire various special func-

311 seq. (1897); T. Ashby in Papers of tke British Schaol at Rome, i. 132 seq.; H. C. Bradshaw, ibid. ix. 257 seg., R. Delbrück, Hellenistische Bauten in Latium, p. 47 seg. (1907); R. van Deman Magoffin, Topography and Municipal History of Praeneste (Johns Hopkins University Studies, xxvi. 9, 10; Baltimore, 1908) ; D. Randall-Maclver, Iron Age in Italy (1927). (J. G. Fr.; R. S. Co.; T. A.)

tions were assigned to certain praetors, such as the two treasury praetors (praetores aerarii), appointed by Augustus in 23 B.C; the ward praetor (praetor tutelaris), appointed by Marcus Aureli-

PRAENESTINA, VIA, an ancient road of Italy, leading from Rome east by south to Praeneste, a distance of 23 m.,

liberation of slayes. Qf the praetorships with special jurisdiction (especially the ward praetorship and the liberation praetor-

Gabii being situated almost exactly half-way. At the ninth mile the road crosses a ravine by the well-preserved and lofty Ponte

di Nona, with seven arches, the finest ancient bridge in the neighbaurhood of Rome. In the stretch, for a few miles beyond Gabii it is now only used as a track, and well preserved. See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, i. 149 sqq.

PRAESEPE, a loose star-cluster in the constellation Cancer having a ““bee-hive” shape, It is a favourite object for telescopes

of low power. PRAETOR,

originally a military title (a leader; Lat. prae

» » + We), was the designation of the highest magistrates in the Latin towns. Under the republic the Roman consuls were at first called

us to deal with the affairs of minors; and the liberation praetor (praetor de liberalibus causis), who tried cases turning on the ship) some lasted into the 4th century and were copied in the constitution of Constantinople.

Besides their judicial functions, the praetors as colleagues of

the consuls, possessed the cqnsylar powers, which they exercised

in the absence of the consuls; but in the presence of a consul

they exercised them only at the command either of the consul or the senate.

INCE.)

(For the praetor as provincial governor see Prov-

BIBLIOGRAPEY.—A full account of the praetorship will be found in Mommsen, Römisches staatsrecht (1887); T. M. Taylors Consttutional useful. Sandys, Raman

and Political History of Rome (1899) will also be foun See also A. H. J. Greenidge, Roman Public Life (190%); J. F. Companion to Latin Studies (1921); W. E. Heitland, T he Republic (1923),

PRAETORIANS—PRAGMATISM PRAETORIANS.

In theearly Roman republic, praetor (q.v.)

r were meant commander of the army: later praetor and propraetopowers. military with governors the usual titles for provincial

be called accordingly, the general’s quarters in a camp came to

praetorium, and one of the gates porta praetoria, and the general’s bodyguard cohors praetoria. Under the empire cohortes praetoriae

formed the imperial bodyguard.

This, as founded by Augustus,

which consisted of nine cohorts, each 1,000 strong, some part of

was always with the emperor, whether in Rome or elsewhere. in Tiberius concentrated this force on the eastern edge of Rome fortified barracks.

The men were recruited voluntarily, in Italy

or Italianized districts, and enjoyed better pay and shorter service than the regular army; they were commanded by praefecti praea jorio. This force was the only body of troops in Rome (save few cohortes urbanae and some non-Roman personal guards of ly the emperor), Or, indeed, anywhere near the capital. According accession of it could make or unmake emperors in crises—at the

Claudius in A.D. 41, in 68-69, and again late in the second century. See J. E. Sandys, Companion to Latin Studies (1921).

PRAETORIUS, MICHAEL

(r 571-1621), German musical

Thurhistorian, theorist and composer, was born at Kreuzberg, , Schultze Michael was name father’s His 1571. 15, Feb. on ingia,

and the name was latinized as Praetorius. He studied philosophy

at Frankfort-on-Oder, and on the death of his brother, on whose support he relied, he was given a post as organist in the town. He

was organist and later kapellmeister and secretary to the duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, and was rewarded for his services with

the priory of Ringelheim, near Goslar. He died at Wolfenbiittel

physics.

4.13

It arises from a general awakening to the fact that the

growth of our psychological and biological knowledge must profoundly transform the traditional epistemology. It follows that “pragmatic” lines of thought may originate from a multiplicity of considerations and in a variety of contexts. These, however, may be conveniently classified under four main heads—psychological, logical, ethical and religious—and the history of the subject shows that all these have contributed to the development of pragmatism. 1. Psychologically, pragmatism starts from the efficacy and allpervasiveness of mental activity, and points out that interest, attention, selection, purpose, bias, desire, emotion, satisfaction, etc., colour and control all our cognitive processes. It insists that all thought is personal and purposive and that “pure” thought is a figment. A judgment which is not prompted by motives and inspired by interest, which has not for its aim the satisfaction of a cognitive purpose, is psychologically impossible, and it is, therefore, mistaken to construct a logic which abstracts from all these facts. Nor is the presence of such non-intellectual factors in thinking necessarily deleterious: at.any rate they are ineradicable. 2. In its logical aspect pragmatism originates in a criticism of fundamental conceptions like “truth,” “error,” “fact” and “reality,” the current accounts of which it finds untenable or unmeaning. “Truth,” for example, cannot be defined as the agreement or correspondence of thought with “reality,” for how can thought determine whether it correctly “copies” what transcends it? Nor can our truth be a copy of a transcendent and absolute truth (Dewey). If it be asked, therefore, what such phrases mean, it is found that their meaning is really defined by their use. The real difference between two conceptions lies in their application, in the different consequences for the purposes of life which their acceptance carries. When no such “practical” difference can be found, conceptions are identical; when they will not “work,” i.e., when they thwart the purpose which demanded them, they are false; when

on Feb. 1g, 1621. The most important of his compositions are: Polyhymnia (15 vols.), Musae Sioniae (16 vols.), and Musa donia (g vols.), all written partly to Latin and partly to German words. But more precious than all these is the Syntagma musicum (3 vols. and a cahier of plates. 4to, Wittenberg and Wolfenbiittel, they are inapplicable they are unmeaning (A. Sidgwick). Hence the “principle of Peirce” may be formulated as being that “every 1615-20). For a full description of the work see Grove’s Dictionary of truth has practical consequences, and these are the test of its Music (3rd ed., 1927). truth.” It is clear that this (1) implicitly considers truth as a PRAETUTTII, also called IMparerrioi, a tribe of ancient value, and so connects it with the conception of good, and (2) Italy inhabiting the south of Picenum (g.v.). Their territory lay openly raises the question—What is truth, and how is it to be between the rivers Vomanum and Tessinnus (Pliny iii. §110), distinguished from error? This accordingly becomes the central and therefore included Castrum Novum, Interamnia and the problem of pragmatism. This same issue also arises independently out of the breakdown of rationalistic theories of knowledge (F. H. Truentus, as well as probably the original of Hadria.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION, originally a term of the later

Bradley, H. H. Joachim).

Logical analysis, after assuming that

Roman law, is found in the Theodosian and Justinian codes (Lat. truth is independent and not of our making, has to confess that pragmatica sanctio, from the Gr. mp@yua, business). It was a all logical operations involve an apparently arbitrary interference decision of the state dealing with some interest greater than a with their data (Bradley). 3. The ethical affinities of pragmatism spring from the percepquestion in dispute between private persons, and was given for some community (universitas hominum) and for a public cause. tion that all knowing is referred to a purpose. This at once renders In more recent times it was adopted by those countries which it “useful,” ie., a means to an end or “good.” Completely “usefollowed the Roman law, and in particular by despotically gov- less” knowledge becomes impossible, though the uses of knowledge emed countries, to signify an expression of the will of the sov- may still vary greatly in character, in directness, and in the extent ereign defining the limits of his own power or regulating the and force of their appeal to different minds. This relation to a succession. Justinian regulated the government of Italy by “good” must not, however, be construed as a doctrine of ethics in pragmatic sanctions after it had been reconquered from the the narrower sense; nor is its “utilitarianism” to be confused with Ostrogoths. In after ages the king of France, Charles VIL, im- the hedonism of the British associationists. “Useful” means “good posed limits on the claims of the popes to exercise jurisdiction for an (any) end,” and the “good” which the “true” claims must in his dominions by the pragmatic sanction of Bourges in 1438. be understood as cognitive. But cognitive “good” and moral The emperor Charles VI. settled the law of succession for the “good” are brought into close connection, as species of teleological dominions of the house of Habsburg by pragmatic sanction that “wood” and contributory to “the Good.” Thus only the generic, was first published on April 19, 1713 (see Austria). Philip V., not the specific, difference between them is abolished. The “true” the first of the Bourbon kings of Spain, introduced the Salic law becomes a sort of value, like the beautiful and the (moral) good. object of the “true,” and can be by a pragmatic sanction, and his descendant, Ferdinand VII., Moreover, since the “real” is the revoked it by another. The term was not used in England. distinguished from the “unreal” only by developing superior value at it, the notions of _ PRAGMATISM, in philosophy, a theory or method ọf deal- in the process of cognition which arrives disguised forms of value. mg with real things (Gr. mpayuata: cf. Wpayyarexos versed in “reality” and “fact” also turn out to be affairs). “Pragmatic,” as here employed is not used in the common Thus the dualism between judgments of fact and judgments of colloquial sense of “pragmatical,” z.e., “fussy and positive,” nor in value disappears: whatever “facts” we recognize are seen to be the historical sense, as in “Pragmatic Sanction,” of “relating to relative to the complex of human purposes to which they are reaffairs of state,” but in the sense of practical or efficient. Prag- vealed. It should further be noted that pragmatism conceives matism, as a general philosophic doctrine or mental attitude, can “practice” very widely: it includes everything related to the conbetween “practice” and only be understood as part of a reaction against the intellectual- trol of experience. The dualism, therefore, to practice (however, unrelated “theory” a vanishes; also istic speculation which has characterized most of modern meta- “theory”

PRAGUE

414 indirectly) is simply an illusion.

advantages of a more open plant association in the valley slopes

4. Pragmatism has very distinctly a connection with religion, because it explains, and to some extent justifies, the faith-attitude or will to believe, and those who study the psychology of religion cannot but be impressed with the pragmatic nature of this attitude. If the whole of a man’s personality goes to the making of the truth he accepts, it is clear that his beliefs are not matters of “pure reason,” and that his passional and volitional nature must contribute to them and cannot validly be excluded. His religion also is ultimately a vital attitude which rests on his interests and on his choices between alternatives which are real for him. It is

were exploited by an agricultural people.

not however asserted that his mere willing to believe is a proof of the truth of what he wishes to believe, any more than a will to disbelieve justifies disbelief. His will to believe merely recognizes that choice is necessary and implies risk, and puts him in a position to obtain verification (or disproof). The pragmatic claim for religion, therefore, is that to those who will take the first step and will to believe an encouraging amount of the appropriate verifications accrues. It is further pointed out that this procedure is quite consonant with the practice of science with regard to its axioms. Originally these are always postulates which have to be assumed before they can be proved, and thus in a way “make” the evidence which confirms them. Scientific and religious verification therefore, though superficially distinct, are alike in kind. The pragmatic doctrine of truth, which it is now possible to outline, results from a convergence of the above lines of argument. Because truth is a value and vitally valuable, and all meaning depends on its context and its relation to us, there cannot be any

Š

abstract “absolute” truth disconnected from all human purposes. Because all truth is primarily a claim which may turn out to be false, it has to be tested. To test it is to try to distinguish between truth and falsity, and to answer the question—-What renders the claim of a judgment to be true, really true? Now such testing, though it varies greatly in different departments of knowledge, is always effected by the consequences to which the claim leads when acted on. Only if they are “good” is the claim validated and the reasoning judged to be “right”: only if they are tested does the theory of truth become intelligible and that of error explicable. If, therefore, a logic fails to employ the pragmatic test, it is doomed to remain purely formal, and the possibility of applying its doctrines to actual knowing, and their real validity, remain in doubt. By applying the pragmatic test on the other hand, it is possible to describe how truths are developed and errors corrected, and how in general old truths are adjusted to new situations. This “making of truth” is conceived as making for greater satisfaction and greater control of experience. It renders the truth of any time relative to the knowledge of the time, and precludes the notion of any rigid, static or incorrigible truth. Thus truth is continually being made and re-made. If the new truth seems to be such that our cognitive purposes would have been better served by it than they were by the truth we had at the time, it is antedated and said to have been “true all along.” If an old truth is improved upon, it is revalued as “false.” To this double process there is no actual end, but ideally an “absolute” truth (or system of truths) would be a truth which would be adequate to every purpose. BrsiroGRaPHY.—C. §. Peirce, Chance, Love and Logic (1923); W.

James, Will to Believe (1896). Pragmatism (1907), The Meaning of Truth (1909); J. Dewey, Studies in Logical Theory (1903), Essays in Experimental Logic (1916), Creative Intelligence (1917), Nature and Experience (1925); F.C. 5S. Schiller, Humanism (1903), Studies in Humanism (1907), Plato and Protagoras (1908), Problems of Belief (1924); S. Hook, The Metaphysics of Pragmatism (1927); A. W. Moore, Pragmatism and its Critics (1911) ; D. L. Murray, Pragmatism

(1925); W. Caldwell, Pragmatism and Idealism (1913); J. T. Driscoll,

Pragmatism and the Problem of the Idea (1915); V. Lee, Vital Lies (1912); J. B. Pratt, What is Pragmatism? (1909) ; W. P. Montague, The Ways of Knowing (1925); B. Russell, Philosophical Essays (1910); A. Schinz, Anti-Pragmatism (1909); L. J. Walker, Theories of Knowledge, Absolutism, Pragmatism, Realism (1910). (F. C. S. S.)

PRAGUE

A fertile soil, mild cli.

mate, the shelter of surrounding heights and terraced valley slopes contributed to establish a strong and flourishing settlement which

avoided the floor of the valley, subject to inundations, History.—The

early history of the town is obscure and leg.

endary but the site was doubtless selected by Slav chieftains as a

BY COURTESY OF G. K. GEERLING THE WEST END OF CHARLES

BRIDGE,

IN PRAGUE,

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

convenient central position from which to govern their domin-

ions. Historical records after the roth century indicate a large settlement protected by two castles, one on a hill of the right bank—the VySehrad, and a later one on the Hradéany hill of

the opposite bank. Geographically the town has never formed a perfect route centre and its supremacy as a political centre is largely the artificial creation of the successive rulers of Bohemia, who systematically furthered its growth. German colonists, invited to settle by King Vratislav during the 11th century, founded a settlement on the right bank at a place known as Pofic, now forming part of the “New Town” (Prague IT.), and later a second settlement, the “Old Town” (Prague I.), was built and walled in by them. About the same period the Jews had a separate settlement first under the shadow of the VySehrad but later between the Old Town and the river, and now known as Prague V. or Josef’s Town. In the early part of the roth century Prague, which had become almost a German city, felt the stirrings of a movement to revive the Czech nationality. At first purely literary and fostered by the “Society of the Bohemian Museum,” founded 1822, it gradually assumed a political character. In 1848 a Slav congress was held in Prague. Trouble and conflict occurred between students and soldiers of the garrison, and barricades were erected but the town surrendered after a severe bombardment. From that time on the history of Prague is the history of the rebirth of the Czechoslovak nation. Once more it was occupied by the Prussians in 1866, this time without resistance, and here the treaty

of peace between Austria and Prussia was signed. This blow to Austria weakened their power in Bohemia and Czech feeling in Prague grew rapidly in face of great opposition until its triumph resulted in the establishment of the republic of Czechoslovakia in 1918, with Prague as the capital.

Topography.—The larger part of the modern town lies on

the east or right bank of the Vitava, the houses spreading up the terraced slopes, often interrupted by parks, and overflowing into side-valleys. This is predominantly the commercial and industrial side of the town, though the “Old Town” and the adjacent parts

of the “New Town” retain their ancient appearance. The former

is remarkable for several features.

Here is the “Ring” or market

(prag; Czech prah’ha; Ger. prahg), capital of Bo-

place with the fine old 14th century town hall, faced by the Tyn

hemia and Czechoslovakia, on both banks of one arm of a meander of the Vltava. There is ample evidence that the site has been continuously inhabited since Palaeolithic times but its fixed population dates from the Neolithic period, when the

church (14th-rsth centuries) memorable as the religious centre

of the Hussite movement and for its tomb of Tycho Brahe, the

astronomer. Leading from the town hall to the limit of the old town is the Celetna ulice, at the extremity of which is the 5-

PRAGUERIE—PRAKRIT allied powder tower, an elaborate building occupying the site of

LANGUAGES

AIS

the energy of the king's officers and the solid loyalty of his “good

one of the old gates, at the corner of the Prikopy, which, with j cities.”

The constable de Richemont

marched with the king's

la Tré»s continuations, 1s on the site of a trench that once encircled | troops into Poitou, his old battleground with Georges de che fortifications of the old town. These and the fortifications | moille, and in two months he had subdued the whole country. of the duke wound the new town are now laid out as parks. The new town Charles VII. then attempted to ensure the loyalty heks the crooked streets and quaint relics of the old, which sur- | of Bourbon by the gift of a large pension, forgave all the rebellious „sses it in romantic beauty and interest, but has much that is | gentry, and installed his son in Dauphiné (see Lours XI.).

worth notice, ¢.g., the National museum (1891) at the head of the

a level tract of grassy

PRAIRIE,

and generally treeless

Wenceslas place, the 14th century Karlov church in Gothic style | country, generally restricted to tracts so characterized in the cen-

tral parts of North America (adopted from the Fr. prairie, a and its former town hall, the scene of the defenestration. The districts on the western bank of the river are mainly resi- | meadow-tract). In the United States the prairies may roughly be dential, with the exception of HoleSovice-Bubna, and are domi- | taken to extend from southern Michigan and western Ohio over

mted by Hradčany hill, on the summit of which lies the vast | Ilinois (especially designated the Prairie State), Indiana, Misirtifed palace of the ancient kings of Bohemia, now the head- | souri, Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota, and west of the Missouri

quarters of the Czechoslovak Government and the residence of the | to the foothills of the Rocky mountains.

af St. Vitus, founded in 930 by the prince-saint Wenceslas, re- |Winnipeg. built by Charles IV. and restored in recent times; sathedral epitomize the history of the Czech State.

In Canada they extend

to a line somewhat

mountains

nresident. In the centre of the palace area stands the cathedral | from the same

to the east

of

The word prairie is used in a large number of com-

castle and | pound names referring to natural and other features, flora, fauna, etc., characteristic of the prairies. Examples are: prairie-chicken

Industries, Education, etc.—Prague is pre-eminently the | or prairie-hen, a name for the pinnated grouse, also applied to the ‘nancial centre and the first manufacturing town of Czechoslo- | sharp-tailed grouse; prairze-dog, a rodent of the squirrel family.

yakia, including in its varied industries flour-milling,

sugar-refin- |

For detailed

of the prairie

description

scenery

ing, brewing, tanning, the preparation of fertilizers and chemicals Dee ae see a A. Dondore, The Prairie and md the manufacture of furniture, foodstuffs and all types of heavy | 47ine Prointe (I eee City ofrennin (1927); machinery, notably agricultural implements,

rolling stock and

PRAIRIE

CHICKEN

or PRAIRIE HEN

and

its distinctive

ee 7 r B. Shimek, Papers (Tympanuchus

river-barges. The re-orientation of the railways in Czechoslovakia | americanus), a North American grouse inhabiting the prairies of has centralized traffic upon the capital, where electrification and | the Mississippi valley north to Manitoba and south to Louisiana

enlargement are in progress, while it is also the terminus of Elbe- | and Texas. The male has a neck-tuft cf ten or more rounded

Vitava shipping; rapid progress is also being made in the direc- | feathers, much reduced in the female. The lesser prairie hen (T.

ion of making it a centre of commercial aviation. The trade of | pallidicinctus) is smaller and has more buff above. It is confined the city was : stimulated in 1920 by the= establishment Slan Áof a sample to south-west Kansas and western Texas The Attwater prairie fair held twice a year and through which it is recovering much of | hen (T. a. attwateri) inhabits the coast districts of Louisiana and its early importance as a leading centre of European trade. Texas.

Culturally too Prague is recovering its ancient leadership;

PRAIRIE-DOG, a North American burrowing rodent allied

through its Czech and German universities and technical schools, |to the marmots. There are several species in the western United while the charm of its numerous handsome buildings and monu- |States, ranging as far south as Mexico. The common prairie-dog ments with historical associations, and the attraction of their | (Cynomys ludovicianus) of the Great Plains region is a plump,

wchitecture, even of the many flamboyant examples of Baroque | short-tailed, squirrel-like animal of social habits. It makes a style, are responsible for a growing number of foreign visitors. | raised funnel-shaped entrance to its burrows, and congregates in The population numbered 676,657 in 1921, 94-2% Czech and | colonies, sometimes many miles in extent and containing many 46% German. Of the total 468,375 live on the right, the re- | thousands or even millions of individuals. Prairie-dogs feed mainder on the left bank of the river, 395,119 are Roman Cath- | chiefly upon grass: Rattlesnakes, burrowing owls and weasels are dics, 30,961 Protestants, 85,960 belong to the Czechoslovak | also found in the burrows but this does not indicate a “‘happy church, 31,751 are of the Jewish faith and 127,676 are without | family” arrangement, as these animals prey on the young “dogs,” any confession. and the prairie-dogs destroy the young owls and sometimes bury See also under CZECHOSLOVAKIA and BomEMIA, and Count Lützow, | the rattlesnakes Prague in “Mediaeval Towns” Series (1902) ; H. Rudolphi, Lage, Ent-

vickelung und Bedeutung von Prag, Geog.: Zeitschrift (Leipzig, 1916) , J. Moscheles, Prague, Geografiska Annaler (Stockholm, 1920); for a complete demographic study (in Czech and French) see Dr A. Boháč, Hivaunt Mésto Praha (Prague, 1923). (W. S. L.)

Battle of Prague, May 6, 1757.—This, the first great victory of Frederick the Great over the Austrians in the SEVEN YEARS’

War, is described under the latter heading. The town also gives ts name to other battles, notably that of 1620, the first important httle in the TumtTY Years’? WAR (qg.v.).

PRAGUERIE, THE, a revolt of the French nobility against

King Charles VII in 1440. It was so named because a similar

alive.

(See MARMOT; f

RODENTIA.) P

-

i

PRAIRIE DU CHIEN, a city of south-western Wisconsin, USA., on the Mississippi river, 3 m. above the mouth of the Wisconsin; the county seat of Crawford county. It is on Federal highways 18 and 61, and is served by the Burlington Route and the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific railways. Pop. 3,537 in 1920; 1930 it was 3,943. It is the seat of St. Mary’s college for women (Roman Catholic; 1872) and has various manufacturing industries. Historically it is one of the most interesting spots

in the State. In 1680 it was visited successively by Father Hennepin and the trader Du Lhut.

In 1685 the French built a fort

(St. Nicholas) of which the British assumed possession after the

close of the French and Indian War. In 1816 Ft. Crawford was erected, and in 1820 one of the principal dépéts of the American dings of Bohemia, and it was caused by the reforms of Charles Fur Company was established. The first U.S. court in what is VIL. at the close of the Hundred Years’ War, by which he sought now Wisconsin was opened here in 1823 by Judge James Duane to lessen the anarchy in France. The instigator was Charles I., Doty. The “Milwaukee” railroad reached this point in 1857. duke of Bourbon, who three years before had attempted an un- The city was chartered in 1872.

ning had recently taken place in Prague, Bohemia, at that time Closely associated with France through the house of Luxemburg,

successful rising.

He and his bastard brother, Alexander, were

PRAKRIT LANGUAGES,

term applied to the vernacular

(prakrta, natural) languages of India as opposed to the literary Sanskrit’ (samskria, purified). There were two main groups of of Alençon, the count of Vendôme, and captains of mercenaries | ancient Indo-Aryan dialects, or Primary Prakrits; viz., the lanlke Antoine de Chabannes, or Jean de la Roche. The duke of | guage of the Midland or Aryavarta, and that of what is called curbon gained over to their side the dauphin Louis—afterwards | the Outer Band. The language of the Midland was crystallized ous XI.—then sixteen years old, and proposed to set aside the in the shape of literary Sanskrit before 300 B.c. Beside it, all the king in his favour, making him regent. Louis was readily induced Primary Prakrits continued to develop under the usual laws of to rebel; but the country was saved from a serious civil war by phonetics, and, as vernaculars. reached a secondary stage marked

loned by the former favourite, Georges de la Trémoille, John V., duke of Brittany, who allied himself with the English, the duke

416

PRAKRIT LANGUAGES

by a tendency to simplify harsh combinations of consonants and the broader diphthongs, the synthetic processes of declension and conjugation remaining as a whole unaltered. Although the literary dialect of the Midland became fixed, the vernacular of the same tract continued to develop along with the other Primary Prakrits, but owing to the existence of a literary standard by its side its development was to a certain extent retarded. The Secondary Prakrits, in their turn, received literary culture. In their earliest stage one of them became the sacred language

of Buddhism, under the name of Pali (g.v.).

In a still later

stage several Secondary Prakrits became generally employed for a new literature, both sacred and profane. Three of them were used for the propagation of the Jaina religion (see Jains), and they were also vehicles for independent secular works, and largely employed in the Indian drama, in which Brahmans, heroes and people of high rank spoke in Sanskrit, while the other characters expressed themselves in some Secondary Prakrit according to nationality or profession. This later stage of the Secondary Prakrits is known as the Prakrit par excellence. In its turn it was fixed by grammarians, and as a literary language ceased to grow, while as a vernacular it went on in its own course. This further development was looked upon as corruption, and its result hence received the name of ApabhrarzSa. Again in their turn the Apabhratisas received literary cultivation and a stereotyped form, while as vernaculars they went on into the stage of the Tertiary Prakrits and become the modern Indo-Aryan languages. In the Prakrit stage of the Secondary Prakrits we see as before -—-a Midland language, and the dialects of the Outer Band. The Prakrit of the Midland was known as Sauraséni, from Siraséna,

the name of the country round Mathura (Muttra). It was the language of the territories having the Gangetic Doab for their centre. To the west it probably extended as far as the modern Lahore and to the east as far as the confluence of the Jumna

the formal epic (Advya).

Dramatic works have been written in

it, and it was also the vehicle of many later scriptures of the Jain religion. The older Jaina writings were composed in Ardhamā. gadhi. The Magadhi we have brief accounts by native gram. marians and short sentences scattered through the plays, Saurs. séni is the usual prose dialect of the plays, and is also employed for the sacred writings of one of the Jaina sects. The following is a list of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars, showing when known, the names of the Apabkramsas from which theyare sprung :— Apabhrarméa.

Modern language.

—_——$—

Sauras "na .

A. Language of the Midland. Western Hindi

Avanta

Rajasthani

es

B. Intermediate Languages, 33 Gaurjařa auraséna . . | Ardhamagadha |

Pahārī Languages Gujarati Pañjābī Eastern Hindi C. Outer Languages.

(a) Norih-W estern Group. Unknown 7 i Vracada

. . . .

Maharastra

Magadha . E ;

”

”

Kashmiri (with a Dardic basis) . | Kōbistäni (with a Dardic basis) . | Lahnda or Western Pafijabi . | Sindhi (b) Southern Language. Marathi

(c) Eastern Group. Bihari Oriyā

Bengali

Assamese

Language.—Originally real vernaculars with tendencies and the Ganges. Conquests carried the language to Rajputana and Gujarat. The development of Sauraséni was retarded by the towards certain phonetic changes, the dialects were taken in hand influence of its great neighbour Sanskrit. Moreover, both being by grammatical systematizers. sprung from the same original—the Primary Prakrit of the MidSubsequent writers followed these rules and not the living land—its vocabulary, making allowances for phonetic changes, is speech, even though they were writing in what was meant to be the same as in that language. a vernacular. Moreover, at an early date, the Prakrits, quo The Prakrits of the Outer Band, all more closely connected literary languages, began to lose their characteristics as local forms with each other than any one of them was to Sauraséni, were of speech. A writer composed in Maharastri because it was the Magadhi, Ardhamagadhi, Maharastri, and an unknown Prakrit of particular Prakrit employed for lyrics and in formal epics. In the North-west. Magadhi was spoken in the eastern half of the dramatic literature, Sauraséni and Magadhi were put into the Gangetic plain. Its proper home was Magadha, the modern South mouths of characters in particular walks in life, whatever the Bihar, but it extended far beyond these limits at very early times. nationality of the dramatist might have been. Judging from the modern vernaculars, its western limit must (Contractions: Skr.=Sanskrit. Pr.=Prakrit. S.=Sauraséni. have been about the longitude of the city of Benares. Between it Mg.=Magadhi. AMg.=Ardhamagadhi. M.=Maharastri. Ap.= and Sauraséni (7.¢., in the modern Oudh and the country to its Nagara ApabhrarhSa.) south) lay Ardhamagadhimi “half Magadhi.” Mahardstri was Vocabulary.—The vocabulary of S. is to all intents and purthe language of Maharastra, the great kingdom extending south- poses the same as that of Skr. In the languages of the Outer wards from the river Nerbudda to the Kistna and sometimes in- Band there are numerous provincial words (dési or désya), the cluding the southern part of the modern Bombay Presidency and originals of which belonged to Primary Prakrits other than those Hyderabad. Its language therefore lay south of Sauraséni. West of the Midland. In the Outer Band there is also a rich variety of Sauraséni, in the Western Punjab, there must have been of grammatical forms, many of which are found in the Veda another Prakrit of which we have no record, although we know a and not in classical Sanskrit, and some which cannot be traced little about its later Apabhrarisa form. Here there were also to any known Primary Prakrit form, but which must have existed speakers of Dardic (see Inpo-AryAN LANGUAGES), and the local in that stage and preceding it, far back into ancient IndoPrakrit, to judge from the modern Tertiary vernacular, was a European times. mixed form of speech. We have a detailed description of only An elaborate system of phonetics was developed by the gramone Apabhrathsa—the Nagara—the Apabhramsa of the Saura- marians. They are of interest as showing the tendencies at work séni spoken in the neighbourhood of Gujarat, and therefore some- and bring out especially in the case of compound consonants the what mixed with Maharastri. We may, however, conclude that substitution, mainly by a process of assimilation, of a slurred for there was an Apabkhratisa corresponding to each Prakrit, so that a distinct pronunciation. we have, in addition to Sauraséna, a Magadha, an Ardhamigadha Declension.—Pr. has preserved the three genders of Skr., but and a Maharastra Apabhrarisa. Native writers describe more than has lost the dual numbery, As a rile, the gender of a noun follows one local Apabhramsa, such as Vracada, the ancient dialect of that of the Skr. original, "though in AMg. there is already a tenSind. There were numerous Prakrit subdialects to which it is not dency to substitute the masculine for the neuter, and in Ap. necessary to refer. These ApabhramsSas are the direct parents of these two genders are frequently confused, if the distinction is not the modern vernacular. altogether neglected. In the formation of cases, the phonetic Maharastri is the Prakrit best known to us. It early obtained rules just given are fully applied, but there are also other devialiterary pre-eminence, was the subject of long treatises by native tions from the Skr. original. The consonantal stems of Skr. grammarians, and became the language of lyric poetry and of declension are frequently given vocalic endings, and there 18 4

PRAKRIT

417

LANGUAGES

vived. The infinitive has survived, not only with the form corresponding to the classical Sanskrit termination -tum, but also with several old Vedic forms. The same is the case with the these the most common are -ka-, -da-, and -alla-, -illa- or -ulla-. gerund, in which both the classical forms in -fvd and -(t)ya have The first of these was also very common in Skr., but its use was survived, but with the loss of the distinctive use which obtained in much extended in Pr. In accordance with the general rule, the & is Sanskrit. Besides these there are also survivals of Vedic forms, liable to elision. It may even be doubled, -Da- is confined to Ap., and even of Primary Prakrit forms not found in the Veda. The and may be used alone or together with the other two. -Jila- is passive is generally formed by adding -jja or, in S. and Mg., -tamost common in the Outer languages, and especially so in AMg, to the root or, more often, to the present stem. The only tenses which are fully conjugated in Pr. are the M. mi the Skr. cases are preserved except the dative which has present, the imperative, the future and the optative, Except in altogether disappeared in the Midland, but has survived in the Ap., the personal terminations in general correspond to the Skr, singular number in the Outer languages. Everywhere the genitive ones, but in Ap. there are some forms which probably go back can be employed in its place. Most of the case-forms are derived to unrecorded Primary Prakrits. The imperative similarly follows from Sanskrit according to the phonetic rules, but Ap, has a the Skr. imperative. The base of the optative is generally formed number of dialectic forms which cannot be referred to that lan- by adding -ejja- in the Outer languages and -éa- in §. The Skr. guage (cf. the remarks above about -i= 8r). It also rarely dis- future termination ~isya- is represented by -issa- or -zhi-. Prakrit Literature.—The great mass of Prakrit literature is tinguishes between the nominative and the accusative.

eneral tendency to assimilate their declension to that of a-bases, which is helped by the free use of pleonastic suffixes ending in a, ghich are added to the base without affecting its meaning. Of

The declension of neuter a-bases closely resembles the above,

devoted to the Jaina religion.

The oldest Jaina sutras were in

differing only in the nominative and accusative singular and Ardhamagadhi, while the non-canonical books of the Svétambara plural. Ap. has almost lost the neuter termination in the singular. sect were in a form of Maharastri, and the canon of the DigamFeminine a-stems are declined on the same lines, but the cases baras appears to have been in a form of Sauraséni. Prakrit also have run more into each other, the instrumental, genitive and appears in secular literature. In artificial lyric poetry it is prelocative singular being identical in form. Very similarly are de- eminent. The Sattasai (Saptasaptikd) was compiled at some clined the bases ending in other vowels. The few still ending in time between the 3rd and 7th centuries ap. by Hala, It has consonants and which have not become merged in the a-declen- had numerous imitators, both in Sanskrit and in the modern sion, present numerous apparent irregularities. All the Skr. pronouns appear in Pr., but often in extremely

abraded shapes. There is also a most luxuriant growth of byforms, the genitive plural of the pronoun of the second person being, e.g., represented by no less than 25 different words in M. alone. We also find forms which have no original in classical Skr. Conjugation.—The Pr. verb shows even more decay than does the noun. With a few isolated exceptions, all trace of the second, or consonantal, conjugation of Skr. has disappeared, and all verbs are now conjugated after the analogy of the a-conjugation, which falls into two classes, the first being the a-conjugation proper, and the second the é-conjugation, in which the @ represents the aya of the Skr. roth class and of causal and denominative verbs. The present participle is the only form which has everywhere survived. All the past tenses (imperfect, perfect and aorists) have fallen into disuse, leaving only a few sporadic remains, their place being supplied, as in the case of the tertiary vernaculars, by the participles, with or without auxiliary verbs. The present tense of the verb substantive has survived from Skr., but it is usual to employ atthi (==Skr. asti) for both numbers and all persons of the present, and ds? (=dstt#) for both numbers and all

persons of the past. The latter has survived in the modern Punjabi sī, was. Another verb substantive (Skr. V bkū) has also survived, generally in the form kõi or huvaï for bhavati. Its usual past participle is küa-, or Mg. kūda-, S. bhüda. The forms given here are important when the history of the Tertiary Prakrits comes under consideration. These two verbs substantive make periphrastic tenses with other participles, and, in the case of the past participles and gerundives of transitive verbs (both of which are passive in signification), the agent or subject is put into the instrumental case, the participle being used either personally or impersonally, as in the tertiary languages. The gerundive, or

future passive participle, is also used impersonally in the case of

intransitive verbs.

_Besides the participles, the infinitive and the indeclinable participle (gerund) have also survived. So also the passive voice, conJugated in the same tenses as the active. The causal has been already mentioned. There are also numerous denominative verbs (many of them onomatopoeic), and a good supply of examples of frequentative and desiderative bases, mostly formed, with the necessary phonetic modifications, as in Skr. Many direct repre-

sentatives of Skr. participles in -ta- (without the 7) and -na- also

appear. As usual there is a tendency to simplification, and the termination iz is commonly added to the Pr. present base, instead of following Skr. analogy. All the three forms of the future passive participle or gerundive in -favya-, -aniya- and -ya- have sur-

vernaculars,

such as the Satsai

of Bihari

Lal

(17th century

A.D.). Hala’s work is important as showing the existence of a large Prakrit literature at the time when it was compiled. Most of this is lost. In Prakrit we have the Rdvanavaha or Sétubandha (attributed to Pravaraséna, before A.D. 700), dealing with the subject of the Rdméyana; the Gaiidavaha of Vakpati

(7th—8th century Av.), celebrating the conquests of Bengal by

Yasovarman, king of Kanauj, and the Kumérapdlacarita, or the last eight cantos of the huge Duydsraya Mahdkavya written by Hémacandra (A.D. 1150), to serve as a series of illustrations to the

author’s Sanskrit and Prakrit grammar, the Sidde-hémacandra. The cantos are in Prakrit, and illustrate the rules of that portion of his work. Dramatic literature has also an example in the Karpira-manjari (“Camphor-cluster,” the name of the heroine) by Raja-sékhara (A.D. 900), a comedy of intrigue. An important source of our knowledge of Prakrit, and especially of dialectic Prakrit, is the Sanskrit drama. In works of this class many of the characters speak in Prakrit, different dialects being employed for different purposes. Generally speaking, Sauraséni is employed for prose and Mahirastri (the language of lyric poetry) for the songs, but special characters also speak special dialects according to their supposed nationality or profession. The result is that in the Sanskrit drama we have a valuable reflection of the local dialects. BrerrocrapHy.— See R. Pischel’s Grammatik der Prakritsprachen (Strasbourg, r900). As an introduction to the study of the language, the best work is H. Jacobi’s AusgewGhlie Erzdhlungen in Méhérashtri zur Einführung in das Studium des Prâkrit, Grammatik, Text, W örterbuch

(Leipzig, 1886).

The best editions of the grammars

are E. B.

Cowell’s of Vararuci’s Prékrta-Prakdsa (1868), R. Pischel’s of Héma-

candra (Halle, 1877, 1889), and E. Hultzsch’s of Simharaja’s Prakztaripavatdra (1909). For Désya words, see Pischel’s The DéSindmamélé of Hemachandra (Bombay, 1880). For Apabhramsa, in addition to his edition of Hémacandra’s grammar, see the same author’s Materialen sur Kenntnis des Apabhramśa (1902), For ApabhramSsa texts published in Europe, mention may be made of Dhanavāla’s Bhavisatta Kaha (Munich, 1918), and Haribhadra’s Sanatkumäsacaritom (Munich, 1921), both edited by H. Jacobi with valuable introductory essays, dealing with the whole question of Prakrit. For the mutual relationship of the various Prakrits, see S. Konow, “Maharashtri and Marathi,” in the Indian Antiquary (1903), xxxil., 180 sqq. For Jaina Prakrit, see under Jams. In the secular texts the best editions are: A. Weber, Das Saptatacgatakam des Hala (Leipzig, 1881); another edition by Durgaprasad and Kasinath Pandurang Parab under the title of The Géthasapatasat? of Sdtavéhana (Bombay, 1089)

[a good commentary]; S. Goldschmidt, Ravanaveha oder Setubandha

(Strasbourg, 1880-83) [text and translation]; Sivadatta and Parab, The Setubandha of Pravarasena (Bombay, 1895) ; Shankar Paindurang Pandit, The Gatdaveho, a Historical Poem in Prakrit, by Vakpati (Bombay, 1887); the same editor, The Kumdrapéla-charita_(Bombay, 1900); Rajacekhara’s Karpiramanjari, edited by S. Konow,

418

PRAM— PRAXITELES

translated by C. R. Lanman (Cambridge, Mass., r9or). The literature of the Sanskrit drama 1s given under SANSKRIT.

PRAM, the name of a flat-bottomed boat or barge used as a “lighter” for discharging and loading cargo in the ports of the Baltic and North Sea. The word, which is common in various forms to all the languages bordering on those seas, is Slavonic. PRANTL, KARL VON (1820-1888), German philosopher,

was born at Landsberg on the Lech on Jan. 28, 1820, and died on

sept. 14, 1888, at Oberstdorf. In 1543 he became doctor of philosophy at Munich Observatory, where he was made professor. His best known work is the Geschichte der Logik im Abendland (Leipzig, 1855-70).

PRASEODYMIUM,

a metallic element (symbol Pr, atomic

number 59, atomic weight 140-9), of the rare-earth group, was discovered in 1885 by von Welsbach when he separated “didymium” into praseodymium and neodymium. This metal occurs along with lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, etc., in monazite, cerite and allanite. It is usually separated by fractional crystallization, employing first the double magnesium nitrate, and finally the double ammonium nitrate. The oxide is an almost black powder, the composition of which varies according to the method of preparation. It is usually considered to be Pr,O,; reduction in hydrogen gives Pr-O.. The oxides are soluble in acids giving green salts such as Pr.(SO,)3,8H:O, which show a strong characteristic absorption spectrum. The metal is prepared by the electrolysis of

air pulpit, erected in 1439 by Donatello and Michelozzo for dis.

playing the Virgin's girdle, brought from the Holy Land by 4 knight of Prato in 1130. The pulpit itself has beautiful reliefs of dancing children; beneath it is a splendid bronze capital, The Chapel of the Girdle has a statue of the Virgin by Giovann;

Pisano, and a handsome bronze open-work screen. The frescga;

in the choir, with scenes from the life of St. John the Baptist and St. Stephen, are by Fra Filippo Lippi (1456-1466) and are his best work.

The massive old Palazzo Pretorio a small

but

good

picture

gallery.

(13th century) contains A beautiful

Madonna by

Filippino Lippi (1498) is in a small street shrine at the comer of the Via S. Margherita. The Madonna del Buon Consiglio has some good reliefs by Andrea della Robbia, by whom is also the beautiful frieze in the Madonna delle Carceri. This church, by

Giuliano da Sangallo (1485-1491), is a Greek cross, with barrel vaults over the arms, and a dome; it is a fine work, and the

decoration of the exterior in marble of different colours (unfinished) is of a noble simplicity. The industries of Prato em.

brace the manufacture of woollens Val Bisenzio), straw-plaiting, etc. See E. Corradini, Toscana, 1910.

Prato

(Bergamo,

(174 establishments in the 1905);

R. Papini, Prato in

PRATT, a city of southern Kansas, U.S.A., on the headwaters

of the Ninnescah river, at an altitude of 1,916 ft.; the county the fused chloride. It melts at 940° C. (See RARE EARTHS.) seat of Pratt county. It is on Federal highway 54, and is served (C. J. by the Rock Island, the Santa Fe and the Wichita Northwestern PRATI, GIOVANNI (1815-1884), Italian poet, was born at railways. Pop. 5,183 in 1920; 1930 it was 6,322. Pratt is a well Dasindo and studied law at Padua. An ardent partisan of the built, well kept city, surrounded by a highly developed agricul. house of Savoy, in 1862 he was elected a deputy to the Italian tural region of gently rolling land. It has a commission form of parliament, and in 1876 a senator. He died at Rome on May 9g, government, a city-planning commission and zoning regulations, 1884. Prati’s work ranged from his romantic narrative Ermene- Founded in 1884, Pratt was chosen as the county seat in 1886,

gorda (1841) to the 500 sonnets collected in Psiche (1875) and the poems entitled Jide (1878). His Opere varie were published in five volumes in 1875, and a selection in one volume in 1892.

PRATINAS, a tragic poet of Athens, was a native of Phlius in Peloponnesus. About 5oo B.c. he competed with Choerilus and Aeschylus, when the latter made his first appearance as a writer for the stage. Pratinas was also the introducer of satyric dramas as a species of entertainment distinct from tragedy. Pratinas was also a writer of dithyrambs and the choral odes called hyporchemata (a considerable fragment of one of these is preserved in Athenaeus xiv. 617). See Pausanias li. 13; Suidas (q.v.); fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici graeci, vol. jü.

PRATINCOLE,

a name for the bird Glareola pratincola,

forming the type of a genus belonging to the order Limicolae. The pratincoles, of which eight or nine species have been described, are small birds, slenderly built and delicately coloured,

with a short stout bill, a wide gape, long pointed wings and a forked tail. In some of their habits they are thoroughly ploverlike, running swiftly and breeding on the ground, but on the wing they have much the appearance of swallows and, like them, feed, at least partly, while flying. The pratincole of Europe, G. pratincola, breeds in many parts of Spain, Barbary and Sicily, along the valley of the Danube and in southern Russia. In the

south-east of Europe a second and closely allied species, G. nordmanni, which has black instead of chestnut inner wing-coverts, accompanies or, farther east, replaces it; other species occur in Asia, Africa and Australia.

PRATO IN TOSCANA, a town and episcopal see of Tus-

cany, Italy, in the province of Florence, rx m. by rail N.W. of Florence, 207 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1921), 36,954, town; 60,560, commune. It is situated on the Bisenzio, and was dominated by a castle built by Frederick IT. (c. 1250). The cathedral was begun in the rath century; to this period belongs the narrow nave with its wide arches; the raised transepts and the chapels were added by Giovanni Pisano in 1317—1320; the campanile dates from 1340, while the facade, also of alternate white sandstone and green serpentine, belongs to 1413. It has a fine doorway with a bas-relief by Andrea della Robbia over it and a lovely open-

PRAWN, 2 name applied to the larger shrimp-like Crustacea,

in Great Britain usually to Leander serratus. (See SHRIMP.) PRAXITELES, of Athens, the son of Cephissodotus, the greatest of the Attic sculptors of the 4th century B.c., who has left an imperishable mark on the history of art. Though Praxiteles may be considered as in some ways well known to us, yet we have no means for fixing his date accurately. It seems clear that he was no longer working in the time of Alexander the Great, or that king would have employed him. Pliny’s

date, 364 B.C., is probably that of one of his most noted works. We possess one undisputed original work of Praxiteles, that of the marble statue of Hermes carrying the infant Dionysus (GREEK

Art, Plate VI., fig. 3). The young child can hardly be regarded as a success; he is not really childlike. But the figure of the Hermes, full and solid without being fleshy, at once strong and active, is a masterpiece, and the play of surface is astonishing. In the head we have a remarkably rounded and intelligent shape, and the face expresses the perfection of health. This statue is our best evidence for the style of Praxiteles. It altogether confirms and interprets the statements as to Praziteles made by Pliny and other ancient critics. Gracefulness in repose, and an indefinable charm are also the attributes of works in our museums which appear to be copies of statues by Praxiteles. Per-

haps the most notable of these are the Apollo Sauroctonus, or the lizard-slayer, a youth leaning against a tree and idly striking with an arrow at a lizard, and the Aphrodite at the bath (GREEK AxrT, Plate VI., figs. 5, 6) of the Vatican, a copy of the statue made by Praxiteles for the people of Cnidus. There is a story that Phryne, who was supposed to have been Praxiteles’ model. induced him to name his two finest works by telling him his

studio was on fire. He named the Eros and the Satyr. The

“Capitoline Faun” at Rome has been identified as a copy of this, and a torso in the Louvre may even be the original. Excavations at Mantineia in Arcadia have brought to light the basis of a group of Leto, Apollo and Artemis by Praxiteles. This basis was doubtless not the work of the great sculptor himself, but of one of his assistants. Nevertheless it is pleasing and

historically valuable.

Pausanias (viii. 9, 1) thus describes the

base. “on the base which supports the statues there are sculptured the Muses and Marsyas playing the flutes.” Three slabs which

PRAYER have survived represent Apollo, Marsyas, a slave and six of the uses, the slab which held the other three having disappeared.

Four points of composition may be mentioned, which appear to be in origin Praxitelean: (1) a very flexible line divides the

figures if drawn down the midst from top to bottom; they all tend to lounging; (2) they are adapted to front and back view

rather than to being seen from one side or the other; (3) trees, drapery and the like are used for supports to the marble figures, and included in the design, instead of being extraneous to it; (4) the faces are presented in three-quarter view. The subjects chosen by Praxiteles were either human beings or the less elderly and dignified deities. It is Apollo, Hermes and Aphrodite who attract him rather than Zeus, Poseidon or Athena. And in his hands the deities sink to the human level, or, indeed, sometimes almost below it. They have grace and charm in a supreme degree, but the element of awe and reverence is wanting. Between them Scopas with his gift for expressing emo-

419

ing manner of the Egyptians towards their gods (cf. Iamblichus, De mysteriis, vi. 5~7). Westermarck supplies many instances from Morocco of ’ér the “conditional curse,” applied to saints in order to make them attend, on pain of disaster if they are recalcitrant (History and Development of the Moral Ideas, passim). This frame of mind, however, is mainly symptomatic of the lower levels of cult.

Thus the Zulu says to the ancestral ghost,

“Help me or you will feed on nettles”; whilst the still more primitive Australian exclaims to the “dead hand” that he carries about with him as a kind of divining-rod, “Guide me aright, or I throw you to the dogs.” So far the forms of address are explicitly directed towards a power that, one might naturally conclude, has personality, since it is apparently expected to hear and answer. At the primitive stage, however, the degree of personification is, probably, often far slighter than the words used would seem to suggest. The verbal employment of vocatives and of the second person may have little or no tion, and Praxiteles, with his delicacy and grace, changed the whole personifying force, serving primarily but to make the speaker’s aspect of such sculpture, and the development of later ages wish and idea intelligible to himself. When the rustic talks in the vernacular to his horse he is not much concerned to know whether derives largely from these two. See Klein, Praxiteles (Leipzig, 1898) ; Perrot, Praxitéle (Paris, 1905). he is heard and understood; still less when he mutters threats PRAYER, a term used generally for any humble petition, but against an absent rival, or kicks the stool that has tripped him up more technically, in religion, for that mode of addressing a divine with a vicious ‘“Take that!” These considerations may help towards the understanding of a or sacred power in which there predominates the mood and intention of reverent entreaty (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. second class of cases, namely, forms of implicit address shading off into unaddressed formulas. Wishings, blessings, cursings, oaths, pregaria; Fr. priére). Prayer and its Congeners.—Prayer in the latter sense is a vows, exorcisms, and so on, are uttered aloud, partly that they may characteristic feature of the higher religions, and we might even be heard by the human parties to the rite, but in many cases that say that Christianity or Mohammedanism, ritually viewed, is in they may be heard, or at least overheard, by a consentient deity, its inmost essence a service of prayer. At all stages of religious perhaps represented visibly by an idol or other cult-object. From Suggestion to Prayer.—To address and entreat a feldevelopment, however, and more especially in the case of the more primitive types of cult, prayer as thus understood occurs low-being is a faculty as old as that of speech, and, as soon as it together with, and shades off into, other varieties of observance occurred to man to treat sacred powers as fellow-beings, assuredly there was a beginning of prayer. We are not likely to know that bear obvious marks of belonging to the same family. Confining ourselves for the moment to forms of explicit ad- how religion first arose, and the probability is that many springs dress, we may group these under three categories according as went to feed that immense river. Thus care for the dead may the power addressed is conceived by the applicant to be on a well have been one amongst such separate sources. It is natural higher, or on much the same, or on a lower plane of dignity and for sorrow to cry to the newly dead “Come back!” and for beauthority as compared with himself. (1) Only if the deity be reavement to add “Come back and help!” Another source is regarded as altogether superior is there room for prayer proper, mythologic fancy, which, in answer to child-like questions: “Who that is, reverent entreaty. Of this we may perhaps roughly dis- made the world?” “Who made our laws?’ and so on, creates tinguish a higher and a lower type, according as there is either “magnified non-natural men,” who presently made their appearcomplete confidence in the divine benevolence and justice, or a ance in ritual (for to think a thing the savage must dance it); disposition to suppose a certain arbitrariness or, at any rate, con- whereupon. personal intercourse becomes possible between such a ditionality to attach to the granting of requests. In the first case being and the tribesmen, the more so because the supporters of prayer will be accompanied with disinterested homage, praise, law and order, the elders, associate themselves as closely as possiand thanksgiving, and tends to lose its distinctive character of ble with the supreme law-giver. From Australia comes a certain entreaty or petition, passing into a mystic communing or con- amount of evidence showing that, in the two ways just mentioned, verse with God. In the second case it will be supported by plead- some inchoate prayer is being evolved. On the whole, the absence ing, involving on the one hand self-abasement, with confession of of prayer from the magico-religious ritual of the Australians is sins and promises of repentance and reform, or on the other hand conspicuous. Uttered formulas abound; yet they are not forms self-justification, in the shape of the expression of faith and reci- of address, but rather self-sufficient pronouncements charged with tation of past services, together with reminders of previous fa- mana (q.v.). They involve a wonder-working recognized as such, vour shown. (2) If the worshipper place his god on a level with the core of the mystery consisting in the supposea transformation himself, so as to make him to some extent dependent on the of suggested idea into accomplished fact by means of that sugservice man contracts to render him, then genuine prayer tends gestion itself. To the man endowed in the opinion of his fellows to be replaced by a mere bargaining, often conjoined with flattery (and doubtless of himself) with this wonderful power of effective and with insincere promises. This spirit of do ut des will be found suggestion, the output of such power naturally represents itself

to go closely with the gift-theory of sacrifice (¢.v.) and to be especially characteristic of those religions of middle grade that are given over to sacrificial worship as conducted in temples and by means of organized priesthoods. So when the high gods are kind for a consideration, the lower deities will likewise be found addicted to such commerce; thus in India the hedge-priest and his

familiar will bandy conditions in spirited dialogue audible to the multitude (cf. W. Crooke, Things Indian, s.v. “Demonology,” PP. 132, 134). (3) Lastly, the degree of dependency on human goodwill attributed to the power addressed may be so great that, Instead of diplomatic politeness, there is positive hectoring, with dictation, threats, and abuse. Even the Italian peasant is said occasionally to offer both abuse and physical violence to the image of a recalcitrant saint; and antiquity wondered at the bully-

as a kind of unconditional willing. When he cries “Rain, rain,” or otherwise makes vivid to himself and his hearers the idea of rain, expecting that the rain will thereby be forced to come, it is as if he had said “Rain, now you must come,” or simply “Rain, come!” and we find that suggestional formulas mostly assume the tone of an actual or virtual imperative, “As I do this, so let the like happen,” “I do this in order that the like may happen,” and so on. Now it is easy to “call spirits from the vasty deep,” but they do not always come. Hence such imperatives have a tendency to dwindle into optatives. “Let the demon of small-pox depart!” is replaced by the more humble “Grandfather Smallpox, go away!” where the affectionate appellative (employed, however, in all likelihood merely to cajole) signalizes an approach to the genuine spirit of prayer. Again, the user of suggestion conscious wry!

420

PRAYER,

BOOK

of his limitations will seek to supplement his mana by tapping, so to speak, whatever sources of similar power lie round about him,

A notable method of borrowing power from another agency involving mana is simply to breathe its name in connection with the

OF COMMON The Moralization of Prayer.—As to the moral quality of the act of prayer, this contrast between the spirit of public ang private religion is fundamental for all but the most advanced forms of cult. In its public rites the community becomes cop.

spell that stands in need of reinforcement; as the name suggests

scious of common ends and a common edification. Even a very

its owner, so it comes to stand for his real presence. Even the more highly developed forms of liturgical prayer tend, in the recitation of divine titles, attributes and the like to present a

primitive people such as the Arunta of Australia behaves with the greatest solemnity at its ceremonies, and professes to he made “glad” and “strong” thereby. Of his countrymen, whom he would not trust to pray in private, Plato testifies that in the temples during the sacrificial prayers “they show an intense eam. estness and with eager interest talk to the gods and beseech them’

survival of this formalist use of potent names.

(See NAME.)

Prayer as a Part of Ritual.—By prayer actually generates formalism, In advanced religion, indeed, prayer free spirit of worship. Its mechanism

an exactly converse process instead of growing out of it. is the chosen vehicle of the (Lows, 887). In acts of public worship at any rate, therefore, is not unduly rigid, and it is prayer and its magico-religious congeners are at all stages re. largely autonomous, being rid of subservience to other ritual sorted to as a “means of grace,” even though such grace does not factors. In more primitive ritual, however, set forms of prayer are constitute the expressed object of petition, Poverty of expression the rule, and their function is mainly to accompany and support is apt to cloak the real spirit of primitive prayer, and the formula a ceremony the nerve of which consists in action rather than under which its aspirations may be summed up, namely, “Bless. speech. Hence, suppose genuine prayer to have come into being, ings come, evils go,” covers all sorts of confused notions about a it is apt to degenerate into a mere piece of formalism; and yet, grace to be acquired and an impurity to be wiped away, which, as whereas its intrinsic meaning is dulled by repetition according to far back as our clues take us, invite interpretations of a decidedly a well-known psychological law, its virtue is thereby hardly spiritualistic and ethical order. To explicate, however, and purge lessened for the undeveloped religious consciousness, which holds the meaning of that “strong heart” and “clean” which the savage the saving grace to lie mainly in the repetition itself. But a form- after his fashion can wish and ask for, remained the task of the ula that depends for its efficacy on being uttered rather than on higher and more self-conscious types of religion. A favourite conbeing heard is virtually indistinguishable from the purely sug- trast for which there is more to be said is that drawn between gestional type of utterance, though its origin is different. A good the magico-religious spell-ritual, that says in effect, “My will be example of a degenerated prayer-ritual comes from the Todas done,” and the spirit of “Thy will be done” that breathes through (see W. H. R. Rivers, The Todas, ch. x.). The prayer itself tends the highest forms of worship. Such resignation in the face of to be slurred over, or even omitted. On the other hand, great the divine will and providence is, however, not altogether beyond stress is laid on a preliminary citation of names of power followed the horizon of primitive faith, as witness the following prayer of by the word idith. This at one time seems to have meant “for the the Khonds of Orissa: “We are ignorant of what it is good to ask sake of,” carrying with it some idea of supplication; but it has for. You know what is good for us. Give it to us.” (Tylor, now lost this connotation, seeing that it can be used not merely Prim. Culture, 4. 369). At this point prayer by a supreme paradox after the name of a god, but after that of any sacred object or virtually extinguishes itself, since in becoming an end in itself, a incident held capable of imparting efficacy to the formula. Even means of contemplative devotion and of mystic communing with the higher religions have to fight against the tendency to “vain God, it ceases to have logical need for the petitionary form. Thus repetitions” (often embodying a certain sacred number, e.g. on the face of it there is something like a return to the self-suffthree), as well as to the use of prayers as amulets, medicinal cient utterance of antique religion; but, in reality, there is all the charms, and so on. Throughout we must carefully distinguish in difference in the world between a suggestion directed outwardly in theory, though hard in practice, between legitimate ritual under- the fruitless attempt to conjure nature without first obeying her, stood as such, whether integral to prayer, such as its verbal and one directed towards the inner man so as to establish the forms, or accessory, such as gestures, postures, incense, oil or peace of God within the heart.

what not, and the formalism of religious decay, such as generally betrays itself by its meaninglessness, by its gibberish phrases, sing-song intonation and so forth. Silent Prayer.—A small point in the history of prayer, bearing on the subject of its relation to magic, is concerned with the custom of praying silently, Charms and words of power being supposed to possess efficacy in themselves are guarded with great secrecy by their owners, and hence, in so far as prayer verges on

spell, there will be a disposition to mutter or otherwise conceal the sacred formula. Thus the prayers of the Todas already alluded to are in all cases uttered “in the throat,” although these are public prayers, each village having a form of its own, At a later stage, when the distinction between magic and religion is more clearly recognized and an anti-social character definitely assigned to the former, on the ground that it subserves the sinister interests of individuals, the overt and, as it were, congregational nature of the praying comes to be insisted on as a guarantee that no magic is being employed, a notion that suffers easy translation into the view that there are more or less disreputable gods with whom private trafficking may be done on the sly. Thus, in accordance with the outlook of the classical period, Plato in his Laws (go9-910) prohibits all possession of private shrines or performance of private rites; “Let a man go to a temple to pray, and let anyone who pleases join with him in the prayer.” Nevertheless, instances are not wanting amongst the Greeks of private prayers of the loftiest and the most disinterested tone (cf. L. Ru Farnell, The Evolution af Religion, p. 202 seg.). Finally, in advanced religion, at the point at which prayer is coming to be concelved as communion, silent adoration is sometimes thought to bring man nearest to God.

BisLiocRaPHY.—For prayer from the comparative standpoint; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, ch. xviii. (1903); C. Tiele, Elements of the Science of Religion (Gifford lectures, lect. 6) (1897); F. Max Miller, “On Ancient Prayers,” in Semitic Studies in Memory of Rev. Dr. Alexander Kohut (1897); L. R. Farnell, The Evolution of Religion, lect. 4 (1905). For prayer in relation to magic: R. R. Marett, “From Spell to Prayer,” in Folk-Lore (June 1904); W. W. Skeat,

Malay Magic (1900). Degeneration of prayer: W. H. R. Rivers, The Todas, ch. x. (1906). Use of the name of power; F. Giesebrecht, Die alttestamentliche Schétzung des Gottesnamens (1901) ; W. Heitmiiller, Im Namen Jesu (1903). Silent prayer: S. Sudhaus, “Lautes und leises Beten” in Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, 188 seq. (1906). Beginnings of prayer in Australia: A. W. Howitt, The Native Tribes of South-East Australia, 394, cf. 346 (1904) ; K. Langloh Parker, The

Euahlayi Tribe, 79 seg. (x905) ; the evidence discussed in Man, 2, 43, 72 (1907). Prayer and spell in North American religion: W, Matthews,

“The Prayer of a Navajo Shaman,” in American Anthropologist, i.; idem, “The Mountain Chant; a Navajo Ceremony,” in Fifth Report of Bureau of American Ethnology. Greek prayer: C. Ausfeld, De graecorum precationtbus quaestianes (1903). Christian prayer: E, yon der Goltz, Das Gebet in der ältesten Christenheit (1901) ; id., Tischge-

bete und Abendmahisgebete

(1905);

Umrisse su einer Geschichte

des Gebets in der alten und mittleren

O. Dibelius, Das Vaterunser:

Kirche (1903) ; T. K. Cheyne, “Prayer,” in Ency. Bib. (1902); W. G.

Procter, The Principles and Practice af Prayer (1927): W. H. Frere,

The Principles of Religious Ceremonial (2nd ed,, 1928), (See also SPELL, MANA, RITUAL.) (R, R. M.)

PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON, the title of the official

service book of the Church of England.

One of thẹ most impor-

tant steps taken at the Reformation was the compilation and pravision of a comprehensive service hook for general and compul-

sory use in public worship throughout the Church of England. The following main advantages were achieved.

(1) The substitution of the English language for the Latin

language, in which all the old service books were written.

PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON (2) Unification and simplification.

The Prayer Book represents

in a much condensed and abbreviated form the four chief ancient

421

the end of the service; the ten commandments with an expanded

royal proclamation, dated March 8, 1548, imposing for use at the

Kyrie eleison were introduced; the long new English canon of 1549 was split up into three parts—the prayer for the church militant, the prayer of consecration and prayer of oblation, becoming a post-Communion collect; the epiklesis or invocation of the Holy Ghost upon the elements was entirely omitted; the mixed chalice, the use of the sign of the cross in the consecration prayer; the commemoration of the blessed Virgin Mary and of various classes of saints were omitted; the words of administration in the 1549 book were abolished, viz.: “The body of our Lord Jesus Christ which was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life,” and “The blood of our Lord Jesus Christ which was shed for thee preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life,” and the following words were substituted: “Take and eat this in remembrance that Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith, with thanksgiving,” and “Drink this in remembrance that Christ’s blood was shed for thee, and be thankful;” a long rubric was added at the end of the service explanatory of the attitude of kneeling at the reception of Holy Communion, in which it was stated that “it is not meant hereby that any adoration is done, or ought to be done, either unto the sacramental bread and wine there bodily received, or to any real and essential presence there being of Christ’s natural flesh and blood,” etc.; exorcism,

coming Easter The Order of the Communion.

This was an order

unction, trine immersion and the chrisom were omitted from the

or form of service in English for the communion of the people in both kinds. It was to be inserted into the service after the communion of the priest, without making any other alteration in the Latin Mass. It comprised the long exhortation or notice to be given on Sunday, or on some other day, previous to the Communion, the longer exhortation, and the shorter invitation, the confession, absolution, comfortable words, prayer of humble access, formulae of administration and the concluding peace, much as they exist at present.

baptismal service; unction and communion with the reserved sacrament were removed from the services for the visitation and the communion of the sick; prayers for the dead and provision for a celebration of Holy Communion at a funeral were removed from the burial service; the vestments retained and ordered under the Prayer Book of 1549 were abolished by a new rubric which directed that both at the time of Communion and at all other times of ministration a bishop should wear a rochet and that a priest or deacon should have and wear a surplice only; on the other hand, the directions as to daily service were extended to all clergy and made much stricter, and the number of days on which the Athanasian Creed was to be used was raised from six to thirteen. The main objects of these drastic alterations have been thought to have been two-fold: to abolish all ritual for which there was not scriptural warrant; and to make the services as unlike the preReformation services as possible. The alterations were violent enough to alarm and offend the Catholic party, but they were not violent enough to satisfy the extreme Puritan party, who would no doubt have agitated for and would probably have obtained still further reformation and revision. This Prayer Book only lived for eight months. It came into use on All Saints’ Day

service books, viz.: the Missal, Breviary, Manual and Pontifical.

In addition to a multiplicity of books there was much variety of use. Although the Sarum Use prevailed far the most widely, yet there were separate Uses of York and Hereford, and also to a less degree of other dioceses and cathedral churches as well. Cranmer’s preface “Concerning the Service of the Church” expressly mentions the abolition of this variety as one of the things to be achieved by a book of Common Prayer. It says: “And whereas heretofore there hath been great diversity in saying and singing in Churches within this Realm; some following Salisbury Use, some Hereford Use, and some the Use of Bangor, some of York,

some of Lincoln; now from henceforth all the whole Realm shall have but one Use.” On the sources from which the Prayer Book

was compiled, see F. Procter and W. H. Frere, New History of the Book of Common Prayer (2nd ed. 1902), and the works mentioned below.

Of changes preceding the first Prayer Book we may note: (a) The compiling and publishing of the Litany in English by Cranmer in 1544.

(b) Royal injunctions in Aug. 1547 ordering

the Epistle and Gospel to be read in English at High Mass.

(c) A

The First Complete Prayer Book.—The first complete ver-

nacular Book of Common Prayer was issued in Jan. 1549. An Act of Uniformity made its use compulsory on and after the

following Whit-Sunday.

Some of the chief points of difference

between this and subsequent Prayer Books were the following: Matins and Evensong began with the Lord’s Prayer, and ended with the third collect; the Athanasian Creed was introduced after the Benedictus on six festivals only, and in addition to the Apostles’ Creed; to the Communion service an alternative title was given, viz.: “commonly called the Mass.” Introits were provided for use on every Sunday and Holy-Day; in the prayer for the whole state of Christ’s church, the blessed Virgin Mary was commemorated by name; prayer for the dead was explicitly retained; also an invocation of the Holy Spirit before the words of institution, the prayer of oblation immediately following them; the mixed chalice was ordered to be used, and the Agnus Dei to be sung during the Communion of the people; unleavened bread was to be used and placed in the mouth of the communicant; the sign of the cross was frequently to be made; reservation for the sick and unction of the sick were retained; and exorcism, unction, trine immersion and the chrisom were included in the baptismal service. As to vestments, at Holy Communion the officiating priest was to wear “a white albe plain with a vestment or cope,” and the assistant clergy were to wear “‘albes with tunicles.” Whenever a bishop was celebrant he was to wear, “beside his rochette, a surplice or albe, and a cope or vestment”; the mitre was not mentioned. The ordinal was added to this Prayer Book in 1550 by another act of parliament. It included the deliverance to the newly ordained priest of the chalice or cup, with the bread. Second Prayer Book—In 1552 a new and revised edition was introduced by an act of parliament which ordered that it should come into use on All Saints’ Day (Nov. 1). This represents the most Protestant position ever reached in the Prayer Book. The chief alterations were: (1) the introductory sentences, exhortation, confession and absolution were to be read at the beginning of the order for morning and evening prayer; (2) in

the order for Holy Communion the alternative title “commonly

called the Mass” was left out; the introits were omitted, the

Gloria in Excelsis was transferred from near the beginning to near

(Nov. 1) 1552, and on July 6, 1553, Edward VI. died and was succeeded by his sister Mary, under whom the Prayer Book was abolished and the old Latin services and service books resumed their place.

Act of Uniformity.—On the death of Queen Mary and the accession of her sister Elizabeth (Nov. 17, 1558) all was reversed, and the Book of Common Prayer was restored into use again. The Act of Uniformity, which obtained final parliamentary authority on April 28, 1559, ordered that the Prayer Book should come again into use on St. John the Baptist’s Day (June 24, 1559). This was the second Prayer Book of King Edward VI., with few but important alterations, which, like all the alterations introduced at subsequent dates into the Prayer Book, were in a Catholic rather than in a Protestant direction. Morning and Evening Prayer were directed to be “used in the accustomed place of the church, chapel or chancel,” instead of “in such place as the people

may best hear’; the eucharistic vestments ordered in the first Prayer Book of Edward VI. were brought back by a new rubric which directed that “the minister at the time of the communion and at all other times in his ministration, shall use such vestments in the church as were in use by authority of parliament in the second year of the reign of King Edward the VI. according to the

act of parliament set in the beginning of this book; in the Litany the following petition found in both the Edwardian Prayer Books was omitted “from the tyranny of the bishop of Rome and all his detestable enormities, good Lord deliver us;” in the Communion service the two clauses of administration found in the first and

pe

422

PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

second Prayer Books of King Edward's reign were combined; the rubric explanatory of “kneeling for reception,” commonly known as “the Black Rubric” was omitted; in the Ordinal in the rubric before the oath of the queen’s sovereignty the words “against the power and authority of all foreign potentates” were substituted for “against the usurped power and authority of the Bishop of Rome,” and in the oath itself four references to the bishop of Rome, by name, were omitted. A smouldering and growing Puritan discontent with the Prayer Book, suppressed with a firm hand under Queen Elizabeth, burst out into a flame on the accession of King James I. in 1603. A petition called the millenary petition, because signed by no less than 1,000 ministers, was soon presented to him, asking, among

other things, for various alterations in the Prayer Book and specifying the alterations desired. As a result the king summoned a conference of leading Puritan divines, and of bishops and other leading Anglican divines, which met under his presidency at Hampton Court in Jan. 1604. After both sides had been heard, certain alterations were determined upon and were ordered by royal authority, with the general assent of Convocation. These alterations were not very numerous nor of great importance, but such as they were they all went in the direction of catholicizing rather than of puritanizing the Prayer Book; the one exception being the substitution of some chapters of the canonical scriptures for some

chapters of the Apocrypha, especially of the book of Tobit. Alterations were introduced into the service for the private baptism of children in houses, with the object of doing away with lay baptism and securing the administration by the minister of the parish, or some other lawful minister; and the concluding portion of the Catechism, consisting of rz questions on the sacraments, was now added. The next important stage in the history of the Prayer Book was its total suppression in 1645 for a period of 15 years, “the

Directory for the Public Worship of God in the Three Kingdoms” being established in its place. The restoration of King Charles II. in 1660 brought with it toleration at once. Nonconformists pressed upon the king, either that the Prayer Book should not be re-introduced, or that if it were re-introduced, features which they objected to might be removed. The result was that a conference was held in 1661, known from its place of meeting as the Savoy Conference. The objections raised from the Nonconformist point of view were numerous and varied, but they were thoroughly discussed between the first meeting on April 15 and the last on July 24, 1661; the bishops agreeing to meet the Puritan wishes on a few minor points but on none of fundamental Importance. Later in the year, between Nov. 20 and Dec. 20, Convocation assembled and undertook the revision of the Prayer Book. In the earlier part of the following year the book so revised came before parliament. No amendment was made in it in either house and it finally received the royal assent on May 19, 1662, being annexed to an Act of Uniformity which provided for its coming into general and compulsory use on St. Bartholomew’s

Day (Aug. 24).

The alterations thus introduced were very numerous, amounting to many hundreds and many of them were more important than any which had been introduced into the Prayer Book since 1552. Their general tendency was distinctly in a Catholic as opposed to a Puritan direction, and the 2,000 Puritan incumbents who vacated their benefices on St. Bartholomew’s Day rather than accept the altered Prayer Book bear eloquent testimony to that fact.

Among the important alterations, the following may be named as of special interest.

(c) The preface “It hath been the wisdom of the Church of

England,” etc., composed by Sanderson, bishop of Lincoln, was

prefixed to the Prayer Book.

(b) The authorized version of the

Bible of r6rr was taken into use, except in the case of the Psalms, where the great Bible of 1539-1540 was retained as much smoother for singing, and in parts of the Communion service. (c) The rubric preceding the absolution in Morning and Evening Prayer, viz.: “The absolution to be pronounced by the minister alone,” was altered into “The Absolution, or Remission of Sins, to be pronounced by the priest alone, standing; the people still

kneeling.”

(d) In the Litany the phrase “Bishops, Pastors and

Ministers of the Church,” was altered into “Bishops, Priests and

Deacons,” and in the clause commencing “From all sedition and privy conspiracy,” etc., the words “rebellion” and “schism” Were

added. (e) In the Communion service two rubrics were prefixed to the prayer “for the whole state of Christ’s Church militant here

in earth” ordering the humble presentation and placing of the alms upon the Holy Table, and the placing thereon then of SO much Bread and Wine as the priest shall think sufficient; and the commemoration of the departed was added to the prayer itself

(f) The rubric explanatory of the posture of kneeling for reception, known as the Black Rubric, which had been added in 1 562,

but omitted in 1559 and 1604, was re-introduced; but the words

“to any real and essential presence there being of Christ’s natural flesh and blood” were altered to “unto any Corporal Presence of Christ’s natural Flesh and Blood”—~a very important and significant alteration which affected the meaning of the whole rubric.

(g) A new office was added for the Ministration of Baptism to

such as are of riper years. (/) A rubric was prefixed to the Order for the Burial of the Dead, forbidding that order to be used “for any that die unbaptized, or excommunicate, or have laid

violent hands upon themselves.” and “the Consecration

(7) In the “Ordering of Priests,”

of Bishops,” in the formula for ordina-

tion, after the words, “Receive the Holy Ghost,” these words were added “for the Office and Work of a Priest (or Bishop) in the Church of God, now committed unto thee by the Imposition of our hands.” No substantial alteration has been made in the Prayer Book

since 1662.

But in 1859 the special services prescribed for Nov,

5, Jan. 30 and May 29 (which had an essential political signifi-

cance)

were

abolished by royal warrant,

obtained the sanction of the Convocations

chronicled as having

of Canterbury and

York, and also legal force by act of parliament. In 1871 a revised Lectionary was substituted for the previously existing one, into the merits and demerits of which it is not possible to enter here; and in 1872, by the Act of Uniformity Amendment Act, a shortened form of service was provided instead of the present form of Morning and Evening. Prayer for optional use in other than cathedral churches on all days except Sunday, Christmas Day, Ash Wednesday, Good Friday and Ascension Day; provision was also statutably made for the separation of services, and for additional services, to be taken, however, except so far as anthems and hymns are concerned, entirely out of the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer. In roor new forms of prayer, with Thanksgiving, were prepared by Convocation and authorized by royal warrant, and in 1922 a new Lectionary was issued for use In morning and evening prayer throughout the year.

Movements for Revision.—Since 1910 there has been a great movement for the revision of the Prayer Book in almost all branches of the Anglican Church. In Scotland some suggestions were made in the Synod of 1911, when a schedule of permissible variations to, and deviations from, the Prayer Book was drawn up, and a revised text of the Scottish liturgy was authorized. In 1919 a more complete revision was undertaken by the consultative council on Church legislation, a body consisting of bishops, clergy and laity sitting together without legislative power. The result of its labours from 1919 to 1924 was contained ina series of reports. In America revision was inaugurated in 1913 by the appointment of a Revision Commission of the General Convention, consisting of seven bishops, seven presbyters and seven laymen. The work had been going on continuously since then until, in 1925, the last stages were reached. A considerable number of the changes have been already ratified, and, after the ratification of the changes, approved in Oct. 1925, at New Orleans by the General Convention, in 1928 a Prayer Book according to the standard of 1928 will be published. In South Africa two tentative alternative uses for the Communion Office were put forward. This was followed by the definite issue of an alternative liturgy, which was sanctioned for use in the province at a provincial synod held in 1924, to be used when desired by the priest and people in the parish. In Canada a new Prayer Book has been issued. It care-

fully avoids making any changes in the Communion Office or

PRAYERS

FOR

any changes involving doctrine, but adds a large number

of

services adapting the worship of the Church to the needs of the

day. In Jreland a new revision is being undertaken for which a committee was appointed in 1909.

Proposals were made

for a revision of the English Prayer

Book on the accession of William III. in 1689, but they came to nothing. The subject was much to the fore between 1857 and

1863. Revision proposals were made in 1879, but came to noth-

ing. The later movement for revision dates from the Royal Commission which was appointed on April 23, 1904, to inquire into “the alleged prevalence of breaches or neglect of the law relating to the conduct of Divine Service in the Church of England.” This reference inevitably led to the consideration of a general revision of the book; and Convocation took up this task in 1906, though it was stated that itis not desirable at present to introduce into the text of the Prayer Book any changes, but they should be embodied in another volume to be sanctioned for optional use for a determined period. The work of revision went on for

many years. The whole matter went through the hands of each House of Convocation separately, of the Joint Committee of both Provinces and then of each House again. The result of this work was taken up by the Church Assembly when it was formed. A committee was appointed and the report of the Assembly on the revision of the Prayer Book was ultimately published under the auspices of the National Assembly

(N.A.84).

But when the moderate and somewhat conservative

proposals which had been put forward by Convocation appeared in the fuller light of the Assembly many new factors came into consideration and different groups or parties in the Church took the matter of revision up with great keenness, so there was issued a series of new proposals. These were contained in the Green Book, issued by the English Church Union, the Grey Book, issued by a committee which was supposed to represent the Life and Liberty Movement, the Yellow Book, issued under the auspices of the Alcuin Club, an attempt to embody these suggestions in one book, and some white papers, representing a still more extreme view. Reasons for Revision.—It may be convenient to sum up the reasons for the amendment of the Prayer Book. Speaking generally, they are the desire to adapt a book which dates from 1662 to the needs of the time. (1) A desire to do away with old-fashioned expressions, phrases unsuitable to the taste of the time, and statements inconsistent with modern thought. On this point there is considerable variation of opinion, many being attached even to the archaisms of the Prayer Book, others finding them difficult or even offensive. (2) A desire to adapt the Prayer Book to the changed usages of the Church which have gradually grown up, to accommodate law to custom. (3) Some ‘desire that the Prayer Book should be revised so as to make the restoration of law and order in the Church possible. It is recognized that the existing Prayer Book cannot reasonably be obeyed in various points. It is proposed that there should be a rule of worship adapted to the present time with a reasonable latitude in the way of variations allowed, and that this should be enforced on the clergy. (4) There is a great desire to adapt the Prayer Book to the far wider religious and social aspirations of the present day. There is a great demand that religious worship should be brought much more closely into touch with the life of

the people. (5) A desire felt, particularly by one party in the Church, arising from the great growth among them of sacramental ideas of worship. It is desired to give far greater opportunity for this in the new Prayer Book, and to accommodate it more closely to the traditional liturgical customs of the Church. The final proposals embodied in the revised Prayer Books submitted to parliament in 1927 and 1928, and the events which ensued, are dealt with in The Church in the Twentieth Century,

under article ENGLAND, CHURCH OF.

THE

DEAD

4.23

Brightman, The English Rite (1915) ; and The Prayer Book Dictionary (r912). (F. E. Wa.; A. C. HE.; X.)

PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD.

Wherever there is a belief

in continued existence through and after death, religion naturally concerns itself with the relations between the living and the dead. This was especially the case in Egypt, and often dominates both primitive and developed systems of thought and practice. Prayers for the dead are mentioned in 2 Maccabees, xii. 43—45, where the

writer is uncertain whether to regard the sacrifice offered by Judas as a propitiatory sin-offering or as a memorial thank-offering. Prayers for the dead form part of the authorized Jewish services. The form in use in England contains the following passage: “Have mercy upon him; pardon all his transgressions. . . . Shelter his soul in the shadow of Thy wings. Make known to him the path of life.” The only passage in the New Testament which is held to bear directly on the subject is IL. Timothy, 1. 18, where, however, it is not certain that Onesiphorus, for whom St. Paul prayed, was dead. Outside the Bible, early use of prayers for the dead is found in the inscription on the tomb of Abercius of Hieropolis in

Phrygia (see Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, vol. i.): “Let every friend who observeth this pray for me,” 7.e., Abercius, who died in the latter part of the second century. The inscriptions in the Roman catacombs bear similar witness to the practice, by the occurrence of such phrases as “Mayest thou live amongst the saints” (third century); ““May God refresh the soul of . . .”; “Peace be with them.” Among Church writers Tertullian is the first to mention prayers for the dead: “The widow who does not pray for her dead husband has as good as divorced him” (beginning of the third century). Subsequent writers similarly make incidental mention of the practice as prevalent, but not as unlawful or even as disputed (until Aerius challenged it towards the end of the fourth century). The most famous instance is St. Augustine’s prayer for his mother, Monnica, Confessions (Bk. ix.). An important element in the liturgies of the various Churches consisted of the diptychs or lists of names of living and dead who were to be commemorated at the Eucharist. To be inserted in these lists was an honour, and it was out of this practice that the

canonization of saints grew. In the third century we find Cyprian enjoining that there should be no oblation or public prayer made for a deceased layman who had broken a Church rule by appointing a cleric trustee under his will: “He ought not to be named in the priest’s prayer who has done his best to detain the clergy from the altar.” The universal occurrence of these diptychs and of definite prayers for the dead in all parts of the Church in the fourth and fifth centuries tend to show how primitive such prayers were. The language used in the prayers for the departed is very reserved, and contains no suggestion of a place or state of pain. We may cite the following from the so-called liturgy of St. James :— “Remember, O Lord, the God of spirits and of all flesh, those whom we have remembered and those whom we have not remembered, men of the true faith, from righteous Abel unto to-day; do thou thyself give them rest there in the land of the living, in thy kingdom, in the delight of Paradise, in the bosom of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, our holy fathers, from whence pain and sorrow and sighing have fled away, where the light of thy countenance visiteth them and always shineth upon them.”

Public prayers were only offered for those who were believed to have died as faithful members of Christ. But Perpetua, who was martyred in 202, believed herself to have been encouraged by a vision to pray for her brother, who had died in his eighth year, almost certainly unbaptized; and a later vision assured her that her prayer had been answered and he translated from punishment. St. Augustine thought it needful to point out that the narrative was not canonical Scripture, and contended that the child had perhaps been baptized. As time went on, further developments took place. Thus men felt difficulty in supposing that those who repented at the close of a wicked life could at once enjoy the fellowship of the saints

in Paradise, and the simple division of good and bad of Luke Xvi., 26, became the threefold division, made familiar by Dante. These speculations were further fixed by the growth of the theory Blunt, Annotated Book of Common Prayer (1866); H. B. Swete, Church Services and Service Books before the Reformation (18096); of Satisfaction and of Indulgences: each forgiven soul was supL. Pullan, History of the Book of Common Prayer (1900); F, E. posed to have to endure an amount of suffering in proportion to BrsrrocrapHy.—The following additional references, on the history of the Book of Common Prayer to the end of the roth century, may given here. W. Palmer, Originès Liturgicae, 4th ed. (1845) ; J. B.

PRAYING

424

WHEEL— PREACHING

the guilt of its sins, and the prayers and pious acts of the living | doctrinal controversy, the intellectual presentation of the Christian availed to shorten this penance time in Purgatory (see INDUL- | position was thus developed. Preaching flourished chiefly j, GENCES). It thus came about that prayers for the dead were re- | the East; especially noteworthy are the three Cappadocians, garded only as aiming at the deliverance of souls from purgatorial | Basil (g.v.) of Caesarea, cultured, devout and practical; his fires; and that application of the Eucharist seems to have almost | brother Gregory (g.v.) of Nyssa, more inclined to the speculative overshadowed all others. The Council of Trent attempted cer- | and metaphysical; and Gregory (g.v.) of Nazianzus, richly ep.

tain reforms in the matter, with more or less success; but broadly | dowed with poetic and oratorical gifts, the finest preacher of the speaking, the system still remains in the Roman Catholic Church, | three. Foremost of all stands John of Antioch, Chrysostom (gv),

and masses for the dead are a very imporlant part of its acts of | who in 387 began his r2 years’ ministry in his native city, and in worship. The Reformation took its rise in a righteous protest | 399 the six memorable years in Constantinople, where he loved the against the sale of Indulgences; and by a natural reaction the | poor, withstood tyranny and preached with amazing power. In the Protestants, in rejecting the Roman doctrine of Purgatory, were | West the allegorical method of Alexandria had more influence than inclined to disuse all prayers for the dead. the historical exegesis cultivated at Antioch. This is seen in Am-

In the English Communion Service of 1549, after the offering | brose of Milan and in Hilary of Poitiers.

But the only name of

of praise and thanks for all the saints, came the following: “We | first rank in preaching is that of Augustine, and even he is curious-

commend into thy mercy all other thy servants, which are de- | ly unequal. His fondness for the allegorical and his manifest care-

parted hence from us with the sign of faith and now do rest in| lessness of preparation disappoint as often as his profundity, his

the sleep of peace: grant unto them, we beseech thee, thy mercy | devout mysticism and his practical application attract and satisfy. and everlasting peace.” The Burial Service of the same date also | Augustine’s De docirina Christiana, bk. iv., is the first attempt to contained explicit prayers for the deceased.

In 1552 all mention | formulate the principles of homiletics.

of the dead, whether commemorative or intercessory, was cut out |

The Middle Ages.—After the days of Chrysostom and Augus-

of the Eucharist; the prayers in the Burial Service were brought | tine there was a great decline of preaching.

The West did better

into their present form; and the provision for Holy Communion | than the East: at Rome Leo the Great and Gregory the Great at a Burial was omitted. The thankful commemoration of the | could preach, and the missionaries Patrick, Columba, Columbanus,

dead in the Eucharist was restored in 1662, but prayers for them | Augustine, Wilfrid, Willibrord, Gall and Boniface are known by their fruits. Then came the age when the papacy was growing out remained, if they remained at all, veiled in ambiguous phrases.

The Church of England has however never forbidden prayers | of the ruins of the old Roman empire, and the best talents were for the dead. It was proposed in 1552 to condemn the Romish | devoted to the organization of ecclesiasticism rather than to the doctrine de precatione pro defunctis in what is now the 22nd of | preaching of the Word. But certain forces were at work which

the Thirty-Nine Articles, but the proposal was rejected. And | were destined to bring about a great revival, e.g., the rise of these intercessions have been used in private by a long list of | the scholastic theology, the reforms of Pope Hildebrand and the

English divines, e.g., Andrewes, Cosin, Ken, Wesley and Keble. | preaching of the First Crusade by Pope Urban II. (d. 1099) and

In a suit (1838) as to the lawfulness of an inscription “Pray for | Peter the Hermit. In the 12th century the significant feature is the the soul of . . .,” the Court held that “no authority or canon | growing use of the various national languages in competition with has been pointed out by which the practice of praying for the | the hitherto universal Latin. The most eminent preachers of the

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š

ucKOCcK,

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ee

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umptre

century were Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-1153), the two mystics

e

:

`:

Spirits in Prison (1886) ; H. B. Swete, “Prayers for the Departed in the

of St. Victor, Hugo and Richard, and Peter Waldo of Lyons, who

in Cath. Encyc.

of the two great mendicant orders of Francis and Dominic. Repre-

First Four Centuries,” Jour. Theol. Stud. viii.; Arts. “Prayers for the preached a plain message to the poor and lowly. The 13th century Departed” in Hastings’ Encyc. Rel. Eth. and “Dead, Prayers for the” | saw the culmination of mediaeval preaching, especially in the rise

PRAYING

(W. O. B.)

WHEEL, used by the Buddhists of Tibet as a | sentative Franciscan names are Antony of Padua (d. 1231), who

means of offering invocations. The smallest kind consists of a | travelled and preached through southern Europe; Berthold of cylinder of metal or other substance turning on a handle as pivot. | Regensburg (d. 1272), who, with his wit and pathos, imagination Outside if and on strips of paper within is inscribed the invocation | and insight, drew huge crowds all over Germany; and Francis to Avalokiteśvara or his consort, Om Manipadme hiim. A weight | Bonaventura, the schoolman and mystic, who wrote a little book hangs at the side, and with a slight movement of the hand the | on The Art of Preaching. Of the Dominicans Thomas Aquinas (4. cylinder revolves. Larger wheels are made to revolve by means | 1274), the theologian, was perhaps also the greatest preacher. of wind or water. With the 14th century a new note, that of reformation, is struck; PREACHING, the proclamation of a Divine message, and | but on the whole there was a drop from the high level of the 13th. the regular instruction of the converted in the doctrines and | Among the popular preachers vigour was often blended with duties of the faith, is a distinctive though not a peculiar feature | coarseness and vulgarity. Mysticism is represented by Suso, of the Christian religion. The Mohammedans exercise it freely, | Meister Eckhart, above all Johann Tauler (g.v.) of Strasbourg and it is not unknown among the Buddhists. The history of | (d. 1461), a true prophet in an age of degeneration. Towards the

Christian preaching with which alone this article is concerned has | close of the century comes John Wycliffe (g.v.) and his English its roots (1) in the activity of the Hebrew prophets and scribes, | travelling preachers, who passed the torch to Hus and the the former representing the broader appeal, the latter the edifica- | Bohemians, and in the next age Savonarola.

tion of the faithful, (2) in the ministry of Jesus Christ and; The Reformation Period, 1500-1700.—The Reformers gave His apostles, where again we have both the evangelical invi- | the sermon a higher place in the ordinary service than it had tation and the teaching of truth and duty. Whichever element is | previously held, and they laid special stress upon the interpretaemphasized in preaching, the preacher is one who believes himself | tion and application of scripture. The controversy with Rome, to be the ambassador of God, charged with a message which it is | and the appeal to the reason and conscience of the individual, tohis duty to deliver. gether with the spread of the New Learning, gave preaching a new The Patristic Age, to the Death of St. Augustine, 430.— | force and influence which reacted upon the old faith. Most of the From the Acts of the Apostles we gather something as to the meth- | Reformation preachers read their sermons, in contrast to the ods adopted by St. Peter and St. Paul, and these we may believe | practice of earlier ages. The English Book of Homilies (see

were more or less general. The Apostles who had known the Lord | Homity) was compiled because competent preachers were comwould naturally recall the facts of His life, and the story of His | paratively rare.

words and works would form a great deal of their preaching. Itis|

The 17th-century preaching was, generally speaking, a continu-

not until we come to Origen (d. 254) that we find preaching as an | ation of that of the 16th century, the pattern having been set by explanation and application of definite texts, a usage that Chris- | the Council of Trent and by the principles and practice of the

tianity adopted from Greek rhetoricians. The fourth century | Reformers. In Spain and Germany, however, there was a decline marks the culmination of early Christian preaching. In an age of | of power, in marked contrast to the vigour manifested in France

425

PREADAMITES—PRE-CAMBRIAN

and England. In France, indeed, the Catholic pulpit now came to sel for the bill deals with the expediency of the bill, calls witnesses its perfection, stimulated, no doubt, by the toleration accorded to the Huguenots up to 1685 and by the patronage of Louis XIV. The names of Bossuet, Fléchier, Bourdaloue, Fénelon and Massillon, all supreme preachers, despite a certain artificial pompousness,

belong here, and on the reformed side are Jean Claude (d. 1687) and Jacques Saurin (d. 1730). In England, among Anglicans, are Andrewes, Hall, Chillingworth, Jeremy Taylor, Barrow and South :

among Puritans and Nonconformists, Baxter, Calamy, the Goodwins, Howe, Owen and Bunyan. The sermons of these men were largely scriptural, the cardinal evangelical truths being emphasized with reality and vigour, but with a tendency to abstract theology rather than concrete religion. The early years of the 18th century were a time of torpor as regards preaching. Generally speaking, sermons were unimpassioned, stilted and formal presentations of ethics and apologetics, seldom delivered extempore.

The Modern Period.—This dates from 1738, the year in which John Wesley began his memorable work. The example and stimulus given by him and by Whitefield were almost immeasurably pro-

ductive. In their train came the great field preachers of Wales,

like John Elias and Christmas Evans, and later the Primitive

Methodists, who by their camp meetings and itinerancies kept

religious enthusiasm alive when Wesleyan Methodism was in peril of hardening. Meanwhile, in America the Puritan tradition, adapted to the new conditions, is represented by Cotton Mather, and

later by Jonathan Edwards, the greatest preacher of his time and country. Whitefield’s visits raised a band of pioneer preachers, cultured and uncultured, men who knew their Bibles but often

interpreted them awry. Preaching, in modern times, has been so varied, depending, as it largely does, on the personality of the preacher, that it is not

possible to speak of its characteristics. Nor can one do more than

enumerate a few outstanding modern names, exclusive of living

preachers. In the Roman Catholic Church are the Italians Ventura and Curci, the Germans Diepenbrock and Foerster, the French Lacordaire, Dupanloup, Loyson (Pére Hyacinthe) and Henri Didon. Of Protestants, Germany produced Schleiermacher, Claus Harms, Tholuck and F. W. Krummacher; France, Vinet and the Monods. In England representative Anglican preachers were: Newman (whose best preaching preceded his obedience to Rome), T. Arnold, F. W. Robertson, Liddon, Farrar, Magee; of Free Churchmen, T. Binney, R. W. Dale, Joseph Parker and J. H.

Jowett (Congregationalist) ; Robert Hall, C. H. Spurgeon, Alexander Maclaren and John Clifford (Baptists); W. M. Punshon, Hugh Price Hughes, Peter Mackenzie and W. L. Watkinson (Wesleyan); James Martineau (Unitarian). The Scottish churches gave Ed-

ward Irving, Thomas Chalmers, R. S. Candlish, R. M. McCheyne and John Caird. In America, honoured names are those of W. E. Channing, Henry Ward Beecher, Horace Bushnell, Phillips Brooks, Harry Emerson Fosdick, to mention only a few. See A. E. Garvie, The Christian Preacher (1920), a comprehensive

survey with full bibliography.

(A. J. G.)

PREADAMITES, a term signifying either (1) human races existent before Adam or (2) a 17th century Christian sect that

professed belief in such races.

The sect was inspired by Isaac La

Peyrére’s Prae-Adamitae (1655), which interpreted Paul’s Epistle to the Romans (v. 12—14) to mean that, since “sin was in the world” before the law (that given to Adam), then there must have been human beings to sin. These were the Gentiles, whose creation is described in Genesis i., while Adam (“man”) the first of the Jews, is not mentioned until Genesis ii.

PREAMBLE, a term particularly applied to the opening paragraph of a statute which summarizes the intention of the legislature in passing the measure.

The procedure in the British par-

liament differs in regard to the preambles of public and private bills. The second reading of a public bill affirms the principle,

and therefore in committee the preamble stands postponed till after the consideration of the clauses, when it is considered in reference to those clauses as amended and altered if need be

(Standing Order 35). On the other hand, the preamble of a

private bill, if opposed, is considered first in committee, and coun-

for the allegation in the preamble, and petitions are then heard; if the preamble is negatived the if affirmed it is gone through clause by clause. private bills the preamble has also to be proved, with regard to whether the clauses required by the

against the bill bill is dropped, On unopposed more especially standing orders

are inserted (see May, Parliamentary Practice).

PREANGER,

a district in the south-west of Java, Dutch

East Indies, including the Preanger Regencies. Formerly one residency, it has been divided into three—West Preanger, Middle Preanger and East Preanger, all of which are under the government of West Java. They are bounded north by Buitenzorg, Krawang, Indromayu and Cheribon, west by Bantam, east by Banjumas and south by the Indian Ocean. Pop.: West Preanger, 983,632, Middle Preanger 1,298,025 and East Preanger, 1,731,365. The natives are Sundanese. The whole district is mountainous, and contains a large number of both active and inactive volcanoes, including the well-known Salak and Gedeh in the north, and bunched together at the eastern end the Chikorai, Papandayan, Wayang, Malabar, Guntur, etc., ranging from 6,000 to 10,000 ft. The greatest rivers are the Chi Manuk and the Chi Tarum, both rising in the eastern end of the province and flowing northeast and north-west respectively to the Java Sea, and the Chi Tandui, flowing south-east to the Indian Ocean. Crater lakes are Telaga (lake) Budas, in the crater of the volcano of the same name in the south-east, and Telaga Warna, on the slopes of the Gedeh, famous for its beautiful tinting. There are also other small lakes—Bagendit, Leles, Penjalee, etc. On the side of the Gedeh is the health resort of Sindanglaya (3,500 ft.), with a mineral spring containing salt. Numerous warm springs are scattered about this volcanic region. Petroleum and coal have been worked, and there is a rich yield of chalk, while a good quality of bricks is made from the red clay. The soil is in general very fertile, the principal products being rice, maize, cassava and pulse (kachang) and rubber in the lower grounds, and cinchona, coffee and tea, as well as cocoa, caca, tobacco and fibrous plants in the hills. The coffee cultivation has, however, diminished considerably. Irrigation works have been carried out in various parts. The principal towns are Bandung, (g.v.), the capital of Middle Preanger, Sukabumi, capital of West Preanger, Tasik Malaya, capital of East Preanger, and Chianjur Sumedang, Chibatu, Chichalengka, Garut (g.v.), and Manon Java, all with the exception of Sumedang connected by railway. The Preanger became Dutch in 1704, after the trouble with Susuhunan, Amangku Rat II. From the time of the British reform of the

administration in Java by Sir Stamford Raffles (1811-16), it was known generally as the Preanger Regencies.

PRE-CAMBRIAN.

Pre-Cambrian and Archaean, in geol-

ogy, are used synonymously by certain authors and are so employed in this article. The term Archaean, however, is often used in a restricted sense to include only the oldest rocks, the Kee-

watin and Laurentian, for example, in North America.

Age and Features.—The pre-Cambrian includes all forma-

tions below the beds containing Olenellus fauna. A great unconformity, or time break, generally separates the Cambrian from the pre-Cambrian, although in a few regions there seems to be no unconformity, and the Olenellus beds appear to pass downwards conformably into underlying beds holding a few fossils older than the Olenellus. The pre-Cambrian rocks are believed to underlie everywhere the Palaeozoic and all later formations; and wherever erosion has penetrated deeply enough the pre-Cambrian formations have been brought to light. They are the most ancient of any exposed on the crust of the earth, and may have required more than half of all geological time for their formation. Their age can be only approximately estimated, the estimate varying within wide range

—~48,000,000 to 1,710,000,000 years. These venerable formations, which are now exposed over one-fifth of the land surface of the earth, consist dominantly of granitic rocks, massive gneissoid, or banded in texture. Sediments and lava flows, while occurring in great thickness in some regions, are subordinate. In many parts of the world the rocks have been tremendously altered, and now

426

PRE-CAMBRIAN

consist of schists and gneisses of almost infinite variety. Fossils are exceedingly rare and poorly preserved. Indeed, certain geologists consider that the evidence for the occurrence of fossils is hardly conclusive. This sparsity of fossils is the main

feature which distinguishes the pre-Cambrian

from Palaeozoic

and later eras. On the whole, too, the rocks are more altered and metamorphosed than are those of later formations. On account of their generally metamorphosed state their structural and age relationships are complex and difficult to unravel, and much work remains to be done. Owing to the almost total absence of fossils no satisfactory way has been discovered of definitely correlating pre-Cambrian formations of one continent with another.

Never-

theless it may be pointed out that the very oldest known rocks possess pronounced similarities, chief of which is the fact that they consist in many regions of lava flows of basic and intermediate composition. Moreover, the flows are interbanded in many areas with very striking beds of brilliant red jaspilite and banded hematite-magnetite-quartz rock commonly called iron formation. In Canada these lava flows have been named Keewatin, Certain writers have cautiously suggested that the Keewatin might be correlated, tentatively, with similar rocks in

South Africa, India and West Australia. ` For much of pre-Cambrian time conditions on the surface of the earth appear to have been similar, in some respects at least, to conditions in later eras. Water played the same role then as it does to-day; rocks were deeply eroded, and conglomerates, sandstones and other sediments were deposited in the same manner as at the present time. It is believed, too, by certain geologists that ice ages occurred in north-eastern Ontario, China, India, Australia, and elsewhere; but in the first mentioned this has not yet been definitely established. Volcanic activity was intense, and Java flows in enormous thickness were poured out. Indeed, in the earliest (Keewatin) epoch of geological history volcanic activ-

ity as indicated by lava flows appears to have reached an intensity possibly never afterwards rivalled. The base on which these old flows were laid down has not been discovered. Economic Importance.—The pre-Cambrian is economically of much importance on account of the valuable mineral deposits which it contains. The greatest gold mines in the world, those of the Transvaal, occur in these rocks, as do also the gold mines of India, Ontario, West Australia, Southern Rhodesia, Brazil and south Dakota. The pre-Cambrian, too, contains the greatest iron and nickel mines in the world, the latter at Sudbury, Canada, the

former in the Lake Superior region of the United States. Copper is found in immense deposits. A variety of useful, non-metallic products also occur, including mica, talc, graphite, corundum, felspar, marble and other materials. The mineral production from the pre-Cambrian throughout the world is increasing, and our knowledge of these ancient complex rocks is advancing. Canada.—The most extensive region of pre-Cambrian rocks Is exposed in Canada, over a stretch of country estimated at 1,800,000 sq. miles. This great expanse surrounds Hudson Bay on the E., S. and W., and from its shape has been named the Canadian Shield; its southern fringe extends into the United States mainly around Lake Superior. Canada was the first country In which the pre-Cambrian formations were systematically studied and subdivided, the pioneer work having been accomplished during the middle of the last century by Sir William

Logan, the father of pre-Cambrian geology, and owing to the great importance of the gold, silver, nickel, copper and cobalt mines, detailed geological mapping has been done, particularly since 1900 in the province of Ontario. The result has been that the pre-Cambrian formations of this region have been more closely studied and mapped than has any other of similar magnitude, and the classification so laboriously worked out in Ontario may be used as a guide or standard by geologists working on similar rocks elsewhere. Though the rocks of Ontario have been studied in much detail practically only the southern fringe of the pre-Cambrian of Canada has been touched, and it will probably be many years before the vast inland regions will be mapped and the stratigraphy worked out. In N.-E. Ontario the rocks have been divided

into three major divisions, upper, middle, and lower, based on two major periods of erosion. A great unconformity alike separates the upper from the middle and the middle from the lower Granites of at least three ages have been recognized, viz., com. mencing with the oldest, the Laurentian, Algoman and Killarnean. On account of their similarity it has not been found possible tg separate these three granites over large areas. The following classification has been adapted by the Ontario

Department of Mines, the youngest rocks being shown at the top of the column :— Classification of Pre-Cambrian Rocks eat Cobalt and Lake Timiskaming, an North-Eastern Ontario, Canada (KEWEENAWAN Nipissing diabase, etc. Upper ANIMIKEAN Cobalt series—conglomerate, etc.

GREAT UNCONFORMITY (MATACHEWAN Middle

Diabase, etc. ALGOMAN Lorrain granite. HAILEYBURIAN

Lamprophyre, diabase, etc.

TIMISKAMIAN

| Conglomerate, etc. GREAT UNCONFORMITY

Lower

LAURENTIAN |Represented by granite pebbles in Timiskamian conglomerate. oo

Grenville—iron formation, etc., in minor quantity; else-

where much crystalline limestone, etc. | Keewatin—Basic lavas, etc.

The classic name Huronian is not used in this classification, confusion having arisen owing to its employment in different senses, The most ancient rocks in N.-E. Ontario, the Keewatin series, constitute one of the greatest outpouring of lavas in the history of the earth’s crust, and are of immense thickness. The flows, which are in part at least of submarine origin, are composed dominantly of basalts and andesites in which pillow structure is commonly developed. Dacites and rhyolites are subordinate. Interbedded with the flows are subordinate bands of volcanic ashes and brilliant red jaspilites. In S.-E. Ontario crystalline limestones, known as the Grenville series, occur in great volume; this series is believed to have been deposited mainly towards the close of the Keewatin, there being no unconformity between the two. The basement on which the lava originally rested has nowhere been positively recognized. In W. Ontario there is a highly altered sedimentary series, known as the Coutchiching, which is believed by certain workers to be older than the Keewatin lava

flows, but its stratigraphic position has not been generally agreed on, and the subject is still controversial. The Keewatin occupies many isolated areas in the Canadian shield varying from a few to about 10,000 sq. miles. These isolated masses are surrounded and, apparently, supported by granite, which occurs in by far the greater volume. Wherever the contacts with the Keewatin and granites have been closely studied the granites have been found to be intrusive, and therefore younger than the Keewatin. The Laurentian includes only those granites which rest unconformably below the Timiskamian sediments. As detailed work progressed it was found that the Lau-

rentian granites were difficult to recognize, and, indeed, in N--E. Ontario have not as yet been discovered. The Timiskamian sediments, which occur in narrow sharply folded synclines, contain

many granite pebbles and boulders. In N.-E. Ontario the granite (Laurentian) from which these granite fragments were derived has not as yet been recognized. The unconformity at the base of the Timiskamian is profound. The Timiskamian sediments are intruded by the basic Haileyburian rocks, and both Haileyburian and Timiskamian have been intruded by widespread masses of granites known as Algoman. The Matachewan basic intrusives, which cut the Algoman, are found in small volume. Above the Algoman and all the other rocks mentioned rest the Animikean

PRE-CAMBRIAN sediments, of which the Cobalt series at Cobalt, Ontario, forms a part. These sediments rest in horizontal or gently inclined positions, and differ in this respect from the closely folded Timis-

ķamian. The unconformity at the base of the Cobalt series is, ke that at the base of the Timiskamian, very great.

On the north shore of Lake Huron there is a thick series of sediments to which the name Huronian was given by Sir Wm. Logan. These have not as yet been satisfactorily correlated with

the Timiskamian

or Cobalt

series;

unconformities

have been

found within them but these are of minor importance compared with that at the base of the Timiskamian or that at the base of

the Cobalt series.

The Keweenawan in N.-E. Ontario is represented by the Nipissing diabase at Cobalt and by the nickel eruptive (norite-

micropegmatite) at Sudbury. On the shores of Lake Superior the Keweenawan consists of a great thickness of sediments and

lava flows. A minor unconformity has been found to exist be-

tween the Keweenawan and the Animikean.

Granites are found

in the Sudbury area, Ontario, cutting the Keweenawan nickel eruptive, and they belong to the third period of granitic intrusion, named the Killarnean. The pre-Cambrian era in NorthEastern Ontario was closed by the intrusion of fresh olivine dia-

base dikes which intersect all the older rocks and which in certain regions may be traced for many miles. In that almost unexplored region of the Canadian Shield between the Atlantic on the E. and Great Slave and Great Bear

lakes on the W. there is very little known regarding the rocks. They appear to consist largely of granites and gneisses; and a few isolated areas may correspond to the Keewatin and Timiskamian series. Late pre-Cambrian sediments relatively undisturbed occur along the Labrador coast, inland to the South of Ungava Bay, on the E. coast of Hudson Bay, on the Belcher Islands of that coast, on the S. side of Athabaska Lake, and in the Coppermine River area—where the rocks attain the thickness

of over 9 miles and are known as the Coppermine River series. They resemble the Keweenawan series on the S. shore of Lake Superior, and like that series the Coppermine River group also contains deposits of native copper. In the western part of Canada, including British Columbia and the Yukon, there are areas of pre-Cambrian rocks. In southern British Columbia the pre-Cambrian sediments attain great thickness, the Purcell series consisting of more than 20,000 ft. of sediments, mostly argillaceous quartzites. United States.—In the Lake Superior region, where the preCambrian rocks have been intensively studied by Leith and Van Hise, they have been sub-divided as follows, commencing with the youngest: Algonkian

Keweenawan Huronian

Proterozoic Archaean

Laurentian Keewatin

There have been, as in Ontario, three periods of granitic intrusions, namely, at the close of the Archaean, at the close of the Lower—Middle Huronian, and in Keweenawan times. The first has been called the Laurentian. The other two are not specifically named, but in general correspond respectively to what has been called Algoman and Killarnean in Ontario. The Huronian is divided into three unconformable series, lower, middle and upper. The lower appears to correspond, in certain areas, with the Timiskamian of Ontario. Two major unconformities are recognized, one at the base of the upper, and one at the base of the lower (Knife Lake Series). Two others, at the base of the Keweenawan and at the base of the middle Huronian, are distinct but not conspicuous. The two major unconformities appear to correspond with those in Ontario at the base of the Animikean and of the Timiskamian respectively.

In Montana and northern Idaho there is a very thick series,

consisting largely of sandstones and shales, known as the Beltian series; the pre-Cambrian sediments in the Grand Canyon of

427

Arizona—the Grand Canyon series—are magnificently exposed; in the Adirondacks (New York State) the Grenville sediments are found; and in Pennsylvania, Maryland and Northern Virginia the Glenarm series of metamorphosed pre-Cambrian sediments.

British Isles——In the British Isles the pre-Cambrian rocks have their greatest development in Scotland, but isolated areas of considerable interest and importance are also known in the Isle of Anglesey, N. Wales, S. Wales, the Welsh Borderland and the English Midlands. Taken as a whole they fall into two main groups, an older group composed mainly of highly crystalline Schists and Gneisses, separated by a great unconformity from a younger relatively unaltered group of sediments and volcanic rocks. The older group of Schists and Gneisses has its most extensive development in the Highlands of Scotland of which it forms by far the larger part; here it includes the Glen Elg Schists, the Lewisian Gneisses, a highly altered plutonic complex, the Moinian, and the Dalradian Schists. The Glen Elg Schists, like the Moinian and Dalradian, consist in the main of a series of highly metamorphosed sediments of various kinds, though the Dalradian also contains schists of volcanic and hypolysed origin. The relative ages of these Schist Groups has afforded a matter for considerable controversy, and the matter cannot yet be regarded as definitely settled. Crystalline Schists are also developed in the Isle of Anglesey, and on the coasts of Devon (Start), and Cornwall (Lizard). The younger group of pre-Cambrian rocks is represented in N.W. Scotland by the Torridonian rocks, red felspathic sandstones and conglomerates, usually held to have accumulated under arid conditions, and believed to show considerable resemblance to the Keweenawan sandstones of America and the Jotnian sandstones of Fennoscandia. In southern Britain a wider range of rock types is found; in W. Shropshire rocks of Torridonian type are found overlying with apparent unconformity a series of sandstones, grits, flags and shales predominantly grey in colour, the whole being referred to the Longmyndian Series. Elsewhere the pre-Cambrian rocks are mainly volcanic in origin, and include a series of lavas and tuffs of varied composition referred collectively to the Uriconian Series. The relation of the Uriconian to the Longmyndian is difficult of determination; it possibly intervenes between the “red” and the ‘‘grey” Longmyndian. Fennoscandia.—J. J. Sederholm bases his classification of pre-Cambrian rocks in Fennoscandia (ż.e., Scandinavia and Finland regarded as a geological unit) on the relations of sedimentary and other rocks to four great intrusions of granites, named (commencing with the youngest) Rapakivi, post-Kalevian, postBothnian and Katarchean. The oldest rocks, called Svionian, consist in part of schisted lavas, tuffs and crystalline limestones and are penetrated by the Katarchean granites. Unconformably overlying the Svionian and Katarchean granites is the Bothnian, the coarse conglomerates of which are reminiscent of the Timiskamian conglomerates of Ontario. The Bothnian is penetrated by the post-Bothnian granites. The Jatulian-Kalevian formations, which resemble the Huronian in Ontario, rest with great unconformity on the older rocks referred to above. The JztulianKalevian sediments have been metamorphosed by post-Kalevian granites which are said to be analogous to the Algoman granites of Ontario. The Rapakivi granites are younger than all of the rocks just described. The youngest series of pre-Cambrian sediments belong to the Jotnian, the beds of which rest unconformably and generally almost horizontally on the older rocks. The Jotnian red sandstones have been compared with the Keweenawan of N. America. South Africa.—Cambrian fauna have not as yet been recognized in South Africa; but, although the oldest fossils known are Devonian, it is believed that the pre-Devonian rocks are certainly largely pre-Cambrian. The pre-Devonian formations occupy an enormous stretch of country but in the central part they are almost entirely covered by vast areas of sand. Du Toit classifies them as follows :—

PRE-CAMBRIAN

4.28 WATERBERG SYSTEM

Waterberg, Matsap and Umkondo Systems

ROOIBERG SERIES

Felsites and Sediments Pretoria and Griquatown Series Black Reef, Dolomite and Campbell Rand Series and Lomagundi System Fish River and Ibiquas Series i

(TRANSVAAL SYSTEM pe

SYSTEM

Kuibis,

Nieuwerust,

Schwarzkalk,

Dolomite and Malmesbury Series

VENTERSDORP SYSTEM WITWATERSRAND

SYSTEM PRIMITIVE SYSTEMS

Otavi

Australia no general sequence has yet been established, although in restricted areas the age relationships have been worked oy The rocks consist dominantly of gneisses, schists and granites:

amphibolites everywhere play an important part, and bands af chert and brilliantly coloured jaspers constitute noticeable fe. tures and are identical with those in India, Rhodesia and Kay Transvaal.

The crystalline schists, some of which bear a close resemblance

Zoetlief and Pniel Series.

to the Keewatin of N. America, are divided into two groups: (a)

Upper and Lower WWR. Rhodesian Schists, Eldorado, Moodies, Pongola, Kheis, Kraaipan, Chanse, etc.

an older group made up of mica-quartz-schist and marble associated with basic rocks which have in certain localities been con. verted into greenstone-schists, and (b) a younger group of conglomerates, arkoses, quartzites, slates and phyllites (the Mosquito

The oldest rocks have been named Primitive by Du Toit, and they are also known as the Swaziland system. In Rhodesia, the basal rocks—the Rhodesian schists—of the Primitive system are altered basic lava flows, commonly showing pillow structure, associated with bands of brilliant red jaspilite and banded ironstones: they are intruded by “old granite,” and resting unconformably on them and “old granite” is a series of folded sediments known as the Eldorado series. The latter is intruded by younger granite. In Barberton and neighbouring portions of Swaziland the Jamestown and Onverwacht series of the Primitive system consists of basic lavas with subordinate cherty bands. The Moodies series of sediments is apparently 20,000 to 30,000 ft. thick; its age relation to the lavas is not definitely known. The Jamestown, Onverwacht and Moodies series are intruded by the “old granite.” In the Transvaal the Witwatersrand series rests with marked unconformity on the Primitive system. The Witwatersrand has a maximum thickness of almost 25,000 ft. and consists of quartzites, slates, and conglomerates. Certain conglomerate beds, regarded as placer in origin, contain gold, and these constitute the greatest known gold deposits in the world. The Ventersdorp system, made up of lavas and minor amounts of sediments, rests unconformably on the Witwatersrand system; the Transvaal-Nama system of sediments, including a great dolomite formation, overlies this unconformably. The felsites of the Rooiberg series are regarded as the upper part of the Transvaal system. The Waterberg system is the youngest of the pre-Cambrian. The rocks are mainly of sandstones and rest unconformably on the Transvaal. The Torridonian of Scotland compares with it. India.—The pre-Cambrian of India consists of two main groups (a) a great mass of gneisses, crystalline schists, and plutonic rocks, named by T. H. Holland the Vedic, and (6) a group of unfossiliferous sedimentary rocks named by Holland the Purana group and suggestive of the Animikean and Keweenawan of Canada. Group (b) includes many isolated areas of sediments, of great thickness, little disturbed and resting with great unconformity on the Vedic group. Holland has tentatively classified the Vedic rocks as follows, commencing with the youngest:—5, Post-Dharwar, eruptives; 4, Dharwar systems; 3, Bundelkhand type of deformed eruptives; 2, Bengal type of Schists; 1, oldest gneisses. There appear to be at least two periods of granitic intrusions, one (the Bundelkhand) cutting the Bengal schists, and the younger (post-Dharwar eruptives) cutting the Dharwar system. It has been cautiously suggested that the Bundelkhand granites may be comparable with the Laurentian of Canada, and the postDharwar eruptives with the Algoman of Canada. The Bengal Schists are thought to be comparable with the Keewatin of Canada. The Dharwar system is much altered and folded, and contains lava flows, and banded jaspers characteristic of the Keewatin iron formation of Canada; sediments possibly corres-

ponding to the Timiskamian may be recognized when further work is accomplished. The chief gold mines in India, those of the Kolar gold field, occur in rocks belonging to the Dharwar system. The post-Dharwar eruptives include granites and the elaeolite-syenites of Coimbatore.

Western Australia.—In the pre-Cambrian rocks of Western

Creek and other series). They have been intruded by great Eutholiths of granite covering some hundreds of sq. miles. A younger series of little altered rocks, known as the Nullagine formation, consists of sandstones, quartzites, conglomerates, and

dolomitic limestones, together with a series of lavas, ashes and

agglomerates. The beds generally repose at horizontal or inclined angles, and rest with great uncomformity on the older rocks,

Brazil.—The pre-Cambrian covers large areas in Brazil, but little detailed work has been done. The oldest rocks have been named Archaean and consist of gneiss, granite and schist. There are also metamorphosed sediments, classed as Algonkian, made up of quartzites, iron formation, argillaceous schists and limestones, These Algonkian sediments contain great deposits of iron ores, One of the deepest gold mines, the Morro Velho mine of the St, John Del Rey Mining Company, occurs in pre-Cambrian calcareous schists and slates. China.—In China there is a basal group of rocks consisting of

gneisses and schists, including green schists, to which the name T’ai-shan complex has been given and which may correspond, in part, with the Keewatin of the N. American continent. The T’ai-shan complex is intruded by granites. Resting with great unconformity on these rocks is a highly altered, folded series of sediments known as the Wu-T’ai system, the conglomerates of

which contain granite pebbles, proving the existence of granite older than this system. There are believed to be unconformities within the Wu-T’ai system; and granites are intruded into it. some of the more altered sediments of the Wu-T’ai are suggestive of Lower Huronian rocks of the Lake Superior region. Overlying the Wu-T’ai rocks with marked unconformity is the little altered Hu-t’o system, consisting of conglomerate, quartzite, shale and limestone. The Wu-T’ai and Hu-t’o systems have been classified by Bailey Willis as Proterozoic. (C. W. K.) BiBpLioGRAPHY.~—General. L. V. Pirsson and C. Scuchert, Textbook of Geology (2nd ed. 1919, vol. ii.) ; F. R. C. Reed, Geology of the Briish Empire (1921); Sir A. Geikie, Textbook of Geology (4th ed. 1923); “Pre-cambrian rocks of the world” (Br. Ass. Ad. Sc., Toronto, 1924), Journal; “Symposium on pre-Cambrian Geology” (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 38, Nos. 1 and 4). Canada. W. G. Miller and C. W. Knight, “Revision of pre-Cam-

brian in Ontario,” Journal, vol. 23 (1915); F. D. Adams, Problems of the Canadian Shield (1915); W. G. Miller and C. W. Knight, PreCambrian geology of south eastern Ontario, vol. 22 (1924); A. C. Coleman and W. A. Parks, Elementary Geology (1922); W. G. Miller, “Pre-Cambrian rocks of Canada” (Br. Ass. Ad. Sc., Toronto, 1924), Journal, pp. 32-33; G. A. Young, “Geology and economic minerals of Canada” (Geol. Sur. Can., 1926). United States. M. G. Wilmarth, “Geologic Time Classification of the United States Geological Survey compared with other Classifications” (U.S. Geol. Sur., Bull. 769, 1925); C. K. Leith, “Lake Superior PreCambrian” (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 38, Nos. 1 and 4, 1927). British Isles. W. G. Miller, “A geological trip to Scotland; preCambrian of north-west Highlands compared with that of Ontario" (Ont. Dept. Mines; vol. 20, pt. 1, pp. 259—269, 1911); A. Strahan, “Subdivisions and correlation of the pre-Cambrian rocks of the British Isles” (Int. Geol. Cong. XII., 1913; Compte Rendu, pp. 339-347):

P. Lake and R. H. Rastall, Textbook of Geology

(4th ed. 1927).

Fennoscandia. J. J. Sederholm, “Pre-Cambrian Geology of Fennoscandia, with special reference to Finland” (Bull. Geol. Soc. AM., vol. 38, Nos. 1 and 4, 1927).

S. Africa. F. R. C. Reed, Geology of the British Empire (1921); Alex. L. Du Toit, Geology of S. Africa (1926); A. W. Rogers, “PreCambrian

rocks of the Union of S. Africa”

(Bull. Geol. Soc. AM.,

vol. 38, Nos. 1 and 4, 1927). i India. F. R. C. Reed, Geology of the British Empire (1921) ; Sir T.

Holland, “Pre-Cambrian rocks of India” (Br. Ass. Ad. Sc., Toronto

PRECEDENCE

429

at-law; (63) masters in chancery; (64) masters in lunacy; (65) companions of the Bath, of the Star of India, of St. Michael and St. George, of the Indian Empire, commanders of the Royal Victorian Order, and of the Order of the British Empire; (66) com‘Brazil. E. C. Harder and R. T. Chamberlin, “Geology of Central Minas Geraes, Brazil” (Jour. Geology, vol. 23, 1915) ; J. C. Branner, panions of the Distinguished Service Order; (67) members of the “Outlines of the geology of Brazil to accompany the geological map of Royal Victorian Order (4th class); (68) officers of the Order of Brazil” (Bull, Geol, Soc. Am., vol, 30, no. 2, 1919). | the British Empire; (69) companions of the Imperial Service ç, America. B. L. Miller and J. T. Singewald, Mineral Deposits, of Order; (70) gentlemen of the privy chamber; (71) eldest sons , , ca. 7 Ging. 5. Willis, “Research in China” (Carnegie Inst. of Washing- of the younger sons of peers; (72) eldest sons of the baronets; 1924); D. N. Wadia, Geology of India (1926).

yw, Australia. A. G. Maitland and A. Montgomery, “Geology and sjineral Industry of W. Australia” (Bull. 89, Geol. Sur. W. Australia) ; F R, C. Reed, Geology of the British Empire (1921).

ton; vols. i. and ii., 1907).

PRECEDENCE.

This word in the sense in which it is here

employed means priority of place, or superiority of rank. In Creat Britain the crown is the fountain of honour, and has the undoubted prerogative to confer such rank and place as to it may seem convenient. In the old time all questions of precedence came in the ordinary course of things within the jurisdiction of the court of chivalry.

In 1539 an Act “for the placing of the Lords in Parliament”

(31 Hen. VIII. c. 10) was passed at the instance of the king, and py it the relative rank of the members of the royal family, of the great officers of State and the household, and of the hierarchy

and the peerage was definitely and definitively ascertained. Subsequent modifications were enacted in 1563 (5 Eliz. c. 18), and in

1689 (1 Will. and Mary c, 21). The Acts of Union with Scotland (1707) and Ireland (1800) laid down rules of precedence for the

Scottish and Irish peers. At different times too, statutes for the reform and extension of the judicial organization have affected the precedence of the judges, more especially the Judicature Act of

1873.

But the statute of Henry VIII. “for the placing of the

Lords” remains the only measure dealing with any large section of the scale of general precedence; and the law, so far as it relates to the ranking of the sovereign’s immediate kindred, the principal ministers of the Crown and court, and both the spiritual and tem-

poral members of the House of Lords, is to all practical intents

what it was made by that statute. General Precedence of Men.—The sovereign; (1) prince of Wales; (2) younger sons of the sovereign; (3) grandsons of the sovereign; (4) brothers of the sovereign; (5) uncles of the soverei; (6) nephews of the sovereign; (7) archbishop of Canterbury, primate of all England; (8) lord high chancellor of Great Britain or lord keeper of the great seal; (9) archbishop of York, primate of England; (10) prime minister; (11) lord high treasurer of Great Britain; (12) lord president of the privy council; (13) speaker of the House of Commons; (14) lord keeper of the privy seal; (rs) lord great chamberlain of England, (16) lord high con-

stable of England, (17) earl marshal, (18) lord high admiral, (19) lord steward of the household, (20) lord chamberlain of the household, (21) master of the horse, above peers of their own degree; (22) dukes; (23) eldest sons of dukes of the blood royal; (24) marquesses; (25) dukes’ eldest sons; (26) earls; (27) younger sons of dukes of the blood royal; (28) marquesses’ eldest sons; (29) dukes’ younger sons; (30) viscounts; (31) earls’ eldest sons; (32) marquesses’ younger sons; (33) bishops; (34) secretaries of State of baronial rank; (35) barons; (36) lords commissioners of the great seal; (37) treasurer of the househald; (38) comp-

troller of the household; (39) vice-chamberlain of the household; (40) secretaries af State; (41) high commissioners in London; (42) viscounts’ eldest sons; (43) earls’ younger sons; (44) barons’ eldest sons; (45) knights of the Garter; (46) privy councillors; (47) chancellor of the Exchequer; (48) chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster: (49) lord chief justice of England; (so) master of the rolls; (51) president of the probate, divorce and admiralty division; (52) lords justices of appeal; (53) judges of the High Court of Justice; (54) viscounts’ younger sons; (55)

barons’ younger sons; (56) sons of lords of appeal; (57) baronets;

(38) knights grand cross of the Bath, Grand Commanders of

the Star of India, grand cross of St, Michael and St. George, grand commanders of the Indian Empire, grand cross of the Royal Victorian Order, and of the Order of the British Empire; (59) knights commanders of the Bath, the Star of India, etc.; (60) knights

bachelors; (61) judges of the county court direct; (62) serjeants-

(73) eldest sons of the knights of the Garter; (74) eldest sons of the knights of the Bath, of the Star of India, etc., (eldest sons of the knights grand cross taking precedence of eldest sons of knights of the second degree); (75) members of the Royal Victorian Order (sth class); (76) members of the Order of the British Empire; (77) younger sons of baronets; (78) younger sons of knights; (79) esquires; (80) gentlemen. General Precedence of Women.—The Queen; (1) the queen dowager; (2) the princess of Wales; (3) daughters of the sovereigzn; (4) wives of the sovereign’s younger sons; (5) granddaughters of the sovereign (with style of Royal Highness); (6) wives of the sovereign’s grandsons; (7) sisters of the sovereign; (8) wives of the sovereign’s brothers; (9) aunts of the sovereign; (10) wives of the sovereign’s uncles; (11) nieces of the sovereign; (12) wives of the sovereign’s nephews; (13) granddaughters of the sovereign (without style of Royal Highness); (14) wives of dukes of the blood royal; (15) duchesses; (16) wives of sons of dukes of the blood royal; (17) marchionesses; (18) wives of the eldest sons of dukes; (19) dukes’ daughters; (20) countesses; (21) wives of the younger sons of dukes of the blood royal; (22) wives of the eldest sons of marquesses; (23) marquesses’ daughters; (24) wives of the younger sons of dukes; (25) viscountesses;

(26) wives of the eldest sons of earls; (27) earls’ daughters; (28) wives of the younger sons of marquesses; (29) baronesses; (30)

wives of the eldest sons of viscounts; (31) viscounts’ daughters; (32) wives of the younger sons of earls; (33) wives of the eldest sons of barons; (34) baron’s daughters; (35) maids of honor to the Queen; (36) wives of knights of the Garter; (37) wives of the younger sons of viscounts; (38) wives of younger sons of barons; (39) daughters of life barons; (40) wives of the sons of life barons; (41) baronets’ wives; (42) dames grand cross of the Order of the British Empire; (43) wives of the knights grand crosses of the Bath, grand commanders of the Star of India, grand crosses of St. Michael and St. George, grand commanders of the Indian Empire, grand crosses of the Royal Victorian Order, and of the order of the British Empire; (44) dames commanders of the Order of the British Empire; (45) wives of knights commanders of the Bath, Star of India, etc.; (46) wives of knights bachelors; (47) commanders of the Order of the British Empire; (48) wives of the companions of the Bath, of the Star of India, of St. Michael and St. George, of the Indian Empire, of commanders of the Royal Victorian Order, and commanders of the Order of the British Empire; (49) wives of companions of the Distinguished Service Order; (50) wives of serjeants-at-law; (51) officers of the Order of the British Empire; (52) wives of members of the Royal Victorian Order (4th class); (53) wives of officers of the Order of the British Empire; (54) companions of the Imperial Service Order; (55) wives of companions of the Imperial Service Order; (56) wives of the eldest sons of the younger sons of peers; (57) daughters of the younger sons of peers; (58) wives of the eldest sons of baronets; (59) baronets’ daughters; (60) wives of the eldest sons of knights; (61) knights’ daughters; (62) members of the Order of the British Empire; (63) wives of members of the Royal Victorian Order (sth class); (64) wives of members of the Order

of the British Empire; (65) wives of the younger sons of the younger sons of peers; (66) wives of the younger sons of baronets; (67) wives of the younger sons of knights; (68) wives of esquires; (69) wives of gentlemen. A special table of precedence in Scotland is regulated by a royal warrant dated March 16, 1905, and a special table of precedence in Jreland was set forth by authority of the lord lieutenant

(Jan. 2, 1895). Both contain errors and will probably be revised.

430

PRECEDENCE

Persondl precedence belongs to the royal family, the peerage and certain specified classes of the commonalty. Official precedence belongs to such dignitaries of the church and such ministers of State and the household as have had rank and place accorded to them by parliament or the Crown, to the speaker of the House of Commons and to the privy council and the judicature. Substantive precedence, which may be either personal or official, belongs to all those whose rank and place are independent of their connection with anybody else, as by the archbishop of Canterbury, the lord high chancellor or the lord great chamberlain, peers and peeresses, baronets, knights and some esquires. Derivative precedence, which can only be personal, belongs to all whose rank and place are determined by their consanguinity with or affinity to somebody else, as the lineal and collateral relations of the sovereign, the sons, daughters and daughters-in-law of peers and peeresses in their own right, and the wives, sons, daughters and daughters-in-law of baronets, knights and some esquires. The precedence of the sovereign is at once official and personal, the precedence of peeresses by marriage is at once derivative and substantive. In the case of the sovereign it is his or her actual tenure of the office of king or queen which regulates the rank and place of members of the royal family, and in the case of peeresses by marriage, although their rank and place are derivative in origin. What are termed “titles of courtesy” are borne by all the sons and daughters of peers and peeresses in their own right. The eldest sons of dukes, marquesses and earls are designated by the names of one or other of the inferior peerages of their fathers, usually a marquessate or an earldom in the first, an earldom or a viscounty in the second and a viscounty or barony in the third case. The rule applicable in former times, still adhered to by the older English dignities, was that a duke’s eldest son was styled earl, the son of a marquess, viscount, the son of an earl, baron. No such rule obtained in Scotland. But, whatever it may be, it is without effect on the rank and place of the bearer, which are those belonging to him as the eldest son of his father. The younger sons of dukes and marquesses are styled “lords,” followed by both their Christian names and surnames. The younger sons of earls and both the eldest and the younger sons of viscounts and barons are described as “honourable” before both their Christian names and surnames. The daughters of dukes, marquesses and earls are styled “ladies” before both their Christian names and surnames. The daughters of viscounts and barons are described as “honourable” before both their Christian names and surnames. If the eldest son of a marquess or an earl marries a woman of rank equal or inferior to his own, she takes his title and precedence; but if she is of superior rank she retains, with her own precedence, the prefix “lady” before her Christian name followed by the name of her husband’s title of courtesy. Again, if the younger son of a duke or a marquess marries a woman of rank equal or inferior to his own, she is called “lady,” with his Christian and surname following, and is placed in his precedence, but, if she is of superior rank, she retains, with her own precedence, the prefix “lady” before her Christian name and his surname. If the daughter of a duke, a marquess or an earl marries the younger son of an earl, the eldest or younger son of a viscount or baron, a baronet, a knight or an esquire, etc., she retains, with her own precedence, the prefix “lady” before her Christian name and

Some Criticisms.—It is manifest on even a cursory examination of the tables we have given that they are in many respects

very imperfectly fitted to meet the circumstances and require. ments of the present day. In both of them the limits prescribed to the royal family are inconveniently narrow, in contrast to the ample bounds through which the operation of the Royal Marriage

Act (12 Geo. III. c. 11) extends the disabilities but not the priv-

ileges of the sovereign’s kindred. Otherwise the scale of general precedence for women compares favourably with the scale of

general precedence for men, which is now in nearly the same condition as that in which it has been for between two and three centuries, and the political, to say nothing of the social, arrangements to which it was framed to apply have undergone an almost

complete

transformation.

It is true that in the professional

classes definite systems of subordination are established by either authority or usage, which are carefully observed and enforced

in the particular areas and spheres to which they have reference, As an example of precedence, major-generals and rear-admirals are of equal rank, and with them are placed commissaries-general and inspectors-general of hospitals and fleets; in India along with civilians of 3: years’ standing they immediately follow the vice-chancellors of the Indian universities, and in relation to the consular service they immediately precede agents-general and consuls-general. But there is nothing to aid us in determining whether in England they should be ranked with, before or after

deans, king’s counsel or doctors in divinity, who likewise are destitute of any recognized general precedence, and, as matters now stand, would certainly have to give place to the younger sons of baronets and knights and the companions of the knightly orders, No foreigner has any legal precedence in Great Britain, but it is suggested that it being proper courtesy to accord to guests the

precedence due to the rank they bear in their own countries, they should rank in society with and immediately before those of the relative rank in England. It should, however, be remembered that

the younger sons of counts and other nobles bear the title of count with the addition of the Christian name, and they should be ranked with younger sons of British earls, etc., whatever title they bear. It has now become usual to recognize ecclesiastical rank derived from the pope, even when held by subjects of the king. Cardinals, therefore, rank by international usage above archbishops, as princes of the blood royal, and in Ireland, Roman Catholic and Protestant bishops rank as such by warrants there in force. An order respecting precedence was sent by the secretary of State for the colonies to the governor-general of Canada (July 24, 1868). Precedence in India is regulated by a Royal Warrant dated May 6, 1871. See the peerages of Burke, Debrett etc.

THE UNITED

STATES

Since there is no hereditary ranking in the United States precedence in official functions and ceremonies is purely according to official position. No statutes determine the order, so courtesy is the only law which rules. Custom, however, has set an order generally as follows: The President, Vice-President, Ambassadors in order (i.e., according to the date when their credentials were presented), Chief Justice, Justices, Ministers in order, Speaker her husband’s surname. If the daughter of a viscount marries of the House of Representatives, The Cabinet in order (Secretary the younger son of an earl or anybody of inferior rank to him, or of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney the daughter of a baron marries the younger son of a viscount General, Postmaster General, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary or anybody of inferior rank to him, she retains her own precedence of the Interior, Secretary of Agriculture, Secretary of Commerce, with the prefix “honourable” before the addition “Mrs.” and his and Secretary of Labor), Senators, Chief of Staff of the Army, surname or Christian name and surname. But, if her husband is Chief of Operations of the Navy, Representatives, Charge a baronet or a knight, she is called the Honourable Lady Smith d’Affaires, major-generals and rear-admirals, counsellors and milior the Honourable Lady Jones, as the case may be. The wives tary and naval attaches, Solicitor General, foreign first secretaries, of the younger sons of earls and of the eldest and younger sons American under-secretaries and first-assistant secretaries, Federal of viscounts and barons, if they are of inferior rank to their hus- Reserve Board members, Interstate Commerce Commission membands, take their precedence and are described as the Honourable bers, members of other quasi-independent boards and commisMrs., with the surnames or Christian names and surnames of their sions, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and heads of husbands following. The judges were placed by James I. before other quasi-independent bureaus and institutions, foreign second the younger sons of viscounts and barons and accorded the title on third secretaries, second and third secretaries of the United tates. of “honourable” (g.v.). But this does not apply to their wives.

PRECISION

GAUGES

PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, in astronomy, an effect connected mainly with a gradual change of the direction of

-he earth's axis of rotation. There is a general resemblance between the motion of the earth and that of a spinning top. It is wellknown that when a top is slightly disturbed its axis precesses round the vertical so that it traces out a cone; the earth’s axis similarly describes a cone at the rate of one revolution in about

26,000 years. In applying this analogy we must take the ecliptic

(ie. the plane of the orbit of the earth round the sun) to correspond to the horizontal; the axis about which the earth spins is inclined at 233° to the “vertical,” and keeping this inclination it

turns slowly round the “vertical.” It must be emphasized, however, that this correspondence .between the earth and a top is

superficial, the cause diferent principles.

of the precessional motion being upon

In this way the north pole of the celestial sphere among the constellations a circle of 234° radius, making tion in 26,000 years. At present it is near the star Minoris, which is therefore called the Pole Star; but it elled a considerable distance within p.c. the star a Draconis would have B.C., also in A.D. 13000 Vega would to mark roughly its position. By this

describes a revoluœ Ursae has trav-

historic times. About 3000 served as pole star; in 13000 be near enough to the pole displacement the part of the

sky visible from a particular terrestrial station gradually changes;

certain constellations cease to rise above the horizon and others appear for the first time. In the time of the early Chaldean astronomers it was not necessary to travel so far south to see the South-

em Cross as it is now. Cause of Precession.—This was first explained by Isaac Newton. It is due to the attraction of the sun and moon on the equatorial protuberance of the earth, the moon being responsible for

about # and the sun for 4 of the motion—the same proportion as the lunar and solar tides. Treating the equatorial bulge as an extra ring of matter surrounding a spherical earth, the attraction of the sun and moon on this ring gives a couple tending to turn the ring into the plane of the ecliptic, since both disturbing agents are in or near the ecliptic. If the earth were not spinning this would turn the earth over until the equator coincided with the ecliptic, but the spinning earth behaves like a gyrostat, so that its axis moves at right angles to the plane of the couple—just as the couple which would upset a top at rest gives the axis of the spinning top a conical motion. The moon’s orbit is inclined at about 5° to the ecliptic, but it does not remain still; its nodes travel round the ecliptic in 18-6 years. Averaged over a long period of time the deviations of the moon from the ecliptic cancel out; but at any moment the precession caused by the moon may be greater or less than the average, according to the position at the time of the lunar orbit. In fact the path of the pole among the stars is a slightly sinuous curve. Astronomers distinguish the average secular motion as precession and the periodic fluctuations or sinuosities as nuta-

AND

COMPARATORS

two planes. importance computation precessional

431

Corrections for precession and nutation are of great in most branches of positional astronomy, and their is very burdensome. For details of the theory of the motions see Newcomb’s Spherical Astronomy, ch. ix.

PRECIPITATION,

in chemistry, is the separation

of a

solid in a condition to be insoluble in the solution from which it is removed. Precipitation is an important step in many chemical processes. It may be accomplished by the concentration of the solution to the point where it is supersaturated, when, upon cooling, a part of the solid separates out, though this process is usually described as crystallization (g v.). It may also be accomplished by the addition of reagents which may combine with the material to form an insoluble compound, or which may displace the

material from the original solution. The application of heat may Cause coagulation, as with certain proteins, and the removal of gas may also alter conditions sufficiently to cause precipitation. A change of temperature is another method. The salting out process as employed in the soap industry is a familiar example of precipitation. The formation of the fibre from a solution of cellulose by causing it to pass into a setting bath is a case of precipitation used in the artificial silk industry.

PRECISION World War was improvement of engineers’ gauges

GAUGES AND COMPARATORS. The responsible for a considerable development and apparatus intended for the measurement of and products.

Whitworth and Johansson’s Gauges.—Improvement

in ac-

curacy of measurement necessarily goes hand in hand with improvement in accuracy and perfection of manufacture of the articles to be measured. The original measuring machine of Sir Joseph Whitworth would have been of little value apart from the system of accurate standards (both end gauges and cylindrical gauges) which he produced for use with it. The next great advance was the introduction by the Swedish firm of Johansson, in 1908, of flat parallel faced slip and block gauges, of such perfection of workmanship that any two of them, when cleaned,

would “wring” together. (See Mertrotocy.) The gauges were made in series differing by definite small amounts, so chosen that by wringing together a suitable combination of pieces, any desired size, to the nearest o-ooor in., could be produced. To ensure this accuracy, it is necessary that the individual pieces

should each have a guaranteed accuracy of (say) o-oooor in., in order that the cumulated error of a group of four or five should not exceed o-oco005 inch. And in order to assert with confidence that this degree of accuracy is, or is not, in fact attained in an individual piece it is necessary to be able to measure with an accuracy of the order of o-cocoor inch. When the Johansson gauges ‘were first introduced no appliances were available which could be relied on to give measurements of an accuracy of the order of 0-oooccor inch. Three entirely different methods have since been developed, however, which enable it to be done, and which, with due precautions, give mutually contion (q.v.). sistent results. These are :— As the pole (corresponding to the equator) moves round the Tilting Level Comparator—The “tilting level” comparator, pole of the ecliptic, so the equinox or intersection of the equator due to A. J. C. Brookes, in which the two gauges, or groups of and ecliptic moves round the ecliptic once in 26,000 years. Both gauges, to be compared are stood side by side on a level surface tight ascensions and longitudes are reckoned from the equinox plate, and the difference in their heights is determined by the as zero-point; stellar longitudes on this account increase steadily reading of a highly sensitive level, which rests by point contact by nearly a minute of arc every year; the effect on the right. upon their upper surfaces, through two ball feet. ascensions is more complicated, but these also continually inMillionth Comparator—The “millionth” comparator, due crease. ‘The vernal equinox is commonly called the First Point of to J. E. Sears, jun., wherein measurements are made between two Aries, but it has already moved away from that constellation and flat parallel anvils, giving a local surface contact, the one anvil is now in Pisces. It should be understood that the precession of the being fixed, and the other connected, through a series of spring equinoxes has no effect on the seasons, and, for example, has no suspensions designed to eliminate all frictional effects, with a connection with the gradual departure of the spring equinox from sensitive tilting mirror which causes a spot of light to move March 21 which occurred in the old Julian calendar. across a scale, giving a magnified image of the displacement of Planetary Precession.—Besides the foregoing luni-solar pre- the anvil on a scale of about 30,000 to 1.

cession, a phenomenon

of much smaller magnitude, known as

planetary precession, is recognized. It is due to perturbations by the planets which cause slow changes in the plane of the earth’s orbit. Planetary precession changes the position of the ecliptic,

whereas luni-solar precession changes the position of the equator: either change affects the equinox, which is the intersection of the

. Optical Interference-——The method of optical interference developed at the Bureau of Standards, Washington, wherein the whole surfaces of the gauges under comparison may be inspected, being marked out into contours of approximately o-oooor in. difference in height by the alternate light and dark bands forming the interference pattern.

432

PREDESTINATION

Measurement of Internal Dimensions.—The method of transference from external to internal measurement constituted a considerable difficulty, and the sizes of such objects as ring gauges, either plain or screwed, were usually estimated by the nature of their fit upon corresponding plug gauges. As the fit depends to a very marked extent upon the amount and nature of the lubricant used, considerable uncertainty existed as to the correct interpretation of the observed results. If well finished and liberally lubricated with thick grease, a cylindrical plug gauge will enter and pass through a ring gauge definitely smaller than itself without damage to either. Two instruments have now been produced for the measurement of internal diameters of either plain or screwed rings, which give results mutually consistent, if due care is taken, and the work being measured is sufficiently uniform in its dimensions, to the order of o-ooo0or inch. In the chord contact machine, due to G. A. Tomlinson, the diameter of the ring is deduced by calculation from the measured displacement, in a direction perpendicular to its length, of a double ball-ended distance piece of known length, which is allowed to make contact inside the ring, first on one side, and then on the other side of the diameter. In the displacement type of internal measuring machine, due to J. E. Sears, the position of the ring is so adjusted that measurements are made exactly across the diameter. The ring is mounted on a carriage, which can be moved bodily in the direction of the diameter being measured by means of suitable micrometers. Contact is made first on one side of the ring, and then on the other, with a double-ended stylus attached to a sensitive indicating mechanism, and the micrometer readings are taken when the indicator reads zero. The same is done in turn with a standard plug substituted for the ring, provision being made for withdrawing the stylus temporarily as the plug passes across. If xı yı ə yz are the four micrometer readings, the displacements dı and dz are equal to X2.—%x and yi—+y2 respectively, and it is to be noticed that the pressure on the stylus is in the same direction when both x readings are taken, and also when both y readings are taken, so that any possible errors due to backlash or flexure in the indicating mechanism are eliminated. The transition from external to internal measurement is thus directly accomplished, and the final result is given by the equation

ratio 1 in.=25-4 mm. (which is correct to within 2 parts ip 1,000,000) to obtain simultaneous readings of equal accuracy in either British or the-metric system, by means of suitable gearing in the compound micrometer head. The verniers read to o.co097 in. and o-ocoor mm.

respectively.

The instrument

can be used

either with one microscope for making direct measurements against its own calibrated micrometer screw, or, using the two microscopes as a comparator, for determining the values of the

sub-divisions of short scales. Screw Gauges and Projection Gauges.—In the course of the War the necessity for rapid measurement of large numbers of screw gauges led to the development of special machines for the measurement of both pitch and effective diameter of screw threads E. M. Eden, then of the National Physical Laboratory, was largely instrumental in this work and in the development of the optical projection method of examining profiles of gauges, both screws

and flat templets.

For the latter, he found lens combinations

capable of giving an undistorted magnification of 50 times over a

field of initial diameter approaching two inches. These combinations were incorporated in the now well-known “horizontal pro-

jector.” For screw gauges the “vertical projector” was designed, in which the path of the light is vertical, and the image-forming rays are reflected back from an optically flat mirror overhead on

to a specially prepared thread-form diagram placed on the table of the machine. The screw in this case is mounted in a carriage provided with two horizontal micrometer traverses in directions parallel and perpendicular to its axis, respectively, so that measure-

ments of pitch and diameter can be made at the same time as the accuracy of the thread form is examined. Mention should also be made of the Wilson projection gauge, in which the optical system is duplicated, so that the two opposite sides of a screw can be projected simultaneously on to the screen, in such a manner that the two images of the thread intermesh, and if the screw is of direct form and size, and the apparatus correctly adjusted, exactly meet. If the screw is small a space is left between the images of its two sides; if large they overlap. The projection method has naturally proved of great value in a number of other ways. In particular, it has been used in connection with the measurement of gear wheels and gear cutting hobs. Machines for this purpose have been designed by G. A. Tomlinson, and depend for their use on the accurate reproduction of the profiles of the teeth of the gear or hob, in the form of R=di+d,—P=(%—21)+ (71—32) —P traces made on smoked glass, by a needle point attached to a where R and P are the diameters of the ring and plug, respectively. specially designed pantograph. One of the machines is also fitted with a device for recording, in a similar manner, the relative veMODERN PRACTICE locities of rotation of two gear wheels when in mesh. In both cases Scientific Principles.—The question of the general geometri- the smoked glass, bearing the record, is put into the projection cal principles underlying the correct design of instruments in- apparatus and magnified so times at the screen. It is found that tended to give the highest accuracy of measurement has received the traces are quite sharp in the magnified image, and measuregreater attention in recent years. Questions of the proper appli- ments can be made corresponding to an accuracy of about o-ooo! cation of the theory of kinematic constraint to ensure definite and or 0.0002 inch on the original. repeatable registration of parts, of eliminating backlash and fricBreviocrapHy.—Annual Reports of the National Physical Laboretion effects, of preventing components of errors due to inevitable tory, Stationery Office, London; R. T. Glazebrook, Dictionary of imperfections of workmanship (e.g., in sliding ways) from be- Applied Physics, vol. 3. Articles on “Design of Scientific Instrucoming effective in the actual direction of measurement, of the ments,” “Gauges,” “Meters,” “Metrology”; E. A. Griffiths, EngineerS. Whipple, “Design and design and relationing of parts so that elastic deformations due to ing Instruments and Meters (1921); R.Trans. Opt. Soc., 22, No. 2 Construction of Scientific Instruments,” changing distributions of load do not affect the results, and so on, 1920-21; C. G. Peters and H. S. Boyd, “Interference Methods for are all involved here. Standardizing and Testing Precision Gauge Blocks,” Bureau of These various points have been fully considered in the travel- ‘Standards, Scientific Papers, No. 436; A. F. C. Pollard, “The Cantor Lectures, Royal ling microscope comparator designed by J. E. Sears, jun., for the Mechanical Design of Scientific Instruments,” Society of Arts, 1922; J. E. Sears, jun., “Precise Length MeasureMetrology Department of the National Physical Laboratory. The ments,” Cantor Lectures, Royal Society of Arts, 1923. (J. E. $) long leg of an L-shaped carriage, which bears two microscopes, is supported on two wheels running in a V-guide along the upper side PREDESTINATION, as a theological term is used in three

of the machine bed, so that whatever position is taken up by the carriage its form is undisturbed. The focal points of the two microscopes are arranged to lie in the extension of the axis of the micrometer screw, and the object to be measured is supported on an independent carriage which, by means of a small weight attached to a cord passing over a pulley, is held permanently in contact with a stud at the end of the screw abutment. Thus errors of straightness in the V-groove are non-effective, and so is any distortion of the base of the machine proper, due to the movement of the microscope carriage. Advantage is taken of the simple

senses: (1) God’s unchangeable decision from eternity of all that

is to be: (2) God’s destination of men to everlasting happiness or misery; (3) God’s appointment unto life or “election” (the appointment unto death being called “reprobation,” and the term “foreordination” being preferred to “predestination” in regard to it). In the first sense the conception is similar to that of fate; this assumes a moral character as nemesis, or the inevitable penalty of transgression. Sophocles represents man’s life as woven with a “shuttle of adamant” (Antigone, 622—624). Stoicism

formulated

a doctrine of providence

or necessity.

Epicurus

PREDICABLES—PRE-ESTABLISHED denied a divine superintendence of human affairs. A powerful influence in Scandinavian religion was exercised by the belief in “the nornir, or Fates, usually thought of as three sisters.” In Brahmanic thought Karma, the consequences of action, necessitates rebirth in a lower or higher mode of existence, according

to guilt or merit.

With some modifications this conception is

taken over by Buddhism.

The Chinese żao, the order of heaven,

which should be the order for earth as well, may also be compared. According to Josephus (Antig. xviii. 1, 3, 4; xiii. 5, 9) the Sadducees denied fate altogether, and placed good and evil wholly in man’s choice; the Pharisees, while recognizing man’s freedom, laid emphasis on fate; the Essenes insisted on an absolute fate. This statement is exposed to the suspicion of attempting to assimilate the Jewish sects to the Greek schools. In Islam the orthodox theology teaches an absolute predestination,

and yet some teachers hold men responsible for the moral char-

acter of their acts. The freethinking school of the Mo’tazilites insisted that the righteousness of God in rewarding or punishing men for their actions could be vindicated only by the recognition of human freedom.

The question of the relation of divine and human will has been the subject of two controversies in the Christian Church, the

Augustinian-Pelagian

and

the

Calvinistic-Arminian.

Pelagius

maintained the free-will of man and regarded grace as only an aid to freedom. Augustine held that God’s grace alone is effectual

and irresistible; He chooses whom He will have (election) and whom He will leave to perish (reprobation or praeterition). At the Reformation the Augustinian position was accepted by both Luther and Calvin. Melanchthon modified his earlier view in the direction of synergism, the theory of a co-operation of

divine grace and human freedom. Calvin wavered between the supralapsarian view that the fall was decreed in order to give effect to the previous decree of election and reprobation, and the sublapsarian of a “permissive decree—a volitive permission.” This view repelled Arminius, According to Calvinism God’s election unto salvation is absolute, determined by His own inscrutable will; according to Arminianism it is conditional, de: pendent on man’s use of grace. The Synod of Dort (1618-1619) which affirmed the sublapsarian without excluding the supralapsarian form of Calvinism, condemned the views of Arminius and his followers, who were known 23 Remonstrants from the remonstrance “‘which in four articles repudiates supralapsarianism

and infralapsarianism (which regarded the Fall as foreseen, but not decreed), and the doctrines of irresistibility of grace, and of the impossibility of the elect finally falling away from it, and boldly asserts the universality of grace.” In the Church of Rome the Dominicans favoured Augustinlanism, the Jesuits Semi-Pelagianism; the work of Molina on the agreement of free-will with the gifts of grace provoked a controversy, which the Pope silenced without deciding; but it broke out again a generation later when Jansen tried to revive the decaying Augustinianism. The Church of England has passed through several disputes regarding the question whether the Thirty-Nine Articles are Calvinistic or not; while there is some ambiguity in the language, it seems to favour Calvinism. At the Evangelical Revival the old questions came up, as Wesley favoured Arminianism and George Whitefield Calvinism. In Scotland Calvinism was repudiated by James Morison, the founder of the Evangelical Union, who declared the three universalities, God’s love for all, Christ’s death for all, the Holy Spirit’s working for all. While retained in the creeds of several denominations, in the public teaching of the churches the doctrine of predestination ls less emphasized. The problem is the reconciliation of human freedom with divine foreknowledge. It has been argued that, if God allows His activity to be limited by human freedom, He may also so limit His foreknowledge as to know free acts as possible and not as actual. _Brstiocraruy.—W. A. Copinger, A Treatise in Predestination, Elec-

tion, and Grace (1889) with a full bibliography in the Appendix;

Augustine’s

Anti-Pelagian

Treatises ; Calvin’s

Institutes;

Jonathan

dwards, Works (1869); Histories of Doctrine, and works on Sys-

tematic Theology.

(A. E. G.)

HARMONY

433

PREDICABLES, in logic, are the main types of predicates, or the principal ways in which the predicate of a proposition can be related to its subject. The oldest known doctrine of predicables is that of Aristotle, but the one that had, and still has, the greatest vogue is that of Porphyry, which is not essentially different from that of Aristotle. According to Porphyry there are five predicables, namely, genus, species, differentia, proprium, accident, These five predicables are obtained as follows. When a predicate is affirmed of a subject it must either express something that is essential to the subject (that is, something in the absence of which the subject would not be called by that name) or not. If the predicate is not essential to the subject it is described as an accident. E.g., “Many Prime Ministers of England are Scotsmen” (or “Oxford men,” or ‘‘wealthy,” etc.); but they need not be. If the predicate is essential, then there are four possibilities. The predicate may state the including class in which the subject

is included—e.g., ‘‘Prime Ministers are Cabinet Ministers”

(or

“Rectangles are parallelograms,” etc.). In this case the predicate is described as a genus of the subject; and the subject (if a class-name) is called a species of the predicate. The predicate is called a species in relation to the subject, if the subject is a singular term and the predicate represents this class (¢.g., “Mr. Kellogg is a statesman’), or if the subject is a class-name restricted by “Some” and the predicate denotes an included class (e.g., “Some members of Parliament are Cabinet Ministers,” or “Some rectangles are squares’). Again the predicate may assert of the subject some character, or group of characteristics, which distinguishes (or differentiates) one species of a genus from the other species (¢.g., “Squares are equilateral,’ whereas other rectangles are not). In this case the predicate is called a differentia

(or “difference’”’) of the subject term. Lastly, the predicate may assert of the subject something essential, but different from either

its genus or differentia, though derivable from these (e.g., “Equilateral triangles and equiangular”’). In this case it is called a proprium (or “property”) of the subject. The predicables are applicable readily enough to ideal objects like those of geometry, but cannot be applied very satisfactorily or usefully to empirical objects. Although they mark distinctions which are very important and useful in connection with many ordinary problems, they play no very important part in modern science, which needs more precise and more numerous distinctions than they mark. See Loctc, HISTORY OF. See also H. W. B. Joseph, Introduction to Logic (1916).

PREECE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY

(1834-1913), British

electrical engineer, was born in Wales on Feb. 15, 1834, and edu-

cated at King’s College, London. He became a civil engineer, but in 1853 joined the Electric and International Telegraph Co. In 1869 he returned to the civil service, and in 1877 was appointed electrician to the Post Office, in 1899 engineer-in-chief, and, after his retirement, consulting engineer. He was a pioneer of wireless telegraphy (see TELEGRAPH; Part II., Wireless Telegraphy). He died at Penrhos, Carnarvon, on Nov. 6, 19123. PRE-ESTABLISHED HARMONY, in philosophy, denotes the relationship between body and mind as conceived by Leibnitz. According to the interaction theory body and mind act upon each other, so that the body does what the mind wants done, and the mind is affected by the condition of the body. Cartesian dualism excluded the possibility of such interaction, by its conception of an absolute difference and opposition between mental and material substances. To account for the appearance of such interaction some of the Cartesians introduced the theory of “occasionalism,” namely, that the mind does not influence the body nor vice versa, but that on every occasion that anything happens to the one, God produces a certain change in the other. This implied God’s constant interference with everything. Leibnitz suggested that body and mind have been harmonized by God once for all, so that their changes correspond or synchronize without either influencing the other, and without needing God’s incessant intervention. He compares the relation between body and mind to that between two clocks which have been synchronized once for all, and so keep step without mutual interaction and without the constant intervention of anybody. This is the theory

PRE-EXISTENCE—PREHNITE

434

of pre-established harmony, which Leibnitz applied to his system of monads. For Leibnitz reality consists of monads or spirits of different degrees of development. Their active side is their spiritual side, and matter is simply the appearance of their passivity or deficiency. As their activity is entirely immanent, the monads do not interact (they “have no windows”), but there is a pre-established harmony between them inasmuch as they all mirror the same universe, though each “from its own point of view.” See LEIBNITZ. PRE-EXISTENCE, DOCTRINE OF, in theology, the doctrine that Jesus Christ had a human soul which existed before the creation of the world—the first and most perfect of created things—and subsisted, prior to His human birth, in union with the Second Person of the Godhead. It was this human soul which suffered the pain and sorrow described in the Gospels. The chief exposition of this doctrine is that of Dr. Watts (Works, V. 274, etc.); it has received little support. In a wider form the doctrine has been applied to men in general—namely, that in the beginning of Creation God created the souls of all men, which were subsequently as a punishment for ill-doing incarnated in physical bodies till discipline should render them fit for spiritual existence. Supporters of this doctrine, the Pre-existants or Pre-existianl, are found as early as the 2nd century, among them being Justin Martyr and Origen (g.v.), and the idea not only belongs to metempsychosis and mysticism generally, but is widely prevalent in Oriental thought. It was condemned by the Council of Constantinople in 540, but has frequently reappeared in modern thought (cf. Wordsworth’s Zntimations of Immortality) being in fact the natural correlative of a belief in immortality.

PREFECT,

in France, the title of a high official (préfet).

The prefects of the department were created by a law of the

28th Pluviose in the year VIII. (Feb. 17, 1800). They were intended to be the chief officers of internal administration, and have, in fact, discharged this function, especially under the First and Second Empire, surviving, under the other forms of government which modern France has seen. The prefect has a double character and two series of functions. First, he is the general representative of the Government, whose duty it is to ensure execution of the Government’s decisions, the exercise of the law, and the regular working of all branches of the public service in the department. Thus far the rôle of the prefect is essentially political; he guarantees the direct and legal action of the Government in his department. He has the supervision of all the State services in his department, which procures the necessary uniformity in the working of the services, each of which is specialized within a narrow sphere. He serves as a local source of information to the Government, and transmits to it representations from those under his administration. In the name of the State he exercises a certain administrative control over the local authorities, such as the conseil général, the mayors, and the municipal councils. This control, though considerably restricted by the laws of Aug. 10, 1871, and April 5, 1884, still holds good in some important respects. The prefect can still annul certain decisions of the conseil général. He can suspend for a month a municipal council, mayor, or deputy-mayor; certain decisions of the municipal councils require his approval; and he may annul such of their regulations as are extra vires. He can annul or suspend the maire’s decrees and he has also considerable control over public institutions, charitable and otherwise. He may make regulations both on special points and for the general administration of the police. Secondly, the prefect is not only the general representative of the Government, but the representative of the department in the

management of its local interests.

But his unfettered powers in

ministration lies in keeping up good relations with the maires of

the communes in their arrondissement, and thus acquiring a cer.

tain amount of influence over them. The National Assembly of 1871 proposed to suppress the sous. préfets, but the president, M. Thiers, persuaded them to recon. sider their decision. The question has been raised from time tg time, since that date, in the Chamber of Deputies, and finally, by the decree of Sept. 6, 1926, the Conseils de Préfecture were Suppressed and the Conseils de Pré fecture interdépartementaux cre-

ated. The suppression of a certain number of the sous-préfectures was effected by the decree of Sept. 10, 1926.

See Journal Officiel, Sept. 9, 14, and 30, 1926, and June 3, 1927,

PREFERENCE, IMPERIAL: see IMPERIAL PREFERENCE, PREFERENCE SHARES. In a joint-stock company, the

name given to shares entitled to a dividend at a fixed rate before any dividend is paid on other shares. If the arrears of preference

dividend have to be paid before any profits are divided amongst other shareholders, the shares are called “cumulative preference shares.” Sometimes a company issues “first preference” and “second preference” shares, the latter ranking after the former. For further details see INVESTMENT.

PREFERRED

course, of no service to the stockholder as long as his company is prosperous and in no danger of dissolution, but in case of weak companies the preference tends to give his stock a higher market value than stock not so preferred. And in case of actual dissolution where the assets are not sufficient to satisfy all claims, the preference will prove most valuable. The expression preferred as to dividends means that this stock is entitled to a specified rate of dividend out of the earnings before any dividend is given to the stock not so preferred. It does not mean that a certain dividend is guaranteed but merely that if any amount of the earnings is declared as a dividend, then the amount necessary to pay the specified rate of dividend on the preferred stock, or such part of such dividend as possible, must be used for this purpose before any is allocated to pay a dividend on non-preferred stock. If the entire amount declared as a dividend is absorbed by the dividend on the preferred stock, it means simply that the non-preferred or common stock gets nothing. In prosperous companies, however, it is usually possible to pay the stipulated rate to the preferred stock and still have sufficient money leit to pay an equal or even larger rate to the common stock. It is ordinarily only fair that the common stock should get more in view of the fact that it takes a risk by permitting the preferred stock to take out its share of dividend first. It is sometimes deemed advisable to have several issues of preferred stock, one taking precedence over the next, just as ordinary preferred stock takes precedence over common. These several issues are then usually classified as 1st preferred, 2nd preferred, etc.; or sometimes as preferred A, preferred B, preferred C. Preferred stock is also sometimes made participating. Participating preferred stock is that which is to receive first its preferential dividend at the stipulated rate and after that is to participate or share with the other stock in the remainder of the funds declared as dividend. This participation or sharing may be done in one of a number of ways, but regardless of the manner of participation, if the preferred stock shares in any way in the

this respect were reduced under the Third Republic, chiefly by the law of Aug. 10, 1871, which led to decentralization, by increasing the powers of the conseils généraux. The sous-préfets, having very limited powers of deciding questions, serve as intermediaries between the prefect and the persons under his administration. This function was most useful in the year VIII., when communications were difficult, even within |

a department.

STOCK, stock of a corporation which pos-

sesses the same rights and privileges as common stock and which has in addition certain more or less valuable and desirable preferences. Such stock may be preferred as to assets, or preferred as to dividends, or as to both. Being preferred as to assets means that in case of dissolution of the company, the holders of the stock will receive their portion of the proceeds before holders of other stock not preferred as to assets will participate. This preference is, of

dividend over and above its stipulated rate it is participating

Dividends on preferred stock may be either cumulative (J. H. B.) or non-cumulative.

stock.

PREHNITE, a mineral of the composition H,CasAlSi:Ou but containing also small amounts of Fe.Os, and traces of Mn, Mg

and alkalis: so called after Col. Prehn, who first brought it to Europe from Cradock, in Cape Colony. It crystallizes in the hemi-

At the present time their chief service to the ad- |morphic class of the rhombic system, but the hemimorphic char-

PREJUDICE—-PREMONSTRATENSIANS acter is often obscured by twinning. Crystals are pyroelectric. The habit is that of flat tables on oor or elongated along the crystallographic axis a. Crystals, however, rarely occur singly, most frequently being aggregated together in divergent groups to form fan-shaped, or globular masses. Prehnite has a dominant oor cleavage and is usually white or pale green. Though often classed with the zeolites, the contained water is only expelled at a red heat. Optical anomalies are not uncommon, this characteristic being ascribed to twinning on a fine scale. The hardness is 6-6-5 and specific gravity 2-80—2-95. Prehnite occurs in association with zeolites in amygdales of basic igneous rocks such as basalt and dolerite, as well as a purely secondary mineral in veins. In contact-altered limestones the mineral is not uncommon. Here it appears to represent a late hydrothermal stage of alteration, being found in veins and replacing such minerals as labradorite, vesu-

vianite and scapolite. In the crystalline schists it is sparingly developed in amphibolites, and metamorphosed carbonate sediments.

PREJUDICE.

(C. E. T.)

In law “without prejudice,” means without

detriment to a person’s rights or claims. When two parties are negotiating for the settlement of an existing dispute, statements or admissions made by or on behalf of either, with a stipulation, expressed or implied, that the statements are made “without prejudice” to the party’s claims in the dispute, cannot be put in evidence in litigation to settle the dispute. But a letter which by its nature may prejudice the person to whom it is written may be put in evidence, e.g., if it contain threats. (See Evence.)

PREL, KARL, FREIHERR von (1839—1899), German philo-

435

is violet; the form, like the greater or less use of violet, depends on the rank of the prelate. Four classes may be distinguished: (rz) Great prelates, ¢.g., cardinals, archbishops and bishops. (2) Exempt prelates, z.e., abbots and religious superiors, who are withdrawn from the ordinary diocesan jurisdiction and them-

selves possess episcopal jurisdiction.

(3) Roman prelates, (a)

active and (b) honorary. The title is applied to numerous ecclesiastics attached by some dignity, active or honorary, to the Roman court (see CURIA ROMANA). In the Reformed churches the title was retained in England, Sweden, Denmark and Germany. The cathedral chapter of Brandenburg consists of two prelates, the dean and the senior, besides eight other members. The chapter of Merseburg contains five prelates, viz., the dean, senior, provost, custos and scholasticus. In Baden the general synod is presided over by the prelate (prelat), i.e., the principal “superintendent.” In the Church of England the term prelate has been since the Reformation applied only to archbishops and bishops. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See Du Cange, Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis (new ed., by L. Favre, Niort, 1883) ; Paul Hinschius, Kirchenrecht (Berlin, 1869) ; E. H. Vering, professor of law at Prague, Lekrbuck des katholischen, orientalischen und protestantischen Kirchenrechts (1893).

PRELLER, LUDWIG

(1809-1861), German philologist and

antiquarian, was born at Hamburg on Sept. 15, 1809. He taught at Dorpat and Jena, and was head librarian at Weimar, where he died on June 21, 1861. His chief works are: Demeter u. Perse-

phone (1837); Griechische Mythologie (1854-55); and Römische Mythologie (1858); with H. Ritter he produced the valuable

sopher, was born at Landshut on April 3, 1839, and died on Aug. 4, Historia philosophiae graecae et romanae ex fontium locis contexta 1899. After studying at the University of Munich he served in the (1838). He contributed to Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine EnBavarian army from 1859 to 1872, when he retired with the rank cyklopddie and Pauly’s Realencyklopadie der classischen Alterof captain. He then gave himself up to philosophical work, espe- tumswissenschaft. A complete list of his works will be found in cially in connection with the phenomena of hypnotism and oc- Ausgewählte Aufsätze aus dem Gebiete der klassischen Aliertumscultism from the modern psychological standpoint. He attempted wissenschaft (ed. R. Köhler, 1864). See G. T. Stichling, Ludwig Preller. Eine Gedächtnissrede (1863). to deduce the existence of spirit, apart from, and yet entering PREMONITION, an impression relating to a future event. from time to time into connection with, the phenomena of the senses, by an examination of the relation between the ego of In modern times the best attested premonitions are those relatthought and the age of sensible experience as understood by Kant. ing to events about to occur in the subject’s own organism. The In Der Kampf ums Dasein am Himmel (1874), republished in power of prediction possessed by the subject in such cases may 1882 under the title Entwickelungsgeschichte des Welialls. Prel be explained in two ways: (1) As due to an abnormal power of endeavoured to apply the Darwinian doctrine of organic evolution perception possessed by certain persons, when in the hypnotic not only to the sphere of consciousness but also even more widely trance, of the working of their own pathological processes; or as the philosophical principle of the world. He was one of a large (2) more probably, as the result of self-suggestion. Apart from these cases there are two types of alleged prenumber of German thinkers who during the latter half of the 19th century endeavoured to treat the mind as a mechanism. See monitions. (1) The future event may be foreshadowed by a symbol. Amongst the best known of these symbolic impressions EVOLUTION; in Philosophy. PRELATE, ecclesiastical dignitary of high rank. In the early are banshees, corpse lights, phantom funeral processions, ominous middle ages the title prelate was applied to secular persons in animals or sounds and symbolic dreams (e.g., of teeth falling high positions and thence it passed to persons having ecclesiastical out). Of all such cases it is enough to say that it is impossible authority. The De prelatis of Valerian is concerned with secular for the serious inquirer to establish any causal connection beprinces, and even as late as the 14th century the title was occa-. tween the omen and the event which it is presumed to foresionally applied to secular magistrates. In mediaeval ecclesiastical shadow. (2) There are many instances, recorded by educated usage the term might be applied to almost any person having witnesses, of dreams, visions, warning voices, etc., giving precise ecclesiastical authority. The term occurs very frequently in the information as to coming events. In some of these cases, where the dream, etc., has been put on record before its “fulfilment” Rule of St. Benedict and other early monastic rules. In more modern usage in the Roman Catholic Church prelates, is known, chance is sufficient to explain the coincidence, as in the properly so-called, are those who have jurisdiction in foro externo, recorded cases of dreams foretelling the winner of the Derby or but a liberal interpretation has given the title a more general the death of a crowned head. In cases where such an explanation significance. Prelacy is defined by the canonists as “pre-eminence is precluded by the nature of the details foreshadowed, contemwith jurisdiction” and the idea supposes an episcopal or quasi- poraneous documentary evidence is usually lacking. The perepiscopal jurisdiction. But gradually the title was extended to sistent belief on the part of the narrators in the genuineness of ecclesiastical persons having a prominent office even without their previsions indicates that in some cases there may be a jurisdiction, and later still it has come to be applied to ecclesias- hallucination of memory, analogous to the well known feeling tical persons marked by some special honour though without any of “false recognition.” definite office or jurisdiction. PREMONSTRATENSIANS, also called Norbertines, and We may therefore distinguish “true” from “titular” prelates. in England White Canons, from the colour of the habit: an order The true prelacy is composed of the persons who constitute the of Augustinian Canons founded in 1120 by St. Norbert, afterecclesiastical hierarchy; jurisdiction is inherent in their office wards archbishop of Magdeburg. He had made various efforts and gives pre-eminence, as with patriarchs, archbishops and to introduce a strict form of canonical life in various communibishops. The true, no less than the titular, prelates have their ties of canons in Germany; in 1120 he was working in the diocese various ranks, differing as regards title, precedence, clothing and of Laon, and there in a desert place, called Prémontré, in Aisne, other insignia. The distinguishing colour of a prelate’s clothing he and thirteen companions established a monastery to be the

PŘEMYSL—PREROGATIVE

436

cradle of a new order. They were canons regular and followed the so-called Rule of St. Augustine (see AUGUSTINIANS), but with supplementary statutes that made the life one of great austerity. St. Norbert was a friend of St. Bernard of Clairvaux—and he was largely influenced by the Cistercian ideals as to both the manner

the immunity of “the Crown” from being sued by ordinary civi process. (See PETITION or RicHT.) English law has, however

tensians were not monks but canons regular, their work was preaching and the exercise of the pastoral office, and they served a large number of parishes incorporated in their monasteries. The strength of the order now lies in Belgium, where at Tongerloo is a great Premonstratensian abbey that still maintains a semblance of its mediaeval state.

rebellion intendeth as its natural consequence the death of the King.” In other words, a subject indicted for attempting to

of life and the government of his order. But as the Premonstra-

never

clearly distinguished between

the two

capacities; indeed

Coke declared it “a damned and damnable opinion” to attempt

such a distinction.

The whole history of “constructive treason"

is a witness to this dualism, as when the judge held that “every

compel the King to change his counsellors was not allowed to

plead that his “overt acts” were not directed against the life of

the King but merely against his Government. The result was that the King was completely identified with the State and even to-day our constitutional law knows no such term as ‘The State.” The BIBLIOGRAPHY. —See Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (x907); ii. § 36; articles in Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchenlexikon (and ed.) ; State is the King. All writs run in his name. All indictable

Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie

(3rd ed.) and Catholic Encyclopae-

dia, art. “Premonstratensians.” The best special study is F. Winter, Die Pramonstratenser des 12. Jakrh. und ihre Bedeutung für das nordöstEche Deutschland (1865).

PREMYSL,

the reputed ancestor of the line of dukes and

kings which ruled in Bohemia from 873 or earlier until the murder of Wenceslaus IIT. in 1306, and which was known as the Přemyslide dynasty. According to legend Přemysl was a peasant of Staditz who attracted the notice of Libussa, daughter of a certain Krok, who ruled over a large part of Bohemia, and is said to have been descended from Samo. Přemysl married Libussa, the traditional foundress of Prague, and during the 8th century became prince of the Bohemian Czechs. His family became extinct when Wenceslaus III. died, but through females the title to Bohemia passed from the Pfemyslides to the house of Luxembourg and later to the house of Habsburg. See FE. Palacky, Geschichte von Böhmen, Bd. I. (Prague, 1844).

PRENZLAU

or PRENZLOW,

a town in the Prussian

province of Brandenburg. It lies on the lower Ucker See, 30 m. W. by S. of Stettin by rail. Pop. (1925) 21,565. Prenzlau is first mentioned at the close of the 12th century, and received its mu-

nicipal charter in 1235. As the capital of the old Uckermark it was a frequent object of dispute between Pomerania and Brandenburg until incorporated with the latter about 1480. The Gothic church of St. Mary dates from 1340, and the remains of the town gates, walls and towers are also interesting. The industries include machine building, iron-founding, brewing and sugar-refining. Tobacco is grown in the neighbourhood, and cigars, margarine and leather are manufactured in the town.

PREPARATORY

SCHOOLS form part of what is known

as the public school system. (In the United States the term is used for those schools which prepare for higher education, and they are discussed in articles SECONDARY EDUCATION and EDUCA-

TION, United States sections.) In Great Britain before Thomas Arnold, in the ‘thirties of last century, excluded boys of under twelve years of age from Rugby, there were exceedingly few of these schools, but they now number some 7oo. It has for many years been exceptional for a boy to enter a public school otherwise than from a preparatory school. These schools are privately owned and are free of Government control; the majority are, however, linked together by membership in an incorporated association. They cater, for the most part, for boys between the ages of six and fourteen years, and, outside the large towns and cities, the great bulk of the pupils are boarders, with only a few day scholars. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See The Board of Education Report on Preparatory Schools, ed. Michael Sadler (1900); The Preparatory Schools’ Review issued by the Incorporated Association of Preparatory Schools; S, S. Harris, The Master and his Boys; J. Alan Rannie, The Schools of England (1928).

offences are offences “against the peace of our Lord the King, his Crown and dignity.” All “public” property is legally vested in the King—“his” are the ships of war, the Government build. ings; the courts of justice and all other governmental agencies, All statutory powers conferred upon the Government are de-

clared to be conferred on “His Majesty in Council.” All money

voted by Parliament is voted to “the King,” even though it be appropriated by statute to public services from which the King is powerless to divert it. This identification of the State with the King is nothing but a survival of mediaeval times when the King was, indeed, “every inch a King,” when he governed largely by his own will, did justice in person and chose his own servants. The Crown.—The term “Crown” is occasionally used to mark

the distinction between the King’s Government and the King’s person, but its use is intermittent and, strictly speaking, the Crown is, as has been prettily said, nothing but “a chattel in the Tower which has been entailed upon the Hanoverian dynasty.” The common law, apart from statute, makes no distinction, for example, between debts due to the King’s household and debts due to the Crown, so that, at common law, debts due to the King personally and taxes due to his Government enjoy, indifferently. the prerogative of priority over all other claims against the estate of a debtor, a bankrupt or a deceased person. In the same way a royal palace and a Post Office are equally exempt from the payment of rates, for it is one of the “prerogatives” that “the King” is not-bound, in the absence of express words, by a taxing statute. We see the same identification of the “natural” King and the “politic” King in the rule that the King’s Government can never, in any circumstances, be sued for wrongful, z.e., tortious, acts. The immunity of the latter is based, historically, on the rule that the “King can do no wrong” which did not mean originally, eg. in the time of Bracton, the perfectibility of the King but the simple feudal fact that the King could not be tried or sued in his own courts any more than any other feudal lord in the court of that lord’s jurisdiction. As the King was, and is, the “Government,” the rule found a new application in the principle that no governmental acts or defaults could be the subject of legal proceedings. Had this application been carried to its logical conclusion, it would have resulted in the immunity of all the King’s officers from being sued for their wrongful acts. But English law was, and is, too practical a science to be logical and a consequence so disastrous to the rights

of the subject was avoided by the evolution of the principle, laid

down by the judges, that no servant of the Crown could be allowed to plead the command of the King, even where such a command had actually been issued, as a defence for an unlawful act, for to admit such a plea would, they held, be to impute wrong to the King. This theory reaches its triumphant climax in the dictum

PREROGATIVE, in English law, means the powers, privi- of Blackstone that the King not only can “do” no wrong but

leges and immunities peculiar to the King. In the early Middle Ages the word occurs as an adjective meaning ‘‘exceptional,” as

in the sentence “The King is prerogative.”

l

A distinction has to be made at the outset between prerogatives peculiar to the King in his “natural” capacity and confined to him, such as the rule that he is personally exempt from all jurisdiction, criminal or civil, and cannot be sued for debt, and prerogatives which belong to his “politic” capacity and as such extend to the whole Government carried on in his name, such as b

cannot even “think a wrong.” The failure of the law to make any distinction between the natural and political capacity of the King led to some desperate fictions, of which the supreme example

is the legal maxim that “the King never dies.” This fiction, in the absence of such a distinction, was necessary because otherwise

the death of the King would have dissolved the State in the interregnum between the decease of one King and the coronation

of his successor. Indeed, this was actually the situation before the

invention of the fiction.

MODERN USAGE]

PREROGATIVE

437

A mediaeval chronicler records that on the death of one of the

isters in accordance with popular will was not so much the developearlier Kings “every man did what was right in his own eyes.” ment of Cabinet Government as the transfer, principally as the The King was dead, his “peace” died with him and, for the time result of Burke’s reforms, of all governmental expenses from being being, offences ceased to be “crimes” for the legal essence of a a charge on the hereditary revenues of the Crown, or the Civil list, crime, as we have seen, is an offence “against the King’s peace.” to the annual Estimates. In strict law the King can still appoint Here is the mystical doctrine, so mystically expressed by Allen and dismiss ministers as he pleases, nor is he under any statutory when he says “When the King dies his politic body escapes from obligation to summon Parliament. But if he did the one and his natural body and by a sort of legal metempsychosis enters omitted the other, he and his ministers would be without money into the natural body of his successor; but whilst he is alive the to carry on the Government. Taxes might still be imposed, for two bodies are indissolubly united and consolidated into one.” much of our taxation is voted under permanent Acts, but none But the conquest of this fiction was not complete. Right down of the proceeds could be expended. Only the annual Appropriato 1867 the death of the King operated to dissolve Parliament; tion Act can authorize the expenditure of the public money. Decreasing Powers.—As with the King’s ministers, so with the King was, and is, a constitutional element in Parliament and the summons of a Parliament was regarded as an act so personal “his” judges. In virtue of the Act of Settlement the King can to him that when he died his Parliament died with him. It was no longer dismiss judges at his pleasure; they are removable only reserved for the Demise of the Crown Act of 1867 to provide on an address by both Houses of Parliament. Even their appointthat the death of the King should not involve a dissolution. On ment, although technically the act of the King, is the act of a the other hand the death of the King still operates to dissolve the minister, namely the Lord Chancellor who issues, in each case, whole Privy Council from the date of his death until his successor a “patent” of appointment. re-appoints the members. The prerogatives are thus no longer an instrument of arbitrary Modern Kingly Prerogative—The prerogative powers of government. They have, constitutionally speaking, passed into the King, z.e., powers original and inherent in the Kingship, as the hands of the Cabinet. Hence Dicey’s epigram that “the predistinct from powers conferred on him by statute, have all of rogatives of the Crown have become the principles of the them one feature in common which is that they can no longer be people.” Like all epigrams, this statement is, however, more exercised by the King in person but orily on the advice of Min- pointed than true. Cabinets may be as arbitrary as Kings, and isters or, what amounts to the same thing, in particular forms Prime Ministers as arbitrary as Cabinets. The prerogative of disand by the use of particular instruments. Long before “‘respon- solution, for example, now operates, in virtue of the modern consible government” made its appearance in England and at a time vention that the King is constitutionally bound to grant a diswhen the Commons even repudiated responsibility for the gov- solution to a Prime Minister, even when he has been defeated in ernment of the country, Parliament, guided by a sound instinct, the House of Commons, to make the former the master of the insisted that the royal prerogative in certain matters could only latter. So too a Government, faced by a hostile House of Lords, be exercised by the use of certain seals, notably the Great Seal can in certain cases avail itself of the prerogative where it cannot and the Privy Seal, which were in the custody of certain great be sure of getting its way by statute. Furthermore the prerogaofficers of State. There are innumerable mediaeval statutes to tive interposes a shield between a Government department and this effect. For the use or misuse of these seals their custodians a subject whose rights it has invaded. (See PETITION oF RIGHT.) could be brought to book by impeachment (q.v.) in Parliament. Pre-Cabinet Government.—Before the development of As early as the 16th century the judges held in Mildmay’s Case Cabinet Government, in other words while the exercise of the that the King’s order to issue “treasure” could only be executed prerogative was exclusively in the hands of the King himself, or by a warrant under the Great or Privy Seal—a principle now of ministers subservient to him, the efforts of Parliament were embodied in the Exchequer and Audit Act of 1866 which requires directed to depriving, subjugating or abolishing the prerogative. that the sign-manual, z.¢., the King’s personal signature, must The chief example is afforded by statutes such as the Petition of always be countersigned by two Lords of the Treasury before Right, the Bill of Rights and the Act for the Abolition of the money can issue out of the national exchequer. In the same Star Chamber, statutes abolishing respectively the prerogative way the common law courts themselves laid down the rule, at of the King in taxation to supply his needs, in raising and keeping the beginning of the 17th century, that, even in the Court of a standing army to enforce his will, and in exercising a jurisdicKing’s Bench, held coram rege and in which mediaeval Kings tion to punish his opponents. Here Parliament went further than had presided in person, the King could no longer administer the courts were prepared to go. The courts did, indeed, in the justice in person—“the King cannot speak by word of mouth famous “Case of Proclamations” lay down the important prinbut only by record.” There still remained, it is true, the residuary ciple that “the King hath no prerogative except that which the jurisdiction of the King in Council which could be, and was, law allows him,” But the law itself, z.e., the common law, was disexercised by him in person, but with the abolition of the Star posed, as in Bate’s Case, 2 State Trials 371 (1606), and in the Chamber in 1641 this jurisdiction disappeared. By the same Ship Money Case, 3 State Trials rogo (1638), to recognize an statute the King’s personal command, 7.¢e., a warrant issued under arbitrary power in the King by distinguishing an “absolute” prehis hand, was no longer, of itself, to be a decisive answer to an rogative in cases of emergency, of which the King must be the application for a writ of Habeas Corpus by a person arrested sole judge, and from the exercise of which no King, not even under such a warrant. (See WARRANT and HABEAS CoRPUS.) by statute, would contract himself out—at any rate so as to _ So long as it was in the power of the King to remove the bind his successors. The answer to this doctrine was the pertinent judges for decisions adverse to the exercise of his personal will challenge of Mr. Hakewill in the Commons debates, “Who then or to dismiss ministers who refused to carry out his wishes, he shall decide what 7s an emergency?”. It was the Revolution of could, of course, bend them to exercise his prerogatives according 1689 that really decided the issue by settling that the King has to his pleasure, even when their exercise was subject to the formal no power above and beyond the law and that the real sovereign tules described above. Parliament, however, gradually stopped up is not the King but the King in Parliament. every earth in this respect. It refused to accept the King’s comSummary.—The chief prerogative powers may be summarised mand as a defence to the impeachment of one of his ministers, as follows:

as in Danby’s Case (1679), while by the Act of Settlement (section 3) it enacted that the King’s prerogative of pardon under the

Great Seal should not be pleadable to an impeachment. So long, however, as the King was not dependent on supplies for the ordinary expenses of the Government he could neglect to sum-

mon a Parliament for as many years as he pleased and imPeachment was thereby made impossible. What was really detisive in securing the exercise of the King’s prerogative by min-

(1) In foreign relations the King has the exclusive power

of making war and of declaring peace. The power is usually exercised by a Proclamation and an Order in Council and, as such, it is binding on the courts who cannot go behind it but must accord it the same “judicial notice” as an Act of Parliament, Esposito v. Bowden 7 E. and B. 765. In practice, of course, the power is never exercised except with the approval of Parliament. The treaty-making power may be regarded as an exercise of the

4.38

PREROGATIVE

same prerogative. The King can make what treaties he pleases, provided they do not impose a tax on the subject or derogate from common law rights. Whether he can, by the negotiation of such a treaty, cede British territory is more doubtful and has been much disputed; no King, in other words no English ministry, has ventured to exercise such a prerogative since 1894 without seeking the consent of Parliament in the form of a statute and it may be regarded as now settled usage that, as in the case of the Treaty of Versailles, the Crown will always, in the case of a Treaty of Peace involving cession or annexation, seek statutory powers, ex magna cautela, to do all such things as may be necessary to carry such a treaty into effect. The Crown has, however, often, as in the case of certain African Protectorates, annexed “foreign” territories by mere prerogative in the form of an Order in Council. Furthermore it rests with the Crown, and the Crown alone, to “recognize” the foreign Governments as de jure Governments: a recent case in point is the recognition of the Bolshevik Repub-

lic (see Luther v. Sagor [1921] 3 K.B. 533). Such recognition is binding on the courts and, by a logical sequence, so is a declaration by the Crown that a particular person is entitled to the status of a foreign sovereign and as such is immune from the jurisdiction of the courts—cf. Mighell v. Sultan of Johore (1880) L.R. 5 P.D. 197. So too with the status of an ambassador and the diplomatic immunity of himself and his “suite’—it has now been held that the courts cannot, in the presence of a Foreign Office certificate, even traverse that certificate in order to decide whether the person, in favour of whom diplomatic immunity from their jurisdiction is claimed, is, as a matter of fact, a member of

the embassy or not—Mussman v. Engelke (1928) A.C. (2) Defence.—The King is head of the naval and military forces of the country and can alone recruit them. It is a statutory offence for any other person to “recruit.” The Bill of Rights has limited the exercise of this prerogative by making the raising and maintaining of a standing army in time of peace ilegal. The words italicized are important; they do not prohibit the exercise of the power in time of war and they leave the prerogative unaffected as regards the navy. “The Crown is not precluded from raising a standing navy in time of peace nor from imposing a permanent discipline” and in time of war the King can impress sailors and ships by virtue of royal prerogative, R. v. Broadfoot (Foster, Crown Cases p. 154). There is considerable authority for the proposition that in time of war the King can conscript civilians for the defence of the realm although he cannot compel them to serve abroad. So, too, with certain limitations, he can requisition the subject’s property and enter on the subject’s land in time of war although this prerogative is now entirely regulated by statute (see the De Keyser Case below). The necessity of an annual statute to put in force the code of discipline known as the Army Act has, as it has been well said, made of the army “a statutory not a prerogative force.” The fact also that all Army expenditure is subject to the annual vote of the Army Estimates has the same effect. And it is, in fact, impossible for the King to “make war,’ as distinct from declaring it, without the consent of Parliament. Not only would a vote of special supplies be necessary but by the Reserve Forces Act of 1882, mobilization itself is subject to Parliamentary consent inasmuch as the Army Reserve cannot be called up for permanent service unless Parliament is summoned within 10 days. The same condition is attached to the embodiment of the Territorial Force. (See also MARTIAL Law and Miirrary Law.)

as in the time of the earlier statutes.

[DELEGATED POWERS In such cases the Kin

may make what laws he pleases (Campbell v. Hall, 20 St. Tr. 239). And in the case of all colonies, even the self-governing Dominions, the King can “disallow” an Act to which his local representative, the Governor or Governor-General, has assented. This power is recognized in the constitution of the self-governing Dominions themselves, but it is therein made subject to a period of limitation, usually one or two years.

(4) Parliament.—lIt is the sole prerogative of the King to summon, prorogue and dissolve Parliament. This may properly be regarded as an executive, not a legislative, act and it is, of course, performed on the advice of ministers. As has been said above, it may be regarded as an accepted convention, at any rate since 1924, that the King cannot, under any circumstances,

refuse to dissolve Parliament when a request to that effect is preferred by a Prime Minister. But he might still dissolve Parliament ex proprio motu and against the wishes of his Prime Minister under certain circumstances, as, for example, when a Prime Minister having been defeated on a direct Vote of Confidence in

the Commons refused either to resign or to ask for a dissolution. Such a state of affairs is not likely nor would it, in any case, be durable, but it is not inconceivable.

(5) Executive.—The theory of the law is that the Government of the country is still entirely a matter of prerogative, although, of course, many, if not most, of the powers now exer.

cised by the Crown have been conferred upon it by statute—in particular the power of making Statutory Rules and Orders (q.v.)

to carry a statute into effect. All ministers are appointed by the King—on the nomination of the Prime Minister—and “Kiss

hands”

or, as in the case of Secretaries of State, receive their

seals from the King himself. In law there is no such office as that of “Prime Minister.” In the choice of a Prime Minister the King has, both in law and in fact, a discretion and he sends for whom he will, when the outgoing Prime Minister has resigned, but his choice is usually limited to the leader of the Opposition. All military and naval officers are appointed by a “commission” from the King. So too with the Governors of the Colonies. And as he appoints, so he dismisses. Every office under the Crown, except that of the judges and the Comptroller and Auditor General, is held “during pleasure.” This doctrine has important legal consequences in that the King’s ministers, exercising the prerogative, can terminate any commission or contract of service whenever they please and the servant of the Crown, civil or military, has no remedy. English law “imports into every agreement” for service with the Crown the term “that the Crown has power to dismiss at pleasure” and even that any term of agreement pur-

porting to exclude this power would be void (Lord Watson in De Dokse v. the King quoted in Dunn v. the Queen [1896] 1 Q.B. at p. 118). This is a striking example of how the prerogative may operate to invest ministers with arbitrary power. No servant of the Crown has any legally enforceable right to pay, pension or security of tenure. (6) General.—The less important prerogatives of the Crown may be dealt with generally. The King is the supreme landowner. a relic of feudal doctrines, which is only important in the case of a man dying intestate and without heirs in which case his land “escheats” to the Crown. The King also is the depositary of the prerogative of mercy, in other words he can pardon those who offend against his “peace”; the prerogative is now exercised exclusively on the advice of the Home Secretary. He is the “fountain (3) Legislation.—The requirement of the King’s assent to a of honour” and as such is the sole grantor of titles such as bill passed by both Houses of Parliament before it can be “en- peerages, baronetcies and knighthoods; his power in this respect acted” may be regarded as an aspect of the royal prerogative in is subject to no limitations except those contained in peerage law that the King may, in law, withhold his assent. This prerogative but “honours” are rarely conferred by him except on the advice is not dead—‘time never runs against the King” so as to make a of Ministers. He is the “supreme governor” of the Church m prerogative wholly obsolete by desuetude—but it has not been virtue of the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity. The prerogaexercised since the reign of Queen Anne. But the King may tives of the Crown in the courts are dealt with in the article on legislate by prerogative, 7.e., by Proclamation or by Order in PETITION OF RIGHT. Effect of Statutes on the Prerogative—As has been seen Council, as distinct from statute. But it was long ago laid down by Coke that the King cannot, by his prerogative, alter the com- Parliament has frequently intervened to abolish some particular mon law or create a new offence. In the case of colonies acquired prerogative, deemed to be oppressive, and since the Revolution

by conquest or cession the prerogative is, however, as absolute

of 1689 it has never been doubted that such a statute will bind

PREROGATIVE

COURTS—PRESBYTER

439

The history of presbyteral government as opposed to episcopacy and pure congregationalism is not known in detail. After the Refsiderable doubt and speculation whether a statute can curtail a ormation, however, it was adopted by Calvin and his followers, who prerogative in the absence of express words to that effect. In a created that system which has ever since been known as Presbyterhook of considerable authority in its day, Chitty (The Preroga- ianism (g.v.). During the last quarter of the rst century, a threetive of the Crown [1820] p. 383) laid down that “Acts of Parlia- fold organization is found in the Church: (a) a spiritual organizament which would divest or abridge the King of his prerogative, tion composed of “apostles, prophets and teachers who had been his interests or his remedies in the slightest degree do not in awakened by the spirit and by the spirit endowed”; (b) an admingeneral extend to bind the King unless there be express words istrative organization, “For the care of the poor, for worship, for to that effect.” This view was expressed more widely by a judge, correspondence, the congregation needed controlling officials. Hobart, C. J., in 1624 in the quaint words “Everything [in a These were the bishop and the deacons, the former for higher. statute] for the benefit of the King shall be taken largely [z.e., the latter for inferior services”; (c) a patriarchal organization liberally], as everything against the King shall be taken strictly” based upon the natural deference of the younger to the older —Sir Edward Coke’s Case (1624), Godbee’s Reports, p. 289. members of the Church. The senior members of the community, Thus it has been successfully contended that the Crown is not by virtue of their age and experience, watched over the conduct bound by the Statute of Limitations and it has obtained judgment and guided the action of the younger and less experienced porin proceedings against a subject, by Information of Debt, on a tion of the Church, though they held no official position and were claim thirty years old (Brummell v. M’Pherson 7 L.J. [O.W. not appointed for any particular work like the bishops and Series] Ch. 1.). But the presumption in favour of the Crown, deacons. In the 2nd century the patriarchal element in the organiin the interpretation of a statute, is no longer as strong as it was. zation was merged in the administrative, and the presbyters beIn this respect the great case of Attorney-General v. De Keyser’s came a definite order in the ministry. The time at which the Hotel [1920] A.C. is decisive to the extent that when Parlia- change occurred cannot be definitely fixed. Although presbyters ment has by statute regulated “the whole field of the prerogative,” are not mentioned in the genuine Epistles of St. Paul, there are that particular prerogative can be exercised in no other way than hints that similar officers existed in some of the churches founded that prescribed by the statute. In that case the Defence Act of by the apostle. There is a reference in 1 Thess. v. 12 to “‘those 1842 had laid down regulations for the payment of compensation who rule over you” (rpotordpevor), and the same word occurs by the Crown for lands taken for the purpose of national defence, in Rom. xii. 8. The term “governments” (xuBepyjoecs) in x Cor. and it was held that, though that Act had not expressly abolished xii. 28 obviously refers to men who discharged the same functhe prerogative of taking land or premises in time of war, the tions as presbyters. If too, as seems most probable, bishops and prerogative itself could only be exercised in accordance with the presbyters were practically identical, there is of course a specific terms laid down by the Act, namely the payment of compensa- reference to them in Phil. i. 1. The “leaders” who are mentioned tion duly assessed by a jury. The Crown’s contention that, as three times in Hebrews xiii. were also probably “presbyters”’ there was no direct mention of the prerogative in the Act of 1842, under another name. If the Church at Jerusalem had any officials, that prerogative was unaffected and unimpaired, was decisively it is highly probable that those officials bore the name and took rejected by the courts. The same principle has been followed by over the functions of the elders of the synagogue. The statement the courts in the more recent case of Food Controller v. Cork in Acts xiv. 23, that Paul and Barnabas appointed elders in the (1923) A.C. 647. (See also articles on ATTORNEY-GENERAL, Com- churches of South Galatia, is more open to objection perhaps, owing to the silence of the Epistle to the Galatians. uon LAw, CONSTITUTIONAL LAW, PETITION oF RIGHT.) The conclusions which we seem to reach are as follows: (1) BrstrocRrapHy.— See W. Stanford, Exposition of the King’s Prerogatives (1567); J. Comyns, Digest of the Laws of England (5 vols., In the earliest stage (between 30 and 60) there is no uniform 1762-67, sth ed. 8 vols., 1822); J. Chitty, A Treatise of the Law of the organization in the Christian Church. Presbyters are found in Prerogatives of the Crown (1820); F. W. Maitland, Collected Papers Jerusalem from primitive times. In the Pauline churches the vol. iii. (3 vols., 1911r); J. H. Morgan, “Remedies against the Crown” name is not found except at Ephesus and possibly in south Galain G. E. Robinson, Public Authorities and Legal Liability (1925); also A. V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Con- tia, though there are traces of the office, at any rate In germ, stitution (8th ed. 1915); W. R. Anson, The Law and Custom of the under different titles in other churches. (2) In the second stage Constitution (sth ed. M. L. Gwyer, 1922). (J. H. Mo.) (between 60 and roo) there is an increasing tendency towards PREROGATIVE COURTS, the name given to the English uniformity. The office is found definitely mentioned in connecprovincial courts of Canterbury and York, as far as regarded their tion with the churches of Asia Minor (1 Pet. v. 1), Corinth

not only the King who actually assented to it but all his successors.

It has, however, until recently, been a matter of con-

jurisdiction over the estates of deceased persons.

They had juris-

diction to grant probate or administration where the diocesan courts could not entertain the case owing to the deceased having died possessed of goods above the value of £5 (bona notabilic) in each of two or more dioceses. The jurisdiction of the prerogative courts was transferred to the court of probate in 1857 by the Probate Court Act, and is now vested in the probate, divorce and admiralty division of the High Court of Justice by the Judicature Act 1875. In the State of New Jersey, United States, the court having jurisdiction over probate matters is called the prerogative court.

PRESBYTER,

(Epistle of Clement) and Crete (Titus). The officials were called by two names, “elders” and “‘bishops,” the former denoting the office, the latter the function (exercising the oversight). The substantial identity of the two titles cannot be doubted in the light of such passages as Acts xx. 17, 28; 1 Pet. v. 1, 2; r Tim. 11. 1-7, V. 17-19 and Titus i. 5-7. There is far less controversy with regard to the later history of the presbyters. The third stage of the development of the office is marked by the rise of the single episcopus as the head of the individual church (see BrsHop; Eprscopacy). The first trace

of this is to be found in the Epistles of Ignatius which prove

the title borne from very early times by that by the year 115 “‘the three orders” as they were afterwards

certain officers or ministers of the Christian Church intermediate called—bishops, presbyters and deacons—already existed, not between “bishops” and “deacons.” The word is the original form indeed universally, but in a large proportion of the churches. The of priest (g.v.). The word is not found in pre-Christian writings presbyters occupied an intermediate position between the bishop except in the Septuagint, though as Deissmann has shown it 1s and the deacons. They constituted “the council of the bishop.” found on the Papyri as an official title for the village magistrates It was some time before the threefold ministry became universal. of Egypt and the members of the yepoveia, or senate, of many The Didache knows nothing of the presbyters; bishops and towns in Asia Minor. The office is, however, closely analogous deacons are mentioned, but there is no reference to the second to, and perhaps founded on, a similar office in the Jewish syna- order. The Shepherd of Hermas knows nothing of the single gogue organization among the officials of which were the zekenim, bishop; the churches are under the control of a body of presbyteror elders, sometimes dentifed with the archi-synagogues. In the bishops. Before the close of the 2nd century however the three New Testament the Greek word is used both for the ancient orders were established almost everywhere. The sources of .the Apostolic Canons (which date between 140-180) lay down the Jewish official and for the Christian elder.

440

PRESBYTERIANISM

rule that even the smallest community of Christians, though it contain only twelve members, must have its bishop and its presbyters. The original equality of bishops and presbyters was still however theoretically maintained. The presbyters formed the governing body of the church. It was their duty to maintain order, exercise discipline, and superintend the affairs of the Church. At the beginning of the 3rd century, if we are to believe Tertullian, they had no spiritual authority of their own, at any rate as far as the sacraments are concerned. The right to baptize and celebrate the communion was delegated to them by the bishop. In the fourth stage we find the presbyters, like the bishops,

becoming endowed with special sacerdotal powers and functions. It was not till the middle of the 3rd century that the priesthood was restricted to the clergy. Cyprian is largely responsible for the change, though traces of it are found during the previous half century. Cyprian bestows the highest sacerdotal terms upon the bishops of course, but his references to the priestly character of the office of presbyter are also most definite. Henceforth presbyters are recognized as the secundum sacerdotium in the Church. With the rise of the diocesan bishops the position of the presbyters became more important. The charge of the individual church was entrusted to them and gradually they took the place of the local bishops of earlier days, so that in the sth and 6th centuries an organization was reached which approximated in general outline to the system which prevails in the Anglican Church to-day. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See Hatch, Organization of the Early Christian Churches (and ed., 1882), and Harnack’s “excursus” in the German edition of this work (1883); Harnack, Die Lehre der zwölf Apostel (1884) ; Loening, Die Gemeindeverfassung des Urchristentums (1889) ; Sohm, Kirchenrecht (1892); an article by Loofs, in Studien und Kritiken, for 1890 (pp. 619~658) ; Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry 4 e Early Centuries (1902); Schmiedel, article “Ministry,” in Enc. 20.

PRESBYTERIANISM, one of the three principal systems of church polity known to the Christian (Protestant) Church, and occupying an intermediate position between episcopacy and congregationalism. I. THE SYSTEM DESCRIBED As compared with the Church of England (Episcopal) in which there are three orders of clergy—bishops, priests and deacons, Presbyterianism recognizes but one spiritual order, viz., presbyters. These are ecclesiastically of equal rank, though differentiated, according to their duties, as ministers who preach and administer the sacraments, and as elders who are associated with the ministers in the oversight of the people. There are deacons, in Presbyterianism inferior in rank to presbyters, their duties being regarded as non-spiritual. The membership of a Presbyterian Church consists of all who are enrolled as communicants, together with their children. Others who worship regularly without becoming communicants are called adherents. Only communicants exercise the rights of membership. They elect the minister and other office-bearers. But, in contrast with Congregationalism, when they elect and “call” a minister their action has to be sustained by the presbytery, which judges of his fitness for that particular sphere, of the measure of the congregation’s unanimity, and of the adequacy of financial support. When satisfied, the presbytery proceeds with the ordination and induction. The ordination and induction of ministers is always the act of a presbytery. The ordination and induction of elders in some branches of the Church is the act of the session; in others it is

the act of the presbytery. Church Courts.—-(i.) The session is the first of a series of

councils or church courts which are an essential feature of Presbyterianism. It consists of the ministers and ruling elders. The minister Is ex oficio president or moderator. Without his presence or the presence of his duly-appointed deputy the meeting would not be in order nor its proceedings valid. The moderator has not a deliberative, but only a casting vote. (This is true of the moderator in all the church courts.) Neither the session nor the congregation has jurisdiction over the minister. He holds his office ad vitam aut culpam; he cannot demit it or be deprived of it

[ORGANIZATION

without consent of the presbytery. In this way his independence among the people to whom he ministers is to a large extent

secured. The session has oversight of the congregation in regard to such matters as the hours of public worship, the arrange. ments for administration of the sacraments, the admission of new members and the exercise of church discipline. New members are either catechumens or members transferred from other churches The former are received after special instruction and profession of

faith; the latter on presenting a certificate of church membership

from the church which they have left. Though the admission of new members is, strictly speaking, the act of the session, this duty usually devolves upon the minister, who reports his procedure io

the session for approval and confirmation. Matters about which there is any doubt or difficulty, or division of opinion in the session, may be carried for settlement to the next higher court, the presbytery.

Cii.) The presbytery consists of all the ministers and a selec. tion of the ruling elders from the congregations within a prescribed area. The presbytery chooses its moderator periodically

from among its ministerial members.

business is transacted procedure.

His duty is to see that

according to Presbyterian principle and

The moderator

has no special power

or supremacy

over his brethren, but is honoured and obeyed as primus inter pares. The work of the presbytery is episcopal. It has oversight of all the congregations within its bounds; hears references from

kirk-sessions or appeals from individual members; sanctions the formation of new congregations; superintends the education of students for the ministry; stimulates and guides pastoral and evangelistic work; and exercises discipline over all within its bounds, including the ministers. Appeals and complaints may be taken from the presbytery to the synod. iii.) The synod is a provincial council which consists of the ministers and representative elders from all the congregations

within a specified number of presbyteries, in the same way as the presbytery is representative of a specified number of congregations. Though higher in rank and larger than most presbyteries it is practically of less importance, not being, like the presbytery, a court of first instance, nor yet, like the general assembly, a court of final appeal. The synod hears appeals and references from presbyteries; and by its discussions and decisions business of various kinds, if not settled, is ripened for consideration and

final settlement by the general assembly, the supreme court of the Church. (iv.) The general assembly is representative of the whole Church, either, as in the Irish General Assembly, by a minister and elder sent direct to it from every congregation, or, as in the Scottish General Assemblies, by a proportion of delegates, ministers and elders from every presbytery. The general assembly annually at its first meeting chooses one of its ministerial members as moderator. He takes precedence, primus inter pares, ofall the members, and is recognized as the official head of the Church during his term of office. His position is one of great honour and influence, but he remains a simple presbyter, without any special rule or jurisdiction. The general assembly reviews all the work of the Church: settles controversies; makes administrative laws; directs and stimulates missionary and other spiritual work; appoints professors of theology; admits to the ministry applicants from other churches; hears and decides complaints, references and appeals which have come up through the inferior courts; and takes cognizance of all matters connected with the Church’s interests or with the general welfare of the people. As a judicatory it is the final court of appeal; and by it alone can the graver censures of church discipline be reviewed and removed. The general assembly meets once a year at the time and place agreed upon and appointed by its predecessor. The weak point in the system is that episcopal superintendence being exercised in every case by a plurality of individuals there is

no one, moderator or senior member, whose special duty it is to take initial action when the unpleasant work of judicial investiga-

tion or ecclesiastical discipline becomes nevessary. This has led in some quarters to a desire that the moderator should be clothed with greater responsibility and have his period of office prolonged;

CHURCH AND STATE]

PRESBYTERIANISM

441

of friction or collision. But when spiritual and secular interests come into unfriendly contact and entanglement; when controversy Divergent Views.—Though Presbyterians are unanimous in | in regard to them becomes inevitable; from which sphere, the adopting the general system of church polity as here outlined, and spiritual or the civil, is the final decision to come? Before the in claiming New Testament authority for it, there are certain dif- Reformation the Church would have had the last word; since that ferences of view in regard to details which may be noticed. (See event the right and the duty of the civil power have been Lightfoot’s exhaustive essay in his volume on the Epistle to the generally recognized.

should be made, in fact, more of a bishop in the Anglican sense of

the word.

Philippians.)

There is no doubt that considerable indefiniteness in

regard to the precise status and rank of the “ruling elder” has prevailed. When ministers and elders are associated in the mem-

bership of a church court their equality is admitted; no such idea as voting by orders is ever entertained. Yet even in a church court 4 certain disparity is apparent between a minister and his elders. Practically the minister is regarded as of higher standing. The

duty of teaching and of administering the sacraments and of always presiding in church courts being strictly reserved to him invests his office with a dignity and influence greater than that of the elder. The practice which is most characteristic of Presbyterianism is that which recognizes one order of presbyters but in this order two degrees or classes, known as teaching elders or “ministers” and ruling elders. In teaching, in dispensing the sacraments, in presiding over public worship, and in the private functions by which he ministers to the comfort, the instruction and the improvement of the people committed to his care, a pastor acts within his parish (or congregation) according to his own dis-

cretion; and for the discharge of all the duties of the pastoral office he is accountable only to the presbytery from whom he received the charge of the parish (or congregation). But in every-

thing which concerns what is called discipline—the exercise of that jurisdiction over the people with which the office-bearers of the church are conceived to be invested, he is assisted by lay-elders.

They are laymen in that they have no right to teach or to dispense the sacraments, and on this account they fill an office in the Presbyterian Church inferior in rank and power to that of the pastors. Their peculiar business is expressed by the term “ruling elders.” In the initial stages of the Apostolic Church it was no doubt sufficient to have a plurality of presbyters with absolutely similar duties and powers. At first, indeed, this may have been the only possible course. But apparently it soon became desirable and perhaps necessary to specialize the work of teaching by setting apart for that duty one presbyter who should withdraw from secular occupation and devote his whole time to the work of the ministry. There seems to be evidence of this in the later writings of the New Testament. It is now held by all Presbyterian churches that one presbyter in every congregation should have specially committed to him the work of teaching, administering the sacraments, visiting the flock pastorally, and taking oversight, with his fellow elders, of all the interests of the church. Another subject upon which there is a difference of opinion in the Presbyterian churches is the question of Church Establishments. The view, originally held by all Presbyterian churches in Great Britain and on the Continent, that union with and support by the civil government are not only lawful but also desirable, is now held only by a minority, and is practically exemplified among English-speaking Presbyterians only in the Church of Scotland

(see Scortanp, CHurcH oF). The lawfulness of Church Establishments with due qualifications is perhaps generally recognized in theory, but there is a growing tendency to regard connection with the state as inexpedient, if not actually contrary to sound Presbyterlan principle. Those who favour state connection and those who oppose it agree in claiming spiritual independence as a fundamental principle of Presbyterianism. All Presbyterians admit the supremacy of the state in things secular, and they claim supremacy for the

Origin.—The origin of Presbyterianism is a question of historical interest. By most students of the subject it is regarded as of later Jewish origin, and as having come into existence in its present form simultaneously with the formation of the Christian Church. The last is Bishop Lightfoot’s view. He connects the Christian ministry, not with the worship of the Temple, in which were priests and sacrificial ritual, but with that of the synagogue, which was a local institution providing spiritual edification by the reading and exposition of Scripture. The first Christians were regarded, even by themselves, as a Jewish sect. They were spoken of as “the way.” They took with them, into the new communities which they formed, the Jewish polity or rule and oversight by elders. The appointment of these would be regarded as a matter of course, and would not seem to call for any special notice in such a narrative as the Acts of the Apostles. But Presbyterlanism was associated In the 2nd century with a kind of episcopacy. This episcopacy was at first rather congregational than diocesan; but the tendency of its growth was undoubtedly towards the latter. Hence for proof that their church polity is apostolic Presbyterians are accustomed to appeal to the New Testament and to the time when the apostles were still living; and for proof of the apostolicity of prelacy Episcopalians appeal rather to the early Church fathers and to a time when the last of the Apostles had just passed away. (See Lightfoot’s essay in his Commentary on the Epistle to the Philippians.) It is generally admitted that distinct traces of Presbyterian polity are to be found in unexpected quarters (e.g., Ireland, Iona. the Culdees, etc.) from the early centuries of church history and throughout the mediaeval ages down to the Reformation of the 16th century. Only in a very modified sense, therefore, can it be correctly said to date from the Reformation. At the Reformation the Bible was for the great mass of both priests and people a new discovery. The study of it shed floods of light upon all church questions. The leaders of the Reformation searched the New Testament not only for doctrinal truth but also to ascertain the polity of the primitive Church. This was specially true of the Reformers in Switzerland, France, Scotland, Holland and in some parts of Germany. Luther gave little attention to New Testament polity, though he believed in and clung passionately to the universal priesthood of all true Christians, and rejected the idea of a sacerdotal caste. He had no dream or vision of the Church’s spiritual independence and prerogative. He was content that ecclesiastical supremacy should be with the civil power, and he believed that the work of the Reformation would in that way be best preserved and furthered. In no sense can his “consistorial” system of church government be regarded as Presbyterian. It was different with the Reformers outside Germany. While Luther studied the Scriptures in search of true doctrine and Christian life and was indifferent to forms of church polity, they studied the New Testament not only in search of primitive church doctrine but also of primitive church polity. One is struck by the unanimity with which, working individually and often in lands far apart, they reached the same conclusions. They did not get their ideas of church polity from one another, but drew it directly from the New Testament. They were unanimous in rejecting the episcopacy of the Church of Rome, the sanctity of celibacy, the

sacerdotal character of the ministry, the confessional, the pro-

Church in things spiritual. Those who favour a Church Estab- pitiatory nature of the mass. They were unanimous in adopting lishment hold that Church and state should each be supreme in the idea of a church in which all the members were priests under its own sphere, and that on these terms a union between them is

not only lawful but is the highest exemplification of Christian statesmanship. So long as these two spheres are at all points

clearly distinct, and so long as there is a desire on the part of

each to recognize the supremacy of the other, there is little danger

the Lord Jesus, the One High Priest and Ruler; the officers of

which were not mediators between of One Mediator, Christ Jesus; not examples to the flock and ministers unanimous in regarding ministerial

men and God, but preachers lords over God’s heritage, but to render service. They were service as mainly pastoral d

442

PRESBYTERIANISM

[A WORLD CHURCH

preaching, administering the sacraments and visiting from house | communion table in the body of the church is unhappily seen no to house; and, further, in perceiving that Christian ministers must

be also spiritual rulers, not in virtue of any magical influence transmitted from the Apostles, but in virtue of their election by the Church and of their appointment in the name of the Lord Jesus. When the conclusions thus reached by many independent investigators were at length reduced to a system by Calvin, in his famous Jnstitutio, it became the definite ideal of church government for all the Reformed, in contradistinction to the Lutheran, churches. Yet we do not find that the leaders of the Reformed Church succeeded in establishing at once a fully-developed Presbyterian polity. Powerful influences hindered them from realizing their ideal. In the first place, the people generally dreaded the recurrence of ecclesiastical tyranny. A second powerful influence was of a different kind, viz. municipal jealousy of church power. The municipal authority in those times claimed the right to exercise a censorship over the citizens’ private life. Any attempt on the part of the Church to exercise discipline was resented as an intrusion. Hence friction, at times, between the Reformers and civic authorities friendly to the Reformation; not as to whether there should be “discipline” (that was never doubted) but as to whether it should be ecclesiastical or municipal. Even, therefore, where people desired the Reformation there were powerful influences opposed to the setting up of church government and to the exercise of church

discipline after the manner

of the Apostolic Church;

and one

ceases to wonder at the absence of complete Presbyterianism in the countries which were forward to embrace and adopt the Reformation. Indeed the more favourable the secular authorities were to the Reformation the less need was there to discriminate between civil and ecclesiastical power, and to define strictly how

the latter should be exercised. We look in vain, therefore, for much more than the germs and principles of Presbyterianism in the churches of the first Reformers. Its evolution and the thorough application of its principles to actual church life came later, not in Saxony or Switzerland, but in France and Scotland; and through Scotland it has passed to all English-speaking lands. Presbyterian Worship.—The form of worship associated with Presbyterianism has been marked by extreme simplicity. It consists of reading of Holy Scripture, psalmody, non-liturgical prayer and preaching. There is nothing in the standards of the Presbyterian Church against liturgical worship. In some of the early books of order a few forms of prayer were given, but their use was not compulsory. On the whole, the preponderating preference has always been in favour of so-called extemporaneous, or free prayer; and the Westminster Directory of Public Worship has to a large extent stereotyped the form and order of the service in most Presbyterian churches. Within certain broad outlines much, perhaps too much, is left to the choice of individual congregations. It used to be customary among Presbyterians to stand during pub-

lic prayer, and to remain seated during the acts of praise, but this peculiarity is no longer maintained. The psalms rendered into metre were formerly the only vehicle of the Church’s public praise, but hymns are now also used in most Presbyterian churches. Rous’s version of the Psalms is the best known and most widely used. It is an English work. Somewhat reluctantly it was accepted by Scottish Presbyterlanism as a substitute for an older version with a greater variety of metre and music. “Old Hundred” and “Old 124th” mean the rooth and 124th Psalms in that old book. Organs used to be regarded as contrary to New Testament example, but their use is now all but universal. The public praise used to be led by an individual called the “precentor,” who oc¢upied a box in front of, and a little lower than, the pulpit. Choirs of male and female voices now lead the church praise. Presbyterianism has two sacraments, baptism and the Lord’s

Supper. Baptism is administered both to infants and adults by

more;

communicants

now receive the sacred elements seated ip

their pews. The dispensing of this rite is strictly reserved to an

ordained minister, who is assisted by elders in handing the bread and the cup to the people. The administration of private com. munion to the sick and dying is extremely rare in Presbyterian churches, but there is less objection to it than formerly, and in some churches it is even encouraged.

Discipline.—Presbyterian discipline is now entirely confined to exclusion from membership or from office.

Though it is the

duty of a minister to warn against irreverent or profane participation in the Lord’s Supper, he himself has no right to exclude any one from communion; that can only be done as the act of himself and the elders duly assembled in session. A code of instructions for the guidance of church courts when engaged in cases of discipline is in general use, and bears witness to the extreme care taken not only to have things done decently and in order, but also to prevent hasty, impulsive and illogical procedure in the investigation of charges of heresy or immorality. Cases of discipline are now comparatively rare, and, when they do occur, are not characterized by the bigoted severity which prevailed in former times and was rightly denounced as unchristian. The extent to which the Presbyterian form of church govern-

ment prevails throughout the world has been made more manifest in recent years by the formation of the “General Council of the Alliance of Reformed Churches holding the Presbyterian System,” the object of which is to promote unity and fellowship among the numerous branches of Presbyterianism throughout the world. Since

1910 the Presbyterian churches have encountered, in common with others, the obstacles and the impetus created by the World War. The gains have outweighed the losses upon the whole. Numerically, to judge from the statistics presented to the general council held at Cardiff in July 1925 the total membership of the Presbyterian churches had increased between 1913 and that date by well over 2,000,000. The precise figures are, for roo organised churches which it has been possible to reach, 8,670,500 souls; so that, on the usual scale of estimating people under the direct influence of a Church, there are over 40,000,000 who are Presbyterians. II. HISTORY

IN DIFFERENT

COUNTRIES

From this general outline of Presbyterianism we now tum to consider its evolution and history in some of the countries with which it is or has been specially associated. We omit, however, one of the most important, viz., Scotland, as the history is fully covered under the separate headings of SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF, and allied articles. Switzerland.—The Swiss, owing to their peculiar geographical position and to certain political circumstances, early manifested independence in ecclesiastical matters, and became accustomed to the management of their church affairs. The work of Zwingli as a Reformer, important and thorough though it was, did not concern itself mainly with church polity. Ecclesiastical affairs were, as a matter of course, wholly under the management of the cantonal and municipal authorities, and Zwingli was content that it should be so. The work of Farel, previous to his coming to Geneva, was almost entirely evangelistic, and his first work in Geneva was of a similar character. It was the town council which made arrangements for religious disputations, and provided for

the housing and maintenance of the preacher. When Calvin, at Farel’s invitation, settled in Geneva (1536) the work of reformation became more constructive. “The need of the hour was organization and familiar instruction, and Calvin set himself to work at once.” The first reforms he wished to see introduced concerned the Lord’s Supper, church praise, religious instruction of youth and the regulation of marriage. In connection with the first he desired that the discipline de excommunication should be exercised. His plan was partly Presbyterian and partly consistorial, Owing to certain circumstances in its past history, Geneva was notoriously immoral. “The rule of dissolute bishops, and the ex-

pouring or sprinkling, but the mode is considered immaterial. The Lord’s Supper, as generally observed throughout the various Presbyterian churches, is a close imitation of the New Testament practice; and where it is not marred by undue prolixity commends itself to most Christian people as a solemn and impressive ample of a turbulent and immoral clergy, had poisoned the morals service. The old plan of coming out and taking one’s place at the |of the city. Even the nuns of Geneva were notorious for theit

conduct.”

443

PRESBYTERIANISM

CALVIN]

Calvin suggested that men

of known worth should

he appointed in different quarters of the city to report to the

ministers those persons in their district who lived in open sin; that the ministers should then warn such persons not to come to

the communion; and that, if their warnings were unheeded, discipline should be enforced. It was on this subject of keeping pure the Lord’s Table that the controversy arose between the ministers and the town councillors which ended in the banishment of Calvin, Farel and Conrad from Geneva. In 1538 the ministers took upon themselves to refuse to administer the Lord’s Supper in Geneva because the city, as represented by its council, declined to submit to church discipline. The storm then broke out, and the

ministers were banished. Calvin’s refusal to administer the sacrament, for which he was banished from Geneva, is important as a matter of ecclesiastical history, because it is the essence of the whole system which he subsequently introduced. It rests on the principles that the Church has the right to exclude those who are unworthy, and that she is in no way subject to the civil power in spiritual matters. Dur-

ing the three years of his banishment Calvin was at Strassburg, where he had been carrying out his ideas. His recall was greatly to his honour. The town had become a prey to anarchy. One party threatened to return to Romanism; another threatened to sacrifice the independence

of Geneva and submit to Berne.

It

was felt to be a political necessity that he should return, and in 1541, somewhat reluctantly, he returned on his own terms.

These

were the recognition of the Church’s spiritual independence, the division of the town into parishes, and the appointment (by the municipal authority) of a consistory or council of elders in each

parish for the exercise of discipline. The arrangement was, however, a compromise. ‘The state retained control of the ecclesiastical organization, and Calvin secured his much-needed system of discipline. Fourteen years of friction and struggle followed, and if there came after them a period of comparative triumph and

repose for the great reformer it must still be remembered that he was never able to have his ideal ecclesiastical organization fully realized in the city of his adoption. The early Presbyterianism of Switzerland was defective in the following respects: (1) It started from a wrong definition of the Church, which, instead of being conceived as an organized community of believers in the Lord Jesus Christ, was made to depend upon the preaching of the gospel and the administration of the sacraments. As these implied a duly appointed minister, the existence of the Church was made to depend upon an organized ministry rather than an organized membership. It calls to mind

the Romish formula:

“Ubi episcopus ibi ecclesia.”

(2) It did

not maintain the scriptural right of the people to choose their

minister and other office-bearers. (3) Its independence of civil control was very imperfect. (4) And it did not by means of church courts provide for the manifestation of the Church’s unity and for the concentration of the Church’s influence. “Calvin,” says Principal Lindsay, “did three things for Geneva all of which went far beyond its walls. He gave its Church a trained ministry, its homes an educated people who could give a reason for their faith, and the whole city an heroic soul which enabled the little town to stand forth as the citadel and city of

refuge for the oppressed Protestants of Europe.” France.—It is pathetic and yet inspiring to study the development of Presbyterianism in France; pathetic because it was in a time of fierce persecution that the French Protestants organized themselves into churches, and inspiring, because it showed the power which scriptural organization gave them to withstand incessant, unrelenting hostility. It would be difficult to exaggerate

the influence of Calvin upon French Protestanism.

His Christi-

anae religionis institutio became a standard round which his countrymen rallied in the work and battle of the Reformation. Though wder thirty years of age, he became all over Europe, and in an exceptional degree in France, the leader, organizer and consoli-

dator of the Reformation. The work which the young Frenchman did for his countrymen was immense. The year 1555 may be taken as the date when French Protestantism began to be organized. A few churches had been organ-

ized earlier, at Meaux in 1546 and at Nîmes in 1547, but their members had been dispersed by persecution. Prior to 1555 the Protestants of France had been for the most part solitary Bible students or little companies meeting together for worship without any organization. The first organized church was formed in that year in Paris; and from that date they began to spring up in all parts of the country. In 1558 a further stage in the development of Presbyterian church polity was reached. Some doctrinal differences having

arisen in the church at Poitiers, a synod was convened to meet in Paris the following year (1559). It was the first general synod of the French Protestant Church, and consisted of representatives from, some say sixty-six, others, twelve churches. It adopted a confession of faith and a book of order or discipline. The confession consisted of forty articles. It was based on a short confession drafted by Calvin in 1557, and may still be regarded, though once or twice revised, as the confession of the French Protestant Church. The book of order, Discipline ecclésiastique des églises réformées de France, regulated the organization and procedure of the churches. It contains this fundamental statement of Presbyterian parity, “Aucune église ne pourra prétendre

primauté ni domination sur lautre; ni pareillement, les ministres d’une église les uns sur les autres; ni les anciens ou diacres, les uns sur les autres”; and it explains various church courts, familiar to us now as Presbyterian. “It is interesting to see how in a country whose civil rule was becoming gradually more absolutist, this ‘Church under the cross’ framed for itself a government which reconciled, more thoroughly perhaps than has ever been done since, the two principles of popular rights and supreme control. Its constitution has spread to Holland, Scotland (Ireland, England), and

to the great American (and Colonial) churches. Their ecclesiastical polity came much more from Paris than from Geneva.” To trace the history of Presbyterianism in France for the next thirty years would be to write the history of France itself during that period. We should have to tell of the great and rapid increase of the Church; of its powerful influence among the nobles and the bourgeoisie; of its direful persecutions; of its St. Bartholomew massacre with 70,000 victims; of its regrettable though perhaps inevitable entanglements in politics and war; and finally of its attaining not only tolerance but also honourable recognition and protection when Henry IV. in 1598 signed the famous Edict of Nantes. This secured complete liberty of conscience everywhere within the realm and the free right of public worship in all places in which it existed during the years 1596 and 1597, or where it had been granted by the edict of Poitiers (1577) interpreted by the convention of Nérac (1578) and the treaty of Fleix (1580)— in all some two hundred towns; in two places in every bailliage and sénéchaussée; in the castles of Protestant seigneurs hauts justiciers (some three thousand); and in the houses of lesser nobles, provided the audience did not consist of more than thirty persons over and above relations of the family. Protestants were granted full civil rights and protection, and were permitted to hold their ecclesiastical assemblies. Under the protection of the edict the Huguenot Church of France flourished. Theological colleges were established at Sedan, Montauban and Saumur, and French theology became a counterpoise to the narrow Reformed scholastic of Switzerland and Holland. The history of the Church from the passing of the edict of Nantes till its revocation in 1685 cannot be given here. That event was the climax of a long series of horrors. Under the persecution, a large number were killed and between four and five millions of Protestants left the country. From 1760 owing to the gradual spread of the sceptical spirit and the teaching of Voltaire more tolerant views prevailed. In 1787 the Edict of Tolerance was published. In 1789 all citizens were made equal before the law, and the position of Preshyterianism improved till 179z.

In 1801 and 1802 Napoleon took into his own

hands the independence of both Catholic and Pretestant Churches, the national synod was abolished, and all active religious propa-

ganda was rigorously forbidden. In 1848 an assembly representative of the églises conststoriales met at Paris. When it refused to

discuss points of doctrine a secession tooly place under the name of the Union des églises évangéliques le France.

This society

444

PRESBYTERIANISM

held a synod at which a confession of faith and a book of order were drawn up. Meanwhile the national Protestant Church set itself to the work of reconstruction; and in 1852 a change took place in its constitution. The églises consistoriales were abolished, and in each parish a presbyterial council was appointed, the minister being president, with four to seven elders chosen by the people. In the large towns there were consistories composed of all the ministers and of delegates from the various parishes. Over all was the central provincial council consisting of the two senior ministers and fifteen members nominated by the state in the first instance. The vigour shown by the two groups of Presbyterian churches

in France (whose members number nearly half the Protestant population) in the work of reorganization since the Great War, has helped to vitalize French Presbyterianism. The Netherlands.—From the geographical position of the Netherlands, Presbyterianism there took its tone from France. In 1562 the Confessio belgica was publicly acknowledged, and in 1563 the church order was arranged. In 1574 the first provincial synod of Holland and Zealand was held, but William of Orange would not allow any action to be taken independently of the state. The Reformed churches had established themselves in independence of the state when that state was Catholic; when the government became Protestant the Church had protection and at the same time became dependent. It was a state church, and could not shake off the civil power in connection with the choice of church officers. Thus, although the congregations were Presbyterian, the civil government retained overwhelming influence. The Leiden magistrates said in 1581: “If we accept everything determined upon in the synod, we shall end by being vassals of the synod. We will not open to churchmen a door for a new mastership over government and subjects, wife and child.” From 1618 a modified Presbyterian polity predominated. In 1795, of course, everything was upset, and it was not until after the restoration of the Netherland States that a new organization was formed in 1816. Its main features were strictly Presbyterian, but the minister was greatly superior to the elder, and the state had wide powers especially in the nomination of higher officers. In 1851 the system now in force was adopted. The congregation chooses all the officers, and these form a church council. England.—Presbyterian principles and ideas were entertained by many of the leading ecclesiastics in England during the reign of Edward VI. Even the archbishop of Canterbury favoured a modification of episcopacy, and an approach to Presbyterian polity and discipline; but attention was mainly directed to the settlement of doctrine and worship. Cranmer wrote that bishops and priests were not different but the same in the beginning of Christ’s religion. Thirteen bishops subscribed to the proposition that in the New Testament there is no mention made of any distinctions or degrees in orders but only deacons and “priests or bishops.” As an indication of sympathy with Presbyterianism, it may be noted that Cranmer favoured a proposal for the formation of a council of presbyters in each diocese, and for provincial synods. During 1567 and 1568 the persecutions in France and Holland drove thousands of Protestants, mostly Presbyterians, to England. In 1570 Presbyterian views found a distinguished exponent in Dr. Thomas Cartwright at Cambridge. In 1572 a formal manifesto

was published, entitled an Admonition io Parliament, the leading ideas in which were: parity of ministers, appointment of elders and deacons; election of ministers by the congregation; objection to prescribed prayer and antiphonal chanting; preaching, the chief duty of a minister; and the power of the magistrates to root out superstition and idolatry. On the zoth of November 1572 the authors of the “Admonition” set up at Wandsworth what has been called the firs’ presbytery in England. They adopted a purely Presbyterian system which was published as the Orders of Wandsworth. Similar associations or presbyteries were formed in London and in the midland and eastern counties; but the privy council was hostile. The temper of Parliament was shown by the introduction of bills to reduce the position of a bishop to well-nigh that of primus inter pares; to-place the power of veto in the congregation:

to abolish the canon law and to establish a presbytery in every parish. These proposals were rendered abortive by the unflinching ai

[WESTMINSTER

ASSEMBLY

use of the queen’s prerogative. In 1640 Henderson, Baillie, Blair and Gillespie came to London as commissioners from the General Assembly in Scotland, in response to a request from ministers in London who desired to see the Church of England more closely modelled after the Reformed type. They were able men, whose preaching drew great

crowds, and increased the desire for the establishment of Presbyterianism.

In 1642 the Long

Directory

and

Parliament

abolished

Episcopacy

(the act to come into force on the 5th of November 1643); and summoned an assembly of divines to meet at Westminster in June 1643 to advise parliament as to the new form of Church goyernment. The Westminster Assembly, through its Confession, Catechism,

has become

so

associated

with the

Presbyterian Church that it is difficult to realize that it was not 3 church court at all, much less a creation of Presbyterianism. It was a council created by parliament to give advice in church

matters at a great crisis in the nation’s history; but its acts, though from the high character and great learning of its members worthy of deepest respect, did not per se bind parliament or indeed

anyone. It was, in a very real sense, representative of the whole country, as two members were chosen by parliament from each county. The number summoned was 151, viz., ten lords, twenty members of the House of Commons, and one hundred and twentyone ministers. The ministers were mostly Puritans; by their ordination, etc., Episcopalian; and for the most part strongly im-

pressed with the desirability of nearer agreement with the Church of Scotland, and other branches of the Reformed Church on the Continent. About one-half of the members attended regularly. Those who were out-and-out Episcopalians did not attend at all

Apart from these, there were three well-defined parties: (1) those with Presbyterian ideas and sympathies, a great majority; (2) Erastians, ably represented and led by Selden, Lightfoot and Cole-

man; (3) Independents, ten or eleven in number, led by Philip Nye, and assured of Cromwell’s support. Then there were the Scottish commissioners who, though without votes, took a leading part in the proceedings. Judged by the objects for which it was summoned the Westminster Assembly was a failure, a remarkable failure. Episcopacy, Erastianism and Independency, though of little account in the assembly, were to bulk largely in England's future; while the church polity which the assembly favoured and recommended was to be almost unknown. Judged in other ways, however, the influence of the assembly’s labours has been very great. The Confession of Faith and the Larger and Shorter Catechisms are recognized and venerated standards in all the lands where British Presbyterianism, with its sturdy characteristics, has taken root. And the Directory of Public Worship has shaped and coloured, perhaps too thoroughly, the ritual and atmosphere of every group of Protestant Anglo-Saxon worshippers throughout the world, except Episcopalians. In June 1646 the ordinance establishing presbyteries was ratified by both houses of parliament, and a few days afterwards it was ordered to be put into execution. But the system never took root. Not only were there well-known adverse influences, but the soil seems to have been uncongenial. During the Commonwealth Independency gained ground. Then with the Restoration came Episcopacy, and the persecution of all who were not Episcopalians; and the dream and vision of a truly Reformed English Church practically passed away. From the beginning of the 18th century the greater number of the Presbyterian congregations became practi-

cally independent in polity and Unitarian in doctrine. Indigenous Presbyterianism became almost unknown. The Presbyterianism

now visible in England is of Scottish origin and Scottish type, and beyond the fact of embracing a few congregations which date from, or before, the Act of Uniformity and the Five Mile Act, has little in common with the Presbyterianism which was for a brief period by law established. In 1876 the union of the Presbyterian

Church in England with the English congregations of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland gathered all English Presbyte-

rians (with some exceptions) into one church, “The Presbyterian Church of England.” Following the lead of the Independents,

who set up Mansfield College at Oxford, the Presbyterian Church has founded Westminster College at Cambridge as a substitute for

PRESBYTERIANISM

IN IRELAND] its Theological Hall in London.

It was opened in 1899 with the

view of securing a home-bred

ministry more

conversant with

445

ministerial support. Since the state endowment ceased the average

income of ministers from their congregations has considerably English academic life and thought. increased. Ireland.—Presbyterianism in Ireland, in modern times at Wales.—The Presbyterian Church of Wales, commonly known least, dates from the plantation of Ulster in the reign of James I. as the “Calvinistic Methodist,” had its origin in the great evanThe infusion of a considerable Scottish element into the popula- gelical revival of the 18th century. Its polity has been of gradual tion necessitated the formation of a congenial church. The immi- growth, and still retains some features peculiar to itself. In 1811 grants from England took with them, in like manner, their its preachers were first presbyterially ordained and authorized to attachment to the Episcopal Church. But these two sections of administer the sacraments. In 1823 a Confession of Faith was Protestantism, in their common exile and in presence of the pre- adopted. In 1864 the two associations or synods of North and ponderating Roman Catholicism of the country, seemed at first South Wales were united in a general assembly. Great attention inclined to draw closer together than had been thought possible in is given to the education of the ministry, a considerable number of Great Britain. A confession of faith, drawn up by Archbishop whom, in recent years, have taken arts degrees at Oxford and Usher at the Convocation of 1615, implicitly admitted the validity Cambridge. As far as the difference in language will permit, there of Presbyterian ordination, and denied the distinction between is cordial fellowship and co-operation with the Presbyterian bishop and presbyter. Within the Episcopal Church and sup- Church of England. The appetite of the Welsh people for sermons ported by its endowments, Robert Blair, John Livingstone and is enormous, and the preachers are characterized by an exceptionally high order of pulpit power. other ministers maintained a Scottish Presbyterian communion. Other European Countries—In Germany the disestablishFrom 1625 to 1638 the history of Irish Presbyterians is one of bare existence. Their ministers, silenced by Wentworth, after an ment of the churches, which followed the Revolution, has moved ineffectual attempt to reach New England, fled to Scotland, and the Reformed section of the Church, the “Reformierte Bund,” to there took a leading part in the great movement of 1638. After Stress its distinctively Presbyterian principles, and as its memthe Irish rebellion of 1641 the Protestant interest for a time was bership numbers over 600,000 souls, it is destined to exercise a ruined. A majority of the Ulster Protestants were Presbyterians, powerful influence in the future reorganisation of the Evangelical and in a great religious revival which took place the ministers of churches in that country. The rise of the new state of Csechothe Scottish regiments stationed in Ireland took a leading part. slovakia in 1918 led to an extraordinary break-away from the Kirk-sessions were formed in four regiments, and the first regular Roman Church; the united Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren presbytery was held at Carrickfergus on the roth of June 1642, now numbers over 250,000 adherents, one of its members being attended by five ministers and by ruling elders from the regimental President Masaryk. A similar movement is reported from sessions. This presbytery supplied ministers to as many con- Ukrainia, further east, where over 1,000,000 inhabitants have left gregations as possible; and for the remainder ministers were the Roman and the Orthodox churches, and are being consolidated sent from Scotland. By the end of 1643 the Ulster Church was in @ Presbyterian Church, largely under the mission work of fairly established. Notwithstanding intervening reverses there Ukrainians who came back from Canada to carry on the movewere by 1647 nearly thirty ordained ministers in fixed charges in ment. In Transylvania, on the other hand, the Presbyterians, like Ulster besides the chaplains of the Scottish regiments. After the the rest of the religious minorities have suffered and are still Restoration the determination of the government to put down suffering under oppressive legislation at the hands of the RuPresbyterianism was speedily felt in Ireland. In 1661 the lords manian Government. The Magyar Reformed Church, with 800 justices forbade all unlawful assemblies, and in these they included ministers and about 720,000 souls under its charge, has to enmeetings of presbytery as exercising ecclesiastical jurisdiction not counter the Rumanian prejudice against Magyars and the Greek warranted by the law. Bishop Jeremy Taylor was forward in this Orthodox dislike of Protestants, The rights guaranteed by the work of persecution. The ministers refused to take the Oath of Peace Treaty of 1918 to religious minorities are imperfectly obSupremacy without the qualifications suggested by Usher. Their served by the Rumanian Govt. and no remonstrances from outparishes were declared vacant, and episcopal clergy appointed to side have yet availed to check the persecution of the Church. them. The ejected ministers were forbidden ta preach or ad- Hungarian Presbyterians in Transylvania thus suffer heavy damminister the sacraments. Under Ormonde, in 1665, ministers were age by the War-settlement which brought relief and advance to again permitted to revive Presbyterian worship and discipline, and their Bohemian brethren. In Hungary, although the partition of for several years the Church prospered not only in Ulster but also the country brought about untoward religious results, the Rein the south and west. In 1672 she received a yearly grant from formed Church is still powerful both in numbers and in prestige, Charles II. of £600 (regium donum), and under William III. with over 1,000 congregations and 1,500,000 adherents. The the amount was considerably increased. Trouble arose again over Magyar racial problem emerges again in the position of the the policy of James II., to which the Irish Presbyterians were Magyar Reformed Church in Czechoslovakia, where about 40,000 opposed, though they had benefited by his Declaration of In- members still keep apart from the larger Church of the country, dulgence, and they were the first to congratulate the Prince of and in the Reformed Church of Yugoslavia, where the members, Orange on his arrival in England. The defence of Londonderry two-thirds of whom (in all, about 23,000) are Magyars, lie exposed owed much to them, as they were a majority of the population, to hardships like those of their brethren in Transylvania. Posand some of their ministers rendered conspicuous service. There sibly the racial prejudices and religious rivalries which make the were then in Ireland about a hundred congregations, seventy-five situation in Transylvania and Yugoslavia so bitter at present may with settled ministers, under five presbyteries, die down in the course of years; meantime the redeeming feature The Presbyterian Church in Ireland is the most conservative is the tenacity with which the oppressed Presbyterians maintain of the great Presbyterian churches in the United Kingdom. Her their faith amid a struggle in which, unfortunately, their outside attitude is one of sturdy adherence to the old paths of evangelical brethren are unable to afford them very much practical sympathy. doctrine and Presbyterian polity. She has been a zealous sup- The four Presbyterian churches in Switzerland have formed a porter of Irish national education, which is theoretically “united Federation of Evangelical Churches, representing 2,250,000 souls. secular and separate religious instruction.” The Church Act of Switzerland has felt, like most other countries, the call to re-union 1869 which disestablished and disendowed the Irish Episcopal in organised religion, and the rise of this Federation is a first Church took away the Presbyterian regium donum. The ministers, proof of the Swiss interest in unity. Since 1919 efforts have been with all but absolute unanimity, decided to commute their life- made to bring together the Evangelical Church of Neuchatel and interest and form therewith a great fund for the support of the the mother church from which it broke away under Godet in Church. The commutation fund thus formed is a permanent 1873, but the local difficulties are still insurmountable. In Belmemorial of a generous and disinterested act on the part of gium the two small Presbyterian churches, the Union of Reformed her ministry. The interest accruing from it is added to the Churches and the Missionary Church in Belgium, suffered heavily yearly sustentation contributions, and forms a central fund for during the War. Together they now number 50 congregations,

4.4.6

PRESBYTERIANISM

[UNITED STATES

with 22,000 members. An even smaller group is the Reformed genesis of the United Church of Christ in China resembles that Helvetic Church in Austria, with its centre at Vienna, which num- of the Indian and the Canadian communities. It arose in r921 bers 25,000 souls, out of a total Protestant population of 260,000. from the Presbyterians and the Congregationalists, the former The Waldensian Evangelical Church in Jtaly numbers only 22,633 numbering 87,332 members, the latter 29,000. This had been members in 112 congregations, but its sturdy spirit is unabated; rendered possible by a previous reunion among the Presbyindeed since the War it has asserted itself more definitely than terians themselves; in 1918, after 11 years’ negotiations, 1o difever in Italian life, actually holding an Evangelical Congress at ferent missions came together to form the Presbyterian Church Rome itself, in 1920. Its theological college is now transferred in China. The combined community is now the largest Protesfrom Florence to Rome. The Spanish Evangelical Church has but tant Church in China. In Korea the Church, originally founded 1,000 members, a tenth of the total Protestant population in by American missionaries, has prospered rapidly, and displays Spain, with 26 ministers and 32 congregations. Still fewer, though a true missionary spirit; it numbers 1,266 congregations, with a (W.Y.; J. Mor.; X.) for no such reasons as in Italy and Spain and Belgium, are the Christian community of over 200,000. BısLrocrRAaPHY.— J. S. Reid, History of the Presbyterian, Church in Presbyterians in Denmark and Sweden, with three congregations between them and barely 400 communicants. The Listory of these Ireland (3 vols., 1867); P. Hume Brown, John Knox: a Biography (2 vols., 1895), and “Scotland from the Restoration to the Union” in countries seems to have marked the Lutheran form of organisa- Cambridge Modern History, vol. v. (1908); A. Wright, The Presbytion as native to their genius, as is the case with Norway. In terian Church (1895); A. T. Innes, Law of Creeds in Scotland (1902) ; W. T. Latimer, History of the Irish Presbyterians (1902); T. M. Russia the Bolshevik persecution has reduced the Reformed Church from 25 to two congregations, which still survive in Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry in the Early Centuries (1902), and The History of the Reformation (2 vols., 2nd ed. 1906-07); Moscow and Odessa. In Poland the Reformed Synod of Warsaw G. M. McCrie, The Church of Scotland (1903); R. L. Orr (ed. by), is now reduced to seven congregations, with barely 11,000 people; The Free Church of Scotland Appeals (Edinburgh, 1904), and The however, the transfer of Galicia from Austria has added a Re- Practical Procedure of the United Free Church of Scotland (Edinburgh, formed Church of three congregations and 7,000 souls. In 1905); K. M. Black, The Scots Churches in England (1906); W. The Presbyterian Church (1908) ; J V. Stephens, The PresbyLithuania, which was mangled by the Peace settlement, the McPhail, terian Churches in Scotland, Ireland, Canada. and America (Philaancient Reformed Church numbers only nine congregations, with delphia, roro); Balfour of Burleigh, A Historical Account of the 17,527 members, but the land is politically free, and, though it Development of Presbyterianism in Scotland (1911); C. W. The Presbyterian Church and its Missions (1913); J. N. Ogilvie, is still predominantly Roman Catholic, the first national Cabinet Presbyterian Churches of Christendom (1925); J. G. MacGregor, The was half Protestant in its membership. Scottish Presbyterian Polity (1926); J. R. Fleming, History of the Canada, Australia, Africa~—The United Church of Canada

came formally into existence at Toronto on June 10, 1925. This remarkable union of Congregationalists, Methodists and Presbyterians is the outcome of negotiations which have been proceeding since 1908, in order to cope effectively with the religious

needs of the Dominion, where (especially in the west) the ecclesiastical divisions were felt to be a serious weakness. The legislation required to make the union effective was carried through the Canadian Parliament in 1924. The polity of the united church is admittedly Presbyterian. A minority of the Presbyterian Churches (714 out of 4,531 congregations) declined to follow the lead. In Australia a movement for re-union similar to the Canadian enterprise has been wrecked in the meantime. Both in Australia and in New Zealand the shortage of ministers is being acutely felt, in face of the increasing number of immigrants and the scattered population. Australasia reckons 127,305 communicants (including the Missionary Synod of Tahiti, New Hebrides, etc.) with 967 ministers, but the latter are insufficient for the needs of the situation. Another failure of Presbyterianism to unite with other branches of the Church has to be chronicled in South Africa. In 1917 the Presbyterian Church inaugurated a movement for union with the Congregationalists, but the project had to be abandoned in 1921, partly on account of the colour

question. Within the Presbyterian Church herself the colour question has had to be solved by the creation of the Bantu Presbyterian Church, composed of purely African natives, independent but allied. On the other hand, the Church of Central Africa came into being on Sept. 17, 1924, a very fine example of union between the Church of Scotland’s Blantyre Presbytery, the United Free Church’s Livingstonia Presbytery and the Dutch Reformed Church’s Nyassaland (Mission) Presbytery. The Dutch Re-

formed Church in South Africa with a membership embracing 840,000 white adherents, brings up the total of Presbyterians in Africa at present to a large number, proportionately; there are in all 1,768 congregations, including the various missions and 532,085 communicants. A growing spirit of co-operation is also manifest. | Asia.—In India the South United Church was formed of Presbyterians and Congregationalists in 1908; the community numbers over 240,000, and proposals have even been made for union between this Church and the Southern Indian section of the Church of England. The North United Church, also on a Presbyterian basis, arose in Dec. 1924, from the Presbyterian Church, which had received 53,000 Welsh Calvinistic Methodists from Assam in

1921, and the local Congregationalists.

On a smaller scale the

Church in Scotland (Edinburgh, 1927); J. Moffatt, The Presbyterian Churches (1928); see also J. Dall’s “Presbyterianism” in Hastings’ Encyc. of Religion and Ethics, and Presbyterian Church of England, Official Handbook (pubd. annually).

UNITED STATES

Presbyterianism in the United States is a reproduction and further development of Presbyterianism in Europe. Excluding the “Reformed” Churches—which also maintain, with minor modifications, the Presbyterian form of church government (see REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES and REFORMED CHURCH in America), there are some ten Presbyterian denominations in the United States. In what follows, attention will be devoted mainly, but not exclusively, to the largest and most influential of these bodies—the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. The narrative naturally falls into three periods. I. The Colonial Period.—The earliest Presbyterian emigration from Europe to America was that of French Huguenots who, under the auspices of Admiral Coligny, were led by Jean Ribaut

to Port Royal, S.C., in 1562, and to Florida (near the present St. Augustine) by Laudonniere, in 1564.

In the latter half of the

17th century there were Huguenot churches at Boston, New York city, New Rochelle, N.Y., and Charleston, S.C.

English Puritanism under the auspices of the Virginia Company established itself in the Bermuda islands as early as 1612; and in 1617 a Presbyterian

church,

governed

by ministers and four

elders, was organized by the Rev. Lewis Hughes, who used the liturgy of the isles of Guernsey and Jersey. A considerable number of the Puritans who settled in Massachusetts were Presbyter-

ians,'and their churches in Connecticut were commonly spoken of as Presbyterian. The early New England churches have been aptly described as representing, in general, “a Congregationalized

Presbyterianism, ora Presbyterianized Congregationalism.” Later the Congregational elements predominated in these regions, and in the main only those Puritans who drifted west and south of New England became a permanent part of the Presbyterian Church. In New York city, Francis Doughty preached to Puritan Presbyterians in 1643, though there was no organized Presbyterian

church there before 1717. In 1650 he was succeeded by Richard Denton, who returned to England in 1659. The oldest church on Long Island—of those now under the care of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A.—is that of Southold,

established in 1640 by the Rev. John Young. The first Presbyterian churches in North and South Jersey—Newark (1667),

Elizabeth (1668), Woodbridge (1680) and Fairfield (1692)— were due to Puritan migrations from Connecticut and Long Island.

THE “GREAT AWAKENING”]

PRESBYTERIANISM

447

which both sides had maintained after their separation. The Presbyterians from the Scots established Church, when they came to the Colonies, commonly joined the main body of terian ministers, chiefly from Great Britain and Ireland, began American Presbyterians; but the seceding Churches of Scotland The Reformed Presbyterian to labour in the Middle Colonies and in the Carolinas during the organized independent bodies. latter half of the 17th century—Matthew Hill, William Trail, Church (Covenanters) sent the Rev. John Cuthbertson in 1751. After labouring alone for many years in the interests of his denomJoseph Lord and Archibald Stobo. The tap-root of American Presbyterianism is to be found in ination, with the aid of two fellow labourers from Scotland, Rev. Maryland, the chief field of the apostolic labours of Francis Matthew Lind and Rev. Alexander Dobbin, he organized in 1774 Makemie, the foremost representative of the Irish Presbyterians the Reformed Presbytery of America. The Anti-Burgher Synod and the virtual founder of the American Presbyterian Church. of Scotland sent two ministers, Alexander Gellatly and Andrew Arnot, to represent their cause, and thus were organized the He was born in Ireland, educated in Scotland, ordained and commissioned by the Presbytery of Laggan, in Ireland, to be a Associate Presbytery of Pennsylvania (1753) and that of New missionary to the Barbadoes and other American colonies. He York (1776). These two presbyteries joined with the Covenanters organized several churches in Maryland, including those at Snow in 1780 and 1782 to make the Associate Reformed Church of Hill and Rehoboth, the latter probably as early as 1683. He America; but opposing minorities in both presbyteries kept up itinerated from New York to the Carolinas, preaching and estab- the separate denominations. During the American Revolution the Presbyterian churches lishing churches. He did much to encourage that notable immigration of Presbyterians from Scotland and Ireland who, to escape throughout the Colonies suffered severely. The devotion of their the prelatic oppressions under the Stuarts, crossed the sea and ere members, especially the Scotch-Irish, to the cause of national long made Presbyterianism the dominant religious force in New independence was equalled by that of no other denomination. No Jersey, eastern Pennsylvania and Delaware. In 1706, he secured racial or religious group was superior to them in intelligence, love the establishment of the first presbytery, popularly known, from of freedom, moral firmness and capacity for political achievement. its customary place of meeting, as the Presbytery of Philadelphia. At the time of the Revolutionary War almost 2,000,000 of the He was chosen to be its first moderator. Of the eight ministers 3,000,000 inhabitants of the 13 Colonies were of Calvinistic stock. composing the judicatory at the close of that year, all were The form of government of our nation is practically the form of foreign-born excepting Jedediah Andrews, a native of Massa- government of the Presbyterian Church with such modifications chusetts and a graduate of Harvard college. He began his ministry as the civil sphere requires. The public-school system of America in Philadelphia in 1698, and in 1701 was ordained and installed has grown out of the parish schools established in a multitude of in what is now the First Church. All but two of the eight were Presbyterian parishes by their pastors. Many of the ministers served as chaplains or combatants. John Witherspoon, president ordained in Scotland or Ireland. of the College of New Jersey, was the only clerical member of In 1716 the presbytery had 17 ministers on the roll, the number having more than doubled in a single decade. In view of the the Continental Congress in 1776, and in many lines of activity, difficulties of travel and the wide territory represented, the presby- civil and military, he rendered distinguished service to his adopted tery resolved in that year to transform itself into a synod, with country. John Murray, of the Presbytery at the Eastward, had four presbyteries under its jurisdiction (Philadelphia, New Castle, as high a price set on his head by the Tories as did Samuel Adams Snow Hill and Long Island). The first meeting of the synod was or John Hancock. The testimony of the historian Bancroft to the held on Sept. 17, 1717. In 1729 the synod passed what is called patriotic fidelity of the Presbyterians is too familiar to be quoted. the Adopting act, by which it was agreed that “all the ministers At the close of the war, the Synod of New York and Philadelphia, of this synod, or that shall hereafter be admitted into this synod, sharing in the general movement towards organization of nationshall declare their agreement in, and approbation of, the Con- wide churches, soon made good the losses sustained during the fession of Faith, with the Larger and Shorter Catechisms of the struggle for independence, and in 1788 took steps to divide itself Assembly of Divines at Westminster, as being in all essential and into four synods, with a General Assembly, consisting of reprenecessary articles good forms of sound words and systems of sentative delegates, both ministers and laymen, to serve as the Christian doctrine.” The act allowed scruples about “articles not supreme legislative, judicial and executive agency of the whole essential and necessary in doctrine, worship, or government,” the church. The Synod adopted as the constitution for the re-organized church the Westminster Confession of Faith, amended in court, not the individual, being the judge of the issue raised. The religious revival known as the Great Awakening profoundly Chapter xxiii., in regard to the relation of the civil power to the affected most of the Protestant Churches, stimulating their evange- church; the Larger Catechism, with an amendment as to the toleralistic, missionary and educational enterprises, and proving itself tion; the Shorter Catechism; the Directory of Worship, much a decisive factor even in the political sphere by breaking down revised; and the Form of Government and the Book of Discipline, some of the barriers of sectarian isolation, and promoting the with many alterations. It was also provided that thereafter the sense of the growing national unity. But the revival also brought standards could be amended only by a two-thirds vote of the discord. The zealous evangelists severely criticized all who ques- presbyteries, and subsequent enactment by the Assembly. In 1801 this body entered into a Plan of Union with the Gentioned the wisdom and propriety of their methods. Gilbert Tennent was especially censorious, and his sermon on “An Uncon- eral Association of Connecticut, for the purpose of a more effverted Ministry” was aimed at the opponents of the revival. He cient joint performance of their home missionary duties. This and his three brothers—sons of the William Tennent who in 1727 scheme, did, indeed, promote aggressive missionary work, and in established the celebrated “Log College” at Neshaminy, Pa., as a the next half-century most of the existing theological seminaries training school for the ministry—were prominent leaders of the of the Presbyterian Church were established to furnish ministers “new side,” while Robert Cross and Jedediah Andrews were fore- for the ever-expanding task: Princeton, 1811; Auburn, 1818; most in charging the Tennents with heresy and disorder. The Union at Hampden-Sidney, later at Richmond, Va., 1824; Alleconsequence was the first division of the Church (1741). The gheny, 1827; Columbia, S.C., 1828; Lane, at Cincinnati, 1829; synod of Philadelphia represented the “old side”; and the synod McCormick at Chicago, 1830; Union at New York, 1836; Duof New York, the “new side.” The latter body was the more en- buque, Ia., 1856. But while most of the Puritan migration from terprising and prosperous, making provision for the training of its New England to the west was identified with the Presbyterian ministers by the establishment at Elizabeth, in 1747, of the Church, these great gains in number were to a large extent offset College of New Jersey, subsequently removed to Newark, and in by troublesome irregularities in polity, laxity in discipline and 1756 to Princeton (now known as Princeton university). In novelties in theology, all of which presently led to another division 1758 a reunion of the two Synods was effected under the name of of the main Presbyterian body. To increase the embarrassments the “synod of New York and Philadelphia,” upon the basis of the that grew out of the plan of union, there was the administrative same Westminster standards of doctrine, polity and worship question as to the best method of conducting the general benevol-

After leaving New York, Francis Doughty laboured in Virginia

and Maryland from 1650 to 1659, becoming the pioneer of British Presbyterianism in the Middle Colonies. Likewise, other Presby-

PRESBYTERIANISM

44.8 ent and missionary work of the church.

The supporters of the

old order (“Old School”), deeply alarmed, charged their opponents (“New School”) with doctrinal aberrations in 16 counts; with errors in church order in ten; and with mistakes in discipline in four. After several years of bitter controversy, culminating in repeated but vain efforts to remove offending ministers by due process of law, the Old School Assembly of 1837, realizing that it once more had a majority—only the second time in seven years —abrogated the Plan of Union and then exscinded the Synod of Western Reserve in Ohio, and the Synods of Utica, Geneva and Genesee, in New York. The New School met in convention at Auburn, N.Y., in Aug., 1837, and adopted a “Declaration” setting forth the “True Doctrines” of their party as against the “Errors” charged on them by their opponents. When the Assembly met in 1838, the New School commissioners were denied legal standing in the court; whereupon they withdrew, organized their own Assembly, with the same title as the other body, and brought suits in the civil courts of Pennsylvania to determine the property issues involved. The first decision favoured the New School (1839); but the court en banc set aside this verdict on grounds that made another trial useless. After the division was completed the New School embraced about four-ninths of the ministry and membership of the Church, but in spite of its being almost as large as the other body, its growth was slow. It continued to co-operate with the Congregationalists for some time, but in 1852 it decided, in view of the ever-increasing doctrinal defection among the Congregationalists, to accept the proposal of the latter for the abolition of the Plan of Union. In the course of a few years, moreover, the strong anti-slavery sentiment among New School leaders led to

the voluntary withdrawal of nearly all the Southern churches connected with this Assembly and to their organization as the United Synod of the Presbyterian Church. The Old School Assembly also was rent asunder during the Civil War. The occasion was the adoption of the “Spring Resolutions” (1861), which declared it the duty of the church “to promote and perpetuate . . . the integrity of the United States, and to strengthen, uphold and encourage the Federal Government in the exercise of all its functions. .. .” During the summer of 1861, 47 Southern presbyteries of the Old School renounced their General Assembly and formed the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America. Another important division in the main body of Presbyterians during this period was

that of the Cumberland

Presbyterians.

[MODERN HISTORY

last of which declared that “it is the will of God that the Songs contained in the Book of Psalms be sung in His worship, both pub. lic and private, to the end of the world; and that in singing God’s praise, these songs should be employed to the exclusion of the devotional compositions of uninspired men”’—a requirement now left to the discretion of the individual church.

In 1833 the Reformed Presbyterian Church divided into New

and Old Lights on the question as to whether their members may properly exercise the rights of citizenship under the U.S. Constitution. III. The Modern Period

(Since the Civil War).—Several important church unions mark this period. In the South, under the stress of the Civil War, the two branches that had seceded

from the Old and the New School Assemblies, namely, the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America and the United Synod of the Presbyterian Church, united in 1865, and at the close of the war adopted the name of the Presbyterian Church

in the United States. In the North also, after several years of friendly negotiations, the Old School and the New School united

in 1869 on the basis of “the standards pure and simple,” and commemorated

over $7,000,000.

the happy event by raising a memorial fund of

In 1906 the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A.

united with the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, and in 1920 with the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists.

In 1902 the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. adopted a “Brief Statement of the Reformed Faith,” not aS an addition to its standards, but rather for popular use as an interpretation of its Confession, and the next year it made several amendments to this Confession, adopted a “Declaratory

Statement” as to Chapters iii. and x., and added two new chapters, entitled “Of the Holy Spirit” and “Of the Love of God and Missions.” The Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. administers its national and international affairs, other than those committed by its General Assembly to its four benevolent boards, to which reference will be made below, through the office of the General Assembly (five departments—administration, vacancy and supply, publicity, church co-operation and union, and historical) which has as its permanent executive head the stated clerk of the General Assembly; and through the General Council (23 members) of which the moderator of the General Assembly is, ex-officio, chairman (one year term) and the stated clerk secretary by election. The Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. has, under the supervision of the board of foreign missions, important missions in Africa, Mesopotamia, Persia, Syria, India, Siam, China, Japan, Chosen, Laos, Latin America and the Philippine Islands. Besides this board, it has, since the consolidations (1923) of its many agencies, three other boards, those for national missions (six di-

Kentucky and Tennessee, at the beginning of the roth century, were particularly affected by the revival of religion which spread over most of the Eastern States. To accommodate the large crowds that wanted to hear the Gospel, “camp meetings” were much used in these frontier regions. The religious excitement visions), Christian education (eight departments), and ministerial became intense. Even children again and again preached with pensions ($15,000,000 fund raised, 1927), each of which boards powerful effect. The demand for ministers far exceeded the carries on a work comparable in importance with that conducted supply. Under these circumstances the Presbytery of Transyl- by the board of foreign missions. The Presbyterian Church in the U.S. (Southern) unlike the vania, and then the Cumberland Presbytery-~—set off from the former in 1802——began ordaining a number of zealous young men Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., works not through “boards,” who, in the Judgment of the Synod of Kentucky, had not had an but through executive committees, which were formerly more adequate training for the office and were unsound in doctrine. loosely organized, and which left to the presbyteries the more The Synod, in 1806, dissolved the Cumberland Presbytery, which direct control of their activities, but which now differ little from in a few years organized itself into a new denomination (1810). the boards of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. The PresIt grew rapidly in numbers, as well as in its respect for, and its byterian Church in the U.S. has executive committees on foreign insistence upon, an educated ministry. The Synod of Cumber- missions, home missions, publication and Sabbath school work, land, established in 1813, adopted as its standard the Westminster Christian education and. ministerial relief, men’s work, advisory Confession, but in revised form, the alterations being designed committee on education, Protestant relief in Europe, Bible cause, to eliminate what was called the “fatalism” of this symbol. In reformation day and a permanent judicial committee, which report to the General Assembly annually. 1829 a General Assembly was formed. The United Presbyterian Church of North America has a board In 1822, under the influence of John M. Mason, the Associate Reformed Synod undertook a union with the General Assembly of foreign missions, a board of home missions, a board of publiof the Presbyterian Church, but most of the ministers opposed cation and Bible school work, a board of education and a board of the project and organized three independent presbyteries. In ministerial pensions and relief, and a woman’s guild and missionaly 1858 the Associate Synod and the General Synod of the Associate society. In 1928 the Presbyterian bodies, nine in number, reported Reformed Church effected a union under the style of the “United Presbyterian Church,” the basis being the Westminster, Con- 2,800,000 communicant members while other closely related bodies The Presbyterian fession (slightly altered) and a “Testimony” in 18 articles, the reported 550,000 additional communicants.

PRESBYTERY— PRESCOTT Church in the United States of America, the largest of the Presbyterian bodies, reported 1,962,838 communicant members; 9,432

churches; 10,013 ministers; 1,614,013 Sabbath school members; total benevolences $15,642,508; total congregational expenses $48,956,022. The next largest body, the Presbyterian Church in

the United States (Southern), reported 444,657 communicant members; 3,596 churches; 2,342 ministers; 431,065 Sabbath school

members; total benevolences $5,520,285; congregational expenses $10,306,188. The United Presbyterian Church of North America reported 238,240 communicant members; 898 churches; 927 ministers; 182,304 Sabbath school members; $1,683,212 total benevolences; $4,254,717 congregational expenses. BIBLIOGRAPHY. —On American Presbyterianism see C. Hodge, Constitutional History of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America 1706—1788 (Philadelphia, 1839), Records of the Presby-

terian Church in the United States of America from 1706 to 1788 (Philadelphia, 1841) ; R. Webster, History of the Presbyterian Church in America (ibid., 1858); E. H. Gillett, History of the Presbyterian

Church Briggs, of the Church

in the United States of America (2nd ed., ibid., 1873); C. A. American Presbyterianism (1885); R. E. Thompson, “History Presbyterian Churches in the United States” in American History Series, vol. vi. (1895; a good bibliography, pp. 11-31) ;

in the same series vol. xi., “The United Presbyterians” by J. B. Scouller, “The Cumberland Presbyterians” by R. N. Foster and “The

Southern Presbyterians” by T. C. Johnson; R. C. Reed, History of the Presbyterian Churches of the World (Philadelphia, 1905); E. B. Crisman, Origin and Doctrines of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (St Louis, 1877); W. M. Glasgow, History of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in America (Baltimore, 1888); A. Blaikie, A History of Presbyterianism in New England (Boston, 1882), on the Reunion of

1869, Presbyterian Reunion, A Memorial Volume (1871); on church law, The Presbyterian Digest, 2 vol. and sup. panacea oe (L. S. M.

PRESBYTERY,

in architecture, that portion of the choir

of a church in which the high altar is placed, and which is gen-

erally, raised a few steps above the rest of the church.

It is

reserved for the priests and differs from the choir, the stalls in which are occasionally occupied by the laity. In Westminster Abbey the space east of the transept is the presbytery, and the same arrangement is found in Canterbury cathedral. In S. Clemente at Rome the presbytery is enclosed with a marble balustrade or screen. For the use of the word in Church government see PRESBYTER and PRESBYTERIANISM.

PRESCOT, town in Lancashire, England, 8 m. E. of Liverpool by the L.M.S.R. Pop. (1931), 9,396. It is of considerable antiquity, and received a grant for a market and fair by Edward III. A church existed in the 13th century. The present church of St. Mary is in various styles, with a lofty tower and spire and carved timber roof. Since John Miller brought the industry from Yorkshire (1730) the town has been famed for watches, watch movements and tools. Electric cables are also manufactured. To the north is Knowsley Park, the demesne of the earls of Derby, with a mansion containing a fine collection of pictures.

PRESCOTT,

WILLIAM

HICKLING

(1796-1859),

American historian, was born in Salem (Mass.), on May 4, 1796, his grandfather being Colonel William Prescott (1726-95), who commanded at the battle of Bunker Hill, and his father, a well known lawyer. Although he was blinded in one eye by a crust of bread flung in the Harvard Commons, he graduated with honour in 1814 and entered his father’s office. The verdict of physicians abroad, however, that the injured eye was hopelessly paralysed, and that the preservation of the sight of the other depended upon the maintenance of his general health, caused him to abandon further pursuit of the legal profession and to devote his life to literature. A review of Byron’s Letters on Pope in 1821 constituted his first contribution to the North American Review, to Which he continued for many years to send the results of his

slighter researches. Although his early essays were distinctly literary, history had always been a favourite study with him, and Mably’s Observatons sur Phistoire appears to have influenced him. After prolonged hesitation, he recorded in Jan. 1826 his decision “to embrace the gift of the Spanish subject.” The choice was certainly a bold one, but he was happy in the possession of ample means and admirable friends. His method of work is an excellent illustration.

449

of his resourcefulness and perseverance. Seated in a darkened study, he kept his writing apparatus (a noctograph) before him, and bis ivory stylus in his hand to jot down notes as his assistant read aloud. These notes were in turn read over to him until he had completely mastered them, when they were worked up in his memory to their final shape. So proficient did he become that he was able to retain the equivalent of 6o pages of printed matter in his memory, turning and returning them as he walked or drove. On Oct. 6, 1829 he began the actual work of composition of his History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, the concluding note being written June 25, 1836. Another year, during which his essay on Cervantes appeared, was spent in the final revision of the History for the press. Its success was immediate. From the position of an obscure reviewer Prescott suddenly found himself elevated to the first rank of contemporary historians. After coquetting for a short time with the project of a life of Molière he decided to follow in the track of his first work with a History of the Conquest of Mexico. Washington Irving, who had already made preparations to occupy the same field, generously withdrew in his favour. Prescott’s five years of labour on this second book were broken by the composition of various reviews and by the preparation of an abridgment of his Ferdinand and Isabella. In Dec. 1843 the Conquest of Mexico was published with a success proportionate to the wide reputation he had won. The careful methods of work which he had adopted from the outset had borne admirable fruit. While the consultation of authorities had been no less thorough, his style had become more free and less self-conscious; and the epic qualities of the theme were such as to call forth in the highest degree his powers of picturesque narration. It was only a step from his great work on Mexico to that on Peru, and scarcely three months elapsed before. he began to break ground on the latter subject. In Feb. 1845 he received the announcement of his election as corresponding member of the French Institute in place of the Spanish historian Navarrete, and also of the Royal Society of Berlin. The winter found him arranging for the publication in England of his Critical and Historical Essays (New York ed., Biographical and Critical Miscellanies). The Conquest of Peru was completed in Nov. 1846 and published in the following March. His misgivings as to its reception were at once set at rest, and it was speedily issued in translations into French, Spanish, German and Dutch, in addition to the English editions of New York, London and Paris. Prescott was now over 50 and his sight showed serious symptoms of enfeeblement. He had been for many years collecting materials for a history of Philip II., but he hesitated to attempt a work of such magnitude. Nevertheless in March 1848 he set himself with characteristic courage to its accomplishment. Through the aid of Don Pascual de Gayangos, then professor of Arabic literature at Madrid, he was enabled to obtain material not only from the public archives of Spain but from the muniment rooms of the great Spanish families. With an exceptional range of information thus afforded him, he wrote the opening of his history in July 1849; but, finding himself still unsettled in his work, he decided in the spring of the following year to carry out a long projected visit to England, where he was received with great honour. In Nov. 1855 the first two volumes of his uncompleted History of Philip II., were issued from the press, their sale eclipsing that of any of his earlier books. This was his last great undertaking; but a year later he published in revised form Robertson’s Charles V. A slight attack of apoplexy on Feb. 4, 1858 foretold the end, though he persevered with the preparation of the third volume of Philip II. for the press, and with the emendation and annotation of his Conquest of Mexico. On the morning of Jan. 28, 1859, a second attack occurred, and he died in the afternoon of the same day. Prescott’s power lies chiefly in the clear grasp of fact, in selection and synthesis, in the vivid narration of incident. For extended analysis he had small liking and faculty; his critical insight was limited in range, and he confined himself almost wholly to the concrete elements of history. Moreover, the authorities on whom he relied have had to be corrected since in many points of detail in the light of later archaeological research. Few historians have had in a higher degree, however, that artistic feeling

450

PRESCOTT— PRESCRIPTION

in the broad arrangement of materials which ensures popular interest. ; BIBLIOGRAPHY .—The definitive or Montezuma ed. of Prescott’s

works was ed. by W. H. Munro (1904). His Life was written by George Ticknor (1864; rev. 1875). There are later lives by R. Ogden (1904) and H. T. Peck (1905). See also the chapters on Prescott and Motley in J.S. Bassett, The Middle Group of American Historians (1917)

and The Cambridge

History of American

Literature

(vol. 2,

1918) ; and sketch by M. A. D. Howe in American Bookmen. (1898).

PRESCOTT,

a city of central Arizona, U.S.A., on Federal

highway 89 and the Santa Fe railway, at an altitude of 5,320 ft.; the county-seat of Yavapai county. Pop. (1920) 5,010 (82% native white); 5,517 in 1930 by the Federal census. It lies between the two divisions of the Prescott National Forest of 1,164,829 ac. in a region rich in mineral resources, flocks and herds, picturesque life (of Indians and ranchers), and natural beauty. The mines of the county have produced (1880-1928) copper, gold, silver, lead, and zinc to the value of $450,000,000. Prescott is called “the cowboy capital” and the place “where the West remains.” It has held a Frontier Days celebration annually since 1888, and the Smoki People of Prescott have since 1921 presented some of their ceremonial dances in an annual pageant of primitive Indian life. There are several “guest ranches” in the vicinity. Prescott was founded in 1864, to be the capital (1864—67) of the newly organ-

to define the period of prescription for a modus decimandi, or an

exemption from tithes by composition, was passed the same year.

The claim under the statute must be one which may be lawfully made at common

law.

The principal rules upon the subject are

these: (1) The title is founded upon actual usage. The amount of actual usage and the evidence necessary to prove it vary accord. ing to the kind of claim. (2) The enjoyment must (except in the case of light) be as of right—that is to say, peaceable, openly used and not by licence. (3) The prescription must be certain and rea.

sonable.

Inhabitants cannot, however, claim by prescription, as

they are an uncertain and fluctuating body, unless under a grant

from the Crown, which constitutes them a corporation for the purposes of the grant. (4) The prescription must be alleged in a que estate or in a man and his ancestors. Prescription in a que estate lies at common law by reason of continuous and immemoria] enjoyment by the claimant, a person seised in fee, and all those whose estate he had. Prescription in a man and his ancestors is not of ordinary occurrence in practice. Corporations, however, occasionally claim by a prescription analogous to this, viz. in the corporation and its predecessors. Such claims by either a person or a corporation are not within the Prescription Act, which applies only where there are dominant and servient tenements. By 32 Hen.

VIII. c. 2 (1540) no person can make any prescription by the

ized Territory of Arizona.

seisin or possession of his ancestor unless such seisin or possession

extinction of rights by lapse of time. The term is derived from the praescriptio of Roman law, originally a matter of procedure.

made. (5) A prescription cannot lie for a thing which cannot be granted, as it rests upon the presumption of a lost grant. Prescription must be carefully distinguished from custom. Some

PRESCRIPTION, in the broadest sense, the acquisition or had been within three score years next before such prescription

It seems to have been introduced by the praetor to meet cases affecting aliens or lands out of Italy where the usucapio of the civil law (the original means of curing a defect of title by lapse „of time) could not apply. The prescription of Roman law (and of modern systems based upon it) is both acquisitive and extinctive.

rights may be claimed by custom which cannot be claimed by

prescription, é.g.,a right of inhabitants to dance on avillage green, for such a right is not connected with the enjoyment of land.

International Law uses the term “prescription” in its wider or

It looks either to the length of time during which the defendant has been in possession, or to the length of time during which the plaintiff has been out of possession. In English law prescription is used in a comparatively narrow sense. It is acquisitive only, and is very limited in its application. A title by prescription can be made only to incorporeal hereditaments—z.e., in legal language, hereditaments that are or have been appendant or appurtenant to corporeal hereditaments—and to certain exemptions and privileges. The rights claimable by prescription for the most part consist of rights in alieno solo. The most

Roman sense. “The general consent of mankind has established the principle that long and uninterrupted possession by one nation

land in 1858, but not to Scotland) claims to rights of common and

division that the distinction between (1) and (2) is rather an acci-

other profits è prendre are not to be defeated after 30 years’ enjoyment by any person claiming right thereto without interruption for 30 years by showing only the commencement of the right, and after 60 years’ enjoyment the right is absolute and indefeasible unless had by consent or agreement by deed or writ-

dental (due to a loose interpretation of the language of the act of 1617, c. 12) than a logically accurate one. It is, moreover, strictly confined to heritable rights, having no application in the case of movable property. Positive Prescription——The positive prescription was intro-

ing (s. 1). In claims of rights of way or other easements the

duced by the Act of 1617, c. 12, which regulated the prescription

excludes the claim of every other” (Wheaton, Int. Low, s. 165). Historic instances of rights which were at one time claimed and exercised by prescription as against other nations are the sovereignty of Venice over the Adriatic and of Great Britain over the Narrow seas, and the right to the Sound dues long exacted by Denmark. But such claims were rejected by the highest authorities on international law (e.g., Grotius), on the ground that they were defective both in justus titulus and in de facto possession. In important are advowsons, tithes, commons, ways, watercourses, private international law prescription is treated as part of the (J. Wi.; X.) lights, offices, dignities, franchises, pensions, annuities and rents. lex fort or law of procedure. Scotland.—In the law of Scotland “prescription” is a term of Land or movables cannot be claimed by prescription. The foundation of prescription is the presumption of law that a person found wider meaning than in England, being used as including both prein undisturbed enjoyment of a right did not come into possession scription and limitation of English law. In its most general sense by an unlawful act. In the English courts this presumption was, it may be described as the effect which the law attaches to the perhaps still is, based upon the fiction of a lost grant. The enjoy- lapse of time, and it involves the idea of possession held by one ment of the right must have been from a time whereof the memory person adverse to the rights of another. Though having its basis in of man runneth not to the contrary. After one or two previous the common law, its operation was early defined by statute, and it enactments the date was finally fixed by the Statute of West- is now in all respects statutory. Prescription in Scots law may be minster the First (3 Edw. I. c. 39) at the reign of Richard I., which regarded (xr) as a mode of acquiring rights—the positive prescripwas interpreted to mean the first year of the reign of Richard I. tion; (2) as a mode of extinguishing rights—the negative prescrip(1189). This is still the law with respect to claims not falling tion; (3) as a mode of limiting rights of action—the shorter prewithin the Prescription Act, 1832. By that act (extended to Ire- scriptions. It must, however, be observed with reference to this

periods are 20 years and 4o years respectively (s. 2). The before- of land rights till 1874. The provisions of the Act of 1874 are mentioned periods are to be deemed those next. before suits, and repealed as from Jan. 1, 1930, by the Conveyancing Act, 1924 nothing is to be deemed to be an interruption unless acquiesced in (s. 16). As from that date the prescription will be 20 years withfor one year (s. 4). The time during which a person otherwise out allowance for legal disability. The Acts of 1874 and 1924 procapable of resisting a claim is an infant, idiot, non compos mentis, ‘vide that possession for 20 years upon “an ex facie valid irrefeme covert or tenant for life, or during which an action or suit deemable title recorded in the appropriate register of sasines” has been pending until abated by the death of a party, is to be should in future give the same right as 40 years’ possession upon excluded in the computation of the periods unless where the right ; charter and sasine under the earlier laws. These Acts also provide or claim is declared to be absolute and indefeasible (s. 7). An act |that the 20 years’ prescription is not to apply to servitudes, rights

PRESERVING

AND

of way and public rights generally. Negative Prescription.—tThis prescription was introduced by the Act of 1469, c. 28, and was substantially re-enacted by the Act of 1474, c. 55. The negative prescription accordingly ex-

tinguishes i toto the right to demand performance of an obligation after 40 years, the years being reckoned from the day on which fulfilment of the obligation can be first demanded. Such a lapse of this period of time creates a conclusive presumption— one incapable of being reargued—that the debt or obligation has

been paid or fulfilled. But it must be kept in view that the nega-

tive prescription does not per se—without the operation of the positive—establish a right to heritable property (Erskine, Znst. bk. iii, tit. 7. s. 8). The negative prescription of heritable debts (Act

of 1617) is reduced to 20 years without allowance for legal disability as from Jan. x1, 1930, by the Conveyancing Act 1924 (s. 17). This reduction of period does not apply to the prescription of servitudes and public rights. United States.—Prescription in the United States though often used synonymously with adverse possession is technically confined as at common law to the acquisition of rights to incorporeal hereditaments, chiefly easements.

The common law doctrine of pre-

suming a lost grant after a certain period of undisturbed enjoyment of the right prevailed in the States. Upon an analogy to the period of limitations prescribed by the Statute of James I., undisturbed enjoyment of the right for 20 years was deemed to raise

the presumption of a lost grant. Some differences of opinion have prevailed as to whether the presumption is a matter only of fact and hence rebuttable or is conclusive as a matter of law, the latter view being the majority rule. Thus prescription has in many States been assimilated to the acquisition of title to land by

adverse possession. Statutes have commonly dealt with prescription, abolishing the lost grant presumption and substituting the doctrine of acquisition of title through adverse possession. As at English common law the adverse use must be open and notorious and not under licence of the owner; it must be uninterrupted for the statutory period, and the right acquired is limited to the extent of the use and the enjoyment of it during the period of prescription. No easement can be acquired save as appendant to an absolute estate in land. No right to maintain a nuisance can be acquired by prescription nor can a right of user be acquired by prescription against the State. l

PRESERVING AND BOTTLING, terms used for meth-

ods of saving perishable foods from moulds, yeasts and bacteria.

(See Foop PRESERVATION.)

In the United States the term “can-

ning,” instead of “bottling,” is used for the preservation of food in containers, whether of glass or tin, and the word “preserves” implies that sugar is added to the food material. The application of heat in some form is one of the commonest means of destroying bacteria, yeasts and moulds, and is utilized in jam-making (see JAMS AND JELLIES), bottling, canning, picklemaking, drying and crystallizing. Pickle-making is a method of preserving in which heat, vinegar, sugar or salt, or both, are used to destroy the micro-organisms contained in fruit and vegetables. The acetic acid in the vinegar acts as an antiseptic and prevents further growth of bacteria, moulds or yeasts. Chutneys, pickles, catchups and sauces are examples of foods preserved with vinegar. BOTTLING

FRUIT

The aim when bottling is to sterilize the contents of the bottle, and having done so to prevent any germs from entering by sealing it. Bottling is one of the simplest, but most useful methods of preserving fruit and vegetables, for their character and flavour ls unaltered, whereas in jam and pickle-making both taste and

appearance are changed.

Provided attention be paid to a few

Important points success is assured, and a lavish supply of peas, beans, cherries, currants, etc., is available for winter use at little cost beyond the initial expense of buying a supply of vacuum jars. These are not essential, however, for ordinary jam jars can be used, although special care and precautions must be taken to obtain an airtight seal. When bottling is done regularly it is advisable to purchase a supply of vacuum jars and a sterilizer.

Vacuum jars or bottles consist of (a) a glass container with wide

451

BOTTLING

neck. It should be without flaws and it is important that the rim should not be chipped; (b) a metal or glass lid; (c) a rubber band,

which acts as a washer between the bottle and lid; (d) a metal screw band or clip. When bottling is carried out on a large scale special sterilizers are employed, but in the home a large zinc bath, fish kettle, bath or even a large clothes boiler or copper, can be used. As bottles are liable to crack if they are placed in immediate contact with the heated bottom of the pan some good non-conductor of heat must come between them. A simple slatted wood board to fit the copper, bath or fish kettle makes an excellent false bottom. Selecting and Preparing the Fruit.—(1) Select sound fruit which is very slightly under-ripe, with the exception of pears,

which are better bottled when fully ripe. (2) Wash to remove dust, grade according to degree of ripeness and pack neatly and firmly, using a smooth piece of wood or bone spatula. The bottle should be shaken from time to time to ensure a tight pack. Loose packing is responsible for the fruit rising when sterilized, leaving a space of one to two inches at the bottom of the jar. (3) Fill each jar with cold water and pour away. This is to rinse the fruit as it

is handled during the packing process.

(4) Fill the jars with

syrup or water, taking care that the fruit is completely covered. The flavour is improved when syrup is used, but if sugar is scarce or unavailable water can be used. (5) Put the rubber rings, lids and screw bands or clips in position. When screw bands are used, they should be screwed down tightly and then unscrewed for rather less than a half turn to allow the steam and air to escape.

(6) Stand the bottles in the sterilizer or bath, which should contain sufficient cold water to cover the bottles completely, and apply gentle heat until the correct temperature is reached. This varies according to the variety of fruit from 125° F for small soit fruit, such as raspberries and blackberries, to 185° F for fruit salad, plums, cherries and pears. The process must not be hurried and approximately 14 hours should be taken in bringing the water to the correct temperature. (7) Allow the bottles to re- ` main at this temperature for from ro to 30 minutes. Most soft fruit requires about 15 minutes and pears and apples about 30 minutes. (8) When sterilizing is completed remove the bottles from the boiler, stand on a wooden table or some other good nonconductor, tighten the screw bands and leave until cold. (9) Next day examine the bottles to see if they are airtight. To do this, remove the screw bands and clips, hold the bottles by the lid and raise them. If the lid is firm and secure the seal is perfect. Should the lid show the slightest signs of movement or come off the seal is imperfect, and the bottle should be re-sterilized. To Make the Syrup.—Dissolve four to six pounds of sugar in a gallon of water—according to the sweetness of the fruit being bottled—bring to the boil and when cool fill the bottles. BOTTLING VEGETABLES

Vegetables require rather more severe treatment than fruit, particularly peas and beans, as they contain nitrogen, which renders them favourable to the growth of certain micro-organisms Prepare brine of a suitable strength by dissolving 24 oz. salt in one gallon of water and adding 5 fluid oz. or $ pint lemon juice, when preserving peas and beans. Boil the water, add the salt and the exact quantity of lemon juice. When cold it is ready for use. Peas must be cleaned thoroughly by washing, and as a precau-

tion it is advisable to soak them for 15 minutes in a weak solution of permanganate of potash. Sufficient crystals should be added to the water to produce a deep magenta colour. Remove the pods and shell the peas. Put them loosely in muslin and dip in a saucepan of boiling water for 1-14 minutes Then place in cold running water for about 10 minutes. Pack into the bottles and fill with acidified brine. French and Runner Beans.—Wash the beans thoroughly, using a nail brush if necessary to remove soil from the pods; string (the runner beans will also require slicing); pack lengthways in the jars. After packing, rinse out the jars with water, cover with acidified brine and place the rubber ring, glass lid and screw band in position. (See detailed instructions for fruit bot-

tling.) Put in the sterilizer or boiler, bring very slowly to the boil

PRESIDENCY—PRESOV

452

and boil for 14 hours. If, after the bottles have been boiling the brine has boiled away, remove the jars and fill up with boiling brine. Replace the rings and complete the cooking. Next day examine and test the seal as when fruit bottling. CANNING

The same principles and methods are used in canning as bottling, the chief difference being that metal, and not glass, containers are used, and the method of sealing is therefore different. Canning has the advantage that it occupies less time than bottling and less care is necessary as there is no risk of breakage. It has not been widely practised by housewives, chiefly owing to the fact that until recently soldering was necessary, a process which the majority of women found difficult. This drawback no longer exists, for a small hand sealing machine is now available which eliminates soldering. Numerous tests with the machine have been carried out and the results are invariably extremely satisfactory and reliable. In conjunction with the hand sealer, special straight sided sanitary cans with open ends must be used. The cans may be either plain or lacquered. The latter are preferable, as they prevent the acid fruit coming in contact with the tin. The outer rim of the lid has a groove which is treated with rubber solution and which acts in the same way as the flat rubber band used when fruit bottling.

Method of Canning.—(1) Wash the cans thoroughly in hot water before use. Pack with prepared fruit or vegetables, and cover entirely with boiling syrup or brine. (2) Put the lids in position and with the aid of the sealing machine close the can. As the escape of steam exhausts the air it is important to seal the can whilst very hot; therefore only two or three should be filled with boiling syrup at one time, otherwise they cool down before

there is time to seal them.

(3) When all the cans have been

sealed, place them in any large container, such as a clothes boiler, large pan or zinc bath containing sufficient boiling water to cover them completely. (4) Bring to the boil and boil gently for 15-40 minutes, according to the fruit. Small soft fruit requires 15 minutes only, and pears from 35 to 40 minutes. The time must be calculated from the moment the water boils again after all the cans have been put in. Small bubbles rising from the can whilst it is in the water indicates that it is not airtight, and has been sealed imperfectly. The contents must be removed, put into a new can and resealed. (5) When sterilizing is complete, cool the cans quickly by placing them in a bath or sink of cold water. When cold, dry and label. (See also Foop PRESERVATION.) ' (D. D. C. T.) In the United States processing is the term applied to the heating of the material to a temperature and for a length of time that will kill bacteria producing spoilage, and the following methods are used: (A) Water-bath canner, in which the containers are set far enough apart to allow free circulation of the water. This must be boiling when the sealed containers are set in (glass jars being preheated to avoid breakage) and must come over the top of the containers. (B) Steam-pressure canner, in which only enough water is put to come almost to the rack on which the containers are set. The hot-pack method of canning is recommended by the United States Department of Agriculture. The food material is first heated to boiling point in a minimum of water, is packed while boiling hot into the containers, then processed. In the cold-pack method the material is packed cold into the container

(often after first being blanched), then processed.

(I. E. L.)

PRESIDENCY, an administrative unit of the Indian empire.

The word is derived from the title of president or chief of the council of a principal factory under the East India Company—a title which lasted until governors were appointed under act of parliament in 1784. It thence came to be applied to the three original provinces of Bengal, Madras and Bombay. It is now restricted to Madras and Bombay, in distinction to the lieutenant-governorships. In Anglo-Indian usage, “presidency” was also applied -to the capital city as opposed to the country beyond, termed the ‘‘mofussil”; and this usage lingers in such phrases as “presidency town,” and “presidency magistrate.”

PRESIDENT, astyle of title of one who presides. In classical Latin the title praeses, or president, was given to all governors

of provinces, but was confined in the time of Diocletian to the procurators who, as lieutenants

of the emperor,

governed the

smaller provinces. In this sense it survived in the middle ages, Du Cange gives instances from the capitularies of Charlemagne of the style praeses provinciae as applied to the count; and later

examples of praeses, or praesidens, as used of royal seneschals and other officials having jurisdiction under the Crown.

In England the word survived late in this sense of royal lieutenant.

Thus, John Cowell, in his Interpreter of Words (1607)

defines “president” as “used in common law for the king’s lieutenant in any province or function; as president of Wales, of York,

of Berwick, president of the king’s council.”

In some of the

British North American colonies (New Hampshire, Pennsylvania,

South Carolina) there was a president of the council, usually elected by the council; and when Pennsylvania and New Hampshire became

States, one member

called president.

of the executive council was

The chief (and single) executive head in Dela-

ware, South Carolina and New Hampshire

(1784~92) was called

president. During the revolutionary struggle in America from 1774 on-

wards, the presiding officer of the continental congress was styled “president” and when the present constitution of the United States was framed in 1787 (in effect 1789) the title of president was transferred to the head of the Federal Government. “Presjdent” thus became the accepted style for the elected chief of a modern republic. In the simple sense of “one who presides” the word “president” preserved its meaning alongside the technical use implying royal delegation. In ecclesiastical terminology praesidens was sometimes

used for the head of cathedral chapters, instead of dean or provost; and it was sometimes the title given to the principal visitor of monasteries. In Great Britain the heads of many colleges are styled “president,” the title being of considerable antiquity in the case of one college at Cambridge (Queens’, founded in 1448) and four at Oxford (St. John’s, Magdalen, Corpus Christi, Trinity). At five Cambridge colleges (Pembroke, Gonville and Caius, St. Catherine’s, St. John’s, Magdalene) the title “president” is borne by the second in authority, being the equivalent of “vice-master.” In the United States “president” is the usual style of the head of a college and also of a university wherever this has developed out of a single college. “President” is also the style of persons elected to preside over the meetings of learned, scientific, literary and artistic academies and societies, €g., the president of the Royal Academy (P.R.A.) in London; the title of the president of the Royal Society (P.R.S.) dates from its foundation in 1660. In the United States the style “president” is also given to the person who- presides over the proceedings of financial, commercial and industrial corporations (banks, railways, etc.), in Great Britain usually styled “chairman,” but in the Bank of England and certain other banks “governor.” In France, besides the president of the republic, there are presidents of the senate and of the chamber of deputies. In Germany the word Präsident is used in most of the English senses of “president,” e.g., of a corporation, assembly or political body.

PRESLAV,

a village of Bulgaria, situated on the north

edge of the Balkans, south of Shumla (g.v.). Preslav was the second capital of the mediaeval Bulgarian tsars, and was raised to great splendour by Tsar Symeon (893—927). It was then compared to Constantinople, and described as “full of high palaces and churches, with countless stones, woods and paintings, so

adorned with marble and copper, silver and gold, that the visitor knows not wherewith he shall compare it.” It fell into decay on the fall of the first Bulgarian Empire, and was later plundered to

adorn the new capital of Trnovo (q.v.). It is now a heap of ruins.

PRESOV, a town in eastern Slovakia, 25 m. north of Košice. Situated on the left bank of the river Tarcza, a tributary of the Theiss, it is a very old town but has been almost entirely rebuilt since a great fire in 1887. Following the foundation of the town by German colonists in the 12th century its history has been much affected by the nodal character of its site; today it is the

PRESS—PRESSES

AND

PRESSWORK

453

writers. Wherever a large number of individual units are demanded for mass production, pressed metal has, in the majority of cases, been utilized. The equipment used for the manufacture of pressed steel carries and mineral springs, but importance rests on its administrative the general term of presses. There are two general classes known functions supplemented by small manufactures. Pop. 16,323. PRESS. For the history of the liberty or freedom of the as hydraulic and mechanically-driven. The majority, however, press see Press Laws; also Newspapers and Perropicats. For are belt-driven power presses of varying size. The press furnishes the punishment of “pressing” see Perne Forte ET Dure. For the power and the means of holding the “tools” or punches and dies that do the actual forming of the metal. These “tools” consist the “press gang” 'see IMPRESSMENT. PRESS ASSOCIATION, THE, the oldest and largest, news of an upper or male section, which is known as a punch, and the agency exclusively operating in Britain, was founded in 1868, and lower or female section, which is known as a die. A piece of steel began active work on February 5, 1870, simultaneously with the is held over the lower section (the die) and the upper section (the Post Office, taking over the telegraphs from the old private tele- punch) is brought down on this by the power press, thus cold graph companies under the Telegraph act, 1868. It was started forming the steel into the desired shape. The majority of pressed on a co-operative basis by the provincial newspapers which, under steel parts are made by several successive operations. A certain the old system, had been supplied with news services and special shape of flat blank receives the first operation in one set of reports by the telegraph companies. It supplies all the London tools, it is then passed along to a second press carrying a second daily and Sunday journals, provincial papers, and trade and other set of tools and is further formed or drawn, and so on through periodicals. For many years the “P.A.” utilised the Press tele- various stages. It is usually necessary to heat-treat the steel between these graph rates for its news transmission, but in 1920 it undertook the greater part of the work itself by means of private telegraph various operations as cold pressing makes steel harder and tougher lines leased from the Post Office. The system now embraces some and without heat-treating the steel would not withstand the strain 3,000 miles of private wires, radiating from London and serving to which it is subjected. Soft, well-annealed steel is ductile, while either direct or through centres at Birmingham, Bristol, Man- steel that has been worked in the tools is tough and hard. The chester, Leeds and Glasgow, about 130 provincial morning and tensile strength of a piece of steel can be increased as much as evening papers. In the case of imperial and foreign news, it has 30% by a single drawing operation. Holes are punched and edges the exclusive right to supply Reuter’s (q.v.) telegrams in the trimmed smooth and round by specially designed tools. While provinces. The connection with Reuter’s has always existed. For forgings are heavy and castings are both brittle and heavy, a the rapid collection and distribution of racing results, etc., and pressed steel part, when properly manufactured, is both lighter and cricket and football scores, the Association partners the Exchange stronger, has a smoother surface and requires less finishing or machining. It has replaced wood in many cases. Telegraph Co. in a joint telephone service in the provinces. BrstrocrapHy.—Georgi and Schubert, Sheet Metal Working; O. The “P.A.” is governed by a committee of management con-

seat of the District authorities, the centre of a Greek Catholic diocese and an important railway junction for the Carpathians and Poland. In the neighbourhood of the town is an opal mine

»

PRESSBURG: see BRATISLAVA. PRESSED METAL, a broad term which includes that class

Smith, Press-Working of Metals; H. Hayes, Drop Forging and Drop Stamping; H. M. Boyeston, Iron and Steel; B. Saunders, Forging, Stamping and General Smithing; O. Fuchs, Schmiedehammer; ein Leitfaden für die Konstruktion und den Betrieb; C. O. Bower, Hydraulic Forging and the Plastic Deformation of Steel. . G. A.)

ing sheets, strips, plates or bars of metal in either hydraulic or mechanically-driven presses. Steel so treated is referred to as “pressed steel” or “stampings.” While brass, aluminium, zinc and

tician and man of letters, was born in Paris on Sept. 30, 1853, being the son of Edmond de Pressensé, and was educated at the Lycée Bonaparte. He served on General Chanzy’s staff in the war

sisting of seven, to which the shareholders elect a new member (H. C. Ro.) annually.

of merchandise made by the process of bending, shaping and form-

various alloys are all formed in substantially the same manner as steel and with similar equipment, this article will be largely confined to pressed steel. The greater portion of the work is done cold and pressed steel

is generally assumed to mean the cold forming of sheet steel in power-driven presses. Castings and forgings constitute the classes of material that are most generally replaced by pressed steel.

Pressed steel is different from both castings and forgings in that,

while either a casting or a forging may have a solid section of varying degrees of thicknesses, except in rare cases, pressed steel is a flat or hollow form, such as a shell, the walls of which are of equal thickness throughout. While by special processes and by specially constructed tools it is possible to make a wall of varying thickness, it generally follows that if the sheet of steel which is

used as raw material is 4 in. thick, the walls of the finished pressed steel form, will also be substantially $ in. thick. Cold forming of steel first became industrially important through its adoption by bicycle manufacturers. When bicycles became popular, pressed steel replaced forgings and castings because of the need of producing a lighter vehicle at a lower cost. The next great advance in the use of pressed steel was by the automobile manufacturer. In 1929, apart from units such as the engine, front axle and a few minor parts, most automobiles were

made almost entirely of pressed steel. (See Motor Car Boptgs.) Other manufacturers, perceiving the advantages of pressed metal

PRESSENSE, FRANCIS DE (1853-1914), French poli-

of 1870, and was taken prisoner at Le Mans, but after the war entered the public service. After a short period at the ministry of public instruction he entered the diplomatic service, and was appointed first secretary at Washington, In 1882 he returned to France and took up journalism, becoming in 1888, foreign editor of the Temps. At the time of the Dreyfus case (1895) de Pressensé identified himself with the cause of the prisoner. He wrote in support of General Picquart, and in consequence of his advocacy of Emile Zola’s cause was struck off the roll of the Legion of Honour. This led to his resignation from the Temps, and he came forward as a socialist politician, being in 1902 elected socialist deputy for the Rhône. He took part in the debates on the question of the separation of church and state, and a bill brought in by him formed the basis of the ọne finally carried by Briand. He died in Paris on Jan. 19, 1914. His works include Le Cardinal Manning (1896), and L'Irlande et PAngleterre depuis Pacte d'union jusqwà nos jours, 1800-1888 (1889), besides many articles in the Temps, the Revue des Deux Mondes, Aurore and Humanité.

PRESSES AND PRESSWORK.

The method of convert-

ing ingots of steel into forgings depends upon the size of the completed pieces and the number of these required. Hammer heads are formed in dies under a drop hammer. (See Dror Forc-

ING.)

Locomotive

connecting rods would probably be forged

lighting fixtures, electrical conduits, switch boxes, push button

under a steam hammer (g.v.). Ingots larger than 3 ft. in diameter, however, would usually be forged under a hydraulic press. The present article will confine itself to the latter type, although many hydraulic presses are used for the manufacture of seamless tubes, shells or flasks, and adapted to many forming operations in trades other than metal working. Machines for forming cold sheet metal

hot water heaters, gasolene pumps, washing machines and type-

although the dies are opened and closed by cam or eccentric-driven

over castings and forgings, changed their methods so that pressed steel now goes into many manufactured products. It is impossible here to give a complete list but a few of the better known products

are beds, alarm clocks, cooking utensils, gas and electric ranges,

plates, office furniture, filing cabinets, concrete forms, car wheels,

and thin plate (see Pressen METAL)

are also called presses,

454

PRESS

GANG— PRESS

levers. In a forging press the hot metal rests on a stationary anvil and is squeezed by a pallet forced downward by a hydraulic ram. Four heavy round columns act as tension members with both ends fixed into massive rectangular slabs called entablatures; the lower entablature rests directly on the foundation and supports the anvil; the upper entablature or cap carries the hydraulic cylinder. Fluid pressure in this cylinder forces a closely fitting Article

Nickel-chromium Nickel-chromium

47,000 Ib. Extrusion press . : Boiler drum . os

Chromium-vanadium

40,000 lb. Intensifier

.

a great danger to cylindrical objects which must withstand burst. ing pressure, because the greatest stress is in a tangential direction. Transverse weakness may be minimized by making ingots of cleanest steel, and also doing no more work in forging than

is necessary. Hence the modern method of minimizing the size of ingots and degree of forging avoids undue trouble from segregation and transverse weakness. Tensile properties representative large forgings are as follows:

taken from

:

Ultimate

Yield

Elongation

Reduction

24 in. dia. by 36 ft. 18 in. dia.

II5,000 148,500

85,000 110,000

2I I5

55 50

32 in. dia. 63 in. dia.

a 64,000

Steel

Hydraulic press column

LAWS

Size

0:26% Carbon.

strength

point

in 2 in.

(tangential)

I10,000 os 29,000 min. | 25 in 3 in.

bs 45

(See IRON AND STEEL.) ram downward; to the bottom of the ram is attached a cross head guided by four bushings sliding over the columns, and to this cross head is secured the upper working tool or pallet. Auxiliary cylinders are provided for lifting the cross head after the force has been exerted, and to move the ram up to its work. High pressure in the ram cylinder may be built up directly from a pump, from an accumulator (see STEAM ACCUMULATORS) or by a steam intensifier. Frequently more than one pressure is available so that work of various sizes can be handled. Reliable valves and packing at all sliding joints are essential. The capacity of a press is rated by the total squeeze it can exert. The smaller sizes, which compete with steam hammers, are designed for rapid operation and economy of power and water; in the bigger ones these considerations are subordinated to the necessity for complete reliability. So much improvement has been made in the art of casting and heat treating alloy steels that the large expense of forging is now justified only when the utmost of uniformity, soundness and toughness is essential. Castings and ingots are made up of interlocked fern-like crystals of metal, whose size depends upon the slowness of solidification. Long continued heat treatment may be able to refine this structure into an aggregate of microscopic crystals, but it is much more amenable to heat treatment if the hot ingot has been squeezed and the coarse crystals more or less broken up mechanically. Accidental internal cavities may also be closed up and welded shut. This kneading of metal, to be effective, should obviously extend to the very centre of the section. Hence large ingots need the slow, deliberate, irresistible squeeze of a hydraulic press. The sharp blow of the biggest hammer is cushioned by the outer layers of metal and fails to reach the centre of the slab. American railroad practice in 1929 calls for a 5 to x reduction from the ingot and a 4 to 1 from rolled billets. Recent investigations have shown, however, that fine grain can be obtained with even less than 3 to x reduction if proper precautions are taken.

The irregularities caused by segregation (see IRON AND STEEL) can more than counteract the advantages of large reduction under the press. The carbon is lower in the bottom and sides of the ingot and higher in the centre and top; to counteract this in big ingots requiring the full capacity of several furnaces, metal containing less and less carbon is poured in the successive heats. It is impossible to make absolutely clean steel. Tiny nonmetallic inclusions will be caught between the crystals throughout the ingot; soluble impurities like phosphorus will concentrate in the metal locked within the crystal branches. Forging tends to arrange these impurities into planes parallel to the pallet faces; the more the reduction the more pronounced would these “flow lines” become. Thus if tensile test pieces are cut from a thick forged slab in three directions (a) parallel to the main extension, (b) crosswise and (c) from front to back, the ultimate strength of all might be fairly close. However, the first or longitudinal piece would have satisfactory contraction of area and impact toughness; the second or tangential test piece would have markedly less toughness; the third, or transverse test piece would be the most brittle. Such “transverse weakness,” as it is called, is

in area

(E.E.T.)

PRESS GANG. The Press Gang was the name given to the naval parties who, until the beginning of the roth century, were

used forcibly to take or “impress” men for service in the British fleet. From mediaeval times the Crown claimed the power to impress able-bodied subjects for the defence of the realm, and as early as the time of Edward III. complaints are recorded in Parlia-

ment of the excessive use of this power.

From the earliest time,

England depended upon her professional seamen, the merchantmen, to man her fighting ships: but it was not until the end of the 16th century that fishermen, watermen and mariners were exempted by law from being “pressed” as soldiers: they remained liable to impressment for service in the Navy. The needs of Elizabeth’s fighting fleet became so large that the Vagrancy Act was passed, rendering all “disreputable persons” liable for impressment for service in the fleet: the sheriffs and mayors being bound, upon the production of the warrant of the “takers” or “press gang,” to produce the number of men required. This naturally led to jail clearance; the law remaining unaltered, throughout the 17th and 18th centuries there were constant complaints from naval officers of the quality of men supplied. In the 18th century certain exemptions were made, in the case of apprentices, a proportion of fishermen, seamen employed in the coastwise coal trade, but

even at the height of Britain’s maritime power, from 1780 to 1815, the press gang was the chief means of recruiting the fleet. The action of English cruisers in pressing men from the merchant ships of the American colonies was one of the causes that led to the War of Independence. A favourite means of completing the complement of warships was by stopping homeward bound merchantmen and removing some of their seamen. Service became so unpopular that in 1795 the press gangs and the jails

failed to provide sufficient men. An Act was passed directing each county to provide a “quota” of men, with the result that the authorities of each district handed all malcontents

and agitators

over to the press gangs, by whom they were taken to the guard

ships stationed round the coast for drafting into the fleet. The introduction of this bad element into the Navy was one of the causes of the mutiny of 1797 which nearly brought disaster to the country.. The insistence of the right to press British subjects in America was one of the chief causes of the war between Great Britain and the United States in 1812. The press gangs were not used after the close of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, although it is lawful to this day to impress men for service in the navy, though not in the army. By an Act of 1835 a ‘“pressed” man is exempt after five years’ service and seamen in the Merchant Service, fishermen and certain other persons are exempted from impressment. With the introduction of the long service system in 1853 all need for impressment disappeared and since that date there have always been more volunteers than could

be accepted for service in the Royal Navy.

(S. T. H. W.)

PRESSING: see Peme FORTE ET DURE. , PRESS LAWS, the laws affecting the products of the print-

ing-press and newspapers in particular.

(See Newspapers.)

In

English-speaking countries the liberty of the press is nowadays

taken for granted.

It was not always so, but in 1784 Lord

PRESS Mansfield made the following pronouncement in R. v. Dean of oz, Asaph (3 T.R. 431 n): “The liberty of the press consists in printing without any Previous licence, subject to the consequences of the law.” This liberty was a plant of slow growth in

England, and in some

Continental

countries

the State

still

exercises an authority over the newspaper press which in AngloAmerican spheres would be considered intolerable in time of

peace. (See also CENSORSHIP.)

In the middle ages the church kept a firm hand on the free

expression of opinion, spoken or written, and when printing was discovered co-operated with the secular authority in keeping an even tighter hand on the printed word. The principle of the censorship over the products of the press, which is still maintained

by the Roman Catholic Church (see InpEx Liprorum Prout-

BITORUM), was initiated by a bull issued by Pope Alexander VI. in sox against unlicensed printing. In 1535 Francis I. issued an edict prescribing the death penalty for the unauthorized printing

of books, and soon afterwards the Sorbonne became the licensing authority and remained so until the French Revolution.

England.—In England after the Reformation in Henry VIII.’s reign most of the rights of censorship passed from the ecclesiastical authorities to the Crown, which began to grant by letters patent the privilege of printing or selling books as a monopoly. Under Queen Mary the right of printing was limited to 97 members of the Stationers’ company, founded by royal charter in 1556, and their successors by apprenticeship. Under Queen Elizabeth the Star Chamber limited the number of printers and presses, and ordained that printing should be carried on only in London, Oxford and Cambridge.

In view of the increase in

unlicensed printing-presses, the Star Chamber in 1637 decreed that all printed books must be submitted for licence and registered by the Stationers’ company before publication, with the penalty of forfeiture of all presses belonging to disobedient printers, who were disabled thereafter from carrying on their trade. The old formula imprimatur (let it be printed) thenceforward denoted the authority to print the book. Law books had to be licensed by one of the chief justices or the chief baron of the Exchequer, certain other classes of books by special dignitaries, but most of the licensing devolved on the archbishop of Canterbury and his coadjutors and the chancellors or vice-chancellors of the universities. It was a similar ordinance made by the Long Parliament, after the Star Chamber had been abolished, that called forth John Milton’s unlicensed essay, Areopagitica, a Speech for the liberty of Unlicensed Printing. Under the Licensing Act of 1662 (in effect reproducing the Star Chamber order of 1637), practically the newspaper press was reduced to the London Gasette. In 1695 the Licensing Act lapsed and, to quote Macaulay, “English literature was emancipated for ever from the control of the Government.” Lord Chief Justice Russell (of Killowen) said in R. v. Gray 1900, 2 Q.B. at p. 40: “The liberty of the press is no greater and no less than the liberty of every subject of the queen.” (See Contempt oF Court.) One effect of unlicensed printing was to lay authors open to the attacks of literary piracy, and in 1709 the first Copyright Act (8 Anne c. 19) was enacted for their protection. The old power of a secretary of State to issue a warrant, general or special, for the purpose of searching for and seizing the author of a libel, or seizing the libellous papers themselves, was not finally declared legal until the case of Entick v. Carrington in 1765 (St.Tr. xix. 1030). In 1776 the House of Commons passed a resolution in accordance with this decision. The compulsory stamp duty on newspapers was abandoned in 1855 (18 Vict. c. 27), the duty on paper in 1861 (24 Vict. c. 20), the optional duty on newspapers In 1870 (33 and 34 Vict. c. 38). A declaration in favour of the liberty of the press is usually a prominent feature in the written constitutions of foreign States, but in England it rests upon a constitutional rather than a legal

foundation. (Dicey’s Introduction to the Law of the Constituition, 7th edition, chap. 6.) _ The last relic of the censorship before publication is to be found m the licensing of stage plays.

(See THEATRES, Law RELATING

10.) The last relic of the monopoly of printing formerly granted

LAWS

455

to licensees of the Crown is found in the exclusive right of the king’s printer and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge to print the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer, and of the king’s printer to print Acts of parliament, statutory rules, and other State documents. This monopoly, so far as the Bible is concerned, extends only to the Authorized Version, and not to any accompanied by annotations or new marginal readings. In the case of re Red Letter New Testament (Authorized Version) in 1900, on the application of the queen’s printers an order was made by a chancery judge expunging from the register of copyrights of the Stationers’ company an entry whereby an American was registered as the owner of the copyright in that book (17 T. L.R. 1). The rights of the king’s printers are protected by 8 and 9 Vict. c. 113 and 45 Vict. c. 9; the rights of the printers of the journals of either house of parliament are protected by 8 and 9 Vict. c. 113. By 32 and 33 Vict. c. 24 the printer of any paper or book for profit is required under penalties to print thereon his name and address or the name of a university press, and is to keep a copy of everything printed, with a few exceptions. Penalties must be sued for within three months, and no proceeding for penalties can be begun unless in the name of the attorney-general or solicitorgeneral of England or the lord advocate of Scotland. Under the Copyright Acts a newspaper is a book, and the obligation imposed by the 1842 Act still remains of delivering (without request) to the British Museum a copy of any work published within the United Kingdom, and of delivering (on request) copies for the use of the university libraries at Oxford and Cambridge, the library of the faculty of advocates at Edinburgh, the library of Trinity college, Dublin, and the national library of Wales (1 and 2 Geo. V. c. 46, s. 15; see COPYRIGHT). In the High Court a request by a judge that certain details be not published is equivalent to a command. By the Judicial Proceedings (Regulations of Reports) Act 1926 there is a declaration of the common law as to the offence of publishing indecent matter in reports of judicial proceedings and a special proviso limiting the reports of matrimonial causes. (See Divorce.) By the Children Act 1906 (8 Edw. VII. c. 67) reporters cannot be excluded from children’s courts, subject to any powers that a police magistrate has of hearing proceedings in camera, but the normal practice is not to report the names and addresses of child offenders. By the Criminal Justice Act 1925 no photographs or sketches may be taken in court, or, if they are taken contrary to the law, published. Seditions, blasphemous, or obscene words in a newspaper may be punished as treason, treason felony, seditious

libel, or misdemeanor.

CW. La.)

United States.—There is no body of law in America which with strict accuracy may be called “the law of the press.” Except for a few statutes and peculiar rules of common law, journalists are not singled out for special legal favours or restrictions. Naturally, however, the press comes into more direct and frequent contact with certain branches of law than with others. These branches, touching content and distribution of newspapers, may, for convenience, be grouped under the above title. The sources of press law are found in the Federal and State Constitutions, statutes and in decisions of Federal and State courts interpreting constitutional and statutory provisions and declaring the common law. Some branches are restrictive, others protective. Nearly all are relatively modern and all are in process of development, chiefly toward enlarged freedom for éthical journalism. The restrictive laws are those thought necessary by legislatures or courts to serve three purposes: protection of Government and its processes, including judicial action, from violent disruption and unlawfully created disrespect; protection of mmdividuals in good name, business reputation and right of privacy; and protection of the morals of the public and of its right not to be defrauded or deceived. The chief instances of restriction for governmental protection are the statutes condemning publications constituting contempt -of court, sedition (e.g., the war-time Espionage Acts of Congress),

criminal anarchy and syndicalism.

Acts of Congress and State

456

PRESS

statutes generally deal with contempt of court and courts have repeatedly held certain publications to be contemptuous. Federal statutes prohibiting various forms of seditious publications have been common in war time, but ordinarily have been repealed on restoration of peace. Their constitutionality has been upheld with great uniformity. Many State statutes condemn criminal anarchy and syndicalism. The New York Criminal Anarchy statute

(Penal Law, Sect. 160-161) is typical. These statutes are directed against advocacy of overthrow of Government and of destruction of property (sabotage) by violence or other unlawful means. The chief instances of restriction for protection of individuals are the libel law and the prohibition of unauthorized publication of photographs and names of individuals for purposes of advertising or trade. This prohibition is statutory in two States (New York and California) and exists by judicial decision in others. It is destined to become general, if not universal. Every State has libel law, usually expressed partly in statutes and partly in court decisions declaring common law rules. This is by far the most important phase of press law. It has its origin in the common law and many of its fundamental rules were laid down when the art and practice of printing were in their infancy. Even now the law for the most part is found, not in statutes or codes, but in court decisions. In general, the judicial tendency has been to abandon or relax common law rules thought too harsh for conditions of modern journalism. In the main, at least from the standpoint of importance, the statutes are relaxations of former harsh common law rules; in some instances the legislatures have codified liberal court decisions and in others they have advanced beyond the courts in enlarging the freedom of decent journalism. Fundamentally, the libel law in the various States is substantially the same, though naturally there are variations in details, some of which are important, and in the application of underlying rules. Published matter is libellous if its natural tendency, in the opinion of a substantial number of right-thinking persons, is to induce an ill opinion of an individual or is to affect injuriously a person’s standing in his business, profession or office or is to impugn the management or credit of a corporation in such manner as to be calculated to cause pecuniary loss. Libellous publications may be the subject of civil suits and criminal prosecutions but may not be restrained by injunction. The generally recognized complete defences are that the published matter was true, that it was a fair and true report of legislative, judicial or other public and official proceedings published without malice, that it was fair comment or criticism concerning a matter of public interest, that it was published in good faith in defence of some attack upon the publisher or that it was published with the consent of the person named. Partial defences—those which mitigate or reduce damages—are also allowed. They consist generally of proof concerning the publisher’s good faith and the reasons why he believed his publication to be

LAWS The U.S. Constitution (1st amendment) provides that Congress shall pass no law abridging the freedom of the press and the State Constitutions, in varying phraseology,

declare that citizens

may freely speak, write and publish their sentiments on all subjects, being responsible for the abuse of that right, and that no law shall be passed to restrain or abridge the liberty of the press. Controversy concerning the proper interpretation of these guaranties rages endlessly and even now the subject is in doubt. Those favouring a narrow interpretation contend that the guaranties mean merely that there shall be no restraint in advance of

publication or prevention of future publication, that Congress and the State legislatures are free to provide for punishment after the event for the publication of any sort of matter that they think objectionable and that the legislative conclusion of objectionableness is not subject to judicial scrutiny.

Those favouring

a broad construction contend—and sometimes with more emotion than logic—that the guaranties, properly interpreted, prevent any form of legal responsibility for any publications except those which are seditious, obscene or libellous. That contention has been rejected in a number of decisions of appellate courts. The truth lies, it is believed, between the two extremes. These guarantees do not protect a publisher from the consequences of a crime committed by the act of publication. They mean, however, more than that there shall be no restraint of future publications. They imply not only liberty to publish but complete immunity from legal punishment for the publication so long as it is not harmful in its character when tested by such standards as the law affords. (H. L. Cr.) The British Empire.—In the British dominions and possessions overseas the press is, generally speaking, as free as in England. In India the press laws are contained in a series of Acts of which the last and most important is No. XIV. of 1922, known as the Press Law Repeal and Amendment Act. The governor-general is given wide powers with regard to preventing a seditious use of newspapers, whether printed in English or in the vernacular, and there are elaborate provisions for the registration of printers and publishers, for the seizure and confiscation of seditious matter and for preventing its importation or circulation, and for the punishment of those responsible for its publication or distribution. Every copy of a newspaper must bear the name of the responsible editor. Other Countries.—The press law in Austria is contained in the federal law of April 1922, which guarantees the freedom of the press subject to limitations set out in 51x articles. In Hungary the press law of 1914 (Act XIV.) is an elaborate set of regulations containing 64 articles, the first of which says: “It is open to every one to communicate and propagate his ideas by means of the press.” Art. 14 of the Argentine Constitution provides that any inhabitant may publish his ideas in the press without any previous censorship. The only restrictions of the liberty of the press are contained in the penal code and social defence law dealing with defamation and other offences. By the Belgian Constitution of 1831 the liberty of the press is declared. In Bulgaria true or otherwise justifiable. The chief instances of restriction for the protection of public the press law of 1921 deals mainly with questions of responsibility welfare are the statutes prohibiting publication of obscene mat- and procedure, press offences being set out in the penal code. By ter; advertisements of such matter as lotteries, betting odds and the Constitution of Chile the liberty of the press is guaranteed, other data useful in gambling; intoxicating liquor, abortifacient subject to ordinary restrictions. In China newspapers are governed drugs and instruments, cures for venereal disease, procuration of by the press law of 1914, which follows the model of most Eurodivorce; false statements of circulation and false and misleading pean countries in its general outline, except for the important merchandise advertisements. Federal and some State statutes difference that in theory all leading articles have to be passed require that reading matter which is in fact paid advertising before publication by the police. The Czechoslovakian press law shall be plainly marked as advertising. A few States, in varying of May 1924 consists of 42 articles which amplify previous laws forms of phraseology, prohibit the publication and sale of news- relating to the press passed when this country was part of the papers “devoted to” or “principally made up” of stories of blood- Austro-Hungarian empire. In the main the 1924 law deals with questions of procedure and responsibility and does not enact new shed, lust or crime. The protective branches of newspaper law consist mainly of offences. In Denmark press laws date from 1851, subject to constitutional guaranties of freedom of the press, the copyright amendments in the general civil penal law of 1866. As one of law and trade-mark law. Comment upon the latter two branches, the new independent post-War States, Finland’s press law dates each of which is a special body of law not peculiar to newspapers, from Jan. rgr9. In France the press is controlled by the law of July 1831, is beyond the scope of this discussion, except to say that newspapers enjoy the same rights and privileges thereunder as do which declares the liberty of the press, subject to the prohibition citizens generally. of abuses. In Germany, by the Constitution of Aug. 1919, Art.

PRESSURE 118, “every German has the right, within the limits of the common

law, to express his opinion by word of mouth, in writing, in print, or in any other way. A censorship will not be established, but certain regulations will be laid down dealing with cinematograph exhibitions.

Legal measures

of immoral literature.”

are permissible for the prevention

For the rest the press is subject to the

press law of May 1874.

Liberty of the press is provided in the Constitutions of Greece and Holland. In Holland it actually exists as in England, but the troublous political developments in: Greece during and since the World War have resulted in a considerable limitation. In Italy the press has become under Signor Mussolini’s régime almost entirely, on its political side, an exponent of the Fascist idea. Nearly all professional journalists perforce belong to an organization under Government control, and by a decree of July 1924 the responsible editor of a newspaper must be approved by the prefect of the province. A prefect may warn the newspaper editor or manager who publishes false or tendencious news calculated to embarrass the country with foreign Governments, or to

damage the national credit, or in any way to disturb public order, and may revoke his recognition of the editor who has been so warned twice in a year. An appeal lies, not to a judicial tribunal, but to the minister of the interior. For breaches of these rules

newspapers may be confiscated.

In practice the Fascist press

laws have, at any rate for the present, done away with the nominal liberty of the press expressed in the royal edict of 1848. The press law of May 1go1 in the main governs the activities of newspapers in Japan, other forms of print being dealt with in an earlier law of 1893. The various press laws under which partitioned Poland lived are being replaced by a uniform law based on the principle of freedom of opinion. In Portugal, Yugo-

slavia and Rumania there is a theoretical liberty for the press, liable to be waived during not infrequent periods of unrest, In other respects the press is subject to the usual restrictions against abuse of the printed word. In Russia by a decree of 1921 the Government of the Republic of Soviets has practically brought the newspaper press and all printed publications under State control, and there is no independent press. Unauthorized printing results in confiscation and the trial of those responsible. In Spain, since the abolition of parliamentary government, which was superseded by the régime of the Marques de Estella, the press has been in a political sense subject to Government control, but mn other respects it is governed by laws passed since 1883 which are more or less in common with the press laws of other Roman Catholic countries. In Norway and Sweden there are voluminous press laws in operation, but they follow the usual order of things, freedom of opinion being allowed. The same applies to Switzer-

land. PRESSURE CHEMISTRY.

(W. La.) The influence of pressure on

chemical transformations has long been recognized, but it is only within the 2oth century that high pressures have been applied to

CHEMISTRY

457

equilibrium or a close approach to it is brought about by the use of a catalyst, which may be defined as a substance which can accelerate a chemical change without itself undergoing permanent alteration. The development of ammonia synthesis has shown that a catalyst may be specially sensitive to the presence of certain substances which may either inhibit or enhance its activity. For example, the activity of iron as an ammonia catalyst is partially or totally destroyed by the presence of traces of sulphur, selenium, tellurium and other elements which act as poisons. Catalyst masses must consequently be prepared with great care, and the reacting gases need special purification. In contrast to the poisoning action of the elements mentioned above, the presence of a small proportion of certain substances called promoters, as for example the oxides of the alkalis and alkaline earths, greatly enhances the activity of the iron catalyst. Lowering the temperatures of reaction has the same effect on the ammonia equilibrium as raising the pressure. Haber has calculated that if the temperature of reaction could be reduced to 300° C, satisfactory yields of ammonia would result at ordinary pressures. No catalyst is known which will bring about reaction at so low a temperature, therefore the industrial procedure is to obtain a catalyst highly reactive at as low a temperature as possible, and to raise the pressure till adequate yields of ammonia result. Synthetic Ammonia Processes.—Nitrogen and hydrogen subjected to high temperatures and pressures in the presence of a suitable catalyst unite to form ammonia, in accordance with the equation Ne+3H.»—2NH3. Variations in the different industrial processes lie principally in the pressures employed, the special form of catalyst, and in the method of preparing the nitrogen hydrogen mixture. The Haber-Bosch, Casale, and Claude processes operate at pressures of about 200, 800 and 900 atmospheres respectively. The first two processes employ circulatory forms of plant (figs. x and 2), where the nitrogen-hydrogen mixture is passed over the catalyst at a temperature of s5oo°—600° C. The partial pressure of ammonia in the gases leaving the converter amounts to about 12 atmospheres in the Haber-Bosch, and 160 atmospheres in the Casale process. Ammonia is removed in the former process by solution in water, and in the latter by condensa-

tion at ordinary temperatures. Unchanged gas is circulated by a pump over the catalyst together with fresh gas mixture added to maintain the pressure. A flow-through form of plant is employed in the Claude process, The catalyst is held in a battery of six converter tubes, one of which is shown in fig. 3. In the first of these, which contains the old catalyst, any carbon monoxide in the gas is converted to methane. The next two tubes are arranged in parallel to prevent overheating due to excessive reaction, while the last three tubes are in series. The partial pressure of ammonia in the CONVERTER

CONDENSER

industrial chemical processes, Haber’s process for the direct synthesis of ammonia from its elements, which has been developed in Germany by the Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik, has not only solved the problem of the world’s supply of fixed nitrogen but has

produced a technique in dealing with gases under conditions of high pressure and temperature, which is now being applied in the field of organic chemistry. Bergius’s process for the production of oil from coal involves treatment of the latter with hydrogen

at high temperatures and pressures. This process, after over 20 years’ sustained research, has been placed on a manufacturing

basis, and affords a solution of one of the greatest European

CIRCULATION PUMP

LOW PRESSURE RECEIVER

SEPARATOR

HIGH PRESSURE RECEIVER

BY COURTESY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PADUA FIG. 1.—DIAGRAMMATIC PLAN OF CASALE

SYNTHETIC

AMMONIA

PLANT

problems, namely, the creation of an adequate oil supply. Pressure and Chemical Action.—Le Chatelier’s principle states, in effect, that if a system in equilibrium be subjected to a constraint, a change will take place in the system which is in

gases leaving each converter tube is about 250 atmospheres. Am-

opposition to the constraint. An increase of pressure favours the system ‘formed with a decrease in volume, while a reduction of

other purposes. In the three processes provision is made for heat interchange between gas entering and leaving the converter, either inside the converter itself or in a separate heat interchanger, so that the heat of reaction maintains the temperature of the catalyst. Nitrogen and hydrogen are prepared as a mixture in the Haber-

pressures favours the system formed with an increase in volume. Tessure may consequently he employed in gaseous reactions, which proceed with diminution in volume, to change the equilib-

num in favour of the product desired.

The attainment of this

monia is removed by simple condensation after each contact with

the catalyst. In all, 85% of gas is converted to ammonia. The residual gas after reduction to atmospheric pressure is used for

PRESSURE CHEMISTRY

4.58

Bosch process from producer gas (a mixture of nitrogen and carbon monoxide) and water gas (a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide). Water gas and producer gas in suitable proportions are passed with steam over an iron oxide catalyst kept at a correct temperature, when nearly all the carbon monoxide reacts with steam to give a mixture of hydrogen and carbon dioxide; the latter gas is removed by solution in water under LEADS TO ELECTRIC HEATER THERMOCOUPLE POCKET NITROGEN-HY DROGEN MIXTURE INLET HEAT INTERCHANGER SPACE OCCUPIED BY CATALYST EXIT GASES CONTAINING AMMONIA RESISTANCE WIRE FOR ELECTRICAL HEATER

BY COURTESY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PADUA FIG. 2.—SECTION

OF

CASALE

CONVERTER

high pressure, while any unchanged carbon monoxide is absorbed by a solution of a cuprous salt (e.g., ammoniacal cuprous formate). In the Casale process hydrogen is produced electrolytically, and in the Claude process the gas is obtained from cokeoven gas by a process in which other constituents are removed by liquefaction. In both processes the nitrogen-hydrogen mixture is produced by burning a calculated amount of air in the hydrogen.

Alcohol Synthesis.—G,. Patart has shown that methyl alcohol

(methanol) is produced by the interaction of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, under conditions of high temperature and pressure, in the presence of zinc oxide. The activity of zinc oxide as a methanol catalyst is increased by the addition of certain acidic oxides (¢.g., oxides of chromium, manganese and uranium). A most efficient catalyst is produced by the reduction of a basic zinc chromate (3ZnO-CrO3). Two litres of methyl alcohol per hour can be produced for each litre of space occupied by catalyst when a mixture of hydrogen (two parts by volume) and carbon monoxide (one part) is passed under a pressure of 200 atmospheres over the catalyst kept at 400° C, at a rate corresponding to 20,000 litres per hour (measured at N.T.P.) of gas mixture. Audibert has found that copper prepared by regulated reduction of cuprous or cupric oxide acts as a methanol-forming catalyst; both the activity and stability of this catalyst may be increased by the addition of small amounts of oxides of various metals (zinc, manganese, beryllium or cerium) which act as promoters. A catalyst containing o-or atoms of cerium for each atom of copper is stated to be highly reactive at so low a temperature as 300° C. Experience in high-pressure practice gained through the development of ammonia syntheses enabled the Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik to place the methanol synthesis on a manufacturing basis, and in 1925 to export 500,000 gallons of synthetic methanol to the United States. The possible number of reactions that can be effected between a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is theoretically almost unlimited, and the course of reaction is largely dependent on the nature of catalyst employed. A catalyst made from zinc chromate leads to the production of substantially pure methanol from a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen under condiiions detailed above, but if the catalyst is made alkaline by the addition of, e.g., potassium carbonate or chromate, the product contains beside methanol, n-propyl, zsobutyl and higher alcohols, together with acids, free or combined as esters. The proportion of the various constituents depends on the rate of passage of the carbon monoxide-hydrogen mixture over the catalyst.

Addition of metallic cobalt to zinc chromate produces a catalyst which brings about the formation of methyl, ethyl, npropyl, zsobutyl, #-butyl and higher primary alcohols; small amounts of aldehydes can also be isolated, but the product contains no acids free or combined. ‘Production of Oil from Coal.—Bergius’s process for conver-

sion of coal into oil consists in heating powdered coal, preferably in a liquid medium, to a temperature of 450°-470° C, in the presence of hydrogen under a pressure of about 250 atmospheres. The introduction of 5% of hydrated ferric oxide (bog-iron ore) assists the process by combining with sulphur contained in the coal; the oxide possibly functions also as a catalyst. A large amount of heat is produced by the hydrogenation which may result in rise of temperature and the consequent formation of coke. The oil-coal mixture has a much better thermal conductivity

than powdered coal alone, and it is possible with the assistance of a stirrer to keep the reacting mass within the necessary limits of temperature.

The liquefaction of coal is regarded by Bergius as proceeding in two stages: (1) hydrogen addition, and (2) a splitting up of

large molecules into smaller ones, with subsequent further addition of hydrogen. Bergius’s liquefaction process is applicable to all types of coal, including lignites, except the anthracites and

coals which consist chiefly of fusain. A continuously acting plant

is usually employed on the works scale. The coal-oil mixture js forced in at one end of a long, cylindrical iron converter down

which it is propelled by a mechanically driven stirrer. Hydrogen is circulated through the converter which is partially immersed in a gas-heated lead bath. The products from too parts of bituminous

coal are as follows: gas (methane and ethane), 20

parts; oil boiling up to 230° C, 20 parts; oil boiling at 230°~330° C, 10 parts; and oil boiling above 330° C, including pitch, 20 parts. The remaining products are ammonia, o-5 parts; water, 8 parts: and ash, 10 parts. The oily products consist of members of the aliphatic, aromatic and hydroaromatic series. Compounds of a phenolic character, chiefly cresols, are also included. Motor spirit obtained from the products (about 15%) is very rich in aromatic and hydroaromatic hydrocarbons, and may be blended with petrol to give a mixture with good anti-knocking qualities. The process of heating materials with hydrogen under pressure is termed berginisation and has been applied to asphalts, cokeoven tars, and heavy distillate oils for the production of lightboiling oil suitable for use as motor spirit. High-pressure Plant.—Gases used in high-pressure processes are usually stored at atmospheric pressure in ordinary inverted bell-type, water-sealed gas holders. Gas from the holders is then compressed and passed into the high-pressure system as required. Multiple-stage compressors should be specially designed for the

agg]

Particular gas mixture, since gases vary in

IN WHICH Gas Is| their deviation from Boyle’s law. The PREHEATED design of the compressor should also guard against leakage of gas to atmosphere

POWALL MADEOF a A At ai

possibility of air being drawn into

| the plant.

A large factor of safety must be em-

ployed in the construction of highTuse HoLoins |pressure vessels, owing to the possibility

CATALYST / Of blow holes and other structural faults.

Vessels for use at ordinary ener NITROGEN-HYOROGEN| tyres are usually constructed of mil MOTORE iNET |steel. When the vessel is to be sub-

ex Gases| Jected to both high pressure and high

CONTAINING temperature, mild steel can no longer be

used since its tensile strength begins to de-

COURTESY OF THE SOCIETE DEBY CHIMIE INDUSTRIELLE crease very appreciably at about 300° C. Fic. 3.—CLAUDE BOMB If the reacting gases contain hydrogen,

TUBE the metal may also suffer serious deterioration in strength owing to the removal of carbon by the action of hydrogen at the elevated temperature. In practice, a complex form of vessel is constructed in which the outer pressure-resisting shell, made of mild steel, is kept cool and away from the action of the hot gases (compare fig. 2); or else some special steel or alloy is used which retains a high tensile strength at the temperature to which it is subjected, and which suffers little deterioration through contact with gases employed in the process. (See fig. 3.)

Steels containing chromium and nickel have been found to be

best suited to this purpose.

PRESSURE

GAUGE—PRESTER

The construction of plant for chemical processes, involving the use of gases at high pressures and temperatures, has presented many difficulties, for example the making of pressure-tight enclosures,

glands

and

valves,

but

the

advantages

which

arise

from the reduction in gas volumes and possible efficient heat recovery make such processes in many ways preferable to normal pressure systems.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—F. Fischer, Conversion of Coal into Oil (trans. by R. Lessing) [1925] (includes chapters on hydrogenation of coal and synthetic processes under pressure); R. Taylor, High Pressure Chem-

itry [in the press];

B. Waeser,

Atmospheric

Nitrogen

Indusiry

[1926] (includes chapters on Haber-Bosch Synthesis of Ammonia, Production of Nitrogen and Hydrogen, also Bibliography); H. Wölbling, Die Hydriesung [Halle, 1926] (Technical Application of Catalytic Hydrogenation, including Fischer’s Synthol and Bergius’s Processes) ; Proceedings of the International Conference of Bituminous Coal, Nov. 1926, Carnegie Institute of Technology (includes papers by F. Bergius, F. Fischer and G. Patart). R. Ta.)

PRESSURE

GAUGE,

2 term commonly applied to an in-

strument for measuring pressure, as distinct from a barometer, a manometer (gg.v.), or a gauge employed in vacuum practice. The following article deals with the type of gauge which registers

pressure by the distortion of a metal tube or diaphragm, and which may be used to indicate the pressure of steam, gas, ammonia, water, brine, petrol, or oil. The lowest pressure requirements are those for blast pressures, or gas or air, working up to about 2 Ib. per sq.in., and the highest the hydraulic gauges up to 12 tons per square inch. For very low pressures a diaphragm arrangement is employed. In the Schaffer gauges a corrugated diaphragm is acted upon by the pressure and its deflection communicates the movement through a link and toothed quadrant to the pinion, which turns the pointer around the gauge dial. Such gauges will withstand rough usage, as on road vehicles and portable engines. The Bourdon type has a bronze tube of elliptical cross-section bent into circular form. One end is soldered to a central block through which the fluid enters (see fig.) and the other end is sealed, and coupled by a link to a pivoted quadrant with teeth

meshing with those of a pinion on the pointer spindle. Backlash between the teeth is absorbed by a hair-spring exerting constant

QUADRANT TURNING PINION OF POINTER

LINK WHICH TRANSMITS MOVEMENT OF TUBE TO QUADRANT

CROSS-SECTION OF TUBE

BY COURTESY

OF THE

BUDENBERG

GAUGE

CO.

THE BOURDON GAUGE, SHOWING FLATTENED TUBE, WHICH UNCOILS WHEN PRESSURE IS ADMITTED AND AFFECTS THE POSITION OF THE POINTER AROUND THE DIAL pressure on the pinion. Pressure within the tube tends to change lts cross-section from elliptical to circular, and the tube consequently uncoils to a slight degree, so turning the pointer. In a vacuum gauge the reduction of pressure has an opposite

efect, and the mechanism must be arranged in reverse fashion to causé the pointer to move clockwise. In a compound gauge, reading for both pressure and vacuum, the latter figures are placed to

the left of the pressure figures. For high pressures a steel tube

isfitted instead of bronze, being more elastic and less affected by

JOHN

459

Special types include the differential pressure gauge for registering the difference only in pressure at any two points. There are two inlet tubes and two hands, and if the pressures are equal there is no reading on the dial. The electric alarm gauge possesses electric contact devices to ring a bell at a definite minimum or maximum pressure. The electric control gauge closes a circuit at a definite pressure, and operates a relay in the circuit of an electric motor; e.g., an electrically-driven air-compressor may be started and stopped automatically in accordance with the demands for air. The self-recording pressure-gauge traces a permanent record of varying pressures upon a chart. See also VACUUM and Vacuum Pump.

PRESTEIGN,

an urban

district, of Radnorshire,

Wales,

situated on the Lugg which here forms the boundary between Wales and England. Pop. (1931) 1,102. It hasa G.WR. station. The village was in the lordship of Moelynaidd until the 14th century, when Bishop David Martyn of St. Davids (1290-1328) conferred valuable market privileges upon his native place. In 1542 Presteign was named as the meeting-place of the county sessions for Radnorshire in conjunction with New Radnor. It

has the fine parish church of St. Andrew, dating chiefly from the

15th century but with traces of Norman work. Presteign is the most easterly spot on the Welsh border; hence the expression “from St. Davids to Presteign” to mark the breadth of Wales.

PRESTER JOHN, a fabulous mediaeval Christian monarch

of Asia. The history of Prester John no doubt originally gathered round some nucleus of fact, though what that was is extremely difficult to determine. Before Prester John appears upon the scene we find the way prepared for his appearance by a kindred fable, which entwined itself with the legends about him. This is the story of the appearance at Rome (1122), in the pontificate of Calixtus II., of a certain Oriental ecclesiastic, whom one account styles “John, the patriarch of the Indians,” and another “an archbishop of India.” This ecclesiastic related wonderful stories of the shrine of St. Thomas in India, and of the miracles wrought there by the body of the apostle, including the distribution of the sacramental wafer by his hand. Nearly a quarter of a century later Prester John appears upon the scene, in the character of a Christian conqueror and potentate who combined the characters of priest and king, and ruled over vast dominions in the Far East. This idea was universal in Europe from about the middle of the r2th century to the end of the 13th or beginning of the 14th. The Asiatic story then died away, but the name remained, and the royal presbyter was now assigned a locus in Ethiopia. Indeed, it is not improbable that from a very early date the title was assigned to the Abyssinian king, though for a time this identification was overshadowed by the prevalence of the Asiatic legend. At the bottom of the double allocation there was, no doubt, that confusion of Ethiopia with India which is as old as Virgil and perhaps older. The first mention of Prester John occurs in the chronicle of Otto, bishop of Freisingen. This writer states that when at the papal court in 1145 he met with the bishop of Gabala (Jibal in Syria), who related how “not many years before one John, king and priest (rex et sacerdos), who dwelt in the extreme Orient beyond Persia and Armenia, and was, with his people, a Christian but a Nestorian, had made war against the brother kings of the Persians and Medes, who were called Samiards (or Sanjards), and captured Ecbatana their capital. After this victory Presbyter John —for so he was wont to be styled—advanced to fight for the Church at Jerusalem; but when he arrived at the Tigris and found no means of transport for his army, he turned northward, as he had heard that the river in that quarter was frozen over in wintertime. After halting on its banks for some years in expectation of a frost he was obliged to return home.” About 116s, a letter was circulated purporting to be addressed by Prester John to the emperor Manuel. This letter, professing to come from “Presbyter Joannes, by the power and virtue of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ, Lord of Lords,” claimed that he was the greatest

high temperatures. Special construction or some suitable safe- monarch under heaven, as well as a devout Christian. The letter guard is necessary in dealing with some gases, such as oxygen, or | dealt at length with the wonders of his empire. It was his desire | to visit the Holy Sepulchre with a great host, and to subdue the

where corrosive action is set up.

460

PRESTIDIGITATION—PRESTON

enemies of the Cross. Seventy-two kings, reigning over as many kingdoms, were his tributaries. His empire extended over the three Indies, including that Farther India, where lay the body of St. Thomas, to the sun-rising, and back again down the slope to the ruins of Babylon and the tower of Babel. In war thirteen great crosses made of gold and jewels were carried in wagons before him as his standards, and each was followed by 10,000 knights and 100,000 footmen. There were no poor in his dominions, no thief or robber, no flatterer or miser, no dissensions, no lies, and no vices. His palace was built after the plan of that which St. Thomas erected for the Indian king Gondopharus. Before it was a marvellous mirror erected on a many-storeyed pedestal; in this speculum he could discern everything that went on throughout his dominions, and detect conspiracies. He was waited on by 7 kings at a time, by 60 dukes and 365 counts; 12 archbishops sat on his right hand, and 20 bishops on his left, besides the patriarch

of St. Thomas’s the protopope of the Sarmagantians (Samarcand?), and the archprotopope of Susa, where the royal residence was. Should it be asked why, with all this power and splendour, he calls himself merely “presbyter,” this is because of his humility, and because it was not fitting for one whose chamberlain was a bishop and king, and whose chief cook was an abbot and king, to be called by such titles as these. How great was the popularity and diffusion of this letter may be judged in some degree from the fact that Zarncke in his treatise on Prester Jobn gives a list of close on roo mss. of it. Of these there are 8 in the British Museum, 10 at Vienna, 13 in the great Paris library, 15 at Munich. There are also several renderings in old German verse. The only other surviving document of the 12th century bearing on this subject is a letter of which ms. copies are preserved in the Cambridge and Paris libraries, and which is also included in mediaeval chronicles. It is a letter purporting to be written by Pope Alexander III. on Sept. 22, 1177, to carissimo in Christo filio Johanni, illustro et magnifico indorum regi, of whom he had heard from his physician Philip. There is no express mention of the title “Prester John” in what seem the more genuine copies of this letter. But the address and a warning against a boastful spirit appear to indicate that the pope supposed himself to be addressing the author of the letter of 1165. In 1221 a rumour came out of the East that a great Christian conqueror was taking the hated Muslims in reverse and sweeping away their power. The name ascribed to the conqueror was David, and some called him the son or the grandson of Prester John of India. The conqueror was in fact the famous Jenghiz Khan: but the delusion was dissipated slowly. European travellers in Asia looked for a prince to whom the legend of Prester John could be attached. Carpini (1248) makes him the king of the Christians of India the Greater; Rubruquis (1253) gives the title of “King John” to Kushluk, king of the Naimans, and makes him a brother of Ung Khan (d. 1203), the ally of Jenghiz. In Marco Polo’s narrative “Unc Khan,” alias Prester John, is the lord of the Tatars up to the advent of Jenghiz Khan. This story is repeated by other writers. Both Marco Polo and Friar John of Montecorvino speak of the descendants of Prester John as holding territory in the plain of Kuku-Khotan (about 300 miles north-west of Peking). Friar Odoric gives a circumstantial account of this kingdom, and with this Prester John disappears from Asia to figure in African legend. It is indeed probable that, however vague may have been the ideas of Pope Alexander III. respecting the geographical position of the potentate whom he addressed from Venice in 1177, the only real person to whom the letter can have been sent was the king of Abyssinia. The “honourable persons of the monarch’s

it is quite possible that the appropriation may have originated much earlier. We know from Marco Polo that about a century after the date of Pope Alexander’s epistle a mission was sent by the king of Abyssinia to Jerusalem to make offerings on his part at the Church of the Sepulchre; and it is extremely likely that the princes of the “Christian families” who had got possession of the throne of northern Abyssinia should have wished to strengthen themselves by a connection with European Christendom, and to

establish relations with Jerusalem, then in Christian hands,

From the 14th century onwards Prester John had found his seat in Abyssinia. It is there that Fra Mauro’s great map (1459) presents a fine city with the rubric, “Qui il Preste Janni fa resi. dentia principal.”

When, nearer the end of the century (1481-

1495), King John II. of Portugal was prosecuting inquiries regarding access to India his first object was to open communication

with “Prester John of the Indies,” who was understood to be a Christian potentate in Africa. And when Vasco da Gama went on his voyage from Mozambique northwards he began to hear of “Preste Joham” as reigning in the interior—or rather, probably, by the light of his preconceptions of the existence of that personage in East Africa he thus interpreted what was told him. More than twenty years later, when the first book on Abyssinia was composed—that of Alvarez—the title designating the king of Abyssinia is “Prester John,” or simply “the Preste.” BIBLIOGRAPHY.—For the older aspects of the subject, see Ludolf’s Historia Aethiopica and its Commentary, passim. The excellent remarks of M. d’Avezac, comprising a conspectus of almost the whole essence of the subject, are in the Recueil de voyages et de mémoires published by the Société de Géographie, iv. 547-564 (Paris, 1839). Two German works of importance which have been used in this article are the interesting and suggestive Der Presbyter Johannes in Sage und Geschichte, by Dr. Gustav Oppert (2nd ed., Berlin, 1870), and, most important of all in its learned, careful and critical collection and discussion of all the passages bearing on the subject, Der Priester Johannes, by Friedrich Zarncke of Leipzig (1876-79). See also Sir H. Yule’s Cathay and the Way Thither, p. 173 seg., and in Marco Polo (and ed.), i. 229~233, ii. 539-543.

PRESTIDIGITATION: see ConyuRING. PRESTON, municipal, county, and parliamentary borough and

port, Lancashire, England, on the river Ribble, 209 m. N.W. from London by the L.M:S. railway. Pop. (1931), 118,839. The site consists of a ridge rising sharply from the north bank of the river, while the surrounding country, especially to the west about the estuary, is flat. Among the numerous parish churches that of St. Jobn, built in Decorated style in 1855, occupies a site which has carried a church from early times. Among several Roman Catholic

churches, that of St. Walpurgis (1854) is a handsome building of Early Decorated character. Of public buildings the most noteworthy is the large town hall, with lofty tower and spire, in Early English style, built in 1867 from designs by Sir Gilbert Scott. The free public library and museum were established by the trustees of E. R. Harris in 1879, and a new building opened in 1893. This contains Dr. Shepherd’s library and the Newsham collection of pictures. In addition, the same trustees endowed the Harris institute, a science and art school, in 1849, with £40,000. The grammar school, founded in 1550, was housed in a building of Tudor style in 1841, but was purchased by the corporation in 1860. A bluecoat school was founded in 1701. The Victoria Jubilee technical school was established in 1897 by the Harris trustees. There is also

a deaf and dumb school. Preston is well supplied with public parks, there being Avenham park, Miller park, Moor park, the Marsh and the Deepdale grounds with an observatory. In early days Preston, owing to its geographical position, became an important trade centre with an agricultural market. Its importance has progressively increased since the advent of the cotton m-

dustry, and in addition there are iron and brass foundries, ẹn-

gineering, cotton machinery, chemical and soap works, boiler have been the representatives of some real power, and not of a works and shipbuilding and ship repairing works. Preston became phantom. It must have been a real king who professed to desire an independent port in 1843, and since then has been progressive reconciliation with the Catholic Church and the assignation of a in increasing the depth of the seaward channel and building and church at Rome and of an altar at Jerusalem. Moreover, we know improving the docks and quays. The main wet dock is 3,240 ft. that the Ethiopic Church did long possess a chapel and altar in long and 600 ft. wide. There is a total quayage of 8,500 ft. and the the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and, though we have been depth of the channel is rọ ft. at ordinary spring tide. A chamber

kingdom” whom the leech Philip had met with in the East must

unable to find travellers’ testimony to this older than about 1497,

of commerce was formed in 1916. A canal connects Preston with

PRESTONPANS—PRETORIUS

401

tended all previous grants. Charles IT. (1662 and 1685) granted charters, by which an additional weekly market on Wednesday was

especially to the study of the Thames basin. In 1853 he was elected F.R.S. He published in 1851 A Geological Inquiry respecting the Water-bearing Strata of the Country around London, which became a standard authority. With Dr. Hugh Falconer and Sir John Evans, Prestwich examined the implements discovered by Boucher de Ferthes in the gravels of the Somme valley; their investigations proved that man existed contemporaneously with the Pleistocene mammalia (Phil. Trans. 1861 and 1864). In 1874 Prestwich was appointed to the chair of geology at Oxford. During his professorship he wrote his great work, Geology: Chemical, Physical and Stratigraphical (vol. i., 1886; vol. ii., 1888). He died on June 23, 1896, at Shoreham.

conceded and a three days’ fair, beginning on March 16. The most

See Life and Letters of Sir Joseph Prestwich, ed. by his wife (1899).

dustries were glove-making and linen weaving. The first cottonspinning mill was built in 1777 in Moor Lane, and in 1791 John Horrocks built the Yellow factory. In 1835 there were 40 factories, chiefly spinning, yielding 70,000 lb. of cotton yarn weekly.

liamentary division, Lancashire, England, 5 m. N.W. of Manchester, on the L.M.S. railway. Pop. (1931), 23,876. It pos-

Lancaster and Kendal.

The parliamentary borough returns two

members.

History.—Preston, otherwise Prestune, was near the Roman station at Walton-le-Dale, and the great Roman road running from Warrington passed through it. It is mentioned in Domesday Book ag one of Earl Tostig’s possessions which had fallen to Roger of Poictou, and on his defection it was forfeited to the Crown. Henry II. (about 1179) granted the burgesses a charter—the first of

14 royal charters which have been granted to Preston. Elizabeth

(1566) granted the town its great charter which ratified and ex-

important industry used to be woollen weaving. Other early in-

A gild existed perhaps in Saxon times, but the grant of a gild

merchant dates from Henry II.’s charter, about 1179. The first gild of which there was any record was celebrated in 1328, at which

it was decided to hold a gild every 20 years. Up to 1542, however, they do not appear to have been regularly celebrated, but since that year they have been and still are held at intervals of 20 years.

A special gild mayor is appointed on each occasion. The first men-

tion of a procession at the gild is in 1500. One of the most important items of business was the enrolling of freemen, and the

gild rolls are records of the population. The statement that Preston

was burnt in 1322 by the Scots is probably false. The town suffered severely from the Black Death (1349-50), and again from pestilence in the year Nov. 1630 to Nov. 1631. During the Civil War Preston became the Lancashire Royalist headquarters. In February 1643 a Parliamentary force marched from Manchester and successfully assaulted it, but in March the earl of Derby recaptured the town. The Royalists did not garrison it, but after

demolishing the greater part of the works left it unfortified. After the battle of Marston Moor Prince Rupert marched through Preston in September 1644 and carried the mayor and bailiffs prisoners to Skipton castle. On Aug. 17, 1648 the Royalist forces under the duke of Hamilton and Gen. Langdale were defeated at Preston by Cromwell. During the Rebellion of 1715 the rebel forces entered Preston Nov. 9, and after proclaiming the chevalier de St. George king, remained here for some days, during which the government forces advanced. The town was assaulted, and on Nov. 14, Gen. Forster surrendered his army to the king’s forces. In 1745 Prince Charles Edward marched through on the way south and north. The borough returned two members from 1295 to 1331, then

ceased to exercise the privilege till 1529, but since that date (except in 1653) it has always sent two representatives to parliament. In the 18th century Preston had a high reputation as a centre of fashionable society, and earned the epithet still familiarly asso-

ciated with it, “proud.”

See H. Fishwick, History of the Parish of Preston (1900); W. F. Fitzgerald, “The Ribble Basin,” Journ., Manchester Geog. Soc. (1927).

PRESTONPANS, police burgh, burgh of barony, parish and Watering-place of East Lothian, Scotland, on the Firth of Forth,

93 m. E. of Edinburgh by the L.N-E.R.

Pop. (1931), 2,426. A

mile to the east of the village is the site of the battle of 1745, m which Prince Charles Edward and his highlanders gained a complete victory over the royal forces under Sir John Cope. The salt trade, formerly flourishing, has declined. There are manufactures of fire-bricks, tiles and pottery, besides brewing and soap-making, and rich collieries at Tranent, ı m. S.E., and

elsewhere in the neighbourhood. Fisheries are less important than

formerly. There are harbours at Morrison’s haven to the west and

at Cockenzie and Port Seton to the north-east, which form one burgh with a population of 2,526. PRESTWICH, SIR JOSEPH (1812-1896), English geoloBist, was born at Clapham, Surrey, on March r2, 1812. He was educated in Paris, Reading and at University College, London. e was a wine merchant in London, and devoted his leisure more

PRESTWICH, urban district, Prestwich and Middleton parsesses cotton factories and is a residential suburb of Manchester,

with which it is connected by electric tramways.

PRETE,

DEL

(1897-1928), Italian aviator, served in the

World War as a submarine officer at the age of 17. After the war, he acted for a time as observer for naval seaplanes. In 1926 he obtained his pilot’s certificate for the air service, and acted as second pilot to Commander De Pinedo on his Atlantic flight. His flight with Captain Ferrarin on June 2, 1928, lasting 58 hours 37 minutes, was at the time a record of endurance; a month later (July 3-4), again with Captain Ferrarin, he exceeded the longest non-stop flight which had ever been achieved, flying from Rome to Brazil (over 4,500 miles). Del Prete died on Aug. 16, 1928, as the result of an accident while inspecting an aeroplane.

PRETORIA, administrative capital of the Union of South

Africa. Pop. (1921) 24,794 natives, 1,757 Asiatics, 2,140 coloured and 45,361 whites, the latter increasing by 1926 to 54,326. The city is built in a hollow, about the Aapies river, a tributary of the Limpopo. Pretoria is laid out in rectangular blocks. At the centre is Church square, on the south side of which are the Provincial Council buildings and other public offices, erected in 1892 in the Renaissance style. On the north side are the law courts and on the west the post office. The Union Government

building built 1910-13 on Meintje’s kop cost £1,800,000 and overlooks the city. It accommodates the governor-general and more than 1,000 officials. The lower slopes of the hill are laid out in beautiful terraced gardens. The city has several parks and sports grounds, including Burger park, and the zoological gardens. Signal hill rises goo ft. above the plain, west of Burger park. The plateau at its foot is now occupied by the central railway station

and workshops.

There is an Anglican cathedral,

several high

schools, a normal training college, and the Transvaal university college, which includes an agricultural faculty and an experi-

mental farm. Cement and iron are produced locally. Pretoria was founded in 1855 and was made the centre of a new district created at the same time. By treaty between the South African Republic (then comprising the districts of Potchefstroom, Rustenburg, Pretoria and Zoutpansberg) and the Republic of Lydenburg, concluded at Pretoria in 1860, the two republics were united and Pretoria was chosen as the capital of the whole State. In September of that year the Volksraad held its first meeting in the new capital. Until 1864, however, when the civil war in the Transvaal ended, Potchefstroom remained the virtual capital of the country. From that year the seat of government has always been Pretoria. As revenue flowed in from the gold mines on the Rand, many buildings were erected in the capital, which was linked by railway with Cape Town in 1893 and with Lorenco Marques and Durban in 1895. In May, 1900, Kruger fled from the town, which surrendered in June to Lord Roberts. On May 31, 1902, the articles of peace, whereby the Boer leaders recognized British sovereignty, were signed at Pretoria, and five years

later there assembled here the first parliament of the Transvaal, as a self-governing State of the British empire. On the establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910, Pretoria became its administrative capital. PRETORIUS, the family name of two of the early leaders of the “Trek” Boers—Andries Wilhelmus Jacobus Pretorius and

PRETORIUS

462

Marthinius Wessels Pretorius, father and son. I. ANDRIES PRETORIUS (1799—1853), a Dutch farmer of Graafi-

natives were blockaded in a great cave in the Zoutpansberg, and

Reinet, Cape Colony, and a descendant from one of the earliest Dutch settlers in South Africa, left his home in the Great Trek, and by way of what is now the Orange Free State crossed the Drakensberg into Natal, where he arrived in Nov. 1838, at a time when the emigrants there were without a recognized leader. Pretorius was at once chosen commandant-general and speedily collected a force to avenge the massacre of Piet Retief and his party, who had been treacherously killed by the Zulu king Dingaan the previous February. Pretorius’s force was attacked on Dec.

Having thus chastised Makapan’s clan, Pretorius created a strong central Government, and from 1856 onward set to work to form one Boer State to include the Orange River burghers. In Dec. 1856 representatives of the districts of Potchefstroom, Rus-

16 (“Dingaan’s Day”) by over 10,000 Zulus, who were beaten off with a loss of 3,000 men. In Jan. 1840 Pretorius with a commando of 400 burghers helped Mpande in his revolt against his brother Dingaan and was the leader of the Natal Boers in their opposition to the British. In 1842 he besieged the small British garrison at Durban, but retreated to Maritzburg on the arrival of reinforcements under Colonel (subsequently Sir) Josias Cloete and afterwards exerted his influence with the Boers in favour of coming to terms with the British. He remained in Natal as a British subject, and in 1847 was chosen by the Dutch farmers there to lay before the governor of Cape Colony the grievances under which they laboured owing to the constant immigration of natives, to whom locations were assigned to the detriment of Boer claims. Pretorius went to Grahamstown, where Sir Henry Pottinger (the governor) then was; but Sir Henry refused to see him or receive any communication from him. Pretorius returned to Natal determined to abandon his farm and once more trek beyond the British dominions. With a considerable following he was preparing to cross the Drakensberg when Sir Harry Smith, newly appointed governor of

the Cape, reached the emigrants’ camp on the Tugela (Jan. 1848). Smith promised the farmers protection from the natives, and persuaded many of the party to remain, but Pretorius departed, and on the proclamation of British sovereignty up to the Vaal fixed his residence in the Magalisberg, north of that river. He was chosen by the burghers living on both banks of the Vaal as their commandant-general.

At the request of the-Boers at Winburg Pretorius crossed the Vaal in July and led the anti-British party in their “war of freedom,” occupying Bloemfontein on July 20. In August he was defeated at Boomplaats by Smith, and thereupon retreated north of the Vaal, where he became leader of one of the largest of the parties Into which the Transvaal Boers were divided, and commandant-general of Potchefstroom and Rustenburg, his principal rival being Commandant-General A. H. Potgieter. In 1851 he was asked by the Boer malcontents in the Orange River Sovereignty and by the Basuto chief Moshesh to come to their aid,

and he announced his intention of crossing the Vaal to “restore order” in the Sovereignty.

His object, however, was rather to

obtain from the British an acknowledgement of the independence of the Transvaal Boers. The British cabinet having decided on a policy of abandonment, the proposal of Pretorius was entertained. A reward of £2,000 which had been offered for his apprehension after the Boomplaats fight, was withdrawn. Pretorius then met the British commissioners at a farm near the Sand river, and concluded the Sand river convention (Jan. 17, 1852) by which the independence of the Transvaal Boers was recognized by Great Britain. Pretorius recrossed the Vaal, and at Rustenburg on March 16 was reconciled to Potgieter, the followers of both leaders approving the convention, though the Potgieter party was not represented at the Sand river. Pretorius died at his home at Magalisberg on July 23, 1853. In 1855 a new district and a new town were formed out of the Potchefstroom and Rustenburg districts and named Pretoria in honour of the late commandant-general. 2. MaRTHINIUS PreToRIUS (1819~1901), the eldest son of Andries, was appointed in Aug. 1853 to succeed his father as commandant-general of Potchefstroom and Rustenburg, two of the districts into which the Transvaal was then divided. In 1854 he led his burghers against a chief named Makapan, who had murdered a party of 23 Boers, including ten women and children. The t

about 3,000 were starved to death or shot as they emerged.

tenburg and Pretoria met and drew up a constitution, and on

Jan. 6, the “South African republic” was formally constituted, Pretorius having been elected president

on the previous day.

Though the Boers of the Lydenburg, Utrecht and Zoutpansberg

districts refused to acknowledge the new republic, Pretorius, with the active co-operation of Paul Kruger (g.v.), endeavoured

(1837) to unite the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, and a

commando crossed the Vaal to support Pretorius. The attempt at coercion failed, but in Dec. 1859 Pretorius was elected presi-

dent of the Free State, Pretorius had just effected a reconciliation of the Lydenburg Boers with those of the other districts of the Transvaal, and he assumed office at Bloemfontein in Feb. 1860. But the anarchy in the Transvaal effectually weaned the Free State burghers from any thought of immediate amalgamation with their northern neighbours. Pretorius, however, continued

to intervene in the affairs of the Transvaal and at length (April 15, 1863) resigned his Free State presidency. Acting as mediator between the various Transvaal parties Pretorius in Jan. 1864

ended the civil strife, and in May following once more became president of the South African republic—now for the first time a united community.

To Pretorius more than any other man was due the welding of the Transvaal Boers into one nation. Pretorius contemplated indefinite expansion of the Transvaal State north, east and west. In April 1868, on the report of gold discoveries at Tati, he issued a proclamation annexing to the Transvaal on the west the whole of Bechuanaland and on the east territory up to and including part of Delagoa Bay. Portugal at once protested, and in 1869

its right to the bay was acknowledged by Pretorius, who in the same year was re-elected president. The Boer claim to the whole of Bechuanaland was not pressed by Pretorius in the face of British opposition, but in 1870, when the discovery of diamonds along the lower Vaal had led to the establishment of many diggers’ camps, an attempt was made to enforce the claims of the Transvaal to that district.

Pretorius held repeated conferences with the Bechuana chiefs, but failed to persuade them to join the Transvaal to “save” their territory from the British. Finally, without consulting his colleagues, he agreed to refer the question of the boundary to the

arbitration of R. W. Keate, then lieutenant-governor of Natal. The award, given on Oct. 17, 1871, was against the Boer claims. Pretorius loyally accepted the decision, but it aroused a storm of indignation in the Transvaal. The Volksraad refused to ratify the oo and thereupon Pretorius resigned the presidency (Nov. 1871).

Pretorius then temporarily retired from politics, but after the first annexation of the State by Great Britain he acted (1878) as chairman of the committee of Boer leaders who were seeking the restoration of their independence. He was arrested in Jan. 1880 by order of Sir Garnet Wolseley on a charge of treason. (See the Blue Book [C. 2584] of 1880 for details of this charge.) He was admitted to bail, and shortly afterwards urged by Wolseley to accept a seat, which he declined, on the executive council. In December of the same year he was appointed, with Paul Kruger and P. Joubert, to carry on the government on the part of the insurgent Boers. He was one of the signatories to the Pretoria convention, and acted as a member of the triumvirate until the election of Kruger as president in May 1883. He then withdrew from public life; but lived to see the country re-annexed to Great Britain, dying at Potchefstroom on May 19, 1g01. Within four

months of his death he had visited Louis Botha and Schalk Burger, on behalf of Lord Kitchener, with the object of ending the war. For the elder Pretorius see G. M. Theal, Compendium of the History

and Geography of South Africa (3rd ed. 1878), and History of South Africa, vol. iv. [1834—54] (1893). For the younger Pretorius see vol. V.

of the same series.

PREVENTIVE PREVENTIVE

MEDICINE,

The prevention of disease

is the true ideal of medicine. Its application is twofold—the preyentive medicine of the community which is generally termed Public Health or State Medicine, and the prevention of disease or its sequelae in the individual. HISTORICAL

DEVELOPMENT

Ancient Origins.—The practice of preventive medicine had its origin in the ancient world. Hippocrates classified the causes of disease into those concerned with seasons,

climates and ex-

ternal conditions, and those more personal causes such as irregular food, exercise and habits of the individual. Through the Middle Ages the principles of preventive medicine were ignored, in spite

MEDICINE

403

a systematic study of the health conditions of London. Withering, of Shropshire, contributed to our knowledge of the incidence of scarlet fever, analysed water, was a climatologist and used digitalis. Edward Jenner, a practitioner in Gloucestershire, introduced vaccination. James Lind issued the first treatise on scurvy and the health of seamen. Thackrah, who practised in Leeds, explored industrial health problems and described dust diseases and brassfounders’ ague, and Michael Taylor of Penrith was the first to elucidate milk-borne epidemics. Indeed, the 18th and roth centuries furnish a remarkable record of clinical discoveries which prepared the ground for the study of causation and the influence

of external environment in relation to communal disease.

BRITISH PRACTICE

of the scourges of leprosy and plague. Then with the Renaissance came the new learning on the nature both of health and disease, which revolutionised the whole content of medicine and gave it

Legislative Action.—The applications of state medicine, in the roth century, found their inspiration in England in two sources,

a fresh centre of gravity and a new outlook. Leonardo da Vinci —whose genius suggested some of the great discoveries of modern

and their expression in legislation. The twofold inspiration came from the recurrent outbreaks of cholera and consequent com-

science—and Vesalius of Padua, were followed in.the 17th century by Galileo, Harvey—-who discovered the circulation of the

blood—Helmont and the experimentalists, and Sydenham and the great practitioners who with their contemporaries

observed the

relation of the seasons, of telluric conditions, and the contagion in relation to the incidence of disease. This was quickly followed by new knowledge of anatomy, physiology and pathology. At the end of the first half of the 19th century a beginning had been made in the discovery of specific organisms in diseased tissues

and by the end of the century the literature on Bacteriology and Parasitology (see BACTERIA AND DISEASE; Parasitic D1IsEAsEs) had become enormous. Practical Needs.—Concurrently with the growth of medical knowledge there was an empirical movement of practical prevention. Long before the days of Hippocrates men had sought to stem the tides of disease which threatened to overwhelm them. Even in Britain it was the ravages of pestilence in the Middle Ages—of leprosy from the 12th century, of the Black Death from the rth, of sweating sickness in the 16th, and of cholera and smallpox subsequently—which compelled attention to the conditions which seemed responsible for these scourges. The great monastic orders and some of the historical cities—Rome, Venice and London—provided comfort, refuge and sustenance for the victims, and in 1388 was passed the first Sanitary Act in England, directed to the removal of nuisances. In 1443 came the first plague order recommending quarantine and cleansing; in 1518 were made the frst rough attempts at notification of epidemic disease and of isolation of the patient; under Queen Elizabeth scavenging became more stringent; and as time passed men began to see that environment was one of the principal factors in the origin and spread of disease. ' Experimental Method.—At first the new applications of medicine were suggested by medical practitioners. Three centuries ago Harvey indicated for us the true experimental method; he placed the blood in the forefront of physical life, and gave it a new chemical and physiological meaning, and by his demonstration of the circulation he provided a new conception of the method by which the blood carried its nourishment to all parts of the body. Fifty years later, Thomas Sydenham, another practitioner, living ina “generation of the strongest and most active intellects that England has produced,” laid the basis of epidemiology by his observation of cases, his power of analysis and comparison, his deduction of laws of prevalence, and his suggestive hypothesis of

“epidemic constitutions.” Richard Mead, a successful English practitioner in the first half of the 18th century, left behind him published works on poisons, on the plague and the methods of its prevention, on smallpox, measles and scurvy. Bradley and Rogers deduced from their general practice some of the principles of epidemiology, Fother-

gill described “putrid sore throat,” and Haberman chickenpox. Huxham, of Totnes, became an authority on the treatment of fevers, recommended vegetable dietary in cases of scurvy and defined Devonshire colic, which his medical neighbour, Sir George Baker, traced to lead in the vats and cider presses. Willan made

missions of inquiry, and from popular demand for reform, which was realised after each of the four extensions of the franchise

(1832-1918).

The Legislature placed on the statute book a won-

derful series of enactments. The alarm caused by the ravages of cholera in 1831 led to the first steps in administrative sanitary

reform; in 1849 there was a second visitation of cholera, and in 1854 a third. These cholera epidemics led to a new appreciation of the unsanitary condition of the country as a whole, to an understanding of the nature of the disease and its epidemicity, to the establishment of ‘‘cholera dispensary stations’ and to the Infectious Diseases Prevention Act 1855. Concurrently with and following upon these epidemics there were various commissions of investigation. In 1838-9 the Poor

Law Commissioners drew attention to the prevalence of epidemic disease and its relation to poverty. The reports by Neil Arnott, Kay, Southwood Smith and Chadwick were the predecessors of another famous series of investigations in 1859—65 by Greenhow and his colleagues under the Privy Council into epidemic diarrhoea, pulmonary disease, infant mortality and ague; and also into the four “elementary requisites of popular healthiness,” viz., adequate food supply, sufficient house accommodation, healthy physical surroundings and wholesome industrial circumstances. They led the way to the new application of medicine for the removal of nuisances, the prevention of contagion and infection and industrial hygiene and welfare. In 1843 Sir Robert Peel, at the instigation of Edwin Chadwick, advised appointing a Royal Commission to inquire into the outbreaks of disease in large towns and the best means of improving the public health, the report of which led to the passing of the comprehensive

sanitary measure

in 1848, the establishment

of

the General Board of Health and the appointment of medical officers of health. In 1869 was appointed the Royal Sanitary Commission, on which sat Thomas Watson, James Paget, Henry Acland, Robert Christison and William Stokes, and before which Simon, Budd and Farr gave evidence. Speaking broadly, the 1843 commission found the existence of a serious national evil of insanitation and ill-health, and recommended alegislative remedy, whereas the 1869 commission found that the remedy had proved ineffective and recommended that “the present fragmentary and confused sanitary legislation should be consolidated.” They proposed, in fact, for the first time, a Ministry of Health, and though the case miscarried, and the Local Government Board was created in 1871, a comprehensive Ministry of Health was at last established In 1919. The commission’s summary of the national sanitary minimum of “What is necessary for civilized social life” provided the grand inventory of that period (1871) and was as follows:— 1. The supply of wholesome and sufficient water for drinking and

washing. . The . The . The . The . The

prevention of the pollution of water, provision of sewerage and utilisation of sewage. regulation of streets, highways and new buildings. healthiness of dwellings.

removal of nuisances and refuse, and consumption of smoke, of food.

W P TIAN vo . The inspection

4.64

PREVENTIVE

8. The suppression of causes of diseases, and regulations in cases of epidemics. ji9. The provision for the burial of the dead without injury to the ving.

ea The regulation of markets, etc., public lighting of towns.

Registration of Death and Sickness.—The programme of 1871 represented the most enlightened thought of the time regarding the sphere and scope of preventive medicine. Even now it is almost a complete summary of the elements of a sanitary environment. The commission also showed how it could be worked out in practice by laying down the general principles to be followed and by drafting a new statute. They diagnosed with unfailing accuracy the causes of imperfect sanitary administration— (a) the variety and confusion of authorities concerned in the public health, (b) the want of sufficient motive power in the central authority, (c) the non-coincidence of areas of various kinds in local sanitary government, (d) the number and complexity of enactments, (e) the needless separation of subjects, (f) the leaving some general Acts to voluntary adoption and the permissive character of other Acts and (g) the incompleteness of the law. Finally, the commissioners lent all the power and prestige of their position and experience in unreserved support of the great principle of local self-government. Public Health Act, 1875.—The Public Health Act of 1875, which emerged from the labours of the Royal Sanitary Commission, may be regarded as marking a great advance in the development of sanitary administration. Before that time sanitation was interpreted in large measure as a negative policy—in a word, the removal of nuisances; after that time sanitation received a new connotation, positive, constructive, remedial. That is the reason why this Act forms the great line of division, the watershed in the progress of modern preventive medicine, on its environmental

side. The report of Sir Robert Peel’s Commission, in 1845, contains a significant suggestion in its recommendation that each local governing body should have a medical officer whose duty it should be “to ascertain the true causes of disease and death, more especially of epidemics increasing the rates of mortality, and the circumstances which originate and maintain such diseases, and injuriously affect the public health.” No one can read the preamble of the report of the commission of 1869 on the history of the sanitary laws enacted up to that date without being impressed with their character. They dealt, almost monotonously with nuisances and their removal, sewerage and drains, sewage utilisation, the paving, lighting and cleansing of streets, common lodging-houses, the supervision of artisans’ dwellings, smoke nuisances, local government and the burial of the dead. The only group of laws directly concerned with disease were the Vaccination Acts. Then came the Public Heatth Act of 1875, which in conception and working led for 20 years to enactments on the prevention of river pollution, the protection of water supplies, the . provision of housing accommodation and isolation hospitals, and the notification and prevention of infectious disease. The elementary Education Act of 1870, and the Public Health Act of 1875, were forms of germinative legislation bearing fruit in a single generation. The Practitioner’s Aid.—Whilst the state was thus calling into being various public medical services, the practitioner in medicine and surgery was finding ways and means of preventing disease met with in his practice, both infectious and non-infectious. Abortion, miscarriage, still-birth are preventable conditions. Children’s disorders such as ophthalmia, rickets, dental decay and malnutrition are preventable, and the same may be said of many diseases of the skin, the eye, ear, nose and throat. The examination of recruits and of insurance patients shows that much physical impairment is due to the effects of rheumatism, dyspepsia, constipation, bronchitis, anaemia, debility, neurasthenia, heart disease, dental decay, mental disease or disorders of metabolism. Some of these conditions are due to factors such as infection (fevers, rheumatism, tuberculosis, venereal disease, etc.), or degenerative processes, like arteriosclerosis and nephritis, or fatigue and unhygienic living; others are more obscure, but the great bulk of them are in large degree preventable. Midwifery alone provides many opportunities for preventive medicine.

MEDICINE Surgical Aid.—Surgical conditions seem at first sight to be

less directly preventable, and curative only. Yet the task of the surgeon is to serve and assist nature by placing the human body and its organs at her service, by removing obstructions from her

path, by supplementing and aiding her processes and by fortifying

the body defences against infection or accident. All this is of the essence of preventive medicine. It is an alliance with nature

against disruptive forces. Surgery finds its preventive expression

in a great variety of ways. The fundamental principles of aseptic

surgery are the elimination of sepsis and its practice is repair, the

removal of hurtful tissues and the avoidance of disablement. Pre. ventive surgery may be illustrated in a general way as follows:— (a) Surgery in children’s conditions—enlarged tonsils and adenoids phimosis, hernia, ophthalmia. (b) Surgery in deformities—rickets, flat-foot, hammer-toe, fractures.

tuberculosis, scoliosis, talipes,

(c) General surgery—sepsis, tuberculosis, varicose veins, hernia venereal disease, malignant disease, tumours, thoracic conditions, abdominal and genito-urinary surgery, gynaecology, dental caries. i

(d) Industrial surgery—wounds, fractures, injuries, poisons, fumes

anthrax, tetanus, etc. i The first generation of the 2oth century (1900—24) witnessed a continued development in sanitary environment, which indeed

must always remain the foundation of preventive medicine, and in various new departures dependent upon the principles which had been established by the Public Health Act 1875, and by the growth of medical knowledge. The public health service expanded to include particular measures against tuberculosis and venereal disease, the provision of municipal midwives, and a remarkable extension of the supervision of maternity and child welfare. Indeed, the characteristic of this period was the progress made in personal hygiene as distinct from environmental hygiene. Its

centre is the person rather than the premises. The School Medical

Service was organized in 1907, systematic provision was made for the care of infancy in 1914, the National Health Insurance Act

was passed in r91z and medical research has been organized on a large scale. Concurrently with these great movements increased attention

was given to industrial welfare and the health of the factory worker. Time alone can show the effect on the public health of the wide extensions and applications of the public health principles of 1875. It cannot be doubted that an improved midwifery service, the care of the newborn infant, the systematic health supervision of every school child, improved hygiene in the workshop and factory and a system of health insurance by which medical aid is promptly available for 14,000,000 insured persons must exert in the course of time a profound effect upon the national health. That such an effect has already been produced is shown by the vital statistics. The following table gives the birth-rate, population, number of deaths, average annual death-rate and infant mortality from 1871 to 1920:— fat

o

a,

2

S

Sa 2

panel

3

3

g children of deaths mortality, infant annual e under

Sp S 1,000 > living

163 I7I 164 154 142 163] 197 195

167 161 16x 132 132 1269 163 198

155 160 149 154 133 1304 174 194

151

169

158

156

215 224

164 167

148 150

137 137

130 127

233 258 306 311 253

2II 224 221 232 210

202 217 184 189 170

172 176 154 167 174

144 144 179 169 145

139 142 155 133 150

214

264

220

185

163

I51

139

402

610

205

158

ii

175**

i73

180 215

183 210

149 IIQ

149 140

Igo 186

IQI 168

177 135

1921

1922

229 205 153 278 274 334 254 313

253 253 216 330 301 384 3II 501

220 202 211 200 181 163 254 226

148 143 150 147 152 132 167 172

255

” 319

208

200 220

231 255

184 203 233 248 212

270

‘

Indian, good mediumtÎ Average Import* Average*

1927

1920

ss 400

Beet, German* Java, floating cargo Coffee East India* . Rio*

a

1926

IQIO

sa Average.

Ñ

me 687

a

ae 202

IQ25

148 I4I

125 r13t

132 125}

182 171

114 165

87

85 137

172

162 164

I

1B 202

156

135

300

432

162

152

157

157

151

250

322

203

164

164

154

149

_ *The entries in these cases of similar commodities are averaged before inclusion in the index numbers.

in the index numbers.

123 rr6t

**White Javas, C.I.F. from 1924.

{Raw centrifugals from 1924.

ae 208

174 205

{These commodities are not included

La Plata from 1924.

SELECTED COMMODITIES]

PRICES,

STATISTICS

OF

475

TABLE VI. (Continued).

Statist Index Numbers. Average for Each Year. Average for 1913 Taken as roo in Each Case see a

IQIQ ae 1920 Sea Pe 1921et ee1922 ee

ae

1923

1924

1925

1926

1927

148

127 I25

133 150

123 125

153

148

145

QI

85

82

89

86

83

138

148

I5I

196

168

134

Minerals: Tron

Scottish pig* a

Cleveland pig™ Common bars Co per, 4

tandard

.

215

. .

>

English tough caket Tin, Straits . | Lead English pig Coa , Best Yorkshire house Newcastle steamt Average export

Average” i eeet a Textiles: Cotton Middling American . BhownuggarG. F. . Flax

Petrograd*q

.

Russian av. import*

.

Hemp ; ; Manila fair roping* . Petrograd clean* Jute, good medium Wool _. Merino, Port Philip*

Merino, Adelaide* Lincoln half hogs Silk Tsetlee§

Average* Miscellaneous: Hides River Plate, dry* . River Plate, salted* Average import* Leather Dressing hides*

Average import*

326

257

235 249

357 366

236 247

135

143

102

135 128 154

21I

153 150 200

149

I5I

93

I5I 161

97

93

90 81 141

95 102 148

150

160

151

330 572

218 ee

276

280 251

330 240

134 102

173 IAI

s$

187 153

98 85 127

293 331

187 250

atea

165

157 145

172

159 173

e

135 a

a

181 180

143 168

128

138 106 144

r4ill 105 |l 134

107 96 127

144

144

140

138

124

218 176

232 194

180

134

136

194

136

145

245

353

27I 293

IQI 177

282 179

105 150 98

139 213 120

I45

234

196

135

137

166

120

243

423

837

i

332

279

185 388 189

207 383 169

127 wh 104

IOS es 116

372

444

177

122 69 24I

180 79 261

214 97 220

207

268 153 213

228 183 139 164

203 172 I2I 145

211 184 124 140

27

319

170

167

174

209

193

155

157

182 206 198

167 192 233

78 93 III

7I. 93 93

76 86 95

81 QI IOO

92

83

223

129

125

I20

218

I05

IOI

106

338 183 236

187

337 178 351

287

211

370

240

197 ca 375 306 204 249 216 332

198 As 356 345 298 317 215 527

Ios wi 129 159 260 295 165 416

206

217

'

92 125 187

205°

253

187

175

99

93 I15

84 108

IIO 114

163

176 123

118 171 123

10g 185 III

118 192 99

98 sa 158 166 186 259 125 358

103 134 173 171 153 217 Ir7 273

II4 161 172 178 154 214 118 220

II5 149 175 177 154 2X1 116 200

IOI IŐI 129 139 153 211 II5 205

97 207 I 28 Tot 153 211 10g 200

187

II7

ae town. il Palm . Olive . Linseed* Seeds, linseed* . Petroleum, refined Soda, crystals Nitrate of soda Indigo, Bengal Timber Hewn: average* Sawn: import* .

255

344 369

300 416

172 249

116 187

120 208

125 193

120 195

122 170

Ir4 IJI

Average”

268

307

195

167

ISI

152

150

144

147

Average, materials

256

302

IBI

E 59

156

168

161

146

T44

Average, food and materials Statist number

253 242

3II 205

190 183

Ir 154

158 152

169 164

162 161

I49 150

146 144

,

tThese commodities are not included *The entries in these cases of similar commodities are averaged before conclusion in the index numbers. in the index numbers. {Wallsend Hetton in r913. {Livonian Z. K. from r921. §Common New Style from 1921. llAverage price January-April, 1926.

by the control of the prices of home-grown cereals, in 1917; with | quently that the control had little effect. After the general fall of this system, flour of mixed materials was substituted for wheat- | prices in 1920—21, the fluctuations were principally due to rather

flour and the product sold at a price kept constant and relatively | abnormal harvest vicissitudes. low by the help of a subsidy, beginning in the autumn of 10917. During the war the price of meat increased somewhat less than In the case of wheat and flour the subsidy and control continued | that of commodities in general. Prices were fixed in Great Britain till the beginning of 1921, but the prices rose; the prices of other | in Aug. 1917 and consumption was rationed early in 1918; after cereals increased very rapidly from the autumn of rozg. An | the armistice, control was gradually released, but prices of beef and attempt was made to control the consumption of oats in 1917-18, | mutton changed very little during the two years after the first otherwise cereals were not rationed. The wholesale price of | fixing of them. After the great drop in prices in 1921—22, wholepotatoes was fixed from time to time, the Government undertaking | sale prices of beef and pork remained relatively low, and those of to make good growers’ losses, but the price was changed so fre- | mutton high during the period 1922-25. Sugar was controlled till

PRICES, STATISTICS OF

[UNITED STATES

TABLE VII. Average of Retail Food Price Changes in the United Kingdom (Ministry of Labour Gazette). Level in July 1914 Taken as 100 Beginning of

January February . March April. May . June . July . August September October November December

Year

:

$

Wholesale food (Statist) year.

the beginning of 1921, at which date the world’s supply had been adjusted to the new conditions, but the supply of beet sugar did not recover, and prices were relatively high till 1925. Materials.—The prices of coal, iron and steel were subject to great fluctuations. Iron and steel were controlled during the war, and from Nov. 1917 till early in 1919 a subsidy was given to producers. On its removal prices rose very considerably in consequence of the great demand for construction and repairs. Subsequently there was the general collapse in prices, marked by the coal strike of 1921, partly due to the gradual return to normal conditions of the Continental coal mines and steel works. Some stimulus was given to prices by the French occupation of the Ruhr district in 1923, but by the end of 1924, it was evident that the world’s capacity for coal and steel production was in excess of requirements, and prices fell to an unremunerative level. The prices of copper and tin and, in some years, of lead fell relatively to general prices. The prices of cotton and wool reached great heights in the boom of 1920, followed by a complete collapse in 1921. During the period 1922—25 a world shortage of supply (as compared with normal requirements) kept prices on a high level, while continued fluctuations of price hampered manufacture. The extraordinary rise in the price of flax was due to the cutting off of the PolishRussian supply, which had not recovered by the end of 1925. Space does not permit any analysis of the price movements of

[oe INDEX NUMBERS

OF FOOD PRICES

RE TAIL MONTHLY WHOLESALE ANNUALLY X JULY 1914 = IQQ

xX

29 |+-— ee ec 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 FIG. 3.—-SEASONAL MOVEMENT OF PRICES OF WHOLESALE AND RETAIL PRICES

OF

FOOD,

AND

allowance is made for modifications of purchases when prices are

changing unequally; but there is good reason to believe that these considerations are of little importance after 1920. There is a seasonal fall in the spring and rise in the autumn, owing to the inclusion of dairy produce, and in particular to the supposition that the same number of eggs are bought in January and April; but not improbably this reflects a real change in the cost of nourishment. Though the number is based on an average of prices all over the country, it is nearly applicable to all districts, since in recent years there has been increasing uniformity in prices. The Statist wholesale food index is repeated (on the basis of

July 1914) for comparison, though the range of commodities and their relative importance are not the same in the two numbers. The rise up to 1920 is considerably smaller in the retail index, while the concurrence since 1921 is very striking, as shown in fig. 3. Retail prices in 1921 did not fall, however, so rapidly as wholesale, and it is to be expected that their movements will be

later and of a smaller amplitude than those of

A. L. B.) United States.—The course of wholesale prices in the United States between 1890 and 1913, as measured by weighted index numbers (see InDEx NumBers) of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, is shown in Table I. below, and changes in wholesale and other prices between 1913 and 1928 are shown in Table II. Table I. shows the drop of wholesale prices to a low point in 1896-97, following the long decline which began in 1865, and the subsequent rise, with occasional interruptions, to the beginning of the World War. Between 1896 and 1913 wholesale prices in the United States rose at an average annual rate of 2-3%. Table IT. continues the story, with additional material concerning prices in other markets. In all price fields we find the sharp war-time advance, an advance which was most rapid between 1916 and 1918, and which culminated in 1920. The rise from the 1913 level to the price peak was greatest in wholesale markets, with farm prices next in order and Snyder’ S composite index showing the smallest gain. The drastic price recession which followed was shared by all commodity groups. Wholesale commodity prices and retail food prices dropped to a level approximately 50% above pre-war TABLE I. Movements of Wholesale Prices in the United States

1928

COMPARISON

miscellaneous materials, or of that of rubber, not included in the Statist list. D. Retail Prices of Food in the United Kingdom.—Table VII. shows the movement of the Ministry of Labour’s index of retail food prices. This measures the relative cost of purchasing each month exactly the same quantities and as nearly as possible the same kind of food as in a standard budget of working-class expenditure; this budget is based on an investigation made in 1904 and was modified slightly in 1914. During the period of control, 1917-19, the index is to some extent fictitious, since the quantities of the goods included could not be purchased, and generally no

at prices.

1890-1913 I9I3 = 100

10 1891 1892 18903 1894 1895

>. r To . . >

a’. re d . . . . el.”

8r 80 75 77 69 70

IQO2? 1903 1904 TOOS 1906 IQO7

a .

1896 1807 1898 1899 1900

; Sg» : : s

;

ao : :

: g g : :

67 67 70 75 81

1908 1909 I9Io IQI Igi2.

. . . .

f ko í 2 ;

Igor

:

5

:

79

IQI3

;

:

=.

Os a . a. 4. -% wt a.’ à g ‘ ;

84 86 86 86 89 94 go 97 IOI 93 99 100

|

PRICES, STATISTICS OF

SELECTED COMMODITIES] TABLE II.

190

142

103 II7 139

in retail food prices and in the composite index of all prices. The index of wholesale prices fluctuated somewhat, but there was no sustained upward or downward movement in the prices prevailing in wholesale markets. Details of the movements of wholesale prices in recent years are most accurately measured by the revised index of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, constructed on the 1926 base. Monthly values of this index number during the period 19131928 are given in Table III.

174

157

TABLE III. Movemenis of the Level of Wholesale Prices in the United States, I913-28, by Months

Movements of Various Price Indexes in the United States, 1913-28 1913 =I00 Retail

Wholesale ie | Farm . peer pecs

Year 1913

100

1915 1916 1917

IOI 127

1918

194

1914

1919 1920

pricesf

100

100

98

I02

177

176

IOI II4 146

200

168

IOO

102

IOO II7

206 226

Cost of ra living§

food

200 205

General :

rice

level I00

103

IOS 118

186 203

199 200

173 193

153

174

163

1921

147

116

1923

154

135

134 I47

146 I57

146

173

165

151 147

136 131

161 155

176 172

171 171

1922

149

1924 1925

124

150 158

1926 1927

.

1928

.

148

142

139

170

1926 = 100 IQI3 | IQI4 | IOQIS

158

173 178

154

477

IQI7

r916

I02 104 108 II4 I2I 122 123 125 123 122 123 123

166 170

171

176

*Weighted index of U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, based on prices of 404. commodities. The figure for 1928 has been secured by splicing the index on the 1913 base, with the revised index on the 1926 base.

{Weighted index of U.S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics, based on farm prices (¢.e., prices received by producers) of 30 agricultural roducts.

tWeighted index of U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, based on the

1923 | 1924

prices, at retail, of 43 articles of food, in 51 cities. (The index numbers for i years 1913 to 1920 are based upon the prices of 22 articles of food.

1925

104 104 102 102 103 104 104 103 104 104 103

103 TO4 104

§Weighted index of U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, based on the

cost of food, clothing, rent, fuel and lighting, house-furnishings and cer-

tain miscellaneous items. Average costs for the year 1913 constitute the base, but the entries for all other years relate to December prices. {index constructed by Carl Snyder of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. It is a weighted composite of index numbers of wholesale commodity prices, farm prices, hardware prices paid by retailers, freight transportation costs, realty values, security prices (bonds and stocks), equipment and machinery prices, automobile prices, wages, urban rents, retail food prices and certain other living costs.

Post-war price cycles are clearly discernible in this record, although the range of variation since 1922 has not been wide. The rise to a peak in 1923 and the subsequent decline correspond to a definite cycle in American business. The decline in 1926 and 1927 from the relatively high level attained in 1925 was not so clearly reflected in general business, although there was a slowing up of industrial activity in these years. Group movements of prices in wholesale markets are shown in Table IV.

averages; the cost of living was stabilized at a point about 70% above the 1913 level. Farm prices were most severely affected, dropping from an average of 205 In 1920 to 116 in 1921. The loss

in purchasing power resulting from this exceptional decline was reflected in general agricultural depression and in a steady flow of population toward the cities during the following years. After 1922 farm prices recovered some of their lost ground, but the 1928 average remained below those of other price groups. Less pronounced upward movements occurred between 1922 and 1928

TABLE IV.

Movements of Wholesale Prices of Important Commodity Groups in the United States, 1913-28 1926=100

3= |

Year

!

1

g

Pa A

on

385 | 8] 3 2 fx

z

eo,/% eoGl &

‘

8S mo

| 8 | 8og | a | daise |= wo | |B json op & &

Izl ate]

Bs | ae

lash) [Bagaj

'

H

'

oot Oo)

Se

8a

|=E

a

=

fx

joo]a! BS sa Bs | oh jaa

1 oO

"a

'

la bo | ongZ SR |n] | oe 85 [S81 (|O88S| BS | gs

O

m

a

ci |28] lens] |onm|

T

Nn

AS £3

a

70

92

64

68

57

61

QI

57

80

56

03

70

II2

56

87

93

54

54

76

76

86

84

65

52

86

72

I9I7 .

118

129

IO5

124

99

105

109

137

99

88

165

182

93

122

137

74

126

I9IQ . 1920 . Tg2r. 1922 . 1923 . 1924 . 1925 . 1926 .

130 154 98 97 Lox 98 104 160

158 I5I 88 94 99 100 IIO 106

130 137 QI 88 93 OI T00 Ioo

174 171 Tog Ios 104 102 105 100

135 165 95 100 III 107 108 100

104 164 97 107 97 92 97 I00

I3I 149 IIg 103 109 106 103 100

1x6 150 97 97 109 102 102 100

157 165 II5 100 IOI 99 102 roo

106 142 113 104 109 105 103 190

139 168 IQQ 93 IOO 94 TOO 100

95

99

97

108

IQI}.

kt,

IQlI5.

. .

I9I4 .

1916 .

1918 .

oe

68

I3I

7I

148

65

IIQ

JI

55

70

96

57

74

87

80

II7 151

98

53

68

93

81

16r

97

57

61

98

go

Lr

'

g%

gToB] Be

n

a

eolo: CRA «we ates

ey

ns |i eas bb -na ase | Fe aA | 655

fay

a :

LOI

;

ms

i

134

go

Z,

n

A

a P a ag 99 98 107 LOO

97

*One hundred and eight commodities; 162 commodities; {380 commodities; §483 commodities.

k IIQ 109 105 I0Q

97

e I00 97 IOI 100

95

ps a sis ii IOI 98 102 100

94

PRICHARD—PRIDEAUX

4.78

The war-time advance in prices first affected chemicals and metals; the net rise, with reference to pre-war prices, was greatest for the group of textile products. In the subsequent recession, the prices of farm products declined most severely. During the period 1922—28 farm products and foods rose somewhat in price, while non-agricultural products as a class declined. This association of declining industrial prices with rapid business expansion, rising wages and increasing profits was almost without precedent in previous economic experience, and constituted one of the most striking features of the post-war situation in the United States. For the general level of wholesale prices the period between 1922 and 1928 was one of relative stability. The lowest of the annual price relatives (on the 1926 base) was 95, in 1927, and the highest was 104, in 1925. The net movement during this seven year period was downward at an average annual rate of 0.2%, a movement in marked contrast to the average pre-war gain of 2-3% per year, and to the sharp advance and drastic decline which occurred during the price revolution of the war and immediate post-war years. Various index numbers of wholesale prices, other than those cited above, are published currently in the United States. Among the most useful are those of Dun, Bradstreet, and Prof. Irving Fisher. Fisher’s index appears weekly, the others monthly. Price quotations on individual commodities are published in numerous trade papers and commercial journals. The most comprehensive collection of quotations is that published in the annual bulletins on wholesale prices, issued by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (E. C. Mı.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Value, Price and Profit, ed., E. M. Aveling (1898); F. W. P. Lawrence, Why Prices rise and fall (1920); P. Koch, Les Variations du pouvoir d’achat de Punite monetaire nationale .. . du rz Nov. 1918 au Ier Jan. 1922 (Bordeaux, 1924); M. Bowniatian, La Loi de variation de la valeur et les movements generaux des prix (1927); J. A. Todd, The Science of Prices (2nd ed. 1927); A. J. W. Keppel, Tke Theory of the Cost-Price System (1928); G. Cassel, Post-War Monetary Stabilization (1929); J. S. Lawrence, Stabilization of Prices (1929).

PRICHARD,

JAMES

COWLES

(1786-1848),

English

physician and ethnologist, was born on Feb. 11, 1786, at Ross, Herefordshire. He adopted medicine as a profession mainly because of the facilities it offered for anthropological investigations. He took his M.D. at Edinburgh, afterwards reading for a year at Trinity College, Cambridge, whence, joining the Church of England, he migrated to St. John’s College, Oxford, afterwards entering as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, Oxford, but taking no degree in either university. In 1810 he settled at Bristol as a physician, and in 1813 published his Researches into the Physical History of Man. The central principle of the book.is the primitive unity of the human species, acted upon by causes which have since divided it into permanent varieties or races.

In 1843 was published his Natural History of Man.

Prichard

may fairly be called the founder of the English branch of the sciences of anthropology and ethnology. In 1811 he was appointed physician to St. Peter’s hospital, Bristol, and in 1814 to the Bristol infirmary. In 1822 he published a Treatise on Diseases of the Nervous System, and in 1835 a Treatise on Insanity and other Disorders affecting the Mind, in which he advanced the theory of the existence of a distinct mental disease, “moral insanity.” In 1842, following up this suggestion, he published On the different forms of Insanity in relation to Jurisprudence designed for the use of Persons concerned in Legal Questions regarding Unsoundness of Mind. In 1845 he was made a commissioner in lunacy, and removed to London. He died there on Dec. 23, 1848. At the time of his death he was president of the Ethnological Society and a fellow of the Royal Society. See Memoir by Dr. Thomas Hodgkin (1798-1866) in the Journal of the Ethnological Society (Feb. 1849); Memoir read’ before the Bath and Bristol branch of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association (March 1849) by Dr. J. A. Symonds Journ. Eth. Soc., (1850) ; Prichard and Symonds in Special Relation to Mental Science, by Dr. Hack Tuke (1891).

PRICKLY ASH (Xonthoxylum americanum), a North American shrub or small tree of the rue family (Rutaceae), called also tooth-ache-tree,

found in woods

and thickets from

Quebec to Minnesota and southward to Virginia and Missouri. While usually a shrub, it sometimes attains a height of 25 ft.

and a trunk diameter of 6 inches.

It bears alternate, pinnate

leaves, composed of from 5 to 11 ovate, dark green, somewhat pointed leaflets, with the twigs and leaf-stalks usually prickly,

The small greenish flowers, which appear before the leaves in early spring, are borne in short axillary clusters; the fruit is a black ellipsoid capsule about $ in. long, containing one or two

seeds. The similar but larger southern prickly ash (X. ClavaHerculis), known also as sea ash and pepper-wood, occurs along streams from southern Virginia to Florida west to Kansas and Texas.

PRICKLY of the (g.v.), North usually

LETTUCE

(Lactuca Scariola), a biennial plant

family Compositae, closely allied to the garden lettuce native to Europe and very widely distributed in eastern America as a naturalized weed. It is a whitish green, very smooth plant, with a stiff, erect stem, 2 to 7 ft.

high, bearing oblong, more or less toothed or cut leaves, with spiny midribs and edges, usually clasping the stem by a more or less eared or heart-shaped base. The very numerous heads of yel-

low flowers are borne in a large open panicle. The plant is noteworthy in that the leaves, the two surfaces of which are similar in function, exhibit a marked tendency to become vertical. Moreover, when growing in open places, equally exposed to the sun during either half of the day, the vertical leaves often assume a north and south direction. Because of this characteristic the desigenation compass-plant is sometimes applied to this species of lettuce as it also is to various other plants of similar habit.

PRICKLY PEAR, the name given to cacti of the genus Opuntia, from the appearance of their fruit. There are about 2s0

species, all originally American, but several have been introduced elsewhere and, in some places (é.g., Australia), have overrun the countryside. Most species have flattened, jointed stems, and the flowers are white or red. The prickly pear proper is O. vulgaris; O. Ficus-indica is Indian fig. The fruit of both of these forms is edible. O. subulata is remarkable in that the leaves are large and functional. From QO. tuna, the tuna hedges are grown in the West Indies, where it is also used as a food plant for the cochineal insect (Coccus cacti). (See Cactus.)

PRIDE, THOMAS

(d. 1658), Parliamentarian general in the

English Civil War, is stated to have been brought up by the parish of St. Bride’s, London. Subsequently he was a drayman and a brewer. At the beginning of the Civil War he served as a captain under the earl of Essex, and was gradually promoted to the rank of colonel. He distinguished himself at the battle of Preston, and with his regiment took part in the military occupation of London in December 1648, which was the first step towards bringing the king to trial. Pride is chiefly remembered for the expulsion (Dec. 6, 1648) of the Presbyterian and Royalist elements in the House of Commons. This, resolved by the army council and ordered by the lord general, Fairfax, was carried out by Colonel Pride’s regiment. Taking his stand at the entrance of the House of Commons with a written list in his hand, he caused the arrest or exclusion of the obnoxious members, who wete pointed out to him. After about a hundred members had been thus dealt with (‘‘Pride’s Purge’), the mutilated House of Commons proceeded to bring the king to trial. Pride was one of the judges of the king and signed his death-warrant, appending to his signature a seal showing a coat of arms. He commanded an infantry brigade under Cromwell at Dunbar and Worcester. He took no conspicuous part in Commonwealth politics, except in opposing the proposal to confer the kingly dignity on Cromwell. He was knighted by the Protector in 1656, and was also chosen a member of the new House of Lords. He died at Nonsuch House, Surrey, on Oct. 23, 1658. After the Restoration his body was ordered to

be dug up and suspended on the gallows at Tyburn along with those of Cromwell, Ireton and Bradshaw, though it is said that the execution of this sentence was evaded. See Noble, Lives of the Regicides; Bate, Lives of the Prime Actors

and Principal Contrivers

of the Murder

of Charles I.; Carlyle,

Cromwells Letters and Speeches.

PRIDEAUX, HUMPHREY (1648-1724), English divine and Oriental scholar, born at Place, Cornwall, on May 3, 1648, was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford. His

PRIDE

OF CALIFORNIA—PRIEST

479

played but stimulated research. A volume of his letters to John Ellis, some time under-secretary of

force of the word that we must start in considering historically what a priest is. The theologians of the Greek and Latin churches expressly found the conception of a Christian priesthood on the hierarchy of the Jewish temple, while the names by which the sacerdotal character is expressed—tepels, sacerdos—originally designated the ministers of sacred things in Greek and Roman heathenism, and then came to be used as translations into Greek and Latin of the Hebrew kohén. Kohén, tepets, sacerdos, are, in fact, fair translations of one another; they all denote a minister whose

they contain a vivid picture of Oxford life after the Restoration.

stated business was to perform, on behalf of the community, cer-

account of the famous Arundel marbles just given to the university, Marmora Oxoniensia (1676), won for him the favour of Heneage Finch, who secured his rapid preferment. Prideaux held several livings, was Hebrew lecturer at Christ Church (1679-86),

and dean of Norwich (1702-24). He died on Nov. 1, 1724.

Prideaux’s most important work was The Old and New Testament connected in the History of the Jews (1716), which not only dis-

state, was edited by E. M. Thompson for the Camden Society in 1875;

For

tain public ritual acts, particularly sacrifices, directed Godwards. Such ministers or priests existed in all the great religions of an(Lathyrus splendens), a name cient civilization. Early Priesthoods.—Among the Babylonians and Assyrians given to a North American plant of the pea family (Leguminosae), magic and soothsaying were intertwined with priestly functions, as campo also called native to the mountains of southern California, pea. It is closely allied to the sweet pea of the gardens, and was the case in early Hebrew pre-exilian days with the Kdhén. The bari (from bari to see, inspect) was a soothsaying priest bears showy clusters of brilliant red flowers. PRIENE (mod. Samsun kale), an ancient city of Ionia on the who was consulted whenever any important undertaking was profoot-hills of Mycale, about 6 m. N. of the Maeander. It was posed, and addressed his inquiries to Sama& the sun god (or Adad) formerly on the sea coast, but now lies some miles inland. It is as bél biri or lord of the oracle (accompanied by the sacrifice of said to have been founded by Ionians under Aegyptus, a son of lambs). (See Omen and DIVINATION.) As contrasted with the bar or soothsaying priest we have the Neleus. Sacked by Ardys of Lydia, it revived and attained great prosperity under its “sage,” Bias, in the middle of the 6th cen- asipu, who was the priest-magician who dealt in conjurations tury. Cyrus captured it in 545; but it was able to send twelve (Siptu), whereby diseases were removed, spells broken, or in ships to join the Ionian revolt (500-494). Disputes with Samos, expiations whereby sins were expiated. Now, as the conjurations and the troubles after Alexander’s death, brought Priene low, were addressed to the deity, aSipu, according to the definition and Rome had to save it from the kings of Pergamum and Cappa- given above, comes more reasonably under the category of priest. docia in 155. Orophernes, the rebellious brother of the Cappado- In Babylonia priesthoods were endowed with great wealth and cian king, who had deposited a treasure there and recovered it power, and even the king stood in awe of them. (See Johns, by Roman intervention, restored the temple of Athena as a thank- Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts and Letters, p. 212 offering. Under Roman and Byzantine dominion Priene had a sqq.) These powerfully-organized priesthoods, as well as the prosperous history. It passed into Muslim hands late in the 13th elaborate nature of their ritual and apparatus of worship, must century. The ruins, which lie on successive terraces, were exca- have deeply and permanently impressed the exiled Jewish comvated mainly in the late 19th century. The city, as rebuilt in munity. Thus arose the more developed system of Ezekiel’s the 4th and 3rd centuries, was laid out on a rectangular scheme. scheme (xl.—xlviii.) and of the Priestly code and the high dignity It faced south, its acropolis rising nearly 700 ft. behind it. The which became attached to the person of the High Priest (reflected whole area was enclosed by a wall 7 ft. thick with towers at inter- in the narrative of Uzziah’s leprosy in 2 Chron, xxvi. 16-20). Among the ancient Egyptians the local god was the protector vals and three principal gates. On the lower slopes of the acropolis was a shrine of Demeter. The town had six main streets, about and lord of the district. Consequently it was the interest and 20 ft. wide, running east and west and fifteen streets about ro ft. duty of the inhabitants to maintain the cultus of the patronwide crossing at right angles, all being evenly spaced; and it was deity of their city who dwelt in their midst. Moreover, in the thus divided into about 80 insulae. Private houses were appor- earlier times we find the prince of the nome acting as the High tioned four to an insule. The systems of water-supply and drain- Priest of the local god, but in course of time the state, repreage can easily be discerned. The houses present many analogies sented by the king, began to an ever-increasing degree to take with the earliest Pompeian. In the western half of the city, on a oversight over the more important local cults. Thus we find high terrace north of the main street and approached by a fine that the Egyptian monarch was empowered to exercise priestly stairway, was the temple of Athena Polias, a hexastyle peripteral functions before all the gods. We constantly see him in the wallIonic structure built by Pythias, the architect of the Mausoleum. paintings, portrayed as a priest in the conventional attitudes Under the basis of the statue of Athena were found in 1870 silver before the images of the gods. In the chief sanctuaries the chief tetradrachms of Orophernes, and some jewellery, probably depos- priests possessed special privileges, and it is probable that those ited at the time of the Cappadocian restoration. Fronting the main in the immediate entourage of the king were elected to these street is a series of halls, and on the other side is the fine market positions. The highest nobility in the nome sought the honour place. The municipal buildings, Roman gymnasium, and well pre- of priesthood in the service of the local deity. One special class served theatre lie to the north, but, like all the other public struc- called ker heb was charged with reciting the divine formulae, tures, in the centre of the plan. Temples of Isis and Asclepius which were popularly held to possess magical virtue. In the have been excavated. At the lowest point on the south, within the middle empire (VIIth to XIIth Dynasties) the lay element mainwalls, was the large stadium, connected with a gymnasium of tains its position in religious cultus despite its complexity. But under the new empire (Dynasties XVIIIth and following) the proHellenistic times. See Society of Dilettanti, Jonian Antiquities (1821), vol. ii.; Th. fessional priest had attained to ominous power. Priests increased Wiegand and H. Schrader, Priene (1904); on inscriptions (360) see in number and were divided into ranks; temples possessed larger Hiller von Gärtringen, Inschriften von Priene (Berlin, 1907), with estates and became more wealthy. collection of ancient references to the city. Ancient Greece——Homer speaks of special priests who prePRIEST, the contracted form of “presbyter” (apeoBvrepos, side over ritual acts in the temples to which they are attached; “elder”; see PRESBYTER), a name of office in the early Christian but his kings also do sacrifice on behalf of their people. The king, Church, already mentioned in the New Testament. But in the in fact, both in Greece and in Rome, was the acting head of the English bible the presbyters of the New Testament are called state religion, and when the regal power came to an end his ‘elders,” not “priests”; the latter name is reserved for ministers sacred functions were not transferred to the ordinary priests, but of pre-Christian religions. The reason of this will appear more either they were distributed among high officers of state, as arClearly in the sequel; it is enough to observe at present that, chons and prytanes, or the title of “king” was still preserved as efore our English word was formed, the original idea of a pres- that of a religious functionary, as in the case of the rex sacrorum byter had been overlaid with others derived from pre-Christian at Rome and the archon basileus at Athens. In the domestic priesthoods, so that it is from these and not from the etymological circle the union of priesthood and natural headship was never

a complete list of his printed and ms. work see Bibliotheca Cornu-

biensis (ii, 527-533 and iii. 1319). PRIDE OF CALIFORNIA

480

PRIEST

disturbed; the Roman paterfamilias sacrificed for the whole family. On the other hand, gentes and phratriae, which had no natural head, had special priests chosen from their members; for every circle of ancient society, from the family up to the

power in the state, and were often irksome even to the great king.

state, was a religious as well as a civil unity, and had its own gods and sacred rites. We cannot speak of priestly power and hardly even of a distinct priestly class. In Greece the priest, so far as he is an independent functionary and not one of the magistrates, is simply the elected or hereditary . minister of a temple charged with “those things which are ordained to be done towards the gods” (see Aristotle, Pol. vi. 8), and remunerated from the revenues of the temple, or by the gifts of worshippers and sacrificial dues. The position was often lucrative and always honourable, and the priests were under the special protection of the gods they served. But their purely ritual functions gave them no means of establishing a considerable influence on the minds of men, and the technical knowledge which they possessed as to the way in which the gods could be acceptably approached was neither so intricate nor so mysterious as to give

tions, observances and expiations was a constant warfare against

the class a special importance. There was, indeed, one sacred function of great importance in the ancient world in which the Greek priests had a share. As man approached the gods in sacri-

But the monarchs had one strong hold on the clergy by retaining

the patronage of great ecclesiastical places.

The Persian religion throughout all its multitude of purificaimpurity, death and the devil. Amid all the ceremonialism of its priesthood there were also high ideals set forth in Zoroastrian re-

ligion of what a priest should be. Thus we read in Vendidad xviij “Many there be, noble Zarathustra, who bear the mouth bandage,

who have yet not girded their loins with the law. If such a one

says ‘I am an Athravan’ he lies, call him not Athravan, noble

Zarathustra, said Ahura Mazda; but thou shouldst call him priest,

noble Zarathustra, who sits awake the whole night through and yearns for holy wisdom that enables man to stand on death’s bridge fearless and with happy heart, the wisdom whereby he

attains the holy and glorious world of paradise.” Semitic Races.—Among the nomadic Semites there was no

developed priesthood. Religion partook of the general simplicity of desert life; apart from the private worship of household gods

and the oblations and salutations offered at the graves of departed kinsmen, the ritual observances of the ancient Arabs were visits to the tribal sanctuary to salute the god with a gift of

fice and prayers, so too the gods declared themselves to men by divers signs and tokens, which it was possible to read by the

first-fruits or the like (see NAzARITE and Passover), and an oc-

art of Divination (g.v.). In many nations divination and priesthood have always gone hand in hand; at Rome, for example, the augurs and the XV. viri sacrorum, who interpreted the Sibylline books, were priestly colleges. In Greece, on the other hand, divination was not generally a priestly function, but it did belong to the priests of the Oracles. (See Oracre.) The great oracles, however, were of Panhellenic celebrity and did not serve each a particular state, and so in this direction also the risk of an independent priestly power within the state was avoided. In Rome, again, where the functions of the priesthood were politically much more weighty, where the technicalities of religion were more complicated, where priests interpreted the will of the gods, and where the pontiffs had a most important jurisdiction in sacred things, the state was much too strong to suffer these powers to escape from its own immediate control: the old monarchy of the king in sacred things descended to the inheritors of his temporal power; the highest civil and religious functions met in the same persons (cf. Cic. De dom. i. 1); and every priest was subject to the state exactly as the magistrates were, referring all weighty matters to state decision and then executing what the one supreme power decreed. And it is instructive to observe that when the plebeians extorted their full share of political power they also demanded and obtained admission to every priestly college of political importance, to those, namely, of the pontiffs, the augurs, and the XV. viri sacrorum. The Romans, it need hardly be said, had no hereditary priests.

fair of one of the more distant holy places.

Aryan Religions.—In historical times the priesthood in India

is rigidly confined to members of the Brahman caste. But at an earlier date the warrior caste often became priests. The power

of the priesthood began with the delegation by the king of his

casional pilgrimage to discharge a vow at the annual feast and

(See Mecca.) These

acts required no priestly aid; each man slew his own victim and divided the sacrifice in his own circle; the share of the god was

the blood which was smeared upon or poured out beside the stone set up as an altar or perhaps as a symbol of the deity. We find

therefore no trace of a sacrificial priesthood, but each temple

had one or more doorkeepers, whose office was usually hereditary and who had the charge of the Temple and its treasures. . The sacrifices and offerings were acknowledgments of divine bounty and means used to ensure its continuance; the Arab was the “slave” of his god and paid him tribute, as slaves used to do to their masters, or subjects to their lords; and the free Bedouin,

trained in the solitude of the desert to habits of absolute selfreliance, knew no master except his god. The decision of the god might be uttered in omens which the skilled could read, or conveyed in the inspired rhymes of soothsayers, but frequently it was sought in the oracle of the sanctuary, where the sacred lot was administered for a fee by the sddin. The sanctuary thus became a seat of judgment, and here, too, compacts were sealed by oaths and sacrificial ceremonies. These institutions, though known to us only from sources belonging to an age when the old faith was falling to pieces, are certainly very ancient. The fundamental type of the Arabic sanctuary can be traced through all the Semitic lands, and so appears to be older than the Semitic dispersion. With the beginning of a settled state the sanctuaries rose in importance and all the functions of revelation gathered round them. A sacrificial priesthood arose as the worship became more complex (especially as sacrifice in antiquity is a common prelimi-

nary to the consultation of an oracle), but the public ritual re-

sacrificial duties to an appointed official. This power grew with mained closely associated with oracle or divination, and the priest the growing importance of the sacrifice and the complication of was, above all things, a revealer. That this was what actually its ceremonial. In the post-Vedic period “right” or “wrong” simply happened may be inferred from the fact that the Canaanite and meant the exact performance or the neglect, whether intentional or Phoenician name for a priest (kdkén) is identical with the Arabic unintentional—of all the details of a prescribed ritual, the centre kahin, a “soothsayer.” Soothsaying was no modern importation of which was the sacrifice. At this period the priestly caste gained in Arabia; its characteristic form—a monotonous croon of short its unbounded power over the minds of men. For further de- rhyming clauses—is the same as was practised by the Hebrew tails as to the development of the priestly caste and wisdom “wizards who peeped and muttered” in the days of Isaiah. The kahin, therefore, is not a degraded priest but such a soothsayer as in India the reader must refer to BRAHMANISM. Among the Zoroastrian Iranians, as among the Indian Aryans, is found in most primitive societies, and the Canaanite priests the aid of a priest to recite the sacrificial liturgy was necessary grew out of these early revealers. In point of fact some form at every offering (Herod. i. 132), and the Iranian priests (Aathra- of revelation or oracle appears to have existed in every great vans, later Magi) claimed, like the Brahmans, to be the highest shrine of Canaan and Syria, and at Hierapolis it was the charge order of society; but they did not acquire the powers of the of the chief priest, just as in the Levitical legislation. Indian priesthood; in particular, the priesthood, as it was not The Hebrews, who made the language of Canaan their own, based on family tradition, did not form a strict hereditary caste. took also the Canaanite name for a priest. But the earliest forms Nevertheless, it formed a compact hierarchy not inferior in of Hebrew priesthood are not Canaanite in character; the priest, influence to the clergy of the Christian middle ages, had great as he appears in the older records of the time of the Judges,

PRIEST li at Shiloh, Jonathan in the private temple of Micah and at

Dan, is more like the sãdin than the kāhin. The whole structure

of Hebrew society at the time of the conquest was almost precisely that of a federation of Arab tribes, and the religious ordinances are scarcely distinguishable from those of Arabia, save

only that the great deliverance of the Exodus and the period when

Moses, sitting in judgment at the sanctuary of Kadesh, had for 4 whole generation impressed the sovereignty of Jehovah on all the tribes, had created an idea of unity between the scattered settlements in Canaan such as the Arabs before Mohammed never had. But neither in civil nor in religious life was this ideal unity expressed in fixed institutions, the old individualism of the Semitic nomad still held its ground. Thus the firstlings, first-fruits and vows are still the free gift of the individual which no human authority exacts, and which every householder presents and consumes with his circle in a sacrificial feast without priestly aid. As in Arabia, the ordinary sanctuary is still a sacred stone set up under the open heaven, and here the blood of the victim is poured out as an offering to God. (See especially 1 Sam. xiv. 34, and cf. 2 Sam. xxiii. 16, 17.) The priest has no place in this ritual; he is not the minister of an altar, but the guardian of a

temple, such as was already found here, and there in the land for the custody of sacred images or other consecrated things (the ark at Shiloh, 1 Sam. iii. 3; images in Micah’s temple,

Judges xvii. 5; Goliath’s sword lying behind the “ephod” or plated image at Nob, 1 Sam. xxi. 9; no doubt also money, as in the Canaanite temple at Shechem, Judges ix. 4). Such treasures required a guardian; but, above all, wherever there was a temple there was an oracle, a kind of sacred lot, just as in Arabia (r Sam. xiv. 41, lxx.), which could only be drawn where there was an

“ephod” and a priest (1 Sam. xiv. 18, Sept., and xxiii. 6 seg.). The Hebrews had already possessed a tent-temple and oracle of this kind in the wilderness (Exod. xxxiii. 7 seg.), and ever since that time the judgment of God through the priest at the sanctuary had a greater weight than the word of a seer, and was the ultimate solution of every controversy and claim (1 Sam. ii. 25; Exod. xxi. 6, xxii. 8, 9, where for “judge,” “judges,” of A.V. read “God” with R.V.).

481

collision with the purely declaratory functions of the priests. The invective of Hos. iv. equally with the eulogium of Deut. xxxili. proves that the position which the later priests abused had been won by ancestors who earned the respect of the nation as worthy representatives of a divine Torah. The ritual functions of the priesthood still appear in Deut. xxxiii. as secondary to that of declaring the sentence of God, but they were no longer insignificant. With the prosperity of the nation, and especially through the absorption of the Canaanites and of their holy places, ritual had become much more elaborate, and in royal sanctuaries at least there were regular public offer-

ings maintained by the king and presented by the priests.

(Cy.

2 Kings xvi. 15.) Private sucrifices, too, could hardly be offered without some priestly aid now that ritual was more complex; the provision of Deut. xviii. as to the priestly dues is certainly ancient, and shows that besides the tribute of first-fruits and the like the priests had a fee in kind for each sacrifice, as we find to have been the case among the Phoenicians according to the sacrificial tablet of Marseilles. Their judicial functions also brought profit to the priests, fines being exacted for certain offences and paid to them (2 Kings xii. 16; Hos. iv. 8; Amos il. 8). The greater priestly offices were therefore in every respect very important places, and the priests of the royal sanctuaries were among the grandees of the realm (2 Sam. vill. 18; 2 Kings x. 11, xii. 2); but there is mot the slightest trace of an hereditary hierarchy officiating by divine right, such as existed after the exile. The sons of Zadok, the priests of the royal chapel, were the king’s servants as absolutely as any other great officers of state; they owed their place to the fiat of King Solomon, and the royal will was supreme in all matters of cultus (2 Kings xii., xvi. to seg.); indeed the monarchs of Judah, like those of other nations, did sacrifice in person when they chose down to the time of the captivity (1 Kings ix. 25; 2 Kings xvi. 12 seg.; Jer. XXX. 21). The detailed steps which prepared the way for the post-exile hierarchy, the destruction of the northern sanctuaries and priesthoods by the Assyrians, the polemic of the spiritual prophets against the corruptions of popular worship, which issued in the reformation of Josiah, the suppression of the provincial shrines of Judah and the transference of their ministers to Jerusalem, the successful resistance of the sons of Zadok to the proposal to share the sanctuary on equal terms with these new-comers, and the theoretical justification of the degradation of the latter to the position of mere servants in the Temple supplied by Ezekiel soon after the captivity, need not here be dealt with. Already in the time of Josiah altar service and not the judicial or “teaching”

The temple at Shiloh, where the ark was preserved, was the lineal descendant of the Mosaic sanctuary and its priests claimed kin with Moses himself. In the divided state of the nation, indeed, this sanctuary was hardly visited from beyond Mt. Ephraim; and every man or tribe that cared to provide the necessary apparatus (ephod, teraphim, etc.) and hire a priest might have a temple and oracle of his own at which to consult Jehovah (Judges xvii., xviii.); but there was hardly another sanctuary of equal dignity. The priest of Shiloh is a much greater function had become the essential thing in priesthood (Deut. person than Micah’s priest Jonathan; at the great feasts he sits x. 8, xviii. 7); the latter, indeed, was not forgotten (Jer. ii. 8, enthroned by the doorway, preserving decorum among the wor- xviii. 18), but by the time of Ezekiel it also has mainly to do shippers; he has certain legal dues, and, if he is disposed to with ritual, with the distinction between holy and profane, clean exact more, no one ventures to resist (1 Sam. ii. 12 seg., where and unclean, with the statutory observances at festivals and the the text needs a slight correction). The priestly position of the like (Ezek. xliv. 23 seg.). What the priestly Torah was at the family survived the fall of Shiloh and the capture of the ark, and . time of the exile can be seen from the collection of laws in Lev. it was members of this house who consulted Jehovah for the xvii—xxvi., which includes many moral precepts, but regards them equally with ritual precepts from the point of view of the mainteearly kings until Solomon deposed Abiathar. Ultimately, indeed, as sanctuaries were multiplied and the nance of national holiness. The holiness of Israel centres in the priests all over the land came to form one well-marked class, sanctuary, and round the sanctuary stand the priests, who alone “Levite” and legitimate priest became equivalent expressions, as can approach the most holy things without profanation, and who is explained in the article Levrres. But between the priesthood of are the guardians of Israel’s sanctity, partly by protecting the Eli at Shiloh or of Jonathan at Dan and the priesthood of the one meeting-place of God and man from profane contact, and Levites as described in Deut. xxxiii. 8 seg. there lies a period of partly as the mediators of the continual atoning rites by which the inner history of which we know almost nothing. It is plain that breaches of holiness are expiated. In the old kingdom the the various priestly colleges regarded themselves as one order, priests had shared the place of the prophets as the religious that they had common traditions of law and ritual which were leaders of the nation; under the second Temple they represented traced back to Moses, and common interests which had not been the unprogressive traditional side of religion, and the leaders of vindicated without a struggle. The kingship had not deprived thought were the psalmists and the scribes, who spoke much more them of their functions as fountains of divine judgment (cf. directly to the piety of the nation. But, on the other hand, the material influence of the priests Deut. xvii. 8 seg.); on the contrary, the decisions of the sanctuary had grown up into a body of sacred law, which the priests was greater than it had ever been before; the Temple was the administered according to a traditional precedent. According to only visible centre of national life in the ages of servitude to Semitic ideas the declaration of law is quite a distinct function foreign power, and the priests were the only great national

from the enforcing of it, and the royal executive came into no

functionaries, who drew to themselves all the sacred dues as a _

PRIESTLEY

482

matter of right and even appropriated the tithes paid of old to the king. When the High Priest stood at the altar in all his princely state, when he poured out the libation amidst the blare of trumpets, and the singers lifted up their voices and all the people fell prostrate in prayer till he descended and raised his hands in blessing, the slaves of the Greek or the Persian forgot for a moment their bondage and knew that the day of their redemption was near (Ecclus. L). The High Priest at such a moment seemed to embody all the glory of the nation, as the kings had done of old, and when the time came to strike a successful blow for freedom it was a priestly house that led the nation to the victory which united in one person the functions of High Priest and prince. From the foundation of the Hasmonean state to the time of Herod the history of the high-priesthood merges in the political history of the nation; from Herod onward the priestly aristocracy of the Sadducees lost its chief hold over the nation and expired in vain controversy with the Pharisees. The influence of the Hebrew priesthood on the thought and organization of Christendom was the influence not of a living institution, for it hardly began till after the fall of the Temple, but of the theory embodied in the Priestly Code of the Pentateuch. Two points in this theory were laid hold of—the doctrine of priestly mediation and the system of priestly hierarchy. The first forms the text of the principal argument in the Epistle to the Hebrews, in which the author demonstrates the inadequacy of the mediation and atoning rites of the Old Testament, and builds upon this demonstration the doctrine of the effectual highpriesthood of Christ, who, in His sacrifice of Himself, truly “led His people to God,” not leaving them outside as He entered the heavenly sanctuary, but taking them with Him into spiritual nearness to the throne of grace. The idea that presbyters and bishops are the successors of the Old Testament priesthood first appears in full force in the writings of Cyprian. The further development of the notion of Christian

priesthood was connected with the view that the Eucharist (g.v.) is a propitiatory sacrifice which only a consecrated priest can perform. It is sufficient to remark here that the presentation of the sacrifice of the mass came to be viewed as the essential priestly office, so that the Christian presbyter really was a sacerdos in the ancient sense. Protestants, in rejecting the sacrifice of the mass, deny also that there is a Christian priesthood “like the Levitical? and have either dropped the name of “priest” in reference to any specific office, or use it in a quite emasculated sense. BISLIOGRAPHY.—For non-Christian religions, see articles under heading “Priest” in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. x., by various writers, where many references are given under each division of the subject; and with special reference to Christianity, see ibid. vol. vili., article “Ministry” by A. J. Maclean, and the art. CHRISTIANITY. For an official statement from the Roman Catholic point of view, see article “Priest” and related topics in the Catholic Encyclopedia. The literature of the subject, both theological and historical, is very extensive; only a limited number of typical references can be given here: J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, third edition (esp. part i. “The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings”); M. Jastrow, Die Religion Babyloniens u. Assyriens (1905-12) ; H. Hackmann, Buddhism as a Religion

(Eng. tr. 1910);

R. F. Johnson,

Buddhist

China

(1913);

J. H.

Breasted, A History of Egypi (1906); J. E. Harrison, Themis (1912) ; W. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites (first publ. 1889); J. Wellhausen, Proleg. zur Geschichte Israel’s (6th ed. 1905) ; E. W. Hopkins, The Religions of India (1896) ; J. H. Moulton, Early Zoroastrian-

ism (1913); W. W. Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (1911). The work of W. Robertson Smith and J. G. Frazer is epoch-making and fundamental for all further study.

In 1755 he was appointed to a small congregation at Needham Market, in Suffolk. In 1758 he obtained a more congenial congre. gation at Nantwich, where he opened a school at which the ele. mentary lessons were varied with experiments in natural philoso.

phy. Three years later he removed to Warrington as classical tutor in a new

academy,

and there he attended

lectures op

chemistry by Dr. M. Turner of Liverpool and pursued the studies

in electricity which gained him the fellowship of the Royal Society in 1766 and supplied him with material for his History of Electricity. In 1767 he was appointed to the charge of Mill Hill Chapel at Leeds, where he wrote many political tracts attacking the Government policy towards the American colonies. He also began his researches into “different kinds of airs,” getting a plentiful supply of “fixed air” from a brewery next door to his house. In 1772, the year in which he was chosen a foreign associate of the French academy of sciences, Priestley accepted the position of librarian and literary companion to Lord Shelburne (afterwards rst Marquess of Lansdowne)

at Calne, with a salary of £250 4

year and a house. He travelled with his patron on the Continent and in Oct. 1774 he met Lavoisier and his friends in Paris and gave them an account of the experiment by which on the previous Aug. t he had prepared “dephlogisticated air” (oxygen). In 1780 he left Lord Shelburne, who allowed him an annuity of £150 for life, and settling at Birmingham was appointed junior minister of the

New Meeting Society. There he found friends in Matthew Boul-

ton, James Keir, James Watt and Erasmus Darwin. On July 14, 1791 the Constitutional Society of Birmingham arranged a dinner

to celebrate the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille. Priestley, according to his own account, “had little to do with it.” But his predilections in favour of the revolutionists were notorious, and the mob seized the occasion to burn his chapel and sack his house at Fairhill. He and his family escaped, but his possessions were destroyed and the labour of years annihilated. He retreated to London, where he felt safe, though he continued to be an object of “troublesome attention,” and even the fellows of the Royal

Society shunned him. He received an invitation to become morning preacher at Gravel Pit Chapel, Hackney, and there he remained until 1794, when he determined to emigrate to America. Settling at Northumberland, Pennsylvania, he lived there for nearly ten years, until his death on Feb. 6, 1804. Priestley made very important contributions to pneumatic chemistry—the study of gases—and was the inventor of the “pneumatic trough” which allowed gases to be collected and examined. By heating spirits of salt he obtained “marine acid air” (hydrochloric acid gas), and he was able to collect it because he happened to use mercury, instead of water, in his pneumatic trough. Then he treated oil of vitriol in the same way, but got nothing until by accident he dropped some mercury into the liquid, when “vitriolic acid air” (sulphur dioxide) was evolved. Again he heated fluorspar with oil of vitriol, as K. W. Scheele had done, and because he was employing a glass vessel he got “fluor acid air” (silicon fluoride). Heating spirits of hartshorn, he was able to collect “alkaline air” (ammonia), again because he was using mercury in his pneumatic trough; then, trying what would happen if he passed electric sparks through the gas, he decomposed it into nitrogen and hydrogen, and “having a notion” that mixed with hydrochloric acid gas it would produce a “neutral air,” perhaps much the same as common air, he synthetized sal ammoniac. Dephlogisticated air (oxygen) he prepared in Aug. 1774 by heating red oxide of mercury with a burning-glass, and he found that

in it a candle burnt with a remarkably vigorous flame and mice lived longer than in an equal volume of ordinary air. He concluded that it was not common air, but the substance “in much greater perfection,” that rendered common air respirable and 4 conformist. At the age of 12 the son was sent to a neigh- supporter of combustion. Of the analogy between combustion bouring grarmmar school, but later Kirkby, a minister at Heck- and respiration—both true phlogistic processes in his view—he mondwike, took entire charge of his education. From the age of 16 had convinced himself three years before, and his paper, “On to nearly 20 he worked at Chaldee and Syriac, began to read Different Kinds of Air” (Phil. Trans., 1772) described experiments Arabic, and mastered °S Gravesande’s Natural Philosophy, to- which showed that growing plants are able to “restore” air which gether with various textbooks of logic and metaphysics. He also has been vitiated, whether by being breathed or by having candles learned French, German and Italian. In 1752 he went to burnt in it. He noted that when hydrogen and oxygen were exploded together a mist or dew coated the inside of the vessel, but Daventry to attend the Nonconformist academy there.

PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH (1733-1804), English chemist and

Nonconformist minister, was born on March 13, 1733, at Fieldhead, a hamlet in the West Riding of Yorkshire. His father, Jonas Priestley, a woollen-cloth dresser of moderate means, was a Non-

PRIEUR— PRIMARIES it was Cavendish who showed that the dew consisted of water. Priestley had an unusual gift, as well as a passion, for experimenting, although he had received no scientifc education; probably for this reason he supported the doctrine of phlogiston to

483

the bureau of longitude were also due to his efforts. Prieur died at Dijon on Aug. 11, 1832. See J. Gros, Le Comité de salut public (1893); and E. Charavay, Correspondance de Carnot, vol. i., which includes some documents

the very last in spite of the fact that his own researches had

drawn up by Prieur.

combustion. But although his theoretical knowledge was weak his observations and experiments had a profound influence on the development of chemistry. Priestley was a most voluminous writer, and his works (excluding his scientific writings) as collected and edited by his friend J. T. Rutt

18,532. The town owes its chief importance to the large annual fair which is visited by traders from distant regions. The town is famous in Serbian history as the birthplace and capital of Marko Kralyevich, one of the favourite national heroes, who held his kingdom, after the fall of Serbia in 1389, as a vassal of the Turks. Legend says that before his death he buried his sword deep in the rocks of Prilep and left his magic horse Sharatz to nibble the moss near by, with the promise of reappearing in his country’s hour of need. In the Balkan Wars (1912-13) the Serbs successfully stormed the heights, reputed to be impregnable.

probably given Lavoisier (g.v.) the clue to the oxygen theory of

in 1817-32 fill 25 octavo volumes. His chief theological and philosophical works were Institutes of Natural and Revealed Religion (3 vols. 1772-74) ; History of the Corruption of Christianity (2 vols., 1782); General History of the Christian Church to the Fall of the Western Empire, vols. i. and ii. (1790), vols. iii. and iv. (1802-03) ; and

Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit (1777).

His chief books on chemistry were six volumes of Experiments and Observations on different Kinds of Air, published between 1774 and 1786; Experiments on the Generation of Air from Water (1793); Experiments and Observations relating to the Analysis of Atmospheric Air, and Considerations on the Doctrine of Phlogiston established and

PRILEP, a town in southern Serbia, Yugoslavia. Pop. (1921)

PRIM, JUAN, Marouis DE Los CASTILLEJOS, COUNT DE

Reus (1814-1870), Spanish soldier and statesman, was born at Reus, Catalonia, on Dec. 12, 1814. He served in the volunteers of Isabella II. in 1834, becoming lieutenant-colonel during the that of the Composition of Water refuted (1800). He also published Carlist War. In 1839, as a progressist opposed to the dictatorship (1467) a treatise on the History and Present State of Electricity, which embodies some original work, and (1772) a History of Discoveries of Espartero, he was exiled. Elected deputy for Tarragona in 1843, he defeated Espartero at Bruch and entered Madrid in relating to Vision, Light and Colours, which is a mere compilation. See also T. E. Thorpe, Joseph Priestley (1906), O. Lodge, “Joseph triumph with Serrano. The regent Maria Christina made him Priestley” in Nine Famous Birmingham Men (ed. J. H. Muirhead, major-general and count of Reus. Narvaez, the prime minister, 1909). who did not understand what constitutional freedom meant, senPRIEUR, PIERRE (c. 1626-c. 1676), French enamel tenced Prim to six years’ imprisonment in the Philippine islands; painter. He married Marie (1610-1677), sister of Jean Petitot, as the sentence was not executed, and until the amnesty of 1847 her second husband. In 1669 he was in England, painting a minia- Prim remained an exile in England and France. On his return ture of Charles II. and another of Lady Castlemaine, both after he was made captain-general of Porto Rico and military represenCooper, for the king of Denmark. In 1670 he was in Poland, tative with the sultan during the Crimean War. Elected to the painting for the Danish monarch a portrait of King Michael, and Cortes in 1854, he supported O’Donnell, who promoted him in the following year was in Denmark executing a remarkable lieutenant-general in 1856. He was made marquis de los Castilseries of portraits of the children of Frederick III. All these, lejos and a grandee of Spain for his valuable services in Morocco with some beautiful enamel badges for the Order of the Elephant, (1860). A member of the opposition against Narvaez, at his death are in the Danish royal collection. By Christian V. he is said to (1868) Prim and Serrano raised the standard of revolt at Cadiz, have been sent to Spain and Russia, where several examples of with Admiral Topete commanding the fleet. In July 1869 Serrano his work, dated 1676, are to be seen in the Hermitage, Leningrad. was elected regent, and Prim became president of the council and He died in Denmark, in 1676. He was a Huguenot, and was said was made a marshall. He was shot by unknown assassins on to possess secret colours in enamel, especially a blue, which were leaving the chamber of the Cortes on Dec. 28, 1870. not known to his Petitot relations. His work in England is of ’ See F. Jiménez y Guited, Historia militar y politica del general D. great rarity; Lord Dartrey possesses the finest example, and there Juan Prim ... (2 vols., 1860) ; L. Blairet, Le Général Prim ei la situaare two remarkable works in the Pierpont Morgan collection and tion actuelle de VEspagne (1867) ; Guillaumot, Juan Prim et l Espagne

one at Windsor Castle.

PRIEUR DE LA MARNE

(G. C. W.)

[Pierre Louis Prieur] (1756-

1827), French politician, was born at Sommesous (Marne) on Aug. 1, 1756. He practised as a lawyer at Chalons-sur-Marne until 1789, when he was elected to the states-general. He became secretary to the Assembly, and the violence of his attacks on the ancien régime won him the nickname of “Crieur de la Marne.” In 1791 he became vice-president of the criminal tribunal of Paris and in May 1796 president of the Convention, hiding from May 1795 until the amnesty proclaimed in the autumn of that year. In 1816 he was banished as a regicide. He died in Brussels on May 31, 1827. See Pierre Bliard, Le Conventionnel Prieur de la Marne en mission dans Pouest 1793~1r7094 d’apres des documents inédits (1906).

(x870) ; H. Leonardon, Prim (1901, bibl.) ; F. González Llanos, Biografiá politica y'militar del... general. ..Prim ... (1860).

PRIMARIES,

a term applied to preliminary elections in

which delegates to conventions or candidates for office are nominated directly by the voters, instead of being chosen by political conventions as was formerly the universal custom in the United States. The primary election is by ballot, is accompanied by the same election machinery, regulations and safeguards, and is fully as “official” as the final election. The first use of the direct

primary in the United States so far as known, was in Crawford county, Pa., in 1868, from whence it spread to other counties of that State and of States in the Middle West, South and West. It was not until the opening of the 2oth century, when a wide-spread

distrust of political conventions had grown up, that the method was adopted by an entire State. In 1903, Wisconsin, under the leadership of Governor Robert M. La Follette, passed a mandatory primary law. Oregon passed a similar law the following year. By tg15 the direct primary for some purposes had been adopted by nearly every State in the Union, although its scope and administrative details varied widely from State to State. In 1928 it was mandatory in all but five States. Utah permitted primaries if desired by a political party but did not require them. Connecticut, Delaware, New Mexico and Rhode Island had no primary law. In several States the primary law applies to all political parties, but in most States minor parties which do not poll a fixed minimum vote, or a certain percentage of votes cast at the previous election, are allowed to nominate their candidate by convention chef de brigade. He was one of the founders of the Ecole Poly- if they prefer. Likewise, primaries may be held to nominate technique, and shared in the establishment of the Institute of candidates for all or for only certain offices. In most of the France; the adoption of the metric system and the foundation of Western States the law applies to almost all elective officers from

PRIEUR-DUVERNOIS, CLAUDE ANTOINE, Comte (1763-1832), French politician, was born at Auxonne on Dec. 2, 1763, and was known as Prieur de la Côte d’Or. He was a member of the legislative assembly and of the Convention. In 1793 he was employed in breaking up the Federalist movement in Normandy, but he was arrested by the Federalist authorities of Caen, and only released in July 1793 after the defeat of their forces at Vernon. On Aug. 14, 1793, he became a member of the committee of public safety, allying himself with Carnot in the organization of national defence. Under the Directory he sat in the Council of the Five Hundred, retiring after the coup d’état of 18 Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799). In 1808 he was created a count of the empire, and in 1811 retired from the army with the grade of

484

PRIMATE

the governor down to and including local officials. In New York, however, a State convention is held for the nomination of State officials and the application of the direct primary is for local

officers only. In six States in 1928 presidential electors were nominated through primaries. Methods by which aspirants for nomination have their names placed upon the primary ballot vary widely. The most commonly used is that by petition, wherein a fixed number of signatures, or signatures totalling a certain percentage of the voters must be

secured by the candidate. A second method is to allow any one to have his name entered upon the payment of a certain fee, which varies in amount according to the importance of the office. A third method is to allow party committees to designate “official” aspirants for nomination—with the reservation that others may place their names on the ballot by petition. In Colorado conventions are held previous to the primary and all names placed in

nomination before the convention and receiving 10% or more of that body’s vote are placed on the ballot. A similar system exists in South Dakota with the provision there that other names may be added by petition. Primaries may be either open or closed. In the first case the voter has a choice of the ballot of any party regardless of his regular party affiliations. The open primary was used in only three States, Colorado, Montana and Wisconsin in 1928. The voter was given the ballots of all parties as he entered the booth, and upon his exit he placed the one he had marked in one box

sota at one time had preferential voting but abandoned it, In Indiana if no candidate received a majority in the primary, the

nominee was chosen by a regularly constituted State convention, In Iowa the same procedure takes place if no candidate receives

35% of the votes in the primary. Just as under the convention system a defeated candidate may start an independent movement

so in most States a candidate defeated in the primaries may seek election as an independent. In Wisconsin, where the real contest is between factions of the Republican Party, this is often done.

Maryland, Oregon and California do not permit it while several other States permit it only under certain restrictions. Non-partisan primaries are held for some offices in which the candidates are nominated without regard to party lines. Twice the number are nominated as there are offices to be filled at the

election. Non-partisan primaries originated in municipal elections where national and State party lines have less significance. In 1928 North Dakota and Wisconsin had non-partisan primaries for

all cities, Minnesota and Utah for cities of the first and second class, and certain other States for cities under home rule charters, or under the commission or city-manager forms of government.

County officers in three States are elected by non-partisan primaries, and Minnesota, since 1913, has chosen its members of the legislature this way. In 12 States in 1928 judges were chosen by non-partisan primaries, a practice in line with the growing movement to take the judiciary out of politics. Non-partisan primaries do not, however, do away entirely with party politics for parties generally openly endorse their favoured candidates. On the other

and the others in a discard box. The advantage of this procedure is that the voter is able to keep his party affiliation a secret. The hand, where the local vote is non-partisan national parties have most commonly used closed primary procedure is that of enrol- difficulty in maintaining effective local organization. BreriocRAPHY.—H. M. Rocca, Primary Laws (1927) ; C. E. Merriam, ment in a political party at the time of registration previous to Elections (1909) and The American Party System (1922) ; L. election. In a few States the voter does not declare his party Primary Overacker, The Presidential Primary (1927); E. N. Sait, American until he steps up to receive his ballot. In neither of these pro- Parties and Elections (1927); S. Lewis, Party Principles and Practical cedures, however, as in the open primary, is there any guarantee Politics (1928); E. C. Meyer, Nominating System: Direct Primaries that the voter will vote for the nominees of the same party in versus Convention (1902) ; E. T. Brackett, ‘“The Direct Primary versus Convention,” Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science, vol. the final election as in the primary. In this respect the primary so the iii. (1913) ; J. Macy, “The Influence of Primary Elections upon Party far as party government is concerned is defective, in that it allows Organizations,” Proceedings of the American Political Science Associathe voter to interfere with the selection of candidates in a party tion, vol. iv. (1907); and, Annals of the American Academy, vol. cvi. to which he does not belong. Where the final race is likely to be (1923) containing 13 articles on various phases of the primary and its close he may vote for a candidate of the opposing party whom his operations in certain States by well-known writers. PRIMATE, atitle applied during the 4th and 5th centuries own candidate can more easily defeat, or, if his own party has little chance, he may vote for his favourite among the candidates of A.D. to both secular and ecclesiastical officials. The Theodosian the other party, in which case the minority party sinks to an Code mentions primates of towns, districts and fortified places

(Primates urbium, vicorum, castellorum). The Pragmatic Sanction of Justinian also mentions primates governing a district, primates regionis; and in this sense the title survived, under Turkish rule, in Greece until the roth century. An official called “primate of the palace” is mentioned in the laws of the Visigoths. Primas also seems to have been used loosely during the middle vote for the same party’s nominees in the final election, while a ages for “head” or “chief.” Du Cange cites primas castri. The few States require a promise of support for a longer period, in title, however, has been more generally used to denote a bishop with special privileges and powers. It was first employed almost Illinois, for example, for two years. There is also a wide variation among States in the vote neces- synonymously with metropolitan to denote the chief bishop of sary at a primary to constitute a choice. Where more than two a province having his see in the capital and certain rights of candidates are usually on the ballot it is evident that the leading superintendence over the whole province. At the Council of one may not always have a majority. Most of the primary laws Nicaea (A.D. 325) the metropolitan constitution was assumed as of the United States provide merely that the candidate with the universal, and after this the terms “metropolitan,” and “primate,” highest number of votes is nominated. This method, however, may to denote the chief bishop of a province, came into general use. allow a minority candidate to win in case several majority candi- The title of primate was used more generally in Africa, while dates divide the majority vote between them. It also may keep | elsewhere metropolitan was more generally employed. At a later date “primate” became the official title of certain good majority men out of the race for fear of creating a split that would give an undesired candidate the nomination. To obviate this metropolitans who obtained from the pope a position of episcopal defect a number of States, especially in the South, where a victory authority over several other metropolitans and who were, at the in the primary usually means a victory in the election, require an same time, appointed vicars of the Holy See. This was done in absolute majority to win, and, if no candidate has this, a “run-off the case of the bishops of Arles and Thessalonica as early as primary” between the two highest candidates is held a few weeks the sth century. The archbishop of Reims received the title of after the regular primary. Two States in 1928, Alabama and primas inter primates. By the False Decretals an attempt was Florida, used a system of preferential voting, the voter designat- made to establish such a primacy as a permanent institution, but ing second choices as well as first. If a candidate had a majority the attempt was not successful and the dignity of primate became of first choices, the election was thereby decided, but if no more or less honorary. The overlapping of the title is illustrated majority appeared, all but the two highest candidates were dropped by the case of England, where the archbishop of York still bears and the second choices were then added, the candidate having the the title of primate of England and the archbishop of Canterbury highest number of both winning. Indiana, Louisiana and Minne- that of primate of all England.

ineffective position. In Wisconsin, for example, the Democratic candidates often receive too few votes in the primary to give them a place on the final ballot, in which case they are forced to run as independents or discontinue the race. Some States require a voter, if challenged, to swear that he has supported for a certain time the party in which he enrols. Others require a promise to

485

PRIMATES rium; Hinschius, Kirchenrecht .—See Du Cange, Glossa of the Christian Church, translated

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Berlin, 1869); Moeller, History

by Andrew Rutherford (1902); Bingham, Origines thesticaeGerman from (1840). ecclesia PRIMATES, an order of mammals, including man, the apes, monkeys, tarsiers and lemurs. The name, meaning “chiefs,” was given by Linnaeus in 1758. Linnaeus also included the bats, assigned to a separate order by modern zoologists. Structure and Habits——Primates are primarily arboreal animals with hands and feet adapted for climbing. The fingers and toes are provided with nails (rarely compressed as claws).

The great toe of the hind-foot is usually more or less divergent

and the foot functions as a grasping organ, branches of trees

being seized between the great toe and the four outer toes. The hands serve both for climbing and for manipulating food. The limbs are relatively long and slender, with free movements of

rotation and supination. The lower primates (lemurs) are practically quadrupeds that run and leap in the trees but in the more advanced monkeys and apes there is an increasing tendency to cimb with the arms extended above the head and the weight of the body suspended beneath the branches (brachiation). On the other hand, in the baboons the limbs plainly show secondary adaptation for running on the ground, both in their somewhat dog-like proportions and in the reduction of the great toe. In the stem type of arboreal monkeys, vision is dominant over smell, whereas in typical ground-dwelling mammals the reverse is the case. Hence the occipital poles of the brain, which are connected with vision, are much enlarged. The adjustments for balancing in such actively climbing animals are extremely various and rapid; this requires a correspondingly complex development of the cerebellum and of the cerebral areas of the brain concerned with the movements of the limbs and body. As intelligence increases the prefrontal lobes of the brain develop. Thus the brain of monkeys is proportionately larger and more complexly convoluted than in ordinary ground-living animals. As a whole the brain of the Old World monkeys presents the ground-plan of the human brain without the special developments and complications connected with man’s superior mentality. The bony braincase closely follows the shape of the brain, except in front, where the large eye sockets jut forward, thus enabling the achievement of binocular, stereoscopic vision. Owing to the forward growth of the temporal lobes of the brain the greater wings of the sphenoid are moved forward to form the back-wall of the orbits, which are thus separated by a bony partition from the temporal fossae. Hearing is acute and the temporal lobes are large. A thin bony shell, the auditory bulla, on the under-side of the braincase behind the socket for the lower jaw, covers the lower side of the cavity of the middle ear and is connected by a bony tube with the root of the external ear; the latter resembles that of man but usually has a point on its upper rim and lacks a lobule below. In the more primitive primates, e.g. lemurs, the jaws are long and slender and the muzzle pointed. In typical monkeys, however, the jaw is shortened and deepened and the muzzle broad, the nose and lips assuming more or less the human aspect. The opposite halves of the lower jaw are fused in front even in young animals. The dentition is adapted for a mixed diet, with fruits or vegetation prevailing. The teeth in an adult Old World monkey number 32, as in man. The incisors are cutting teeth, the lower ones slightly inclined forward. There are two pairs in both upper and lower jaw. The canines are sharp and adapted for biting; the upper premolars are bicuspid, z.e., with single, outer and inner cusps; and the low-crowned molars are surmounted by low cusps. The female reproductive organs are fundamentally as in man

(except in details) and there is likewise only a single pair of

breasts in the female. The placenta is disc-shaped and intimately attached to the wall of the uterus. Thus a typical monkey differs from an ordinary mammal such asa dog in its thorough adaptation to arboreal life, in the greater activity of the visual as compared with the olfactory powers, in its more advanced type of brain, and in its much greater likeness to man in the entire ground-plan of its anatomy.

Such a monkey is structurally connected on the one hand with lower primates

(including

New

World

monkeys,

tarsiers

and

lemurs) and on the other hand with the higher primates, the anthropoid apes and man. Even the still existing species of primates form a fairly gradual transition from the tree-shrews at the base to highly specialized forms like the spider-monkey, the orang-utan and man, which stand far out on widely divergent branches. LOWER

PRIMATES

The Tree-Shrews.—The tree-shrews (Tupaiidae) are generally classed as Insectivora (g.v.) but they are related to Primates in many anatomical details. The pen-tailed tree-shrew (Ptilocercus) of Borneo is a mouse-like arboreal animal. Its hands and feet are five-toed and provided with claws, the thumb and great toe somewhat divergent. The food includes insects and fruit; the upper molar teeth are tritubercular, the lower molars tuberculo-sectorial

(see MAMMALIA). The skull is lemur-like, especially in the ringshaped orbit and inflated auditory bulla, which completely encloses the ring-like tympanic bone and ear-drum. The brain is primitive in having relatively unreduced olfactory parts and very feebly-developed neopallium or higher part of the brain. Tupata and related genera of India and the Malayan region are in many ways more advanced toward the lemur type. Imperfect fossil jaws and teeth, apparently of tree-shrews not greatly different from modern forms, have been found in Lower Eocene deposits in Wyoming.

The Tarsioids.—Of equal antiquity are the oldest known fore-

runners of the true primates, represented by fossil jaws and teeth from the Lower Eocene of Wyoming and New Mexico and apparently belonging respectively to the tarsioid and lemuroid division of the order. Even at this early date a breaking up of the groups into different genera was in progress. In some of the tarsioid genera the incisors were already enlarging and the molars acquiring round, blunt cusps instead of the sharp-edged V-shaped

cusps of their Cretaceous insectivorous ancestors. Probably from some of the less specialized of these Lower Eocene tarsioids sprang the line leading to Pseudoloris of the European Eocene. This genus in turn had already progressed far toward the modern Tarsius. The most famous Lower Eocene tarsioid was the little skull Anaptomorphus (Tetonius) homunculus, at one time, though erroneously, supposed to be in the direct line of human descent. That strange-looking animal, the spectral tarsier, survives today in the forests of the larger Malay islands. About as large as a good-sized rat, it has long jerboa-like hind legs, with which it can make extraordinary leaps, presumably to capture insects. Both the hands and feet have long spreading digits tipped with flattened discs for grasping the branches of the trees in which it lives. The lower part of the heel-bone and navicular are lengthened into long narrow rods to increase the leaping power. The huge eyes are brought forward so that their inner borders almost meet across the nose, which is small and resembles the platyrrhine type. The ears are very large. The brain, although large, is of remarkably low type for a primate. Accordingly the skull, which largely reflects the character of the brain and sense organs, reveals enormous circular orbits, a swollen braincase, expanded auditory bullae and a reduced, greatly constricted nasal-chamber. The jaws are slender and the teeth small, the upper molars being transversely widened with low, rounded cusps. Tarsius appears to be the rather specialized survivor of a very old primate stock structurally intermediate between the tree-shrews and lemurs below and the monkeys, apes and man above. Most of the known Eocene tarsioids are too specialized in their teeth to be the ancestors of the monkeys (with possible exceptions noted below). The foot structure of at least two of these forms already showed more or less of the characteristic elongation of the heel-bone and navicular.

The Lemuroids.—Along with the tarsioids in the Lower and Middle Eocene of North America occur the fossil teeth and jaws of another group of Primates, constituting the family Notharctidae, the members of which ranged in size from a chipmunk to a cat. During the Eocene, the first and second upper molar teeth

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PRIMATES

486

gradually evolved from a three-cusped to a four-cusped stage. Apparently the entire family then became extinct, but some of them may possibly have given rise to the ancestral South American monkeys. In Notharctus osborni from the Middle Eocene of Wyoming the hands and feet were of the grasping, climbing type, much like those of existing lemurs. The skull was far less specialized than that of contemporary tarsioids, both skull and dentition retaining the primitive features of lemurs on the one hand and monkeys on the other. Thus the dental formula of

Notharctus

(13 Ct Pt M3) X2=40

is the primitive one for all

primates. The braincase is primitive with no great expansion of the brain and with an unreduced nasal-chamber. The orbits were protected behind by a rim of bone, not by a fully developed partition. The auditory region and base of the cranium, backbone, forearm, pelvis and hind-feet were like those of lemurs. Structurally related to the Notharctidae was the European Eocene family Adapidae. The skull was more robust than that of Notharctus, with higher crests, more massive cheek-arches and more expanded lower jaws. On the other hand, the lower molars were relatively smaller, with sharper oblique cross-crests. In many skeletal features the Adapidae approached the modern Madagascan lemurs, to which they were either directly ancestral or closely related. Madagascar has been the lemuroid headquarters for a long period. To-day it is the home of many species and genera of three families, while a number of recently extinct forms of widely different genera have also been found there. The central family is the Lemuridae, including the true lemurs, which range in size from the tiny mouse-lemur (Microcebus) to the extinct short-limbed Megaladapis, as large as a half-grown brown bear. The typical lemur has a fully arboreal skeleton, with grasping hands and feet, although certain species live in rocky places. The animal is essentially an arboreal quadruped, which runs and leaps on top of the branches. The head is fox-like, but the eyes are very large and protrude from their sockets. The ears are usually large and movable. The food consists of insects, fruits and leaves. The lower incisors and much reduced canines are sharply inclined forward, compressed and pointed. With these the animals comb their fur and seize their food. The upper molars have a rounded inner cusp connected by a sharp small cross-crest with the front one of the two rounded outer cusps. The opposite halves of the lower jaw are not fused in front as In the higher primates. The skull varies tn length from the extremely long skull of Megaladapts to the short sloth-like skull of Myoxicebus. The placenta is diffuse, with a large allantois, and is Indeciduous; z.e., is torn away

from the uterine wall at birth. The indrisine lemurs or sifakas, also peculiar to Madagascar, have more monkey-like faces. The central types have very long hind limbs and long hands and feet and are good climbers and leapers. The indris has a tail like that of a rabbit; the different species of Propithecus have brilliant areas of colour against a dark background. All are very conspicuous in a museum-case but as they are nocturnal animals their bizarre colouring may have a disruptive or concealing effect at night. The skeleton could be derived directly from that of the Eocene lemuroids by emphasizing certain details almost to the point of caricature. These indrisine lemurs have a spiral colon, recalling that of other leaf-eating animals; the molar teeth also are adapted to cutting vegetation, the blades of each W-shaped lower molar fitting between corresponding V’s of the upper molars. The area for the insertion of the masseter or outer jaw-muscle on the outer side of the lower jaw is greatly expanded and the bony cheekarches are strengthened to support the powerful grinding muscles. The lower front teeth are reduced to a single pair. The detailed construction of the skull is obviously a modification of the primitive Eocene lemuroid type. The extinct Archaeolemur (or Nesopithecus) resembled some of the South American monkeys in its upper and lower premolars and molars and in certain features of the skull, but in many other features (such as the middle ear region) it is connected with the indrisine lemurs. Jt seems probable that Archaeolemur illustrates one'of the structural phases through which the ancestors of the

New World monkeys may have passed in their descent from lemy-

roid ancestors. There is also a gradual transition in the form of the “braincast” and of the furrows on its surface between these lemuroids and the New World monkeys. The last family of Madagascar lemuroids is that of the aye-aye

(Daubentonia or Chiromys), one of the most extraordinary of all

animals. Arboreal in habit, it has very large ears with which it listens for the sound of insect grubs boring beneath the bark When it locates a grub it gnaws through the bark and into the wood with its rodent-like front teeth, which are large and compressed with sharp tips. Into the narrow slot thus opened it

thrusts its very long, attenuated third finger, hooking the grub on the end of its curved nail. In accordance with its grub- and fruiteating habits its molar teeth are much reduced. The general anatomy of the aye-aye agrees with that of other Madagascar lemuroids (especially the indris group). Fossil jaws with gnawing front teeth, much like those of the aye-aye, have been found in the French Eocene. These are more or less intermediate between

the Eocene tree-shrews (Plesiadapidae) and the modern aye-aye. Probably the indrisine lemurs are a related off-shoot of the primitive tree-shrew-lemur stock. The lemurs of southeastern Asia and of Africa differ in certain respects from the Madagascar lemurs, but agree with them in the

curious comb-like arrangement of the lower front teeth. The lorises (Lorisidae) extend from tropical India southeastward through most of Malaya and are also represented in west Africa. The slender loris (Loris gracilis) is a large-eyed, small-nosed, nocturnal form with long and excessively slender bent limbs and no

tail. It clings to the branches and feeds upon leaves and fruit, small birds, insects and mice. The awantibo (Arctocebus) and the potto (Perodicticus) of Africa have heavier skulls and bluntercusped molars. The hands are extremely specialized for grasping and have very large thumbs and vestigial second fingers. The galagos of Africa (Galaginidae), commonly known as “bush babies,” are active arboreal leapers, catching insects on the wing. They have long, pointed muzzles and very large eyes and ears. They approach the tarsioids in these characters and in the elongation of the tarsal bones for leaping. But they differ in the lemur-like character of the lower front teeth, and the resemblances between the two families seem partly due to parallelism. Pronycticebus from the French Lower Oligocene is represented byafossil skull structurally intermediate between the Eocene adapids and the modern lorisids. NEW WORLD MONKEYS The American monkeys are differentiated from those of the Old World by the widely separated nostrils facing laterally, whence the name “platyrrhine’”’ (flat-nosed). The head is rounded with relatively small jaws and the ears lack the pointed tip common in Old World monkeys. The buttocks do not bear callosities and the thumb is never truly opposable to the other digits. The opposable great toe of the hind-foot bears a flattened nail, but the nails of the other digits of both hand and foot are frequently compressed laterally and in the marmosets become claws. The American monkeys are all arboreal. The recent genera inhabit the tropical forests of South America, a few species extending northward into Central America, spider-monkeys and certain marmosets even to Mexico. Except from Ecuador northward, the Andes limit the western range of monkeys, though some howlers, spider-monkeys and sapajous reach an elevation in Guatemala of 6,000 to 7,000 feet. A fossil cebid Homunculus, found in lower Miocene formations in Patagonia, indicate the great antiquity and former wide range of the family. Cebidae.—The recent Cebidae, which comprise all the platyrrhine monkeys except the marmosets, are divided into some ten quite distinct genera. Of these the most central or primitive type is probably Callicebus, of which numerous species, known as titis or teetees inhabit the forests of Brazil and neighbouring countries.

They feed on fruits, insects and small birds and are extremely

vociferous.

They are very small, with long, bushy, non-prehensile

tails. Rather closely related to these are the dourocoulis (Aotus or Nyctipithecus), the only truly nocturnal monkeys. The huge,

PRIMATES

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BY COURTESY OF (1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8) THE NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY, PHOTOGRAPHS,

LEMURS Ll. The

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lemur

(Lemur

varius)

AND

of the

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MONKEYS

Malagasy

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OF THE It is

6. An

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BOND

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NEW

WORLDS

woolly

monkey

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America,

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reptiles, eggs, insects and fruit

2. The lemuroid potto (Perodicticus potto)

meetin

an almost tailless primate somewhat larger than a squirrel

(Lagothrix

lagotricha)

by the naked, singularly

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;

human

of tropical face and the

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,

,

,

7. Spider monkey (Ateleus geoffroyi) of tropical America, so designated

z ; : 3. Bush baby (Galago alleni) of Africa, a small arboreal lemur with long pointed muzzle and very large eyes and ears , : . , i

8. White faced capuchin

terized by a bushy tail and whiskers of long, loose fur 5. The common, or white-eared marmoset (Hapale (Callithrix) jacchus), a diminutive American monkey that feeds on insects and fruit

by the hair on the crown of the head. It is common in captivity 9. Guereza (Colobus abyssinicus), an arboreal African monkey hunted for its fur which forms a black and white mantle on the sides and back

4. Woolly Saki (Pithecia monachus), a tropical American monkey charac-

because of its extremely slender limbs. The tail is very prehensile and the hand is thumbless. It is easily tamed

monkey

(Cebus

capucinus),

long

and

a vivacious Amer-

ican species that derives its name from the cowl-like form assumed

PRIMATES

PLATE II

E S >ro ety red wy

Beay iiosha p hee mo,

ee

"mi s

eet,

7”

bal a

xe

r

As

‘ ~r

w =

pA

OF

sete. nt

i

7

y

wi

sa

* Set tg K „à

VANS À

' bd)

w

s

>

in a t

s wis Te ton eg

COURTESY

OF

(2, &) THE

NEW

YORK

ZOOLOGICAL

SOCIETY,

(5)

THE

OLD

AMERICAN

MUSEUM

WORLD

Chimpanzee (Pan calvus), the smaller of the two great man-like apes inhabiting equatorial Africa. It seldom exceeds 4!/. feet in height

and is almost completely arboreal, sleeping in nests In trees

(Cercopithecus

African forests. Capped

tantalus),

a small

arboreal

monkey

of the Malay

Peninsula.

of the

AND

PHOTOGRAPHS,

(1,

3, 4, 7,

8)

F.

W.

BOND

APES

5. Group of mountain

gorillas

(Gorilla

beringei),

Belgian Congo, show-

ing two males and two females, the standing male being in characteristic posture of thumping his chest. The male at the left is in the position generally assumed by the gorilla when moving about on the ground

Slamang

(Hylobates

of 3 feet.

7. Orang-utan In common

with other members of the langur family, it has slender limbs and a very long tail, and feeds on leaves

HISTORY,

(Symphalangus)

syndactylus)

Malay

Penin-

sula and Sumatra; largest of the gibbon group with an average height

It subsists chiefly on fruits and leaves

Langur female and young

NATURAL

MONKEYS

Celada Baboon (Theropithecus gelada), a large terrestrial monkey of southern Abyssinia. On the old males the hair develops into a mantlelike mane which covers the forequarters, leaving the chest bare

Guenon

OF

It is distinguished from other gibbons by a laryngeal air-sac

(Simia satyrus), “man of the forest,” the least man-like

of the three great anthropoid apes. It inhabits Borneo and Sumatra &. The silvery gibbon (Hylobates leuciscus), one of the small arboreal apes of the Indo-Malay peninsula and East Indies

PRIMATES

487

closely-approximated eyes and short face, surrounded by a ruff

several miles. The howlers are gregarious, living on leaves and

sjon. Aotus lives on fruits and insects which it hunts at night, re-

fruit and are the largest and heaviest American monkeys, though the limbs are shorter than those of the spider-monkey. The powerful prehensile tail is very similar to that of the monkeys

of pale fur, give these little animals a peculiarly owl-like expresmaining hidden during the day. Some species are reputed to have

last described but this may be an example of parallelism in view of numerous differences in other respects. The most noteworthy anatomical feature is the vocal apparatus. The hyoid bone is expanded into a great bony cup, the thyroid cartilage greatly dilated and the angle of the jaw enlarged to protect these strucolfactory parts of the brain, indicate that smell is well-developed, tures. The intelligence of the howlers is low and the brain experhaps more so than in the higher members of the family. This tremely small and poorly developed. Their relation to other genera is probably of more service to nocturnal than to diurnal forms, but is unsettled. . Callitrichidae.—The second family of the American monkeys is nevertheless probably a primitive character. Both titis and dourocoulis use the hands in holding food but do not exhibit the is that of the marmosets, Callitrichidae or Hapalidae, including manifold manipulations of these organs seen in the sapajous. the diminutive, squirrel-like marmosets proper, Callttrichus or Two genera of small monkeys, placed in the sub-family Pithe- Hapale, and the closely related tamarins, Midas. Some zoologists cinae, are Pithecia, the saki and Brachyurus or Cacajao, the have considered these the most primitive American monkeys, but uakarí, both with several species. They are characterized by ex- they probably represent dwarfed descendants of primitive Cebitremely procumbent incisors. The sakis have long, loose fur, that dae. In addition to small size, they are characterized by reduction of the head often directed forward on the crown and forming a of the jaws with a correlated loss of the third molar, leaving but thick beard about the jaws. The tail is bushy and non-prehensile. 32 teeth. The digits, except the hallux, bear sharp curved claws The uakaris are the only short-tailed American monkeys. The face in place of nails, forming, in such small creatures, highly efficient is naked and in one species is a brilliant vermilion; the body is organs for arboreal locomotion. The hands are used for graspcovered with pale sandy or straw-coloured long hair. ing food, but lack the varied functions of these members in larger The squirrel-monkeys (Satmirt or Chrysothrix), are extremely monkeys, a fact which may be correlated with the inferior intellidiminutive. The face is short and round and the back of the head gence of marmosets. In the hind foot the great toe is relatively projects markedly, its balance on the neck giving a particularly smaller and less opposable than in the Cebidae. The cerebrum, human appearance. The cerebrum, relatively very large, is slightly though very large, is almost devoid of convolutions. Marmosets convoluted, but overhangs the cerebellum to a greater extent than are usually found in small groups and subsist on insects and in any other primate, even man. These monkeys are chiefly insec- fruit. They have occasionally bred in captivity, producing up to tivorous, and associate in small groups. Some half-dozen species three young at a birth, instead of one as in monkeys in general. are known, ranging from the Amazonian forests to Costa Rica. Callimico, a peculiar type previously assigned to the genus Midas, They are richly coloured little animals often seen in captivity. has most of the external features, including claws, like the CalliCebus is aptly called by H. O. Forbes “the typical genus of trichidae, but the skull, though essentially that’ of a marmoset, the American monkeys.” The common names sapajou and capu- has certain likenesses to the Cebidae, the most important being chin are applied to these familiar monkeys. They are vivacious the retention of the third molars. O. Thomas proposes a new suband relatively hardy, individuals having been known to survive family, Callimiconinae, which he is inclined to place in the in captivity for 25 years in the north temperate zone. The thumb Cebidae, but its affinities seem to be with the marmosets. is well-developed, though not opposable and the hands are used Origin of the New World Monkeys—-The monkeys of in a great variety of manipulations. The tail is slightly prehensile South and Central America form an entirely different series from and usually carried curved toward the underside. With the the monkeys of the Old World and in spite of their general superior functional adaptation of the hands is correlated a large, similarity to the latter, they probably have been derived from a highly-developed brain and an intelligence comparable to that of different ancestral stock. the Old World monkeys. Over 20 species have been described, In the first place the face in New World monkeys differs widely some extending as far north as Nicaragua. In Colombia Cedus from that in Old World monkeys, especially in the fact that in apella is found at nearly 7,000 feet. the New World or platyrrhine series the nostrils are usually widely A group of closely related monkeys comprises the woolly separated at the base and are directed laterally. Other external monkeys Lagothrix, the spider-monkeys Ateleus (or Azeles) and, differences from the Old World monkeys have been noted above. intermediate between these, the woolly spider-monkey Brachy- The New World monkeys may also be at once distinguished by teles. These are fruit-eating monkeys, all considerably larger the fact that there are three bicuspid or premolar teeth on each than Cebus. Lagothrix has particularly soft, woolly fur, greyish side, both in the upper and in the lower jaws, whereas in Old or brownish in colour, and a naked black peculiarly human face. World monkeys there are two. In the region of the middle ear, The spider-monkeys have long hair and remarkably slender on the lower side of the skull, New World monkeys have a large elongate limbs. But while woolly monkeys have the thumb well- ring-like tympanic bone, whereas in Old World monkeys the same developed, it is entirely absent externally in the spider-monkeys, element forms a bony gutter, completely covering the drumthough bony and muscular vestiges are present under the skin. membrane on the lower side of the skull. Moreover, the cheekThe other fingers are elongated and form a highly serviceable bone of New World monkeys has a broad contact with the parietal hand for rapid progression in the treetops. Spider-monkeys in bone, which is never the case in Old World monkeys. The captivity frequently walk erect on their hind-legs for a few placenta in New World monkeys is disc-like, without the secondfeet. Brachyteles forms a link between these two genera in cer- ary placenta seen in Old World monkeys. tain respects. Its fur is woolly like that of Lagothrix; the thumb All known New World monkeys both living and fossil stand on ls intermediate, greatly reduced but usually still visible externally. a rather high plane of evolution and there are no “living fossils” In its attenuated limbs it approximates Ateleus. These three genera to connect the group definitely with any older fossil family. It allhave long and powerful prehensile tails, of which the extremity is also difficult to be sure which is the most primitive living genus, is naked on the under side and provided with friction-ridges like but after repeated analyses of the characters of the skull and teeth a finger. This organ is used not merely in climbing but also for it seems probable that the most primitive are certain small monPicking up objects. These monkeys are easily tamed, affectionate keys of the family Cebidae, especially the owl monkey (Aotus) and intelligent. The brain, especially in Ateleus, is exceptionally and Callicebus. As noted above, the olfactory region of Aotus large and complex. is less reduced than in most Cebidae and marmosets. These little The last Cebid genus to be mentioned is Alouatta (Mycetes), monkeys have large orbits, short deep lower jaws, short muzzles the howler monkey, with several species. The group is notorious and unreduced molar teeth. They agree with certain North Amerifor its extraordinary vocal powers, their roars being audible for can Eocene tarsioids in their dental formula (I$ C} P} M$) X2=36

remarkable vocal powers, but. in captivity they are often very

silent. The nose is more prominent than in any other American monkey, the nostrils resembling those of catarrhine forms. This is probably correlated with the close approximation of the enlarged eyes. Its behaviour in captivity and the anatomy of the

PRIMATES

488

and in the general form of the skull, but they differ from all known tarsioids in that the tarsal bones are not elongated. On the

Abyssinia, Theropithecus gelada. In this animal the nasal region

other hand, it is not impossible that the skeleton of the South American monkeys may have been derived from the type illustrated in the North American Eocene Notharctus, but in the present state of knowledge this inference is unsafe in view of the

and the jaws shorter than in Papio. The baboons are a modified

prevailing resemblances

of the dentition and skull of Aotus to

the tarsioids rather than to the notharctids. Finally there is the possibility that the New World monkeys may be derived from early extinct lemuroids resembling Archaeolemur. Typical platyrrhine monkeys (Homunculus) in the Lower Miocene of Patagonia have been found in association with a peculiar mammalian fauna which for millions of years had its headquarters in South America; but some of the ancestral stocks of this fauna have been found in far earlier (Eocene) deposits of North America.

In view of other available evidence, an ulti-

mate North American origin for the New World primates seems quite possible. The monkeys now inhabiting Central America are closely related to those of Guiana and Brazil. The New World monkeys as a whole exhibit a profound adaptation to arboreal life and probably originated in some heavily forested region such as they now occupy. OLD WORLD MONKEYS

The Old World or Catarrhine division comprises three families: monkeys, apes and man. The first of these, the Cercopithecidae or tailed monkeys, distinguished from the American monkeys by the features mentioned above, are subdivided into two subfamilies, first, Cercopithecinae, including the macaques, baboons, mangabeys and guenons, and second, Semnopithecinae, comprising the langurs and the guerezas. In general the Old World monkeys are gregarious, living in small bands or large troops numbering hundreds. The Cercopithecinae all have cheek-pouches for temporary storage of food. Of this group the macaques, probably the

best-known of all monkeys, are widely distributed through India and the East Indies, extending northward to northern China and Japan, while one species, the Barbary ape, inhabits Morocco, Algeria and the Rock of Gibraltar. The macaques are among the most generally adaptable of monkeys and are hardy and long-lived in captivity. Though agile climbers, they are by no means exclusively arboreal and some are entirely terrestrial. They are usually omnivorous and the crab-eating macaque of India lives chiefly on Crustacea. They have fore and hind limbs of about equal length. The thumbs, though short, are opposable and the animals have considerable manual dexterity. There is a median air-sac connected with the larynx. The ischial callosities are well-developed. The tail may be long, short or practically absent, as in the Barbary ape, Inuus ecaudatus. Prominent examples are Macacus rhesus, the common rhesus monkey, M. cynomolgus, the crab-eating macaque, M. sinicus, the bonnet monkey, M. silenus, the lion-tailed macaque, all of India, and M. speciosus, the red-faced monkey of Japan. The baboons constitute a group of large monkeys of terrestrial habit, closely related to the macques, but differing in the great elongation of the muzzle, which gives the head a dog-like form. The skeleton also reflects the terrestrial habits in the form and proportions of the limbs. The various species, mostly of the genus Papio, inhabit practically the whole African continent south of the Sahara, and one extends into Arabia. They live in large troops under the leadership of an old male and are omnivorous, feeding on roots, insects, fruits, etc., and often raiding plantations. One of the largest is the powerful chacma baboon of South Africa, Papio porcarius. The grey-mantled hamadryas, P. hamadryas, of Abyssinia and Arabia, is the sacred baboon of ancient Egypt. The most remarkable of all is the mandrill, P. sphing of west Africa. This is one of the weirdest and most gorgeouslycoloured of mammals. The nose is scarlet, the cheeks bear cor-

rugated swellings of brilliant blue and the posterior part of the body exhibits various tints of violet and scarlet, while the fur shows great variety of colour on different parts of the body. An aberrant form placed in a separate genus is the gelada baboon of

is concave, the nostrils somewhat

short of the tip of the snout

branch of the macaque group and in structural essentials the two types are quite similar. In captivity a hybrid offspring has

been produced from a male rhesus macaque and a female mandrill,

The name mangabey is applied to a small group of arboreal

fruit-eating monkeys of west Africa, which compose the genus Cercocebus. They are characterized by flesh-coloured or white

upper eyelids and they lack laryngeal air sacs. Mangabeys are rather slender animals, with long limbs and tail and are inter. mediate between the macaques and the guenons of the genus Lasiopyga (or Cercopithecus). This genus, with several subgenera, comprises a vast number of species, more than any other genus of monkeys, scattered over almost the entire African continent, but each occupying a somewhat restricted area. The last lower molar tooth lacks the fifth cusp present in the other Old World monkeys thus far described. The fur is commonly “ticked,” ż.e., the hairs ringed with light and dark colours, and many species exhibit brilliant tints. Whiskers and beards are common. The guenons are mostly rather small arboreal monkeys, inhabiting forests and subsisting on fruits and leaves. Their cheek-pouches are exceptionally capacious. Of the vast number of species a few of the more familiar forms, to give only the common names, are the green monkey, mona, diana, grivet, vervet,

deBrazza monkey and moustached monkey. These, and many others, are common inhabitants of zoological gardens. Semnopithecinae.—The second sub-family (Semnopitheci-

nae) includes the genus

Semnopithecus,

which

comprises the

sacred monkeys of India, which with their relatives of Asia and the East Indies are commonly termed langurs. In the same sub-family are placed the guerezas of Africa. The most remarkable feature of these monkeys is the structure of the stomach

which, in correlation with their leaf-eating habits, is greatly enlarged and divided into sacculated compartments. Cheekpouches are absent in the langurs but are said to be present in some guerezas. Semnopithecus has the hind-legs rather longer than the arms and a very long tail. The jaws are relatively short, the thumb shorter than in Cercopithecinae. The hanuman monkey (S. entellus) of central and northern India is one of the bestknown species. In the large snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus) of northwestern China and Tibet, the nose is concave with a protruding upturned point. The proboscis monkey or kehau of Borneo (Nasalis larvatus) has the most remarkable physiognomy of all monkeys. The nose is enormously elongated, in old males even hanging down over the mouth. Both the snub-nosed and proboscis monkeys have the sacculated stomach and are closely related to the true langurs. The guerezas are found only in Africa, inhabiting the forests in small troops. They also feed largely on leaves. The most striking difference anatomically is the reduction of the thumb to a vestige, which, however, often bears a minute nail. This reduction parallels in a remarkable manner the condition in the American spider-monkeys. The guerezas are generally known generically as Colobus. In certain species of these monkeys, which are much hunted for their skins, the hair forms a long mantle on the sides and back. The white-tailed colobus (C. caudatus), black in general with white mantle and tail, is a particularly beautiful species. The langurs and guerezas are difficult to keep in captivity and are not often seen in zoological collections. Origin and Evolution.—The Old World or catarrhine monkeys are widely distributed, mostly in tropical Asia and Africa, a

few outlying forms reaching as far north as Tibet, China and Japan, while the baboons extend southward to South Africa. A

single species, the Barbary ape of North Africa inhabits the Rock of Gibraltar in Europe. In the Pliocene, however, fossil monkeys of various species have been recorded in England, Germany, France, Italy, Greece, north Africa and India. In the Miocene of Tuscany there was a large form (Oreopithecus), 0 which certain features of the molar teeth suggest remote rela-

tionship with the anthropoid apes. In the Lower Oligocene of Egypt was found a small lower jaw fragment, Apidiwm, the lower

PRIMATES molars of which may be transitional from the tuberculo-sectorial or primitive mammalian type to the bilophodont form (with two cross-crests) of the Old World monkeys. The group seems to have originated somewhere either in Africa or in the EuropeanAsiatic landmass and negative palaeontological evidence indicates their complete absence from America and the Australian region. No known fossil forms definitely connect the Old World stock with the New World series, tarsioids, lemuroids or tree-shrews. The New World series, for reasons given above, seems entirely independent; while the known fossil tarsioids appear too peculiarly specialized to be direct ancestors of the Old World stock; yet such tarsioids as Necrolemur and Microchoerus are the only forms so far known that have even the appearance of evolving toward the catarrhine stage, This is broadly characterized as follows. Nostrils, closely approximated and opening downward, tending to form

a V; molars

with

two

cross-crests;

dental

formula

If CL PZ Mg. Tympanic bone forming a gutter leading to the outer ear; stomach simple or (in Semnopithecus) highly complex;

habits primarily arboreal, the animals climbing as pronograde quadrupeds, mostly on top of the branches, Hands and feet pre-

hensile. Thumb opposable, more or less flattened nails on all digits.

Tail long, short or wanting, never prehensile. Cheek-pouches in most genera. Large callous areas on buttocks, with corresponding flattening on lower ends of pelvis. Placenta double, consisting of a primary and secondary discoidal area with smooth chorion between them. Although we have not as yet been able to trace the direct fossil ancestors of the Old World group into formations older than at most Lower Oligocene, even the known living and extinct treeshrews, lemuroids and tarsioids preserve the broad stages by which arboreal insectivorous mammals with a relatively low type of brain were transformed into monkeys with a relatively high type of brain, with binocular, stereoscopic vision and an ad-

vanced method of intra-uterine nourishment of the young. ANTHROPOID

APES

Among the Old World primates one group is distinguished from the rest by its far closer resemblance to man, a likeness recognized in the name anthropoid (man-like) apes. These include the gibbons, the orang, chimpanzee and gorilla (qqg.v.). The anthropoids have usually been collectively grouped in a single family Simiidae, but this name is now frequently restricted to the orang,

chimpanzee and gorilla, a second family, Hylobatidae (“tree-walkers”), comprising the much smaller gibbons. Hylobatidae——The range of this family is now restricted to southeastern Asia, especially the Malay peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra and some other East Indian islands, though in the Miocene gibbons extended into Europe and in the Pliocene as far north as central China. They are slender, long-limbed, monkey-like apes, the most striking feature being the enormously elongate arms, which reach the ground when the animal stands erect, Like other anthropoids, they are tailless. They differ widely from the tailed monkeys in their mode of progression, as they do not run on all fours, either in the trees or on the ground, but hang and swing from branches by their long arms and hook-like fingers, making

almost incredibly long leaps in the manner of a trapeze gymnast. This mode of arboreal locomotion has been called “brachiation” by Sir Arthur Keith. While travelling thus by the hands, gibbons use the feet for prehension and carrying food. They sit upright and when on the ground run swiftly in an erect position, holding the arms out as balancers. Gibbons differ from most Old World monkeys in the absence of cheek-pouches and in the pattern of the molars, which is essentially that of the great apes and man.

They also in common with these forms have a vermiform appendix

and flattened sternum. They nevertheless retain some Old World monkey characters; for example, the small ischial callosities are present, and the central bone in the wrist is retained as a separate element. Air-sacs, formed as extensions of the laryngeal ventricles,

well-developed in the Simiidae, are present only in the siamang. About a dozen species of Hylobates have been described, a few well-defined, but most of them, based chiefiy on hair colour (which is a variable character even in the same species), are of doubt-

489

ful validity. Among the more distinctive may be mentioned H. hoolock which extends northwesterly as far as Bhutan, Æ. lar in Burma and Siam, and H. leuciscus in Java. The colours in general are black, fawn or grey, sometimes with white around the face or on the hands. The fur is soft and woolly. A considerably larger black gibbon, the siamang, found in Sumatra, is now separated as Symphalangus, the name referring to the fusion of the second and third digits of the foot. This animal has a better developed chin than any other anthropoid, but its most conspicuous character is the possession of a large laryngeal air-sac capable of inflation. The siamang when standing erect may exceed three feet in height. Forms closely related to the Sumatra siamang, S. syndactylus, occur in adjacent regions. The vocal ability of gibbons is most remarkable, their high-pitched cries being audible for a mile or more.

Simiidae.—The

three genera of great apes constituting the

family Simiidae, the orang-utan of Borneo and Sumatra and the chimpanzee and gorilla of the African forests, are by far the closest of all animals to man. Their divergences from man, striking though some of them are, are nearly all differences in degree rather than in kind, and these apes are nearer anatomically and physiologically to man than to any of the tailed monkeys. Their differences from man are largely correlated with habit. Man has become terrestrial, while the apes have retained their primary arboreal habit, and have even developed further arboreal adaptations in varying degrees. In the orang these have become greatly exaggerated, while in the gorilla, which has become partly terrestrial, they are less marked. The chimpanzee is intermediate. The arms have become long and the relatively short legs retain the opposable great toe. This disproportion of limbs results in a peculiar secondary type of quadrupedal progression on the ground, the hands resting on the knuckles and the fore-part of the body somewhat elevated.

The spinal column has a suggestion of the curves seen in man, but the balance of the head on the neck, the weight of the long arms, form of pelvis and weak gluteal and calf muscles, collectively preclude an habitual erect bipedal gait, though the animals often stand erect. Divergence from the Old World monkeys and likeness to man is seen in the absence of ischial callosities and cheek-pouches and in the presence of the vermiform appendix. The development of laryngeal air-sacs, apparently a point of difference, is in reality a likeness, since man retains homologous vestiges of these in the laryngeal ventricles. In the chimpanzee and gorilla (but not in the orang) the central bone of the wrist becomes fused with the scaphoid during embryonic life, as in man. The menstrual cycle has the same phases as man and in the chimpanzee the interval is the same. In this animal the period of gestation is nine months and the placenta is essentially of the human type. The secondary placenta, present in Old World monkeys, is absent. Even the brain, though roughly only about one-third the size of that of man, is essentially a miniature of the human brain, no part or organ of one being absent in the other, but the differences being differences of proportion of certain parts. The susceptibility of anthropoids to many human diseases to which other animals are relatively immune, indicates the close chemical similarity, and the well-known precipitin tests by G. F. Nuttall show the blood of these apes to be essentially identical with that of man, while differing from that of Old World monkeys. Of the three great apes, the least man-like is the orang-utan

(Malay, “man of the forest’) which inhabits swampy coastal forests of parts of Borneo and Sumatra. This animal is completely arboreal, rarely descending to the ground, and exhibits exaggerated brachiating adaptations. It is a large ape, over 4 ft. high, with heavy body and short feeble legs but very long arms extending to the ankles when the animal stands erect. The digits of both hands and feet are elongated and hook-like, except the relatively short thumb and great toe. Though the orang is rather deliberate in his motions and does not leap through the trees, as does the gibbon, the elongation of the arms permits an extended reach from branch to branch and enables it to progress with considerable rapidity. Among structural characters the following may be noted: there are but 12 pairs of ribs as in man; the cranium is rounded and lacks the prominent supraorbital crest of the

PRIME

499

MINISTER

African anthropoids; the carpus retains the central bone as in monkeys and gibbons; the laryngeal air-sacs are enormously developed, extending far down under the arms and on the chest in adult animals; the hair is coarse and sparse but very long and bright red in colour; a feature frequently, but not always, present in old males is a pair of prominent ridges of connective tissue on the cheeks. The orang feeds on fruits, especially the durian. There is probably only one species, with several local varieties. It is usually known as Simia satyrus (or Pongo pygmaeus). A fossil jaw ascribed to Simia, in the Upper Pliocene of India, and a molar tooth (Paleosimia) from the Miocene indicate the ancient differentiation of the orang line. The chimpanzee, variously known as Anthropopithecus and

Pan, and the gorilla (Gorilla) both inhabit the great forests of central Africa, the chimpanzee having far the wider range. The latter is smaller, more agile and more completely arboreal in habit. The gorilla, probably owing to its great weight (males exceed 400 Ib.), is largely terrestrial, though it climbs readily and in the west coast species the females and young are said to sleep in nests built in trees. Though the arms are somewhat longer than those of the chimpanzee, the hands have shorter fingers and are less adapted for brachiation; the feet show distinct secondary adaptation to walking on the ground. The foot of the mountain gorilla (G. beringei) of the eastern Congo presents the closest approach to the human foot found among primates. In both chimpanzee and gorilla the ribs number 13 pairs, one more than in man, but the total number of presacral vertebrae is the same, and a 13th rib in man is not uncommon. In both apes

the hair is mainly black. In the chimpanzee the skin is usually light-coloured in early life, tending to become dusky later; in the gorilla the face is intensely black. In both animals a heavy brow-ridge overhangs the eyes and in the gorilla the cranial form in adult males becomes greatly altered by the development of huge crests for muscle-attachment. The gorilla has well-marked alae of the nose, separated from the cheeks by distinct grooves. See CHIMPANZEE, GORILLA. Origin and Evolution.—Of the fossil gibbons the best known is Pliopithecus antiquus from the Miocene of middle Europe. This differs from the recent gibbons in the lesser specialization of the canines and front lower premolar. A fossil humerus and femur of Pliohkylobates eppelsheimensis from Eppelsheim, Germany, are close to those of the recent gibbons. The earliest known forerunner of the gibbons and possibly also of the great apes and man is the fossil lower jaw named Propltopithecus haeckeli, from the Lower Oligocene of Fayim, Egypt. This little jaw, while no bigger than that of a small monkey, already shows the relatively great depth characteristic of all anthropoids and of early man; its molar teeth also have the five main cusps arranged substantially as in the higher forms. Many nominal species of fossil anthropoid apes of the genera Dryopithecus, Sivapithecus and others are known. MAN

The origin and evolution of man is fully discussed in other articles (ANTHROPOLOGY; Brain; Man, EVOLUTION OF, etc.). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—General: W. H. Flower and R. Lydekker, Mammals, Living and Extinct (1891); H. O. Forbes, A Handbook to the Primates (1894) ; various authors, Harmsworth Natural History, vol. i. (1910); D. G. Elliot, A Review of the Primates (1912); W. L. H. Duckworth, Morphology and Anthropology (1915). Tree Shrews: W. E. L. Clark, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. (1924-25—-26~ 27). Tarsioids: W. D. Matthew and W. Granger, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. (1915) ; various authors, “Discussion on the Zoological Position of Tarsius,” Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. (1925); H. H. Woollard, Proc. Zoot. Soc. Lond. (1925). Lemuroids: A. Milne Edwards and A. Grandidier, “Histoire Naturelle des Mammifères” in A. Grandidier, Histoire Physique ... de Madagascar (1875); H. F. Standing, Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond. (1908); H. G. Stehlin, Abhkand. Schweiz. Palaeont. Gesell (1912); R. I. Pocock, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. (1918); W. K. Gregory, Mem. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. (1920); J. P. Hill, A. Subba Rau, and F. Ince, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. (1928). New World Monkeys: See general works above; also R. I. Pocock, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. (1920) ; W. K. Gregory, Origin and Evolution of the Human Dentition (1922). Old World Monkeys: R. I. Pocock, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. (1926). Anthropoid Apes and Man: See general works above; also Sir A.

Keith, Engines of the Human Body (1920) ; Brit. Med. Journ,

Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. (1927);

(1923) ;

(1922); (1925): Quart. Rev. Biol. (1927); C.F

W. K. Gregory, Origin and Evolution of the Human Dentition also K. Landsteiner and Miller, J. Experim. Medicine

Sonntag, Morphology and Evolution of Apes and Man (1924): G. Elliot Smith, Essays on the Evolution of Man (1924); W. Koehler, The Mentality of Apes; R. M. Yerkes, Almost Human.

(W. K. G.; J. H. McG)

PRIME MINISTER.

Though a Wolsey or a Cecil might,

in practice, achieve for a time a predominant position among the counsellors of the English Crown, the persistence of the doctrine that ministers were all equally royal servants, severally responsible to the sovereign for their respective departments, was for centuries fatal to the recognition of any such predominance in theory, Thus Burnet describes Clarendon as “‘chief, or the only, minister,” but the latter knew only too well that the style “first minister” was “a title so newly translated out of French into English that it was not enough understood to be liked, and every man would detest it for the burden it was attended with.” Even in the 18th century it is more usual to find partnerships of two or three individuals, such as Marlborough and Godolphin, Harley and St. John, Stanhope and Sunderland, Townshend and Walpole, Newcastle, Henry Pelham and Hardwicke, sharing the principal burden

of government.

But the place vacated by the sovereign when,

from 1717 onwards, he ceased to attend cabinet meetings, had necessarily to be filled by a single individual, and this presiding officer developed naturally, almost inevitably, into a prime minister. Walpole, though he “unequivocally denied” the title, is usually reckoned the first of the line, and certainly during his last spell of office (1720-42) he developed many of the attributes

of premiership. He was master of his cabinet; he insisted on a general subscription by his colleagues to the Whig principles; he dismissed his opponents; he dispensed the royal patronage; and, with reservations, he may be described as commanding a majority in the House of Commons. How novel, how dangerously unpopular, such a position still was may be gathered from the proceedings of both houses in 1741. “According to our Constitution,” said Sandys, “we can have no sole and prime minister . every .. . officer has his own proper department; and no officer ought to meddle in the affairs belonging to the department of another.” And the minority in the House of Lords was, if possible, even more downright. “We are persuaded,” they protested, “that a sole, or even a first minister, is an officer unknown to the law of Britain, inconsistent with the Constitution of the country and destructive of liberty in any Government whatsoever.” On the fall of Walpole the further development of the office was checked, firstly, by the group system and consequent group Coalition Governments of the latter half of George IT.’s reign, and later, by the interference of George III., who aspired to be himself “the only element of coherence in a ministry.” Thus Grenville (1763—65) thought that “Prime Minister is an odious title,” and North (1770-82) would not countenance it even from

his own family. It was the younger Pitt who, on the fall of personal government, consolidated the work of his predecessors and by his long tenure of power (1783-1801) accustomed the nation to the office, if not to the name. The extent of his achievement can be measured by the terms of his famous interview with Lord Melville in 1803. They are axiomatic. He “stated not less pointedly and decidedly his sentiments with regard to the absolute necessity there is in the conduct of the affairs of this country, that there should be an avowed and real minister, possessing the chief weight in the council, and the principal place in the con-

fidence of the king. In that respect there can be no rivalry or division of power. That power must rest in the person generally

called the first minister, and that minister ought, he thinks, to be the person at the head of the finances. . . .” Nevertheless, old

prejudices die hard. In 1806 it could still be said in parliament that “the Constitution abhors the idea of a prime minister,” and in 1829 that “nothing could be more mischievous or unconstitutional than to recognize by act of parliament the existence of such an office.” Such recognition was not granted until 1905, and even now the prime minister is known to the law merely as some one who has precedence next after the archbishop of York.

PRIMITIVE

METHODISTS

The prime minister is appointed by the sovereign. “I offered,” said Sir Robert Peel (1834-35, 1841—46) on his resignation of office, “no opinion as to the choice of a successor. That is almost the only act which is the personal act of the sovereign; it is for

PRIMITIVE

METHODISTS,

491 a community of noncon-

formists, formed in consequence of the belief that Methodism as founded by the Wesleys tended, after the first generation, to

depart from the enthusiasm that had marked its inception and to settle down to the task of self-organization. There were some placed.” And, as late as 1894, Queen Victoria could call Lord ardent spirits who continued to work along the old lines and whose Rosebery (1894-95) without consulting the retiring prime minis- watchword was revivalism; and out of their efforts came the Bible ter, Gladstone (1868-74, 1880-85, 1886, 1892-94), or the wishes Christian, the Independent Methodist and the Primitive Methodist of the parliamentary majority. Nevertheless, the Crown’s free- denominations. One of the zealous evangelists to whom Primidom of choice is narrowly circumscribed. The “economic” re- tive Methodism owes its existence was Hugh Bourne (1772forms of Rockingham’s administration (1782), by reducing the 1852), a millwright of Stoke-upon-Trent. He joined a Methodist royal patronage, made it less easy for the sovereign to put ready- society at Burslem, but, business taking him at the close of 1800 made majorities at the disposal of whatever minister he might to the colliery district of Harrisehead and Kidsgrove, he was fancy, and the Reform bills of the 19th century made the ministry so impressed by the prevailing ignorance and debasement that he dependent on parliament and the electorate rather than on the began a religious revival of the district. His open-air preaching royal favour. The prime minister is normally the acknowledged was accompanied by prayer and singing, a departure from Weshead of the party commanding a majority in the House of Com- ley’s practice and the forerunner of the well-known “camp meetmons, and it is only, therefore, on occasions when no party com- ing.” One of the after-fruits of this revival was the conversion mands an absolute majority of the House, or when the majority (Jan. 1805) of the joint founder of Primitive Methodism, William party has no acknowledged head, that there is room for the ex- Clowes (1780-1851), of Burslem, who threw his house open for love-feasts and prayer-meetings, and did a great deal of itinerant ercise of the royal discretion. It will be obvious from what has been said above that the prime evangelization among the cottages of the countryside. The first minister has no salary as such. He merely draws the emoluments “camp meeting” was held on Mow Cop, since regarded as the of whatever office he may happen to hold. At the close of the Mecca of Primitive Methodism. It lasted from 6 A.M. to 8 P.M., rth century the lord treasurer was already regarded as the most and Bourne and his friends determined to continue the experiment important Government official, and since the Treasury came to be as a counterblast to the parish wakes of the time, which were little put into commission, the leading minister has normally held the better than local saturnalia; but serious difficulties were presented office of first commissioner, or first lord (until the middle of the by the antagonism of the Wesleyan Methodist circuit authorities. 18th century he was usually chancellor of the Exchequer as well). But Bourne and his friends persisted against both Conference and But Chatham (1766-67) was lord privy seal; Salisbury (1885- the local superintendent, who issued bills declaring that no camp86, 1886-92, 1895-1902), successively secretary of State and lord meeting would be held at Norton in August 1807. The meeting privy seal; and Ramsay Macdonald (1924) simultaneously first was held and ten months later Bourne was expelled by the Burslem lord of the Treasury and secretary of State. In addition, the Quarterly Meeting. Camp-meetings went steadily on, and in 1810, prime minister is usually leader of the house of which he is a the methods of the meetings organized by Bourne and Clowes were member. D. Lloyd George (1916-22), however, finding his duties found to be incompatible with those of Wesleyan Methodism. too onerous, transferred this burden to other shoulders. In A chapel was built at Tunstall, which became the nucleus of a the 18th century, when cabinets were almost exclusively composed circuit. Clowes and James Crawfoot, an ex-Wesleyan local of peers, the leading minister, curiously enough, was recruited preacher, were set apart as preachers to “live by the gospel,” most of the time from the Commons; in the roth century, when and in February 1812 the name “Primitive Methodist’ was commoners came to form the bulk of the cabinet, the prime formally adopted. The period 1811—43 was a time of rapid expansion for the new minister was, more often than not, a peer. As a result, however, of the passage of the Parliament Act of rorz, truncating the sect. Enthusiasts pressed forward through the “Adam Bede” powers of the Lords, and of the rise of a Labour Party with few country to Derby (which became the 2nd circuit in 1816), adherents in the upper house, the Commons have, for the time Nottingham, where a great camp-meeting on Whit Sunday 1816 being, at any rate, achieved a practical monopoly of the office. was attended by 12,000 people, Leicestershire, where LoughThus, for instance, Lord Curzon’s claims to the premiership were borough became the 3rd circuit, with extensions into Rutland, Lincolnshire and Norfolk, and ultimately to Hull, which became passed over, in 1923, in favour of those of Stanley Baldwin. “As the cabinet stands between the sovereign and parliament,” the 4th circuit, and where a meeting which deserves to be called wrote Gladstone, “‘so the prime minister stands between the the First Conference was held in June 1819. The Hull circuit sovereign and the cabinet.” He it is who, with the king’s consent, during the next five years, through its Yorkshire, Western, Northappoints his fellow ministers to their respective posts. Originally, Western and Northern Missions, carried on a vigorous campaign of course, the sovereign exercised an unfettered choice. Even so with great success, especially among the then semi-savage colliers old and faithful a servant as Cecil never knew whom the queen of Durham and Northumberland. Simultaneously Tunstall circuit, would appoint to her council. Even in Anne’s reign it required having thrown off its lethargy, was carrying on an aggressive the united and persistent pressure of a ministry to get a Harley evangelism. Work in the Black Country was extended to Liverpool out or a Sunderland in. Even Pitt, at the close of the 18th cen- and Manchester on the one side and South Shropshire on the tury, had to put up with Thurlow, “the king’s chancellor,” and, at other; and thence to Herefordshire, Glamorganshire and Wiltthe dawn of the roth century, to do without Fox, the king’s bête shire. Thenceforward, while the Oxford Movement was awakennoire. So even to-day, when the prime minister’s choice is ing one section of the people of England the Primitive Methodists theoretically as free as was originally the Crown’s, the pressure of were making themselves felt among other classes of the populaparty, the claims of talent and the prescriptive rights of previous tion. The early Primitive Methodists had to meet mob violence ofice-holders render that freedom largely nugatory. With the that often amounted to sheer ruffianism, especially in Wessex and right of appointment is bound up the right of dismissal, but the the home-counties. On the other hand there was legal persecution responsibility of the cabinet to the prime minister and the remain- all over the country, and the preachers suffered many things from ng functions of the latter belong properly. to the history of the the hands of rural clergy and county magistrates. There are a cabinet (g.v.). For lists of the prime ministers and other prin- score of cases of serious imprisonment, and a countless number of arrests and temporary detention. Local preachers received notice cipal Government officials see MINISTRY. BısLrocrarny.—Such books as The Prime Ministers of Britain (4th to quit their holdings, labourers were discharged, those who ed, 1924) by the Hon. Clive Bigham, give certain dates and facts, opened their cottages for meetings were evicted, and to show any

the sovereign to determine in whom her confidence shall be

but the history and functions of the office can only be authoritatively studied in the memoirs and biographies of the statesmen themselves

and in the party, ministerial and cabinet history of the last two centuries, (F. L. B.)

hospitality to a travelling preacher was to risk the loss of home and employment. : The years 1842-53 mark a transition period in the history of

4.92 Primitive Methodism.

PRIMO

DE RIVERA—PRIMOGENITURE

From being a loosely jointed home mis-

sionary organization, the movement developed on the lines of a real connectionalism. One of the first steps was to move the Book Room and the meeting place of the executive committee to London. Soon after came the gradual process by which the circuits handed over their mission-work to a central Connexional Committee. The removal to London was proof that the leaders were alive to the necessity of grappling with the rapid growth of towns and cities, and that the Connexion, at first mainly a rural movement, had also urban work to accomplish. The period 1853-85 finds Primitive Methodism as a connection of ten federated districts, a unity which may be described as mechanical rather than organic. Conference—the supreme assembly—was a very jealously guarded preserve, being attainable only to preachers who had travelled 18 and superintended 12 years, and to laymen who had been members 12 and officials ro years. This exclusiveness naturally strengthened the popularity and power of the districts, where energy and talent found a scope elsewhere denied. Thus Hull district inaugurated a bold policy of chapel-buildings; Nor-

wich that of a foreign mission; Sunderland and Manchester the ideal of a better-educated ministry; Nottingham district founded

a middle-class school; Leeds promoted a union of Sunday-schools, and the placing of chapel property on a better financial footing. The period as a whole had some anxious moments; emigration to the gold-fields and the strife which afflicted Wesleyan Methodism brought loss and confusion between 1853 and 1860. Yet when Conference met at Tunstall in the latter year to celebrate its jubilee it could report 675 ministers and 11,384 local preachers, 132,114 members, 2,267 chapels, 167,533 scholars and 30,988 teachers.

Work in Australia and New Zealand prospered, and the former country finally contributed over 11,000 members to the formation of the United Methodist Church of Australia, New Zealand with its 2,600 members preferring to remain connected with the home country. In the United States there had been a quiet but steady growth since the first agents went out in 18209. There are now three Conferences—the Eastern, Pennsylvania and Western, with about 70 ministers, roo churches and 7,000 members. The Canadian churches had a good record, consummated in 1884 when they contributed 8,000 members and roo ministers to the United Methodist Church of the Dominion. In January 1870 the first piece of real foreign missionary work was begun at Fernando Po, followed in December of the same year by a mission on the Orange River in South Africa. This station is the centre of a polyglot circuit or district and carries on an efficient institution for training teachers, evangelists and artisans. In 1899 another South African mission was started, and a few years later work was begun in Southern Nigeria.

Since 1885 Primitive Methodism has been developing from a “Connexion” into a “Church,” the designation employed since 1902, At home a Union for Social Service was formed in 1906, the natural outcome of Thomas Jackson’s efforts for the hungry and distressed in Clapton and Whitechapel, and of similar work

at St. George’s Hall, Southwark.

Other significant episodes have

been the Unification of the Funds, the Equalization of Districts

A Cent (A j orgen

and What hath God wrought?

Church (2 vols., 1906); Memorial of the P.M. Church (1908).

PRIMO

DE RIVERA,

MIGUEL

(1870-1930), Spanish

soldier and statesman, known as the Marquis de Estella, was born

at Jerez de la Frontera Jan. 8, 1870, and studied at the Madrid

military academy.

Morocco

After four years in Toledo he was ordered to

in 1893 as lieutenant

of the Infantry Regiment of

Extremadura, and in Oct. of the same year was promoted to the grade of captain for extraordinary personal bravery. In 189s he was adjutant to Gen. Martinez Campos in Cuba, and rose to be

major commanding the infantry battalion of Zamora. He served in the Philippines in 1897, and negotiated the Treaty of Biagnabato (Biacabato) on Dec. 12, 1897. He then held com. mands at Barcelona, on the general staff and at Algeciras. In 1915 he was appointed governor of Cadiz, and spent a month at the French front during the World War. His speech to the Hispano-American Academy advocating the exchange of Gibraltar for Ceuta or other North African territory, and corrosively criticising the Government’s policy in Morocco, resulted in his being

relieved from the governorship of Cadiz. His exceptional military

talents, his brilliant exploits, his unaffected simplicity and straight-

forwardness, his sympathy with the feelings and interests of the

army and the nation, had won for him the confidence of the King, the general staff and the public, so that despite his outspokenness

in the academy, he was soon afterwards promoted to be general and chief of the First Infantry Division in Madrid. In 1921 Estella was elected senator for Cadiz, and in a powerful speech urged the necessity of relieving the nation of the Moroccan burden. Whereupon Primo once again lost his post. But the effects of his courage and patriotism prevailed once more over considerations of petty discipline, and he was entreated to undertake the most difficult and dangerous post in Spain—that of

captain-general of Catalonia—with a view to ending the reign of terror there, of which the central Government was content to remain a listless onlooker. The new captain-general soon reaped a measure of success fully proportionate to his chivalrous character, his personal influence and his limited legal powers. Easy and generous to the point of familiarity in his private life, Estella was punctilious and exacting in matters affecting the nation, the army and the monarch, and his integrity was proverbial. He soon recognized the chaos in Catalonia as one of the indirect consequences of the breakdown of the parliamentary régime. This was also responsible for the mismanagement of the Morocco campaign, as well as for the ferment in the army brought about by the niggardliness, the favouritism and criminal recklessness of the central Government. Although the evil had long been diagnosed nobody had had the courage to uproot it, until the dauntless Marquis de Estella issued the manifesto dated Sept. 12, 1923, suspending the constitution and proclaiming in its place a directorate consisting of military and naval officers. He announced that this arrangement was but a bridge leading to a future system of government better suited to Spain’s needs than that which he abolished. This military coup d'état was carried out without bloodshed. The methods of the directorate were prompt and radical. (See Spatn: History.) Primo called into being under the name la Union Patriótica, a fellowship of “citizens of goodwill” to work for the realization of ethical ideals in public life, and hinder a return to the venal system just swept away. This innovation was

and the reconstruction of Conference on a broader basis, the Ministers’ Sustentation Fund and the Church Extension Fund, and the enlargement and reorganization of the college at Manchester. This undertaking owes much to the liberality of Sir William P. Hartley, whose name the college, which is affiliated welcomed with marked enthusiasm, and within a few months the to the Victoria University of Manchester, now bears. The Chris- members numbered over 1,250,000. Mindful of the undertaking tian Endeavour movement in Great Britain derives, perhaps, its he had given at the outset, Primo dissolved the directorate on greatest force from its Primitive Methodist members; and the Dec. 3, 1925, and substituted a government composed of civil as appointment of central missions, connectional evangelists and well as military ministers—mostly young men—as a preparatory mission-vans, which tour the more sparsely populated rural step towards a new régime. The dictator became premier, and his on districts, witness to a continuance of the original spirit of the policy was pursued for a considerable period. He resigned 1930. on 16, March 28, died 1930, and Paris Jan. in denomination, while the more cultured side is fostered by the Hartley lecture. In celebration of the centenary of the Church, PRIMOGENITURE, a term used to signify the preference a fund of £250,000 was launched in 1907, and this was brought in inheritance which is given by law, custom or usage, to the eldest son and his issue, or in exceptional cases to the line of the eldest to a successful issue. daughter. The history of primogeniture is given in the article For recent statistics see art. MetrHopism. On the history see Law oF SUCCESSION. See also INHERITANCE; INTESTACY. H. B. Kendall, Tke Origin and History of the Primitive Methodist

PRIMROSE—PRIMULACEAE BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. Maine, Ancient Law (1861), Early History of Institutions (1875); K. E. Digby, History of the Law of Real Prop-

erty (1875); C. S. Kenny, Law of Primogeniture in England (1878) ; F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, History of English Law Cecil, Primogeniture (1895).

PRIMROSE.

(1895); E.

The genus Primula contains about 250 species

distributed throughout the cooler parts of Europe and Asia, and found also on the mountains of Abyssinia and Java; a few are American. They are herbaceous perennials, with a permanent stock from which are emitted tufts of leaves and flower-stems which die down in winter; the new growths formed in autumn remain in a bud-like condition ready to develop in spring. They

form the typical genus of Primulaceae (g.v.), the floral conformation of which is very interesting on several accounts independently of the beauty of the flowers. The variation in the length of the stamens and of the style in the fowers of Primula has attracted much greater attention since Charles Darwin investigated them. Some of the flowers have short stamens and a long style, while others have long stamens, or stamens inserted so high up that the anthers protrude beyond the corolla tube, and a short style. Gardeners and florists had for

centuries been familiar with these variations, calling the flowers from ‘which the anthers protruded “thrum-eyed” and those in which the stigma appeared in the mouth of the tube “pin-eyed.” Darwin showed by experiment that the most perfect degree of fertility, as shown by the greatest number of seeds and the healthjest seedlings, was attained when the pollen from a short-stamened flower was transferred to the stigma of a short-styled flower, or when the pollen from the long stamens was applied to the long style. As in any given flower the stamens are short (or low down in the flower-tube) and the style long, or conversely, it follows that to ensure a high degree of fertility cross fertilization must

occur, and this is effected by the transfer of the pollen from one flower to another by insects. Incomplete fertility arises when the stigma is impregnated by the pollen from the same flower. The size of the pollen-grains and the texture of the stigma are different in the two forms of flower. Among British species may be mentioned the common primrose (P. vulgaris); the cowslip (P. veris); the true oxlip (P. elatior), a rare plant only found in the eastern counties; and the common oxlip, the flowers of which recall those of the common primrose, but are provided with a supporting stem, as in the cowslip; it is, in fact, a hybrid between the cowslip and the primrose. In addition to these two other species occur in Britain, namely, P. farinosa, bird’s eye primrose, found in Wales, the north of England and southern Scotland, and P. scotica, which occurs in Orkney and Caithness. These two species are found also in high Arctic latitudes, and P. farinosa, or a very closely allied form, exists in Fuegia. About 15 species occur in North America, chiefly in the western and north-western parts of the continent. The auricula (q.v.) of the gardens is derived from P. Auricula, a yellow-flowered species, a native of the Swiss mountains. The polyanthus (g.v.), a well-known garden race, is probably derived from a cross between the primrose and cowslip. The Himalayas are rich in species of primrose, often very difficult of determination or limitation, certain forms being peculiar to particular valleys. Of these P. denticulata, Stuartit, sikkimmensis, nivalis, foribunda, may be mentioned as frequently cultivated, as well as the lovely rose-coloured species P. rosea. The royal cowslip (P. imperialis) resembles P. japonica, but has leaves measuring 18 in. long by 5 in. wide. It grows at an elevation of 9,000 ft. in Java, and has deep yellow or orange flowers. The primrose is to be had in cultivation in a considerable

variety of shades of colour, ranging from the palest yellow to deep Crimson and blue. As the varieties do not reproduce quite true from seed, it is necessary to increase special kinds by division. The primrose is at its best in heavy soils in slight shade, and with

plenty of moisture during the summer.

One of the most popular

of winter and early spring decorative plants is the Chinese primtose, Primula sinensis, of which some superb strains have been obtained. P. japonica, a bold-growing and very beautiful Japahese plant, is hardy in sheltered positions in England. P. coriusordes, var. Sieboldii (Japan), of which there are many lovely

493

forms, is suitable for outdoor culture and under glass. There are

several small-growing hardy species which should be accommodated on the best positions on rockeries where they are secure from excessive dampness during winter; excess of moisture at that season is the worst enemy of the choice Alpine varieties. They are propagated by seed and by division of the crowns after flowering. P. Forrestii is an orange-yellow flowered species from China; as

is also P. Bulleyi. They are probably hardy—at least in favoured spots. Evening primrose belongs to the genus Oenothera (family Onagraceae), natives of temperate North and South America. The common evening primrose, O. biennis, has become naturalized in Great Britain and elsewhere in Europe; the form or species known as var. grandiflora or O. Lamarckiana is a very showy plant with larger flowers than in the common form. Other species known in gardens are O. missouriensis (macrocarpa), 6 to 12 in., which has stout trailing branches, lance-shaped leaves and large yellow blossoms. The name of Cape primrose has been given by some to the hybrid forms of Streptocarpus, a South African genus belonging to the family Gesneraceae.

PRIMULACEAE,

in botany, a family of gamopetalous

dicotyledons belonging to the order Primulales and containing 25 genera with about 550 species. It is cosmopolitan in distribution, but the majority of the species are confined to the temperate and colder parts of the northern hemisphere and many are arctic

or alpine. Nine genera are represented in the British flora. The plants are herbs, sometimes annual as in pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis), but generally perennial as in Primula, where the plant persists by means of a sympodial rhizome, or in Cyclamen by means of a tuber formed from the swollen hypocotyl. The leaves form a radical rosette as in Primula (primrose, cowslip, etc.), or there is a well-developed aerial stem which is erect, as in species of Lysimachia, or creeping, as in Lysimachia Nummularia (creeping jenny or money-wort). Hottonia (water violet) is a floating water plant with submerged leaves cut into fine linear segments. The leaves are generally simple, often with a toothed margin; their arrangement is alternate, opposite or whorled. The flowers are solitary in the leaf-axils as in pimpernel, money-wort, etc., or umbelled as in primrose, where the umbel is sessile, and cowslip, where it is stalked, or in racemes or spikes as in species of Lysimachia. Each flower is subtended by a bract, but there are no bracteoles, and corresponding with the absence of the latter the two first developed sepals stand right and left. The flowers are hermaphrodite and regular with parts in fives (pentamerous) throughout, though exceptions from the pentamerous arrangement occur. The sepals are leafy and persistent; the corolla is generally divided into a longer or shorter tube and a limb which is spreading, as in primrose, or reflexed, as in Cyclamen; in Soldanella it is bell-shaped; in Lysimachia the tube is often very short, the petals appearing almost free; in Glaux the petals are absent. The five stamens spring from the corolla-tube and are opposite to its lobes; this anomalous position is generally explained by assuming that an outer whorl of stamens opposite the sepals has disappeared, though sometimes represented by scales as in Samolus and Soldanella. The superior ovary—half-inferior in Samolus—bears a simple style ending in a capitate entire stigma, and contains a free-central placenta bearing generally a large number of ovules, which are exceptional in the group Sympetalae in having two integuments. The fruit is a capsule dehiscing by five, sometimes ten, teeth or valves, or sometimes transversely (a pyxidium) as in Anagallis. Cross pollination is often favoured by dimorphism of the

flower, as shown in species of Primula. The two forms have long and short styles respectively, the stamens occupying corresponding positions half-way down or at the mouth of the corolla-tube; the long-styled flowers have smaller pollen-grains, which correspond with smaller stigmatic papillae on the short styles (see PRIMROSE). The family is divided into five tribes by characters based on the presence or absence of tubers, the regularity of the flower, the aestivation of the corolla, etc. The ovules are generally semi-

494

PRINA—PRINCE

anatropous so that the seed is peltate with the hilum in the centre on one side (or ventral), but sometimes, as in Hożttonia and Samolus, anatropous with the hilum basal—together with the method of dehiscence of the capsule and the relative position of

ages; but in the 17th and 18th centuries the number of princi. palities was increased.

the ovary. The chief British genera are Primula; and the Lysimachia, loose-strife, including L. Nummularia, money-wort; Anagallis, pimpernel; and Hottonia, water violet. The most familiar

France, below that of “duke.” There were, however, in the coun. tries formerly embraced in the Holy Roman empire other classes

American genera are Primula (primrose), Samolus (water pimpernels and brookweeds), Lysimachia (loose-strife), and Dodecatheon (shooting stars or American cowslips). For further details see F. Engler and H. Prantl, Die Natiirlichen Pfanzenfamilien (Leipzig, 1887—1908); A. B. Rendle, Classification of Flowering Plants (Cambridge, 1925).

PRINA, GIUSEPPE

(1768-1814), Italian statesman.

He

was an adherent of Napoleon Bonaparte, and when Eugène Beauharnais became viceroy of Italy, was appointed minister of finance. His skill in devising fresh taxes to meet the enormous demands of Napoleon’s government made him the best-hated man in Lombardy. After the emperor’s forced abdication in 1814 Prina’s party moved in the senate that delegates should go to Vienna to request that Eugéne Beauharnais be raised to the throne of a free Italian kingdom. This provoked the formidable riot in which Prina was dragged about the town for four hours, until almost torn to pieces, he received his death-blow.

PRINCE, atitle implying either political power or social rank.

The Latin word princeps originally signified merely “the first.” As an honorary title it was applied in the Roman republic to the princeps senatus, i.e., the senator who stood first on the censor’s list, and the princeps juventutis, i.e., the first on the roll of the equestrian order. The assumption of the style of princeps senatus by Augustus (g.v.) first associated the word with the idea of sovereignty and dominion, but throughout the period of the empire it is still used as a title of certain civil or military officials; while in the middle ages it is applied vaguely in charters to the magnates of the State or the high officials of the palace, principes being treated as the equivalent of proceres, optimates or seniores. In the Visigothic and Lombard codes princeps is the equivalent of rex or imperator. From Italy the use of the title spread—frst, with the crusaders, to the Holy Land, where Bohemund, son of Tancred, took the style of prince of Antioch; next, with the Latin conquerors, into the East Roman empire, where in 1205 William de Champlette, a cadet of the House of Champagne, founded the principality of Achaea and the Morea. This example was followed by lesser magnates, who styled themselves loosely, or were so styled by the chroniclers, “princes.” From the East the fashion was carried back

to France; but there the erection of certain fiefs into “principalities,” which became common in the 15th and 16th centuries, certainly implied no independent sovereignty, and the title of “prince” ranked below that of “duke,” being sometimes borne by cadet

Thus, in Germany, with the decay of the empire the title “prince” received a sovereign connotation, though it ranked, as in of “princes.”

Some of these inherited titles, sovereign under the

old empire, but “mediatized” during the years of its collapse at

the beginning of the roth century; others received the title of

“prince” at the end of the empire as “compensation” for cedeq

territories.

There were also in Austria and Germany “princes,”

created by the various German sovereigns, and some dating from

the period of the old empire, who took a lower rank, as not being “princes of the Holy Roman empire” nor entitled to any royal privileges. Some of these titles were bestowed to give rank to the

morganatic wives and children of royal princes; others as a reward for distinguished service, e.g., Hardenberg, Blücher, Bismarck. In this latter case the rule of primogeniture was usual, the younger sons taking the title of “count” (Graf). All these princes were styled First, having the predicate “Serene Highness” (Durchlaucht). The word Prinz, actually synonymous with First, was reserved as the title of the non-reigning members of sovereign houses and, with certain exceptions (e.g., Bavaria), for the cadets

of mediatized ducal and princely families. The heir to a throne was “crown prince” (Kronprinz), “hereditary grand duke” (Erbgrossherzog) or “hereditary prince” (Erbprinz). The heir to the crown of Prussia, when not the son of the monarch, had the title of “prince of Prussia” (Prinz von Preussen). In Italy the title “prince” (principe) is also of very unequal value. The heads of great families sometimes bear the title of “prince,” sometimes that of “duke.” The title of “prince of Naples” is attached to the eldest son of the king of Italy. “Prince” is also the translation of the Russian title knyaz. In general, though the title “prince” implies descent from one or other of the ruling dynasties of Russia, it is in itself of little account owing to its being borne by every member of the family. The title of “prince” is also borne by the descendants of those Greek Phanariot families (see PHANARIOTES), who formerly supplied hospodars to the Turkish principalities on the Danube. The only instance in Europe of “prince” as a completely sovereign title is that of the prince of Monaco, the formal style having been adopted by the Grimaldi lords in 1641. Great Britain.—In Great Britain “prince” and “princess” as titles are confined to members of the royal family, though nonroyal dukes are so described in their formal style (see DuKE). Nor is this use of great antiquity; the custom of giving the courtesy title of “prince” to all male descendants of the sovereign to the third and fourth generation being foreign to English traditions. It was not till the reign of Henry VII. that the king’s sons began to be styled “princes”; and as late as the time of Charles II., the daughters of the duke of York, both of whom became queens regnant, were called simply the Lady Mary and the Lady Anne. The title of “princess royal,” bestowed on the eldest daughter of the sovereign was borrowed by King George II. from Prussia. Until recent years the title “prince” was never conferred on anybody except the heir-apparent to the Crown, and his principality is a peerage. Since the reign of Edward III. the eldest sons of the kings and queens of England have always been dukes

branches of ducal houses. On the other hand, the title of “prince” was borne from the time of Charles VII. or Louis XI. by the sons of the royal house, so-called “princes of the blood,” who took precedence in due order after the king. To these were added, from the time of Louis XIV., the princes légitimés, recognized bastards of the sovereign. In Germany, Austria and other countries formerly embraced in the Holy Roman empire the title of “prince” had a somewhat different history. During the first period of the empire, the | of Cornwall by birth, and, with a few exceptions, princes of Wales “princes” were the whole body of the optimates who took rank by creation. Before that Edward I. had conferred the principality next to the emperor. In the 11th century, with the growth of on his eldest son, afterwards Edward II., who was summoned to feudalism, all feudatories holding in fief of the Crown ranked and sat in parliament as prince of Wales. But Edward the Black as “princes.” Towards the end of the 12th century, however, the Prince was the original grantee of the principality as well as of the order of princes (Firstenstand) was narrowed to the more impor- dukedom, under the special limitations which have continued in tant spiritual and temporal feudatories who had a right to a seat force to the present day. The entail of the former was “to him in the diet of the empire in the “college of princes” (Fiirstenbank). and his heirs the kings of England” and of the latter “to him and Finally, in the 13th century, seven of the most powerful of these his heirs the first-begotten sons of the kings of England.” Hence separated themselves into a college which obtained the sole right when a prince of Wales and duke of Cornwall succeeds to the of electing the emperor. These were called “prince electors” throne the principality in all cases merges at once in the Crown, (Kurfiirsten), and formed the highest rank of the German and can have no separate existence again except under a fresh princes (see Erector). The formal designation of “prince” creation, while the dukedom, if he has a son, descends immediately (Furst) was, however, extremely rare in Germany in the middle to him, or remains in abeyance until he has a son born. If, how-

PRINCE

EDWARD

ever, a prince of Wales and duke of Cornwall should die in the lifetime of the sovereign, leaving a son and heir, both dignities are extinguished, because his son, although he is his heir, is neither a king of England nor the first-begotten son of a king of England.

ISLAND

495

and four senators are sent to the federal legislature. The local government now consists of a lieutenant-governor and of a legislative assembly of 30 members elected for 4 years. Women can be elected to the assembly. This assembly conducts not only the But, if instead of a son he should leave a brother his heir, then general affairs of the province, but most of those of the towns —as was decided in the reign of James I. on the death of Henry, and villages. prince of Wales, whose heir was his brother Charles, duke of Education.—Primary education in the province has been given York—the dukedom of Cornwall would pass to him as the first- free since 1852. Since 1877 it has been under the control of a begotten son of the king of England then alive, the principality minister of education with a seat in the provincial cabinet. At of Wales alone becoming merged in the Crown. Charlottetown is the Prince of Wales College, head of the provinBut even now the children of the sovereign other than his cial school system. St. Dunstan’s College, another high school eldest son, though by courtesy “princes” and “princesses,” need in Charlottetown, is under Roman Catholic control. In 1926 there a royal warrant to raise them de jure above the common herd; were 471 elementary schools, 616 teachers and 17,324 pupils. The and even then they remain “commoners” till raised to the peer- Minister of Agriculture supervises agricultural instruction as well age. In 1905 King Edward VII. established what appears to be a as the agricultural and technical high school. Agticulture.—The soil, an open sandy loam, deep red in new precedent, by conferring the titles of “princess” and “highness” upon the daughters of the princess Louise, duchess of Fife, colour, which was slightly exhausted at the beginning of the cencreated “princess royal.” tury by repeated crops of cereals, has been renewed by the PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, ihe smallest province of application of fertilizers, mainly mussel mud dredged from the Dominion of Canada, lies between 45° 58’ and 47° 7’ N. and the bays and tidal streams. All the staple crops are grown—espe62° and 64° 27’ W. The island lies in a great semi-circular bay of cially oats, potatoes and turnips. Wheat is raised only for local the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which extends from Point Miscou in consumption. The total area of field crops in 1926 was 519,693 New Brunswick to Cape North in Cape Breton. From the main- acres. Cattle and pigs flourish. In the last years of the roth cenland it is separated by Northumberland Strait, which varies from tury the introduction of co-operation gave a great impetus to the gto 30 miles in width. Structurally, however, it is a continuation manufacture of butter and cheese. The first cheese factory was of northern plain of New Brunswick and on the island the Red opened in 1892, and the first creamery in 1894. Fruit is raised less Rocks again appear (Permian with Triassic outliers). In the main extensively than in Nova Scotia, but enough is grown to supply the rocks consist of soft red micaceous sandstone and shales, the local market, and apples of good quality are exported. Fisheries.—Though smaller in value than those of any other with interstratified but irregular beds of brownish-red conglomerates containing pebbles of white quartz and other rocks. There sea-board province, the fisheries of Prince Edward Island are, are also beds of hard dark-red sandstone with the shales. Bands in proportion to the total population, extremely productive. Lobof moderately hard reddish-brown conglomerate, the pebbles being sters are an important catch together with smelts, herring, cod and of red shale and containing white calcite, are seen at many points; mackerel. The total value of the fisheries in 1926 was £1,358,934. and then greenish-grey irregular patches occur in the red beds, In r912 thé local government acquired control of the oyster areas. due to the bleaching out of the red colours by the action of the Replanting has taken place, but with very little success, on leased organic matter of plants. The soft red rocks have allowed rapid sites. Other Industries——The land with natural forest of birch, denudation, especially by the sea, and consequently the island is extremely irregular in shape; deep inlets and tidal streams almost beech, maple, pine, spruce, cedar and other woods, covers 356,996 divide it into three approximately equal parts; from the head of acres. The building of wooden ships, a flourishing trade till about Hillsborough river on the south to Savage Harbour on the north 1886, has died away. The packing of pork ahd of lobsters is is only one and a half miles, while at high tide the distance be- carried on near Charlottetown, and small factories have been tween the heads of the streams which fall into Bedeque and established for the manufacture of boots and shoes, tobacco, conRichmond Bays is even less. North of Summerside the land densed milk, etc., but the great bulk of the manufactured goods nowhere rises more than 175 ft. above sea-level; but between used is imported from the other provinces, Silver fox breeding is Summerside and Charlottetown, especially near north Wiltshire, extensively carried on and pelts are sent to the U.S.A. and to is a ridge of hills, running from north to south and rising to a Europe. Foxes are also sold for breeding purposes. Communications.—The Prince Edward Island branch of the height of nearly 500 ft. From Charlottetown eastwards the land is low and level. Beds of peat, dunes of drifted sand, alluvial clays Intercolonial Railway, runs from Souris and Elmira in the east and mussel mud occur in and near the creeks and bays. The to Tignish in the north-west, with branches to Georgetown, Murnorth shore, facing the gulf, is a long series of beaches of fine ray Harbour, Charlottetown and Cape Traverse. The railway is sand, and is a favourite resort in summer. On the south, low owned by the State, 276 m. being operated in 1926. Nearly all cliffs of crumbling red sandstone face the strait. The oceanic the villages and country districts are connected by telephone. influences make the climate of the province milder than that of Ice impedes winter navigation in Northumberland straits and at the neighbouring mainland. The mean January temperature is Charlottetown from mid-December to early April, but, thanks to 16° and the mean for July a little over 65°. The winter and sum- ice breakers, daily communications, including a rail-car ferry, mer rainfall is about the same being between 3 and 5 ins. in have been maintained since the winter of 1917-18. January and July respectively. Fogs are much less common than History.—Jacques Cartier sighted Prince Edward Island in in either New Brunswick or Nova Scotia. June 1534. Later it was called Ile St. Jean until renamed after Atea and Population.—The greatest length of the island is the Duke of Kent in 1708. Under the French little attention was 145 m., its greatest breadth 34 m., its total area 2,184 sq.m. The paid to the island prior to the Peace of Utrecht, when they began population in 1931 was 88,038, having sunk from 109,078 in r8ọr. to make efforts to colonize it; and the creation of a feudal proIt is, however, much the most densely populated province in prietorship gave to the French settlers a precarious existence. In Canada, there being 40-56 persons to the sq.m. As in all the 1758 the island, with its capital at Port La Joie (Charlottetown), maritime provinces, there is a steady emigration to the Canadian was occupied by a British force under Lord Rollo, and a partial exWest and to the United States. The population is mainly of pulsion of the French inhabitants took place, comparable with that British descent, but also comprises descendants of the French of the Acadians from the mainland of Nova Scotia. Ceded finally Acadians and of the American loyalists. A few Indians of the to England in 1763, it became a separate government ten years Mic-Mac tribe remain. The principal religious denominations and later. During this ten years an unfortunate land settlement was the number of their adherents were as follows (1921): Church of made, dividing the island among a few large proprietors, often Rome, 39,312; Presbyterians, 25,945; Methodists, 11,408; Angli- non-resident; and in consequence no satisfactory cultivation folCan, 5,057; Baptists, 5,316. lowed, whilst the inflow of American loyalists and Scottish immi Administration.—Four members of the House of Commons grants brought constant friction between proprietors and settlers.

490

PRINCE

RUPERT— PRINCETON

In 1864 a conference met at Charlottetown to consider a possible union of the maritime provinces; and the visit of a delegation from Canada widened this into the general conference on confederation which brought into existence the Dominion of Canada. The strong local patriotism and prosperous self-sufficing condition of the island defeated the attempt to include it in the greater union; but by 1873 the offer of better terms and assistance in railway difficulties induced it to come in. Two years later the long-standing question of land tenure was settled by a Land Purchase Act, which compelled the proprietors to sell their great holdings. After entry into the confederation, the population of Prince Edward Island grew more slowly and soon began to decrease steadily, largely because of emigration over the border to the United States. The decrease reached its maximum in the census of 191r.

UNIVERSITY

the occasion of a big ball game there are frequently 50,000 visitors,

Princeton is on high land (210 ft. above sea-level) surrounded on three sides by Stony brook. Lake Carnegie (3-5 m. long and 809 ft. wide), the gift of Andrew Carnegie, was constructed in 1905o6. The borough is a beautiful academic and residential com.

munity, with no factories. It is the seat of Princeton university

(q.v.), Princeton Theological seminary (Presbyterian), St, Jos-

eph’s college (Roman Catholic; 1914) and several preparatory

schools for boys and for girls. The Lawrenceville school for boys

(1882) is 5 m. west. Princeton Theological seminary, established by the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in 1812, has

had many theologians among its professors and presidents and has

trained more than 7,000 men for the ministry. At times there have been as many as 30 denominations represented in the student body.

It is well endowed and has a fine campus near the university. Op

See Canada and its Provinces (Toronto, 1914); A. B. Warburton, the eastern shore of Carnegie lake, in the township of Plainsboro, A History of Prince Edward Island, 1534-1831 (St. John, N.B., 1923) ; are the laboratories of the department of animal pathology of the

D. C. Harvey, The French Régime in Prince Edward Island (New

Haven, 1926).

PRINCE ated over

RUPERT, port, British Columbia, Canada, situ-

500 m.

N., of Vancouver.

Pop, (1931)

6,350.

The

town is built on an island, connected by a steel bridge with the mainland and is a western terminus of the Canadian National railways (previously that of the Grand Trunk Pacific). There is a fine natural harbour, sheltered by Digby island and a promontory of the Tsimpsean peninsula with a Government dry dock and a shipbuilding yard, Steamers run regularly to Vancouver, Anyox, Stewart, Seattle, etc. Fish, largely halibut and cod, form the chief article of trade, and there are refrigerating plants and fish-fertilizer works, and lumber and shingle mills, Mining and lumbering are carried on in the neighbourhood. It took its name from the nephew of Charles I, of England, who was first governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company.

PRINCES’ ISLANDS, acluster of nine islands in the Sea of

Marmora, forming a caza of the prefecture of Constantinople. They figure in Byzantine history chiefly as places of banishment,

A convent in Prinkipo (now a mass of ruins at the spot called Kamares) was a place of exile for the empresses Jrene, Euphro-

syne, Zoé and Anna Dalassena, Antigone was the prison of the

patriarch Methodius, and its chapel is said to have heen built by the empress Theodora. In Khalki the monastery of the Theotokos (originally of St. John), which since 1831 has been a Greek commercial school, was probably founded by John VI. or VIT. Palaeologus was rebuilt about 1680, and again in the 18th century by Alexander Ypsilanti, hospodar of Moldavia. Close

beside it is the tomb of Edward Barton, second English amhas-

sador to the Porte. Hagia Trias (a schoo] of theology since 1844) was rebuilt by the patriarch Metrophanes, On Prote were the

monasteries to which Bardanes (Philippicus), Michael J, Rhangabes, Romanus I., Lecapenus and Romanus IV. Diogenes were banished. See G. Schlumberger, Les Îles des Princes (Paris, 1884); A. Grise-

bach, Rumelien und Brussa (Gottingen, 1839).

PRINCETON,

acity of Illinois, U.S.A., 105 m. W.S.W. of

Rockefeller Institute. Several model dairies are located in the environs of Princeton, including the 4,000 ac. farm of the Walker Gordon Milk Company, with a herd numbering 2,000. There are many beautiful modern estates, and a number of colonial build.

ings still stand. Nassau inn dates from 1760, also the Quaker meeting-house adjoining the battlefield which replaced one built

in 1726. “Morven,” the homestead of the Stocktons, built between 170r and 1709, has entertained many presidents and other prominent persons. “Rockingham,” at Rocky Hill, a village 3 m. north, was occupied by Washington for three months in the autumn of 1783, and it was here that he wrote his farewell orders to the army. It is now maintained as a historical museum. Settlement here began in 1696 and the name was adopted in 1724. Princeton was incorporated as a town in 1813 and as a borough in 1873. Among the early settlers was Richard Stock. ton, grandfather of the signer of the Declaration of Independence who bore the same name, and John Olden, great-grandfather of New Jersey’s Civil War governor. The College of New Jersey (now Princeton university) moved here from Newark in 1756. On Aug. 27, 1776, the first legislature of New Jersey met in Princeton. On Jan. 3, 1777, near Stony brook about a mile west of Princeton, Washington won an important victory over part of Cornwallis’s troops, both sides losing many brilliant officers. A battle monument by MacMonnies, which has as the central figure an equestrian statue of Washington, was dedicated in 1922. In old Nassau hall, the largest. building in the Colonies when it was erected in 1754~

56, the Continental Congress sat from June 30 to Nov. 4, 1783, receiving here on Oct. 31 the news that peace had been signed.

PRINCETON, a city in the mountains of southern West Vir-

ginia, U.S.A., the county seat of Mercer county; on the Virginian railway and Federal highway 21, 10 m. N.E. of Bluefield. Pop.

6,224 in 1920 (93% census. Coal-mining and there are several founded in 1826 and

PRINCETON

native white); 6,955 in 1930 by the Federal and lumbering are the principal industries. textile and garment factories. The city was incorporated in 1862.

UNIVERSITY,

a privately-endowed non-

Chicago; the county seat of Bureau county. It is on Federal highways 32 and 34, and is served by the Burlington Route and the Illinois Traction (electric) railways. Pop. 4,126 in 1920; 1930 it was 4,762. It is the trading centre of a very productive region, and has flour-mills and other manufacturing industries.

sectarian institution of higher learning for men, at Princeton, N.J., until 1896 called officially the College of New Jersey. Its buildings, ahout 75 in number, are grouped in the central portion of a campus of 800 acres which is one of the most beautiful in the country. Nassau hall, the oldest and historically the most interesting

Federal highway 41, 27 m. N. of Evansville; county seat of Gib-

building on the campus, was at the time of its completion in 1756 the largest academic building in the American colonies. It was

PRINCETON,

son county.

a city of south-western Indiana, U.S.A., on

It is served by the Chicago and Eastern Illinois and

the Southern railways.

Pop. (1920)

7,132;

1930 it was 7,505.

It is the trade centre for an agricultural region, and there are coal mines and gas and oil wells. The city was founded in 1814 and chartered in 1884.

PRINCETON,

a borough of Mercer county, New Jersey,

U.S.A., on the Lincoln highway about equally distant (30 m.) from New York and Philadelphia; served by the Pennsylvania railroad. Pop. (1920) 5,917 (17% negroes and 15% foreign-born white); 1930 Federal census 6,992. During the school year this is increased by some 4,000 students and teachers, and at commencement or on

designed by Robert

Smith, architect

of Independence Hall in

Philadelphia and named in honour of William of Nassau, William TIT. of England. Here in 1783 General Washington received the formal thanks of the American Congress for his conduct of the

Revolutionary War.

Characteristic of life at Princeton, in addition to the university’s rural location and consequently its active outdoor interests,

are

the residential

dormitory

system

(in 1928 there were 22

campus dormitories housing the majority of the students), the

system of elective upper-class eating clubs, and the form of student self government illustrated particularly by the student coun-

PRINCETON cil, by the “honor system” and by undergraduate participation

UNIVERSITY

497

ernor of New Jersey, granted a charter for érecting a college in

in the administration of university discipline. The uttiversity offers (1928) undergraduate courses in the lib-

A second charter was granted by Gov. Jonathan Belcher who on

eral arts and sciences leading to the degrees of A.B. and B.S., graduate courses in the same fields leading to the degrees of A.M.,

his arrival in the province in 1747 had at once taken the college under his patronage. The college was removed to Newark where

MF.A. and Ph.D., and technical courses in engineering leading to the degree of B.S. in engineering and ordinarily after one year of graduate study to the degrees of C.E., E.E., M.E. and ChE. A field artillery unit, maintained and staffed by the War Department,

offers a course extending through four years and two summers, at the satisfactory completion of which, provided he also gains his university degree, the candidate receives from the President of

the United States a commission in the Officers Reserve Corps.

In all admissions, regard is given to character, personality and promise as well-as to scholarly attainment. Enrolment is limited

in the undergraduate department to approximately 2,000 and in the graduate school to 200. Under the Princeton plan an upperclassman concentrates upon a definite subject within one of the rs departments of the university, and prepares himself for what are known as “comprehensive examinations” at the end of each

year, the final examination covering the work of the two previous years. In order to receive his degree he must attain a standing of better than average grade. A feature of instruction is the preceptorial method, introduced in 1905, by which large classes are broken into small groups or informal conferences with ‘‘preceptors” on prescribed reading, especially in the departments of philosophy, history, politics, art,

English and the languages. Princeton has no professional schools

for utilitarian ends, except the school of engineering and possibly the school of architecture, although both of these are so strongly humanistic in their curricula and methods that they are in marked contrast in this respect with the usual American engineering and architectural schools. The school of architecture is developed directly out of the department of art and archaeology, and on successful conclusion of the course the degree of Master of Firie Arts is conferred. In assuming the university title in 1896, it was definitely concluded that Princeton’s future did not lie in developing professional schools but in upholding pure learning and in devoting herself “to the libéral aspects of those studies which underlie and broaden professional and technical education.” The university therefore is not a congeries of professional schools overshadowing

an undergraduate department, but consists of a large, homogeneous and well organized body of undergraduate students, with a small and carefully selected graduate school, devoted to the liberal arts and sciences. There are a large number of scholarships and fellowships, both graduate and undergraduate, and a particularly well developed system whereby undergraduates of limited means are enabled to earn part or all of their expenses. During the year 1926-27 over 400 undergraduates were thus assisted. The university is governed by a board of trustees, not less than 23 nor more than 40 in number, of which the Governor of the State of New Jersey (and in his absence the president of the University) is ex-officio chairman. Eight of the trustees are elected, two each year, by the alumni of the university; the others are elected by the board.

History.—The university owes its origin to a movement set

on foot by thé Synod of Philadelphia in 1739 to establish in the Middle Colonies a college to rank with Harvard and Yale in New

England and William and Mary in Virginia. Owing to dissension in the Church, no progress was made until 1746, when the plan was again broached by the Synod of New York, formed by the secesSion of the presbytery of New York and the presbytery of New Brunswick, radical (New School) presbyteries of the Synod of Philadelphia. Most of the leaders of the presbytery of New BrunsWick had been educated at Log college, á school with restricted curriculum about 20 m. from Philadelphia, founded in 1726 but tecently closed. The opportunity was taken by the Synod of New York to found a larger institution of higher learning, broader in scope and training, and to transfer to the new project the Log college interests. On Oct. 22, 1746, John Hamilton, acting gov-

New Jersey, which was opened in May, 1747, at Elizabeth, Md.

the first graduation exercises were held in 1748; but the situation was unsuitable, and in 1752 the trustees voted to remove the college to Princeton. While additional funds were being collected in Great Britain, work was begun in Princeton in 1754 on the first college building, Nassau hall. John Witherspoon, president during the Revolutionary period, influenced the college strongly by his petsonality and political prominence, and graduates of his training became leaders in public affairs. The history of the college during the first half of the rgth century was uneventful. Because of its largé Southern clientéle, it suffered in the Civil War a blow from which it recovered only under the energetic administration of President James

McCosh

(1868-88).

The undergraduate enrolmerit was nearly

trebled, gifts amounting to more than $2,600,000 were contributed, only half of which sum was for endowment, 14 new buildings were erected, and important changes in the curriculum were put into effect. Fellowships were established in 1869, the elective system was introduced in 1870, the John C. Green school of science was

erected in 1873, the graduate department was systematized in 1877 and the faculty grew from 17 to 46 and the number volumes in the library from 25,000 to 65,000.

of

Under President Francis L. Patton (1888-1962) a school of electrical engineering was established, the “honor system” was instituted and the plan of electing alumni trustees adopted, 17 buildings were erected, the student body was doubled and the faculty increased to 100, while the endowment reached two and a half million dollars. In 1902 Professor Woodrow Wilson, of thé Class of 1879, was elected president. In his administration the undergraduate curriculum was again revised, the departmental system was organized, an extensive building programme was completed. To obtain the necessary funds a committee of 50 alumni was formed, latér changed into a Graduate Council. Through their agency in the eight years of President Wilson’s administration the University received over four and one-half million dollars, the faculty was greatly strengthened and the library increased to 271,000 volumes. A plan for grouping the University into small self-contained units was prematurely proposed by the president in 1907 and was withdrawn by the trustees. The Princeton plan of a residential building for graduate students had been successfully tested on a small scale and a bequest in 1908, although inadequate for the full project which included professorships and fellowships, gave the plan its first semblance of permanent realization. Additional funds being conditionally offéred in 1909, controversy developed as to the site for the building and finally as to the plan itself, the president no longer favouring it. A further bequest of -about two millions for the project brought matters to a head and the president recommended acceptance of the legacy. In September 1tg10, having received the democratic nomination for Governor of New Jersey, he resigned the presidency. Prof. John Grier Hibben, of the class of 1882, professor of philosophy in the university, was elected as president of Princeton in Jan. 1912. The administration of President Hibben has been marked by extended administrative reorganization, by very large additions to the endowment and by extensive expansion in material and scholastic lines.

Faculty autonomy is complete;

a

joint committee of trustees and faculty considers all matters of educational policy and administration; the faculty has voice in forming its committees and initiates appointments, promotions and increases of salary; the rights of the individual in cases of dismissal are safe guarded; faculty retiring allowancés ahd insurance have been arranged. In the World War over 5,000 Princeton men weré in service. The university laboratories were occupied by Government bureaux of research, and the dormitories by a school of aviation, a naval paymaster school, a student army training corps and a naval training unit. A scholarship was founded in memory of each of the 150 men who died in service.

4.98 In 1913 the erection

PRINCIPAL of the residential

AND

graduate

college ren-

dered permanent what had been an experimental feature of the Princeton graduate school. The school of architecture was opened in 1920. The school of engineering was in 1921 reorganized. A large number of professorships have been established. A bequest from the late Henry C. Frick, not yet fully received, is expected to amount to about $5,000,c00. Continuing the Princeton tradition for scientific research, the sum

of $3,000,000 has

been secured, one-third being a grant from the General Education Board. A permanent committee was appointed to obtain an additional endowment of $20,000,000 and an Alumni Fund of $2,000,000 has been raised for faculty salaries.

Among

the 23

buildings erected since 1912 are the psychological, engineering and chemical laboratories, headquarters for the school of architecture,

a new infirmary, a new chapel, the university dining halls, and seven dormitories. In 1928 the endowment was $18,983,955, income from investments $809,206 and disbursements $2,308,437. The Library contained 600,000 volumes exclusive of pamphlets, etc., the teaching staff numbered 323 and the student enrolment was 2,486, of which 2,254 were undergraduates, and 232 graduate students. (V. L. C.)

PRINCIPAL AND AGENT.

In law an agent is a person

authorized to do some act or acts on behalf of another, who is called his principal. The law regulating the relations of principal and agent is almost alike throughout the whole British empire, and differs only slightly from the law of the rest of Europe. In a general view of the law of agency it is necessary to have regard to the rights and duties of the principal, the agent, and third persons with whom the agent deals. The agent should not do what he has no authority for; yet as between the principal and those with whom the agent deals, the test of the principal’s responsibility for what is done by the agent on his behalf, but in excess of his actual authority, is his ostensible authority. Agents are of different kinds, according to the extent of their implied powers. The main restraint in the powers of an agent is in the old maxim, delegatus non potest delegare, designed to check the complexity that might be created by enquiries into repeatedlydeputed responsibility. As a general rule an agent cannot delegate his authority or put another in his place; but this rule is sometimes modified, for it may arise from the nature of his employment or the necessity of the case that he has to employ other persons for the accomplishment of certain objects. In the general case agency is constituted by the acceptance of the mandate or authority to act for the principal, and the evidence of this may be either verbal or in writing. But an agent who has to execute a deed in the absence of the principal must be appointed by deed for that purpose. As a corporation aggregate can in general act only by deed its agent must be so appointed, except in the case of trading corporations and joint stock companies, to which this rule has no application. Agency is often constituted, at the same time that its extent is defined, by mere appointment to some known and recognized function—as where one is appointed agent for a banking establishment, factor for a merchant, broker, or traveller. In these cases usage defines the powers granted to the agent; and the employer will not readily be subjected to obligations going beyond the usual functions of the office; nor will third persons dealing with the agent be bound by private instructions inconsistent ‘with its usual character. While, however, third persons, ignorant of such secret limitations, are not bound to respect them, the agent himself is liable for the consequences of transgressing them. Agency may also be either created or enlarged by implication. What the agent has done with his principal’s consent the person with whom he has dealt is justified in believing him to be authorized to continue doing. In questions of this kind the distinction between a general and a special agent is important. A general agent is one employed to transact all his principal’s business of a particular kind; as a factor to buy and sell; a broker to negotiate contracts of a particular kind; a solicitor to transact his legal business; a shipmaster to do all things relating to the employment of a ship. Such an agent’s power to do everything usual in the line of business in

AGENT—PRINGLE which he is employed is not limited by any private restriction or order unknown to the party with whom he is dealing. On the other hand, it is incumbent on the party dealing with a particule; agent, Z.e., one specially employed in a single transaction, to as. certain the extent of his authority.

As to a mercantile agent, see

FACTOR. The obligations of the principal to the agent are: to pay the agent’s remuneration, or, as it is often called, commission, the amount of which may be fixed by contract or usage; to repay all advances made by the agent in the regular course of his employ-

ment; to honour the obligations lawfully undertaken for him: and to indemnify the agent against all liabilities incurred by him in the proper execution of his mandate. The agent is bound to exercise proper skill and use the proper means for carrying out the functions which he undertakes. He must devote to the interests of his principal such care and attention as a man of ordi-

nary prudence does on his own. He must observe the strictest good faith; and must not enter into transactions in which bis interests are in conflict with the interests of his principal. Thus, when he is employed to buy, he must not be the seller; when he is em-

ployed to sell, he must not be the buyer. A mercantile agent who guarantees the performance by persons with whom he deals of the

obligations contracted by them is said to hold a del credere commission. In the United States courts have often been somewhat more liberal in interpreting an agent’s powers than in England, a fact probably attributable to the absence on the part of third parties dealing with agents, of the degree of caution characteristic of an older business community. On the other hand, statutes in some American states forbid certain types of agents, notably real estate brokers, from recovering their commissions at law unless their contract of employment was written and signed. It should be noted further that modern American merchandizing practice works out into many situations deemed by business men “agencies,” which may however be dealt with by the law as “sales”; a situation which makes reliance on any general statements of law quite unsafe. Finally, especially in the United States, much of the law as to a master’s responsibility for the acts of his servant (see MASTER AND SERVANT) has been carried over to make a principal responsible for wrongs committed by his agent in the course of his employment. See also AUCTIONS AND AUCTIONEERS; BROKER; FACTOR; GUARANTEE, etc.; also Smith’s Mercantile Law (12th ed., 1924); Bowstead, On Agency (7th ed., 1924). Tiffany, Agency (2nd ed. by Powell); Mechem, Principles of Agency; Klaus, 28 Columbia L. Rev. 312, 441.

PRINCIPE ISLAND, a Portuguese island in the Gulf of Guinea, of volcanic origin, 90 m. N.E. of St. Thomas with an area of 42 sq.m. The highest point is Pico-Papagaio, nearly 3,000 feet Pop. 4,938 (169 Europeans). The tsetse fly (which is not found in St. Thomas) infests the wooded part of the island, and through it sleeping sickness has been spread. The chief settlement is S$. Antonio. Cocoa is cultivated.

PRINCIPLE,

in philosophy,

(Latin principium, a beginning).

means

something

ultimate

The early Greek philosophers

applied the term (or rather its Greek original &ex7) to whatever they regarded as the primal stuff of which things are made, the source of all things. The term was used in this sense even in the 17th century or later. The followers of Paracelsus and others

described salt, sulphur and mercury as “principles,” in the sense of ultimate elements; and Robert Boyle used “principles” and “elements” indifferently as synonymous terms. The term “principle” was naturally applied not only to the original stuff of reality but also to its fundamental Jaws. And now only the fundamental laws or assumptions of science and philosophy are usually called principles, the terms elements, energy, etc. being used instead of “principle” in the other application it once had. Popularly the term is often employed for any kind of general truth or guiding norm. Hence the pleonasm “first principles” to distinguish them from derivative truths or secondary norms, etc. Np

PRINGLE, SIR JOHN (1707-1782), British physician, was

born on April 10, 1707, at Stitchel, Roxburghshire, and educate at St. Andrews, at Edinburgh, and at Leyden. He settled mM

PRINGSHEIM—PRINTING Edinburgh as a physician, but after 1734 also acted as professor of moral philosophy in the university. In 1742 he became physician to the earl of Stair, then commanding the British army in Flanders, and in 1744 was appointed physician-general to the forces in the Low Countries. In 1749, having settled in London, he was made physician in ordinary to the duke of Cumberland, and

499

durbar, exhibited in 1880 and afterwards hung at Buckingham Palace. Prinsep wrote two plays, Cousin Dick and Monsieur le Duc, produced at the Court and the St. James’s theatres respect-

ively; two novels; and Imperial India: an Artist’s Journal (1879). He was one of the founders of the Artists’ Corps.

PRINTING.

Letterpress printing is the art of producing im-

pressions by means of pressing an inked relief surface on to paper or other material. The term “printing” can be applied to any process by which a print is obtained, but it usually refers to died on Jan. 18, 1782. Pringle was the founder of modern mili- typography, or, as it is now generally termed, “letterpress printtary medicine. He remedied camp sanitation and the ventilation ing,” which includes not only printing from type, but the obtaining of hospitals, and laid down the principles for preventing dysentery of impressions from wood cuts, line and half-tone blocks in and hospital fever, at the same time showing that the different monochrome and colour. It has been claimed that the craft of forms of dysentery were varieties of one disease and that gaol letterpress printing is the medium which turned the darkness of fever was the same as hospital fever. the middle ages into light; which secured to posterity the intelHis chief works are: Observations on the Nature and Cure of lectual achievements of the past; and which furnished to civilizaHospital and Jayl Fevers (1750); “Experiments on Septic and tion a means of recording all future progress. The Chinese were the first printers. The oldest known printed Antiseptic Substances” in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (1750), and especially the Observations on the book, printed from blocks, was discovered in the Chinese province Diseases of the Army (1752). His Six Discourses (1783), con- of Kansu in 1900. It bears the statement, “Printed on May 11, tairis a biography by A. Kippis. 868, by Wang Chieh, for free general distribution, in order in PRINGSHEIM, NATHANAEL (1823-1894), German deep reverence to perpetuate the memory of his parents.” Printbotanist, was born at Wziesko in Silesia, on Nov. 30, 1823. He ing from movable type was first done by Pi Shéng in China in studied at the universities of Breslau, Leipzig, and Berlin, gradu- the years 1041 to 1049. Both events are well authenticated. Beated in 1848 as doctor of philosophy with the thesis De forma et cause of the large number of characters in what in Chinese corincremento stratorum crassiorum in plantarum cellula, and rapidly responds to an alphabet, the new method was not generally became a leader in the great botanical renaissance of the roth adopted. century. His contributions to scientific algology were of striking History.—There is no certainty as to the actual date of the interest. Pringsheim was among the very first to demonstrate the European invention of printing from movable type, which was occurrence of a sexual process in this class of plants, and he drew independent of the discovery of the principle by the Chinese, but from his observations weighty conclusions as to the nature of it is assumed that it took place about 1440. At an early date sexuality. Together with the French investigators G. Thuret and books were printed from engraved wood blocks, thus the term E. Bornet, Pringsheim ranks as the founder of our scientific “block books” indicates that all the words on the page of a book knowledge of the algae. The conjugation of zoospores, regarded have been cut by hand on to a solid block of wood. It is by no by Pringsheim, as the primitive form of sexual reproduction, was means certain, however, if these preceded the invention of mova discovery of fundamental importance. A work on the course of able types, for it is known that block books were produced after morphological ‘differentiation in the Sphacelariaceae (1873), a the invention of printing. In fact, no extant block book bears a family of marine algae, is of great interest, inasmuch as it treats date earlier than 1470. That prints were obtained from wood of evolutionary questions; the author’s point of view is that of blocks previous to 1440 there is ample evidence, but these were Naegeli rather than Darwin. Closely connected with Pringsheim’s of a pictorial character. In the John Rylands library, Manalgological work was his investigation of the Saprolegniaceae, a chester, England, there is a wood block print depicting St. Chrisfamily of algoid fungi, some of which cause disease in fish. His topher, dated 1423. It is known that block prints were produced career as a morphologist culminated in 1876 with the publication in Japan as early as A.D. 770. Just as there is no actual certainty as to the date of the Euroof a memoir on the alternation of generations in thallophytes and pean invention of printing from movable types, so it is also mosses. From 1874 to the close of his life Pringsheim’s activity was doubted who the inventor really was and where the invention chiefly directed to plant physiology. He founded the Jahrbuch took place. Claims are made for Germany, Holland, France and fir wissenschaftliche Botanik, and the German Botanical Society. Italy. One authority, however, sums up the position by stating :— His work was for the most part carried on in his private laboratory Holland has books but no documents; in Berlin; he only held a teaching post of importance for four France has documents but no books; Italy has neither books nor documents; years, 1864-68, when he was professor at Jena. He died in Berlin Germany has both books and documents. on Oct. 6, 1894. His works include memoirs on Vaucheria (1855); the OedoIt is generally agreed that certain letters of indulgence are the goniaceae (1855-38); the Coleochaeteae (1860) Hvydrodictyon first documents bearing a printed date, and these were printed (1861); and Pandorina (1869) The last mentioned bore the title from type cast in a mould and issued in 1454 and 1455 from a Beobachtungen uber die Paarung de Zoosporen.

subsequently received other court appointments as physician, being made a baronet in 1766. In Nov. 1772 he was elected president of the Royal Society, but resigned his presidency in 1778. He

English artist, was born on Feb. 4, 1838. His father, Henry Thoby

press at Mainz, and ascribed to Johann Gutenberg. From the press at Mainz a Vulgate bible was published in 1456. This was attributed to Gutenberg, the strongest claimant to the honour of the invention of printing. This book became known as the Mazarin bible, because a copy was found in the famous

Prinsep, who was for sixteen years a member of the Council of

library of Cardinal Mazarin,

India, had settled at Little Holland House, which became a centre of artistic society. Val Prinsep first studied under G. F. Watts, and later in Paris in the atelier Gleyre. “Taffy,” in his friend Du

42-line bible, owing to the fact that the large majority of its pages are 42 lines to the column, of which there are two on a page. In 1457 the Mainz psalter was produced; it was the first book to bear the name of the printer and the place and date of its production. It was also the first attempt at colour printing. The printers were Johann Fust and Peter Schoeffer, the latter one of Gutenberg’s workmen. From Mainz the art of printing spread throughout the conti-

fuller account

of Pringsheim’s

career

will be found in Nature,

(1895) vol. li, and in the Berichte der deutschen botanischen Gesell-

schaft (1898), vol. xiii. PRINSEP, VALENTINE

CAMERON

(1838-1904),

Maurier’s novel Trilby, is said to have been sketched from him. He was an intimate friend of Millais and of Burne-Jones, with whom he travelled in Italy and he had a share with Rossetti and others in the decoration of the hall of the Oxford Union. He first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1862 but the first picture to

attract notice was a portrait (1866) of General Gordon in Chinese costume.

He was elected A.R.A. in 1879 and R.A. in 1894.

In

1877 he went to India where he painted a huge picture of the Delhi

or, as it is sometimes

called, the

nent. In 1464 Sweynheym and Pannartz, two Germans, carried it into Italy, beginning at Subiaco near Rome. In 1469 Johann and Wendelin, of Speier, began in Venice. They were followed

500

PRINTING

there by Nicolas Jenson, a Frenchman, who printed from 1470 to 1480. Jenson added lower case to the capital letters he found on the Roman monuments, and the type design thus created has since remained standard. Another famous printer in Venicé was Aldus Manutius, who printed from 1495 to 1515. He was the originator of Italic lower case letters, to which were later added Italic capitals. Aldus, as he was generally known, contributed to the spread of learning by printing the classics in small inexpensive volumes. In 1470 printing was introduced into France by thtee men of German nationality, Krantz, Gering and Friburger, who

in that year set up a printing establishment within the precincts

of the Sorbonne in Paris. Berthold Ruppel is usually credited with the introduction of printing into Switzerland, the date being probably 1472. The most farnous and learned printer in Swiss history was John Froben. With him was associated, as a press corrector the great Dutch scholar, Desiderius Erasmus. In the Low Countries (Holland and Belgium) printing was done at Utrecht as early as 1471, but the name of the printer is unknown. N. Ketelaer and G. de Leempt were the first Dutch printers to place their names in a printed book of their own production, the date being 1473. Spain’s first known printer was Lambert Palmart who began at Valencia in 1475. The best known name in the history of Spanish printing is that of Kromberger, Jacob and John (father and son), the elder having begun at Seville soon after the opening of the 16th century, the exact date being unknown. — William Caxton was England’s first printer. He was a native of Kent. After serving an apprenticeship to a London mercer, he resided for a period of about 30 years in the Low Countries, where he eventually became governor of a company of English merchants known as the English Nation. He learned the art at Cologne and, with Colard Mausion, started business at Bruges, removing in 1476 to Westminster where he set up a press at “The Red Pale” in the Almonry. His first production in England was a papal indulgence, issued on Dec. 13, 1476. He continued there during an active period of 15 years, producing about roo volumes. He died in 1491 and his press passed to his assistant, Wynkyn de Worde. The introduction of printing into England was characterized by a number of innovations. In all other countries the pioneers were wandering German printers who began to print in Latin. England’s first printer was an Englishman who used only his own language. Caxton wrote or translated much of the material he converted into books, and he printed with type faces of a design that was neither Gothic nor Roman. The quality of printing began to deteriorate in the 16th century, owing somewhat to the fact that the ruling powers in church and State became alarmed because the new art seemed to be ¢reating too much freedom of thought. Measures of repression were adopted and printing ceased to be an art and became merely a vehicle for the conveyance of information. Some great printing and publishing families, such as the Estiennes in France and Plantin and the Elzevirs in the Low Countries, carried on the traditions, but the general level of quality was low. A change came in England early in the 18th century. In 1720 William Caslon began to produce a Roman type face that was little more than a refinement of that designed by Nicolas Jenson, but it was accepted as a practically new design and has ever since borne Caslon’s mame. It exercised a profound influence upon 18th century typography. A generation later John Baskerville, after seven years of experimenting with type, ink and paper-making, began to print in Birmingham. Because of the high quality of his productions he, too, exercised a decided influence upon the printing of the time. Just before Baskerville’s death in 1775, another printer of similar eminence was coming into notice in Italy. He was Giambattista Bodoni, who began at Parma in 1768 and continued until his death in 1813. Printing began in the Western Hemisphere in Mexico City, probably in 1539, when a printer named Giovanni Paoli reached there with an equipment sent, at the request of the reigning archbishop, by John Kromberger, of Seville, Spain. In what is now the United States, the first press began at Cambridge, Mass., in

1638. The Rev. Jesse Glover had left England with it, but hag died on the way over. It was set up by Stephen Day and his

son Matthew, a lad of 18 years, who had some knowledge of

printing. Their first work was called the “Freeman’s Oath.” The first book from the press, known as the Bay Psalm Book, was

produced in 1640.

The deterioriation in the quality of printing, which began to manifest itself in the 16th century, continued with exceptions noted through the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. A revival came in the last decade of the toth century, led by William Morris at

the Kelmscott Press in England. Morris’ books were issued in limited editions and are prized by book-collectors. They cannot be said to be highly successful, however, as books; it was pic. totial effect rather than legibility for which Morris strove. He has had many imitators, but few successful followers. The present standard of book-making is high. In England, apart from the féw excellent private presses, good work is being produced by the presses of the universities and many other commercial printing-houses. Bruce Rogers at the press of William Edwin Rudge, in New York, and Daniel Updike at the Merry. mount Press, in Boston, are producing volumes that from all the points that go to make up good book-making have never been surpassed. Frederic W. Goudy is producing type designs that will give his name a permanent place in printing history. The Printing Press-—The development of the printing press

provides a remarkable history of achievement. Hand presses were for more than 100 years constructed of wood and operated on the screw principle. Willem Janszoon Blaeu (1571—1638), of Holland, made the first improvements, but no radical change came until

the end of the 18th century. Adam Ramage, of Philadelphia, and Charles, Earl of Stanhope, of London, working at about the same time, made further improvements, Stanhope’s press, appearing in 1800, being the first to be constructed entirely of iron. George Clymer, beginning in Philadelphia and continuing in London from 1817 to 1834, was the first to abandon the screw entirely, his substitute being a series of compound levers. The hand-lever press, khown as the Washington hand press, operated on the toggle-jointed bar principle, appeared about the same time and eventually superseded all others. John J. Wells, Peter Smith and Samuel Rust, of New York, all had a hand in its development. In 1790, William Nicholson, an Englishman, took out a patent for a cylinder press, but this did not get beyond the drawing of plans. It was left for Fréderick Koenig—a Saxon—to construct the first power-driven machine in 1811. This, however, proved but little more than the adaptation of power to the hand press, and it is assumed that only one of these machines was made and used fot book printing. Soon after this, Koenig and a fellow-countrymain, Andréw Bauer, constructed a flat-bed machine with a continually revolving cylinder. Two of these machines, called cylinder presses, were erected in The Times, London, and the issue dated Nov. 209, 1814, states that it “was printed by steam power.” The machine produced 1,100 impressions per hour, thus quadrupling the output of a hand press. Later, a machine was constructed to print upon both sides of the sheet before delivery, and these machines were in operation until 1827. Koenig returned to Germany in 1817, and Applegarth and

Cowper, engineers of The Times, built a machine in 1827 for printing on one side of the sheet, and capable of giving 4,000 impressions an hour. This was in use until 1848, when Applegarth invented a new type of machine with cylinders in a vertical pos! tion and on which the type was secured by means of wedge-shaped column rules. Around the type cylinder were grouped eight impression cylindets, the sheets being delivered in a vertical position and taken off by hand. The output of this machine was 8,000 impressions pet hour. There was only one of these machines made and it was ultimately replaced by the Hoe type revolving machine,

which made way for the Walter rotary perfecting press in 1868.

In 1846, Robert Hoe, founder of the world-renowned Ameérican ptinting machinery manufacturing firm, built a new style of press. This was known as the Hoe type revolving machine. The type

cylinder was placed in a horizontal position and the type secured

in cast-iron beds by special locking up apparatus. Each bed repre-

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AFTER

A FACSIMILE

BY SCHWENKE

OF

THE

PELPLIN

COPY

OF

THE

ILLUMINATED

GUTENBERG

BIBLE,

PAGE

BY

FROM

COURTESY

THE

hue

OF

oh

THE

NEW

YORK

PUBLIC

GUTENBERG

LIBRARY

BIBLE

The Gutenberg Bible, traditionally accepted as the first book printed from movable type, was issued at Mainz, Germany, about 1454. The illustration shows page one of the Proverbs of Solomon. The pages are illuminated to give the effect of a hand-copied manuscript, as desired by the printers, who did not wish their invention discovered. The book was probably printed in 10 sections on

6 presses

working

simultaneously.

Of nearly

300

copies, only 45 are known

to be in existence to-day

i

sol

PRINTING

sented one page of a newspaper. Grouped around the type cylinder | rotary movement of which is continuous, makes two revolutions were four, six or ten impression cylinders, each of which had for every sheet printed. The second revolution occurs as the feeders laying on sheets of paper. As the main cylinder rotated, the cylinder rises to permit the return of the bed carrying the type was inked by a roller, the sheets as they were fed in being forme. (This movement was a feature of the Napier machine taken by grippers to receive the inked impression of the type. In built about 1830.) The most widely used form of this type of this instance, the sheets were delivered by means of “mechanical machine, and the one which has made it so popular, was invented

fyers.” This machine was capable of turning out 2,000 sheets per feeder per hour, z.¢., with a four-cylinder machine 8,000 impressions were obtained.

in 1883 by Robert Miehle, a practical pressman, and the first

The first machine was erected in London in

1856; it had six cylinders and was installed to print Lloyd’s Weekly Newspaper.

An impetus was given to the production of newspapers by the invention of the papermaking machine by the brothers Fourdrinier, in 1803, while the knowledge of how to cast curved stereo plates

also helped forward the development of newspaper production. In 1865, the first printing press to print from a continuous reel of

paper was made by an American named William Bullock. The machine consisted of four cylinders—two impression cylinders

and two plate cylinders—but as the paper passed from the reel it had to be cut before printing. This led to many difficulties and the machine was soon discarded owing to its unreliability.

The proprietors of The Times were continually endeavouring to construct a rotary perfecting machine and in 1868 the famous Walter rotary perfecting press was built to print The Times. A

reel of paper was used, both sides being printed from curved stereo plates and the sheets delivered flat. These were used until 1895, and were undoubtedly the models from which present-day newspaper rotaries have developed. One drawback to the speedy production of newspapers in the early days of the rotary machine was that they were delivered flat and had to be folded by hand. In

1870, the first folder attachment was invented by two English

engineers, G. Duncan and W. A. Wilson, and since then the development of the rotary press has been rapid: the reason undoubtedly being the overcoming of the folding difficulty which in turn has enabled proprietors to produce newspapers in large numbers and at the nominal price at which they are now sold.

Present-day

newspaper presses are capable of printing simultaneously from as many as 15 reels and to produce over 300,000 copies per hour. Credit must be given to Sir Rowland Hill for the inception of the idea of printing on both sides of the paper from a reel, the sug-

gestion having emanated from him in 1835. In 1822, Daniel Treadwell of Boston applied power to a machine built on the “bed and platen” principle. The original machine of this type was improved upon by Adams, of Boston, and for many years this class of machine was used for printing

fine books and woodcuts.

The next notable development of a printing machine was one worked by treadle and adaptable for the printing of small jobbing work such as cards, handbills, etc. The first machine of this character was made by S. P, Ruggles, of Boston, Mass., in 1830, and was known as the Ruggles card press. Just over a quarter of a century later (1856) George P. Gordon, an American, built a press which proved to be the forerunner of what are now known as light platen machines. This was constructed with the type bed in a vertical position, was named “the Franklin,” and rapidly became in general use throughout the world. Improvements on platen machines became necessary by the introduction of half-tone and colour printing, In 1869 Merritt Gally, of Rochester, N.V., invented a new type of platen machine known as the Universal press which proved the pattern for heavy platen machines for colour printing. About 1850 a London printer

named Majin introduced a new type of flat-bed printing machine. Instead of a continyous rotary motion, as in the Koenig machine,

the cylinder “rocked,” making about three quarters of a revolu-

on and then reversing, at the same time rising to allow the teturn of the bed. This machine was generally known as a

“tumbler” and was the forerunner of what is now known in

Great Britain as the Wharfedale stop-cylinder machine which was ge about 1860 by William Dawson and David Payne of ey. The modern type of flat-bed printing machine is known as the two-revolution press.

It is so called because the cylinder, the

BY COURTESY OF LINOTYPE AND MACHINERY CO. TWO-REVOLUTION

PRINTING

MACHINE

machine was installed in America in 1888, “The Miehle,” as it is generally termed, has revolutionized the manufacture of printing machinery. It is to be found in most printing offices, producing not only commercial but the finest coloured work; machines of this type are made for every class of work, and are known as single-colour, two-colour and perfecting machines, respectively. Mechanical Typesetting.—The first type composing machine was patented in England in 1822 by Dr. William Church of Boston. This machine set ordinary founder’s type from channels previously filled by hand. Upon the depression, of the respective keys, the type was released into a raceway, it being delivered in one continuous line and subsequently justified by hand. This was followed by numerous attempts, all more or less successful, to set and justify founder’s type mechanically. All these efforts, however, still left the problem of distribution unmastered, the most successful attempt to achieve this being that of Joseph Thorne who, in 1880, brought out a combined typesetting and distributing machine. In 1878 Otmar Mergenthaler was constructing a “type impression” machine and later in 1885 took out patents for a slug casting machine, this being the forerunner of what is now known as the Linotype. In the following year, 1886, this machine was actually used in the United States, but was not introduced into Great Britain until 1890. The typograph, another slug casting machine, was the invention of John Raphael Rogers, who was a consulting engineer with the Mergenthaler Linotype Company. The first machine was built in Cleveland, but, as the U. S. courts found that Rogers infringed certain patents owned by the Mergenthaler Company, the use of the machine was prevented in the United States. Ultimately, the Mergenthaler Company purchased the U.S. rights of the typograph company. In 1890 this machine was being built in Canada and, on the expiration of the linotype

agreement, its manufacture was commenced in Detroit, Mich. In 1893 the manufacture of the typograph was undertaken in Germany, the first typograph built in that country being put on the market in 1896. Germany is now the headquarters for the manufacture of this type of machine where it has achieved a remarkable success. It was about the same time as Mergenthaler placed his invention for a slug casting machine on a successful basis that Tolbert Lanston, a clerk in the Pensions Office at Washington, developed and perfected a method of casting type by means of a perforated sheet on the Jacquard principle. He applied for his patent in 1885, this being granted two years later, the year in which the first machine was produced. The Practice of Printing.—As in all processes of printing,

there are two main operations in letterpress printing: (1) The setting up of the type, reading, making up the type and blocks

into pages, imposition and locking up, This embraces the work of a compositor and is done in the composing room. (2) Print-

PRINTING

502

ing, which includes the fixing of the forme on the machine, mak-

ing ready (a process whereby irregularities of pressure are re-

moved), getting position on the sheet, inking and the printing of the sheets. This work is done by the machine minder or the pressman, the latter being the American term. Type—The typefounder supplies type to the printer in founts which are of varying weights but made up in recognised proportions of characters, é.e., letters (based upon the number of “A’s” in the fount), signs and spaces, etc. Type is cast from an alloy of lead, tin and antimony and is made to a standard height (.918 in.) so that the faces may present a uniformly level surface. Type characters or faces may be classified under three headings: (1) Gothic ( Encyclopedia Britannica), (2) Roman (Encyclopedia Britannica), (3) Italic (Encyclopedia Britannica). Type

is known by its size and character. Within the last quarter of a century, the designation of sizes has undergone a change. In some instances it is still known as nonpareil, brevier, pica, etc., but it is customary to give the sizes in “points.” In this the vertical thickness of the body determines the size, and what is known as the “point system” is now accepted as a standard measurement. There are 72 points to the inch. A point, therefore, is approximately -0138 inch. The sizes are graduated by points up to

r2-point; those above 18-pgint are multiples of 6-point. There are types from 3- to 5-point but these are not in general use, being too small for ordinary purposes. The 54-point is used considerably in American newspaper “want” advertisements. The following are a few of the approximate sizes of type in general use for printing books:— Points

6 7 8 9 IO II 12 I4

Old terms

Nonpareil . Minion . Brevier Bourgeois . Long Primer Small Pica Pica . English Great Primer

Number of words to a square inch

47 38 32 28 21 I7 14 II .

The above table is set in 8 point: the body of this book is set in ọ point. In addition to these sizes there is a wide variety of display types, i.¢., types used for advertisement purposes which can be cast up to 144-point:—r2 times the size of 12-point, or, to use an old term, r2-line pica. However, it is deemed inadvisable to cast in metal much above 72-point or 6-line pica. There is no accepted standard for naming type faces. Similar characters of design bear the distinctive names which the different type founding firms give it. Composing.—The first work of a compositor when the type is received from the founder is to “lay” it in cases. A case may be described as a wooden tray about 324 in. long, 144 in. broad and about 14 in. deep. The case is divided by cross partitions into “boxes,” each of which holds a different character. Generally, there are two kinds of cases, namely, the upper case (capitals) and the lower case. (small letters). It is usual for the upper case to have 98 boxes, the capitals on one side and small capitals on the other, and the lower case 53. The divisions in the upper case are all of the same size while those in the lower case are of varying sizes according to the number of a particular letter contained in the fount. For instance, the box for the lower case “e” js about five times the size of that for the capital “E” in the upper case. The letters in the lower case are not placed in alphabetical order but in accordance with the frequency with which a particular letter is used in the English language, those most frequently used being nearest the hand of the compositor. When the compositor is given “copy” to set up, he places it in front of him on the upper case, and memorizing as many words as he can he proceeds to pick up from the various boxes in

the case the particular letters required.

These letters he places

in a “composing stick” which in reality is a narrow metal tray (usually about ro in. long and 2 in. wide) with flanges on the

back and the right hand side, and on the left an adjustable slide which can be fixed to the particular “measure” or length of line

required for the work in hand. On each type there is a “nick” (or

‘“nicks’’), i.¢., a slight groove on the front of the “body” of the type, which is a guide to the correct placing of the type in the com. posing stick. At the completion of each word “a space” (a short

piece of metal) is inserted, it be. ing by this means that the words are separated. When the line is

BY

completed it is “justified” oy made tight to the “measure” of the composing stick with spaces COURTESY te STEPHENSON, BLAKE & CO. of varying widths, to make the COMPOSING ‘‘STICK’’ lines of uniform length. The compositor proceeds to set up the matter line by line

until the stick is full. He then carefully removes the type from the stick and places it upon a shallow tray with raised edges on three sides called a “galley.” When a galley is full, proofs are

taken and carefully necessary. necessary the galley

read in conjunction with the manuscript, the reader marking in by recognized symbols the corrections This is returned to the compositor who makes the alterations by lifting, where necessary, the line out of and replacing it in the stick, the reason for this being

to ensure that justification of the lines is uniform throughout during the process of correction. When the work is completed finished proofs are pulled, usually in galley form, and sent to the author for correction. The next operation in the production of a book is to make the type up into pages, the depth and width of which are determined by the size of paper on which it is to be printed. It: is usual to send the author another set of proofs for a final “revise.” When the work is finally passed for press, the pages are placed

in such a position that when the sheet is printed and folded they fall in correct sequence. This is called “imposition,” and includes placing the pages within an iron frame called a “chase,” which, when there are a number of pages to be printed together, has crossbars——one across the length of the chase, the other across the width. The determined space between the pages is filled up with what is called “furniture,” which is made of either wood or metal, and about + in. lower than type, so that it does not get inked during the process of printing. The whole is then locked up within the chase by means of a system of wedges, called “quoins,” thus making the type and furniture portable. When this is accomplished it is known as a forme and is ready to be printed. Composing Machines.—The setting of the type for newspapers, magazines and books is now almost entirely a question of mechanical composition and the machines used for this purpose can be divided into two classes:

(t) That which casts a “slug” (or line of type), such as the

Linotype, Intertype, Typograph and Ludlow. (2) That which produces justified lines of single types, and known as the Monotype.

Slug-Casting Machines.—Such machines as the Linotype and

Intertype consist of a keyboard, magazines (containing matrices), casting apparatus and a distributing system. The compositor on these machines is called an “operator,” and when he presses a key representing a particular character on the keyboard, it oper-

ates certain levers which allow a matrix, with the letter cut into

its edge, to be released from the magazine. The matrix, dropping on to a revolving belt, is carried automatically to an assembly box.

By touching another key, a double wedge spaceband 1s

placed between the words. When the line is full a lever is depressed and causes the matrices and spacebands to be carried to a position in front of the mould, behind which is situated a pot of molten metal. While in this position, the line is justified by the pushing up of the spacebands from below, the line thus

spreading out to the full measure. A plunger in the metal pot then descends and forces the molten metal into the mould and against the face of the matrices. The resultant metal bar or “slug

with the letters in relief is then automatically trimmed for height and thickness prior to its being ejected on to a receiving galley.

The matrices from which the slug has been cast have meanwhile

PRIN

BY COURTESY

OF

R.

R.

DONNELLEY

AND

SONS

COMPANY

SCENES 1. Operator

at the

keyboard

of a

IN VARIOUS

monotype

composing

DEPARTMENTS

machine.

The

keyboard action perforates a reel of paper, which, when fed into another machine, the “caster,” causes to be delivered on to a tray a

separate piece keyboard

ef type for each

letter

in the matter

“set”

on

the

2. A battery of monotype keyboards, here assembled in a sound-proof room to prevent distraction of the operators from the “copy” by noise

3. Setting type by hand. set by hand.

The larger, or “display,” sizes of type are still

The composing

large American

plant

Pirate IT

TIN G

room

here shown

is in the school

of a

OF

4. The

A PRINTING

proof-room,

showing

PLANT

proof-readers

and copy-holders seated

of the partitioned desks. One follows the reads aloud from the author’s manuscript

printed

at each

proof as the other

5. A “‘stone-hand” working on a 32-page forme. This is termed imposing. When ready, this forme will be locked up with metal wedges, called quoins, in the iron frame, or chase, which surrounds it and taken to the press for printing

6. Handling

rolls of paper

in the pressroom.

These

rolls, or “‘reels’?

as

they are called, weigh from 1,200 to 2,200 lb. according to the width and kind of paper.

necessary

Mechanical

handling, as here shown,

is practically

PLATE

PRINTING

III

BY COURTESY

OF

R,

R.

DONNELLEY

AND

SONS

COMPANY

VIEWS

OF

PRESSES,

FOLDERS

1. Side and back view of an offset press. Below the rollers at top is the printing plate fixed round a cylinder. The plate prints upon the rubber blanket on the cylinder below, which in turn prints upon the paper 2. Modern rotary or “web,” press for commercial work. These presses print direct from curved plates, secured on a cylinder, onto the paper. The paper is automatically fed from the roll. After being printed the paper, as it reaches the “‘delivery end,’’ Is folded and cut. When presses print on both sides of the paper, they are called ‘‘perfecting presses” 3. Flat-bed press equipped with an automatic feeder (left), which feeds the sheets of paper, and with extension delivery (right), which is auto-

AND

TIPPING

MACHINES

matically lowered to the floor as the printed sheets pile up after being printed. The piles of printed sheets when completed are transported

by trucks

(right)

to the

folding

machines.

Presses

of

this type are used extensively in colour-printing 4. Adjusting a folding machine. These folders are automatically fed and will fold printed sheets with any number of pages into “‘book form

5. Battery of folding machines. folded

sheets

(in

this

The automatic feeder Is on the left; the

case

book

signatures

of

machines

used

for “tipping’’

32

pages

each)

may be seen in the “‘lay-boy” in the bottom right hand corner of the

illustration

6. Girls working sections

glueing

Inserts

into book

PRINTING seen lifted by an arm to the top of the machine, and are caused

to travel along a serrated distributor bar until the matrix finds its way into its correct channel in the magazine. Each matrix has

on its top edge a double series of seven teeth, the arrangement of same varying with each matrix. The individual matrix travelling along the corresponding rail on the distributor bar eventually arrives at a break in the rail on which it has been hanging and

593

to ensure the justification of such line when eventually cast in metal. When the spool is completed it is placed in position on the casting machine which contains a metal pot, a mould and a matrix holder called the “die case.” The latter usually contains 225 matrices arranged in 15 rows of 15 in the compass of a 3-in. square. The perforated strip of paper controls the action of the mechanism which brings the respective matrices into position over the mould in the order desired. When the matrix has been momentarily clamped into position, a jet of metal is forced into the mould and the type cast. The characters as cast are pushed along

until, when the line is completed, they are automatically transferred’ on to a galley. The last line of the spool is the first to be cast, but when each galley is completed the lines will run in cor© be rect sequence as in the copy. There is an adaptation of the Monoest type machine by which rules, ornaments, and a wide range of ether a SSS e aa ate Be display type faces may be cast, and afterwards put into cases Lama re | === S ma Sout = ce a Ree to be used by the hand compositor. Machining.—When the forme is sent to press from the com(Sane vo posing room the printer’s work commences. The printer is called pare) Sad dy ‘i =r) a machine-minder in Great Britain, and a pressman in America, ai (aa ; l é ka Maai and it mainly depends upon him as to whether the work bears eI a the hall mark of “quality” (or otherwise), the printing of the h sheets demanding the greatest of care in every stage. ` MN Sseessesseeeeeep aa ; Ro a The first operation is to prepare the impression surface (the platen or cylinder) by covering it with a number of sheets of a HITEC tu suitable paper. This is followed by locking the forme securely in the bed of the machine in a position necessary to the requirements of the particular work in hand. The quoins securing the work in the chase are loosened, and the type “planed down” with a \ planer, z.¢., a smooth flat piece of wood is placed on the type and carefully struck with a mallet to ensure that the “feet” of the type rest solidly on the bed; the quoins are then again tightened and an impression “‘pulled” on a sheet of paper. Invariably this BY COURTESY OF LINOTYPE AND MACILINERY CO. MODERN LINOTYPE first pull shows irregularities in the weight of pressure, some has no alternative but to drop into its respective magazine parts being so weak that they are unreadable and others so heavy as nearly to cut through the sheet of paper. It is in the rectificachannel. All the operations are automatic and continuous, it being tion of these inequalities that the skill and experience of the possible for three lines of matrices to be in circulation at the machine-minder are exhibited, for unless this work is done with same time, one in course of assembly, another in the process of understanding, the printed sheets will appear “patchy” and diffcult to read. When the printed sheet has been made “readable” casting and a third in the stage of distribution. The Typograph is a further and somewhat different expression the pages are “registered,” 7.e., placed to print in the proper of slug-casting machine. In this machine the matrices hang on a position on the sheet, and in printing book work, made to “back series of wires which converge fan-shape towards the point of up” correctly. A well printed book, if the pages are of uniform assembly. As the operator touches the respective keys on the size, should have the lines on both sides of the leaf printing keyboard, the matrices slide by gravity down the wires to the exactly on the back of each other. When a forme of type is registered, a sheet is sent to the reader point of assembly. The line is justified by means of circular space discs which expand as they are caused to revolve just prior for revision (in case of any letters having been broken off or a to the casting. The slug cast by this machine does not require word “pied”). While this is taking place, the operation called trimming to give either the height or the body width. The oper- “making-ready” is commenced, and it is not unusual for a large ation of distribution is performed automatically, the top frame forme to take two or even three days to make ready. The desired of the machine tilting backwards and so reversing the angle of the results are obtained by cutting out on a sheet of thin paper the wites-when the matrices automatically slide back to their original heavy parts with a sharp knife and “patching up” with paste on the sheet, varying thicknesses of paper on those parts that are position. The Ludlow Typograph is a class of slug-casting machine de- weak. When the sheet is completed it is “stuck up” on the imsigned for the production of display lines. It does not, however, pression surface in a position corresponding exactly with that. set up matrices, its function being to produce cast slugs from part of the forme which requires the particular treatment. Another lines of matrices set up by hand in a special composing stick. impression is then pulied, and the work of cutting out and patching As each line is set by the compositor the stick containing it is up is continued until the impressions seen on the back of the sheet clamped into the machine which produces a solid line of type present an even and regular appearance. The supply of ink has with the characters in slug form. This particular form of slug- then to be adjusted so that the requisite amount will be transcasting machine is employed in the main for producing head- ferred to the type in a uniform manner throughout the “run.” When printing half-tone work, “interlaying” is often done to lines for use in newspaper and periodical work, advertisements ease the pressure on the high lights and to give greater resistance and various similar purposes. Monotype.—The Monotype is a system of mechanical com- to the solids contained in the plate while printing. “Overlaying”’ position that produces justified lines of single types. It com- is invariably used when printing illustrations either in monochrome prises two distinct machines—a keyboard and a caster. The key- or colour. It is a means of supplying the graduated pressure board has. the appearance of an elaborate typewriter. As the necessary to ensure that a clean sharp impression of the inked operator depresses each key, holes are punched into a strip of blocks will be made upon the sheet of paper. There are various methods of making overlays, the usual being paper which automatically travels with each tap of the keys from one spool-holder to another, each letter being represented by its | to pull three impressions from the block on thin, hard paper. On particular combination of perforations. At the end of each line a| the first sheet, which is the foundation sheet, all the high lights pointer indicates what special keys should be touched in order ! are cut out; on the next sheet all the solids are carefully cut out franca]

a. Ser

ere armas ne a

coger

a

E

i wv E iVay a æ

SS

ae PBAR all

ac)

mT

ti

L|

oe gaJ

| i" 3 o

a

iA rypet

504

PRINTING

and pasted aceuratély in a corresponding position on to the first sheet. The third sheet has the high lights and intermediate tones cut out, leaving the three-quarter tones and solids; this is then pasted on to the foundation sheet on which the solids have already been fixed. When the overlay is completed and held up to the light “a picture” of the illustration in its various tones will be seen. The overlay is then pasted on to the impression surface in a position to correspond exactly with the block on the bed of the machine; thus the varying tones in the plate will receive graduated degrees of pressure, and by this means a true representation of the tones in the block is obtained when inked and impressed on to a sheet of paper. There are mechanical means of making overlays. The most popular form is known as the “chalk” overlay. An inked impression of the illustration is taken on both sides of a piece of paper, which is treated with a chalk preparation. The ink, according to its density, acts as a resist when the prepared paper is immersed in a solution of chloride of lime, the result being that a graduated surface in hardened chalk is obtained in exact relation to the tones contained in the plate, the solids being highest and the other tones correspondingly lower. When the etching is completed the paper is allowed to dry and then pasted on to the impression surface. Another method (a photo-mechanical one) is that of a thin piece of zinc etched in relief, with the tones in correct relation to each other. When printing newspapers there is no time for making ready and when blocks are printed they are prepared mechanically by putting the printing surface on different planes. This is generally called “bumping” and is done by making a metal “‘interlay” which is forced into the back of the plate, with the result that the tones in the plate are slightly raised in accordance with the pressure required to give a correct impression, the solids being highest and the high lights lowest. This method of obtaining regulated pressure is likewise frequently resorted to in magazine printing and in a particular method of colour printing.

Duplicate

Plates.—To

secure

economical

and expeditious

production of large editions it is necessary to print at the same

time a number of duplicate plates identical with the original page of type or blocks. This is done by two processes, known as stereotyping and electrotyping. Stereotyping.—Stereotyping is a process whereby duplicate plates of pages of type and relief printing blocks are obtained. This is done by taking a mould of the forme in plaster of paris ot papier maché, placing it in a “casting box” and pouring molten metal into the box and over the face of the mould.

Like others of the crafts included in the printing industry, there is some obscurity about the date of the invention of this process, but it can be safely dated as about the beginning of the

is obtained by making a “flong” composed of blotting and tisste

papers

pasted together.

The particular method

fiong is largely an individual

of making a

opinion of the Steréotyper, but

generally it is made up of a sheet of strong, coarse blotting

called a backing sheet. On this a fine sheet of blotting is pasted followed by three sheets of tissue one on top of the other. It being necessary to keep the flongs damp, they are placed between

damp blankets. Thé type from which stereotypes are to be made is placed within bevelled type-high bearers and locked up in a strong chase, the bearers serving the purpose of protecting the edges of the type and facilitating the moulding. Moulding—The face of the forme is then carefully brushed over with oil, the open spaces between the lines being packed with card or pieces of thin metal to prevent the cracking of the flong when moulding. A piece of the damp flong about an inch

larger all round than the surrounding bearers is placed face. downwards (tissue side) on to the forme and, by means of a stiff brush with a long handle, is beaten by hand evenly into the

type until a uniform depth is obtained.

The “blanks” (de-

pressions) on the back of the flong are then filled in with felt or card and coveréd with a strong sheet (usually brown paper). Both the forme and the flong are then placed into a drying press,

being kept under pressure until the flong is baked dry. The flong is then carefully removed from the forme atid becomes known as a matrix, or, as the stereotyper calls it, a “mat.” This is then trimmed, and a long piece of brown paper, called a “tail,”

is pasted on to one end. The latter acts as a guide to lead the molten metal on to the face of the matrix when the plate is being cast.

Casting.—The matrix is then placed in a casting box which consists of two flat surfaces, the top part being hinged so that it may be thrown back in a perpendicular position. When the matrix is placed in the box it is held in position by two steel gauges which not only determine the thickness of the plate but

prevent the molten metal running out at the bottom and sides

of the casting box. When the matrices and gauges are correctly positioned the top is lowered and clamped to the lower surface.

It is then tightly sécured by means of a screw, the whole of the box being tilted into a perpendicular position. The mouth of the

box is bevelled to allow the molten metal to be easily poured

in. This is done by means of a ladle. A few moments are allowed for the metal to set. When the box is opened the gauges are removed and the matrix relieved from the newly cast plate, the casting operations being répeated from the same mould according

to the number of stereo plates required. The plate has then to go through a series of finishing operations to put it in a proper condition for printing. The plates are mounted on a block of wood to bring the printing surface to type height. Newspaper and Periodical Printing.—It is in newspaper and magazine production that stereotyping has made the greatest progress. Speed is esséntial in these particular branches of print-

18th century (1700-25). It is attributed to William Ged, an Edinburgh goldsmith. It is believed that he made a mould by pouring gypsum (plaster of paris) over a page of type, and allowing it to set. In 1730 it is known that he went to Cambridge ing, and instead of a wet flong a special manufacture of dry flong and made plates for a bible for the university, but it is said that is used, the matrix being moulded either by cylindiical pressute, these plates were spoiled by the printers and the process aban- usually known as a “mangle,” or by means of a special press doned. Ged returned to Edinburgh in 1733, where he died in on the platen principle. The matrix is then dried atid when 1749. About 1779, Tilloch and Foulis seemed to have “re- thoroughly free from moisture is placed in a casting box which invented” the process of stereotyping, since they took out patents is half cylindrical in form and conforms to the diameter of the in April 1784 for a method of making plates for printing. Earl cylinder of the printing machine on which thé plate is to be Stanhope is likewise credited with having reintroduced Ged’s printed. Metal is then pumped direct from the métal pot into process early in the 19th century. In America, stereotyping was the casting box. When the platé is cool it is removed from the introduced by David Bruce (1813) who served his apprenticeship| box in a semi-circular shape. as a printer in Edinburgh. The first book stereotyped in the Automatic Casting.—The ever-increasing demand for speed United States was the New Testament, the date being 1814. and accuracy in the production of newspapers has brought into The Plaster Process.—This method of making stereotype general use an ingenious machine called “the Autoplate.” This is moulds is not now in general use, but certain firms in England an American invention, capable of producing two plates in a employ it for duplicating half-tone plates, the usual method minute in place of the one plate in three minutes, which was the being to spread on a sheet of stout paper a coating of about usual time taken to cast a plate when the work was done by

= in. of fine plaster of paris which, when about to set, is placed

in contact with a forme (the imposed type matter or blocks), and subjected to pressure. When the plaster is set, the mould is dried by heat.

The Paper Process.—A plate by the papier mâché method

hand. On the Autoplate the matrix is fixed into clips and carried

to the casting box, which, when closed, is flooded with molten

metal pumped from a large metal pot. After a short “dwell,

the casting box is opened and the plate removed from the matrix,

the former being cooled by a system of water circulation. The

PRINTING plate is then mechanically bored, routed and finished, ready for the printing press, every operation being automatically controlled. A later development in the automatic casting of stereotype plates is the invention of a Swiss engineer and is known as “the Winkler.” In this instance, a “perfect plate” is produced without resorting to the usual finishing operations. The metal pot is directly connected with the casting box and the weight of the metal in the pot provides the necessary pressure to cast a large sized plate without leaving surplus metal to be trimmed off. This machine produces two finished plates per minute. Electrotyping.—Electrotyping is an electrolytic method of producing a duplicate printing plate. In this process a mould from the original is taken in wax or prepared lead, on which a coating of copper is electrolytically deposited. When Volta invented the galvanic battery in 1799, the foundation of the process was laid. About 1839, two Englishmen (Thomas Spencer, of Liverpool, and C. J. Jordan, of London) and Prof. Jacobi, of St. Petersburg, were experimenting with the making of plates by the science of electrometallurgy. About the same time, J. A. Adams, a wood-engraver in New York, is credited with having made an electrotype, which was used for

printing in 1841; this process he also used for duplicating illustrations for Harper’s

family bible, which was

issued between

1842 and 1844. To obtain a mould he used a soft metal. About

1840 Smee’s battery was introduced, making the deposition of copper a commercial proposition. About this date graphite was first used to make the surface of a mould made in beeswax conductive. A French cabinetmaker, M. Victor Morel, took a prominent part in improving the process for printing purposes. He was ultimately engaged to install a foundry in the establishment of Cassell (London). Electratyping owes a debt to this publishing and printing house for the experiments they made at great cost, with a view to perfecting the electrotyping process. Beeswax as a moulding medium was first used by them.

Moulding-—The first operation in electrotyping is to run melted beeswax on to a perfectly level metal plate called a “case.” This must be such that it will withstand the great pressure exerted on the moulding press. When the wax has had time to “set” the surplus is trimmed from the edges with a knife, the case then

being put into a machine which shaves the surface of the wax down to a standard height, making it of uniform thickness. The wax is usually flared over with a gas flame to give it a smooth

surface, the case having to be kept at a regular temperature until the moulder is ready to take a mould on the wax from the original. This is a most important operation. Before moulding, the case and the forme are brushed over with fine graphite, care being taken to have all the loose particles of black-lead removed before being placed in contact with each other. They are then put in a press and subjected to the necessary pressure. The presses are of great strength and are usually operated by hydraulic methods. When the mould is made the case is taken to a workman called a “builder” who trims the wax which has spread over the edges of the case with a knife, at the same time reducing to an even height the wax, standing in high relief through being forced into the lower parts of the forme which do not have to print. The mould then goes to the “black shop” where it is carefully and thoroughly dusted and polished with graphite. This is done either by hand or machine, the purpose being to make the surface conductive, as otherwise the copper shell would not grow upon the mould. A thin piece of copper is now inserted into the wax at the top end of the case. In the copper there are two holes

through which hooks are placed to enable the case to be hung on

the negative rod in the depositing bath. Previous to placing the mould in the bath “stopping out” takes place. This is done by running a hot iron over the surface of the

wax to within about an inch of the actual moulding on three sides of the mould, thus removing the graphite, and rendering

the surface non-conductive. If this is not done a waste of copper will be entailed, but care has to be taken that the copper con-

nection inserted into the wax comes within the area of conduc-

lvity, since otherwise it would not þe possible to obtain a shell. The mould is thoroughly washed over with a strong force of

water

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The

modern tendency is to obtain moulds by the lead prọcess. A piece of specially prepared lead is pressed into the original forme

by a press of great power. It is claimed that a greater degree of accuracy and a finer reproduction is obtained by this method because changes of temperature do not affect lead in the same

way as wax. Deposition—The mould is now ready for the depositing bath, although it sometimes is previously prepared by covering it with a solution of copper sulphate into which fine iron filings are

sprinkled and the whole stirred with a soft camel’s-hair brush, thus precipitating a fine film of copper on the mould. Extreme care has to be taken to see that all connections are clean. The depositing equipment consists of a bath or tank which is lead lined. This is filled to within about 6 in. of the top with water into which is placed copper sulphate and a percentage of sulphuric acid. When completed the solution should have a density of about 20° Beaumé. When working, the solution is

agitated to keep the concentration uniform while a regular temperature has to be maintained. The electrical current necessary for depositing is obtained from a dynamo situated in close proximity to the bath. The current is carried from the dynamo through a resistance board to the bath by two copper rods which run along the length of the tank, one being connected to the positive pole and the other to the negative pole of the dynamo. Placed on the long copper rods are shorter copper rods running across the bath. On the short rod connected with the positive pole and suspended by means of hooks into the solution is a copper plate called an anade. The prepared mould is suspended in a similar manner on the other short rod connected with the negative pole with its face towards the anode. The copper sulphate when dissolved in the water and sulphuric

acid breaks up into two portions:—(1) a copper portion which is electrically positive, (2) a sulphate portion which is electrically negative. The positive copper portion is attracted to the negative pole, z.¢., the wax mould and is there deposited while the negative sulphate portion travels to the anode (which is positive) and there combines with the copper to yield more copper sulphate so that the concentration ef the bath is kept more or less con-

stant. In this way the shell is grown until a sufficient thickness is obtained. Nickel is deposited in a similar manner, but the bath is composed of a solution of nickel sulphate and ammonium chloride. Electrotypes are sometimes faced with a deposition of nickel to increase their durability and also to prevent certain chemical actions taking place which may occur when printing with coloured inks from a copper surface.

The deposition of chromium is at

the moment receiving much attention, it being one of the hardest metals and of great durability.

Backing—When the deposition is complete the mould is taken from the bath and the shell removed by pouring hot water over it until the wax melts, the wax removed being melted and used again. The next operation is the backing up of the copper shell which when it is released from the wax is trimmed round the edges and prepared for receiving about 4 in. of molten metal.

As the metal (which is composed of lead, tin and antimony)

will not adhere to copper, the back of the shell has to be “fluxed.” This is done by brushing it over with a soldering fluid and covering it with “tin foil,” heat being applied until the two fuse

together. The shell is then placed face downwards on to a pan

or tray with flanges, and molten metal poured over the back and allowed to solidify. When the backing is completed it is removed from the pan and the face cleaned free from wax. It is then trimmed and passed through a series of finishing operations such as roughing and planing the back, routing the “blanks,” bevelling the plate and mounta ing it on wood or metal, great care having to be exercised in every detail to ensure that the printing face is not damaged. It is by the process of electrotyping that the duplication of the highest grade of printing plates is undertaken and that the reproduction of the finest half-tones and colour plates in accurate register and with fidelity to the original is made possible.

PRINTING

506

A Swiss inventor has made “shells” by spraying metal on to a mould, using a special tool, called a “pistol,” through which metal in the form of wire is automatically fed. This is fused by gas and spread in a state of sub-divisions by means of compressed air on to a matrix. Should this invention prove successful, the whole method of the duplication of printing plates may become revolutionized. PRINTING

MACHINES

The different styles of printing machines are too numerous to detail. In America they are called “presses” and in Great Britain (with the exception of proving presses) they are called “machines.” They may, however, be classified as platens, cylinders and rotaries. Many firms adopt standard makes of machines to suit their particular requirements. The larger number of machines in general use print on one side of the sheet at a time, but in offices where magazines and books are produced “perfecting”? machines are employed. These machines have two type beds and two impression cylinders, thus when one side of the sheet is printed, it is mechanically reversed and the other side receives an impression from another set of plates or type. In colour printing there are machines for printing a number of colours before delivery of the sheets. The usual method in multi-colour printing, is to print two colours before the sheet is delivered. There are two impression cylinders and two beds each with its respective forme of type or blocks. When the sheet receives its first impression it is transferred to another cylinder and the second colour is superimposed on the first. Thus, in reproducing pictures in four colours the sheets go through the machine twice before the work is completed. Colour printing has been attempted by placing machines “tandem wise,” z.¢., end on to each other, the sheets being carried from one machine to another by means of a travelling conveyor and automatically placing the sheets into the lays on the respective machines. Four colours have been printed by this method. The most effective multi-colour printing method, however, is that done on rotary presses, where a sheet is taken by means of grippers round a large impression cylinder and receives an impression from four sets of plates, each inked with a different colour. The Hand Press.—The hand press is of the platen type, że., an impression is taken from the whole forme at the same moment by means of a flat surface. The hand press is mainly used for proof-pulling. Photo-engravers usually pull the proofs of their plates on such a press, and it is invariably used by amateurs and those running private presses for printing small editions. On the hand press the type bed runs on two rails and is propelled under the platen by means of a rounce consisting of a handle and a pulley to which belts are attached; the ends of the belts are secured to the ends of the bed, and by turning the handle the bed is moved to and fro as the belts wind and unwind round the pulley; while to obtain the necessary pressure the platen is depressed by means of a lever, which when pulled forward acts upon a toggle joint (inclined pieces of metal) bringing it into a perpendicular position. This forces the platen down and presses the sheet on to the inked forme. On the bar being released the platen is lifted to its normal position by springs. Attached to the end of the type bed a hinged frame is fixed and covered with parchment or fine linen; this is called the “tympan,” and it is'on this that the making ready is fixed and the sheet of paper secured by means of “lays”? (pins being usually used). The paper is kept from being soiled by a “frisket” (another hinged frame fixed on to the top of the tympan and covered with paper with parts cut out corresponding to the area of the type which has to be printed). The portions of paper remaining on the frisket keep the sheet from being marked by the furniture or chase which is liable to become inked when rolling a forme by hand. Two hundred and fifty impressions an hour are considered a good production on this type of press. Platens.—The platen machines now used are generally known as “light” and “heavy” types. The terms explain the class of work for which they are intended. Light platens are fast-running machines suitable for general job work, and are invariably actuated by what is known as the “clam shell” movement, which brings the platen on which the

packing and “making-ready” are fastened, and on which the sheet to be printed is placed to guides, into a position where the sheet

can be pressed against the forme, which is held in a perpendicular

position. The forme is automatically inked by two or three rollers passing over the surface, the ink being fed by aroller from a “duct” on to a rotating “disc,” which assists in the distribution of the ink before the inking rollers take up a supply from the disc The platen and the bed are brought together by means of rods working on eccentrics. By moving a lever acting upon the eccen. tric the platen is thrown back, thus preventing the forme from

printing by keeping the platen from reaching the forme. This style

of machine can be worked by treadle, although motive power js now usually employed. The feeder stands in front of the machine lifts a sheet of paper with his right hand, places it on to lays on the platen which rises and prints the sheet. On the return motion of the platen the feeder removes the printed sheet with his left hand and places it on a table, at the same time placing another sheet on to the platen ready for printing. The average size of a sheet printed on these machines is ro in. by 15 in. and the speed is approximately 1,500 impressions per hour. Heavy platens are of exceptional strength built to meet the exacting demands of high grade printing. The frame is cast in one solid piece and the platen is placed on finished rails. The movement of the platen is known as the “rocking-sliding” action due to the platen having on its underside semi-circular rails which work on the rails on the frame and is controlled by a cam known as a “swan’s neck.” The platen is connected with the back of the

frame by two arms, the ends on the platen side working in eccentrics. As the machine works the platen is brought into action with a rocking motion until it reaches a perpendicular position and is then pulled into contact with the forme by a “slide up” or parallel movement.

A cylindrical inking system is a feature of this class of machine, The ink from the duct is fed on to a series of rollers, and oscillating metal drum. This ensures a better distribution and also enables a graduated supply of ink to be conveyed to the forme by four inking rollers. It is on this style of machine that the best half-tone and colour work is printed. The machines are built for large sheets (the usual size being about 22 by 14), and are fed and operated in the same way as light platens. The average production from a heavy platen is approximately about 1,000 impressions per hour. Cylinders.—The term “cylinder” is given to those machines where the impression is obtained by means of a cylinder pressing a sheet of paper on to the face of a forme which is secured ona flat horizontal bed. The cylinder runs in bearings held by brackets and rotates as the bed moves to and fro beneath it. There are

three different styles, (a) the drum cylinder, (b) the stop cylinder, (c) the two-revolution cylinder. The drum cylinder, the successor to Koenig’s machine (1811), is now but little used. The cylinder, continually revolving, makes one revolution for each impression. One half of the cylinder is lower to allow for the return of the type bed which has a short travel. When the cylinder completes its travel the gripper automatically opens and the printed sheet is transferred to a delivery apparatus known as the “flyers.” The sheets as they are delivered are placed one on top of the other on a board at the rear of the machine. The inking equipment is what is usually known as the “pyramidical system,” the ink duct being placed in front of the cylinder and the ink transferred to the forme by a system of rollers. The sheets are fed in from the top or crown of the cylinder. These machines are made in various sizes, and a production of between 2,000 and 3,000 is a fair average. The stop cylinder is essentially an English machine, and commonly known as a “Wharfedale.” In this class there is a small cylinder, about three quarters of the circumference being used for impression. On both ends of the cylinder pinions are geared into corresponding racks on each side of the type bed. One of the gears

on the cylinder “runs loose” and the other is fixed with the teeth on the under portion cut away.

This allows for the return of the

bed after the sheet has been printed. The carriage is supported by “bowls” running on rails and receives its reciprocating motion by

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FLAT-BED

CYLINDER

I. A large flat-bed cylinder printing press showing automatic feeder at one end and extension delivery at the other. The cylinder grips a sheet of paper upon every alternate revolution. On the first revolution the paper is carried around the cylinder. Simultaneously the bed of the press, In which the type matter is secured, moves to and fro and the paper is printed. By the second revolution of the cylinder the printed sheet is released from the cylinder and travels down the tapes towards the delivery table. 2. View rrom the driving-side of the same type of press as in fig. 1. The printed sheets are seen coming down the tapes towards the delivery table. The tapes

PRESSES

IN OPERATION

carrying the printed sheets do not move continuously but only when the bed is moving from the delivery towards the feeding end. Consequently the before sheet’s progress is retarded, permitting it a longer interval to dryimmedireaching the delivery table where it will lie upon the sheet printed increases, ately before it. As the pile of printed sheets on the delivery table sheets the delivery table is lowered automatically. Then the piles of printed To hasten drying many presses are are removed by means of trucks. over electric, or gas either be may which equipped with drying apparatus which each sheet passes in its journey towards the delivery table

PRINTING

507

Rotaries.—In this class of machine the impression is obtained by means of two cylinders, one of which carries the plate and the other the necessary packing, the paper passing between the two. The plates have to be curved to suit the cylinders and are secured from small pinions keyed on to the driving shaft. The cylinder is rotated by means of racks fixed on the side of by means of clamps. Where only one size of plate is printed on the bed. As the carriage is propelled to and fro the gears on the the machine, as in newspapers, two clamps are fixtures and the cylinder turn the cylinder and in this way the sheet is printed and other two are movable in order to provide for the secure locking is usually fed by hand to lays at the base of the cylinder. When up of the plates. Where plates of various sizes are printed the printed it isautomatically removed to the delivery board by means plate cylinder is spirally grooved, into which movable clamps are fitted to suit the size of the plates to be printed. of “flyers.” There are two types of rotary machine: one of which prints The inking system includes an ink trough, or “duct,” situated at the back of the machine. From the duct a supply of ink is fed single sheets (on one side), and the other where the paper is fed by means of rollers and placed on to a “slab” fixed to the end of from a reel, printed on both sides and folded before delivery. The inking mechanism on a rotary consists of an ink duct, a the carriage. As the carriage moves to and fro, the ink on the slab is distributed by a group of rollers. The inking rollers (held in distributing drum, and a series of rollers to carry the ink from brackets behind the cylinder) get their supply of ink from the the drum to the rollers which ink the plates. The speed of a slab as it passes under them and by this means inking the printing sheet-fed rotary being beyond the capacity of hand-feeding, makes surface. This type of machine is made in a large number of sizes automatic feeding an essential. On the reel-fed, or, as it is and can run at anything from 1,000 to 2,000 impressions an hour. sometimes called, the web-fed perfecting rotary press, the travel The Vertical Job Press.—This press is an adaptation of the of the paper through the machine and the folding of the pages stop-cylinder principle to a small printing machine with automatic are entirely automatic. Both sheet-fed and reel-fed rotaries are feeding device. The movement of the bed is on a vertical plane used for fine colour printing from half-tone plates. The most effective multi-colour printing machines are those with the cylinder rotating over the forme but in an opposite direcwhich consist of a large impression cylinder with four separate tion to the bed. This machine has been likened to a cylinder machine placed on plate cylinders each with its own mechanism for inking. The its end but with the cylinder on which the sheet is placed travelling plate cylinders are half the circumference of the impression over the inked forme. The cylinder stops to enable the grippers cylinders and two sheets may be printed (on one side) at each to take a sheet from the feedboard. The sheets are automatically revolution of the cylinder. The sheet is taken from the feed fed into lays and, after printing, are delivered at the back of the board by means of grippers attached to the cylinder, is carried machine. It is a high speed machine capable of printing a sheet under the first plate cylinder (where a yellow impression is printed 19 in. by 133 in. and producing about 3,000 copies per hour. on the sheet), then under the second set of plates (where a red There are on the market two or three well known machines impression is made on the top of the yellow impression), the that are adaptations of the stop-cylinder principle to a small sheet passing on to the two remaining plate cylinders (where blue and black impressions respectively are superimposed on the top press with automatic feeding device. The two-revolution machine is now generally accepted as the of the previous colours), and the sheet is delivered with the picstandard type of cylinder printing machine for general work. It ture completed in its full range of colours and tints. Electrotype derives its name from the fact that the cylinder makes two revolu- plates are used for printing, these having to be curved to suit the tions for each sheet printed. During one revolution the sheet is circumference of the plate cylinders, it being impossible to use printed, after which the cylinder rises clear of the forme to allow “overlays” on the impression cylinder. The impressions from the the return of the carriage to deliver the sheet on to the flyers. four sets of plates take place on the same section of the cylinder. In this type of machine the cylinder is not actuated by the bed. As each set of plates requires a different “make ready,” the plates Both cylinder and bed are driven independently but in unison with are “bumped” (the surface graded in height according to the tones in the plate). each other. The inking mechanism is on the slab principle and the sheets In America this is accomplished by the McKee process, in are fed from the crown of the cylinder, a feature being the method which the plate is “made ready” and the make-ready impressed of delivery of the printed sheet which is done in such a way that into its back through hydraulic pressure. The back of the plate the newly printed work does not come into contact with anything is then shaved to proper thickness and the plate curved to fit that would be likely to smear the wet ink. This style of machine the rotary cylinder. is capable of producing an average of about 2,000 copies per hour. The rapid printing of the McKee four-colour machines made it One well-known machine is an adaptation of the two-revolution necessary to devise a method for quickly drying the sheets to prevent offset or smudge. This was at first accomplished by interprinciple to a small press with automatic feeding attachment. The two-revolution make of machine is made with two cylinders, leaving the freshly printed sheets with specially prepared manilla either for “perfecting,” t.e., printing both sides of the sheet, or for paper. The device known as travelling offset prevents offsetting printing two colours before the sheet is delivered. These machines upon the impression cylinders of wet perfecting rotaries. It have two type beds, each with separate inking equipment. The winds and unwinds (working backward and forward) around a demands for fine work, coupled with the need for speed have reel which engages the second impression cylinder. This has given brought this style of machine to an extremely high degree of way to other methods, such as the spraying of a coat of powdered paraffin over the printed surface, so thin as to be imperceptible, eficiency and accuracy. A large number of small cylinder machines are built with the but sufficient to prevent offsetting of the sheets. object of giving a large output, but quality and speed do not Special inks are required for printing wet colours on the top usually go together. Hand feeding of printing machines is rapidly of each other. The results cannot be said to equal those obtained being superseded by automatic feeding. There are two distinct when sufficient time is allowed for each colour to “set” before types of machines for this purpose. One is known as a “pile printing the following colour. feeder” where a large stack of paper is placed in a contrivance In newspaper production the reel-fed rotary has been brought which automatically rises as the sheets are removed from the top to a high degree of efficiency. Although a newspaper machine is by means of suction, placed on the feed board, and carried to the of great size and seems highly complicated, really it is simple. lays on to the printing machine. In the event of the sheet not It comprises a number of units, each of which “perfects” a number reaching the lays, the machine stops. The other type is known as of pages. If the pages exceed the number of plates which can the “continuous feeder.” In this case the sheets are “put up” a be printed on a single unit, another unit or units can be linked few at a time and while the printing machine is running they are up together, and the printed “webs” come to a point in proper ‘combed out” and mechanically controlled until they reach the sequence where they are folded and cut before delivery. There is usually a blank space left on one or more pages of lays, and should they not do so, the machine automatically stops.

means of racks fixed on the underside of the carriage geared into | large wheels running on bearers and in gears. These are connected by a rod to another set of gear wheels which obtain their motion

PRINTING

508 a newspaper

TYPE

for the purpose of publishing news which has their ingenuity to invent some form of multiplying texts by means

This late news is of impressions from movable types, Leaving it for specialists to determine the priority of invention printed into the blank spaces by a contrivance called a “fudge box” which is circular in form and into which are secured lino- as between the Dutch “Costeriana” and productions of Johann type slugs. The “fudge” is fastened on to an auxiliary cylinder Gutenberg of Mainz, we may note that printing type began with equipped with inking mechanism. This works in unison with one that pointed black-letter design to which the scribes, secular and of the main impression cylinders and as the paper is printed an monastic, had long accustomed the librarians and readers of impression of the lines in the fudge box is made in the space left Europe. There can be no doubt that Gutenherg’s pointed text for the purpose. The “edition seals” and lines printed in colour is a magnificent type, not perhaps as fine as others of later date arrived after the paper has gone to press.

in newspapers are produced hy the same means. There is in practice a very wide limit in the planning of a newspaper machine, Units can be arranged in a straight line or placed one on top of the other. The capacity is determined by the number of folders which it is possible to fit on the machine. Each of these can turn out 45,900 folded copies per hour. Not infrequently the paper is run through the machine at an approxlmate rate of 54 m, per hour and it is possible to Join up new reels and change the fudge box without stopping the machine.

but well cut, harmonious

ING; also LITHOGRAPHY.)

rounded in early Italian printing, and angles give place to curves, Rounded scripts were characteristic of Italian book-making in the two centuries preceding the introduction of printing into Italy by Conrad Sweynheim and Arnold Pannartz at the Benedictine mon-

(See Book; Printinc Type; Corour Printing; PHoto-EnerayBIBLIOGRAPHY .=—C. §. Partridge,

Stereotyping

and Electrotyping

(2 vols., 1908), a historical review and the working of the processes;

F. J. Trezise, Design and Colour in Printing (1909), dealing with

design, and the science of colour as applied to typography; The Times, Printing Number (1912); British Museum, A Guide to the Exhibition in the King’s Library (1913), a concise historical and

descriptive account of early printed books, music-printing and bookbinding; H. R. Plémer, A Short History of English Printing, 1476rgoo (1915); E. C. Gress, The Art and Practice of Typography (1918),

a record of printing up to the zoth century, and a deseription of modern methods of production; J. C. Oswald, A History of Printing,

lis Development During Five Hundred Years (3928); The Linotype:

Its Mechanical Details and Their Adjustments (1920); V. Possnett, Stonework (1920); this deals with the imposition of pages for bookwork; T. L. De Vinne, Tke Practice of Typography (4 vols., 192021), a work dealing with title pages, book composition, plain printing

types

and

correct

composition;

Hackleman,

Commercial

Engraving and Printing (Indianapolis, 1921), a çamprehensive modern work; J. Southward, Modern Printing (1922), a work dealing exhaus-

tively with the art and practice of typography; J. R. Rogers, Linotype Instruction Book (1925); T. F. Carter, The Invention of Printing in China (1925); G. P. Winship, Gutenberg to Plantin (Cambridge, 1926); R. W. Polk, The Practice of Printing (1926), a practical work for students of letterpress printing; E. St. John, Practical Hints on Presswork (1927), a technical work for letterpress pressmen; R. A. Peddie, ed., Printing: A Short History of the Art (1928), comprising

articles on the history of printing throughout the world by various

authorities.

(J.

R.

R.; J. C. Os.)

PRINTING TYPE. At the time of the invention of printing, European scripts were changing. The ideas of the artistic and literary movement of the rs5th century, known as the Renaissance, were drawn from the classics of old Rome, and as many of the texts were preserved in the beautiful caroline hand, scribes learnt to copy the letters as well as the text of the original. The resulting “neo-caroline” hand was probably first seen at Florence, where Niccolé Niccoli, a celebrated humanist, directed a schoql of copyists about 1425 and trained scribes to write a very neat,

and vety pleasantly conscious of its

discipline and integrity. His informal Italianate bookish type (of the Indulgence) is also successful.

The Churches and the Printer._-The current demand for

ecclesiastical works produced a number of exceedingly handsome founts of formal pointed text, Inevitably the Church’s permanent

need of hooks made her the early printer’s best customer, and the finest types were cut for use in mass-bogks, psalters, breviaries, rituals, etc.

The uncompromising joints of typical German black-letter are

astery of Subiaco near Rome in 1464. These two Germans used a

type based upon the cammon round bookhand neither “gothic” nor

“humanistic.”

Other Germans migrated south, coming through

what is now the Austrian Tyrol, followed the road to Venice, and printed in “gothic” letters of the rounded kind. Four years after the printing at Subiaco of Sweynheim and Pannartz’ Lactantius in jere humanistica type there was cut in Venice a letter which may

positively be descrihed as a pure humanistic letter—or, in printers’ language, a pure roman. The design was first used in Italian printing in 1469 by two Germans who had come to Venice from Speier in the Rhineland, and is so well made that it presents a modern appearance to our eyes. In fact, with Johann and Wendelin da Spira we come into contact with the modern book, although the title-page and other preliminaries have yet ta develop. It must be noted, however, that a good roman was still earlier used in Germany by Adolph Rusch of Strassburg, in a Durandus issued not later than 1464. Had this example been followed, Germany might have followed up the “gothic” triumphs of Gutenberg, Sensen-

schmidt and Stuchs with no less notable roman founts. But Rusch’s isolated and barren achievement lay outside that main line of development which, beginning with the da Spira fount, held

within it the promise of a brilliant future which was to place Venice above any other printing centre. The da Spira letter was surpassed the next year by the design of the Frenchman, Nicholas

Jenson. This is an even more distinguished type, so elegant and readable that the authorities in typography have pronounced it to be the most perfect type ever cut. Jenson also used more than one gothic letter whose technique rivalled that of his famous roman, and which found great contemporary favour. His roman was round letter, which was in fact a revised and, in certain respects, much, copied in Italy and 25 years passed before the appearance more beautiful version of the old 9th century hand. The new let- of any rival which might be regarded as having the slightest right ter won a great success in literary circles, and by the middle of the to dispute its primacy. 15th century a company of scholars, artists and nobles, passion-

ately interested in the culture of pre-Christian civilization, enthusiastically practised it, They thought the old heavy black-letter most objectionable, and invented for it the nickname “gothic” (i.e., barbarous) by which it has been known ever since. Thus the neo-caroline letter, or “littera antiqua” as it was then called, became accepted for secular manuscripts. Moreover, just as there had been for centuries a formal and an informal] “gothic,” the

modern-antique writing was upright for formal text and sloping for informal current use. These are the originals of our so-called “roman” and “italic” types,

By the time of Gutenberg, therefore, the scripts in use in Europe

consisted of the old so-called “gothic,” and the new so-called “humanistic.” The former showed national peculiarities according as it was handled by German, French or English scribes, but the “humanistic” was for some time confined to Italy. This, then, was

the calligraphic situation when in the north men were straining

The Aldine Press, 1495,—But in 1495 there was founded in

Venice a press whose reputation for scholarship was destined to

become unique. Aldus Manutius Romanus was both a scholar and

a business man, but it does not appear that he took great interest in the technical problems of printing. His passion was for pure scholarship, and he devoted himself to the printing of inedited Greek and Latin texts. Some diversity of opinion exists with regard to Aldus’s merit as a typographer. The late Robert Proctor says roundly that his founts “whether Greek, Roman or Italic are in each case lamentably devoid of any beauty of form other than that conferred on them by good cutting.” Proctor was upset

by Aldus’s patronage of cursive Greek hands as type-models, so

full of unnecessary flourishes and ligatures; and the unfortunate effect of Aldus’s prestige was to perpetuate a sloped Greek calligraphic lower-case, But it is more than doubtful whether the

romans of Aldus can reasonably be lumped in with the Greek and Italic as equally bad in design. The contention that such beauty

PRINTING

TYPE

599

as they have is that conferred upon them by good cutting is also a little wide of the mark, in view of the fact that none of the

italic; and craftsmen of his generation mierged these two originally

Jenson’s. It may also be suggested that the design of one of the Aldine romans equals Jenson’s in point of design, but a liberally

of one fount. These French designs are the originals of our “old

Aldine types possesses anything like the technical excellence of

inked page of Jenson’s shows that the capitals are unnecessarily assortiveé.

The press began with an Erotemata which Constantinus Lascaris brought out in March, 1495, the capitals of which fount

reappear later in the year in conjunction with a lower-case which is of prime historical importance. The complète fount first appears as a short tract, De Aetna, by one of the leading Italian humänists, Pietro Bembo, afterwards Cardinal. The Erotemata capitals, though well designed, are too roughly cut to combine agreeably with the very beautiful lower-casé letters. The type of the De

Aetna represents, as it were, only a “first state.”

Aldus retained

it for the Diario of Alexander Bénedictus in 1496. In June of the next year he issued the work of a local physician, Nicholaus Leonicenus, entitled De Epidemia, which was set in a letter of similar design: but on a smaller body. In the famotis Hypneroto-

independent

founts into two mutually

dependent

constituents.

Thus for France and England roman and italic were twin halves faces’—the design which came into English printing with John Day, and which, by the médium of Voskens, van Dyck, and Caslon, is characteristic of our work writil the corning of Baskerville and the moderns. Whether or not the first “Garamond” letter was designed by himself or in association with Geoffrey Tory cannot be said, but it was certainly sponsored by very high author-

ity. The fine folio Bible of Robert Estienne (1532), which must

have taken some three or four years in going through the press, coritains probably the finest use of this letter. The “Garamond” type steadily acquired influence, and in a short time actively affected the typography of Venice and Flor-

ence.

Indeéd, by the middle of the 16th century the Gatamond

letter had succeeded in deposing the Venetian design which, have seen, was originated by the da Spiras and Jenson. It easy to account for the progress of the Garamond design in Guillaume Le Bé, Garamond’s pupil, was in Venice between

as we is not Italy. 1546

mochia Poliphili the same face appears in a lightér, more grace-

and 1540, and doubtless supplied a certain quantity of French

ful and more harmonious

type to Venetian printers; but it remains curious that the merits of the Jenson design should have been overlooked in favour of the work of a newcomer. It was another Frenchman who cut punchés for a new printing office attached to the Holy See: Robert Granjon went to Rome at the invitation of Gregory XIII., and remained there several years, cutting numerous orientals and romans on the Garamond model. The italic is generally of the flowing Arrighi design. Garamond made one experiment, and perhaps more, with types which deliberately reproduced the Aldine italic, and himself printed three or four books about 1548 in this face. It would appear that the taste of the day approved his effort. Italic, in fact, from this time, tends to be reserved for preliminary matter, citation and emphasis. It should be observed, too, that by 1540 the upper casé of italic founts is sloped, whereas Arrighi’s and Estienne’s texts were invariably worked with upright capitals. From the middle until the end of the 16th century there was little change in type-design. The great successes in Italian print-

cuttihg.

It is not claimed that the

final form of this is perfect: at least the “L” is inferior in design to that of Jenson, and the “G” almost ugly, but the type does present a very distinguished appearance, which would have gained had a first-class pressman béen entrusted with the printing.

The type of the Polifilo made another appearance in the next year (1500) in the preliminaries of a folio Politian of 500 or more pages composed in the type of the Bembo. In the preliminaries referred to, a commendatory epistle is composed in the “Bembo” lower-case, joined to a new and much larger series of capitals. The fact seems to be—not exactly as Proctor would have it, that Aldus was a “man of phenomenal bad taste for his time”—but that his interest was rather less in typography than in scholarship. Before passing to the Aldine Italic, we may point out that the type of Bembo’s De Aetna is the origin of that style of letter known to English printers as “old face.” We have only to compare the founts of Jenson, Aldus, Garamond

and Caslon to see

that the forms of our present letters derive immediately from ao through Garamond, and that the latter did not copy from ehson.

Italic.—In 1560, Aldus’ office was cutting the sloping character

described by himself as Chancery, and which we have grown accustomed to call italic. It is not a very satisfactory letter from the point of view of design, or indeed in its suitability as type; no fewer than 68 ligatures have been counted in the early volumes of the library of classics for which Aldus specified this type. It was engraved by the same Francesco (Griffi) da Bologna who cut the type of the De Aetna and the Polifilo. Owing to the warm welcome that greeted the low prices and novelty of the Aldine classics, the type in which they wére set made an undeserved reputation, with the result that, though Aldus did what he could to protect it, the design was copied in many other Italian printing centres arid in England, the Netherlands and France. Its artistic merit is very slight, but it “takes in’ extremely economically, a supreme quality in the series for which Aldus employed it. The calligraphic deficiencies of the Aldirie italic are apparent when it is placed side by side with that designed in Rome by one of the scribes employed in the Vatican Chancery, Ludovico Arrighi, alias Vicentino, and cut by the goldsmith, Bartholomeo dei Rotelli of

Perugia. The fame of the Aldine italic arises from priority in time, but Artighi’s is infinitely better in design, more graceful, more legible, and more permanent in its influence. The form of italic which we employ as a companion to our “old-faces,” descends from Arrighi. The extent of the use of “Italic” types cut

on the Arrighi model in Italy, prépares us for its utilization by the greatest printers of Paris, Robert Estienne and Simon de Colines. A comparison of Arrighi’s italic with that of Colines’ a that the French fotint is directly indebted to Arrighi’s den.

“Old Face””—-Garamond, obviously had before him the De Aetna or the Polifilo 4s models for his roman, and Arrighi for the

ing were won between 1470 and 1520, and in French between 1525 and 1550. Christopher Plantin of Antwerp, working with types of Garamond and Granjon, produced a number of handsome works; and, though the artistry of this printer has perhaps been

overrated, his Polyglot Bible is a notable achievement alike in scholarship and in typography. He contributed nothing to roman or italic type design. The range of typé varieties characteristic of incunabula narrowed with the opening of the 16th century, typographical supremacy passed to Paris, and the Garamond de-

sign was stabilized for 150 years. The 17th century did little beyond reproducing these and Estienne’s typés, generally with some loss of beauty—an exception being the types of Christopher van Dyck, a freelance punch-cutter in Amsterdam who worked for several foundries, cutting types certainly less important to the historian than those of Garamond, but obviously more beautiful

—not the only instance of types designed after the model of a historic letter being superior in design to their prototype. Thus, Garamond’s design was improved upon, first by Robert Granjon, and next by Christopher van Dyck. The reputation of Dutch types is intimately connected with van Dyck, largely because his types were used by the Elzevirs.

The editions of the famous Leyden firm have not the interest of the work of the preceding century, but their types are undeniably finer in design and technique. Other engravers, such as Bartholornew Voskens and his brother Dirck, contributed to the renown of Dutch typefounding, while English craftsmanship, owing to repressive legislation scarcely existed. Books were commended by ddvértising that they were printed in Dutch letter. Moxon

thought van Dyck’s the best of all, and made a fount of similar design. When in 1660 Bishop Fell took in hand the task of procuring types for the use of the press of Oxford univetsity he immediately turned to Holland. His agent, Thomas Marshall, procured punches and matrices from the Voskens, but unfortunately

510

PRINTING

TYPE

he secured none of van Dyck’s. The 18th century brings us to the

the style of Grandjean and of Louis Luce, cutter at the Ip.

types called “modern” of which Bodoni is the most notable protagonist. Giambattista Bodoni of Parma was an innovator, but

primerie Royale of the first of all condensed letters. England, slow in following new fashions, was using the founts of Caslon and Baskerville. The types which William Caslon I, cut

he did not, as often assumed, create the “modern” serif, for the same thin, flat serif is found in codices written 300 years before Bodoni was born. Some of the letters modelled upon manuscripts of this time—those of da Lignamine—themselves possess flat, unbracketed serifs, though they are heavier in weight. The thin, flat serif is to be seen in the copybooks of several professional Venetian writing-masters; for instance, the lettera antiqua tonda, drawn by G. A. Tagliente, exhibits it; as do other Italian and French writing-books which we need not specify. The “modern” serif is, indeed, only a forgotten renaissance trick contemporary with the short, stubby and bracketed serif which we find in the Bembo type. Romain du Roi.—When that most important printing institution, the Imprimerie Royale, was established in the Louvre by Richelieu in 1640, its sole types were cuttings and re-cuttings of the “‘old-face” originals of Garamond, Le Bé, and Granjon. The next sovereign, however, Louis XIV., approved the creation of an entirely new set of roman and italic types to be absolutely reserved to the office of the Louvre. The project was sanctioned in 1692, and a commission of experts was appointed by the Académie Royale des Sciences to study the formation of perfect roman letter. The chairman of the commission, one Jaugeon, embodied the findings in a bulky report, and a set of elaborate geometric designs in which the traditional roman forms were once more disciplined by

rule and compass. Jaugeon’s letters were drawn upon a field subdivided into no fewer than 2,304 small squares. The royal road to a perfect roman letter was in theory a mathematical one, but when Philippe Grandjean came to cut the punches, he elected to work with a considerable degree of independence, preferring the guidance of his own trained eye. The romain du roi Louis XIV.,

as the new letter was called, when compared with Garamond’s roman shows a sharper contrast between its thick and thin strokes, it is more regular, and better in its justification. The most important general differences are in respect to a certain condensation of form and the novelty of serif. For the first time the thin, flat, unbracketed variety appears in a type-form. In the top of the roman lower-case ‘b’, ‘d’, ‘i’, ‘j’, ‘k’, ‘’, and ‘h’ the new feature extended both sides. An interesting feature of Grandjean’s italic is his departure from the ancient old-face form of the lower-case ‘b’ which is derived, of course, from that modification of roman square capital writing known as uncial. It is, perhaps, not so generally realized that the hooped forms of Garamond’s and Caslon’s italic lowercase “h” go back to a fourth century original, while the other form is no older than Louis XIV.’s time. The romain du rot inevitably exercised a considerable influence. The enterprise of trade type-founders, nevertheless, was obstructed by a decree forbidding any counterfeiting. Fournier-lejeune’s way-out was to narrow the proportions of his letter and slightly to modify the serifs. His italic modifications can be seen in the fine oblong folio specimen published 1742. Though the crown monopoly of the romain du roi was safeguarded by the enactment of penalties against its reproduction by trade typefounders, the advantage of a narrow-bodied letter was quickly observed, and Grandjean’s methods were followed by Dutch founders. J. M. Fleischman cut a new series for the Enschedés at Haarlem, 1730-68; some 20 of his alphabets were of an elongated character, with thin hair lines and thin serifs. Fournier copied these, as he admits in his description “Gott Hollandois.” When Bodoni commenced to print he used these and other of Fournier’s letters and ornaments. Later he made copies of his own, and later still cut new varieties in which the contrast between the thicks and thins was accentuated. There is much to be learnt from Bodoni’s

careful presswork and sense of style in typography, and his influence was rightly considerable on the continent and in England towards the end of the 18th century. At the same time, Francois

Ambroise Didot, the founder of the great dynasty of printers, publishers and paper-makers, was experimenting with types cut in

between 1720 and 1726 were, and are, very fine renderings of the “old-face” design which came down from Aldus. The sizes—enp.

lish, pica and brevier—are brilliantly cut.

Certain of the larger

bodies cut by William Caslon ITI. are at least agreeable, though

every size above two-line pica contains more than one ill-formeg sort. Caslon undeniably made a very handsome letter out of the Dutch models, which he manifestly had before him; but credit for initiative must go to John Baskerville—his roman is an open legible and expressive letter possessing a great deal of individual.

ity though the wiry, thin and pinched italic which he drew for companion use is less successful. The refinement and precision of the Baskerville type were not much

valued in England

during his lifetime.

Bodoni

and the

Didots, however, admired his presswork and paper; later the in-

fluence of Baskerville’s forms was considerable in Britain, as

witness the types of Fry and Wilson. One of the Caslons, also, who split away from the parent firm, made a letter similar io Baskerville’s. These types are round and, though sharing sharp contrasts as between their thicks and thins, remain in the “oldface” tradition. Nevertheless, their nicety and precision of cut reflect the “modern” invention of Grandjean.

In making a com-

parison of the merits of Caslon and Baskerville, perhaps we may summarize by saying that while Baskerville shows greater originality and personality in design than does Caslon, the latter was

undoubtedly a more expert engraver.

Baskerville’s “modernity”

lay in his printing methods rather than in his typefounding technique. The first of the Didots who took typography as a career was François Ambroise Didot (1730-1804) who directed the French national printing office for a time, and to whom the continent of Europe owes its authoritative point system. His light-faces were engraved by the punch-cutter Waflard and take the original design

of Grandjean a step farther than Fournier or Bodoni. His sons and their successors drew and redrew upon the same models, first increasing their brittle and attenuated aspect, next fattening and condensing them. English Designs.—English modern-faces are to be early found

in the books of William Bulmer (1758-1830) of the Shakespeare Press. Here is to be found a close-set, narrow-bodied letter with fine hair-lines. It possesses the curly-tailed capital “R” which never occurs in the genuine old-faces and which Grandjean, Baskerville and Bodoni preferred. These types were well cut by

William Martin, and after Bulmer came many other modern-faces, all possessing extremely thin hair-lines. Ever since the days of Caxton, England had depended upon foreign types, Netherlandish or French. The first original English design of any kind to make an impression abroad was Thorne’s “fat grotesque”—produced during 1800-03. It was a distinct novelty, and was taken up with great enthusiasm in France, Germany and Holland. The Imprimerie Nationale itself in 1840 commissioned Thorne to cut a like face. Bodoni fattened his large sizes, and the Paris trade was supplied with a gras instead of a maigre Didot. After Thorne (1803) came a heterogeneous swarm of fat and lean faces. The unexampled successes of English industrialism staggered the world, and the continent, while cursing British “hypocrisy,” bought British machines and copied British types. Consequently from 1820 to 1860 all printing was in a sorry condition, though, by way of exception, the London publisher, William Pickering, and his printers, the Whittinghams, produced some comely books in “modern” and “old-face” types. But the return to decent standards was slow. Abroad, the work of a scholar-printer and publisher at Lyons is to be noted. In 1846 Louis Perrin cut the first types designed since the Renaissance upon the model of Latin inscriptions—plentiful in an ancient Roman foundation, like Lyons (Lugdunum). The lower-case roman

resembles Caslon’s, but the italic, deriving from Grandjean and Fournier, gains elegance by reason of Perrin’s inclusion of swash

capitals. Perrin’s handsome printing in these Caractéres Augus-

PRINTING taux, gave the types an important influence in France. They were copied by Beaudoire (Paris), who called them by the arbitrary and confusing name ‘‘Elzevir,” since applied by continental convention to all “old-faces.”’ Beaudoire’s capitals, imported by the Chiswick

Press in the ’sixties while that illustrious establishment was managed by Whittingham and Wilkins, are to-day in use at their printing works in Tooks Court under the name “Lyons capitals,” a curious survival unfair to Perrin. William Morris——The Oxford Movement in the Church of England, and Scott’s novels, mediaevalism and the pre-Raphaelites, opened the way for William Morris, poet and craftsman.

He

had secured the printing of his Roots of the Mountains (1889) in an old Chiswick Press type cut by William Howard in 1858, but he now created an entirely new formula of the printed book. 1891

saw the first Kelmscott book, The Story of the Glittering Plain. Morris, as a typographer at least, was a mediaevalist; he admired the early printing and, naturally, his types were archaistic; he

thought Jenson’s the finest roman and drew a fount therefrom, the Golden type. The Troy type and the Chaucer came later. There followed similar experiments by others: Mr. Charles Ricketts

made the Vale with its individualistic ‘g’, ‘e’, ‘b’, ‘y’, and obtrusive

capitals. The King’s fount, also cut for the Vale Press, is a strongly personal design. Mr. Ashbee’s Endeavour (1901) is per-

haps the most extreme of these idiosyncratic founts. Mr. Lucien Pissaro’s Brook type is less eccentric than sophisticated, but serves to throw into welcome relief the elegance and simplicity of the Doves type designed on the basis of Jenson by Cobden-Sanderson and Emery Walker. Another fine letter, but too closely following an ancient model, is Mr. C. H. St. John Hornby’s Ashendene type (1902) which reproduces the fere-humanistica of Sweynheim and Pannartz (Rome, 1465). Italian models were also followed by Herbert P. Horne, who cut three types between 1905 and rgoo. The first, the Montallegro, was cut for Mr. Updike and first used in the Life of Michelangelo Buonarroti by Condivi (1905). The Florence type, cut for Chatto and Windus, came in 19009, as also the Riccards for the Medici Society. All three types are agreeable and restful in composition. The capitals are better in design than the lower-case. In all the latter, the poor forms are the a, ‘e, y, always difficult letters to draw. Not one of these experimenters made an italic, and an unbreakably conservative mood seems to have settled upon the English private presses after the insurgent individualism of the Vale and Endeavour types. In the United States a similar reaction is to be noticed. Mr. Bruce Rogers, who made a new type for an edition of Montaigne’s “Essays” published by Houghton, Mifflin of Boston (1903) succeeded in constructing a readable and dignified letter, though even here an unhappy lower-case ‘e’ may be detected. The capital ‘R’ varies from the Jenson model (accepted as the basis

of the fount), and not for the better. There can be no two opinions, however, about the same artist’s Centaur (1916), again based upon Jenson but improving at many points upon the Venetian model, notably in the capital ‘M.’ German printing, mean and even horrible since the extinction ofthe Frankfurt school headed by Egenolff, improved with Unger. His quasi-Didot frakturs, however, depended for their effect upon better presswork than they ever received. The roman (antiqua)

acquired influence when used by Karl Tauchnitz in 1825. Ever

since then the frakiur and schwabacher types have been slowly undermined by the antigua and kursiy until at the present time there is used perhaps more roman than fraktur. A number of the modern German roman types are excessively personal—witness the fount designed by the architect Eckmann for the Klingspor foundry. Tt is a fair example of the kind of type which the intelligent German put out before the introduction to Germany in 1905 of the teaching of the English calligrapher, Edward Johnston. The fine school of calligraphers which arose from this source

greatly influenced all those crafts in which lettering plays any

TYPE

511

of German private presses from a low to a very high place in the esteem of collectors; but for the bulk of German printed books, types drawn from older English and French models prevail, varied by the occasional use of the more conservative of the new founts.

Unlike ourselves, the Germans less strenuously resist experiment in books: it is perhaps for this reason that the English typefounders have ignored the new calligraphical movement. Certain it is that the English dislike novelty in typography, and many years must elapse before any British design influences the continent of Europe. It was not always so. About 1802 certain Scottish printers originated the crisply cut modern face now known by the name of Scotch Roman. The type remains in constant employment in Great Britain, and to an even greater extent in the United States. In 1850 Miller and Richard evolved their Revived old-style, which is not a revival, but an insipid original design. It found immediate favour in England, and is widely used to-day at home, in Scandinavia, Germany and the United States. These two Scottish faces represent the most popular designs in the English-speaking world. They are book types. Advertising Type.—tThe rise of advertising gave a new opportunity to type designers, and it was to be expected that America, the home of advertising, would take full advantage of it. The most widely used face of the last quarter of the century has been the Cheltenham designed by Goodhue and Kimball in 1902. With its success, initiative in type design passed to the United States, and with the corps of fine designs made by the exceptionally able American designer, Mr. F. W. Goudy, and the justly appreciated Cloister (Jenson) and Garamond of the American Typefounders’ Company, the English foundries become of slight consequence. The World War effectively postponed the production of new English designs, and recent years have seen publicity types imported in the main from America. Germany now (1929) leads in this department, and it is safe to prophesy that German typefounders, profiting by the liveliness of the intelligence of their designers, will concentrate upon the production of grotesque and decorative advertising and publicity faces. It seems equally certain that the design of classic types for book-printing will, for economic reasons, lie in the hands of the makers of the typesetting machines: the “Linotype,” invented 1885 and the “Monotype,” invented 14890. Lately the Monotype Company has, by way of guiding the public taste, reproduced a number of the classic old-faces, beginning with the Bembo type of 1495, a fine Italian Renaissance cursive (Blado) and roman (Polijilo), a French Renaissance type (Garamond) Baskerville, Fournier and other historic founts, as a preparation for the future issue of original designs. In this connection the company has retained the services of the famous English sculptor and letter cutter, Eric Gill. The Linotype Company has also issued two strikingly successful faces, the Venezia (Jenson), and the Granjon, a most important addition to the printer’s equipment, and—by reason of the very extensive use of this machine—calculated to be of the greatest service in raising the level of current printing. See also ‘TypocRAPHY. | BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Specimens of types in current use will be found in the catalogues issued by the typefounders and type-setting machine makers; specimens of superseded founts are conveniently given in the works of Updike and De Vinne. The following works should also be consulted: T. L. De Vinne, Plain Printing Types (N.Y., 1900); Ch. Enschedé, Fonderies de Caractères dans les Pays-Bas (Haarlem, 1908); P. S. Fournier, Manuel Typographique (2 vols., Paris, 176466); Edward Rowe Mores, Dissertation upon Eng. Typographical Founders and Founderies (1778; new ed.,; D. B. Updike. 1924) ; Stanley Morison, On Type Faces (1923); Talbot Baines Reed, Hist. of the Old Eng. Letter-Founders (1887; new ed., A. E. Johnson and Stanley Morison, 2 vols., 1929) ; Albrecht Seeman, Handbuch der Schrifiarten (Leipzig, 1926); D. B. Updike, Printing Types (2 vols., Cambridge, U.S.A., 1922) ; E. Wetzig, Ausgewahlie Druckschriften (Leipzig, 1920) ; H. H. Sparling, The Kelmscott Press and William Morris ae ) i . Mo.

part; and the German typefounders, led by the house of Klingsbor, quickly applied the skill of several masters of the new calli-

HAND-PRESSES USED IN GRAPHIC ARTS History.—In the beginning the only machines used by the graphic arts were hand-presses. These machines were used before either steam or electricity were thought of as a means of pro-

known of these artists. Their types have raised the typography

viding power.

graphy to the designing of new roman and gothic founts. Peter Behrens, Rudolf Koch and E. H. Ebmcke are perhaps the best-

Of course, in modern times, the large machines

PRIOR

812

used could not be opérated by hutnan power so it was metessary

to invent something that was more powerful than the hand of man. The présses driven by steam and electricity were not expected to improve the quality of the work produced—nor have they improved it—but they were made to increase the quantity; hence, the power press. When Alois Senefelder (1771-1834) invented lithography about the end of the 18th century, he was compelled to build

some kind of a machine that would enable him to reproduce on paper what he had engraved or written on the limestone which he had used as a base for his work of printing music. He proceeded to make a machine which was called the pole-and-beam

cause the stoné to balance and move Slightly with every impres-

sion, thus making it impossible to register impréssions on it. while a concaved bed will wear down the corners of the stone and put it out of plumb. More work has been spoiled by presses with uneven beds than in almost any other way. In 1905 a new kind of lithographic press was invented in the United States called the “offset press.” This was a steam-driven press, but it called for a hand-press to make the transfers to be used, and make thern quickly and accurately. Several inventors

press, which, as the name indicates, was made of poles and beams.

started to make an offset hand-press. The first one offered re. sembled a washing machine wringer. The proof was pulled from a stone, laid on another piece of transfer paper, and the two were run through this wringer-like machine. Some work was

pleted during the year 1796.

sheets to, it was next to impossible to make a sheet register prop-

This first préss that Senéfelder made is said to have been comThe pressure was applied by the

workman standing on a treadle, his weight supplying the needed pressure—and the larger the préssman the better the impression he produced. The pole-and-beam press was not an unqualified success ard was soot discarded by the lithographic inventor and an entirely different machine was built in 1797. The new machine was called the “star press” and was patented in 1801, and, while very crude, was used by Senefelder for a number of years. Some of the parts of this press are followed in some of the hand-presses in use to-day. It was an improvement on the pole-and-beam press because of the use of a much larger stone.

For many years this

press was the “standard” model in the lithographing business. There is no record of a lithographic hand-press being built between the years 1798 and 1820, but during the last-named year a machiné was turned out in England called “the English handpress.” This press ahd other similar ones were used until the power machines carrie into use in 1865. After the introduction of this power-press, which was called the “steam press,” the handpress was practically discarded except for pulling proofs and working off extremely short runs. While the “steam press” has been adopted all over the world as the standard lithographic machine, it is still maintained by many lithographers that better and more perfect work can be turned out by the hand-press. The pressuré that prints the image from the stone to the paper by the hand-press is entirely different from the pressure of any

6ther printing machine in use. It is a scraping motion. After the paper is placed on the stone a piece of hard wood is drawn across the form to be printed, with sufficient pressure to make the paper take the ink. All other lithographic presses and type presses

turned out this way, but as there were

erly, so this proposition was abandoned and other designs taken up. Finally, an offset hand-press equipped with a largé rubber. covered cylinder was offered. This same principle has lasted to the present day. This large rubber cylinder travels over the stone or plate containing the image from which it takes an impression, and then it goes on to a bed upon which is laid the paper. As the cylinder goes over the paper the image is transferred from the rubber blanket to the paper and the work of printing is done, so far as the sheet is concerned. It occasionally happens that one wishes to pull a transfer of a piece of copper plate engraved work to use on a lithographic hand-press. From a purely mechanical point of view the construction of the copper plate press is an exceedingly simple matter. Its purpose is to produce a heavy and uniform pressure on the plate during the operation. To make a lithographic transfer from a copper plate engraving one should lay the plate face upward on the bed of the press, lay the paper on it and pass it between the two iron cylinders. The material used in making lithographic transfers from copper plate engravings consists of transfer ink, whiting, transfer paper and a good supply of clean rags. The copper plate is first heated, but not enough to burn the ink; then the transfer ink is forced into the engraved parts until every part is fully charged.

In cleaning the plate it should be carefully rubbed with a rag charged with whiting until all the surplus ink is removed. The transfer paper to be used is dampened—or commercial transfer paper may be used which is made to retain dampness—and the plate and paper used before the plate gets cold. Transfers miade in this way may be used in lithographing on a hand-press.

(W. C. Br.)

print by pressing down on the paper by some direct means.

About 1825 a hand-press was made of iron and its operation was entirely different from any previous ones. It had a roller made of brass and operated by a handle which caused a travelling carriage, on which the stone was placed, to run urider a frame to which was attached the scraper. The pressure was tegulated from beneath the carriage, which was forced up by a screw to give the correct amount of impression when the scraper was applied. After the print was made the pressure was released and the tartriage drawn back by hand, thus giving the operation a saving of

time and greatly increasing the output. In 1846 there was constructed in Ireland 4 hand-press known

as the Macbrair press.

It was a great improvement

on the

English machine mentioned before, and did good work at what was considered in those days great speed. One of these machines

was brought to America and a good-sized family was supported

with it for several years. The largest edition worked on this machine ran about 500 copies in one colour. This press is now said to be in a museum on exhibition as a curiosity. In reproducing the image to be printed by any make of lithographic hand-preéss the principle involved is the same—that of the

scraper being forced across the plate. This scraper, no matter what kind of wood it is made from, must be perfectly straight and the face, which is V-shaped, must be carefully rounded so that it will not sag or bulge when pressure is applied. The bed of the hand-press, upon which the stone that is to be printed from is placéd, must be level and neither concaved nor convexed for,

while the stone is not supposed to bend, a convexed bed will

no guides to feed the

PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721), English poet and diplomatist, was the son of a Noncomformist joiner at WimborneMinster, East Dorset, and was born on July 21, 1664. His father moved to Londoh, and sent him to Westminster, where he was enabled by the earl of Dorset to continue his education after his father’s death. At Westminster he made friends with Charles Montagu, afterwards earl of Halifax. It was to avoid being sep-

arated from Montagu and his brother James that Prior accepted, agditist his pátròn’s wish, a scholarship recently founded at St.

Jolin’s college. He took his B.A. degree in 1686, and two years later became a fellow. In collaboration with Montagu he wrote

in 1687 the City Mouse and Country Mouse, in ridicule of Dryden’s Hind and Panther.

The satire made the fortune of both

authors. Montagu was promoted at once, and Prior three years later was gazetted secretary to the embassy at The Hague. After four years of this employment he was appointed one of the gen-

tlemen of the king’s bedchamber. In 1697 he was secretary to the plenipotentiaries who concluded the Peace of Ryswick, and in 1698 he was sent to Paris in attendance on the English ambas-

sador. At this period Prior could say with good reason that “he had commonly business enough upor his hands, and was only 4 poet by accident.” His occasional poems during this peridd include an elegy on Queen Mary in 169s; a satirical version of Boileau’s Ode sur le prise de Namur (1695); some lines on William’s escape from assassination in 1696: and The Secretary. After his return from France Prior became wunder-secretary of state and succeeded Locke as a commissioner of trade. In 170!

513

PRIOR—PRISCILLIAN ie sat in parliament for East Grinstead. He had certainly been

n William’s confidence with regard to the Partition Treaty; but hen Somers, Orford and Halifax were impeached for their share n it he voted on the Tory side, and immediately on Anne’s accession he definitely allied himself with Harley and St. John.

After the return of the Tories to power in 1710, Prior was again

employed, and until Anne’s death he shared in all negotiations

with the French court, sometimes as secret agent, sometimes in an equivocal position as ambassador’s companion, sometimes as fully accredited but very unpunctually paid ambassador. His share in negotiating the treaty of Utrecht, of which he is said to have disapproved personally, led to its popular nickname of “Matt’s Peace.” When the queen died and the Whigs regained power he was impeached by Sir Robert Walpole and kept in close

custody for two years (1715-1717). In 1709 he had already pubished a collection of verse. During this imprisonment, maintaining his cheerful philosophy, he wrote his longest humorous poem, Alma; or, The Progress af the Mind. This, with his most ambitious work, Solomon, and other Poems om several Occasions,

was published by subscription in 1718. Prior died at Wimpole, Cambridgeshire, a seat of the earl of Oxford, on Sept. 18, 1721, and was buried in Westminster abbey, where his monument may he seen in Poet’s Corner. A History of his Own Time was issued

by J. Bancks in 1740. The book pretended to be derived from Prior’s papers, but it is doubtful how far it is authentic.

BreiogRapHy.—See The Writings of Matthew Prior, 2 vol. (ed, A. R. Waller, 1905—07) ; The Poetical Works of Matthew Prior, 2 vol, (ed. R. B. Johnson, 1892) ; Selected Poems (ed, Austin Dobson, 1889) ; The Shorter Poems of Matthew Prior (ed. F. L, Bickley, 1923); also F. L. Bickley, The Life of Matthew Prior (1914); and L. G. W. Legg, Matthew Prior: a study of his public career and correspondence (1921).

PRIOR, a title applied generally to certain monastic superiors, but also in the middle ages to other persons in authority. Under

the Roman Empire the word prior is found signifying “ancestor.” In the early middle ages it was commonly applied to secular officials and magistrates, and it remained all through the middle ages as the title of certain officials in the Italian city states. In the Rule of St. Benedict and other early rules the titles

praepositus and praelatus (see Prerate) are generally used, but prior is also found signifying in a general way the superiors and elders in a monastery; afterwards the title prior (or claustral prior) was restricted to the abbot’s vicegerent, who was generally

charged with the details of the discipline of the monastery. With the foundation of the order of Cluny in the roth century there appeared the conventual prior, who ruled as head of a monastery. The Regular Canons, and the Carthusians and Dominicans, later

gave this title of prior to the heads of their houses.

Se Du Cange, Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis, new edition by L. Favre (Niort, 1883, etc.); Sir William Smith and S. Cheetham, edd. Dictionary of Christian Antiquities (1875-80), and the article “Prior” in the Cathalic Encyclopedia.

PRISAGE AND

BUTLERAGE,

the names of ancient

English customs duties which survived until the beginning of the roth century. The oldest was a wine duty. Later it became customary to levy upon wool, woolfells and leather. This “customs’? duty was known as “‘prisage.” The earliest known prisage

was levied in kind; one tun of wine being taken from every cargo of from ro to 20 tuns, and two tuns from every cargo exceeding 20 tuns; a tun being 252 gallons. The king’s man took the liberty

of sampling all the wine so that the king got his tun or tuns from the best on board. Later, importers were allowed to make a money composition instead of paying in kind. Prisage was payable both by British citizens and aliens. In the reign of Edward I., by a charter known as Carta Merca-

chased those rights for nearly £200,000, In 1809 the duties were abolished by the Customs Consolidation Act of that year,

PRISCIAN [Priscianus CaEsARIENSIS], the celebrated Latin

grammarian, lived about A.n. 500. This is shown by the facts that

he addressed to Anastasius, emperor of the East (491-518), a laudatory poem, and that the mss. of his Iustitutiones grammaticae

contain a subscription to the effect that the work was copied (526, 527) by Flavius Theodorus, a clerk in the imperial secretariat. His title Caesariensis points, according to Niebuhr and

others, to Caesarea in Mauretania. Priscian was quoted by several

writers in Britain of the 8th century—Aldhelm, Bede, Alcuin— and was abridged or largely used in the next century by Hrabanus Maurus of Fulda and Servatus Lupus of Ferriéres. There is hardly a library in Europe that did not and does not contain a copy of his great work, and there are about a thousand mss. of it. The

greater part of these contain only books ixvi. (sometimes called

Prisctanus major); a few contain (with the three hooks Ad Symmachum) books xvii., xviii. (Priscianus minor); and a few contain both parts. The earliest mss. are of the oth century, though a few fragments are somewhat earlier. All are ultimately derived from the copy made by Theodorus. The first printed edition was in 1470 at Venice. The Institutiones grammaticae is a systematic exposition of

Latin grammar. It is divided into 18 books, of which the first 16 deal mainly with sounds, word-formation and inflexions; the last two, which form from a fourth to a third of the whole work, deal with syntax. He has preserved to us numerous fragments which would otherwise have been lost, ¢.g., from Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, Cato and Varro. Priscian’s three short treatises dedicated to Symmachus are on weights and measures, the metres of Terence, and some rhetorical elements (exercises translated from the IIpeyuyvacuara

of Hermogenes). He also wrote De nomine, pronomine, et verbo (an abridgment of part of his Jnstitutiones), and an interesting specimen of the school teaching of grammar in the shape of com-

plete parsing by question and answer of the first 12 lines of the

Aeneid (Partitiones xii. versuum Aeneidos principalium), He also

wrote two poems, not in any way remarkable, a panegyric on Anastasius and a translation of Dionysius’s Periegests. The best edition of the grammatical works is by Hertz and Keil, in Keils Grammatici latini, vols. ii, iji.; poems in E. Bährens’ Poetae latint minores, the “Pẹriegesis” also, in C. W. Müller, Geographi graeci minores, vol. ii. See J, E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship vol. i.; and A. Luscher, De Prisciani studiis Graecis (Breslau, o

1912). PRISCILLIAN (d. 385), Spanish theologian and the founder of a party which, in spite of severe persecution for heresy, persisted in Spain and in Gaul until after the middle of the

He was a student of the occult sciences and He was a mystic, and regarded the Christian life as continual intercourse with God. He argued that to make himself a fit “temple of God,” a man must, besides holding the Catholic faith and doing works of love, renounce marriage and earthly honour, and practise asceticism. On the question of continence in, if not renunciation of, marriage, he came into conflict with the authorities. Priscillian and his sympathizers, who were organized into bands of spéritales and abstinentes, like the Cathari of later days, refused the compromise which by this time the

sixth century. of philosophy.

Church had established, (See Marriace: Canon Law.) This ex-

plains the charge of Manichaeism levelled against Priscillian and to this was added the accusation of magic and licentious orgies. Priscillian’s friends included two bishops, Instantius and Sal-

vianus, and Hyginus of Cordova; but, through the exertions of

Idacius of Emerita, the leading Priscillianists, who had failed to appear before the synod of Spanish and Aquitanian bishops to to our Heirs, by the name of Custom, two shillings (for every which they had been summoned, were excommunicated at Sarahogshead of wine) over and above the antient customs due.” This gossa in October 380. Meanwhile, however, Priscillian was made bishop of Avila, duty was made payable tothe king’s butler, and was consequently termed “butlerage.’? Later, kings of England granted the produce and the orthodox party appealed to the emperor (Gratian), who the sectarian of the duties of prisage and butlerage to certain of their subjects. issued an edict (afterwards withdrawn) threatening Gratian and accession In 178s it was recommended that these duties should be re-vested | leaders with banishment. On the murder of and secured the sumin the crown. Thus, the duties of prisage and butlerage in Ireland of Maximus (383) Idacius fled to Treves,

toria, aliens were given liberty of trading upon paying “to Us and

had been granted to the dukes of Ormond, but parliament pur-

moning

of a synod

(384) at Bordeaux,

where Instantius was

514

PRISM— PRISON

deposed. Priscillian appealed to the emperor, with the unexpected result that with six of his companions he was burned alive at Treves in 385. The heresy, notwithstanding severe repressive measures continued to spread in France as well as in Spain. As an openly professed creed it only disappeared after the second synod of Braga in 563. At the Council of Toledo in 400, fifteen years after Priscillian’s death, when his case was reviewed, the most serious charge that could be brought was the error of language involved in rendering ayérntos by innascibilis. It was long thought that all the writings of the “heretic”? himself had perished, but in 1885, G. Schepss discovered at Wiirzburg eleven genuine tracts, since published in the Vienna Corpus. “They contain nothing that is not orthodox and commonplace, nothing that Jerome might not have written.”

=

See E. Ch. Babut, Priscillian et le Priscillianisme (Paris, 1909).

PRISM, in geometry, a polyhedron having two of its faces, known as bases, congruent (identically equal) polygons in parallel planes, and the other faces parallelograms equal in number to the sides of the bases. The faces, excluding each base, are called the lateral faces, and the intersections of these faces are called the lateral edges, being all equal. The perpendicular distance between the planes of the bases is called the keight or altitude of the prism. If the lateral edges are perpendicular to the planes of the bases, the prism is called a right prism; if they are oblique to these planes, it is called an oblique prism. Prisms are said to be triangular, quadrangular, pentagonal, and so on according as their bases are triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, and so on. A prism having parallelograms for its bases is called a paralielepiped. If the bases and lateral faces are all rectangles, it is called a rectangular parallelepiped. The part of a prism included between the base and a section made by a plane oblique to the base is called a truncated prism. A geometric solid which has for its bases two polygons in parallel planes, and for its lateral faces triangles or trapezia (Amer., trapezoids) with one side in one base and the opposite vertex or side in the other base is called a prismoid, a prism being a special case. In optics the word denotes a triangular prism. The volume of a prism of base B and altitude @ is aB; of a prismoid with bases B and B’, altitude a and area of a mid-cross-

section M, is $a(B+B’+4M). TALLOGRAPHY,

REFRACTION,

RIGHT

OBLIQUE PRISM

PRISM

TRIANGULAR

vision for their care; in 1166, the Assize of Clarendon directed the

building of gaols in all counties and boroughs. While these gaols were for the most part under local authority, the king’s courts at Westminster had, from time immemorial, maintained their own

prisons of the king’s bench, Marshalsea

and the Fleet, almost

entirely for debtors and others confined as a result of civil process

or for contempt of court. By the middle of the 16th century the common gaol was supplemented by the workhouse or house of cor. rection, established by virtue of an act of 1576 under the direct

administration of the local justices of the peace. Modelled on the famous “Bridewell” (g.v.) organized in London in 1552, these institutions were commonly called by that name. Instituted for the humanitarian purpose of providing compulsory employment with pay for “sturdy beggars” and vagrants and for men and women thrown out of employment by depressed trade conditions, these houses of correction came to be employed more and more

for the incarceration of petty offenders. This change was officially

confirmed in 1720 by an act of Parliament. Prison systems, in the sense they are understood to-day, cannot be said to have come into existence in any country till towards the end of the 18th century, though isolated experiments had been made in different parts of Europe, e.g., in 1593 the protestants of

Amsterdam built a prison for women, having for its object their moral reform by work and religious influences. There are records of similar establishments in Germany and Hanseatic towns. In

1703, Clement XI. built the famous prison St. Michel, at Rome, for young prisoners, and later on in the century the celebrated prison at Ghent was built. In England it was not till 1729 that a report of a committee of the House of Commons brought to light the hideous cruelties practised in the Fleet and Marshalsea prisons. In the reign of Elizabeth (1561) these were the prisons of the Star Chamber and court of chancery respectively, and the office of warden was granted as a valuable bequest, or perquisite to be held through life. In course of time the reversion of this office was sold by auction to the highest bidder. Fees for safe custody were levied on the prisoners and were exacted by all forms of cruelty and oppression, until at last the scandal became so great that certain holders of this reversionary office were brought to trial for murder and cruel treatment. As a result of the disclosures

TRUNCATED

PRISM

and

SoLips (Geometric).

PRISMOID, a solid bounded by any

PARALnumber of planes, two of which are paralle] RECTANGULAR and contain all the vertices. The two paral- bYEPIPED lel faces are called the bases. The volume YV of such a solid was found by Thomas Simpson (1710-1761) as follows: Let M be a section made by a plane parallel to the bases B and B’ and midway between them, and let hk be the distance between the bases. Then V={h(B + B’+ 4M), a formula frequently used in

finding volumes and applicable to most of the elementary geometric solids, and in general to any solid bounded by a ruled surface and two parallel planes.

PRISON.

the sentence. Growth of population and the consequent increase in the number of offenders made it necessary to make special pro-

then made

an act was passed

(2 George II., 1729) but in spite of its enactment the system of payment by fees continued and no serious attempt was made to control the management, and it was not until fifty years later, that John Howard (q.v.), the sheriff of Bedfordshire, horrified

See CrysLicHT

of detention pending the payment of the fine or the execution of

Only in comparatively recent times has the word

“prison” come to denote the common penalty for acts hurtful to the community both grave and petty which the law forbids. In the old Roman law, carcer or prison was used only as the place for holding, not for punishing offenders. The keep or dungeon of the lord’s castle was usually the place

by the conditions that he found to exist in his own county, entered upon his great crusade at home and abroad, to expose the terrible misery to which prisoners were made subject in England and

foreign countries. The sudden stirring of the country’s conscience by Howard’s crusade was the dawn of prison reform, which at first with slow and halting steps developed into the great humanitarian movement of the present day.

In 1774 Howard received the thanks of the House of Commons and a Prison Act which was passed in 1778 is the beginning of the English prison system. The principle of separate confinement with labour and of moral and religious instruction was formally prescribed: as a condition of imprisonment. It 1781 a further act was passed, making it compulsory for justices to provide separate accommodation for all persons convicted of felony.

It is difficult to say now, whether the formal adoption by Parliament of the “separate plan” at this date, anticipating by many years its world-wide adoption under American influences, would have taken place, but for the political necessity which arose for keeping British prisoners at home.

The loss of the American col-

onies had closed the field for the deportation of the criminal

classes—a policy of riddance easy of execution, which for a long time past had prevented serious consideration of the problem m-

volved in the safe custody in English prisons of dangerous persons convicted of the more serious crimes; but the disclosures made as

PRISON

EARLY 19TH CENTURY]

to the condition of treatment of all classes committed to local gaols, even those awaiting trial, and debtors, and young persons of both sexes, rendered it imperative that some formal prescrip-

tion should be asserted by the Government.

But the principle, though laid down by statute, was not enforced, with a few notable exceptions.

The justices, who then controlled

the prisons of the country, paid small attention; but the justices of Sussex and Gloucester by building the local prisons of Horsham, Petworth and Gloucester on the “separate” plan furnish an interesting historical record of the formal adoption in this country of the new system, which was destined, though many years later, to

become the sine qua non of all civilized prison systems. Although historically the British prison system may be said to date from the Prison Act of 1778, a long dismal history of ill-con-

sidered administration was destined to intervene before the principles of penal science, as now understood, obtained concrete ex-

pression. It is probable that the re-discovery of Australia by Captain Cook in 1770 was the circumstance which determined the prison history of Britain for nearly 50 years. The easy methods and means of transportation which this great colony afforded, relieved parliament of the necessity of devising any new and wise methods for the punishment of crime at home. Early 19th Century Conditions.—The system instituted in

1788 for the transportation of offenders was regularly organized and extensively acted upon up to 1840. It could not, however, survive the condemnation of the parliamentary inquiry of 1837. It was denounced as being “unequal, without terror to the criminal class, corrupting to both convicts and colonists, and extravagant from the point of view of expense.” This condemnation of the colonial system followed closely on another inquiry of the previous year into the hulks or “floating prisons” which had served to some extent as an alternative to transportation. These also were condemned. In the meantime, in the early years of the roth century, the

declaration of parliament in favour of the “separate” or cellular system, had not been entirely lost sight of, and the best known

Se.

movement of prison reform both at home and abroad. The Prison Discipline Society redoubled its efforts in the face of considerable criticism and opposition, for in those days, as sometimes now, the assertion of ordinary principles of humanity in dealing with captives and prisoners was sneered at as false sentiment. At last, in the early years of George IV. (1823-24) a prison act was passed for all local gaols with the object over and above safe custody, of preserving health, improving morality and enforcing hard labour, and there was a curious provision that if each prisoner could not have a separate cell, he should at least have a separate bed. That such a provision should have been necessary only one hundred years ago, illustrates the advance in public sentiment and opinion since that date. This particular act marked an advance, though its provisions were largely ineffective, owing to the reluctance of the local authorities to re-build or enlarge their gaols: and there was another reason. By the misconception of the teachings of Howard and of the Discipline society, it was a common belief that the secret of good prison discipline lay in “classification,” which was deemed even more important than “separation.” It was believed and very erroneously, that if prisoners in the same categories, and therefore presumably of the same characters, were associated together in common rooms or dormitories, no evil results were likely to follow. Both Howard and Bentham were quoted as evidence in favour of classification as a means of facilitating labour. Many prisons were erected in conformity with the act—Maidstone,

Derby, Westminster, Chelmsford and Leicester. The Governor's house was usually placed in the centre with blocks of cells radiating from it, the only inspection coming from a central office, according to Bentham’s plan, and there was practically no interference with the unauthorised association of prisoners, according to the categories in which they were placed. It became more and more evident that there was no moral standard, by which “‘classification” could be regulated as a basis of prison discipline, and the reaction culminated in a system of almost solitary confinement. Cellular Confinement.—lIt came about in this way. In 1831 a parliamentary committee went into the whole question, and advised that owing to the administrative difficulties of a good system of classification, all prisoners should be confined in separate cells and all prisons should be constructed accordingly. America was at this time declaring that it had found the key to the solution of the great problem of all prison systems, which is that they shall be at once deterrent and reformatory, by the invention of the plan of strict cellular confinement by day and night in Philadelphia —by night only in the rival system at Auburn in the State of New York, labour being in association by day, but under a strict rule of silence. The rival systems of Philadelphia

plan is associated with the name of Jeremy Bentham. Previous to this, following on the Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789, “imprisonment” had been formally installed, largely under the influence of Mirabeau, as the method for the expiation of an offence against the law in the French code of 1701. Bentham’s scheme known as the “panopticon” was based on cellular separation and hard labour, safe custody and diligence being guaranteed by close observation from a central standpoint. Although his professed desire to “grind rogues honest” has become proverbial, it was also a part of his plan to educate and classity and to make provision for discharge. He also laid great stress on the necessity of preventing crime by discovering and combating and Auburn are the historic battle ground, concerning the comits causes. In this respect he was the founder of the modern school parative merits of the cellular and associated plans of imprisonof “prevention.” His writings exercised a considerable influence ment. The controversy excited great interest in England, France, in France, where the jurists were busy preparing the penal code of Germany, Belgium. All these countries sent delegates to study the First Empire, and in Great Britain led indirectly to the pur- the rival systems on the spot. They all travelled together through chase of lands by the Government for the erection of Millbank the United States: de Beaumont and de Tocqueville from France, penitentiary, begun in 1813 and completed 1823. This was an im- Ducepetiaux from Belgium, Mittermeyer from Prussia, Crawford portant step forward, for though built for convicts only, it marked from England. The result was a strong endorsement of the printhe acceptance by parliament of the principle that the reformation ciple of separate cellular confinement for all prisoners by day and of prisoners could best be secured by seclusion, employment and night. In England the then home secretary (Lord John Russell) issued a circular to magistrates, calling attention to its advantages, instruction. To this end were labouring through these years a band of ear- and in 1839 an Act was passed, which, though permissive only, nest and devoted workers, the “Prison Discipline Society,” on established the legality of the system; but the magistrates were at whom the mantle of Howard had fallen, and who were determined a loss how to proceed as the construction of existing prisons gave that his work for the cleansing and purifying of gaols and houses no facilities for the purpose. Lord John Russell, then determined on the erection of a of correction should not perish. These gaols were described by this society in 1812 “as relapsing into their former horrid state “model” prison, as an example of cellular construction and as a of privation, filthiness, cruelty and neglect.” In London itself test of the merits of the separate or cellular plan. It was comwithin easy reach of the new and much vaunted Millbank peni- pleted at Pentonville in 1842. The corpus on which this experitentiary, the chief prison of the City, Newgate, was in a disgrace- ment was made, was first offenders between 18-35 sentenced to ful state. It was here that Elizabeth Fry entered upon her noble transportation. The period of isolation was for eighteen months work. By her amazing courage and personality she transformed and the separation was complete, even masks being worn to avoid what was formerly described as a “hell above ground” to a scene, recognition. Five years later, the commissioners appointed to direct and obwhere in words of an eye witness “perfect stillness and propriety reigned.” Her great success and example gave a stimulus to the serve the experiment gave, as their deliberate opinion, that “the

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separation of one prisoner from another was the only sound basis upon which a reformatory discipline could be established with any reasonable hope of success.” The effect on public opinion was immediate and striking—not

[MODERN THEORIES

rate confinement, the remaining sentence being divided into three

stages. Under the operation of the “mark” system, a considerable remission of sentence could be earned, not exceeding one fourth of the sentence imposed.

This system remains in its leading features the same to-day only did the Pentonville plan become the basis of ‘penal servitude” then under the control of the Government, but it led with many modifications, e.g., the period of separate confinement directly to the establishment of the separate system throughout and the increase of relaxations, and rewards in the different stages, the country. For, though the secretary of State did not then The opportunity for employment on public works no longer exists, directly control local prisons, recent legislation had provided that and the comparatively few persons now sentenced to penal seryiall rules should be subject to his approval, and the appointment of tude would not provide a sufficient contingent of labour for the a surveyor-general of prisons in 1844 ensured that due attention great operations carried on in former years. The fall in the conwas given by local authorities to the requirements of good prison vict population between 1854 and 1874 was from 15,009 to 9,000. Since then, the number of male convicts had fallen to 1,430 in construction. Pentonville prison was built by Sir Joshua Jebb, the first sur- 1926. The introduction of the penal servitude system had a far. veyor-general. His report on its construction, “as a model to be appropriated for carrying into effect the separate system of disci- reaching influence and reaction on the local prison system and pline,” was aptly designated as the model for the remainder of this was intensified when Sir E. Du Cane became chairman of the the roth century, and the essential features of construction are

still adhered to. Sir Joshua Jebb was succeeded by another emi-

joint boards of directors of convicts, and commissioners of local prisons, in 1878. The State until now had had no experience in dealing with short sentences, and the problem was a new one,

nent engineer, Sir Edmund Du Cane, R.E. His largest undertaking was the construction of Wormwood Scrubbs prison for convicts viz.: how to deal effectively with a man who was in prison for a by prison labour. The plan is what is known as the “separate few days or weeks or months, from whom during so short a period block” system, and was adopted as an improvement on the no useful productive labour could be exacted. Many of the fea“radial” or Pentonville plan, though many of the essential features tures of the penal servitude system were introduced—the “mark” of the latter were retained, e.g., heating, ventilation, sanitation and progressive stage system, cellular confinement in the early and size of cells. When the central authority took over control of stages, followed by associated industry so far as was practicable in all local prisons in 1878, the main building work consisted chiefly the confined spaces of local prisons, built on the cellular plan. The of alterations and additions, but these in many instances amounted new system was, however, justly credited with great administrato almost entire re-construction, Since then, the main building tive and financial success. But in spite of an admitted administrative success, the public conscience was uneasy. It was work has consisted of bringing old establishments up to date. In addition great skill and ingenuity has been expended of felt. that too much had been sacrificed to the virtues of the separecent years in the conversion of existing establishments into rate system, to the passion for uniformity and that the “individBorstal institutions, e.g., the old convict prisons at Borstal and uality” of the prisoner had been lost sight of and crushed under Portland, and the old reformatory school buildings at Feltham, inflexible rule.

Middlesex. All this work has been carried out under the direction of another able engineer, Colonel Rogers, R,E. who also designed the new prison at’ Camp hill, in the Isle of Wight, for the purpose of providing detention under the special conditions prescribed for habitual criminals under the Prevention of Crime Act, 1908. But to revert to the history of the separate system, where we left it with the building of the model prison at Pentonville, The English System.—It was at this period that the two principal features of the English system began to take shape, viz.: separate confinement and hard labour. The duration of the period

of separate confinement and the regulation of the task of hard

labour remained the problem of administration for many years and cannot yet be said to be finally settled. There will be found running through all this period an earnest attempt to reconcile the claims of the two admitted objects of imprisonment, viz.: deterrence and reform, and hard labour assumed a narrow and artificial meaning, great ingenuity being expended in devising

forms of labour, which would not violate the sacred principle of separation, ¢.g., cranks, treadwheel, shot-drill, stone-breaking, etc. With these problems unsettled, with a strange and general ignorance of the true principles of punishments, with conflicting views and diverse authorities, the local prison system was in a very confused and chaotic state, until the parliamentary inquiries

Modern Theories.—The re-action that became manifest towards the close of the last century against what is known as the “classical” conception of crime and punishments had an echo in England. This re-action came in the early ’eighties from a school of criminologists, known as the “Italian school,” of which

the chief was Lombroso. Theories of the “born criminal,” że., a

human being foredoomed to crime by atavistic propensity, and distinguishable physical stigmata, created considerable sensation at the time and, though refuted by later enquiry, exercised a profound influence in Europe and gave a direct impulse to the scientific study of the causes predisposing to criminal acts. At

this time, 1869, was founded on the continent of Europe “l’’Union internationale de droit pénal’—chiefly under Belgian and Ger-

man influences (Van Hamel, Liszt and Prins). It was an attempt

to reconcile the extreme views of the Italian school with the modern doctrine which is known as “preventive treatment,” t.e., the scientific study of the causes of crime in each individual case, be they due to internal or external factors, either physiological, concerned with the mental or physical state of the offender, or

external, z.¢., the result of social conditions, This theory, which has been strongly endorsed by eminent

French writers (¢.g., Saleilles), is known generally as that of The individualisation of punishment, Imprisonment, the one and only

of 1850 and 1863 led formally to the establishment of a central instrument for the punishment of crime, is flouted as an anachroauthority in 1878, when the-Government took complete control of nism. In other words it is a protest in the general interests of all prisons, convict and local. In that year the prison commission humanity against the mechanical infliction of penalty with the resulting evil of a constant repetition of short sentences. Strangely was appointed. It was the refusal of the colonies to become the dumping enough, these controversies received but little attention in Engground of transported convicts which led in 1857 to the intro- land, but their influence contributed to the criticisms made at the duction of the system of “penal servitude.” Henceforth convicts end of the century, against the English prison system. A formal enquiry instituted by the Government in 1894 marks were to be kept at home under a special form of discipline in what were known as “public work prisons,” where opportunity a new and distinct epoch in the prison history of Great Britain, existed for their employment on works of public utility, e.g., the It declared (a grave indictment) that “prisoners had been treated breakwater at Portland, docks at Chatham and Portsmouth, land too much as a hopeless element of the community.” These words reclamation at Dartmoor. The leading feature of the new con- may be said to mark the passage from the old to the new methods vict discipline was the progressive stage system, borrowed from of punishment. experience gained in the management of convicts in the Australian Among many and almost fundamental changes which were settlements. The rules prescribed a period of nine months’ sepa- suggested, dealing with almost every branch of the administration,

STATUTES]

PRISON

517

the principal was the grave importance attracted to the concen- | hope and a progressive system of rewards, leading ultimately to tration of effort on the young or incipient criminal. At this time | conditional reléase, even a hardened criminal might be gradually persons under 16 (even under 12) were being sent to prison in | induced to alter his mode of life and reinstate himself as an honconsiderable numbers and the average number of youths 16-21 est and industrious citizen. At least, though the reformatory results have been fitful and committed annually to prison was about 20,000. At the same time, it was suggested that as a means of dealing uncertain, there is reason to believe that a great deterrent value effectively with crime in its later stages, technically known as arises from the fear inspired in the mind of the dangerous and “professional” crime, ż.e., with persons living systematically by habitual criminal, that continued violation of law may entail crime and whom experience had shown not to be restrained by the very unpleasant consequence of a long period of detention, the fear of ordinary punishments, a mew sentence should be supplementary to that inflicted for the particular offence. (3) The Criminal Justice Administration Act, 1914.— placed at the disposal of judges, which supplementary to a sentence of penal servitude, might have a deterring or at least a This very important act, passed on the eve of the World War, has had a far reaching effect in providing a remedy for the admitted protective effect. At this time, 1890, on the retirement of Sir E. Du Cane, Sir evil of mechanical commitment to prison in défault of paying a E. Ruggles Brise succeeded as chairman of the prison commission. fine. It is there laid down, that whére any prisoner desires to The following are the principal statutes which have altered the be allowed time for payment, not less than seven clear days shall be allowed, in thé absence of good reason to the contrary; and system since this date. (1) The Prison Act, 1898.—The most notable changes in- that in any case the imprisonment shall be without hard labour. troduced by this act are: (a) The triple division of prisoners It makes a breach for the first time in the old mechanical formula according to degree and character of offence. (b) The power to “with or without hard labour’ which long custom had crystalearn remission of sentence, not exceeding one-sixth where the lized, without due regard to the circumstances of each case by sentence is over a,month. (c) The power given to enable a giving a discretion to the court in all cases as to the imposition prisoner whose sentence is in default of fine to obtain release by of hard labour. As a provision against the admitted evil of short sentences of part-payment of the fine. (d) Provision against excessive or unnecessary exercise of the powers of corporal punishment. (e) imprisonment, all commitment to prison for a less period than five Power given to secretary of State to effect any change in the days, is forbidden. The act, moreover, gave a considerable extension to the Borstal system by parliamentary rule, without recourse to act of parliament. (f) The abolition of all forms of so-called hard labour, system, removing the condition that a particular offence must be “indictable,” raising the minimum period of detention and treadwheels, cranks, etc. (2) The Prévention of Crime Act, 1908.—This act achieved extending that of supervision after release. The Children’s Act, 1908, and the Probation Act, 1907; two great and startling results. (a) The establishment of the Borstal system. (b) The system of preventive detention as a have been called the “handmaids of the prison system” for it is means of protecting society from the dangerous of habitual by their operation that a way has been found not only to cut

criminal. These were the two objects on which special stress was laid by the inquiry of 1894, and since that date great and special at-

tention has been given to effect the double purpose, viz.:—to check the criminal habit or tendency in the case of thé young offender, and to increase the deterrence of punishments in the case of the older criminal, who could not be restrained by ordinary ahd repeated sentences.

off crime at the source, but to provide the alternative to unnecessary commitment to prison, where the law can be adequately vindicated by other methods.

(z) The Children’s Act-—This act, known as the “children’s

charter,” revolutionized the penal law of Britain by prohibiting the imprisonment (except under very exceptional circumstances) of any person under the age of 16. It classified young offenders as “children” under 14, and “young persons” between 14 and 16; (a) The new “Borstal” Act created an entirely new category and various methods for dealing with them are prescribed. In of offenders between the age of 16~21, to bé known colloquially lieu of prisons, the act created ‘‘places of detention,” to be estabas “juvenile-adult” or “adolescent” offenders. For these, where lished by the police authority, for any period not exceeding a the court was satisfied that “criminal habit and tendency or as- month. It consolidated and amended the law relating to resociation was proved,” power was given to order detention for formatory and industrial schools. Special courts called juvenile any period up to three years in a State reformatory, known as a courts were created for dealing with charges against children and “Borstal institution,” taking its name from the village of Borstal young persons. (2) The Probation Act, 1907.—This act greatly extended powers on the Medway, where the first experiments, leading up to the system, were made. The successful efforts of the official staff already in existence for releasing on recognizance and gave power have been aided by the Borstal association, a society created to in any case either to dismiss the case or to bind the offender over safeguard and protect the case of every inmate, of either sex, on for a period not exceeding 3 years, or to place him on probation —under the care of probation officers, appointed for the purpose. discharge from a Borstal institution. This act was supplemented in 1925 by a very important (b) Preventive Detention-Long experience had sufficiently demonstrated that successive sentences of imprisonment or penal measure, making it obligatory in all petty sessional courts (over servitude did not deter those who made a profession of the 1,000 in number) to appoint one ocr more probation officers. These acts, taken in conjunction with the Mental Deficiency graver forms of crime from continuing their war on society with a cynical indifference to the methods devised for its protection. Act of 19t3, an invaluable measure for relieving prisons of the Accordingly, the act provided that it is expedient for the pro- great burden and difficulty of providing for the ctistody under tection of the public that where an offender is found by the proper conditions of a very considerable number of persons of courts, having regard to the numbers and characters of his previ- proved mental deficiency, practically complete the legislative ous convictions and sentences, to be an “habitual criminal,” the changes of the last 30 years, and their salutary cperation, aided court shall have power to pass a special seritence, ordering that on of course by many other social causes making for the moral the determination of a sentence of penal servitude, passed for betterment of the community and the ratsing of the general the particular offence, he thay be detained for a period not ex- standard of life, has had an almost phenomenal result, so far as ceeding ten, nor Jess than five years under a system to be known the population of prisons is concerned. Fifty years ago the number of persons sent to prison in a year as that of “preventive detention.” _ A new prison was constructed at Camp hill in the Isle of stood as high as over 600 per 100,000 of population. A gradual, Wight, specially adapted to the custody and treatment of this though not unbroken fall took place until the year before the new class of prisoner, for whom in conformity with the act, a war when it stood at 370. At the time of cessation of hostilities novel system was devised, being less rigorous than penal servi- it reached its lowest point, 70, but with the return to normal contude, and being based on the iden that by encouragement and ditions it has not risen higher than t2o and the last figure for

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PRISON

1926 was II5. Before the war and the passing of the act of 1914, there had been nearly 100,000 sentences annually to two weeks or less. For the year ending Dec., 1926, there were under 7,000. International Progress.—During the last 50 years, a remarkable movement has been in progress, having for its purpose, to

internationalize certain principles or standards for the treatment and punishment of crime. The movement began in 1872 by the holding of an International prison congress in London. To America belongs the credit of having organized on British soil a move-

ment which was the precedent and example of what has since grown into a well-established confederation of all civilized states for discussing and if possible, improving, a world-system of pun-

ishment. An international commission was created, which by means of quinquennial congresses, held in the different capitals of Europe, furnished the occasion for periodical discussion and exchange of views on all matters affecting both the régime of prisons and the reform of criminal law. Great Britain and the United States did not adhere to this movement, until the Paris congress, 1895; at the congress of Washington, 1910, Sir E. Ruggles Brise was elected president and this led to an invitation of the British Government to hold the next congress in London, which took place accordingly in 1925, having been postponed from 1915 owing to the outbreak of the World War. The leading note was struck by the resolution of the London congress 1872, viz., that “moral regeneration should be the primary aim of prison discipline and that hope should always be a more powerful agent than fear.” Although before this date, there had been spasmodic movements in many countries of Europe for the reform of prisons and prisoners, prison “systems,” so far as they can be said to have existed at all, were devised mainly with a view to repression or deterrence; and what has since become the leading principle in dealing with crime, viz.: The individualization of punishment, i.e., the adaptation of punishment to the different degrees of moral guilt and the infinite variety of mental and physical attributes, affecting responsibility, found only a very limited expression in the penal law and prison management of diferent countries. Twenty-four countries are now (1928) annually represented on the international prison commission, viz.: Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, Greece, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Austria, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria and Luxemburg, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and, outside Europe, the United States of America, Union of South Africa, British India and New Zealand, and Japan. The frequent opportunity for intercourse and exchange of views, afforded by periodical meetings of the commission at their central bureau, Berne, Switzerland, has been now for many years slowly creating a solidarité between nations, resulting in a general agreement not only as to the fundamental conditions of imprisonment, but also as to those preventive measures which obviate the necessity for imprisonment at all. The modern school of lhygiéne préventive to which succeeding prison congresses give increasing voice and impetus, holds the field today. It advocates prevention which will operate by the elimination of the social causes which create unhealthy environment and by the encouragement of scientific treatment of the weak in mind or in body, so that, if possible the germs of anti-social conduct may be diagnosed, before it is too late, and if possible destroyed by appropriate handling and treatment. These are counsels of perfection, which the future may see developed into actualities. After 2,000 years ‘we are coming back to the old Roman definition of prison, viz.: ad continendos, non ad puniendos. Prison will be primarily for safe custody and there will be no penal infliction beyond deprivation of liberty, which is, after all, the only and the greatest punishment. Subject to this, every possible effort will be made by industrial training, by education, moral and religious, by lectures and debates, by well-organized visitation, to create a sense of dignity and self-respect and of duty

to the State and to all fellow creatures.

(E. R.-Br.)

[UNITED STATES

UNITED STATES The establishment of prisons in America was associated with the Revolutionary War. The centre from which this innovation spread was Philadelphia, where the humanitarian influence of the

Society of Friends was strongest. The movement towards the provision of prisons also owed something to the work of Beccaria and John Howard, with which the American reformers were wel]

acquainted. The Pennsylvania constitution of 1776 ordered legislation introducing imprisonment and this was first actually provided by an act of 1786, which substituted for corporal punishment in case of certain crimes “continuous hard labour, publicly and disgracefully imposed.” The early history of American prisons centres chiefiy in the struggle between the Pennsylvania and Auburn systems of

prison discipline.

The former, introduced in the Walnut street

jail at Philadelphia in 1790 and applied in the Eastern penitentiary at Cherry Hill in Philadelphia from 1829 onward, soon followed in other States. It rested upon the principle of solitary confinement during the period of imprisonment, hoping that solitude would not only prevent vicious and degrading association with

other criminals, but also promote earnest Christian reflection productive of efforts at self-reformation. The records show that it

produced more insanity than reformation.

The State penitentiary

in Auburn, N.Y., established between 1816 and 1824, provided for separate confinement at night in small cells, but allowed congregate labour in the prison shops during the day and meals in common. Silence was enforced while the prisoners were congregated so that the Auburn system became known as the “silent” system, as contrasted with the Pennsylvania or “solitary” system. A prison on the Auburn plan was recommended as more economical to erect and administer. Due mainly to the efforts of Louis Dwight of the Prison Discipline Society of Boston, the Auburn system prevailed in the United States. The Pennsylvania system was experimented with briefly in Maryland, Massachusetts, Maine, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Virginia, as well as Pennsylvania; in Europe, however, it was much more highly esteemed than the Auburn plan. The reformatory in Elmira, N.Y., in 1877 embodied most of the progress in penological thought and practice in Europe and America between 1825 and 1875, including, among other things, emphasis upon reformation, commutation of sentence for good behaviour, a system of grading, classification and promotion of inmates, a quasi-indeterminate sentence, and the provision of productive labour. The Elmira system was utilized for youthful first offenders guilty of the lesser felonies, and has not been extended to prisons for adults, except for the grading system. The inmates of the Elmira type of reformatories have usually been between the ages of 16 and 25. The most notable innovation in prison discipline is found in the work of Thomas Mott Osborne, Auburn, N.Y. Undergoing voluntary servitude in the Auburn prison in 1913, he became convinced that no extensive reformation was possible in connection with the system of ruthless repression and corrupt politics

which characterize the conventional prison administration. He saw that a convicted criminal could be taught habits of obedience and respect for order only while in prison, whereas the present prison system was designed to increase the anti-social tendencies

of the convict.

Accordingly, he introduced at the New York

State prison at Sing Sing a system of convict self-government known as the “mutual welfare league.” This aroused the bitter opposition of the exponents of harsh punishment and of the corrupt politicians and contractors, but it proved remarkably successful when applied by Mr. Osborne at Sing Sing and later at the U.S. naval prison at Portsmouth, N.H. The plan discards punish-

ment and concentrates upon the objective of reformation.

_

A major phase of the progress of prison administration since 1800 has been the gradual differentiation of institutions according to the type of prisoner to be received. In 1790, in an instltution

like the Walnut

street

jail in Philadelphia,

the same

institution housed debtors, those accused of crime, those convicted

of all types of crime, young and old, male and female, white, black and red, sane and insane. During the last century imprison+

519

PRISON ment for debt has been abandoned;

those convicted of serious

crimes are separated, though, pending trial, they are still housed with vagrants and others consigned to the county jail; separate institutions have been provided for the young, the youthful and adults; males and females are housed in separate institutions or in

separate departments; in some States the races are segregated;

and to an increasing extent the insane. Those convicted of misdemeanors and lesser felonies are sent to jails, houses of correction or reformatories, while those convicted of the more serious

some improvements in construction and sanitation, but the old punitive system remains almost unimpaired, and any attempt to improve or mitigate it is attacked by the conservative judges and lawyers as a sentimental effort to coddle prisoners. Contemporary prison discipline is not supported by criminologists, and in time the system will change before the advance of knowledge in much the same way as the unscientific treatment of the insane has been superseded by the contemporary régime of social (H. E. BAR.) medicine and mental hygiene.

felonies are sent to State penitentiaries. Prison labour has undergone many changes. It was first employed as a means of increasing the severity of punishment; from about 1830 to 1880 the chief emphasis was laid upon the economic aspects; in the last generation more concern has been shown with regard to teaching a useful trade and making prison indus-

try an aid in reformation.

At the outset the prison industries

were conducted by the prison authorities; after about 1830 the

labour of convicts was very generally sold to contractors subject to the disciplinary rules of the institution. About 1870 the labour leaders began a wide movement of protest against contract convict labour and restrictive legislation was passed in many States. Since 1880 there has been a gradual trend towards institutional control of all prison industries under either the public account

or the State-use system.

The start was made with crude work,

like breaking stone and picking over wool and oakum. In the contract régime textile industries, tailoring, boot and shoe making,

the manufacture of crude furniture and hardware, and making of cheap cigars were the common industries. Where the State-use system is employed the prison industries are devoted chiefly to manufacturing the clothing, furniture and hardware used in the State institutions and the registration plates used on automobiles.

Many States have purchased large prison farms and carry on extensive agricultural enterprises; convict labour is also used on State and county highways. The attempt to provide types of labour which will train inmates for an improved economic status after discharge is still in its infancy, Prison architecture has made little progress. Leaving aside the archaic plumbing of that period, the Eastern penitentiary opened in Philadelphia in 1829 was the most spdcious and habitable institution ever utilized for the detention of adult felons in the United States. The first prisons were composed of large rooms where congregate imprisonment was practised. After 1800 the trend was distinctly towards the cellular system. The Pennsylvania type of prison was constructed with a central corridor running down each wing, with cells opening off both sides of the corridor. The Auburn type of prison was constructed in the form of a cell-block of several storeys or tiers of steel and stone or brick cages. Practically all the modern American prisons are merely refinements of this original Auburn cage construction, the improvements being chiefly ingenious devices for opening and closing all the doors of an entire tier of cages with one motion. Illinois recently constructed a great new prison at Joliet on the circular plan, the cells opening on a large central space which makes the inspection of the cells relatively easy; it is but an adoption of the “panopticon” scheme proposed by Jeremy Bentham more than a century ago. Some of the institutions for juvenile delinquents have adopted the “cottage” system, first introduced from Mettray in France about 1855, but it has never been adopted for adult criminals.

Almost without exception the

American prisons are still surrounded by walls higher and thicker than those which protected ancient cities or mediaeval castles. Imprisonment when introduced was both punitive and reformatory, designed to produce a mode of life markedly different from that led outside in the state of freedom; otherwise imprisonment would scarcely be punitive and painful. Mr. Osborne’s plan was a humane effort to make the prison a school for social re-education. The more advanced criminologists would reconstruct prisons, making them hospitals for the socially sick or delinquent classes putting them under medical supervision comparable to the State hospitals for the insane. The prisons of the United States are to-day (1929) substantially what they were in 1830, as regards both architecture and disciplinary methods. There have been

EUROPEAN

COUNTRIES

A new chapter in the development of the prison régime has been opened in many countries in the years following 1918. There is on the European continent a certain movement away from the strict cellular system, where prisoners are separated entirely and all the time from one another, to a system of progressive stages, similar to the system in use in English prisons. Austria.—Longer terms of punishment are undergone in different grades. The governor decides in his free discretion whether a, prisoner is worthy to enter the next higher grade or not. There is no earning “marks.” Only a small proportion of the prisoners is held in strict isolation; the bulk live and labour together. Prisoners of the highest grade are often occupied with work outside the prison, such as road building and farm work.

Belgium,—For decades the stronghold of the strictest cellular

system, Belgium has recently acceded to some partial alterations. Prisoners, who are fit, still serve generally the first ten years of their sentence in strict isolation; but 10% of the prison population are working together. The “hood,” meant to prevent the prisoners from seeing one another’s face, is no longer compulsory. In one of the prisons part of the individual exercise yards has been pulled down. Remarkable efforts are made to individualize punishment. Nine anthropological laboratories have been created. There the offender is given a thorough physical and psychical

analysis. The result is used to adapt the prison treatment as far as possible to the special need of the individual. France-—Imprisonment up to 1 year is undergone in isolation

as far as prison buildings permit. Longer sentences are served in common during day time, but separation during the night is aimed at. Recidivists and criminals sentenced to severe punishment are liable to transportation into the penal colonies. Germeny.—An agreement in 1923 between the different states of the German Republic has been an important step towards entire unification of the prison system which is not reached yet. Germany has adopted the progressive system. Complete isolation is limited to 3 years. Prisoners convicted for mere political crimes, not arising from dishonorable motives, are to be kept in separate places of detention. There they enjoy practically every possible liberty and privilege. Greece.—Greece has made considerable attempts in the period

since the World War to develop a system of out-door labour for

trustworthy prisoners, regardless of the length of the sentence to be served. Besides a few movable prison camps there were in 1928 four farm prisons. The moral influence of farming, road building and forest work on the prisoner is highly commended by the Government. Holland—Prisoners are kept in cellular separation for a period of not more than 5 years. There is a careful elimination of criminals who are for one reason or another unfit for the cellular régime. Corporal punishment for disciplinary purposes is pro| vided but never used. Italy—lItaly has a progressive system which starts with isolation of the prisoner for the first part-of his sentence. He is compelled to earn a certain amount of “marks” in order to advance from one grade to the next one. In certain cases an intermediate

prison with a sort of semi-liberty has to be passed through before final liberation. Irons are still in use as a disciplinary punishment. Poland—The prison régime was reformed basically in .1928. A progressive system, following the English example, is now in use. Strict cellular separation does not exist at all. A list of stimulating privileges, lectures and wireless performances of educational value are introduced to assist reformation. Russia—Attempts have been made in Russia to change the

520

PRISONERS

OF WAR— PRIVATEER

whole system of punishment into one of reformation and social

observatory at Cranford, expanded into the establishment of the

protection, Even the name “punishment” has been eliminated, new university observatory. By de la Rue’s advice, Pritcharg Prisons are gradually replaced by penal colonies where life in a began his career there with a determination of the physical libra. free community is copied as far as possible. Prisoners in higher tion of the moon, or the nutation of its axis. In 1882 Pritchard grades get a vacation of one or two weeks a year, Farmers who commenced a systematic study of stellar photometry. For this are imprisoned are able to get harvest leave up to 4 months. purpose he employed the “wedge photometer” (see PHOTOMETRY Political prisoners, on the other hand, are subject to a different, CELESTIAL, and Mem. R.A.S. xlvii. 353), with which he measured more severe, prison régime.

the relative brightness of 2,784 stars between the North Pole and

in many cases for prisoners in isolation. There are a few penal farms intended to be a link between prison and liberty for the promising prisoner. Three to four prisoners may sleep in one room in these farms. Corporal punishment is provided but strictly guarded against abuse. Switzerland —The different small cantons still rule the prison system, and there is as yet no unification. But there is a move-

in 1886 upon him, conjointly with Pickering, of the Royal Astronomical Society’s gold medal. He applied photography to the determination of stellar parallax, publishing the results of his systematic measurement of the parallaxes of second-magnitude

Sweden.—The penal system was reformed in 1921. A pro- about —10° declination. The results were published in 1885 in his Uranometria Noya gressive system starts with cellular separation up to the first 3 years. A bigger cell for work besides the sleeping-cell is provided Oxoniensis, and their importance was recognized by the bestowal

ment

towards

the development

of farm-prisons

following the

example of the famous farm-prison at Witzwil in the canton of Berne. (E. M. F.) BrstiocrapHy.—J, Howard, State of the Prisons Wales (2 pts., 1777); J. Bentham, Letter to Lord B. Thomson, Story of Dartmoor Prison (1907); Individualisation of Punishment, trans. R. $. Jastrow

History of Penal Methods

in England and Pelham (1802); R. Saleilles, The (1911) ; G. Ives,

(1914); C. Goring, The English Convict

(1915); E. Ruggles-Brise, English Prison System (2921) and Prison Reform at Hame and Abroad (1924); S. A. Mosely, The Convict of To-day (1927); T. W. Trought, Prebation in Europe (1927); Sidney

and Beatrice Webb, English Prisons Under Local Government (1922); S. Hobhouse and A. F. Brockway, English Prisons To-day

(1922). See also The Annual Report of the Commissioners of Prisons and the Journal and Annual Report of the Howard League. See

bibliographies of HOWARD; LOMBROSO,

UxIrED StAaTES-—T. M. Osborne, Society and Prisons (1916), Prisons

and Commonsense

(1924); H. E. Barnes, A History of Penal, Re-

formatory and Correctional Institutions cf the State of New Jersey 1918), The Repression of Crime (1926), The Evolution of Penology in Pennsylvania (1927); F. H. Wines, Punishment and Reformatian (new ed. W. D, Lane, 1919); P. Klein, Prison Methods in New York (1920); L. N. Robinson, Penology in the United States (1921); O. F. Lewis, The Development of American Prisons and Customs, 1776~1845 (1922); F. Tannenbaum, Wall Shadows (1922); E. H. Sutherland, Criminology (1924); M. Liepmann, “American Prisons

and Reformatary Institutions,” in Mental Hygiene (1928). EUROPEAN —Armingol y Cornet, Prisons and Prison, Discipline in Spain (1874); Stevens, Régime des établissements pénitentiaires en

Belgique (1875); F. V. Holtzendorff and von Jagemann, Handbuch des Gefdngniswesens (1847); Scaglia Beltrani, Reforma penitenzaria im Italia (1879); Braco, Estudos penitenciarios e criminaes (Lisbon, 1888); Garofalo, Studio sul delitto, sulle sui cause e sui mezzi di repressione (1899) ; Salillas, Vida penal en España (Madrid); Cesare Lombroso, L'Uomo delinquente, etc, (1899) ; K. Hafter and E. Zürcher, Schweizerische Gefängniskunde (Bern, 1925); A, Mosse, Les Prisons (1926); E. Bumke, Deutsches Gefängniswesen (1928).

PRISONERS OF WAR: see Wars, Laws or. PRISTINA, a town in South Serbia, Yugoslavia. Pop. (1922) 14,290, about three-fourths being Albanians, and the remainder

Serbs and Vlachs with a few Jews. PriStina was the seat of government of Stephen Nemanya, founder of the Serbian empire, and to the west lies the famous Field of Blackbirds (Kosovopolje) where it was destroyed by the Turks in 1389. To the south-east is the monastery of Grachanitza founded by King Milutin of Serbia (1275-1321), with some remarkable frescoes. See G. M. M. Mackenzie and A, P. Irby, Travels in the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey (1877).

PRITCHARD,

CHARLES

(1808-1893),

British astron-

omer, was born at Alberbury, Shropshire, on Feb. 29, 1808. He was educated at St. John’s College, Cambridge, elected a fellow of his college in 1832, and became a schoolmaster. On his retire-

ment in 1862 he settled at Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, and took an active interest in the affairs of the Royal Astronomical

Society, of which he became honorary secretary in 1862 and president in 1866. In 1870 he was elected Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford, At his request the university determined to erect a fine equatorial telescope for the instruction of his class and for purposes of research, a scheme which, in consequence of

Warren de la Rue’s munificent gift of instruments from his private

stars, in the third and fourth volumes of the Publications of the

Oxford University Observatory, When the great scheme of an international survey of the heavens was projected, the zone

between 25° and 31° north declination was allotted to him, and

at the time of his death some progress had been made in recording

its included stars. Pritchard became F.R.S. in 1840 and received many scientific honours, He died on May 28, 1893, See Proc, Roy. Soc. liv. 3; Month. Notices, Roy. Astr, Soc. liv, 198; W. E. Plummer, Observatory, xvi, 256 (portrait); Astr, and Astrophysics, xii. 592; J. Foster, Oxford Men and their Colleges, p. 206; Charles Pritchard, D.D., Memoirs of his Life, by Ada Pritchard (London, 1897).

PRIVAS,

a town of France, capital of the department of

Ardéche, 95 m. S. by W. of Lyons. Pop. (1926) 3,805.

Privas is first heard of in the 12th century, as a possession of the counts of Valentinois, and later became the seat of a separate barony. As a Protestant stronghold, it suffered during the Wars of

Religion. It passed in 1619 to the vicomte de Lestrange, a Roman Catholic noble. A general rising followed, and in 16209 it was besieged and destroyed by Louis XIII., who decreed tbat it should not be again inhabited; but in 1632 the inhabitants returned. PRIVATEER, an armed vessel belonging to a private owner,

commissioned hy a belligerent State to carry on operations of war.

The commission is known as letters of marque,

Acceptance of

such a commission by a British subject is forbidden by the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870. Privateering is now a matter of much less importance owing to the Declaration of Paris, 1856 (g.v.), by

which it was abolished.

The declaration binds only the powers

who were signatories or who afterwards assented, and those only when engaged in war with one another. Privateers stand in a position between that of a public ship of war and a merchant vessel,

and the raising of merchant vessels to the status of war-ships has in recent wars given rise to so much difficulty in distinguishing between volunteer war ships and privateers that the subject was made one of those for settlement by the Second Hague Conference

(1907). By Convention vii. a converted merchant ship cannot

have the status of a war ship unless it is placed under the direct authority, immediate control and responsibility of the power the

flag of which it flies (art. x). Converted merchant ships must bear the external marks which distinguish the war ships of their nation-

ality (art, 2). The commander must be in the service of the State and duly commissioned, and his name must figure on the list of the officers of the fighting fleet (art. 3). The crew must be subject to military discipline (art. 4). A converted merchant ship must

observe the laws and customs of war (art. 5); and such conver-

sion must be announced in the list of war ships of the belligerent country,

The effective use of privateers made by the United States in

'

the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812 bred reluctance on its

part prior to the Civil War to agree to foreign proposals to abandon the practice. The United States, however, was willing to accede to the Declaration of Paris upon the condition that the right to capture enemy property, other than contraband, on the high seas should be abolished, but such an amendment was unacceptable to the European powers. In 1863, during the Civil War,

Congress authorized the président to commission privateers, but the power was not to be exercised unless the Confederate States were successful in commissioning privateers in Europe, No occa-

PRIVET—PRIVY sion appeared for the commissioning

of privateers.

During the

Spanish-American War of 1898, despite the fact that neither Spain nor the United States had acceded to the Declaration of Paris, no use was made of privateers. The rise of the United States to the position of an important naval power, together with the realization

that privateering belongs to the warfare of an earlier day, has

disposed the United States to cease to incline favourably towards recognition of the practice as a method of modern warfare. Under the Constitution the issuance of letters of marque and reprisal is forbidden to the States and is vested solely in the national Government.

PRIVET, in botany Ligustrum, a genus of the family Oleaceae, containing about

35 species, natives of temperate and tropical

Asia; only the common privet is a native of Europe. They are shrubs or low trees with evergreen or nearly evergreen opposite entire leaves, and dense clusters of small, white, tubular fourparted flowers, enclosing two stamens and succeeded by small, globular, usually black berries, each with a single pendulous

seed. The best-known species is the common European privet, L. vulgare, which makes good hedges; there ate numerous vari-

eties with variegated leaves.

The so-called California privet

(L. ovalifolium), native to Japan, is widely planted in the United States and thrives in Great Britain. L. japonicum, L. lucidum, L. Massalongianum (Khassia Hills) and other species are also cultivated. Mock-privet, Phillyrea, a member of the same family, is an ornamental hardy evergreen shrub.

PRIVILEGE, in law, an immunity or exemption conferred by special grant in derogation of common right. The term is derived from privilegium, a law specially passed in favour of or against a particular person. In Roman law the latter sense was the more common; in modern law sense. Privilege in English law is to say, it is granted to a person, university. The most important

the word bears either personal as a peer, or instances at

only the former or real—that is to a place, as a present existing

in England are the privilege of parliament (see PARLIAMENT),

which protects certain communications from being regarded as libellous (see LIBEL AND SLANDER), and the privilege of the client by which counsel and solicitor are protected from disclosing, in judicial proceedings, information which has come to them in that relation. This does not extend to clergymen or medical attendants (see Observations by Mr. Justice McCardie in The Times, July 19, 1927). Privileged copyholders were those held by the custom of the manor and not by the will of the lord. There are certain debts in most countries which are said to be privileged —that is, such debts as must first be defrayed by the executor out of the personal estate of the deceased, in payment, for example, of funeral expenses or servants’ wages. There are certain deeds and summonses which are privileged in Scots law, the former because they require less solemnity than ordinary deeds, the lattet because the ordinary induciae are shortened in their case (see Watson, Law Dict., s.v. “Privilege”). The priority formerly poss sessed by specialty debts was abolished in 1869. (See DEBT.) In the United States the term privilege is of considerable political importance. By art. iv. s. 2 of the Constitution, “‘the citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States.” By art. xiv. s. 1 of the amendments to the Constitution (enacted July 28, 1868), “no State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States.” It will be

noticed that the former applies to citizens of the States, the latter to citizens of the United States. “The intention of this clause (att. iv.) was to confer on the citizens of each State, if one may so say, a general citizenship, and to communicate all the

privileges and immunities which the citizens of the same State would have been entitled to under the like circumstances” (Story, Constitution of the United States, 1806). The clauses have several times been the subject of judicial decision in the Supreme Court. With regard to art. iv. it was held that a State licence tax disCcriminating against commodities the production of other States was void as abridging the privileges and immunities of the citizens of such other States (Ward v. State of Maryland, 12 Wallace’s Reports, 418). With regard to art, xiv. 1, it was held that its main

COUNCIL

521

purpose was to protect from the hostile legislation of the States the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, looking more especially to the then recent admission of negroes to political rights. Accordingly it was held that a grant of exclusive right or privilege of maintaining slaughter-houses for 21 years, imposing at the same time the duty of providing ample conveniences, was not unconstitutional, as it was only a police regulation for the health of the people (The Slaughter-House Cases, 16 Wallace, 36). The same has been held of a refusal by a State to grant to a woman alicence to practise law (Bradwell v. The State, 16 Wallace, 130), of a State law confining the rights of suffrage to males (Minor v. Happersett, 21 Wallace, 162), and of a State law regulating the sale of intoxicating liquors (Bartemeyer v. Iowa, 18 Wallace, 129). Suits to redress the deprivations of privilege secured by the Constitution of the United States must be brought in a United States court. It is a crime to conspire to prevent the free exercise and enjoyment of any privilege, or to conspire to deprive any person of equal privileges and immunities, or under colour of law to subject any inhabitant of a State or territory to the deprivation of any privileges or immunities (Revised Statutes of United States, ss. 5507, 5510, 5519). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between “privileges” and “rights” in the United States, but privileges are more general and the act of suffrage is considered a “privilege” rather than a “right.”

PRIVY COUNCIL.

The privy council, like all the British

institutions of central government, excepting the House of Commons, is descended from the court of the Norman kings. This curia regis, composed of the king’s tenants-in-chief, the household officials, and anyone else whom the king chose to summon, performed all the functions of central government without differentiating between them. According to feudal theory, tenants owed suit to their lord’s court; but every great lord had also his household officials, his chancellor, his treasurer, his chamberlain and his steward to transact his daily business. Thus, too, the curia regis expanded or contracted according to the nature of the business under consideration. The ordinary routine would be carried out by the officials, assisted by such barons as happened to be at court; for more important business the king would secure the attendance of a greater number of his tehants-inchief; and on really vital matters the household officials would tend to become a numerically insignificant technical element in a large feudal assembly. As time went by the larger and smaller gatherings came to be distinguished adjectivally; later, these adjectives developed a technical significance, until at last, although still remaining for a time merely different manifestations of a one and indivisible body, the larger assembly developed into the great council and the parliament, the smaller into the king’s council. In early days the presence of many barons at conciliar meetings was the mark of a strong king; later, as the barons came to realize that attendance was not merely a tiresome incident of feudal tenure but a source of political power, that obligation became a privilege. Thus, in the later middle ages there developed a struggle between king and greater barons for the control of the king’s council. Was it to be feudal or expert? In the end the barons failed to secure their greater demands— exclusive membership and the control of appointment and dismissal—because they were unable to discover a means of adequately reconciling the principle of the right of all to attend with the actuality of a small assembly, because, though collectively anxious to control and individually willing to be appointed, they could never be relied upon for constant attendance, and because, with the passing of the feudal organization of society, baronial counsel ceased to be expert advice on matters of government. But the struggle was not entirely without fruit. A conciliar oath was instituted, membership became more determinate, and methods were devised, however primitive and clumsy, for enforcing responsibility. By the time of Henry VII. this council had become the instrument of the Crown. It was composed of an inner ring of counsellors proper, who took the conciliar oath and sat at the council board, and of an outer ring of technical experts and dighitaries

522

PRIVY

COUNCIL

(later, in the reign of Henry VIII., known as ordinary counsellors), who, though they might occasionally be called upon for advice, were not members of the board, did not take the conciliar oath, but merely that of their respective offices, and performed the technical and routine work of the central and provincial courts of the council. It was the policy of the Tudors to rule the country paternally by the prerogative exercised through the medium of the council. Star Chamber and Privy Council—This conception of government necessitated precision, sub-division and specialization, and thus, just as in earlier times, for analogous reasons, the undifferentiated curia regis had given birth and place to a number of descendent courts and councils, so in Tudor times the king’s council and its functions were split up and divided between the privy council, the courts of Star Chamber, of requests and of high commission (ggv.), and such local offshoots as the courts and councils of the North, and of Wales and the Marches. A distinction between the council with the king and the council at Westminster had appeared from time to time during the middle ages. It now became “sharper and more permanent.” The body “following the king was commonly known as the ‘council at court,’ while the other continued to be called ‘the king’s council in the Star Chamber.’ The former body became the privy council.” This conciliar government was admirably suited to a period of transition. But the need of this somewhat arbitrary, if paternal, government had passed with the Tudors. Moreover, this small but all-powerful bureaucracy depended for its efficiency on a resolute and discriminating sovereign, capable of choosing the right men and of superintending their labours. The Stuarts did not possess these qualifications. The House of Commons, hitherto accustomed to follow the leadership of privy councillors, had now, with increased experience of partnership in government, developed a mind and policy of its own. Of the judicial aspect of the council’s activities the common lawyers were coming to show an even more threatening jealousy, a jealousy justified by the misguided action of the Stuarts in checking the natural evolution of these courts towards independence of executive control and in using them to enforce, not justice, but policy. No wonder, then, that as religious and constitutional controversies developed between Crown and parliament the attention of malcontents became focussed on conciliar jurisdiction, nor that, when the parliamentary cause at last triumphed, in 1641, the whole system of conciliar government was swept away. Only the privy council was spared. It was never legally abolished. It perished in the interregnum (though the name was resuscitated in 1657) and revived with the return of Charles IT. in 1660. The personnel of the council was recruited from clergy, peerage and commons. The baronage, as we saw, had failed in the middle ages to secure exclusive membership. The Tudors preferred to employ men of low degree who would be wholly dependent on their master, and could be rewarded inexpensively by promotion in the Church, to the judicial bench or to other State offices, where their dignities would not become hereditary. Indeed, so professional did the council become that even the peers on it were members by virtue of office rather than of birth. The ecclesiastics also, who in the middle ages had predominated in the great offices of State, now declined in numbers and influence, partly because they had no longer a monopoly of education, and partly because, since the Reformation, they had ceased to be

dozen and a score, the Stuarts, as usual, were less successful. By 1623 the total had increased to 35, and Charles I.’s council aver. aged at about the same figure. The nucleus of principal off. cers, if a rough generalization be permitted, comprised the archbishop of Canterbury, the lord chancellor, the lord treasurer, the lord president (when there was one), the lord privy seal, the lord admiral, the lord steward, the lord chamberlain, the two secre. taries of State, the chancellor of the Exchequer, the treasurer and the comptroller of the king’s household, and the chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. At the Restoration the problem of numbers became even more acute. Gen. Monk, we are told, presented

Charles with a paper containing “the names of at least three score and ten persons, who were thought fittest to be made privy counsellors.” Charles had also to remember the survival of his father’s council and his own

advisers, whom

he had brought with him

from beyond the seas. All things considered, it is not surprising that, though he managed to begin with only 28, the total had reached 47 by 1679. Temple’s abortive attempt at conciliar

reform temporarily reduced the figure to 33, but by 1688 it was back again at 48, by 1707 it had reached 60 and, by 1723, 67. The Pre-eminence of the Cabinet.—In proportion as the numbers of the privy council rose, so did its powers decline. Even in Tudor times the increasing membership and the volume of work had led to the institution of committees, and already, under the early Stuarts, one of these committees, out of which was to develop the cabinet, was beginning to usurp the functions of the council. (For the development and extent of this usurpation see CABINET.) Unpopular as this tendency was, it could not be

checked.

The petition of Lords and Commons

in 1642 “that

matters of State proper for the privy council might be debated

and concluded there” is only one instance of many unavailing

protests. Charles IT., after his restoration, carried caballing on official and unofficial committees beyond the limits of the nation’s endurance, and was at last, in 1679, forced to submit to the first serious attempt to restore the powers of the council. Sir William Temple was the reputed father of the scheme, but it seems that the king played a, for him, not unusual part in the begetting of it. The reformed council was to consist of 15 “who shall be privy councellours by their places” and of 15 others representing the various sections of parliamentary opinion, plus princes of the blood, a Jord president, and a secretary for Scotland when in England—33 in all. The scheme was, in fact, a failure from the start. Membership was still too numerous for efficiency, too diverse in opinion to be able to pursue, much less to dictate, a consistent policy; worse still, the experiment was received with cold suspicion by parliament. Charles, in spite of recent professions of loyalty to the new council, began flouting it at once. He prorogued the parliament without consulting it, dissolved the parliament contrary to the advice of a large majority, and finally, in spite of it, prevented for a year the meeting of the new parliament. Once more he had resort to caballing. Not unnaturally, the opposition members of the council ceased to attend meetings which were nothing but a farce, and with their disappearance the council may be said to have reverted to its former constitution. The last serious attempt to restore the privy council to its former position and influence may be found in the clause of the Act of Settlement (1701), which enacted that, on the Hanoverian accession, “all matters and things relating to the well-governing of the kingdom, which are properly cognizable in the privy council officials of an international hierarchy, semi-independent of sec- by the laws and customs of this realm, shall be transacted there, ular control. Thus the majority of the council came to consist and all resolutions taken thereupon shall be signed by such of of lay commoners, and the proportion may fairly be illustrated the privy council as shall advise and consent to the same.” But from the council of Edward VI., which consisted of 17 com- the proposal was by that date impracticable, and the clause was moners, two prelates and seven peers, only one of whom held a repealed in 1705 before it even came into force. The council board had been not merely short-circuited by the cabinet, it had peerage of more than r2 years’ creation. Members.—Both in the middle ages and for several centuries even lost the power of debating such measures as came before it. later contemporary opinion favoured 20 as about the ideal total In 1711 a debate on the subject in parliament elicited the remark of conciliar membership. But seldom did practice conform that “the privy counsellors were such as were thought to know with theory. When the privy councillor register begins, in 1540, everything and knew nothing. Those of the cabinet council we do, indeed, find 19 members, but by Henry VIII.’s death thought nobody knew anything but themselves.” And the last there were 29. In Edward’s reign the record was 40, in Mary’s occasion on which the council asserted its former rights was 44, and, although Elizabeth reduced the numbers to between a when, in 1714, as Queen Anne lay dying, certain Whig lords

PRIVY

COUNCIL

forced their way in at a meeting of the lords of the committee

543

tween lord and tenant that Magna Carta attempted to check, or regulate, the raising of exceptional revenue by providing that of the Crown, converted the meeting into a session of the privy whenever the sovereign wanted more than his ancient feudal council and, reinforced by their conciliar colleagues, ushered in dues, he should consult a gathering of his tenants-in-chief. Only the Hanoverian succession. From the accession of George I. the with the coming of the Commons to parliament and with the privy council may be described as a purely formal body meeting growth of the idea that money is granted in exchange for redress on purely formal occasions to transact purely formal business. of grievances does national direct taxation find a place in the There are now (1928) nearly 300 “right honourable lords and constitutional scheme, and that place, of course, is in parliament, others of His Majesty’s Most Honourable Privy Council.” They and in parliament alone. But in the matter of indirect taxation are mostly dignitaries who have held, or hold, high political, the position was not so clear. The regulation of trade and the judicial or ecclesiastical office in Great Britain, the dominions, or vicissitudes of foreign policy necessitated, in early times, the the colonies; though the list, we are told, “occasionally” includes imposition and manipulation of customs duties by the Crown in “eminent persons in science or letters.” Office lasts for the life council. Later on, the growing jealousy of parliament led to the passage of the sovereign and six months after, but it is the modern of statutes which did something to restrict, but very little to custom for the new sovereign to renew the appointment. define, the royal powers in this direction. For two centuries or FUNCTIONS more, however, the issue was compromised. As long as the The curia regis performed all the functions of central govern- Crown was content to leave the question of the prerogative in ment without differentiating between them. Later, with the abeyance, certain duties were annexed to the Crown in perpetuity multiplication and elaboration of business, as old methods be- and others voted to every new sovereign by his first parliament came too stereotyped and cumbersome to meet new needs, the for life. It was James I. who violated this understanding by issuone court gave birth and place to many. But, since differentia- ing a new Book of Rates, placing impositions upon articles tion was along the lines of procedure rather than of function, produced and sold within the kingdom, and making other alterevery true offspring of the curia, however much it might come in ations, not, as the Tudors had done, in the interests of trade and time to specialize in one particular function, tended to retain at foreign policy, but for purely fiscal purposes. Charles I., in conleast some traces of the others as well. Thus, by the end of the sequence, was not voted tunnage and poundage, for life, on his mediaeval period the king’s council was coming to be thought accession, and the whole question of prerogative levies came up of mainly as an executive body, but it still retained extensive for discussion and decision. At the end of a struggle in which judicial, fiscal and legislative powers, and portions of all these neither party had either the law or honesty completely on its (except the fiscal) have, in diminishing quantities, descended side, parliament, by the Petition of Right (1628), and the Tunthrough the ages to, and been inherited by, the modern privy nage and Poundage and Ship Money Acts (1641), finally secured council, along with certain other duties which still defy expert absolute control over all taxation, indirect and direct. analysis as exclusively executive or judicial or legislative. Legislative.—Many of the so-called statutes of the middle Executive.—The consultative and advisory functions formerly ages have no better authority than the Crown in council. By the exercised by the privy council were usurped, as shown above, by end of the 15th century, however, statutes are quite distinct from a committee of counsellors, who came to be known collectively as ordinances or proclamations (as they were coming to be called). the cabinet (g.v.). The duties of the other committees ‘of the Conciliar legislation was vaguely considered to be subordinate to council have been handed over, to a large extent, to State depart- statute and common law, and less permanent also, its duration ments, such as the Board of Trade, the Local Government being apparently limited to the life of the enacting sovereign. Board, the Board of Education and the Board of Agriculture, Nevertheless, the legislative powers of the Crown in council presided over by ministers responsible to parliament. The privy were still wide and undefined. The Statute of Proclamations council itself now acts merely as the formal medium for giving (1539) did something temporarily to regulate them on a firm expression, by Order of Council or by Proclamation, to the basis and with a limited range, ‘but was repealed at the accession measures determined on by the Crown on the advice of its of Edward VI., and as, later on, parliaments became less docile, ministers, in the exercise of those executive functions which it there was a natural tendency on the part of the sovereign to possesses either by virtue of the prerogative or by statutory claim greater authority and a wider scope for proclamations. authority. Orders in Council are used when new rules and regu- “When the common state or wealth of the people require it,” lations are approved and passed by the King in council, or for it was said in the Star Chamber, “the king’s proclamation binds proclamations to give publicity to such matters as the summons, as a new law and need not stay a parliament.” Finally, the amdissolution, or prorogation of parliament, or the declaration of || bitious pretensions of the first Stuart king brought the matter to peace or war. These formal meetings are attended by a few || a head. In 1610 the Commons complained that the number and councillors, generally ministers or officials, three of whom form a || range of recent proclamations made them fear “that proclamaquorum, and the orders of the council are authenticated by the i tions will, by degrees, grow up and increase to the strength and signature of the clerk to the council. nature of laws.” And Coke, consulted as to the answer to be Nevertheless, there are still committees in existence exercising ; given, laid down in the Case of Proclamations an authoritative important functions of a mixed kind. For instance, it not in- ; limitation. “The king cannot,” he said, “change any part of the frequently happens that parliament, faced with the difficulty of |common law nor create any offence by his proclamation which enacting long and intricate legislation, confines its attention to ,was not an offence before, without parliament... . But a thing general outline and principle, at the same time authorizing, under įwhich is punishable by the law, by fine and imprisonment, if the the act, the privy council to fill in the details. These powers are king prohibit it by his proclamation . . . and so warn his subexercised usually by committees to which matters are referred by jects of the peril of it . . . this as a circumstance aggravates the the Crown in council. Thus two applications in connection with offence.” It was too much to expect either James I. or Charles I. the attention of the statutes of the universities and colleges of to observe these principles, but the later Stuarts kept to the Ozford and Cambridge came before the universities’ committee. limits laid down, mainly, perhaps, because there was no longer And it is obvious that the work of such committees involves all a Star Chamber to enforce the ultra-legal acts of a sovereign. T functions of government, administrative, judicial and legisBut there is another aspect of the legislative functions of the ative. council. It was completely, once, and is still, in part, a component Fiscal.—The curia provided no machinery for national tax- of the legislature. Parliament was originally only the fullest ation, since the latter had no place in feudal society. It was the assembly of the curia regis, a re-fusion, as it has been called, of accepted doctrine that “the king should live of his own,” that is, all the elements into which the old, undifferentiated curia was on the rents and services due to him; and these were adequately coming to be resolved. As the king was the core of the council, dealt with by the Exchequer. So exclusively was it an affair be- so the council was the core of the parliament. Those members

(see CABINET), Claimed their right to be present as counsellors

t

524

PRIVY

COUNCIL,

of the council who were lords, spiritual or lay, sat among their peers on the benches along the side walls, to right and left of the king respectively; the commoners sat on four woolsacks in the midst of the chamber. Their exact positions were regulated later by the Act for Placing the Lords (1539). But already, in the 14th century, as the parliament chamber began to develop into the House of Lords, peers and bishops began to regard the commoners present as inferior persons, with inferior, if any, rights. As the commoners lost influence, so they lost interest, and ih Wolsey’s time began to seek election to the House of Commons; and this practice had become the rule for privy councillors, who

were not bishops and peers, by the middle of the 16th century.

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letters patent which contained rules providing for appeals tg the

privy council. Since then, further high courts havé been estab. lished and these are also constituted by letters patent containing

similar provisions as to appeals. The Civil Procedure Code also gives a right of appeal under prescribed conditions and there has followed an Order of Council of Feb. 9, 1920, which replaces a much earlier one issued under the Judicial Committee Act of

1833. It is easily understood how upon a system thus develop. ing in loyalty to the central jurisdiction and prerogative of the Crown, the Act of 1833 was completely in keeping with such development. before

the

So great has the growth of Indian judicial business committee

become,

that

the

committee

has been

The lord chancellor remained in the House of Lords because he was its presiding officer (only since Anne’s reign has he been invariably made a peer), and thus retained his woolsack, but the other councillors—by non-attendance—have forfeited their seats, and even now a privy councillor, not being a peer or bishop, who wishes to attend the House of Lords, must content himself with standing on the steps of the throne. The so-called privilege of the Lords to require the attendance of the judges (who still sit on the woolsacks at the opening of parliament) is no more than a survival of the judges’ regular attendance in the parliament chamber as members of the curia and counsellors of the Crown. For the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council see below.

divided into two working sections, one of which is entirely or al. most entirely occupied with Indian appeals. By s. 30 of the Judicial Committee Act of 1833, two Indian retired judges are also eligible as members of the committee. Before coming to the Statute itself, it may be well to apprize the reader of various items of privy council jurisdiction which stand quite apart from that exercised in appeals from India and the colonies and dominions. Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction.—The ecclesiastical jurisdiction

BrBrioGRAPHY.—T. Erskine May, Constitutional History of England, continued to 1911 by F. Holland; W. Bagehot, The English Con-

the archbishop to the king in chancery and it was enacted that upon such appeal

W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England (1874-78); F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, History of English Law (1898); W. Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution (1896) ; C. L. Scofield, Court of Star Chamber (1900) ; A. V. Dicey, Law of the Constitution (1902); I.S.

as shall be named by the King’s Highness his heirs or successors like as in case of appeal from the Admirall Court to hear and definitely

stitution (1867); W. E. Hearn, The Government

of England (1867);

Leadam, Select Cases before the King’s Council in the Star Chamber (1903); A. L. Lowell, The Government of England (1908); F. W.

Maitland, Constitutional History of England, ed. H. A. L. Fisher (1908); S. Low, The Governance of England (1908); J. F. Baldwin, The King’s Council in England during the Middle Ages (1913); W. S. Holdsworth, History of English Law (1914-26) ; A. F. Pollard, Evolu-

of the king in council is derived from the statute 25 Henry VIII.

chap. 19, which followed the famous Act of the previous year, 24

Henry VIII. chap. 12, abolishing appeals to Rome. By the Act 25 Henry VIII. chap. 19 an appeal was given from the courts of “A Commission shall be directed under the great seal to such persons

determine such appeals and the causes concerning the same.”

This commission in time became known as the High Court of Delegates, which was abolished by 2 and 3 William IV. chap. 92,

and by 3 and 4 William IV. chap. 41, ecclésiastical appeals were transferred to the judicial committee. The result is that appeals from the two courts of archbishops (.é., archés court of Cantertion of Parliament (1920) ; “Council, Star Chamber and Privy Council bury and provincial court of York) lie to the king in council. under the Tudors,” English Historical Review (1922 and 1923); G. B. With regard to appeals under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892 Adams, Origin of the English Constitution (1920); T. F. Tout, Chap-ters in the Administrative History of Mediaeval England (1920) ; J. R. (dealing with morals), there is an alternate tight of appeal from

Tanner, Tudor Constitutional Documents Privy Council of England (1927).

(1922); E. R. Turner, The (F. L. B.)

PRIVY COUNCIL, JUDICIAL COMMITTEE OF. By the roth century it had become apparent that the jurisdiction of the “King in council,” wielded upon a wider and wider scale, must be regularized. In the year 1833 the judicial committee of the privy council, the present body, was constituted by the famous statutes 3 and 4 William IV. chap. 41.

While historically the existence of an approach by way of an appeal to his majesty had remained, a demand continually arose for systematizing the procedure of such appeal. This was accomplished and the whole institution was re-formed, methodized and regularized by the “Act for Administration of Justice in His Majesty’s Privy Council,” the authorship of which is attributed to Lord Brougham, and which was passed on Aug. 14, 1833.

Much in that statute has been changed; in particular the admiralty jurisdiction has been wholly transferred to the court of admiralty, which, with the probate and matrimonial jurisdiction, has become one of the common law courts of the country under thé Judi-

cature Act of 1874. But the important work and sphere of the privy

council in regard to the dominions of the crown finds its foundation in this statute. Indian Business.—Before citing the Act, it may be ‘well to pause and to consider not only how the jurisdiction of the council had extended (as we have seen) to various outlying portions of the

king’s dominions, but diso how its authority over the East Indian possessions was originally established.

The short history of this

is as follows. By charter of George I. in 1726 courts were established in the three settlements—Madras, Bombay and Bengal,

and an appeal to his majesty in council was given. Subsequent cHartets constituted supreme courts and these in time were replaced by various high courts created under the charter Acts 24 and 25 Victoria, chap. 104. These high courts were constituted by

the consistory court of bishops either to the court of the archbishop or to the king in council direct. If the appellant elects the former there is no further appeal to the king in council. On the hearing of ecclesiastical appeals under the rules made under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, five bishops have to be summoned as ecclesiastical assessors, of whom three at least have to be preserit. Under the Endowed Schools Act, 36 and 37 Vic. chap. 87, appeals lie to his majesty in council from schemes prepared by the Board of Education affecting schools subject to the Endowéd Schools Acts. Under the Union of Benefices Measure 1923 of the national assembly of the Church of England, an appeal lies to the king in council against a scheme of the ecclesiastical commissioners uniting two or more benefices. The Statute of 1833.—The Act provides in its first section for the composition of the council headed by the president for the time being thereof, and the lord high chancellor and other learned dignitaries as there set forth. These “shall form a committee of his majesty’s said privy council and shall be styled the judicial

committee of the privy council.” In later years the personnel of

the committee has been changed and enlarged.

It now consists

of the lord chancellor, the lord president, the lord president of

the council and the lotds of appeal in ordinary, these being six in number,

tioned.

together with the two

Indian

members

already men-

To them are added such other members of the privy

council as shall from. tithe tó time hold ó? have held “high judicial office.” These last rendet voluntary atid valuable service, and

without their assistance the in¢reasing business of the cotnmuttec would fall hopelessly into arrear. It is provided by the thitd section :— “That all appeals or complaints in the naturé of appéals whatever, which, either by virtue of this Act, or of any law, statute, or custom, may be brought before his majesty or his majesty in council from or in respect of the determination, sentence, rule, or ordér of any court, judge, or judicial officer, and all such appeals as are now

PRIVY

COUNCIL,

JUDICIAL

ending and unheard, shall from and after the passing of this Act

be referred by his majesty to the said judicial committee of his privy council, and that such appeals, causes, and matters shall be heard by the said judicial committee, and a report or recommendation thereon shall be made to his majesty in council for his decision

thereon as heretofore, in the same manner

and form as has been

heretofore the custom with respect to matters referred by his majesty to the whole of his privy council or a committee thereof (the nature of such report or recommendation being always stated in open court) 2”

The British Dominions.—In

1867 the famous British North

America Act was passed. It disclosed within its constitution questions of a high and delicate order. The principal of these ques-

tions was contained in the enumeration by s. 91 of the powers of the Dominion parliament and by s. g2 of the exclusive powers of provincial legislatures, It became at once evident that the task of clearing the boundary lines not only inter-provincially but between Dominion and province would be a task of severe strain. The authority of the judicial committee of the privy council was

clear from the Act of 1833, but the Canadian parliament thought fit to emphasize that situation by the 47th section of their Supreme

and Exchequer Courts Act (38 Vic. chap. 1). That section is in

the following terms :— “The judgment of the Supreme Court shall in all cases be final and

conclusive, and no appeal shall be brought from any judgment or order of the Supreme Court to any court of appeal established by the parliament of Great Britain and Ireland, by which appeals or petitions to her majesty may be ordered to be heard: saving any

right which her majesty may be graciously pleased to exercise by virtue of her royal prerogative.”

Under the powers nounced a series of which is recognized to bring a fresh crop

vested in it, the judicial committee has projudgments the constitutional importance of throughout the world. Every year appears of questions to be solved, arising out of the

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OF

525

Government of Ireland during the negotiations under which the constitution of the Irish Free State was framed. By the Act of Dee. 5, 1922, the Irish Free State Constitution Act, the various articles of the constitution were set forth in schedule J. The 66th

article is as follows :— “The Supreme Courl of the Irish Free State (Saorstát Eireann) shall, with such exceptions (not including eases which involve questions as to the validity of any law) and subject tọ such regulations as may be prescribed by law, have appellate jurisdiction from all

decisions of the High Court.

Thẹ decision of the Supreme

Court

shall in all cases be final and conclusive, and shall not be reviewed or capable of being reviewed by any other court, tribunal or authority whatsoever: provided that nothing in this constitution shalJl impair the right of any person to petition his majesty for special leave to appeal from the Supreme Court to his majesty in council or the right of his majesty to grant such leave.”

It will be seen that the main lines of this judicial settlement fol-

lowed almost precisely those applicable to the Dominion of Canada. And it will be further and particularly observed that there has not been granted to the legislature of Ireland the power granted to the parliaments of Australia and South Africa respectively, as just quoted, namely, to “make laws limiting the matters in which such special leave may be asked” with reservations by the governor-general. General Considerations.—No one considering this brief sketch of the widening of the scope of such a jurisdiction can

fail to be impressed by several cardinal facts. [n the first place, this jurisdiction has marked and kept pace with the development of the empire itself. Secondly, and in a singular degree, the judicial committee has formed a central and cohesive power attaching not

Crown colonies alone, but the self-governing portions of the empire in homage to a jurisprudence which, developing from year to year and from precedent to precedent, has proved the adaptability

construction of the British North America Act, The settlement of the constitutional relations of the various States of Australia with each other, their federation into one commonwealth, and the adjustment of their relations judicially with the imperial authority and royal prerogative were settled

of law under enlightened administration to circumstances and to peoples and even to stages of civilization, of infinite variety The next consideration is of great import. It explains why the

decision of the High Court upon any question, howsoever arising, as to the limits inter se of the constitutional powers of the commonwealth and those of any State or States, or as to the limits inter se

to its component parts their own law. This imposes a task of great complexity. Systems of jurisprudence totally different in outward seeming, but respectively in entire accord with the historical and

variety alluded to has been found compatible with the maintenance

by the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act, 63 and 64 of law under conditions at once local and yet central and imperial. Vic. chap. 12. It has to be noted that in ordinary cases by force The reason is found in the genius of the British people, and the of the royal prerogative an appeal may be admitted to the judicial remarkable grasp within the sphere of law of the principle of self committee; but in constitutional cases such an appeal is only government. The difference between British jurisprudence and the allowed on a certification of the High Court of Australia. Section jurisprudence of Rome or, say, in modern times, of Germany, is that to the world Rome gave Roman law, and to the modern world 74 of the Act is in these terms :— “No appeal shall be permitted to the queen in council from a Germany desired to give German law; but the British empire gives of the constitutional powers of any two or more States, unless the High Court shall certify that the question is one which ought to be

determined by her majesty in council. The High Court may so certify if satisfied that for any special reason the certificate should be granted, and thereupon an appeal shall lie to her majesty in council on the

question without further leave. Except as provided in this section, this constitution shall not impair any right which the queen may be pleased to exercise by virtue of her royal prerogative to grant special leave of appeal from the High Court to her majesty in council. The parliament may make laws limiting the matters in which such leave may be asked, but proposed laws containing any such limitation shall

be reserved by the governor-general for her majesty’s pleasure.” In 1909 there was passed on Sept. 20 an Act to constitute the

Union of South Africa. This Act was the result ot severe parliamentary and constitutional struggles following the South African War. Judicial affairs were regulated substantially on the Cana:— dian model. By s. 106 of the statute it was provided

“There shall be no appeal from the Supreme Court of South Africa or from any division thereof to the king in council, but nothing

herein contained shall be construed to impair any vight which the ‘ing in council may be pleased to exercise to grant special leave to appeal from the appellate division to the king in council. Parliament

may make laws limiting the matters in respect of which such special leave may be asked, but bills containing any such limitation shall be

reserved by the governor-general for the signification of his majesty’s

Pleasure: provided that nothing in this section shall affect any right of appeal to his majesty in council from any judgment given by the

appellate division of the Supreme Court under or in virtue of the

Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act 1899.”

The effect of these provisions came prominently into view in the

adjusting of the relations between the judicial committee and the

tribal traditions of the various populations and parts of empire, have to be administered in such a fashion as to accept and respect not only established local traditions, customs and laws but also

the hereditary and prized rules of succession, rights of property and even of religion prevailing in various quarters of the globe. To take India for an example, the appilcation of Hindu law to the Mohammedans, or of Buddhist law to Hindus, instead of uniting the empire might break it to pieces.

In Canada the same variety in unity prevails. Each province

feels safe. In 1774 the Quebec Act provided that in civil matters the old laws of Quebec should still apply. Among these were “First, the coutumes de Paris and the ordinances in force within the jurisdiction of Paris; second, the arret du conseil du roi and the ordinances published between 1663 and 1763.” In short the legal situation in those respects in Quebec is that of Paris prior to the French Revolution, whereas in the other provinces the basis of law is the common law of England. Each province of the Great

Dominion developing its own provincial legislation, must have its statutes recognized by the Central Power and stands by its own system. The lines of function and jurisprudence of the provinces may thus differ from each other and each and all from the Dominion itself. The resultant conflicts arouse in many cases the keenest feeling and these have been brought for settlement to the bar of the privy council administering and interpreting the law as laid

down in the Act of 1867. These illustrations of variety in unity evolving into an imperial harmony need not be multiplied. This principle of resolute and harmonious accord with local tra-

526

PRIVY

PURSE—PRIZE

COURTS

dition, creed and custom extends as has been indicated even to the adoption and administration of whole systems of jurisprudence. As first noted, within Canada itself the range extends from modern English law to ancient French. Again, over no inconsiderable part of the empire it is a fact that Roman-Dutch law holds sway. This is shown in parts of the empire so wide apart as South Africa, Ceylon and British Guiana. Space forbids a further enumeration but sufficient has been said to indicate the stupendous difficulties which have to be overcome by this resolute respect for colonial

and Indian jurisprudence. It is from quarters in which these difficulties have to be daily surmounted (Quebec and the empire of India being cited as examples) that the firmest support comes for the upholding of the dignity and jurisdiction of the Council as now existing. This finally raises a problem as to future constitutional development. It is acknowledged that the rational foundations of the jurisdiction and administrative power of the judicial committee rest upon fundamental ethical principles which, finding varying expression under varying systems, are yet essentially the same. Simple illustrations occur such as these:

that under the Roman-

Dutch law one would naturally cite the old maxim, sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas; when, in India, embarrassment is caused by the apparent failure to reach a common ground of principle, resort is had to “justice, equity and good conscience,” and this principle finds its place in every Indian textbook; in Canada, the British North America Act expressly confers upon the Dominion confronted with provincial demands the province of preserving “peace, order and good government.”

Apart from these instances,

no jurisprudence fortified by centuries of tradition can be finally found to rest on foundations less sure than the recta ratio of Cicero, the righteousness of ancient, and the justice tinctured with toleration of modern times. Two points in conclusion may be noted. Section 4 of the Act of 1833 has been already cited, providing for a reference to the judicial committee of any such other matters as his majesty shall think fit. This nebulous and almost all-embracing provision has in spirit been followed in Canada by a reference to the courts of abstract questions for a guide to Government in its administrative policy. It must be said frankly that such provisions are received by courts, including the committee itself, with the greatest caution, for the simple reason that judicial tribunals should not be set to abstractions but to problems which have actually arisen and upon which in foro contentioso parties have argued out their differences. To forsake this principle would tend to turn a judicial tribunal into a mere philosophic academy. As a last resource however this branch of the prerogative may have to be resorted to. This was done in reference to the settlement of claims of compensation for civil servants who under statutory cessation of their British employment entered the service of the Irish Free State. A decision in a certain sense had been given by the privy council and had been challenged by the Free State, and thereupon s. 4 of the Act of 1833 was put into operation, substantially to reconsider a decided case. In these columns no discussion of such a point would be either possible or proper. The rules of procedure and general methods of the conduct of business by the committee are found in books of practice.

AND

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LAW

of a subject of an ally, captured jure belli by a belligerent captor on the high seas, or in rivers, ports and harbours and even in some

circumstances on land (see the Roumanian, 1914, LB. & CPC 75). For England the term “vessels” includes merchantmen, lighters, rafts, tugs, boats and all other naval craft together with their appointments, such as signalling instruments (see the Anichgh 1919, 3 B. & C.P.C. 611; 1922, A.C. 235). The term “goods” a cludes “cargoes” which covers “choses in action” (g.v.) (the

Fredrick VIII., 1917, P. 43); “bonds and securities” (the Noor. dam [No. 2], 1920, A.C. 904); and “moneys”

(Turkish moneys

taken at Mudros, 1916, 2 B. & C.P.C. 336). Not only goods shipped under a bill of lading (Ten Bales of Silk at Port Said, 1916, 2 B. & C.P.C. 13), but also goods despatched by parcels post are carried by the term (see the Tubantia, 1916, L.R.P.C. 282). The property in prize does not pass to the captor until it has been

brought within the jurisdiction and adjudicated upon. But the property in captured war-ships passes, on capture, to the captor, and they are only brought into the prize court in order that the prize money may be determined. United States.—The term prize is “used as a technical term to express a legal capture.” (Miller v. The Resolution, 1781, 2 Dallas Reports, 1.) The courts “assume that ‘capture’ and ‘prize’ are not convertible terms, and that for the subject of capture to be made prize for the benefit of the captors the taking must meet the conditions imposed by the statutes.” (The Manila Prize Cases, 1903, 188 U.S. Reports, 254.) Captures made on inland waters of the United States are not “liable to condemnation as maritime prize.” (The Cotton Plant,

1870, 10 Wallace Reports, 577.) The Act of Congress of July 1, 1862, “excludes property on land from the category of prize for the benefit of the captors.” (Umited States v. Alexander, 1864,

2 Wallace Reports, 404.) The word “ship,” however, “embraces her boats, tackle, apparel and appurtenances because part of the ship as a going concern, and, for the same reason, ship or vessel

of war includes her armament, search-lights, stores, everything, in short, attached to or on board the ship in aid of her operations.” (The Manila Prize Cases, 1903, 188 U.S. Reports, 254.) Non-seagoing boats such as barges propelled by sweeps and by poling, and boats having no means of propulsion are not regarded as maritime prize. (/bid.) The United States long argued for the exemption from capture of private property at sea, but this doctrine was not accepted by other States or by the courts. The United States abolished prize money by an act of March 3, 1899. (30 USS. Stat. 1007.) Other Countries—The French prize court will not adjudicate on the validity of captures of war-ships or on captures effected on lakes or other inland waters. Otherwise prize covers the same property as in England. In Italy prize extends to captures on the high seas and inland waters which include captures in ports, quays, docks and other places in which maritime traffic is carried on. According to the German Prize Code, 1909,

prize includes enemy and neutral vessels and goods thereon, but not neutral public vessels. Enemy public vessels are confiscatable without other proceedings. German ships and cargoes and German goods on neutral or enemy vessels are excluded. During the World War the German prize courts declared themselves incompetent if In addition to the general constitutional authorities, e.g., Hallam the prize was destroyed without being first captured. Thus and others, on Privy Council, see, in particular, references to the work claimants were deprived of their legal remedy for the sinking at of the judicial committee in N. Bentwich, Privy Council Practice (2nd sight of their vessels, which was contrary to the accepted customs ed., 1926); Lord Shaw of Dunfermline, The Law of the Kinsmen of war. (1928); J. H. Morgan, The Law and Constitution of the k ) PRIZE COURTS AND PRIZE LAW. In England the ` (Sx. PRIVY PURSE is the amount set apart in the civil list admiralty court had jurisdiction in matters of prize from very (g.v.) for the private and personal use of the sovereign in early times, and although since the middle of the 17th century the England. During the reign of Queen Victoria it was £60,000 a instance, or ordinary civil jurisdiction of the court, has been kept year, but on the accession of Edward VII. the amount was fixed distinct from the prize jurisdiction, they were originally both at £110,000 a year, which was the amount paid to the last sover- administered and regarded as being within the ordinary jurisdiction eign (William IV.) who had a queen consort. Under Queen of the lord high admiral. The early records of the admiralty show Victoria the offices of keeper of the privy purse and private secre- that the origin of the prize jurisdiction is to be traced to the power tary were combined. These officials, with their subordinates, are given to the court of the admiral to try cases of piracy and “spoil, of the king’s personal staf. i.e., captures of foreign ships by English ships. Although the courts of common law hardly ever seem to have PRIZE, in law, may be defined as the vessels or goods of the enemy or of a neutral, or of a subject of the captor’s own State or interfered with or disputed the admiralty prize jurisdiction, 1s

PRIZE

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AND

exclusive nature was not finally admitted till 1782; but long previously royal ordinances

(1512, 1602)

and statutes

(1661,

iving an alternative of commissioners, 1670, 1706) had given the admiralty court the only express jurisdiction over prize. The statute of Anne and acts of 1739 and 1744 give prize jurisdiction

to any court of admiralty, including the courts of admiralty for

the colonies and plantations in North America.

Prior to the Naval Prize Act 1864, it was necessary for the Crown to confer prize jurisdiction upon the admiralty court by a special commission at the commencement of a war; this practice

although no longer necessary has, however, been continued since

on the outbreak of every war (see the Zamora, 1916, A.C. 77

96). By the Naval Prize Act 1864, the high court of admiralty and every admiralty or vice-admiralty court, or any other court exercising admiralty jurisdiction in British dominions, if for the time being authorized to exercise prize jurisdiction, were made prize courts. The high court of admiralty was given jurisdiction throughout British dominions as a prize court, and, as such, power to enforce any order of a vice-admiralty prize court and of the judicial committee of the privy council in prize appeals—this

power mutatis mutandis being also given to vice-admiralty prize courts. An appeal was given from any prize court to the sovereign in council. Prize courts were given jurisdiction in cases of captures made on land by naval or joint naval and military forces or an expedition made conjointly with allied forces, and power to

give prize salvage on recaptured ships and prize bounty; and a form of procedure was prescribed. The high court was also given exclusive jurisdiction as a prize court over questions of ransom and petitions of right in prize cases, and power to punish masters of ships under convoy disobeying orders or deserting convoy. By the Naval Discipline Act 1866, power to award damages to convoyed ships exposed to danger by the fault of the officer in charge of the convoy was also given to the high court. Under other statutes it had power to try questions of booty of war when referred to it by the Crown, in the same way as prize causes, and claims of king’s ships for salvage on recaptures from pirates, which could be condemned as droits of admiralty, subject to the owner’s right to receive them on paying one-eighth of the value, and also power to seize and restore prizes captured by belligerents in violation of British neutrality, or by a ship equipped in British ports contrary to British obligations of neutrality. All jurisdiction of the high court of admiralty has since passed to the High Court of Justice, which is made a prize court with all the powers of the admiralty court in that respect; and all prize causes-and matters within the jurisdiction of that court as a prize court are assigned to the probate, divorce and admiralty division; and an appeal from it as a prize court lies only to the king in council (Judicature Acts 1873 and 1891). By the Prize Court Act 1894 further provision is made for the constitution of prize courts in British possessions. A commission, warrant or instruction from the Crown or the admiralty may be issued at any time, even in peace; and upon such issue, subject to instructions from the Crown, the vice-admiral of the possessions on being satisfied by information from a secretary of State that war has broken out between Great Britain and a foreign State, may make proclamation to that effect, and the commission or warrant comes into effect. The commission or warrant may

authorize a vice-admiralty court or colonial court of admiralty to act as a prize court, or establish a vice-admiralty court for that purpose, and may be revoked or altered at any time.

By 4 and 5 Geo. V. c. 13 the provisions of the act of 1864

specified in the schedule to the act of 1914 relating to practice and procedure were repealed and rules in substitution in pursuance of

57 and 58 Vict. c. 39, s. 3, were made by Order in Council, with

the proviso that nothing shall extend s. 16 of the act of 1864 to ships of war taken a prize, see Rules of Court in Prize Proceedings,

Order in Council, Aug. 5, 1914, which were subsequently amended.

by Order in Council issued as “Statutory Rules” on Nov. 28, 1914;

Feb. 3, 1915; April 29, 1915; and Dec. 21, 1917. British Prize Law.—The law to be administered by British prize courts is laid down in the commissions issued from time to

time to the lord high admiral (now the lords of the Admiralty)

PRIZE

LAW

527

“to empower the high court of admiralty (now the High Court of Justice and the judges thereof) to take cognizance of and judicially proceed upon all and all manner of captures, seizures, prizes and reprisals of all ships, vessels and goods that are or shall be taken, and to adjudge and condemn the same according to the course of the admiralty and law of nations; as also ships and goods liable to confiscation pursuant to the respective treaties with His Majesty

and other princes and States” (Burchett’s Naval History, 1719). The “course of the admiralty” was understood to mean the maritime law and customs of the sea, as recognized and applied by the maritime nations of Europe. “The law of nations’ was wider. It included also treaties, the decisions of courts and the writings of jurists. Later it included international conventions, such as the Geneva Convention of 1906, Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, the Declarations of Paris 1856, and London 1909. Consequently British prize courts are bound to administer international law, but since they are municipal courts drawing their authority from the king in the parliament, they are bound by an act of parliament, even if it be contrary to the law of nations. They are not, however, bound by Orders in Council although they will act on them when they amount to a mitigation of the rights of the Crown in favour of the enemy or neutral (see the Zamora, 1916, 2 A.C. 77; 2 B. & C.P.C. 1). Precedents are followed, but not blindly. As Sir Samuel Evans said in the Odessa (1914) zı B. & C.P.C. at p. 175, they “should be treated as guides to lead and not as shackles to bind.” By the Prize Court Rules 1914, captors may support their case by any evidence derived from extrinsic sources. In many cases of continuous voyage, for instance, it was only possible to detect and prove contraband trading by the interception of letters, cables and wireless messages. See also Prize Cases Decided in the United States Supreme Court, 1789-1918 (1923). (X. The United States—The Constitution of the United States vests the judicial power of the United States “in one Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.” The judicial power shall extend “to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction” and the Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction in prize cases. (Constitution, Art. III.) The Federal district courts have original jurisdiction “of all prize brought into the United States; and of all proceedings for the condemnation of property taken as prize.” (42 U.S. Stat. 634.) Art. I., section 8, of the Constitution provides that Congress shall have power “‘to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal and make rules concerning captures on land and water.” Under this provision Congress has from time to time acted. On Jan. 15, 1780, even before the Constitution was adopted, it was resolved that a court of appeal be established which should hear appeals ‘in case of capture.” The U.S. courts in the early days followed the recognized precedents as Mr. Justice Wilson said in 1796: “When the United States declared their independence, they were bound to receive the law of nations, in its madern state of

purity and refinement.” (Ware v. Hylton, 3 Dallas, 199.) This applied to maritime capture as was said by Chief Justice Marshall in 1815: “The law of nations is the great source from which we derive those rules, respecting belligerent and neutral rights, which are recognized by all civilized and commercial states throughout Europe and America.” (Thirty Hogsheads of Sugar v. Boyle, 1815, 9 Cranch, 191.) An early decision, in 1795, had said: “A prize court is, in effect, a court of all the nations in the world, because all persons, in every part of the world, are concluded by its sentences, in cases clearly coming within its jurisdiction.” (Penhallow v. Doane, 1795, 3 Dallas, 54.) Mr. Justice Story in 1815 stated in the opinion of the Supreme Court: “The Court of Prize is emphatically a court of the law of nations, and it takes neither its character nor its rules from the mere municipal regulations of any country.” (The Adeline, 9 Cranch, 244.) The aims of prize courts from the American point of view were stated from time to time by the Supreme Court in later decisions, as in 1882, when Justice Gray said: “Prize Courts are not instituted to determine civil and private rights, but for the purpose of trying judicially the lawfulness of captures at sea, according to the

PRIZREN

528

principles of public international law, with the double object of

amended by an ordinance of March 26, 1916. By article 440

the rightful acts of the captors, in the eyes of other nations.” (Cushing v. Laird, 107 U.S. 69.) The United States has also negotiated many treaties with the States of Central and South America which contain articles similar to the following of 1887 with Peru:—

or those of a neutral Power (see Fanchille and De Visscher, Juris. prudence Allemande en Matière de Prises Maritimes, 1922).

preventing and redressing wrongful captures, and of justifying

Article XXV.

It is further agreed, that in all prize-cases, the courts especially

established for such causes in the country to which the prizes may be

conducted shall alone take cognizance of them. And whenever such courts of either party shall pronounce merchandise,

judgment against any vessel,

or property claimed by the citizens of the other party,

the sentence or decree shall set forth the reasons or motives on which

the same shall have been founded; and an authenticated copy of the

sentence or decree, and of all the proceedings connected with the case, shall, if demanded, be delivered to the commander or agent of the said vessel, merchandise, or property, without any excuse or delay, of the established legal fees for the same. (25 U.S. Stat. a I444.

In 1900 the Supreme Court, speaking through Justice Gray in regard to exemption of coast fisheries in time of war, said: “This rule of international law is one which prize courts, administering the law of nations, are bound to take judicial notice of, and to give effect to, in absence of any treaty or public act of their own government in relation to the matter.” (The Paquete Habana, 175 U.S. 677.) In this same case it was said:— “International law is part of our law, and must be ascertained and

administered by the courts of justice of appropriate jurisdiction, as often as questions of right depending upon it are duly presented for their determination. For this purpose, where there is no treaty, and no controlling executive or legislative act or judicial decision, resort must be had to the customs and usages of civilized nations; and, as evidence of these, to the works of jurists and commentators, who by years of labour, research and experience, have made themselves peculiarly well acquainted with the subjects of which they treat. Such works are resorted to by judicial tribunals, not for the speculations of their authors concerning what the law ought to be, but for trustworthy evidence of what the law really is.” (G. G. W

of the Treaty of Versailles, 1919, the Allied and Associated Powers reserved the right to examine all decisions and orders of the German prize courts whether affecting their own subjects

During the World War, prize courts were established by the Russian Government at Sebastopol, Kronstadt and Viadivostock. Each court was composed of an official of the Maritime Judicial

Administration, two naval officers, two officials nominated by the minister of justice and one by the Foreign Office. An appeal lay to

the admiralty council. The law to be administered was that contained in the prize code of 1895, amended in 1904 and revised in 1914. By an imperial ukase of Sept. 1, 1914, the Declaration of London, subject to some modifications, was declared obligatory and was, subject to some further modifications, applied by the courts.

The Japanese prize court at Sasebo was composed of a

judge as president and eight councillors selected from the navy and from the naval, legislative, foreign and diplomatic depart-

ments. Appeals lay to the higher prize court at Tokyo composed of a privy councillor and eight councillors. The law administered is contained in the Regulations issued in 1894, 1904 and 1914. The latter enacted that the principles of international law should be

applied, subject to any national law, regulation or treaty, and in

any event to reciprocal treatment (see Rules of Naval War of

Japan; Bulletin de VInstitut Intermédiaire International, vol. XI. p. 9, 1924; Hurst and Bray, Russian and Japanese Prize Cases,

1912).

By the Chinese Prize Courts Rules of Oct. 30, 1917,

district prize courts were established with a personnel similar to that of the Japanese courts. An appeal lay to the high prize court

composed of the president of the Supreme Court and eight members, representatives of the judicial, naval and administrative departments. The law to be administered is contained in the Chinese Prize Court Rules and Regulations, and when these are silent in the “law, treaties and international usage.” The Hague Other Countries.—The French court is an administrative not Conventions II. and VI. were found by the courts to be binding a judicial tribunal, with a conseiller d’Etat as president and six (see Chinese White Book, 1918; F. T. Cheng, Judgments of the members chosen from the maiires des requétes and officials of the High Prize Court of China, 1919). Prize courts were established Ministries of Marine and Foreign Affairs. An appeal lies to the in Siam by the law of July 20, 1917. It was held by the Bangkok conseil d'État. The law is contained in treaties, national laws and prize court that the law to be administered was the law of nations decrees, custom and practice and in decisions of the prize courts. and not the municipal law (see Reports of Prize Decisions in the The latter are not regarded as binding and are not followed if they Fry library, London School of Economics). An International Prize Court—dAfter much discussion, would entail inconvenient or inequitable results. The law has been codified in the “Instructions to Naval Officers” of Dec. 9, 1912 more particularly by the Institute of International Law and the and Jan. 10, 1916 (see Revue générale de Droit Inter. Public, International Law Association, a Convention for the institution of vol. 25, 1918; Fauchille, Jurisprudence Francaise en Matiére de an international prize court was adopted by the Hague Peace Prises Maritimes, 1919). Prize courts were established in Belgium Conference of 1907. By Convention XII. the court was to be a during the World War. The court of first instance consists of court of appeal from the prize court of a belligerent captor “upon two judges of the court of appeal and four members representing the ground that the judgment was wrong either in fact or in law.” the navy and commerce. In cases exceeding 20,000 francs an In the absence of a treaty by the parties to the proceedings the appeal lies to the court of appeal, Brussels. The law administered court was to apply the rules of international law, and if no generis similar to that in France. The Italian prize court is also only ally recognized rule existed, the court was to give judgment in partly judicial. It is composed of members appointed on the accordance with the general principles of justice and equity. recommendation of the Ministries of Justice, Marine and Foreign Owing, however, to the alleged uncertainty of the law the ConconAffairs. Appeal lies to the Supreme Court of Cassazione. The vention was not ratified by any of the Powers, and a naval 1908 for the purpose of -codifying law administered is that contained in the law merchant and the ference was held in London in naval instructions, the latest of which were issued on March 25, “the acknowledged principles of international law.” The resulting these principles in 1917. The court is bound by decrees duly promulgated (see Declaration of London purported to embody (g.v.), contraband Fauchille and Basdevant, Jurisprudence Itahenne en Matière de the rules which it formulated on blockade of neutral prizes, transfer to Prises Maritimes, 1918). In Portugal the tribunal of commerce (g.v.), unneutral service, destruction character, convoy (¢.v.) enemy NEUTRALITY), (see flag neutral a at Lisbon enjoys jurisdiction in prize automatically. Appeals lie resistance to search (see VISIT AND SEARCH), compensation. to the Supreme Court of Justice. BreriocrarHy.—R. Touch, Jurisdiction of the Admiralty of England During the World War prize courts were established for the Asserted (1686); C. Robinson, Collectanea Maritima (1801); R. J. German empire at Hamburg and Kiel composed of a judge as Phillimore, International Law, vol. i., vol. iii, pt. xi. (1854-61); president and one legal member, a naval officer and two members R. A. Pritchard, Admiralty Digest (1865); R. G. M. Browne, representing shipping and commercial interests. Appeal lay to Admiralty Procedure (1887); R. G. Marsden, Select Pleas of the Court of Admiralty (1892); J. A. Hall, Law of Naval Warfare (1921) ; the superior court of prize sitting in Berlin, consisting of three E. S. Roscoe, History of the English Prize Court (1924); C.i) judges, a naval officer and two lay members representing shipping Colombos, A Treatise on the Law of Prize (1926); J. W. Garner, and commercial interests. The law to be administered is con- Prize Law During the World War (1927); H. Hull, Digest of Cases tained in the prize code (Prisenordnung) of Sept. 30, r909, and the decided in British Prize Courts (1927). PRIZREN, a town of S. Serbia, Yugoslavia. Pop. (1921), prize court ordinance (Prisengerichtsordnung) of April 15, 1911,

both of which were promulgated on Aug. 3, 1914, the latter being

16,433, chiefly Albanians, with some Serbs, Greeks and Vlachs.

PRJEVALSKY—PROBABILITY Prizren is beautifully situated 1,424 ft. above sea level among the Shar Planina mountains, and has an excellent water supply. The city is the seat of a Roman Catholic Archbishop, and a Greek bishop, and there is also a Serbian theological seminary. Its chief buildings are the citadel and many mosques, one of which is an ancient Byzantine basilica, originally a Serbian cathedral. Prizren has sometimes, though on doubtful evidence, been

identifed with the ancient Tkarandus or Theranda. In the 12th century it was the residence of the kings of Serbia. From the 13th century to the 16th Prizren had a flourishing export trade with Ragusa. The town was taken by the Serbians in 1912, and assigned to them by the Treaty of Bucharest (1913). Soon after the outbreak of the World War (1914-18) the Government and the Serbian army retired here, followed by thousands of homeless refugees.

PRJIEVALSKY

[PrzHevatsxy], NIKOLAI MIKHAIL-

_OVICH (1839-1888), Russian traveller, born at Kimbory, in the government of Smolensk, on March 31, 1839. He was educated at the Smolensk gymnasium, and in 1855 became a subaltern in an infantry regiment. In 1856 he became an officer, and four years later he entered the academy of the general staff. From 1864 to 1866 he taught geography at the military school at Warsaw, and in 1867 was admitted to the general staff and sent to Irkutsk, where he explored the highlands on the banks of the Usuri. This occupied him until 1869, when he published a book on the Usuri region, partly ethnographical in character. Between Nov. 1870 and Sept. 1873, accompanied by only three men, he crossed the Gobi desert, reached Peking, and explored the Ordos and the Ala-shan, as well as the upper part of the Yangtsze-kiang. He also penetrated into the then closed country of Tibet, reaching the banks of the Di Chu river. On his second journey in 1877, while endeavouring to reach Lhasa through east Turkestan, he re-discovered the great lake

Lop-nor (g.v.).

On his third expedition in 1879-80 he pene-

trated, by Hami, the Tsai-dam and the great valley of the Tibetan river Kara-su, to Napchu, 170 m. from Lhasa, when he was turned back by order of the Dalai Lama. In 1883—85 he undertook a fourth journey in the mountain regions between Mongolia

and Tibet. On these four expeditions he made valuable collec-

tions of plants and animals. He discovered the wild camel and the early type of horse, now known by his name (Equus prjewalskit). In Sept. 1888 he started on a fifth expedition to Lhasa, but on Nov. 1 he died at Karakol on Lake Issyk-kul. A monument was erected to his memory on the shores of the lake, and the town of Karakol was renamed Przhevalsk (q.v.). The English translation of the account of his first journey, Mongolia,

the Tangul Country, and the Solitudes of Northern Tibet (1876) was

edited by Sir Henry Yule; the account of his second journey, From oe across the Tian-Shan, to Lop-nor, was translated into English

in 1879.

PROA (Malay, prau), the general term in the Malay language

for all vessels, from the sampan or canoe to the square-rigged

kapal, but in western usage confined to the swift-sailing craft that the pirates of the Indian Ocean made familiar to sailors in

eastern waters. The chief points which characterize these vessels are that while the weather-side is rounded the lee-side is flat from stem to stern, that both stem and stern are exactly -similar in shape, and that there is a small similarly shaped hull swung out from the side of the main hull on poles, which acts as an outrigger

and prevents the vessel heeling over. The main hull carries the mast rigging and an enormous triangular-shaped sail.

PROBABILISM, a term used both in theology and in philosophy with the general implication that in the absence of cer-

tainty probability is the best criterion. Thus it is applied in connection with casuistry for the view that the layman in difficult matters of conscience may safely follow a doctrine inculcated by a recognized doctor of the church. This view was originated by the monk Molina (1528-1581), and has been widely employed

529

tics of the New Academy (see Scerricism and CARNEADES). Opposed to “probabilism” is “probabiliorism” (Lat probabilior, more likely), which holds that when there is a preponderance of evidence on one side of a controversy that side is presumably right.

PROBABILITY

(in Logic) is commonly contrasted with

certainty. Some of our beliefs or judgments are entertained with certainty, others there are of which we are not so sure. The degrees of confidence with which the logic of probability is concerned are those which are correlated with different kinds of objective evidence, different degrees of objective cogericy, not with the confidence which depends on mere feeling, or arises we know not how. In other words, we are concerned with degrees of rational belief or confidence. Again, the degrees of confidence attach to the beliefs or the judgments, or the propositions expressing the beliefs or judgments, so that strictly speaking the probability refers to the judgments or propositions, not to the things or events to which these refer. Things just are, and events just happen—there is no certainty or probability in them. Only our judgments about them can be more or less probable. Cases of calculable probability are of two main types, namely, those which can be calculated @ priori, or deductively, and those which can only be calculated a posteriori, or inductively. The a priori type is that in which the calculation can be made by reasoning deductively from the nature of the case, and without reference to actual observations of the kind of events under consideration. The a posteriori type consists of those cases in which the calculation can be made only with the aid of previous observations of similar events. The A Priori Caiculation of Probability.—In order te be able to calculate the probability of an event deductively from the nature of the case, the following conditions must be satisfied: (a) We must know the total number of mutually exclusive possibilities, one or other of which must be realized. (b) These possibilities must be equally likely. And (c) we must know how many of these possibilities are favourable to the event contemplated, that is, in how many of them it will be realized. The probability of the event in question is then expressed by means of a fraction in which the numerator gives the number of possibilities favourable to the event, and the denominator states the total number of equally likely possibilities. Clearly, the greater the total number of possibilities, the smaller is the probability (or chance) of any special one of them being realized; that is, if p represents the probability of an event and ¢ the total number of equally likely events of which it is one, then p and z will vary inversely. For example, the chance of throwing head when tossing a coin Is greater than that of throwing face six when throwing a die, because the former result is one of two possibilities, whereas the latter is only one of six. On the other hand, the greater the number of possibilities that are favourable, the greater is the probability. For instance, when throwing a die the probability of getting an even number is greater than that of throwing face six in particular, because there are three even numbers and only one six on a die. In this way, if the number of favourable possibilities be represented by f, we get the following general formula for probability: p= f/t. A word may also be said about “odds” and “chances,” terms which are more in popular favour than is the term “probability.” The term “chances” is used sometimes for “probability” and sometimes for “odds.” By “odds” is meant the ratio of favourable to unfavourable possibilities. By the odds against an event is meant the ratio of the unfavourable to the favourable possibilities. In the case of simple events, like those of throwing a die or tossing a coin, there is no difficulty whatever in determining the values of favourable possibilities and of the total number of

equally likely events and therefore of probability. With complex events (that is, those in which two or more separate events can be distinguished) care has to be exercised. The total number of posby the Jesuits. In philosophy the term is applied to that practical sibilities in such cases is not the sum of the possibilities of the doctrine which gives assistance in ordinary matters to one who is separate events, but their multiple, e.g., if a die is thrown twice the sceptical in respect of the possibility of real knowledge: it sup- total number of possibilities is not 6-4-6, but 6X6 or 36, because poses that though knowledge is impossible a man may rely on for each possible result of the first throw there are six possibilities strong beliefs in practical affairs. This view was held by the scep- with the second throw. Now, the probability of a complex event

530

PROBABILITY

may, according to circumstances, be either greater or less than the probability of the separate component events. The probability is less if the complex event contemplated is one in which certain

component events must occur in a certain order, say T followed by

6 in two throws ofa die, for either of the component events might happen without the other also happening, and then one of the component events would be there but not the compound event. In such cases the probability is obtained by multiplying the fractions expressing the separate probabilities of the several component events. On the calculations of probability see PROBABILITY AND ERROR.

Equally Likely Possibilities—Why is it stipulated that the alternative possibilities must be equally likely? The point can

be made clear by comparing two simple cases. Suppose one were to argue that a properly balanced coin when tossed must either throw head or not, so that there are two alternatives, of which head is one, and therefore its probability must be 1/2. The answer would be true, but the reasoning would be wrong, as may be seen from the next case. Suppose one were to argue that a properly constructed die, when thrown, must either show face six or not, so that there are two possibilities of which face six is one, and therefore its probability is z/2. Here the answer is obviously wrong. But why? Because the possibility “not-six,” that is, of face six not showing, really represents five different possibilities against the one ‘“‘six,” and must therefore be weighed accordingly as having a value five times that of “six.” The probability of “notsix” is really 5/6, while that of “six” is z/6. It was a mere accident that in the case of the coin “not-head” happened to represent only one alternative, namely, “tail.” If no attention were paid to the equality of the alternative possibilities, then any statement,

face six appearing when a die is cast, is given as 1/6, what this really means is that “the appearance of face six is one of six equally likely possibilities”; and so always f/¢ simply has refer. ence to possibilities, which may never be tested at all. One never thinks of adding the expression “in the long run” to the fraction expressing a probability. On the other hand, when a frequency is

stated, even or especially when it is expressed by the same fraction as the corresponding probability, the phrase “in is essential, otherwise the frequency given would be of the series of long runs of some one number, common. We may now turn to the a posteriori calculations a method the true character of which has already in the preceding remarks. THE A POSTERIORI

In many

and

most

CALCULATION

important

cases,

the long run” wrong, in view which are so of probability, been suggested

OF PROBABILITY

it is impossible to

calculate the probability a priori, because the alternative possibilities cannot be regarded as equally likely. Take, for instance, the case of a sick man. What is the probability of his recovery

from his illness? This cannot be calculated a priori. It is true, of course, that there are only two alternatives—either he will recover or he will not. But these two alternatives cannot be regarded

as equally likely, without

special evidence.

If they

could be so regarded, why then the chance of recovery from cerebral meningitis would be the same as that of recovering from a common cold—which is belied by actual results. And if the alternative possibilities are not equally likely, as indeed they are

not, then the probability cannot be estimated a priori. How, then, shall it be calculated? Well, it can still be calculated a posteriori if the results of a sufficiently large number of cases have been observed, that is to say, if we know the frequency of

the truth of which we are not in a position to judge, would be judged to be as likely to be true as not—some logicians have actually assigned it a truth-probability of 1/2! It would be just the type of case under consideration. For then, just as it is as accurate to say that there is a probability of 1/2 that an un- possible, as we have seen it is possible, to derive the frequency known marksman will hit the bull’s eye—an absurd estimate of an event from its probability, where the probability can be when it is remembered that there are innumerable places, on and calculated a priori, so it is possible by a reverse process to derive off the target, which are all included under “not bull’s eye” as the probability of an event from its observed frequency, even in against. the very limited area of “bull’s eye.” If the available data cases in which the probability cannot be obtained a priori at all are insufficient, why estimate the probability at all? Why not Suppose, for instance, that, in the above-mentioned case of the suspend judgment? There is no particular virtue in emulating die, face six did not in the long run appear in approximately one Bagehot’s village maiden who must have an opinion about every- out of six throws, but, say in one out of nine throws. Then by treating this frequency as an index to its probability we should thing under the sun. The next question is, how is one to make sure whether the say that the probability of face six turning up is 1/9, which means alternative possibilities really are equally likely, or at least that it behaves as if it had an a priori probability of 1/g, or as if approximately so? Sometimes this is not very difficult to deter- it had been one of nine equally likely possibilities—-which, of mine. In the case of a coin, or a die, e.g., it is not impracticable course, it is not. In this way, provided we have sufficient data to examine them sufficiently closely and ascertain whether or no to determine their frequency, the calculus of probability can be they are properly balanced. And if properly balanced, the possi- applied to all sorts of otherwise incalculable events, such as birth, bilities which they offer would be adjudged to be equally likely. marriage, death, and the thousand and one ills that flesh is heir to. Writers on probability are frequently inclined to regard the But suppose one cannot be sure. Is there not some other way of testing the equality of the possibilities? Well, there is—namely, a posteriori method of calculating probability as the fundamental by actually tossing the coin, or throwing the die, a great many method. They would either like to banish a priori calculations times, and noting the results. If, on an average, each side of the altogether or only tolerate them as more or less intelligent anticicoin, or of the die, appears approximately an equal number of times, then the alternative possibilities would be regarded as

equally likely. But the significance of this kind of test must be

pations, or frequencies. But this theory (known as the frequency theory) of probability is hardly tenable. Frequencies show considerable variations with the number of cases observed, e.g., when

tossing a coin the proportion of heads to tails varies remarkably, accordingly as one stops at the rooth, 1,oooth, 10,oooth or 20,000th toss. One might obtain almost any proportion by stopsense in which induction is said to be inverse deduction. The ping at the right moment.’ Hence the need of the saving clause logic of the test is this. We argue that if the possibilities repre- “in the long run”—in the long run a die will throw six in one of sented, say, by the several faces of the die, are really equally the six throws, and so on. Even so the element of arbitrariness likely, then when the die is cast a sufficiently large number of is not entirely disposed of. As here conceived, the fundamental times, each face should, on an average, and in the long run, appear form of the calculus of probability is the a priori form, of which, approximately once in six throws. This rate of appearance is as already explained, the a posteriori method is simply an inverse called its frequency. So that this mode of procedure may be process, which treats frequency as a measure of probability, described as consisting in testing the equality of the possibilities although the two are really different things. There is nothing by reference to the frequency which seems to be implied in the unusual in the use of the inverse process, or the resort to “as if fictions. Our view of the calculable cases of probability makes It probability calculated on the assumption of their equality. Now, in calculations of probability, “frequency” and “proba- possible to keep together all types of probability without any bility” are so frequently identified or confused that it is important artificiality or straining. In all cases alike the uncertainty arises to mark their difference. When the a priori probability, say, of from the presence of other possibilities than those contemplated.

noted carefully, if only because of its bearing on the inductive, or a posteriori calculation of probability. This kind of test is not direct but indirect, or inverse, in the

PROBABILITY

THEORY]

In some cases these other possibilities can be allowed for by some direct or indirect calculation; in other cases they cannot be estimated at all, except in a very rough and unpractical manner. On the other hand, the frequency theory of probability does not

really apply to non-measurable cases. Even in its modified form, in which frequency is taken to mean the truth-frequency of cer-

tain classes of propositions, it seems unsatisfactory. One is asked

to determine the probability of a judgment by ascertaining the probability of the class of propositions to which it belongs. But suppose the proposition cannot be assigned to its proper class unless its probability is known?

The Use of the Calculus of Probabilities—One may ask, in conclusion, what is the practical use of calculations of probability? Some people have exaggerated ideas on the subject. The exaggeration is due in great part to the common confusion of probability with frequency. Frequencies, when treated with the necessary precautions, may be of great practical value when we

are dealing with large numbers of facts of the same kind. This is evident from their use in connection with all varieties of insurance schemes, etc., in which the certainty of large numbers can be relied upon to atone, in some ways, for the uncertainty in the lot of the individual. But whereas frequencies are always concerned with large groups, or with long series of events, or with what happens “in the long run,” probability is also concerned with individual cases, or small groups of events. This makes all the difference, as may be seen, say, in roulette. The bank, doing business with a great many players, can rely on frequencies. The individual player, limited to a comparatively small number of hazards, relies on the ambiguous calculus of probability (when he is not guided by sheer superstition). The calculus is always

right, even when the player loses. For the actual events are matters of frequency, not of mere probability. There are ingenious gambling systems based on frequencies; but even these systems have their day and cease to be. The best of them depend on “‘the long run,” which easily outruns the resources of the average individual. For similar reasons, even in legitimate insurance business, the company has a great advantage over the individual cient. But the practical exigencies of life induce responsible individuals to prefer high risks for comparatively small amounts rather than small risks for large amounts. No mere calculation can eliminate the uncertainty of the probable when individual cases are involved. Here, in the last resort, the only safe, or least unsafe, method of ascertaining its probability consists in a close examination of the actual conditions by a suitable expert. Even life Insurance companies probably put more faith in the medical report on each case than in their statistical life-tables. BrsiocRaAPH¥Y.—J. Venn, The Logic of Chance (1890); J. M. Keynes, A Treatise on Probability (1922); A. Wolf, Essentials of

Scientific Method (1928).

(A, Wo.)

_ PROBABILITY AND ERROR.

The theory of probability

is that branch of mathematics which deals with the objective numerical measurement of probability. The theory of error, or the consideration of the frequency-distribution of errors, is the main

link between the theory of probability and the theory of statistical frequency. THEORY

OF PROBABILITY

1. Rough estimates of relative probability are often easily made. I draw a ball from a box containing one red ball and four white ones: if I say that I am more likely to draw a white than the red, the statement is intelligible. But can I be more precise? Can I give a numerical measure to the probability of drawing the red ball?

A question of this kind might perhaps be parried by the

question: Why should anyone want a numerical measure of the probability? The answer may be, in some cases, that it is a matter of scientific interest; or it may be, in other cases, that questions of this kind are important in games of chance. The study of the theory of probability was, in fact, in the first instance, the scientific study of gambling; though the primary question was not the numerical measure of a chance but its money value. Suppose, in the case of the five balls, that I am

AND

ERROR

531

to receive £so if I draw the red ball, but nothing if I draw a white; then (subject to certain conditions) my chance is worth £ro. This suggests a numerical measure of probability. Suppose there is a prize W in a lottery, and my chance of winning it is worth V; then V is pW, where # is some fraction between oand r. If the prize W were doubled, the conditions remaining the same, the value V of the chance would be doubled, and so on. Thus, the conditions of the lottery remaining the same, V bears a constant ratio to W; and this ratio, which is a fraction between o and 1, might be called the chance, or probability, of my winning the prize. ‘The value of my chance is then found by multiplying the prize by this chance or probability. This definition, however, is not entirely satisfactory; for, the value V being based on, at best, STANDARD NORMAL FIGURE OF a general agreement, its ratio to FREQUENCY W cannot be regarded as a The relative frequencies of deviations are from the mean value, ON or N’O definite objective measure. We representing the “‘standard deviation.” need some method of measureThe ordinates M’ P’, OH, MP divide ment that is based on facts, the area of the figure into four equal portions not on opinions. Two methods have been suggested (secs. 2 and 4). 2. Unitary Method.—The first method to be considered involves a definition which is stated in various ways, but can perhaps be best stated as follows. If an event will happen in one, and only one, of c ways, all of which are equally likely, and if a of these ways are called favourable, then the probability or chance of the event happening favourably is a/c. Thus, in the case of a ball being drawn from a box containing one red and four

white balls, the event is the drawing of a ball, and the ways of the event happening are the drawing of a red ball and the drawing of one of the white balls; if all the balls are equally likely to

be drawn, the probability of the red being drawn is 1/5, and the

probability of a white being drawn is 4/5. Since the basis of the

method is the supposition that the happening of the event can be subdivided under a number of ways, each of which is equally likely, and the chance of the event happening favourably is found by counting the number of the favourable ways, we can call it the unitary method. 3. Defects of the Method.—While the definition is a simple one as regards a good many problems, it has defects, of which the following may be mentioned. (i.) It applies only to probabilities of subsequent events, not to those of concurrent or antecedent events (sec. 12). (ii.) The phrase “equally likely” is not defined. If this means that the probabilities of the different ways are all equal, we are working in a circle. If it means that we do not see any reason why one way should occur rather than another, we are basing the definition on ignorance. (iii.) There are a great many cases in which the possibility of an event happening cannot be split up into a number of ways all of which are equally likely, however this may be defined. If a box contains an equal number of red balls and white balls, and the red are of the same size as the white but are slightly heavier, the statement that a white is more likely to be drawn than a red is intelligible, but it is difficult to bring the case under the definition. A statement as to probability can here only have a statistical meaning, as explained in sec. 4. 4. Statistical Method.—tThe alternative to the unitary method is the statistical method. Suppose that an event (or fact or set of conditions, etc.) C might occur in a large number WN of cases, and that whenever it might occur it would necessarily be associated with one of two or more mutually exclusive events E, F’, E” ...; “mutually exclusive” meaning that on each occasion only one of these events can occur. Of the total number N of cases, suppose that Æ would occur in pN cases, H’ in p’N cases,

PROBABILITY

534 E” in p’N cases ....

Then $, p’, p”

Itisclear

that p+pP' +p" + ... = 1. In reference to cases of this kind we should use the word “probability” rather than “chance,” since the question is not necessarily as to the happening of some future event. The definition can be applied equally to the probability of a future or a present or a past event. The numerical probability is in each case the result of grouping the C-cases into classes according as they are associated with E or with E’, etc., and taking the probabilities to be proportional to the numbers in the different classes. If, for instance, in the case considered in sec. 1, we say that the probability of the red ball being drawn is 1/5, we mean

that in the long run (sec. 8), or on the average, the red ball will be drawn about once in five times. If an event E occurs in m cases out of n, m is called the frequency of occurrence of E, and the ratio m/n is its relative Jrequency. Thus the probability of an event is the same thing as its relative frequency when the number of cases considered is very large. s. Observations on the Definition.—The following are points in reference to the definition. (i.) We say that the red ball will be drawn “about” once in five times, because we can never know the exact probability of any event; and it is, indeed, doubtful whether there is any exact

probability of anything. We may throw a die 100,000 times, and note the number of cases in which a 6 occurs; but if we throw another t00,o00 times we shall get a slightly different result. The study of variations of this kind forms part of the theory of error, which, again, is part of the general theory of frequency distributions.

(ii.) We proceed, however, as if any probability with which we are dealing has a definite value. For practical purposes, therefore, we should not use actual observations as the means for determining a probability unless we have made a fairly large number of observations; until we have done so, we may have to depend on a priori considerations. (iii.) The determination of the probability of an event, on

ERROR

[THEORY

(i.) The probability that a father is tall is 535/1,000. (This

. are said to be the

probabilities of C being associated with E, E’, E” ....

=:

AND

is a short way of saying: if a father is taken at random, the

probability that hegwill be one of the tall fathers is 535/r,000, The phrase “‘at random” is considered in sec. 9.)

(ii.) The probability that a son is tall is 661/r1,000,

(iii.)

446/535. 8

The probability that a tall father has a tall son is

(iv.)

The probability that a short son has a tall father js ; T eao Between the Two Methods.—To some extent

the two methods—unitary and statistical—supplement one another, On the one hand, as was stated in sec. 5, a priori considerations may have to be brought into account in order to obtain a rough

value of a probability. On the other hand, we may use the results of experience to check our a priori estimate of a probability. Consider, for example, the throwing of a die. The die

is approximately a cube; it has six faces, so that, on the unitary system, we should say that the chance of a 6 being thrown is

1/6, or at any rate is about 1/6. But it should be observed that

what is really of importance to us, if we are frequently risking money on the throwing of a die, is not the probability, as esti-

mated by the unitary method, of a particular face appearing, but the proportion of cases in which, in the long run, it actually does appear.

If we record these, we may find that the 6 appears

rather oftener than we had expected. We can then do either of two things. We can base our probability on the actual experience, or we can consider in what respect our original estimate was faulty.

We must then take account of the fact that the

pips of the die are hollowed out, so that the die is lighter on the 6side and heavier on the opposite side. It would be very difficult

to estimate the effect of the hollowing-out of the pips, and we should thus be driven to the statistical method, i.e., to basing our probability on experience. It will be assumed, throughout this article, that we are dealing with probability according to the statistical method. If, for example, we say that there are five balls in a box, and that they are-all equally likely to be drawn, this is to be interpreted as meaning that in N drawings, where N is very large, each ball is drawn approximately 1/s5-N times. Similarly, if it is said that the probability that a man will survive for a year is #, this is to be taken as meaning that, out of N men who would be put into the same class, the number who will survive for a year is

the statistical basis, involves a process of classification. A man comes to have his life insured for a year. We require, at least, to know his age. Knowing this, we put him into a certain class or category, namely, the category of men of that age; and we find that, of men of that age, 99 out of roo, on the average, survive about plV. 8. “The Long Run” and “Series.”—The use of the phrase for a year. We therefore say that his chance of surviving is 99/100. But this does not imply that there is such a thing as “in the long run,” and the description of a number of events as chance, in the ordinary sense; nor is it a statement as to the a “series” (e.g., “a Poisson series’), are not to be taken as imindividual, as distinct from the rest of the class. We do not treat plying a definite arrangement, in time or otherwise. We might, him as an individual, but as one of the class, taken at random. of course, wish to observe the succession of observations, e.g., Further information may alter the chance. We find that he will the succession of colours at roulette; but in this case the sucbe working in an unhealthy climate: this means a further limi- cession is the event we are observing, and the order in which tation, defining more strictly the class in which he is to be the individual events occur is not relevant. Phrases such as placed; and so on. The ultimate probability assigned to him “in the long run” merely imply that the number of cases is the probability of survival for a year in the class in which he observed is very large. 9. Randomness.—In the statement of a problem in probability is ultimately placed. 6. Illustrative Example.—As a basis for illustration of the the expression “random” or “at random” is often used. Thus, statistical definition, let us take a concrete case. A man being in the case of balls in a box it may be stated that “a ball is called short or tall according as his height is under or over 67% drawn at random from the box.” This may be regarded as merely in., suppose that, in a community in which every man has one an indication that we are dealing with a question in probability. son who attains maturity, the statistical relation between height On the other hand, the idea of randomness is implied in any stateof father and height of son, In a representative (sec. 15) 1,000 ment as to the numerical measure of a probability. When we pairs of father and son, is given in Table I. This table, if our say “If a card is drawn from a pack, the probability that it will supposition is correct, provides us with various statements as be a court card is 3/13,’ we really mean “If a card is drawn at random from a pack, the probability that it will be a court to probability, of which the following are examples. TABLE I. (Adapted from K. Pearson and A. Lee, Biometrika ii. [1903], 415) Father short

Father tall

Son short Son tall

250 215

89

446

Total sons

495

535

Total fathers 339

661

1,000

card is 3/13.”

10. Addition and Multiplication of Probabilities.—The mathematical treatment of probabilities involves the addition and multiplication of their numerical measures. These are

performed according to certain rules.

(i.) The rule for addition is as follows. Let E and E’ be two

mutually exclusive events which might be associated with C,

and let the probabilities of their being so associated be p and ?

PROBABILITY

CAUSES$

respectively: then the probability that either Æ or F’ will be so associated is +p’. This follows easily from the definition. Gi.) The rule for multiplication is that, if C and D are two

sparate events, both of which occur, and if the probability of C being associated with E is p, and if, in the cases in which C is associated with E, the probability of D being associated with G is 7, then the probability that C will be associated with Rand D with Gis pr. For, if N is the total number of cases in which C and D both occur, the number in which C is associated with E is pN, and the number of these in which D is associated with Gis rXpN=prlV. For an illustration of the multiplication rule, we can have recourse to Table I. If we take a father at random (which is the same thing as taking a pair, father and son, at random, since father and son go together), the probability that he will be short

is 465/1,000; and, if a father is short, the probability that he has a tall son is 215/465. son, at random,

Hence, if we take a pair, father and

the probability

that the pair consists of a

short father and a tall son is 215/1,000; which agrees with the table.

If r has the same value whether C is associated with E or not, or, to put it differently, if the probability of C being asso-

cated with E and D with G is the product of the separate probabilities of C being associated with E and D with G, the associations of C with E and of D with G are said to be independent. 11, Scope.—The earlier studies of probability led to the development of the theory of combinations and permutations; and the more simple problems of chance are largely concerned with applications of this theory. Many such problems are dealt with in text-books, as well as in previous editions of this work, and it is not necessary to give examples here. The part of the subject with which we are more particularly concerned may be taken as beginning with the theory of error, its stages being marked by the successive inclusion of frequency-distributions generally, and of correlation. Before dealing with these aspects, it is necessary to give brief consideration to the theory of probability of causes. PROBABILITIES

OF CAUSES

12, Direct and Inverse Probability.—Questions as to the respective probabilities of a specified event having been due to various possible causes have in the past produced a good deal of dificulty, and have been placed in a separate category as questions of inverse probability; questions as to probabilities of a specified cause leading to different events are then described as questions of direct probability. That difficulties should have arisen is not to be wondered at, as no clear definition of the probability of a cause seems to have been given: until we know what we mean by “probability,” we cannot give a numerical value toit. A more serious cause of difficulty, in many cases, was the absence of sufficient information as to the antecedent probabilities of the causes themselves. The final death-blow to the classification of questions of probability under the heads of “direct” and “inverse” was given by the statistical treatment of correlation, which led to the study of probabilities of concurrent phenomena. What is the probability that a tall man has a tall wife? What is the probability that a boy who is good at arithmetic is good at composition? What is the probability that a girl with fair hair has blue eyes? Questions such as these found no place in the earlier classification. These difficulties have been met by the adoption of a statistical basis for the measurement of probability. 13. Typical Example—The following may be taken as a typical question in inverse probability. A box contains 5 balls, and it is known that x of the balls is white and 3 are red, and that the remaining one is either white or red. A ball is drawn and is

found to be white. What is the probability that the box con-

tained 2 white and 3 red balls? It is impossible to answer this question without further information. The box has been filled M some way: the method of filling having led to the box containmg ı white and 3 red balls, we require to know the probability that it has led to the other ball being white or red, respec-

AND

ERROR

533

tively. When we know this, the problem is a straightforward one. Let us call the box a “ W-box” or an “R-box” according as the other ball is white or red; and let us suppose that the probabilities, or relative frequencies (sec. 4), of W-boxes and of Rboxes are in the ratio of 3:2. Then the problem can be stated as follows. There are W-boxes containing 2 white and 3 red balls, and R-boxes containing 1 white and 4 red balls; their frequencies being in the ratio of 3:2. A box is taken at random; and a ball is drawn from it and is found to be white. What is the probability that the box is a W-box?e The ordinary method of answering the question is an application of the rule that, if an event E has happened which may be due to any one of the causes Ci, Co..., and if the a priori probability of occurrence of the cause Cy is P;, and if whenever Cy occurs the probability that it will lead to Æ is y, then the probability that £ is due to Cy is proportional to Pydy, î.e., is

P;b;/(Pifit Popot+...).

In the present case we have Pi=3/s,

Po=2/s, and py=2/5, po=1/5; whence Pip1:Pope=6:2= 3:1, z.e., the probability that the box is a W-box is #. For statistical treatment, a tabular arrangement is useful, as in Table II. This table shows a representative frequencydistribution (sec. 15) for 1,000 drawings. The figures in brackets indicate the order of entry in the table. Of the total 1,000 boxes, 600 will (on the average) be W-boxes and 400 R-boxes. Of the 600 W-boxes, 240 (on the average) will give a white ball at a single drawing; of the 400 R-boxes, 80 will give a white ball. In the cases, therefore, in which a white ball is drawn, the prob-

ability of the box being a W-box is 240/(240+80) = 2. TABLE

IT.

From W-boxes | From R-boxes | From all boxes

White ball drawn . i Red ball drawn

(3) 240

(3) 80

(4)

Total drawings

(2) 600

(2) 400

(1) 1,000

360

320

320 680

If the question had been “There are W-boxes containing 2 white and 3 red balls, and R-boxes containing r white and 4 red’ balls, their frequencies being in the ratio of'3:2; a box is taken at random and a ball is drawn from it; what is the probability that the ball will be white?” the question would have been a “direct” one; but the one table would have been applicable to the two questions. We have already seen this in reference to Table I. (sec. 6); the same table enables us to answer the two questions, ‘‘ What is the probability that a tall father has a tall son?” and “What is the probability that a tall son has a tall father?” though one of these might be regarded as a question of direct and the other of inverse probability. FREQUENCY-DISTRIBUTION

14. Frequency-distribution

and

OF ERRORS

Frequency-polygon.—

Suppose that, when an event happens, it may happen in either of two ways, which, in G. U. Yule’s notation, we will call A anda; so that a is an abbreviation for ‘‘not-A.’’ Let the event happen n times, and let the result be A in m cases and œ in n—m cases. Then this distribution of the z cases as m A’s and n-m a’s is called a frequency-distribution. More generally, suppose that the event may be classed under the k-+1 heads Ag, Ai, Ae... Ax, and that, out of the total n, the numbers coming under these k+x heads are respectively mo, m1, m2... mx; then the distribution of the # in this way is called a frequency-distribution. The number of heads is taken to be k-+-1 because the sum of the numbers mo, My, M... mp is necessarily n, so that if we know k of the +1 numbers we know the remaining one.

The numbers

Mo, Mı, Mg... are the frequencies of Ao, Ai, A2.. .; their ratios

to n, i.e., the ratios m/n, m/n, ma/n..., are the relative frequencies (sec. 4). Tf on a line OX we take points M1, Mo, Ma,...Mn, Miss, at successive intervals 4, and at the points Mo, Mi,...dd4;, erect ordinates

MoPo,

M,P:,...M:P,

whose

ratios

to a unit

of

measurement U are m/n, m/n,...mx/n, these ordinates constitute the graph of the relative frequencies.

If we draw lines á

PROBABILITY

534

joining the points Mı, Po, Pi...Pr, Mais, we get a closed figure whose area (see MENSURATION) is h(M Pot MM Pit

owe

+-M,P,)

integers or not. The differences between these numbers and the actual numbers mo, 11, me... which occur when 2 individuals are

taken at random are the errors or errors of random sampling of Mo, Mi, Mg...

have defined a representative distribution as a diswhich the numbers under the different heads are to the numbers which would ‘‘in the long run” these heads.

16. Law of Frequency of Error

ERROR

[FREQUENCY OF ERROR

results, and dividing by the total number mo+m+m+.. .+-m i i.e., if Y is the mean Y, and mt+tm-tm+ ... +m:=n, then Y= (mo Yotm

=hU.

This figure may be called the frequency-polygon. It is not, of course, a graph of anything; the graph of the relative frequencies consists of the ordinates. It is usual to omit the units of measurement % and U, and say that the area of the figure is r. 1s. Representative Distribution.—Let the probability of occurrence of Ao, considered alone, 7.¢., its probability when the division of cases is into Ag and not-Ao, be po. Then, by the definition of probability, we should expect that in a very large number WN of trials the number of cases of Ao would be about No. Provisionally—for reasons which will be seen later (sec. 18) —we might similarly expect that when the smaller number n of trials is made the number of cases of Ao would be about npo; and similarly for A1, A2,... with probabilities p1, fo.... The frequency-distribution which gives the numbers under the heads Ao, Ai, Ag... aS MP0, Api, npe... is called a representative distribution. The definition applies whether these numbers are

We might tribution in proportional come under

AND

(Simplest Case).—Denot-

Kif esa +m,

Vx)/n.

(17-1)

Similarly the mean square of Y is the mean value of V2 t.e., is (mo Yet m

V+

... tmx Y,2)/n.

(17-2)

The mean cube, mean fourth power, etc., are defined in the same way. 7 ue The deviation of Y from Y is Y—Y. The mean square of the deviation from the mean is therefore

{mo(Yo—YV)2?+m(VYi-—V)2?+...+me(Vn—-V)2/n =(moVoe+mYi?+... +mrV 12)/n —2V(moYotmYi+t

tg

+miY x)/n

+ (mo¥?2+mY 2+... mY?)/n =(mean square of Y)—2YY+Y? = (mean square of Y)—(mean of Y)?. (17-3) The square root of this quantity is called the standard deviation or dispersion: in the cases in which the Y is an error, it was formerly called the error of mean square. The above definitions apply, and (17-3) holds good, whether we are dealing with a representative distribution or with an actual distribution. In some cases the numbers no, nı, “2... in the categories of a representative distribution gradually increase up to a value ny and then decrease.

In such a case my is the maximum frequency;

and the corresponding value of Y, namely Yy, is called the modal value or mode. Thus in the example in sec. 16 the modal number of A’s is 4. There might in some cases be two or more modes; in other cases there might be none—if, e.g., the frequencies decreased throughout the whole range. 18. Mean, etc., for Binomial Distribution.—For a representative binomial distribution (sec. 16) in which »K,, is the

ing, as before, “not-A” by a, suppose that the probability of A is ~, and that that of ais gq=1—yp. Then as the result of n trials the number of A’s might be any number from z to o, the number of a@’s being the remainder out of the n. What are the respective probabilities of these different numbers? Consider the probability of m A’s and n—m a&’s. For a simple probability that in z trials there will be m A’s and n—m a’s, it example, take n=6, m=4. Then the probability of 4 A’s and is not difficult to show that, the probability of A at each trial 2 œ’s occurring in the order AAAAaa is poppqqg= pq’; and the being p:— probability of their occurring in any other specified order is (a) the mean value of m is np, that of n—m being n—np=nq; similarly p4g?. But there are .C, orders in which they may (b) the mean square of m is n*p?-+-npq; and therefore occur; nCm denoting the number of combinations of n things (c) the standard deviation (dispersion) of m is ¥npq. m together. Hence the total probability of 4 A’s and 2 a’s is (d) To find the modal value of m, we have eCap4g?. Similarly the probability of m A’s and n—m a@’s is ncmbp™g"-™. Taking the values of m from n to o, we see that the probabilities of n, n—1, n—2...0 A’s (and o, 1, 2...na’s) are the successive terms in the expansion (p-+q)” = nCnp”+nCn—p” “9 +n Cn— 2p?

+

as,

+nCoq”.

(16. I)

If ,Km is the probability that in n trials there will be m A’s

and »—m a’s, then nK m=nCmp "e".

In a numbers I a,...) N; t.e., N XC

(16-2)

representative distribution of W sets of n trials the of cases in the ~+1 categories (x A’s, n—1 A’s and would be found by multiplying the terms in (16-1) by the number of cases of m A’s and n—m a’s would be

mÊ me

m

Suppose, for example, that p=0-6, q=04, n=6. Then it will be found that in a representative distribution of 1,000,000 cases the numbers of cases in which there are 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0 A’s would be 46656, 186624, 311040, 276480, 138240, 36864, 4096. The respective probabilities (relative frequencies in a representative distribution) are the ratios of these numbers to 1,000,ooo. A distribution of the above kind, showing the frequencies (theoretical or actual) with which an event happens 2, m—1, n—2... times out of x, is called a binomial distribution. 17. Mean, Standard Deviation, and Mode.—Suppose that the categories of a frequency-distribution correspond to values Yo, Yı, Y2... Yofa variable Y; thus, in the case we have just been considering, the Y’s are the numbers m, n—1,...00f A’s or the numbers o, 1, 2...” of a’s. Then the mean value of Y is found by multiplying Yo, Yı, F... FY» by the numbers Mo, Mı, M2... Mp in the corresponding categories, adding the

n—m+I nK m /rKm3=

ae

n K myi /aE m =

n—m ae

These ratios decrease as m increases; and the first ratio will be >z1, and the second

H2N-CH(CHs)-CO-NH:-CH2COOH

Alanyl-glycine.

Glycine

The compound formed by such an called a di-peptide. Very long chains of amino-acids ically, and the resulting compounds, resemble the proteins in many ways. into their constituent amino-acids by

union

(peptide linkage) is

have been formed synthetcalled polypeptides, closely These peptides are split up prolonged boiling with dilute mineral acids, the elements of water being added. This splitting or

hydrolysis is also effected by two of the digestive enzymes found in the body, viz., trypsin of the pancreatic juice and erepsin of the intestinal juice. It is almost certain that there is at least one other type of union between the amino-acids, for pepsin, the enzyme of the gastric juice which digests proteins, is unable to split the peptide linkage, yet can break the highly complex food proteins into relatively simple compounds.

Classification of Proteins.—The system of classification adopted by the American Society of Biochemists is in general use and is closely followed in Great Britain; where the British Physiological Society uses a different name this is indicated by (B). The three main groups are those of the simple, conjugated and derived proteins, as follows :—

I. Simple Proteins: naturally occurring proteins formed, from amino-acids only. Albumins. Coagulable by heat, soluble in water and dilute salt solutions; e.g., serum albumin, egg albumin and lactalbumin. Globulins. Coagulable by heat, soluble in dilute salt solutions and dilute solutions of acids and alkalis. Generally insoluble in water, but a few (“pseudo-globulins”) are soluble in water; e.g., serum globulin of the blood and myosin, the chief protein of meat. Glutelins. Found in cereals. Heat coagulable, insoluble in neutral solvents, but soluble in dilute acids and alkalis. Prolamines (Gliadins [B]). Also found in cereals, but distinguished from the glutelins by their solubility in 75% alcohol; e.g., zein from Indian corn (Zea mais), and gliadin from wheat. Albuminoids (Scleroproteins [B]). Found in the skeletal and connective tissues of animals. They are characterized by their insolubility in most reagents; ¢.g., keratin of hoofs and hair, elastin of yellow elastic tissue, collagen (the anhydride of gelatin) from tendons and white connective tissue. Protamines. Basic proteins which are formed from a few aminoacids only and these mainly the basic amino-acids. They are found in the heads of ripe spermatozoa and in ova. Histones. Similar to the protamines, but less rich in the basic amino-acids. They are not so basic as the protamines. They are _present in unripe spermatozoa, in the red blood corpuscles and in the lymphoid tissues of the body. II. Conjugated Proteins: proteins joined to a non-protein or prosthetic group. Chromo-proteins. ‘The prosthetic group is coloured; e.g., haemoglobins of vertebrate blood, and haemocyanin of invertebrate blood, both of which are connected with respiration. Glycoproteins (Glucoproteins [B]). The prosthetic group contains a carbohydrate radical; e.g., mucin and mucoids. Nucleoproteins. The prosthetic group is nucleic acid, which contains phosphorus, purine bases, pyrimidine bases and a sugar group. They are widely distributed in animal and vegetable cells, especially in nuclei. Phosphoproteins. The prosthetic group is phosphoric acid. They are distinguished from the nucleoproteins in that they do not contain purine or pyrimidine bases; e.g., casein of milk and

vitellin of egg-yolk. . III. Derived Proteins: these are the decomposition products of any of the above, produced by boiling in water or by hydrolysis with dilute acids, alkalis or by the action of enzymes; the artificially synthesized polypeptides are also included.

Metaproteins. Insoluble in water or dilute salt solutions Soluble in dilute acids or alkalis. Coagulated by heat if they are in suspension. Proteoses. Soluble in water, not coagulated by heat. Precipitated by saturation with ammonium sulphate.

Peptones.

Similar to the proteoses, but not precipitated by

saturation with ammonium sulphate.

They are relatively simple

proteins and are much more diffusible. Peptides. Simple peptones, generally of known constitution. Reactions and Properties.—In the foregoing scheme of classification physical properties are mainly used for the characterization of the proteins. Certain colour reactions can be

obtained arising from the chemical structure of the protein mole-

cule and due either to the presence of certain amino-groupings in the protein molecule or to the special linkages formed by their

union with one another. The more important of these colour reactions are, (1) the xanthoproteic, indicating such aromatic groups

as tyrosine and tryptophane; (2) the glyoxylic, due to the presence of tryptophane; (3) Millon’s, due to tyrosine; (4) the sulphur test, due to cystine; and (5) Molisch’s test for a carbohydrate complex. It follows that a protein like gelatin, which does not contain either tryptophane, tyrosine or cystine, fails to give the glyoxylic, Millon’s or sulphur tests. Zein does not contain tryptophane, but does contain tyrosine; hence it gives Millon’s test but not the glyoxylic reaction.

The biuret colour reaction, however,

is of a different character, in that it is not given by any amino-acid but is given by all proteins, owing to the particular way in which

the amino-acids are linked together. The proteins are precipitated by certain complex acids called the alkaloidal reagents because they were first used for the pre-

cipitation of alkaloids (g.v.). The more important of these acids are tannic, picric, phosphotungstic, phosphomolybdic, metaphosphoric, sulphosalicylic, tri-iodo-hydriodic and ferrocyanic. These

reagents only precipitate in acid solutions, the precipitates being soluble in alkalis. The peptones and peptides are less readily precipitated than the more complex proteins. The proteins are also precipitated in neutral or slightly alkaline solution by the salts of certain metals, especially those of copper, lead, mercury, iron and gold.

Of considerable importance

in connection

with the general

physical properties of the proteins is the fact that the solutions are usually in the colloidal state (see CoLLoms). The feature of

this condition is that the material is suspended in the solvent (water, salt solution, etc.) in particles of a certain size. If they are larger than 0.0001 mm. (0-1y) they can be retained by filter paper or porcelain and are visible with an ordinary high-power microscope, and constitute a ‘coarse suspension” or precipitate; if they are smaller than 1X10 mm. (ry) they form a “molecular solution,” and the substance will diffuse through parchment or collodion membranes. Between these limits we have the colloids, in which the particles are too large to pass through parchment membranes and too small to be removed by filter paper, or be seen with an ordinary microscope, but are large enough to interfere with the passage of light rays, being thus rendered “visible” by the ultramicroscope. The proteins, and particularly the complex natural proteins, exist in the colloidal state owing to the great size of the molecules. The length of the molecule of egg-albumin

has been found to be 4-17up, that of the molecule of serum albumin 4-41up, whilst the molecules gelatin may be as large as 50—-100mu.

of serum

globulin or of

The particles in suspension may in some cases exist in the form of single molecules, but a slight change in the conditions may cause these to coalesce to form larger clumps, even to the extent of providing visible aggregates, or a precipitate. This can some-

times be effected by altering the acidity or alkalinity of the fluid, sometimes by the addition of a small amount of a particular neutral salt. When the aggregates formed cannot be dispersed by reverting to the original conditions, the phenomenon is known as coagulation. The best known example is that of the coagulation of the albumins and globulins of the egg by boiling, an altera-

tion (“denaturation”) taking place in the native proteins. The altered protein is precipitated at a certain reaction, which 1

PROTESILAUS—PROTESTANTENVEREIN generally on the acid side of strict neutrality.

At the coagulating

temperature the particles of protein in the precipitate adhere together to form an irreversible coagulum. To produce this coagulation, a given temperature and reaction and the presence of certain inorganic substances are necessary. The first two conditions vary somewhat with different proteins and have been used for the characterization of some of the albumins and globulins. The use of strong solutions of neutral salts as a method for the precipitation of certain proteins is of considerable importance. The chief salts employed are magnesium sulphate, sodium sul-

special transparent preparation used for artificial amber. BrstiocraPpay.—S.

W.

Cole,

known Practical

611 as “galalyte” which is Physiological

Chemistry

(1928) ; D. J. Lloyd, Chemistry of the Proteins (1926), contains useful bibliography; T. B. Osborne, The Vegetable Proteins (1924) ; R. H. A. Plimmer, Tke Chemical Constitution of the Proteins a c) (S. :

PROTESILAUS,

a Thessalian hero, son of Iphiclus, and

husband of Laodameia.

He was the first to spring ashore on Tro-

jan soil, although he knew it meant instant death. His wife prayed that he might be permitted to return to earth for three hours.

Her prayer was granted, and on the expiration of the time al-

phate and particularly ammonium sulphate. When a solution is lotted she returned with him to the nether world. Hyginus gives fully saturated

with

the last substance

all proteins with the

exception of the peptones and peptides are completely precipitated. The addition of one part of a saturated aqueous solution of am-

monium sulphate to one part of a fluid is called “half-saturation” and is used for the separation of globulins from albumins. The methods for the complete removal of proteins from a solution

depend on the nature of the proteins present. In the case of the albumins and globulins, heat coagulation at the correct reaction may suffice. The most important precipitants are tungstic acid, metaphosphoric acid and colloidal iron, though tannic and mercuric and lead salts are sometimes employed.

(Fab., 104) what seems to be a rationalistic version of this. It is curious that no surviving Greek author tells the story. In another account (Conon, Narrationes, 13) Protesilaus survived the fall of Troy and built the city of Scione. His tomb and temple were near Eleus in the Thracian Chersonese. Ikad, ii. 698; Ovid, Heroides, Philostratus, Heroica, iii.

xiii.; Lucian, Dial mort.

xxiii, 1;

PROTESTANT, the generic name for an adherent of those

Churches which base their teaching on the principles of the Reformation. The name is derived from the formal Protestatio handed in by the evangelical states of the empire, including some Uses of Proteins-—-The most important use of protein is that of the more important princes and imperial cities, against the of a food-stuff for man and the domestic animals, since protein recess of the diet of Spires (1529), which decreed that the religious is the only form in which they can obtain a supply of the amino- status quo was to be preserved, that no innovations were to be acids that are essential for the building-up and maintenance of introduced in those states which had not hitherto made them, and the protoplasmic tissues of the body. Some of the amino-acids are that the mass was everywhere to be tolerated. The name Protesused for the formation in the tissues of certain derivatives (gener- tant seems to have been first applied to the protesting princes by ally known as “internal secretions”) without which it is impossible their opponents, and it soon came to be used indiscriminately of for the body as a whole to function properly. It will be seen all the adherents of the reformed religion. Its use appears to have therefore that the nature and balance of the various amino-acids spread more rapidly outside Germany than in Germany itself, one in a particular protein will have a marked effect on what is cause of its popularity being that it was negative and colourless, known as the “biological value” of the protein as a food. Thus and could thus be applied by adherents of the “old religion” to the chief protein of Indian corn is zein, which does not contain those of the “new religion,” without giving offence, on occasions any tryptophane—one of the essential amino-acids—and con- when it was expedient to avoid abusive language. sequently persons whose sole protein is that of Indian corn are As the designation of a Church, “Protestant” was unknown durapt to suffer from the disease known as Pellagra, which may be ing the Reformation period and for a long while after. In Gerdue to the deficiency of tryptophane. many the Reformers,called themselves usually evangelici, and Another function of protein in the diet is that of supplying avoided special designations for their communities, which they energy by combustion in the body. The proteins also are con- conceived only as part of the true Catholic Church. It was not cerned in promoting the oxidation of the carbohydrates and par- until the period of the Thirty Years’ War that the two main ticularly of the fats in the body. Thus the inhabitants of very schools of the reformed or evangelical Churches marked their cold climates can withstand the low temperatures on a diet very defnitive separation: the Calvinists describing themselves as the rich in protein and fat, the high protein content enabling the “Reformed Church,” the Lutherans as the “Lutheran Church.” In fats to be oxidized more readily in the body. This action is France, in England, in Holland the evangelicals continued to deknown as the “specific dynamic action” of the proteins. The scribe their churches as ecclesiae reformatae, without the arriére inhabitants of the tropics, on the other hand, subsist on a diet pensée which in Germany had confined the designation “Rethat contains a relatively small amount of protein, the energy re- formed” to the followers of a particular church order and doctrine. quirements for the maintenance of body temperature being very As to the word “Protestant,” it was never applied to the Church low. It was at one time thought that the muscular energy of the of England or to any other, save unofficially and in the wide body was obtained from the proteins alone, but it has been found sense above indicated, until the style “Protestant Episcopal that this is erroneous. Carbohydrates normally function in this Church” was assumed by the Anglican communion in the United way, but the requisite carbohydrates can be supplied from certain States. of the amino-acids in animals fed on a pure protein diet. Any PROTESTANTENVEREIN is the name of a society in excess of protein in the diet over the immediate needs of the body Germany the general object of which was to promote the union is usually oxidized in a few hours, the body being unable to store (Verein) and progress of the various established Protestant protein as it can fats or carbohydrates. But within certain limits Churches of the country in harmony with the advance of culture it seems that if abundant protein is taken with regular muscular and on the basis of Christianity. It was founded at Frankfortexercise, as in the training diet of some athletes, a:small per- on-the-Main in 1863 by a number of distinguished clergymen and centage of this protein can be stored for increase in the size of laymen of liberal tendencies, representing the freer parties of the the protoplasmic masses of the individual muscle fibre. The Lutheran and Reformed Churches of the various German states, utilization of proteins as food-stuffs is primarily dependent on amongst whom were the statesmen Bluntschli and Von Bennigtheir digestibility. Proteins like the keratins of hair and horn sen and the professors R. Rothe, H. Ewald, D. Schenkel, A. Hilgenare not broken down into amino-acids by the enzymes of the feld and F. Hitzig. The more special objects of the association alimentary canal and cannot serve as foods. The average amount were, beside the promotion of mutual toleration and respect among of protein in the adequate diets of adult inhabitants of the tem- adherents of different creeds and of all Christian works necessary perate climes is about 100 grams per diem. for the moral strength and prosperity of the nation, the assertion The industrial uses of proteins are dealt with in other articles of the right of the clergy, laity and both lay and clerical professors (see GELATIN, Grue, Casern, Ham, Woor, SILK, LEATHER, to search for and proclaim freely the truth in independence of etc.). Other uses are in the manufacture of water-resisting ad- the creeds and the letter of Scripture. hesives, distempers, small articles, such as buttons, and in the Brsriocrappy.—See D. Schenkel, Der deutsche Protestantenverein

612

PROTESTANT

und seine Bedeutung fiir die Gegenwart

(Wiesbaden,

EPISCOPAL

1868, 2nd ed.,

1871); Der deutsche Protestantenverein in seinen Statuten und den Thesen seiner Hauptversammlungen 1865-1882 (Berlin, 1883); P.

Wehlhorn in Herzog-Hauck’s Realencyklopadie; H. Weinel, “Religious

Life and Thought in Germany To-day,” Hibbert Journal (July 1909).

PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the United States of America is spiritually the direct descendant of the Church of England, and is a part of the Anglican Communion. From the Church of England the Protestant Episcopal Church inherits its faith, its liturgy and its spiritual traditions, though it is entirely independent in its own life and government. The preface of the American Prayer Book, officially set forth in 1789, affirms the substantial identity and continuity of the two Churches in the following words “This Church is far from intending to depart from the Church of England in any essential point of doctrine, discipline or worship; or further than local circumstances require.” The Protestant Episcopal Church is therefore in full fellowship with the Anglican Communion, while at the same time it is wholly free and independent in the ordering of its life and the fulfilment of its mission in the United States. It is significant that in the year 1642 members of the English Church meeting in the Colony of Maryland, and frequently other groups in that early period, described themselves as Protestant Catholics, and this designation, if rightly interpreted in the light of history, describes well the doctrinal position of the Protestant Episcopal Church, catholic and also free, apostolic and evangelical, orthodox and also modern in its spirit. The first permanent establishment of the Church was at Jamestown, Va., in 1607, although services were held earlier in various parts of the country by the clergy who as chaplains accompanied groups and parties engaged in exploration. On the Pacific coast

CHURCH

reorganization, but the process proved to be a protracted one, and continued far into the next century.

It was recognized that the

episcopate must now be secured without delay. The clergy of

Connecticut met and elected Samuel

Seabury to the office of

bishop and requested him to proceed to England and seek episcopal consecration.

Meeting with discouragement in England, Sea-

bury turned to the Scottish Episcopal Church and was consecrated by the Scotch non-juror bishops, in Aberdeen, on Noy

14, 1784, thus becoming the first bishop of the Church in America The consecration

of Bishop

Seabury

established a close bond

between the Episcopal Churches in America and Scotland. This was further strengthened by a Concordat in accordance with Art.

V. of which the Eucharistic Canon of the American Prayer Book is framed on the Scottish rather than the English model. More

than two years later on Feb. 4, 1787, William White, of Pennsylvania, and Samuel Provoost, of New York, were consecrated bishops in Lambeth chapel, by the archbishops of Canterbury and

York and two other English bishops. On Sept. 19, 1790, the Rey.

James Madison, of Virginia, was also consecrated bishop in England. At a Convention held in 1789, after much previous discussion the Book of Common Prayer was set forth and the constitution and canons were adopted. The Church was organized for her work, but the conditions which she faced were full of difficulties. As a result of the revolutionary war there was much popular prejudice against any institution claiming connection with England, in the communities influenced by Puritanism there was strong

opposition to the principles and teachings of the Episcopal Church, and there were divisions within her own household. At the Convention of 1811 only one of the six bishops attended, and there

services were held by Francis Fletcher, chaplain of Drake’s ship the “Pelican.” Before the end of the 17th century the English Church had become the established church of Virginia and Maryland. In New York, Trinity parish received its charter from the British Crown in 1697, with the bishop of London, Henry Compton, as its first rector. A few years earlier, in 1686, the Church obtained a precarious foothold in Massachusetts; it was planted in Connecticut in 1706. The growth of the English Church in the colonial period was due in large part to the help of the Society for

were few more clergy and laymen present than in 1780. Period of New Vigour.—But at this time a new spirit was stirred in the Church largely by the devotion, zeal and spiritual power of three men, John Henry Hobart, Alexander Viets Griswold and Richard Channing Moore, consecrated bishops respectively of New York, the eastern diocese and Virginia. In Virginia, Bishop Moore’s powerful preathing and strong personality roused the Church to new life. Bishop Griswold’s diocese included an immense region comprising the collapsed diocese of

the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, founded through the efforts of the Rev. Thomas Bray, a missionary in Maryland.

Massachusetts (which had already had two bishops, Bass in 1797 and Parker in 1804), Maine, Rhode Island, New Hampshire and Vermont. His achievements were truly amazing; with only 16 clergy in all at the outset of his episcopate he had the satisfaction of ending it with a fivefold increase in the number both of parishes and communicants, and with the redivision of his cumbersome territory into five separate dioceses. Bishop Hobart’s episcopate was even more far-reaching in its effects. His labours were prodigious and his power as a teacher was felt by all. He anticipated the main positions of the Oxford Movement in the Church of England and left his spiritual impress not only on the diocese of New York but on the whole Church, taking his place as one of the greatest bishops the Church in America has had. The interest of Hobart and Moore in theological education, and in the training of candidates for the ministry, resulted in the foundation of the General Theological seminary in New York in 1819 and of the Theological seminary in Virginia, in 1824. The Church was now aroused to meet the new conditions and

From the foundation of the Venerable Society in 1701, until the Revolution, its missionaries were primarily responsible for the

vitality of the English Church in America. Through all this period however, the Church had no bishop in the American colonies. It was under the jurisdiction of the bishop of London, who naturally could do little for this far distant field. Without bishops, the Episcopal Church was in an anomalous position. Those desiring to be ordained to the ministry were compelled to make the long and perilous voyage to England. The people could not be brought to confirmation.

Efforts to secure the consecration of bishops by

the mother church in England were strongly opposed by the Non-

conformist churches in the colonies, espécially in New England. Revolutionary Period.—The Revolution was a time of Se-

vere trial for the Church of Englarid in the colonies. Many of the clergy felt called upon to give up their parishes and return to England, though others, especially in the South, remained at their posts and gave their support to the American cause. Of the laity a large majority were on the side of the Revolution, and many of them were among its most active leaders. Two thirds of those whose names are signed to the Declaration of Independence Were members of the Episcopal Church. William White, afterwards the

first bishop of Pennsylvania, was chaplain of the Continental Congress. George Washington, himself a member of the Church,

opportunities of its reconstituted life. The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society, founded in 1821, gave fresh impetus to the work of Church extension.

Philander Chase, the pioneer bishop

of the West did his great work in Ohio and founded Kenyon college, obtaining from churchmen in England funds for this undertaking; Jackson Kemper went further into the North-west where

his arduous labours prepared the way for future dioceses; James Harvey Otey did noble missionary work in Tennessee and the South-west. James Lloyd Breck, priest and missionary, started for the religious service which completed the ceremonies of his schools in Minnesota, at Faribault, and pushed on across the inauguration as first president of the United States, and this country, establishing new foundations as he went, until he reached Service was conducted by Samuel Provoost, the first bishop of the Pacific coast. During this period the Episcopal Church grew steadily from a proportion of one communicant to 400 of thè New York arid rector of Trinity church. .

went, accompanied by both Houses of Congress, to St. Paul’s chapel, still standing on Broadway and Vesey street, New York,

At the close of the war the Church was so disrupted that tio

many its survival seemed doubtful.

Steps were taken for its

population in t830 to one communicant to 107 at the end of the century. With the growth and development of the country hew

PROTESTANT

EPISCOPAL

CHURCH

613

dioceses and missionary districts were established. In 1853 Bishop Kip began his labours as first bishop of California; in 1854 bishops were consecrated for Oregon and Iowa; in 1859 Bishop Whipple was sent to Minnesota to take up his work among white people and Indians. Another outpost of this period was the Theological

ing school; and the School for Christian Service and Deaconess Training School of the Pacific at Berkeley, Calif.

seminary at Nashotah, Wis., established by alumni of the General seminary in 1842, and to this day styled The Mission.

two Houses sitting and deliberating separately. The House of Bishops has as its members all the bishops of the Church. The House of Deputies is composed of not more than four presbyters and four laymen elected by each diocese and not more than one presbyter and one layman elected by each missionary district. Either house may originate and propose legislation, and all acts

The spirit of the Church at this time was strikingly illustrated in the “Muhlenberg Memorial” of 1853. Its impassioned and moving appeal to the Church to weigh more earnestly its unique opportunity, to slough off sectarianism and realize the implications of a Catholic but non-papal Episcopacy, to view without disquiet

the possibility of modifications in method and technique which might lead to a more adequate effectiveness, displays in rare degree both practical wisdom and prophetic vision. While this

appeal led to some changes in current practice the essential challenge which it offered has not yet been fully faced. It was a

challenge which might have brought forth new and great things, had not the struggle which was to issue in the Civil War precluded this. Separate Administrations.—The breaking out of this great conflict compelled the separation in administration of the Northern and Southern dioceses, but it produced no permanent division in the Church. The dioceses in the South met together as “The Protestant Episcopal Church in the Confederate States,” but when the general convention met in New York, in 1862, the Southern dioceses, although absent, were included as usual in the calling of the roll, and immediately upon the conclusion of the war, the two groups of dioceses came together without friction. Since the period of the Civil War, the Church has made progress, its growth more than keeping pace with the increase in population. Its organization covers every part of the United States and

its dependencies, and it carries on missionary work in other lands. It has bishops and organized missionary work in Alaska, Porto Rico, the Panama Canal Zone, the Hawaiian Islands, the Philippine Islands, Cuba, Mexico, Brazil, China, Japan, Liberia, Haiti and the Dominican Republic.

Among the educational institutions of the Church are Trinity college at Hartford, Conn.; the University of the South at Sewanee, Tenn.; Hobart college at Geneva, N.Y.; Kenyon college at Gambier, O.; St. Stephen’s college at Annandale, N.Y.; and the American Church institute for negroes. The Theological schools, in addition to the General Theological seminary in New York, which is the official institution of the whole Church, and the Virginia seminary previously mentioned, are the Berkeley Divinity school at New Haven, Conn.; the Divinity school in Philadelphia; the Episcopal Theological school in Cambridge, Mass.; Nashotah house at Nashotah, Wis.; Seabury Divinity school at Faribault, Minn.; the Theological school at Sewanee, Tenn.; the Western Theological seminary at Evanston, IIl.; the Church Divinity school of the Pacific, San Francisco, Calif.; the College of St. John the Evangelist, Greeley, Colo.; the Bishop Payne Divinity school at Petersburg, Va.; Bexley hall, Gambier, Q.; the Du Bose Memorial Church Training school, Monteagle, Tenn.; and the De Lancey Divinity school at Buffalo, N.Y. The

Church has also, especially in the East, many important schools for boys and girls. Church Development.—The life of the Church finds expression in a great number of societies and organizations, such as the Women’s Auxiliary to the National Council; the Brotherhood of St. Andrew; the Girls’ Friendly Society; the Seamen’s Church Institute of America; the Social Service Commissions; the Church clubs of the various dioceses; the Church Mission of Help, and the Church Congress in the United States. Among the religious orders are the Society of Mission Priests of St. John the Evangelist; the Order of the Holy Cross; St. Barnabas Brotherhood; the

Community of St. Mary; the Sisterhood of St. John the Baptist; the Sisterhood of St. Margaret; the All Saints Sisters of the Poor; the Sisterhood of the Holy Nativity; and others. The institutions for the training of deaconesses include the New York Training School for Deaconesses; the Church Training and Deaconess House of the Diocese of Pennsylvania; the Chicago Church Train-

The governing body of the Protestant Episcopal Church is the General Convention which meets every three years, and which consists of the House of Bishops and the House of Deputies, the

of the Convention must be adopted and authenticated by both houses. In the House of Deputies the vote on any question may be taken by orders, the clerical and lay deputies voting separately and a concurrent vote of the two orders being required for the adoption of the resolution. The laity thus have their full share and responsibility in the legislative action of the Church. No alteration in the Book of Common Prayer may be made unless this is proposed at one meeting of the General Convention and adopted at the next succeeding triennial meeting. Each diocese holds its own annual Convention, presided over by the bishop, in which both clergy and laity have their part. The diocese adopts its own constitution and canons for the regulation of its internal affairs, with the provision that these must not conflict with the constitution and canons of the General Convention. A bishop is elected by the diocese, but the election must be confirmed by a majority of the bishops exercising jurisdiction within the United States, and by a majority of the standing committees of all the dioceses. Missionary bishops are elected by the House of Bishops, the choice being subject to confirmation by the House of Deputies if the General Convention is in session, and at other times by a majority of the standing committees of the several dioceses. As regards the ministry, the Episcopal Church, in common with the

Anglicah Communion, holds to the historic threefold order of bishops, priests and deacons. The official pronouncements on this subject are contained in the Preface to the Ordinal.

The consti-

tution of the Church (Art. viii.) provides that no person shall be consecrated bishop, or ordained priest or deacon, until he shall have made in writing, in presence of the ordaining bishop or bishops, the following declaration: “I do believe the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments to be the Word of God and to contain all things necessary to salvation; and I do solemnly engage to conform to the Doctrine, Discipline, and Worship of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America.” And every person before being baptised and received into membership in the church is required to answer affirmatively thé question “Dost thou believe all the articles of the Christian Faith as contained in the Apostles’ Creed?” Neither the clergy nor the laity are required to subscribe to the Thirty Nine Articles. Church Activities.—An important change in the organization of the Church was made in rọrọ by the establishment of a national council, with the presiding bishop at its head, to act as the executive body of the General Convention between its sessions, and to have charge of the general missionary, social and educational work of the Church; with the provision that, for the future,

the presiding bishop should be elected instead of succeeding to this office by seniority of consecration. The national council has given new impetus and effectiveness to the work of the Church and strengthened her corporate life. The revision and enrichment of the Book of Common Prayer, undertaken in 1913, has been given much consideration at each meeting of the General Convention since that time. The statistics reported at the last meeting of the Convention in 1925 included the following: dioceses and missionary districts, 104; communicants 1,193,321; clergy, 6,140; candidates for Holy Orders, 454; lay readers, 3,740; enrolled in Sunday

Schools 498,814; total contributions for the year 1925, $41,746,055. It is the earnest and increasing desire both of clergy and people that the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States should make the utmost of her opportunity to serve the cause ‘of Christian reunion; and at the General Convention in 1910 a movement was initiated to bring about a world conference on faith and order. After 17 years of preparation and effort, the

614

PROTEUS—PROTOCOL

conference was held in 1927 at Lausanne, and was attended by representatives of all the major Churches of Christendom with the exception of the Roman Catholic Church.

BIBLIOGRAPHY .~——See W. S. Perry, Historical Collections relating to the Episcopal Colonial Churck (1870), and History of the American Episcopal Church (1885); Bishop White, Memoirs of the Protestant Episcopal Church (1880); S. D. McConnell, History of the American Episcopal Church (1890); C. C. Tiffany, History of the Protestant Episcopal Church (1905); see also ref. under art. ENGLAND, (W. T. M.) CHURCH OF.

PROTEUS

or Orm, a blind, water-breathing, tailed amphi-

Statutes and other Constitutional Documents.

He was editor of

the Cambridge “historical series” and one of the editors of The

Cambridge Modern History. PROTHESIS, in the liturgy of the Orthodox Eastern Church the name given to the act of “setting forth” the oblation, że. the arranging of the bread on the paten, the signing of the cross (opparyitew) on the bread with the sacred spear, the mixing of the chalice, and the veiling of the paten and chalice (see F. Ẹ,

Brightman, Liturgies Eastern and Western, 1896). (Gr. mpóbecis a setting forth). The term is also used, architecturally, for the

bian, inhabiting the limestone caves to the east of the Adriatic. It is a small eel-like animal, with minute limbs, the anterior pair having three toes on each, the posterior two, a narrow head, with flat truncate snout, minute rudimentary eyes hidden under the skin which is pale flesh-coloured, with the short, plume-like external gills blood-red (Proteus anguinus). Proteus forms with Necturus the family Proteidae. The second genus, which is widely distributed in eastern North America, is more generalized in structure, having better developed limbs, with four digits, and is adapted to live in the light. Its thyroid gland is very much reduced, but, unlike the axolotl (g.v.), it cannot be transformed into a terrestrial form by feeding with thyroid. Exposure to white light causes the skin to become black, even over the eyes; however, in red light, no blackening occurs, and the eyes grow large and functional. In 1896 a Proteus-like Amphibian (Typhlomolge rathbuni) was unexpectedly discovered in Texas during the boring of an artesian well 188ft. deep, when it was shot out with a number of remarkable and unknown crustaceans. This form agrees with Proteus in the absence of functional eyes, the presence of external gills, and the unpigmented skin. It differs in the short body and the long slender limbs with four to five digits. It is remarkable in having no thyroid gland at all. Whilst Proteus has lungs in addition to gills, Typhlomolge lacks the lungs, and with them the

place in which this ceremony is enacted, a chamber on the north side of the central apse in a Greek church, with a small table. During the reign of Justin II. (565-574) this chamber was located in an apse and another apse was added on the south side for the diaconicon (g.v.), so that from his time the Greek church was

bridge, where he became a fellow. For a time a master at Eton,

PROTISTA: see Protozoa. PROTOACTINIUM, a radioactive element of atomic num-

triapsal.

In the churches in central Syria both prothesis and

diaconia are generally rectangular, and the former, according to de Vogué, constitutes a chamber for the deposit of offerings by the

faithful.

The prothesis has a much

diaconicon,

and

differs from

wider doorway than the

it also in being sometimes con-

nected directly with the central apse by a side door. PROTIC, STOJAN (1857-1923), Yugoslav statesman, was born at KrusSvak Jan. 29, 1857, and at first entered the Govern-

ment service. He soon came into conflict with the repressive régime of King Milan and in 1882 became editor of Samouprava and a leader of the new Radical party. He was imprisoned for a press offence in 1883 and again in 1885. He held subordinate

posts in the Radical Cabinet of 1887.

In 1899 an attempt on

King Milan’s life was used by the Government to rid itself of its Radical rivals. Proti¢ was sentenced to 20 years’ hard labour, although, in fact, he had no connection with the crime. Pardoned nine months later, he became director of the National Library. After the revolution of 1903 he represented the Radicals in the trachea and larynx. Both the Proteus and Typhlomolge are per- first provisional Cabinet under King Peter and remained Minismanent larval forms. ter of the Interior in most of the succeeding Cabinets down to Another blind Urodele, Typhlotriton spelaeus, is known from 1907. He was Finance Minister during the Bosnian crisis and caves in the Mississippi valley. It has neither gills nor lungs in again became Minister of the Interior during the period of the the adult, and is found under rocks in or out of the water. It Balkan Wars and the European crisis of 1914. In 1914, when is not allied to Proteus but to Amblystoma (see AXOLOTL). The leaders of the secret “Black Hand” organization were implieyes are normal in the larva, but in the adult have undergone cated in the murder of Serajevo, this organization was actually degeneration. It is not a persistent larva. at daggers drawn with the Serbian Government owing to a quarrel See H. Gadow, Amphibia (Cambridge Natural History). with Protic. Protié remained out of office during the period of coalition PROTEUS, a Greek sea-daimon, shepherd of the flocks of the sea (seals, etc.) and a great prophet. Like most sea-fairies, government from Dec. 1914 to June 1917, but continued to he could change his appearance at will. Those who would consult exercise great influence in the background. He was returned to him had first to surprise and bind him during his noonday slumber office in 1917 and played an active part in the negotiations (on Pharos in Homer, on Carpathus in Virgil). Even when leading to the Corfu agreement between the Serbian Governcaught he would try to escape by assuming all sorts of shapes: ment and the Yugoslav Committee. He showed more comprehenbut if his captor held him fast the god at last returned to his proper sion for the Croat and Slovene standpoint than his colleague shape, gave the wished-for answer, and then plunged into the sea. Pašić, and when the conflict between Pašić and Trumbić in 1918 A later story (invented by Stesichorus?) made him a king of delayed the recognition of Yugoslavia by the Allies and created Egypt to whose court Helen was taken by Hermes after she had an awkward situation with Italy, Protić was appointed the first been carried off, Paris being accompanied to Troy by a phantom Premier of the new Yugoslav State. He was keenly interested in the constitutional problem, and after his resignation in Aug. 1919 substituted for her. See Homer, Od. iv.; Virgil, Georg. iv.; Stesichorus, p. 26 (44) ed. published his own draft project. Disagreeing with the exaggerated Bergk, with his notes; Euripides, Helena; Herodotus, ii., 112, 118. centralism of Pai¢, he declined office in 1921 and drifted steadily PROTHERO, SIR GEORGE WALTER (1848-1922), away from his old colleague. Protié died in Belgrade in Nov. 1923. His publications include The Aspirations of Bulgaria (1916) and British historian, was born in Wiltshire Oct. 14, 1848, being the eldest son of the Rev. G. Prothero, Canon of Westminster Abbey. Le probléme Albanais, etc. (1913), issued under the pseudonym of “Balkanicus.”’ Educated at Eton, he went from there to King’s College, Camhe soon returned to Cambridge as lecturer and tutor at King’s College, where he was senior tutor from 188r. In 1884 he was appointed university lecturer in history; in 1894 he went to Edinburgh as professor of history; and in 1899 he succeeded his brother Rowland, afterwards Lord Ernle (q.v.) as editor of The Quarterly Review. During the World War he was director of the historical section of the Foreign Office and in that capacity he attended the Peace Conference in Paris. He was created K.B.E. in r920 and died in London July ro, 1922. Prothero’s chief historical works are The Life and Times of

ber or and estimated atomic weight 232.

It is the “parent” of actinium, which it forms by loss of an a-particle. (See RaDio-

ACTIVITY.)

,

PROTOCOL, in diplomacy, the name given to a variety of written instruments. The French word protocole is derived

from the late Latin protocollum, from the Greek tpôros first, and

Ko\Aav to glue, i.e., originally the first The protocollum under the late Roman leaves, bound together with glue, in Simon de Montfort and the collection of authorities entitled Select | recorded, so as to guard against fraud

sheet of a papyrus roll. empire was a volume 0 which public acts were or error on the part of

PROTOGENES—PROTOPHYTA those responsible for preparing them; and in later usage it came to be applied to the original drafts of such acts. Thus, too, the

word prothocollare was devised for the process of -drawing up

public acts in authentic form. In diplomacy the name of “protocol” is given to the minutes

(procès-verbaux) of the several sittings of a conference or congress; these, though signed by the plenipotentiaries present, have only the force of verbal engagements (see Concress). It is also given to certain diplomatic

instruments

in which, without

the

form of a treaty or convention being adopted, are recorded the

principles or the matters of detail on which an agreement has been reached, ¢.g., making special arrangements for carrying out

the objects of previous

treaties, defining these objects more

clearly, interpreting the exact sense of a doubtful clause in a treaty (protocoles interpretatifs) and the like. Occasionally also

an agreement between two or more powers takes the form of a protocol, rather than a treaty, when the intention is to proclaim a community of views or aims without binding them to eventual common action in support of those views or aims.

615

coming assistant to the Bulgarian governor of Macedonia. In Sept. 1918 he was made commandant of Sofia, and maintained order when the Bulgarians were driven back. Later he left the army and entered politics, being arrested on Nov. 4, 1919, with

Radoslavoff’s cabinet. He escaped, and after two years in hiding, reached Macedonia in Oct. 1921, where he joined Todor Alexandroff, the Macedonian leader, and his chief lieutenant Peter Chaiileff. On Aug. 31, 1924, Alexandroff was assassinated by Chaiileff’s friends, as a result, it is supposed, of an agreement between Chaiileff and the Communists. Protogueroff in his turn arranged for the assassination of four of the persons responsible for Alexandroff’s death. Chaiileff himself was assassinated on Dec. 23, 1924, and two more of his followers in the following year. During the later years of his life Gen. Protogueroff retired from active participation in the revolutionary movement, and became interested in spiritualism.

PROTOPHYTA. The designation Protophyta (“first plants’’)

is applied to all simple one- and several-celled organisms that obtain their nourishment after the manner of a plant. Such Finally, “the protocol” (protocole diplomatique, protocole de forms probably afford a fairly chancellerie) is the body of ceremonial rules to be observed in accurate picture of what the all written or personal official intercourse between the heads of early stages in the evolution of different states or their ministers. It lays down the styles and the vegetable kingdom were like. titles of states, their heads and public ministers, and indicates The simpler Algae (g.v.) are of the forms and customary courtesies to be observed in all intercourse embraced in the Protonational acts. “It is,” says M. Pradier-Fodéré, “the code of phyta. Together with Protozoa international politeness.” See P. Pradier-Fodéré, Cours de droit diplomatique (1899), ii. 499; (g.v.) the latter constitute the E. Satow, Diplomatic Practice. Protista, which comprise all the most elementary forms of life. PROTOGENES, a Greek painter, born in Caunus, on the There are many classes of Procoast of Caria, but resident in Rhodes during the latter half of the tista, some definitely holophytic 4th century B.c. He was celebrated for the minute and laborious (1.e., feeding like a plant), others finish which he bestowed on his pictures, both in drawing and definitely holozoic (ż.e., taking in colour. Apelles, his great rival, standing amazed in the presence in solid food like an animal), of one of these works, could only console himself by saying that whilst still others exhibit a mingit was wanting in charm. On one picture, the “Talysus,” he spent ling of plant and animal charseven years; on another, the “Satyr,” he worked continuously duracteristics, so that it depends to ing the siege of Rhodes by Demetrius Poliorcetes (305-304 B.C.) some extent on personal bias notwithstanding that the garden in which he painted was in the whether they be referred to Promiddle of the enemy’s camp. Jalysus was a local hero, the tozoa or Protophyta. A rigid founder of the town of the same name in the island of Rhodes. definition is Impossible and unThis picture was still in Rhodes in the time of Cicero, but desirable. The Protophyta may, was afterwards removed to Rome, where it perished in the however, justifiably be taken to burning of the Temple of Peace. The picture painted during the include all simple organisms carsiege of Rhodes consisted of a satyr leaning idly against a pillar rying on photosynthesis. In this on which was a figure of a partridge, so life-like that ordinary process organic compounds are spectators saw nothing but it. Enraged on this account, the painter built up from carbon dioxide and wiped out the partridge. The “Satyr” must have been one of his water with the help of solar last works. He would then be about 70 years of age, and had energy absorbed by pigments enjoyed for about 20 years a reputation next only to that of which are held within the cells Apelles, his friend and benefactor. in special protoplasmic bodies, In the Propylaea at Athens was a painting by Protogenes the chromatophores. The latter representing personifications of the coast of Attica, Paralus and always contain green chlorophyll Hammonias. For the council chamber at Athens he painted figwhich predominates in the green ures of the Thesmothetae. Among his portraits are mentioned Algae (Isokontae), but in many those of the mother of Aristotle, Philiscus the tragic poet, and King Antigonus. But Protogenes was also a sculptor and made FROM “SUSSWASSERFLORA,” AND HARTMAN & classes is associated with other pigments (yellow, brown, red, “ARCHIVES FUR PROTISTENKUNDE” several bronze statues of athletes, armed figures, huntsmen and PASCHER, (GUSTAV FISCHER)

persons in the act of offering sacrifices. He wrote two books on

painting and design.

PROTOGUEROFF,

ALEXANDER

NICHOLOFF

(1867-1928), Macedonian revolutionary leader, was born at Ochrida, Macedonia, in 1867. He went to the military school of Sofia, and, after some military service in Bulgaria, joined the Macedonian movement in 1895 and commanded a band of insurgents. He was a moderate member of the Superior Macedonian committee in Sofia, a rival of the Secret committee which was responsible for the rising of 1903. From 1908 to 1911 Protogueroff served in the army, and after a period in retirement, was elected In 1912 president of the Executive committee of the Macedonian societies. When the World War broke out he organized the 11th Macedonian division, and commanded the 3rd brigade, later be-

TYPES OF PROTOPHYTA 1. Chromulina, motile cell (Chrysophyceae). 2. Ochromonas, motile cell. 3. Cryptomonas, motile cell. 4. Glenodinium, motile cell (Dinophyceae) 5. Hypnodinium, motionless cell (same). 6a. Chrysosphaera, motionless cell (Chrysophyceae). 6b. Chrysosphaera, Zoospore (same). 7a. Thalloohrysis, branched filament (same). 7b. Thallochrysis, Zoospore (same)

etc.) which

give a distinctive

coloration to their respective members. Moreover, the carboncompounds, that accumulate in the cells after active photosynthesis, vary in the different classes (starch, fat, leucosin,

etc.), an indication that distinct

metabolic processes are associated with the diverse types of pigmentation. The various classes can thus be distinguished on a physiological basis by their special mechanisms for nutrition. '

Motile and Stationary Forms.—Many of the simplest unicellular Protophyta are actively motile with the help of delicate

PROTOPHYTA

616

protoplasmic threads, the cilia or flagella, whose number and arrangement is usually distinctive for each class (figs. 1-4). Every class, however, also includes motionless organisms of varied type, partly unicellular (figs. 5, 6a) and partly multicellular (fig. 7a). Many of these reproduce themselves by means of naked swarmers (zoospores), which are essentially similar to the motile unicellular individuals of their class and which, after a period of movement, lose their cilia and give rise to the stationary organism. This fact has led to the assumption—now generally accepted—that such sedentary forms have evolved from motile unicells in much the same way as they arise from their zoospores during their individual life-history. It is, however, probable that in some series of Protophyta (e.g., Myxophyceae) no motile

organisms were ever evolved, even the unicellular individuals being motionless from the first. In certain classes of Protophyta (Isokontae, Heterokontae, Myxophyceae) the majority of the known genera are stationary, z.€., they exhibit the essentially plant-like characteristic of immobility. These are usually grouped under the name of Algae (g.v.) which also comprise some series that have evolved beyond the level of the Protophyta and in which no simple forms are known (cf. below). In other classes of Protophyta, however, the majority of the species are motile and, for this reason, and also because the simpler individuals are ordinarily not clothed by a cell-wall, they have been regarded as something apart from the Algae more nearly related to Protozoa and grouped as Flagellata. But in several of these classes (Peridinieae, Chrysomonadineae) motionless unicellular and filamentous types corresponding to those

found in Isokontae, Heterokontae, etc. (see ALGAE) have been discovered in recent times, and there is thus no valid reason for separating them from those Protophyta that are grouped as Algae. A number of colourless Protista resemble plants, since they

feed mainly by absorbing (organic) solutions and not by ingesting solid particles, z.e., they are saprophytes or parasites. Such forms are probably in part descended from holophytic types which have lost their chromatophores, while others may have been devoid of them from the first. From such primitively colourless Protophyta various series of fungi may have originated, although some fungi may have been derived from pigmented types by loss of chromatophores. Classification.—The following is an epitome of the chief classes of pigmented Protophyta:— t. IsoxoNTAE (Chlorophyceae or green Algae), pure green forms, see ALGAE. 2. HETEROKONTAE (Yellow-green Algae), see ALGAE. 3. CHRYSOPHYCEAE, with few brown or orange-coloured chromatophores without pyrenoids (see ALGAE), producing fat and leucosin; motile forms (Chrysomonadineae) with one or two cilia at the front end; resting stages (cysts) with a silicified membrane composed of two unequal pieces; sometimes holozoic (figs. 1, 2, 6 and 7). 4. CRYPTOPHYCEAE, usually with two large, mostly brown chromatophores, with pyrenoids, producing starch or other similar carbohydrates; motile forms (Cryptomonadineae) asymmetrical,

commonly flattened, with a sloping front end bearing two slightly unequal cilia (fig. 3). s, DINOPHYCEAE (Peridinieae), with usually many, yellow or brown, discoid chromatophores, producing starch and oil; motile cells (Dinoflagellata) with a transverse furrow harbouring a transverse cilium and a less defined longitudinal furrow with a backwardly directed cilium (fig. 4). The advanced forms have an elaborate envelope. 6. EUGLENINEAE, with pure green chromatophores, sometimes with pyrenoids, producing paramylon; motile stages with one, or rarely two, flagella arising from a canal-like invagination at the front end. Very few sedentary types known.

7. MyxopHycear

(Cyanophyceae

or blue-green Algae), see

by their pigmentation, the products of photosynthesis, and the characteristics of the motile stages (when present), as wel] as by other peculiarities. No doubt each originated from simple

forms parallel with those found in the classes of Protophyta, but which have become extinct or are not yet known.

Should such

simple forms ever be discovered they would naturally be included in the Protophyta.

Range of Form.—Most classes exhibit a more or less exten.

sive range from simple unicells to branched multicellular fila-

ments.

Examples of these varied types, as far as they occur in

Isokontae, Heterokontae, and Myxophyceae, are given in the article ALGAE and there, too, will be found a consideration of their relation to one another and of the ordinary course of reproduction. One can distinguish motile and motionless unicells colonies of motile and motionless individuals, palmelloid forms with numerous cells embedded in mucilage, simple and branched filaments, etc. Analogous forms, often almost identical in shape though with the differences in pigmentation, etc., characteristic of the relevant groups are met with in most classes of holophytic Flagellata. Thus, Chrysosphaera (fig. 6) is a spherical unicell similar to Chlorococcum

(Isokontae)

or Halosphaera

(Hetero-

kontae), but it possesses the orange chromatophores and leucosin of Chrysophyceae and reproduces by zoospores closely resembling

a Chromulina, one of the motile unicells of that class; similarly

Hypnodinium (fig. 5) is such a motionless member of Dinophyceae, whose protoplasmic body before dividing during repro. duction acquires temporarily the typical transverse and longi-

tudinal

furrows.

Palmelloid

forms,

analogous

to Tetraspora

(Isokontae), are seen in Phaeosphaera (Chrysophyceae) and Phaeococcus (Cryptophyceae), while filamentous types are repre-

sented by Phaeothamnion or Thallochrysis (fig. 7) (Chrysophyceae) and Dinothrix (Dinophyceae), all reproducing by zoospores resembling closely the motile unicells of their particular classes. Further details cannot be given in the confines of a short

article, but it will be clear that there is a far-going parallelism in the evolution of the different classes of Protophyta. Reproduction.—The reproductive processes are of the simplest kind, most commonly consisting in a mere division of the individual into two parts, which in the motile forms may even take place during movement. Reproduction by zoospores, as already mentioned, is frequent in the more advanced stationary forms (figs. 6, 7). Sexuality, altogether lacking in the Myxophyceae, is rare and restricted to the higher forms in most classes. Oogamy (see AtGAE) is encountered alone in the Isokontae, where altogether the reproductive methods show a greater elaboration than among other Protophyta. Relation to Other Groups.—The definite range from simple to complex implies an upgrade evolution which is recognizable also in the reproductive processes. As far as present knowledge goes, however, the multicellular filamentous types are of the simplest kind in most Protophyta. Even when branching occurs, there is no differentiation among the cells and the formation of reproductive units takes place in the simplest possible way. In

other words these classes have ended blindly without developing far in the direction of the multicellular plant and it is only in Isokontae (as well as in Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae which, as explained above, must have had a Protophyte ancestry) that a considerably greater specialization is found; and this is accompanied by more complex reproductive methods and the development of an oogamous sexual process. While in the two classes of seaweeds

massive and complex bodies have been evolved, this

is not the case in the green Algae, although in other respects their advanced forms are almost as highly specialized as those of seaweeds. The absence of more elaborate types in Isokontae 15 probably due to their further evolution into land-plants in the far past, just as the simpler (extinct) Phaeophyceae and Rbodophyceae evolved into the seaweeds of the present day. In the same way other classes of Protophyta must have given rise to the various groups of fungi. There is little evidence of relationship

ALGAE. Several classes of Algae are omitted, because they include only relatively specialized forms, viz., the Diatoms (Bacillariales, g.v.),

between the known classes of Protophyta;

and the brown and red seaweeds (Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae, see Atcar). They are, however, likewise distinguished

seem to represent separate attempts at the evolution of a holophytic organism. The occasional resemblances to classes of

most, if not all,

PROTOPLASM Protozoa are no doubt due to the fact that plant and animal

tendencies were not clearly segregated in all the different evolu-

tionary series.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—For a general account of Protophyta, see G. S, West

and F. E. Fritsch, British Freshwater Algae (Cambridge, 1927); A. Pascher, Sésswasserflora Deutschlands, Österreichs und der Schweiz

(Jena, 1914 and onwards, esp. Heft 1, 2 and 4); and F. E. Fritsch, Presidential Address to Section K, British Association (1927). (F. E. F.)

PROTOPLASM, defined by Huxley as “the physical basis of

life,” is the essential material of which living creatures are com-

posed. A typical multicellular organism can be analysed into component organs, which are built up of diverse tissues, in turn consisting of cells. In pursuing the analysis the biologist reaches,

within the cell, the essential living matter or protoplasm. But a cell often includes material which cannot be thought of as alive, or as playing an essential rôle in the characteristic chemical routine or metabolism. Such non-living material is conveniently called metaplasm, and may be illustrated by waste pigments or by crystals. If the whole of this metaplasm could be subtracted from the entire cell-substance or cytoplasm, and from the whole

nuclear substance or nucleoplasm, the remainder would be protolasm. i Soon after the vague recognition of the cellular structure of

plants and animals in the later 17th century by Hooke, Malpighi

and Grew, there began to be some appreciation of the fact that the cells had contents. Yet it required another century before Corti and Treviranus saw the streaming movements inside the cells of some plants. Even then the open secret was missed, for the objective envisaging of life as involving an intricate series of physical and chemical changes within the cells was still far distant. The term “protoplasm” was first used by Purkinje in 1840 in reference to the formative material of animal embryos. It was taken over by von Mohl (1846) and applied to the “slimy, granular, semifluid” constituents of plant-cells, as distinguished from cell-wall, cell-sap and nucleus. Some time before that, however, Dujardin had discerned the living material in Foraminifera. He

called this “sarcode” (1835), and defined it as a “living jelly, glutinous and transparent, insoluble in water, and capable of contracting into globular masses and of adhering to dissecting needles so that it can be drawn out like mucus.” Soon there came an identification of Dujardin’s animal “sarcode” and von Mohl’s plant “protoplasm,” and yet the acceptance of this unifying idea was slow, This was partly because the statement of the celltheory by Schwann and Schleiden (1838) gave undue prominence to the importance of the cell-wall. Indeed it was not till 1861 that Max Schultze won conviction for the fundamental idea that throughout the whole world of life there is one general kind of living material, protean, yet nevertheless always essentially similar, (J. A. Tx.) The various methods of studying living matter may be grouped under three general headings: (1) microscopic observa-

tions of the structure and behaviour of the great variety of cells

which constitute living organisms, both plant and animal; (2) a chemical analysis of the materials composing protoplasm and (3)

the application of experimental methods on living cells to ascertain

the extent to which protoplasmic phenomena can be explained in physico-chemical terms and to study chemical reactions within the living cell. All of these methods have been used since protoplasm was first recognized as the physical basis of life. However, the results obtained were largely empirical or purely speculative until the newer developments in the fields of physics and chemistry could give some significance to the physical configuration and

chemical constitution of protoplasm.

The technical difficulties of making observational studies on cellular structures in the living state have resulted in the elabora-

ion of methods for the fixation of tissues and cells with killing agents. As for chemical analyses of cellular tissues the usual Procedure entails complete destruction of the cell. The results obtained by such methods can be accepted only with the qualification that the passage from life to death undoubtedly occasions structural and chemical changes in the form of recombinations

617

and decompositions so that the structures and compounds found in dead matter can offer at best a very incomplete idea of the composition of living protoplasm. Protoplasm exists only in discrete units almost always of microscopic dimensions. The living cell contains the protoplasmic unit which exhibits all the properties characteristic of living beings. In many kinds of cells the protoplasm becomes highly specialized by the predominance of one or a few of the life functions, as explained in the article Histotocy. In multicellular organisms there are well-established cases which indicate a continuity between the protoplasm of neighbouring cells. The extent to which this phenomenon occurs and its significance are still in question. There is no doubt, however, that the cells composing an organism exert mutual interactions which are of the greatest functional importance in the general economy of the whole. The protoplasmic unit within each cell always is bounded by a sharply outlined surface and contains at least one differentiated

structure, the nucleus, the removal of which ultimately leads to the death of the protoplasm. From what is known regarding the chemical constituents, especially the proteins and fatty substances, and from the optical behaviour of protoplasm, it has been concluded that the components of protoplasm exist largely in the colloidal state. Beyond the visible structure of protoplasm as revealed by the microscope we must therefore look for the existence of an ultra-microscopic, colloidal structure. Whatever this structure may be there is no doubt that the extraordinary properties of surfaces especially characteristic of colloids play a large part in protoplasmic phenomena. (See Cotton.) One of the many difficult problems in a consideration of the constitution of protoplasm is the significance of the many and varied visible structures within the protoplasm. (See Cytontocy.) In addition there is reason to believe that the nucleus of the cell contains a large number of discrete, self-propagative particles of colloidal dimensions—the genes. (See Herepity.) So far as the rest of the protoplasm is concerned investigations have pointed in a different direction. Nevertheless, experimental studies in embry-

ology have indicated that the cytoplasm of the unsegmented egg, for example, contains specifically different, but not necessarily visibly formed, materials which play an important part in development. We must conclude that the concept of regional differentiation within the cell must be taken into serious account in any attempt to interpret protoplasm in terms of physics and chemistry.

Chemical Analysis.

(a) Inorganic Components—Water

is

the most abundant single component of protoplasm. It is important in promoting chemical activity by dissociation of electrolytes. It also takes an intimate part in the building up and breaking down of such chemical compounds as proteins and carbohydrates, a procedure which must be occurring constantly in the metabolism of a living cell. The common salts in protoplasm are the chlorides, carbonates, and phosphates of sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium, magnesium and iron. These substances are present in certain relative concentrations so that the specific properties of one balance those of others in the normal chemical equilibrium of the cell. Gases are also present in solution, viz., oxygen and carbon dioxide which play an important réle in the oxidation processes. (b) Organic Components——The organic compounds obtained from protoplasm are the carbohydrates, lipins and proteins. The most stable of the carbohydrates probably serve as structural materials, others supply energy by undergoing oxidation. The lipins, or fatty substances, serve similar purposes. They have a much higher energy content. Their insolubility in water together with their ability to combine with electrolytes to form soaps with varying water-soluble properties are of considerable significance in the constitution of protoplasm. The proteins are the most complex of the organic compounds. In common with the fats and carbohydrates they are composed chiefly of carbon and hydrogen, but they also possess certain radicals (NH; and COOH) which give them the peculiar property

of behaving both as acids and as bases. The proteins readily com-

bine with inorganic ions to form salts; this is one of the factors which enables protoplasm to retain a high concentration of certain

618

PROTOPLASM

inorganic elements relatively independent of that of the environing medium. Because of their varying acid and basic groups the proteins can likewise maintain the protoplasm at its own peculiar degree of acidity and basicity. Proteins are mostly all colloidal, their solutions are often viscous and exhibit reversible states of solidity and fluidity. These remarkable properties of the proteins probably serve as a basis for the complex system of structure and chemical interactions in protoplasm. Many of the chemical changes which involve either the breakdown or the synthesis of the compounds discussed in the preceding paragraphs can be made to occur in vitro extremely slowly or under conditions (e.g., high temperature) which cannot possibly obtain in living protoplasm. It is known, however, that certain substances, called enzymes, have been extracted from animal and plant tissues, which enable reactions to occur at a relatively high velocity and under conditions probably existing in living protoplasm. Many inorganic substances, called catalysts, are known whose effects are analogous to those of enzymes. The Physico-Chemical Structure of Protoplasm. (a) The Protoplasmic Surface —Protoplasm is always surrounded by an aqueous environment. This, obviously true for all organisms which live in water, is equally true for land-living forms whose outer coating of dead and dying cells is so constituted as to form a waterproof layer to maintain the proper conditions of moisture for the living cells within.

In order to account for the fact that the protoplasm maintains

sink into the protoplasmic surface layer after which they may gain access into the interior by the reactive changes occurring between the interior and the surface membrane. Space permits only the recital of a list of the possible factors which play a part in the

passage of substances through membranes, viz., simple diffusion, osmosis, electro-endosmose, surface tension and solubility in the material of the membrane. (b) The Internal Protoplasm.—The necessity of the nucleus for the life of the protoplasm of a cell has been so well recognized that the term “protoplasm” is generally applied to an organized

system consisting of a differentiated nucleus contained within a mass of so-called cytoplasm. The nucleus is a differentiated part of the protoplasm of the cell. Usually it readily coagulates when the cell is injured or killed

and then appears as a network of granular fibrils enclosed within a membrane.

The importance of the nucleus is most evident dur-

ing the reproductive activity of the cell which is heralded by the transformation of the nuclear materials into peculiarly constant bodies, the chromosomes. (See CyToLocy.) Interchanges between the nucleus and cytoplasm undoubtedly

occur, possibly during the entire life cycle of the cell. However, not enough is known at present regarding the nature of this rela-

tion to permit any certain interpretation. What is known is that a relation does exist which is essential for the continued life of the cell. Under the microscope the substance of the cytoplasm appears to

its integrity we must assume either that the entire mass of proto- be a translucent, optically structureless fluid, the hyaloplasm in plasm is practically insoluble in its surrounding medium or that its which lie various sized granules, globules and fibrillae in varying immiscibility is due to an enveloping layer or membrane. There amounts. In many instances these visible bodies are grouped in is considerable proof that the second assumption is the correct one. definite patterns, some of which constitute specialized structures. For example, when the protoplasmic surface of a variety of living (See Cytotocy.) The significance of these structures must be left cells is torn with microneedles (see MicROMANIPULATION) the to the future. The presence of visible granules, fibrils and vacuoles in the interior protoplasm tends to flow out and dissipate in the surrounding aqueous medium. The material, as it flows out, espe- hyaline matrix is such a universal feature that many of the older cially when the surrounding medium has the proper salt content, conceptions of protoplasm were based on the assumption that frequently forms a new surface membrane which encloses it and these inclusions form an essential part of protoplasmic structure. keeps it intact. Another experiment which indicates the existence However, in view of the fact that these structures vary in the of a differentiated membrane is the microinjection of coloured protoplasm of different cells, not only in form but also in number, solutions which normally do not penetrate the protoplasm from and may be entirely absent in some cells or appear only at some without. The colour quickly spreads through the protoplasm but stages in the life of a cell, we must regard them rather as specialized differentiations in each case. remains within its boundary. A feature which strikes the eye of the observer is the constant Differences in the penetrating powers of various chemical substances have given us some idea as to the nature of this mem- movement of the visible granules in the hyaline matrix of the brane. Water passes in freely especially when it contains certain protoplasmic substance. This continual, translational movement, salts in solution, viz., NaCl and KCI, to pure solutions of which as distinguished from the vibratory Brownian movement, is very the plasma membrane, in many instances, appears to be relatively noticeable and rapid in some cells and barely perceptible in others. permeable. Other salts, ¢.g., CaCl, and possible MgCl in pure True Brownian movement is also seen in protoplasm, sometimes solutions have no appreciable powers of penetration. The rate of in restricted areas and at other times throughout the entire protopenetration of acids and bases appears to be a function of their plasm of a cell. The protoplasm of some cells is very fluid, in degrees of ionization, viz., those which are the most highly ionized others it is quite viscous. The viscosity may change at different appear to be least able to penetrate. The most universally pene- periods in the life history of a cell. A factor which has been found to be important in the maintetrating substances seem to be those which are lipoid or organosoluble. These facts have convinced many investigators that the nance of protoplasm is the antagonistic action of certain salts in surface membrane of protoplasm is at least largely lipoid or fatty the protoplasm and in the fluids which bathe it. As an example we in nature, an assumption which is supported by the immiscibility may discuss the action of two of the most common salts: sodium chloride and calcium chloride. The fluids contained in all living of protoplasm with water. In all probability we must consider the physiologically active organisms, plant or animal, contain these (or very similar) salts part of the membrane as a shifting, dynamic structure resulting in definite, relative concentrations which approximate those of the from interactions of protoplasmic components with the environ- same salts in the ocean. Protoplasm will not survive beyond very ment and undergoing reversible reactions with the various chemi-

narrow

limits of those relative

concentrations,

the proportions

cal substances dissolved in the surrounding medium. Non-living being about fifty parts of sodium to one of calcium. The actual membranes which exhibit rapidly reversible reactions of this type concentrations of these elements do not appear to be as important are well known. as are the proportions in which the two exist. The significance of Some substances to which the protoplasmic membrane appears these salts probably lies in the fact that the salts of sodium have a to be freely permeable are known to be unequally distributed dispersive action while those of calcium have an aggregative action between the interior of the protoplasm and its environment. This on two of the most important constituents of protoplasm, Vi. is accounted for in part by the chemical combinations of the proteins and fats. freely penetrating substance with nonpenetrating substances presThe chemical state of the proteins and fats probably also ent on one or the other side of the membrane. accounts for the fact that protoplasm can survive only within Mention must also be made of a different type of penetration, narrow limits of an acid-base equilibrium. This is maintained by viz., that by which particulate matter may enter protoplasm. In- the buffer action of the acid and basic combinations of certain soluble particles may adhere to, or be wetted by, and consequently salts, e.g., the carbonates. In this way any excess acid or base

PROTOPOPOV—PROTOZOA liberated during metabolic activity is neutralized before the protoplasm is affected injuriously.

Temperature and oxygen tension in

the environment also play important réles in controlling chemical interactions in protoplasm. Conclusion.—Protoplasm is the material basis of life and maintains its peculiar properties only as it exists in the form of organized, structural units of microscopic dimensions and under limited environmental conditions. Each unit possesses all the life

619

covered with a sheet of green, we really have in front of us a great host of the flagellate organism Euglena (fig. 16). When, on board ship, we see phosphorescence at night so strong that every drop of water seems to sparkle we are really watching the antics of countless millions of the luminous protozoan Noctiluca miliaris (fig. 18).

Chalk is in reality the mud of an ancient sea purified by

various chemical processes but consisting ultimately of the calcareous shells of Foraminifera and little else. But much oftener people come into contact with Protozoa withproperties of motility, responsiveness, nutrition, growth and reproduction. Its complicated chemical and physical state is out knowing it; in water of every kind there are Protozoa without essentially unstable and can be maintained only by chemical inter- number; nearly every human being harbours protozoans of variactions involving a continuous expenditure of energy. Moreover, ous innocuous species, living as parasites; not rarely other parathe chemical reactions are controlled by definite structural conditions. It continually and intermittently receives energy (e.g., potential chemical energy of foodstuffs) and releases energy in kinetic form (mechanical energy, heat, light, electricity). The instability of protoplasm is shown by the ease with which a slight

change in the constitution of its chemical environment or even mere mechanical disturbances destroy it and convert it into a nonreversible and unorganized mixture of substances. BIBLIOGRAPHY .—-J. Alexander, Colloid Chemistry, vol. ii. (New York, 1929);

W.

M.

Bayliss,

Principles

E. V. Cowdry, General Cytology

of General

Physiology

(1927);

(Chicago, 1925); Max Hartmann,

Allgemeine Biologie (1927); L. V. Heilbrunn, The Colloid Chemistry of Protoplasm, vol. i. of Protoplasm Monographs (Berlin, 1928);

Rudolf Hober, Physikalische Chemie der Zelle und der Gewebe (1926) ; W. Lepeschkin,

Lehrbuch

chemischer Grundlage

der Pflanzenphysiologie

auf physikalisch-

(1925); R. S. Lillie, Protoplasmic Action and

Nervous Action (Chicago, 1923); Jacques Loeb, The Organism as a Whole (1916) ; Otto Meyerhof, Chemical Dynamics of Life Phenomena (1924); W. J. V. Osterhout, Injury, Recovery and Death in Relation to Conductivity and Permeability (1922); Walter Stiles, Permeability (1924); A. von Tschermak, Grundlagen der Allgemeinen Physiologie (1924). (R. CE.)

PROTOPOPOV, ALEXANDER

DMITRIEVICH

(1864-1918), Russian statesman, was born in 1864 and educated in a military school. He served for some time in the army before going into business. As a big landowner of the Simbirsk province, he took an active part in the Zemstvo life, and was elected member of the Executive board of the Simbirsk Zemstvo and marshal of the nobility of the Simbirsk province. He was elected member of the third (1907) and of the fourth State Duma, where he joined the left wing of the Octobrist (Moderate Liberal) party. Later he became vice-president of the State Duma. In March 1916 he visited the capitals of western Europe as one of the leaders of the Russian parliamentary delegation. At the beginning of Oct. 1916 he was appointed minister of the interior in the Stürmer cabinet, proving to be now the strongest upholder of reaction. He enforced the censorship, and interfered dangerously with the food-supply work of the Zemstvos and Towns Union. At a stormy meeting held at. the Duma he was asked to resign his post, and when he refused his name was struck off the list of members of the party. Hated by the Liberal circles and by the Duma, Protopopov not only supported the reactionary policy of Stiirmer and Prince Galitzin, but he is said also to have been one of the secret organizers of the disturbances of Feb. 1917, which he proposed to suppress by military force, and which, unexpectedly for him, resulted in the overthrow of the empire and of himself. He was arrested by the Provisional Government and committed for trial. He remained for many months in the Peter and Paul fortress and was executed by order of the Extraordinary Commission in Sept. 1918.

PROTOZOA.

The forms of life included under the name

Protozoa are enormouly varied. The separation of the group from the Metazoa (higher animals), plants and bacteria, is based to some extent on convenience in classification, but it does rest on certain definite characters which distinguish the Protozoa from

the three main groups. Single protozoans are as a rule extremely small, so small that they can only be seen with the help of the microscope, and the unaided and inexperienced eye will only pick them out where by chance a great mass of one kind or another have collected together: heaped together in this way they will scarcely look like livIng creatures. When we see the surface of a small stagnant pond

sitic species will make

their presence

felt most

disagreeably,

although they do not play as important a part in this connection as Bacteria do. The exciting agent concerned in blackwater fever, malaria, sleeping sickness, amoebic disentery, Nagana cattle plague in East Africa, coastal fever of cattle in South Africa, to mention a few examples, is in each case a protozoan. Apart from these practical considerations, interest centres on the Protozoa on account of the picture they show us of the infinite diversity of living organisms. In common usage the Protozoa are said to be “unicellular animals” in contrast to the higher animals and plants which are built up of many cells. The protozoan corresponds.to a single such element; it is an isolated cell (g.v.). What do we mean by this? A comparison between a protozoan and a multicellular animal of comparable size may make this clear. When we look at a small nematode (an organism related to the thread worm) under the microscope we find that its body is made up of separate organs— gut, nervous system, sexual organs and so forth; these organs appear to consist of more or less clearly defined and separated parts which we call cells. These cells are not all alike; the cells of the gut look quite different from those of the nervous system or of other organs; these small, fundamental elements of the animal body only resemble one another in the ground plan of their structure: In each of them we can distinguish a cell-body and a cellnucleus. Now let us consider the protozoan chosen as a type (fig. 1); it has organs: its body has an opening through which it takes in its food; a skeletal structure provides the body with a distinctive form and ensures its rigidity; fine hair-like processes serve for locomotion, but the body of the animal as a whole, instead of being made up of individual elements, consists of one single cohering mass of protoplasm. And if we look for cell nuclei, we find only one. The protozoan thus agrees with the individual cell of a higher animal or plant in this essential character of the organization of the cell—its division into cell-body (cytoplasm) and cellnucleus; but only in this, for if we look carefully at the individual cells of the worm we have just taken as an example we find none that equal in complexity the single cell of the protozoan. It is not hard to see why this should be so. The protozoan is a cell by itself; it swims about freely, finding its own food; it leads a life of its own. The muscle-cells of the worm on the other hand are incapable of independent existence; they rely for nourishment on the cells of the intestine, while these cells in their turn, absorbing nutriment, have no power of contraction. In other words, the protozoan is constitutionally versatile, the cells of the worm specialize; they stand in relation to one another on the principle of division of labour; they are viable only when brought together into a many-celled individual. Furthermore, if we compare the protozoan gs an individual, as a creature capable of living an independent life, with a many-celled worm or insect then without question the protozoan is much more easily regarded as the simpler, the less complex. But there is another way of approaching the question. We can as well compare the protozoan with the particular cells of the multicellular organism, and then we find that the protozoan leaves the cells of the higher animals far behind: the most complex known cells are found in the Protozoa. For these and for various other reasons C. Dobell has pronounced this comparison of the protozoan with a single cell of a many-celled organism to be essentially inadmissible, for by it we compare whole independent individuals (Protozoa) with depend-

PROTOZOA

620

ent parts (cells) of an individual. According to Dobell, the Protozoa are not unicellular but non-cellular organisms. This idea is not difficult to understand: if we compare the protozoan with the many-celled animal as a whole, we may say that the latter is divided into cells, the former not; therefore the protozoan is not organized in a cellular manner. Nothing can be said against this conception in so far as it is limited to the physiological aspect, that is, to the functions of the individual; and yet it can easily be shown that the Protozoa are unicellular. It has been mentioned above that in many protozoans we only find a single nucleus. Moreover this nucleus not only looks like the nucleus of any animal or plant cell, but also behaves in precisely the same way when the protozoan reproduces itself. This process generally takes the form of division; one individual splits into two (or more) new individuals. The nucleus of the mother-cell also divides at the same time; this division of the nucleus proceeds like the nuclear division of a cell in animal tissue. It is therefore clear that, while from the physiological point of view we may compare the protozoan individual as a complete organism with a worm or a butterfly, from the structural and physiological point of view (i.e., with reference to its organization) we must compare it with a single cell of the worm, etc.; for the protozoan does not multiply like a worm, but like a single cell of a worm. The unicellular condition of many, but not all, protozoans may be demonstrated in yet another way. There are groups of Protozoa, such as the Volvocineae, which include unicellular and multicellular species. The obvious close relationship between these single-celled and many-celled forms makes it quite clear that these latter are nothing but cell-colonies functioning as individuals. Let us compare

Chlamydomonas (fig.

2):

the

(fig. 1) with Eudorina

Chlamydomonas

individual rrom xuun, “MORPHOLOGIE DER

has a nucleus, a chromatophore and two fraser,

OTTU

(PORN-

flagella; when it reproduces it splits into Frg. 1.—cHLAMYDOMONtwo new independent individuals. The in- as ANGULOSA; dividual of Eudorina is made up of 32 cells, ADULT INDIVIDUAL,

which have a perfectly regulararrangement CELL

SPLITTING

(A) (B)

INTO

inside an egg-shaped mucilage-sheath. When ene rans ene Eudorina reproduces, each of the 32 separate cells has to divide first into two; each of these two divides again; their products divide, and so on until after a series of five divisions each original cell of Eudorina has given rise to 32 cells which are

[FORMS

not hesitate to compare them with the independent individuals of Chlamydomonas. This example enables us to enlarge our original definition of

Protozoa. We have said above that Protozoa are unicellular organisms, but to be more accurate we had better say “most Protozoa,” because there are also these multicellular protozoans like Eudorina which are connected by transitional forms with

single-celled species, There are also Protozoa that we cannot call unicellular (although they do not form cell colonies) because they contain numerous nuclei (fig. 24). But nearly all these polyenergid

forms, as these multicellular and multinuclear protozoans are called, in contrast to the truly uninuclear and unicellular, monoenergid forms, differ essentially from multicellular animals: there is no difference amongst the single cells, or nuclei, as the case may be, of such a polyenergid protozoan; they are all approxi-

mately equal in regard to structure, as well as function. This difference between protozoans and higher multicellular organisms has been expressed by the terms homoplastic and heteroplastic, The multicellular or multinucleate protozoans, composed of similar cells, are designated as homoplastic; multicellular higher animals and plants, on the contrary, composed of unlike cells, are heteroplastic. What we have just said still does not apply to all Protozoa; it is, indeed, almost characteristic of living organisms that they do not admit of neat classification. There are a few Protozoa that are heteroplastic (Volvox, the Myxosporidia, etc.), The colonies

of Volvox (fig. 19), a protozoan closely allied to Eudorina, are made up of 12,000 to 22,000 cells, but only a small number of these are capable of developing into new colonies; most of the cells are incapable of this and degenerate and die when the old colony gives rise to new ones; these cells are only capable of vege-

tative functions of movement and nutrition, whereas the reproductive cells are non-motile. Thus in Volvox we have already arrived at a division of labour between vegetative body- and reproductive germ-cell. If in spite of this we number these forms amongst the Protozoa it is either because, like Volvox, they are linked bya series of transitional forms to typical unicellular species, or because, like the Myxosporidia, they are separated by their lack of proper organs from the lowest multicellular animals, the sponges. On the other hand the division between the Protozoa and the lower plants (Algae and Fungi) can only be arbitrary and therefore difficult to determine. We may give as an illustration of this the fact that there is a long-standing dispute between botanists and zoologists as to whether certain forms, such as the Volvocineae, should

belong to the Protozoa or to the Algae; for this group has undoubted affinities with true multicellular plants (the green algae). But we will not concern ourselves with these difficulties here. We need only emphasize the fact that we know of no single protozoan type that could be looked upon as the ancestral form of any known multicellular organism. We can divide the Protozoa into numerous groups (orders or classes) which we may call natural, z.¢e., protozoans belonging to one of these groups appear to be related as the dog is to the bear and the cat. But it is only rarely that we can trace between the various groups of Protozoa a relationship like that which exists between the mammals

FROM

HARTMANN,

“ALLGEMEINE

BIOLOGIE”

(GUSTAV

FISCHER)

and the birds.

Many protozoans are as

little related to one another as the mammals are to the insects. On this account it is naturally difficult to make generalizations about anatomical and other similar characters which will hold for all

FIG. 2.—-EUDQRINA ELEGANS (GREEN MULTICELLULAR PROTOZOAN, ALLIED TO CHLAMYDOMONAS); (A) ADULT INDIVIDUAL, (B) LAST STAGE OF VEGETATIVE DIVISION (MAGNIFIED 100 TIMES) held together in a common wall of mucilage (fig. 2b). At this point the gelatinous wall of the “mother colony” dissolves and each of the 32 new cell-groups slips out of the “skin” of its mother-cell, and begins an independent existence as a new Eudorina individual. Now if we look more closely at a single cell of a Eudorina individual we find that it is exactly like an individual of Chlamydomonas (fig. 1a). But the Eudorina colony has already reached a true multicellular condition; its single cells, although

Protozoa. A cursory glance at the text figures will show that the form can be extremely diverse. Some are completely shape-

like one another, are net capable of independent life. Yet we need

of a typical cell-nucleus.

less, others rigidly constructed; some are asymmetric, and others completely symmetrical. A comparison of the magnifications

given in the figures shows further that the absolute size can be

immensely

about p

variable.

There

are protozoans

that only measure

in. and others some thousand times this diameter;

indeed there are some giants, like Nummulites (a foraminiferan) which are as big as a shilling piece, and the plasmodia of many myxomycetes are many times larger.

1All protozoans are marked off from the Bacteria by the possession ~

PROTOZOA

BODY STRUCTURE]

BODY STRUCTURE In considering the anatomical form of the Protozoa we have already mentioned that the protozoan always consists of a cellbody (cytoplasm) and cell-nucleus (or “nucleus” for short). Cellbody and nucleus are composed of that mysterious substance we call protoplasm (g.v.), which is the very material of life.

We can often study the structure of protozoans thoroughly enough in the living animal. As a rule, however, for the purpose of making more complete observations we make use of two tech-

nical processes that are indispensable in work on the microscopic anatomy of the higher animals and plants. First we clot, or coagulate, the protoplasm with various chemical reagents, just as we coagulate the albumen of an egg by boiling it; we then soak

it with various dyes; the individual constituents of the cell-body have now, in their coagulated condition, the property of absorbing

621

Protozoa with dissimilar nuclei. These are the Ciliata, possessing in the simplest case two nuclei (fig. 4), the so-called macronucleus and the much smaller micronucleus. We shall discuss the importance of this “nuclear dimorphism” later. Organoids.—Cytoplasm and nucleus are the only body-parts that all Protozoa have in common!; of all other organs we can only be sure that they occur in certain species. We shall therefore deal with these structures quite briefly. A distinction can be made between organoids and non-protoplasmic inclusions. The organoid, MACRONUCLEUS

CONTRACTILE

(RESERVOIR) ~ SECONDARY CONTRACTILE VACUOLE

these dyes and they have moreover particular preferences for certain colouring materials (see Cytotocy); making use of this we

can stain different parts of the cell different colours, and so make them more clearly visible. Cytoplasm.—There seems to be no essential difference between

the protoplasm of the Protozoa and that of other forms of life. We therefore content ourselves with saying here that it is more or less colourless, translucent or even transparent, and slimy or more toughly gelatinous; it chiefly consists of substances allied to white of egg, the so-called proteins. It is not infrequently differentiated into distinct zones and is capable of producing all kinds of struc-

tures—bubbles of liquid (vacuoles), delicate threads (fibrillae), granules, membranes, crystals and—to a certain extent—of changing into various substances—starch, oil and so forth. Nucleus.—The nucleus of Protozoa is a clearly defined protoplasmic body, usually of rounded shape although there are other forms; as a rule only the so-called nucleolus, a small spherical body of albuminous substance whose structure and function are not as yet exactly understood, stains differently from the rest of the nucleus and can be distinguished from the main body of the nucleus proper, the karyoplasm. Nucleoli which are very big in comparison with the rest of the nucleus and are only present singly are called karyosomes. The surrounding karyoplasm may show various kinds of structure, granular, spongy, thread-like, or it may appear homogeneous. It is with regard to the function of the nucleus that the Protozoa have provided some interesting facts; it is easy enough to cut in two a large uninucleate protoSe] zoan such as Amoeba, and if we | | watch the later behaviour of the P pE og two pieces, one of which is of N course without a nucleus, we find UA that only the part with the nucleus can develop again into a complete individual; the part without a nucleus, on the other hand, although it can remain alive for a little while and even move about, is quite unable to take in SSS and digest food; above all it is incapable of developing into a complete individual and sooner or later it consequently degenerSA

nD

h

K Gia

nat Mm

rt

ates and dies (fig. 3). A nucleus (GUSTAY

HARTMANN,

FIG. 4.—-PARAMAECIUM

“ALLGEMEINE

BIOLOGIE”

FISCHER)

FIG. 3.—STENTOR ROESELI REGENERATION: ANIMAL ON LEFT CUT, AS INDICATED BY LINES, INTO FOUR PIECES; (B, C, D) WITH NUCLEUS, (A) WITHOUT; (A’. B’. C’. D’) THE SAME PIECES A DAY LATER (ALL

can only come from a nucleus;

it cannot arise de novo from the cytoplasm. The nucleus is therefore an organ essential for the

life of the cell; we cannot yet

define its functions in the Protozoa more exactly. Investigations iNTO of inheritance in the higher plants

BUT A’ HAVE DEVELOPED SMALL STENTORS) and animals have shown that it is the seat of the hereditary material and this is no doubt also the case with the Protozoa. (see HEREDITY). We have already shown that many protozoans are multinucleate, and in these forms the nuclei are usually all alike. Yet there are

CAUDATUM

e.g., a chromatophore, cilium or myoneme contractile element, is composed of living protoplasm which is more or less clearly delimited from the cytoplasm and performs a particular function,

and comparable in one way therefore with an ordinary organ of a multicellular animal such as stomach, eye or muscle. Non-protoplasmic inclusions, on the other hand, such as a membrane or a siliceous skeleton, are non-living, like a snail’s shell. One of the most impor-

{i

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FROM

CYTOSTOME

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tant organoids—indeed we may say in a certain sense the most important organoid—is the chloroplast or chromatophore, which we only meet with in those protozoans which feed like green plants. The chromatophore is sharply marked off from the cytoplasm and consists of protoplasm saturated with chlorophyll, the green colouring matter of leaves (fig. 1); like the nucleus it can only arise from division of another chromatophore, There are several kinds of such cell-constituents capable of division. Amongst these are to be included the centrosomes which play such an important part in nuclear division; these are spherical and for the most part they are rather small structures.

Closely related organically to the centrosome is the basal granule, FROM CALKINS, “BIOLOGY OF THE PROTOZOA” a nodular thickening at the base (LEA AND FEBIGER) of a flagellum or cilium (figs. 1, FIG. 5.—DIDINIUM NASUTUM (CILI16, 17; for further discussion, see ATE) DEVOURING A PARAMAECIUM: (1) DIDINIUM HAS SEIZED THE PAR- below). AMAECIUM WITH A KIND OF Most of the organellae develSUCKER: (2 & 3) SWALLOWING oped in the protozoan cell are PREY; (4) PARAMAECIUM COMhowever incapable of division; PLETELY SWALLOWED that is, they arise usually out of the undifferentiated cytoplasm and can disappear again into it. To this group belong the static fibrillae, more or less stiff threads or little bristles which serve as an internal skeleton for many Protozoa. They thus ensure the maintenance of the typical bodyform of the organism much as the metal framework keeps an 1Whether also the so-called mitochondria and Golgi-bodies (see Cytotocy: Cell inclusions) are present in all protozoans is not yet known; they have only so far been found in a few species.

622

PROTOZOA

umbrella in shape (fig. 1). In all probability such static fibrillae take part in the formation of flagella and cilia. We speak of flagella when these are long, as compared with the body itself, and few in number (figs. 7, 16). Cilia are relatively short and numerous (figs.4,8). Cirriarenail-shaped structures which consist of several cilia stuck together. These hair- or string-like appendages of the

[BODY STRUCTURE

others have a proper mouth.

In the simplest cases it is nothing

but a trough or slit-like deepening of the body surface (fig. 1)

In more complex forms the cytostome is a cavity held open by supporting fibrillae (fig. 8); it is moreover carpeted with cilia which drive the food in a current into the blind end of the cyto.

stome (fig. 4). Unlike the mouth of a higher animal, the cyto.

stome is not continued in a stomach but comes to a blind end. =

4;

É

|

Ad

i

sAd

“ALLGEMEINE PHYSIOLOGIE” (GUSTAV FISCHER) F1G. 6.-——DIAGRAM OF A WAVE OF MOVEMENT THAT OF CILIA

4

The food is driven against the blind end of the cytostome, which then swells out until a so-called food-vacuole is cut off from it:

ff

FROM VERWORN,

RUNS

OVER

A ROW

body have a locomotive function in many protozoans and in all probability always consist of a rigid axis (static fibril) surrounded by a relatively less viscous mantle of protoplasm. The rigid axis arises from a basal granule which is probably to be regarded as its centre of formation; many protozoans can be deprived of their cilia—shaved, as it were—and then the basal granule can be seen to grow a fresh cilium (fig. 8). A third kind of fibrillar organoid is the myoneme, a contractile fibre or band which is the muscle of the protozoan; very little is known of the structure of this ele-

this is pushed into the inside of the cell-body and the food there digested (fig. 4). Many protozoans have also a cell anus or cytoproct which usually consists of a mere hole held open by supporting fibrillae. Non-protoplasmic Bodies.—Amongst the by-products of the protoplasm, which we shall call alloplastic bodies, are the skin and the various kinds of protective covering or armour. Some Proto-

zoa are completely naked, z.e., their surface consists of ordinary protoplasm. With other forms, the surface, though still living protoplasm, is hardened into a more rigid skin (pellicula). With still others the protoplasm

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striated muscle of the higher animals (see MUSCULAR SYSTEM). We do not know definitely whether there are in some Protozoa, as many investigators have claimed, apart from the fibrillar organoids just mentioned, fibres which serve, like the nerves of the higher animal, for the conveyance of sensory impulses, No more can we be certain of true sense-organs in the Protozoa, although the red granule, or stigma, found at the fore-end of all green protozoans is very frequently considered as analogous to an eye. Its sensitiveness to

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living in the sea or as parasites, '"4Yidvals (X 2000) is the contractile vacuole. This may be called the kidney of the protozoan. In the simplest cases it is merely a bubble or bladder which pours out its contents at intervals through a very minute opening. The lining of this bubble is marked out by special properties which we need not go into more deeply here. The contraçtile vacuoles of many protozoans are much more complicated and consist usually of a chief vacuole, emptying itself directly into the exterior, and a system of subordinate or accessory vacuoles emptying themselves into the central vacuole. The accessory vacuoles therefore work in alternation with the central vacuole: when the accessories empty the central one swells and when it empties the accessories fill up again (fig. 4). Up to now we have only been dealing with relatively simple organoids; we meet a more complicated type in the cytostome, the mouth of some protozoans. Many protozoans have no mouth at

all and yet are able to take in food (see below, Nutrition) but

FIG. 8.—CHILODON UNCINATUS: (A-1) CILIA, (A-2) BASAL GRANULES OF CILIA, (A-3) CYTOSTOME, (A-4 & 5) MACRONUCLEUS (B-1) NEW CYTOSTOME, (B-2) OLD CYTOSTOME, (B-3) DIVIDING MICRONUCLEUS, (C-1) DAUGHTER MICRONUCLEUS, (C-2) DIVIDING MACRONUCLEUS, (D) TWO INDIVIDUALS NEARLY SEPARATED

living, more or less rigid coat, and this coat is often separated by a space from the body of the cell. Nothing exact is known of the

chemical composition of these skins; possibly they are often of a

material related to the chitin of an insect’s skin; in many green protozoans

the skin consists of cellulose, as in plants, but fre-

quently it is not rigid at all but merely a slime-coat (fg. 2). Finally by the deposition of mineral matter such as chalk or silica some protozoans change their skins into a protective shell or armour, in the same way that a lobster’s shell is constructed by

deposition of chalk in a ground mass of chitin. Some protozoans,

z

PHYSIOLOGY]

623

PROTOZOA

for example the Euglypha, also secrete mineral substances inside their bodies for later use in building up a hard skeleton. We need not discuss here all the other non-living substances

that we meet with in the bodies of Protozoa (starch, fat, etc.); as far as we understand their rôle they seem to act as reserve

this name; yet we can hardly call it multicellular, so the name “polyenergid” has been invented for this kind of creature. The gap between one-celled and many-celled Protozoa is filled by Protozoa that form colonies; when the progeny to which a protozoan has given rise by division stay together, the aggregate is called a colony. Polyenergid Protozoa arise from uninucleate germ-cells in a similar way, but only the nucleus divides while the cytoplasm remains undivided. When the individual cells of a colony are arranged in a particular order and especially when they are no longer capable of independent existence we have arrived at the stage at which we can call the colony a multicellular individual.

NEW KARYOPLASM

PHYSIOLOGY

Nutrition.—We can divide the Protozoa according to their method of nutrition into four groups. The first consists of organisms provided with chromatophores (figures 1, 2, 16, 17, 19). These organisms create their own food just like plants, by producNew KARYOSOME ing starch out of carbonic acid gas (CO,), their chlorophyll enabCHROMOSOMES ling them to use the energy of sunlight for this purpose; then, absorbing various salts from the water, they build up with the starch those albuminous substances of which their bodies are composed. These organisms are therefore self-supporting in the fullest sense of the word, for they can exist without the help of any other living creatures: they are “autotrophic.” There are, we ought to FIG. 9.—VAHLKAMPFIA BISTADALIS, (A-H) SUCCESSIVE STAGES IN CELL say, some amongst them that are also capable of feeding on other DIVISION organisms. All other Protozoa are “heterotrophic,” z¢., they use materials or exist as superfluous products of the organism’s econ- for their nutrition either other organisms directly or, more rarely, omy. We must just mention the fact that some protozoans have substances produced by other organisms. Protozoans forming pigments (blue, red, etc.) that are distributed in the form of this second group of nutrition types (the saprophytes) live on the granules in various parts of the body; colourless forms are however products of putrefaction; that is, on substances formed when in the majority. bacteria decompose organic materials. Colony Formation.—All protozoans, as we have already A third group, including most heterotrophic Protozoa, live like shown, are not unicellular and uninucleate; actually there are all so many animals by eating more or less solid food. They will attack almost anything; living organisms from the most minute bacteria to, small multicellular animals— water-fleas, small worms and so forth. As parasites they prey upon the tissue-cells of the animals in which they live. Still others live on dead bodies, or parts of bodies of other protozoans or multicellular KARYOSOME

animals, or particles of nutritive material

yielded by other organisms—starch, wood, and so on. : The last group of nutrition types com‘| prises the majority of the parasitic Protozoa. They live on the dissolved food they imbibe through their body-surface from the blood, stomach-content and lymph of their host. A word is necessary with regard to the ingestion of the food. The autotrophous species, those living on putrefying material, and also most of those living as parasites, feed osmotically; the food they need is dissolved in water; it permeates and is 11.—ACTINOPHRYS FIG. absorbed through the protoplasm surSOL (A) Mature cyst; (B) face. The solid food of the other heterobursting of cellwall; (C) trophic protozoans must be swallowed young individual free; (D) This young begins to form whole before it can be absorbed. be done in various ways; those FIG. 10.—DIAGRAM OF CONJUGATION IN THE INFUSORIA pseudopodias (E) young can individua! nearly complete protozoans that have no cytostome are (A)Conjugants united by their cytostomes; (B, C) first and second divisions of micronucleus; (D, E) third division of the micronucleus; (F) exchange of (X 350) often capable of taking in food at any nuclei; (G) nuclei unite; (H) young exconjugant; (1) exconjugant. One of the daughter-nuclei of the fusion nucleus is becoming the micronucleus, the point of their surface and eat merely by flowing round and other the macronucleus; (J) almost completely reorganised exconjugant; engulfing their prey, a process which is called “amoeboid inges(1) cytostome; (2) micronucleus; (3) macronucleus; (4) degenerating tion.” A variation of this habit is the engulfing of the food matedaughter nuclei of the first two divisions of micronucleus; (5) male nucleus; female nucleus; (7) fragments of old macronucleus; (8) new macrorial not by the body of the protozoan itself but only by special nucleus outgrowths of the body called “pseudopodia” and its absorption intergrades between the unicellular and uninucleate forms and into the body proper only later or not at all. The delicate, hairthe multicellular and multinucleate. A protozoan that almost like or netted pseudopodia of some protozoans, ¢.g., heliozoans, always has four nuclei we can still call unicellular; a plasmodium are sticky and are used as traps; the victim comes up against the of a myxomycete (slime mould), whose thousands of nuclei are pseudopodium, sticks to it and is engulfed. Protozoa having a cytostome naturally absorb their food embedded in a single mass of protoplasm, scarcely has a title to

PROTOZOA

624

through it; whether they are of the kind that wafts its food with cilia into the cytostome, or whether the prey is seized by the cytoof absorption is completed by the protozoan stome, the process pushing itself over the prey in such a way that the latter is gradually covered up by the body

(fig. 5). In the first case a sort of fore-mouth is often developed; this is called a peristome, and is lined with cilia which drive the prey towards the cytostome, as in fig. 4. The so-called Suctoria actually do not devour their prey at all but suck it with the aid of stiff suckers or tentacles (fig. 12). Although most Protozoa swallow their prey alive, there are certain kinds that first kill their victims with poisons. The food particles are absorbed into the inside of the cell-body in both eating and sucking protozoans; the space in which they lie engulfed is spoken of as the “food vacuole.’ Its walls are of living protoplasm, but we can regard it as a primitive gut. Substances are secreted into it to kill and dissolve the engulfed substances; the food-materials extracted from these latter are absorbed by the protoplasm. We do not yet know very much of the details of digestion, although certain digestive ferments have been identified in some protozoans. In many species the food Fic. 12.—-TOKOPHRYA QUADRIPARvacuole follows a definite course TITA round the body, while digestion (1) Tentacles, (2) Macronucleus, is in progress. When an indiges- (3) Micronucleus, (4) Belt of cilia, Dividing Micronuclei, (6) Bud, tible remnant is left at the end, (5) (7) Daughter Micronuclei, (8) Conthe vacuole is brought to the sur- tractile Vacuole, (9) Sucking Tenface and its contents expelled, tacles, (10) Stalk often through the so-called cytopyge or cell anus. Like all other forms of life the Protozoa do not need to use at once, for building up their bodies, all the food they absorb; they

FIG.

13.—LIFE

CYCLE

OF

POLYSTOMELIA

CRISPA

[PHYSIOLOGY

so-called paramylon, a starch-like body—are stored in this way both by the autotrophic species and by those living on decom. posing organic matter; the other heterotrophous Protozoa store

fat, glycogen and volutin. Respiration.—aAll protozoans need oxygen for production of energy; most free-living (or non-parasitic) protozoans, and the blood parasites, absorb oxygen directly from the medium they live in. They require no special arrangements such as the lungs or gills of other animals; oxygen can diffuse to where it is wanted, Intestinal parasites and some living free in very putrid water not

only do not require free oxygen but are incapable of living in a

medium containing “anaérobic.”’

any

appreciable

amount

of it; they are

Excretion.—We know very little of the expulsion of the products of the decomposition of the body substance and reserve materials. In the bodies of many protozoans are to be found crystals partly consisting of salts of uric acid; these are probably to be

considered as excretions. In all probability most excreta escape through the surface of the body or are expelled from the contractile vacuole. Movement.—In

many

Protozoa

the

constituents

of the

protoplasm can be displaced inside the body, actually by means of currents Protozoa parts of Active

in the cytoplasm (see CELL; ProtopLasm) and some can contract their whole bodies, some even particular the body, by means of their myonemes. locomotion on the other hand is achieved in some form

by nearly all Protozoa; there are certainly a few almost incapable of movement, either because they have settled and grown on a fixed body (fig. 12) or because they do not possess true motile organs. The movement of protozoans can be effected either by proper organs for the purpose or in various other ways. The simplest organs of motion

are the so-called pseudopodia, which are outgrowths from the body, of the most varied form; these can be extended or with~ drawn at will. They serve forO a

i

S, s

—

FLAGELLA

kind of creeping movement; the pseudopodium is formed and sticks to the material underfoot; then a new pseudopodium is stretched out on the side of the old one in the direction in which movement is to take place, and protoplasm now flows on to this. In this simple way the whole protoplasmic mass is rearranged bit by bit and the protozoan moves forward. Protozoans whose pseudopodia are relatively small PSEUDOPODIA in proportion to the whole body form their pseudopodia just like Amoeba, but use them much INITIAL CHAMBEP more like real feet, putting them out in the direction of movement and then drawing them in again. These pseudopodia may be THIRD CHAMBER quite thin and delicate, branched or netted, and are then called DOFLEIN, “LEHRBUCH DER PROTOZOENrhizopodia. The mechanism of FROM KUNDE” (FISCHER) amoeboid movement is not yet FIG. 14.—POLYSTOMELLA CRISPA fully explained. Copulation of the gametes (A-C) thrown off; (D) young Quite another kind of move- flagella being microsphaerical individual which has ment is that by means of ciliaand arisen from zygote; (E-F) formation flagella. The whip-like flagella of the chambers. Magnified 2,000 (fig. 16) either rotate, as in a times circle described by an index-finger with the hand at rest,

or strike like the lash of a whip; the rotation has a sucking effect

(A) Young megalospheric individual; (B) adult decalcified; (C) adult resolving into two flagellate gametes; (D) conjugation; (E) microspheric individual produced from zygote; (F) same, resolved Into pseudopodiospores

like that of an aeroplane propeller and this drives the protozoan

put a proportion of it by as reserve material to be used in case of necessity. Various kinds of materials—such as starch and the

understood. The cilia are usually arranged in thick complex bands (fig. 6)

forward.

The whipping action of the flagellum is not so well

PROTOZOA

REPRODUCTION]

and beat, z.e., they move like an index-finger that bends to strike a keyboard and then straightens again. Usually the cilia work together, every cilium in the row beating a little later than the next before it, so that a wave appears to pass completely over the row. This phenomenon has often been compared to the effect of a gust of wind passing over a cornfield. The blows of the cilia have a rowing action very like that of a duck’s foot. The cilia of sessile protozoans produce currents in the water which carry the particles of

food into the neighbourhood of the cytostome. The lightning quickness with which the forward movement may be modified is due to an alteration in direction of the

ordinated work of individual rows of cilia.

“Cirri” strike just like cilia but being so much stiffer function more like legs.

can pull themselves together like a hedgehog or as a snail draws itself into safety within its shell. They do not do this slowly, however, but suck together with lightning

rapidity;

the best

known

kom kunn, mokPhOLOGIE bek rere pou REDERNE COR, Fis. 15.—VAHLKAMPFIA pisrapratis

ex- (A) Ameboid stage in semi-

ample is the pulling together of the stalk- Pali

muscle of the vorticellids.

eee

B)

Some proto- (Magnified 800 times)

zoans can creep along with the help of their myonemes in a way probably not very different from snails. The rapidity of all these kinds of movement is very variable.

The most efficient are ciliar and flagellar movement, although: even these are in no way comparable in their effect with the rapid movements of the higher animals. The movements of flagella and myonemes are often amazingly quick yet the greatest speed they

could induce in the protozoan would be usually not more than, or even in. a second. Creeping by muscles or pseudopodia is

naturally much slower, at the most 7,455 in. a second.

Physiology of Sensation.—Protozoa are sensitive to the fol-

lowing stimuli: (x) light; (2) mechanical disturbance, such as a blow; (3) change of temperature; (4) chemical stimuli; (5) electrical stimuli. Not all protozoans react to all of these stimuli; there are, for example,

many

protozoans

that seem to have no sense of light. Proper sense organs are as yet scarcely known amongst the Protozoa. Only a peridinean (Erythropsis) has a stigma constructed in a complex fashion which may be thought to function like an eye, although this has not been proved. Probably, however, all stigmata serve for light perception and some cilia may sometimes function as feelers. The mode of transmission of sensations, like the presence of sense-organs, is as yet unknown. When the fore-end of certain

protozoa is disturbed, and as a result the whole animal contracts, we can only conclude that the point touched has given an rFRom kunn, “MORPHOLOGIE DER

impulse to the myoneme.

eae

Practically the only reactions

we

re

ee

can Fig. 16.—EUGLENA VIRI-

recognize at sight in protozoans are those DIS:

consisting in movement.

a sperm and then develops into a new individual. Only a few Protozoa can be shown to multiply in this way, and most can reproduce without this process; indeed in many protozoans reproduction does not depend on fertilization and there is no connection between them (see below). The method of reproduction which is found most frequently is simple division into two. An individual splits into two pieces of which each soon appears just like the animal before splitting (fig. 7, 8). This seemingly simple division is in reality a very complex process. First the nucleus divides and if several are present they all divide about the same time; then the cell body usually splits by stretching out and being constricted; a ringshaped furrow gradually cleaves the cell in two as if a loop of

beats of the particular cilia or through co-

The myonemes of protozoans serve in the main only for alteration of the form of the individual’s body. Some protozoans

625

VEGETATIVE

INDI-

Light-sensitive VIDUAL (MAGNIFIED 850

protozoans swim towards the light. Touch- TES sensitive protozoans contract when they are touched, alter their direction of movement or try to swallow the offending object. Some chemical stimuli, e.g., weak acids, have the effect of frightenIng protozoans away from the region, whereas others such as oxygen or a food-particle have the opposite effect. REPRODUCTION Most higher animals reproduce sexually, z.e., they produce eggs and sperm and bring them together so that the egg is fertilized by

string had been put round the middle and were being pulled tight. This division furrow has usually a defined position on the axis of the protozoan; some divide longitudinally (fig. 7), others transversely (fig. 8). In many cases the “new-born” daughter-animals, as mentioned above, are soon indistinguishable from their parents; this means that they have reconstituted the set of cell-organoids, which is done for some of the latter, such as the chromatophores, by division as in the nucleus; other organoids are merely distributed and each daughter-cell makes good those it lacks; in this way the flagella and cilia are divided. When the basal granule splits one piece of it takes the flagellum with it and the other forms a new flagellum (fig. 7). Finally there are organoids in no way taken over from the old individual, having been pushed out during the division or even dissolved in the protoplasm. Such organoids are formed anew in each daughter animal (fig. 8). Protozoa that are enclosed in a hard shell often divide in such a way that although the protoplasm has divided quite equally only one of the two parts takes over the shell while the other slips out and builds a new shell. Nuclear Division.—Before considering the other kinds of division, something must be said of the division of the nucleus in the Protozoa. In multicellular plants and animals division is a highly developed process whose most important feature is the apAt the same time—often under the influence of the centrosomes, pearance of thread-like or rod-shaped bodies called chromosomes. ball-shaped organoids present in the cell at first singly but at division splitting into two separate halves—a fibrous, often spindle-shaped body is constituted; this is the spindle, and to it the chromosomes attach themselves in such a way that they come to lie in a plate across the spindle, at either end of which the centrosomes are found. At this stage the nuclear membrane dissolves. And now each chromosome splits along its whole length into two exactly equal halves, which pass to opposite poles of the spindle. As all the halves do this at the same time, two groups of daughter chromosomes are constituted, each with a number of chromosomes exactly equal to that which the mother-nucleus had at the beginning of the division. Finally each group of chromosome halves gradually takes the form of a nucleus and the spindle disappears. Nowadays we know fairly well what this complicated process called mitosis (see CytoLocy) really means. The chromosomes are protoplasmic bodies having an individual character, that is, they can only arise by division of other chromosomes exactly like themselves. Moreover in the so-called resting nucleus, #.e., the non-dividing nucleus, they carry on their individual existence. We know further, that they are the bearers of the hereditary properties of the animal. It is for this reason that they are so carefully divided and distributed to the daughter-nuclei at division. The spindle is the apparatus that organizes the exact separation. Besides mitosis there is another kind of division called direct nuclear division or amitosis. It consists of a simple cleavage of the nucleus into two pieces and only appears in cells that are more or less abnormal or at any rate are incapable of giving rise to offspring with any chance of prolonged survival. Earlier it was thought that amitosis was very widespread as the normal method of division in the Protozoa; it was even thought that in contrast to mitosis it was the primitive, the original, type

PROTOZOA

626

of nuclear division and that in some of the Protozoa the transitional forms between mitosis and amitosis were preserved. Such is not the case; in all groups of Protozoa we recognize to-day the occurrence of true mitosis, as complicated in every way and indeed often much more complicated than in multicellular animals. As a matter of fact those processes which were thought to be transitional are nothing but mitoses whose true nature has been concealed by a variety of peculiar circumstances (fig. 9). In no case can we say that the method of nuclear division in the Protozoa is simpler or more primitive than in the higher animals and plants; the chromosomes of the Protozoa are no fewer than, and show in most cases the same peculiarities as, those of multicellular organisms, so that we may be permitted to regard them also as the bearers of the hereditary characters. Most cases of true amitosis in the Protozoa are more or less pathological; only DER the so-called macronuclei of the Infusoria FROM KUHN, “MORPHOLOGIE BILDERN” (BORNTIERE IN divide regularly by amitosis (fig. 8), and TRAEGER) we shall see later with what exceptional FIG. 17.—GYMODINIUM AERUGINOSUM, A NAKED condition this is associated. Apart from these types of division there DINOFLAGELLATE (MAG. NIFIED 500 TIMES) is one more, multiple nuclear division, time into numerous same the at up breaks nucleus the where nuclei: this phenomenon is still very inadequately known. The so-called free nuclear formation has already been referred to. Other Kinds of Division.—Some Protozoa do not divide into two daughter cells of equal size but into one large and one small. In these cases we call the division budding or gemmation and the smaller animal we call a gemma or bud (fig. 12). Yet another method of multiplication is a “multiple division” in which the mother-animal divides at once into more than two—often several

hundred—daughter-individuals

(figs.

7, 13);

sometimes

the

“mother” disappears entirely but sometimes a portion is left over, the so-called residual body, which finally degenerates.’ This process is preceded by a series of nuclear divisions (fig. 7). The daughter-individuals arising by this process are rarely like the mother-individual. They are called, when provided with flagella, swarm-spores (fig. 12, 18b), and when surrounded by a stiff membrane and non-motile, spores; as a type these two forms are known as agametes. This unlikeness is also generally the case with gemmation and may occasionally arise from ordinary simple division. In all these cases, of course, the newly arisen smaller individual has to pass through some process of development.

Requirements

of Reproduction.—A

protozoan reproduces itself only once, for the mother protozoan divides itself into its daughter products. Further the protozoan, like the higher animals and plants, FROM KUHN, “MORPHOLOGIE DER BILDERN” (BORNTIERE IN only reproduces when it is grown up and TRAEGER) mature, having its special organization FIG. 18.—NOCTILUCA fully developed, and having reached its full MILARIS specific size. When it arrives at this stage, (A) Adult animal, (B) ne of the swarm spores division occurs automatically. The rate of before a protozoan elapse multiplication, z.e., the time that must just arisen from division can divide again, is very different in different species and depends, apart from many other things, on the food-supply and normal size of the species. Relatively small protozoans that are well nourished are often mature in a few hours.

[FERTILIZATION

animals the gametes are called eggs and sperm and the zygote the fertilized egg. The latter rapidly divides to form a many-celleq

embryo, which later becomes a new individual of the species to which it belongs (see EMBRYOLOGY). Amongst the Protozoa, most can multiply by simple division and many are only to be driven to the act of fertilization by ex. ceptional external influences, such as lack of food, overcrowding,

accumulation of the products of metabolism and so on. And even then fertilization is sometimes not associated with multiplication

but rather with a reduction of numbers, for the gametes are here not parts of individuals but often whole individuals so that at fertilization only one individual is produced by two. The zygote produced develops into an ordinary individual which only then can begin to multiply. With such protozoans fertilization seems merely an intermezzo, virtually superfluous, which, as we shall see later, can be left out entirely under favourable conditions of life; it may be mentioned here that there are many protozoans in which we know no sexual process and in which there very possibly is none, e.g., euglenoids and trypanosomes. There are protozoans on the other hand as dependent on fertilization for their reproduction as most of the

higher animals. A gregarine for example cannot multiply by plain division; once mature it shuts itself up, together with another individual, in a capsule and each breaks up by multiple division into a large number of small gametes, leaving over the so-called residuary body. After this the gametes of the one fuse with those

of the other; each of the numerous zygotes formed in this way surrounds itself with a thick membrane: it is now called a spore; inside this membrane the zygote divides into eight elongated cells, the sporozoites. These sporozoites are embryonic gregarines which, as soon as the spores get into the gut of the animal in which the particular gregarine grows—its “host”—slip out and

grow into mature animals. Here then sexual reproduction is apparently indispensable to the continuance of the species. It has been supposed, almost down to the present day, that fertilization is necessary to all protozoans, if not actually as a means of reproduction then for some other reason; it was thought to have been proved that Protozoa that had for some time multiplied only asexually, gradually aged; that they became weaker, showed all kinds of symptoms of degeneration and finally petered out altogether as a strain if they failed to find an opportunity of fertilization. After fertilization, on the other hand, the organism’s vitality appeared to be restored. Hence it was concluded that for the maintenance of the race mere asexual division was not enough; that after a certain period of this kind of multiplication a process of senescence necessarily supervened and that this danger could only be escaped by sexual reproduction or some other kind of reorganization such as parthenogenesis (q.v.). Hence fertilization was called a process of rejuvenation. The observations on which this assumption was based are undoubtedly correct, yet the conclusions that have been drawn from them are only applicable to a limited group of Protozoa—the infusorians—and net even applicable to all species of these. Other protozoans of various kinds (Eudorina, Actinophrys) have been kept for years under the most careful observation and it has been determined that so long as they are kept under favourable conditions of life they will reproduce asexually year in and year out, probably indefinitely, without degeneration. This fact is referred to as the “potential immortality” of the

protozoan; a multicellular animal must die because it can only reproduce by discharging from its system cells which develop

into new individuals while its body cells are incapable of indefnite reproduction or existence. A protozoan, on the other hand, which divides into two and passes into its offspring entire, does not need to die. Such death as it undergoes is not the result of senility but of an accident. It is indeed potentially immortal. Let us now turn to the different kinds of fertilization that occur FERTILIZATION amongst the Protozoa; we find here a much greater diversity than We understand by fertilization (g.v.) the fusion of two cells amongst the higher animals and plants. The gametes of the Proand nuclei which are unequal, being differentiated sexually into- tozoa are not always so different from one another as the sperm male and female. The two cells that fuse together are called and egg-cells of the higher animals. It is true that some types gametes, the product of their fusion the zygote. In the higher | exist in which the female gametes look just like animal egg-cells;

PROTOZOA

FERTILIZATION]

ie., they are relatively large, stationary cells, rich in reserve materials. The male gametes in these species are constructed on the same plan as animal spermatozoa; they are relatively small, deficient in protoplasm and are exceedingly mobile. We call the protozoans whose gametes differ in this way “odgamic,” the female gametes “macrogametes,” the male “microgametes.” But there are protozoans in which the pairs of gametes are absolutely

indistinguishable; in these cases we speak of “isogamy” (fig. 10). All imaginable transitional stages are to be found between isogamy and oogamy. The point must be made clear that in the so-called vegetative

phase individuals of most protozoans do not show whether they

are male or female.

Sex-determination itself, that “something”

that makes the difference between a male and a female, is not really understood in most cases. In some species it has been shown that the distinction is the result of the “reduction-division” that

follows fertilization. This reduction-division consists in the separation of the two chromosomes, determining respectively maleness and femaleness, and their distribution to opposite cells which take the sex determined by these chromosomes. In those sexually differentiated Protozoa in which the reduction-division takes place immediately before fertilization, sex-determination is probably of

the same kind as in the higher animals (see Sex). Two remarkable variations of merogamy are specially worth

noticing. One is called autogamy. While as a rule only gametes from different individuals are capable of fusing, in some Protozoa it happens that gametes that are the progeny of one indi-

vidual will fuse. When this occurs, as in Actinophrys, a heliozoan, Where the vegetative individual first splits up into two gametes, one male, the other female, which then fuse, we call the process ““‘paedogamy.’’ When however the cell-division that follows the so-called pregametic nuclear division is suppressed, and the whole sexual process really consists in a nucleus dividing and the two halves fusing straight away we speak of “autogamy.” Of quite another kind from those just considered is the process called conjugation, found only in the infusorians and suctorians. Two individuals meet, unite at one point and exchange gamete nuclei. It must be remembered that the infusorians have nuclei of

627

mycetes. Usually at least a short resting-stage is intercalated; the cell surrounds itself with a stiff membrane and only later escapes from it to become again a vegetative individual; such is the case with the heliozoan, Actinophrys, and the Volvocineae. Very often however the zygote begins soon after fertilization to multiply in some special way. It breaks up by multiple division into a number of uninuclear cells which may surround themselves with membranes and inside these divide further. Only from the germs formed in this way can new vegetative individuals arise. Amongst Protozoa, as in the higher animals and plants, reduction divisions of chromosomes have also been shown to occur; in some the division takes place just before gamete-formation; in others (Volvocineae, Coccidia), shortly after fertilization. In view of what we already know of nuclear division in the Protozoa it is not at all surprising that the course of reduction division turns out to be in some cases (¢.g., in Actinophrys) quite as complex as in the higher animals. (See CytoLocy.) Parthenogenesis.—The egg cells of some animals and plants are known to be capable of developing without fertilization into new individuals; this kind of development we call parthenogenesis (g.v.), and it is not unknown among the Protozoa. In Actinophrys for example both gametes instead of fusing can encyst separately, shutting themselves up in a capsule, and later reappear as vegetative individuals. ENCYSTMENT

We have already had occasion to show that zygotes may become enclosed in a rigid membrane. But the vegetative individuals of many Protozoa are also capable of doing so. This process, called encystment, is only met with as a rule when a shortage of food sets in or when the water in which the creatures live begins to dry up. This kind of cyst we call, in contradistinction to the “fertilization cyst” referred to earlier, a “protective cyst.” Apart from these we

two kinds, large macronuclei and small micronuclei (fig. 4). In the simplest case an infusorian has one nucleus of each kind. The two conjugating individuals (conjugants) unite first at their cytostomes (fig. 10). Then, as the next step, the micronucleus of each conjugant divides; the products of its division divide again and now three of the four new nuclei degenerate. The remaining nucleus divides itself again so that each conjugant has now two

nuclei, offspring of its micronucleus.

The macronucleus of each

conjugant has meanwhile broken up and later disappears altogether. And now out of each individual one nucleus, the “migrating nucleus,” wanders into the other cell and fuses with the stationary nucleus there left behind. The two infusorians, now called “ex-conjugants” separate at this point and from the fusionproduct of the stationary and the migrating nuclei arise new micro- and macro-nuclei; in the simplest form of the process the

fusion nucleus simply divides and the two halves develop into micro- and macronucleus respectively. In conjugation therefore it is not two cells that fuse to make one, but two hermaphrodite cells each of which forms a male,

migrating, and a female, stationary, gamete-nucleus; the cells then exchange their male nuclei just as pairing snails or earthworms exchange their sperm. It is not hard to see why conjugation should rejuvenate these Protozoa, because the macro-nucleus degenerates and is re-formed from the fused gamete-nucleus; in doing this the organism dispenses with an old cell-constituent, the

- one being supplied from the “potentially immortal” micronucleus. We have so far only concerned ourselves with the gametes of the Protozoa; nothing more need be said about the process of their fusion, but what happens afterwards? The question is not at all easy to answer. The fate of the zygote amongst different species of Protozoa is very various. Only very seldom does the zygote turn directly into an ordinary vegetative individual, as is

the case with the infusorians, Foraminifera (fig. 14) and myxo-

FROM

KUHN,

“GRUNDRISS

DER

ALLGEMEINEN

ZOOLOGIE

FÙR

STUDIERENDE”

(THIEME)

FIG. 19.—VOLVOX GLOBATOR: DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION THROUGH A GAMETE-FORMING COLONY ought to mention the “reproductive cyst”; some protozoans do not divide in the free motile state, but first encyst, the products slipping out again after division. When about to encyst the protozoan rounds itself off, secretes a membrane—which can afterwards be strengthened—and throws off or absorbs most of its organoids, such as flagella, static fibrillae, etc. (those of course remain which can only be reproduced by division, such as the centrosome and chromatophores).

Finally it exudes a portion of the sap present in the protoplasm. Encystment consists then not only in the formation of a capsule

PROTOZOA

628

but of a process of dedifferentiation of the individual, a reversion to a quasi-embryonic condition. The membranes are to ensure that the cyst shall be able to withstand complete drying out and the action of chemical compounds such as weak acids that would kill the vegetative individual. The thickening (dehydration) of

mature animal that again In some animals, such as eral generations have to closed. In each of these

[LIFE-CYCLES produces eggs; the cycle is complete. the green-flies or aphids (g.v.), seybe gone through before this cycle js instances, in birds and in aphids, we

can speak of a life-cycle; in the aphids we can also recognize an “alternation of generations.” Naturally every organism has a life-cycle, even a protozoan that multiplies by division, for here also young animals are produced by division that only later The encysted protozoan is in a come to resemble the creature condition of dormancy; it has that produced them. But it has no metabolic activity that can be become usual to speak of a lifeproved, and it can in consequence cycle only when some other spesurvive in this “latent” condition cial process is introduced into for a very long time. the life history. An infusorian Germination (encystment) calls can for example multiply by difor little comment. The cysts vision, but it can also encyst or it of many protozoans have weak can conjugate. Now we speak of places left in the coat at which an obligatory or of a facultative they open as at a hinge or suture FROM KUHN, “MORPHOLOGIE DER TIERE IN FROM THEOLAN, “LES MYOSPORIDIES” (LES life-cycle according to whether PRESSES UNIVERSITARIES) or even pores filled with plugs of BILDERN” (BORNTRAEGER) the succession of events in the FIG. 22.—SPHAEROSPORA DIVERsilica; but in most cases the cyst- FIG. 20.—-LEISHMANIA DONOVANI life-history is strictly determined, GENS (A) White blood-corpuscles, in which envelope bursts open like the the non-flagellate individuals lie small adult individual containing shell of a lizard’s egg (fg. rr). (magnified 3,000 times); (B) indi- on the one hand, or capable of a A5 spores (magnified 540 times) certain amount of adjustment, on This explosion is often due to the vidual provided with a flagellum the other. The obligatory life-cycle is governed solely by the inabsorption of water by the proto- {magnified 1,800 times) plasm and its consequent swelling in the early stages of growth, trinsic properties of the individual, running its course, provided but sometimes it is due to the swelling of the inner layers of the only that the ordinary requirements of life are met; the other, the facultative life-cycle, is profoundly influenced by such external cyst membrane. The protozoan shortly before it emerges usually reconstitutes conditions as temperature, nutrition and the condition of the many of its typical organoids; on swimming out it completes this medium in which the organism lives. There are Protozoa on the other hand that have a clearly process and resumes its vegetative life. facultative career, as they can reproduce by simple fission for an DEVELOPMENT AND REGENERATION indefinite number of generations; whilst under certain conditions A process equivalent to the development we find in the higher they are forced to copulate or encyst (e.g., Antinophrys). There is also an obligatory life-cycle in those protozoans that animals and plants from embryo to adult is found to some extent in nearly all Protozoa with the exception of those in which show an alternation of generations. By the dividing mother-animal splits every one of its organoids and this alternation we understand a succession distributes them to its daughter-cells. But this process of de- of generations that are distinct from one velopment, being limited in many Protozoa to the regeneration of another both in’ their form and in their the organoids after encystment or division (fig. 8) takes very method of reproduction. The classical exlittle time and does not give any impression of complexity. Com- example of protozoans with an alternation of generations is the Foraminifera (fig. 13, plications that strike us as being like the 14). In most of these two distinct types early steps of embryonic development in can be recognized, the so-called micro- and multicellular organisms are found in the macro-spherical individuals. The microVolvocineae, at whose reproduction one spherical individuals are the asexual genercell gives tise to a colony (fig. 2, 19). ation; as soon as they are mature the The development of other protozoans protoplasm breaks up into numerous such as the foraminiferans is a lengthy germs, “agametes,’’ which creep out of the FROM BALBIANI, «LEÇONS SUR process (fig. 13, 14), and in some we even shell of the mother-individual and gradu- LES SPOROSOAIRES” (OCTAVE find that peculiar roundabout way of deDOIN) ally develop into new individuals—but in- FIG. 23.—-MYXOBOLUS veloping, by repetition of ancestral forms, dividuals of the other, the macro-spherical, ELLIPSOIDES that is so often found in the higher anitype. Then the protoplasm of these breaks (A) Frontal view with mals. These processes are comparable to capsules not yet exploded, up, this time into gametes, and after fusion (B) side view the formation of the gill-arches in early of same, (C) we have the microspherical generation frontal view with capsules life by mammals (see EMBRYOLOGY and FROM KUHN, “MORPHOLOGIE DER exploded again (fig. 14). TIERE 1N BILDERN” (BORNVERTEBRATE EMBRYOLOGY). dee A process physiologically related to de- mie 21.—ENTOMOEBA VARIABILITY, POLYMORPHISM, HEREDITY

the protoplasm ensures the resistance of some protozoans to temperatures as high as 60° C (180° F) which certainly could not be borne by the same species in the vegetative condition.

velopment is regeneration (g.v.), the re- uISTOLYTICA

placement of lost body parts. Some prote- (A> Vegetative individual,

zoans are not capable of this; the capacity (B)

four-nucleated

cyst

Like all other organisms the Protozoa can be profoundly modified by various external conditions such as temperature, nutrition

may be cut into small

and state of the environment. Scarcity of food supply often leads to dwarfing, a rich supply to relatively giant growth. Some protozoans are so dependent on eternal factors, so malleable, that they

pieces, and every one of these will grow up into a new individual—provided of course that it has at least part of a nucleus

that live in half-moist surroundings by transference to water come

of the others varies in degree. Some can 72° ‘is organism

only reconstitute their flagella, which they may have been caused by certain stimuli to cast off. Others

(fig. 3). LIFE-CYCLES:

ALTERNATION

OF GENERATIONS

The successive stages of development of a higher animal such as a bird can be looked upon as a cycle; if we begin with the fertilized egg the embryo follows, then the young animal, then the `

may be altered beyond recognition.

For example some Amoebae

to develop flagella and turn into flagellates (fig. 15). In view of this mutability it was earlier hoped—when the protozoans were regarded just as primitive organisms-—-that changes from one species to another might be observed directly. This hope has not been fulfilled.

In other words, the inheritance of acquired characters is as little

PROTOZOA

HABITS]

proved in the Protozoa as in the higher animals and plants. Certainly characters “acquired” by a protozoan under the influence

of special external conditions reappear in the offspring. But this reappearance does not last very long. Modifications of this kind are called “enduring modifications,” in contrast to genuine hereditary variations (so-called mutations) which have been observed in some forms and remain constant through any number of divisions and fertilizations.

629

that have eaten their first host. Free-living Protozoans.~—We can divide the Protozoa into ecological groups according to their modes of existence, remembering however that these groups are joined by every intergrade. The one all-important distinction is of course that between freeliving and parasitic Protozoa. The free-living Protozoa are composed of plankton forms, swimming forms, bottom-dwelling forms and soil forms. Plankton

PHYLOGENY We have already pointed out in the introduction that the different classes and orders of the Protozoa are nat related to one another as those of the vertebrates are; that on the contrary a vast number of groups have been united under the “phylum” Protozoa for the sake of convenience. On this account it is useless to speak of the “phylogeny” of the Protozoa as a whole. In a few groups only is it possible to distinguish more primitive from more

highly develaped forms and make a kind of genealogical tree. An example of such a developmental series has already been touched upon. In the Volvocineae it can be clearly seen how cell-colonies

have arisen from single-celled types and how a division of labour has follawed. HABITS

OF LIFE

The protoplasm of all Living creatures contains water and it can only survive dry conditions so long as it is in some way protected from drought. The vegetative stages of nearly all Protozoa being unprotected they can only live in a moist medium; their

cysts on the other hand can remain dried up for a long time. We find Protozoa therefore in all kinds of fresh waters, as well as in the sea. They are also found free in moist earth and moss, and as parasites they occur in the body-fluids (blood, intestines, etc.) and tissues of animals, occasionally even of plants. Their

cysts can be found wherever they are carried by wind and by other

organisms. FROM LEGER, “REPRODUCTION SEXUEE CHEZ LES STYLORHYNCHUS” (GUSTAV FISCHER) Not only is the distribution of the Protozoa strictly limited by FIG. 25.—DIAGRAM OF THE LIFE-CYCLE OF A GREGARINE water-content but it is further limited by temperature and salt(A) Two gregarines encysted together; (B) beginning of nuclear divisions (C) later stage of nuclear division; (D) cutting off of the gametes: (E) content. Most freé-living, z¢., non-parasitic, Protozoa will gametes fully developed: (left) female, (right) male; (F) wall between the scarcely stand temperatures of more than 30° C (86° F) and gametes dissolved, and gametes come together; (G-H) male and female temperatures of above 45° C gametes; (I-K) union of the gametes and of their nuclei; (L—N) nuclear division in the xygote (spore); (O) division of the contents of the spore into (113° F) or belaw zera C (32° numerous sporozoites F) are fatal to most species in y, BGs) Ba, | forms, though also present in fresh water, are characteristically the vegetative condition. In hot | & Psa. Oe"

springs,

however,

infusorians a

have heen found at temperatures of 64° C (148° F) and freezing

3 has been resisted by same spe-

cies. In the same way tao strong

solutions of salts such as those in the Algerian salt lakes render

protozoan life impossible. Naturally one of the essentials

of life is the possibility of getting

food; this requirement is met in each of the habitats that we have mentioned for one species or another. It is the most important factor, apart from temperature, that exercises a decisive influence in determining the life-cycles of protozoans which go into a period of winter rest in the encysted condition.

9 oF o>

found in the sea. They are Protozoa that, for the most part, al-

F. ©. Dee P ‘3. G0 OC Dona OO -

though unprovided with any special motile organs, are able to float | in the water and are carried by the currents. I. 228 GS VODS™ .. #° Say” Bi, oO.” | Swimming forms (Nectonta) are protozoans that swim about §, & e Eg Dar | with cilia and flagella, and in so far as they are heterotrophic do J ue FOr ee "SG -E not as a rule waft in their prey but actually chase it. We find them Ș4 J age Bsa Som E in all kinds of water, from the sea down to mere puddles. Bottom dwellers (creeping forms) live only on the bottoms and a pR Sn S Pe D E Q° 93% SoG Ce zÈ sides of ponds, lakes and so on, and creep only upon firm ground; | a -* some can swim a little, others are rooted firmly in their place. |; B y Their food is varied; at very great depths the autotrophic forms cannot of course exist because they need light, but they occur nevertheless in every possible kind of watery place. Most foraminiferans and amoebae are typical bottom dwellers. FROM METCALF, “OPALINID CILIATE INFUSORI3:

¢

S

? The

too

ee 7. ae

ANS”

FIG. 24.-—-QPALINA RANARUM: (VEGETATIVE INDIVIDUAL) WHOLE ENDOPLASM FILLED WITH DARKCOLQURED BODIES, AS INDICATED

IN THE

LOWER

FIGURE.

(MAGNIFIED

HALF

OF

THE

230 TIMES)

Every protozoan is more or less strictly adapted to its natural

environmental conditions.

Thus it may find life altegether impos-

sible in conditions varying a little from the normal, although these may be the natural ones for another species. For example, a

freshwater protozoan cannot exist in the sea, nor a bleod-parasite

in fresh water.

Yet there are Protozoa that are very adaptable

in these respects; some species normally living in fresh water can live for-a considerable time in the intestines of animals or Mm the dissolving fluids secreted by carnivorous plants; intestinal protozoans of some animals can live on in the intestines of others

Parasitic Forms.—Amongst Protozoa endoparasites are in the majority. Most parasitic Protozoa flourtsh in or on animals including other Protozoa, and there is scarcely any animal group that is free from them. A few forms parasitize plants; some, e.g.,

flagellates, are found in the latex (or “milk”) of the spurges (Euphorbia). Ectoparasites are naturally commonest on water animals and on moist or mucilaginous parts of the skin of land animals; these can either creep about or swim or remain rooted to one place. Most ectoparasites however are not true parasites, and

merely use their foothold on their host to extract food for their

environment, moving away as occasion requires. Endoparasites Inhabit body-cavities like the gut, veins, gallbladders and so forth, as well as every conceivable tissue, where they Hie between the cells, as tissue parasites, or bore their way

inside the cells, as cell-parasttes. others are almost immobile.

Some moye about fairly freely, ” '

PROTOZOA

630

The great majority of the endoparasites feed by osmotic ab-

sorption; that is they live on dissolved nutriment that they either

find ready for them, as in the blood or the digestive tract, or that they have to prepare by secreting substances to dissolve the cells of the host. Most parasitic protozoa are transferred from one host to another by forming cysts, which escape into the open and are then picked up by the new host quite by chance—usually by being eaten. Direct transmission from one animal to another of the same species is rare; it is found in Trypanosoma equiperdum, which causes the so-called stallion plague, and is transmitted from mare to stallion and vice versa at coitus. The germs of other protozoans penetrate into the eggs while in the bodies of the females and are thus carried on to the next generation. Very frequently a second host serves as a carrier; this is the case in those trypanosomes that pass between human or mammalian blood and the intestines of insects such as mosquitoes; the insect when biting absorbs blood and at the same time injects its saliva into the wound. The insect is called in these cases the intermediate host. In other instances the host plays a more passive part, as in the transmission of the coccidian Aggregata: the asexual reproduction of this protozoan takes place in the gut of a crab; the germs (or merozoites as they are called) pass into the gut of a second—the chief—host, the cuttle-fish Sepia that feeds on the crab. In the cuttle-fish the merozoites develop into male or female gametes; fertilization follows and the spores produced by the zygote pass out with the excrement. The spores are eaten again by the crab. Adaptation of Parasites.—Parasites, as we have mentioned before, are for the most part so well adapted to their habit of life that they are incapable of feeding or of multiplying outside their host; trypanosomes from the blood put into water die immediately. Yet we cannot escape the question as to how parasitism started, for we cannot assume that all parasites have been parasites since the beginning of time; on the contrary, they must have arisen from free-living forms. We have now a few facts that make the transition from a free-living to a parasitic form if not entirely clear at least to some extent intelligible. For one thing the resistance of many free-living Protozoa to the digesting fluids released by imsectivorous plants, e.g., pitcher plant, shows a remarkable degree of adaptability. Another thing is the extraordinary adaptability of some parasitic protozoans; the gut-parasites of the frog tadpole live for instance in the gut of the horse-leech, which eats the tadpole, and there grow and multiply; and some gut-parasites can live equally well in the blood of their host, if by chance they should get into it. Most striking are the reproductive adaptations of the parasites, for the reproductive mechanism is often governed absolutely by its requirements in relation to its host or hosts as the case may be. First the remarkable fertility of parasites must be mentioned as an adaptation to their form of life, for in spite of their easy existence the possibility of their dying in or with their hosts is a serious menace to the maintenance of parasitic species, for only a minute proportion of the germs can have a chance of finding another host. We have already referred to an adaptation of an entirely different order, namely the division of the life-cycle into two periods spent in different hosts; the combination of an alternation of hosts with an alternation of generations. The classical example of this is that of the malaria parasite. The bite of the mosquito injects the sporozoites into the blood; there they bore their way into the red blood corpuscles and develop into the agamonts; these break up by multiple division into the merozoites and in doing this burst the corpuscles whose substance is already depleted by the parasite. The merozoites bore into fresh corpuscles and repeat the story, or they can transform themselves into macrogametocytes

and microgametocytes,

which wait for

some time until chance takes them into the stomach of a sucking mosquito. If they have to wait too long they die, but if they succeed in getting into the mosquito’s stomach without undue delay they are able to complete their life-cycle; the microgametocyte breaks up into microgametes, these fertilize the macrogametes and the motile zygote bores into the stomach-wall of the

mosquito,

Here it grows, its nucleus divides many times and

[ECOLOGY

finally the sporont, as we now call the adult zygote, breaks up into a number of sporozoites. These migrate to and collect in the salivary glands of the mosquito and, if this should bite a human being, make their way with the injected saliva into the blood. stream of the victim. The cycle is now complete. Relations of Parasite and Host.—The most important of the conditions governing the relationship of host and parasite have already been discussed. The host offers the parasite, unwilling to be sure, board and lodging; hence the name. In many cases how-

ever, the host seeks to protect himself from his guest or even if possible to destroy it; he sends out his phagocytes against the intruder, and these are frequently able to eat it; he isolates the parasite as far as possible, by shutting it off from the neighbouring tissue in a capsule; and finally makes and releases into his bodyjuices all kinds of poisons, anti-bodies, agglutinins and lysins (see

Immunity) which cripple or even destroy the parasite. A host that can build up enough of such protective materials can not only annihilate the enemy but can actually protect himself for some time against any repetition of the attack; he is said to be immune. When we speak of parasitism it is difficult to avoid thinking that the host is necessarily injured by the parasite. Most parasitic Protozoa however are actually harmless; they live on surplus food and body-substance and do their host no harm at all. Every man, every frog, cockroach and earthworm, shelters innumerable parasitic protozoans without being injured by them in the slightest degree. Other protozoans on the contrary injure their host in a greater or less degree, not by taking away food, but by demol-

ishing the body-cells of their host. Some types secrete poisons (toxins). As we have already mentioned, the malaria parasite destroys the red blood corpuscles of man. (See MALARIA.) The malaria parasite is not the only pathogenic (ż.e., diseasecausing) protozoan. Trypanosomes (fig. 7) have been shown to be the cause of African sleeping-sickness and of a human disease not rare in South America, schizotrypanosis. Leishmania donovani (fig. 20) causes the kala-azar disease in India; Entamoeba histolytica (fg. 21) the tropical amoebic dysentery of man; many trypanosomes cause serious cattle plagues. A coccidian is responsible for a dangerous rabbit disease, some microsporidians are a great danger to fish and others attack the silk-worm caterpillar. These are only a few examples of the menace that parasitic protozoans constitute to other organisms. The pathogenic forms, however, are few in number compared with the harmless ones. There are further the symbiotic Protozoa, which not only do no injury to, but actually benefit, their host; some to such an extent that they have become indispensable. We will begin with this latter group. In the gut of all wood-eating termites live peculiar flagellate protozoans, the so-called Trychonymphidae. These protozoans eat small particles of wood, the masticated food of the termite, and digest them; and it has now been determined that this activity of the trychonymphid is essential to the life of the termite. This is certainly an extreme case of symbiosis between a protozoan and a higher animal. In the stomachs of the ruminants (cattle and sheep) vast numbers of infusorians are found, which consume the cellulose of the host’s food and are probably as useful as the flagellates are to the termites; but they are not indispensable. Most of this work is done by bacteria, which also inhabit the stomach. Similarly, some radiolarians can easily do without the autotrophous peridineans that live with them. ECOLOGY

AND

DISTRIBUTION

Many autotrophic planktonic Protozoa serve as food for other plankton organisms, such as the larvae of worms, sea-urchins and fishes—not exclusively, indeed, for the diatoms which far surpass them in number are more important as a source of food. In s0

far as, with diatoms, they supply food for fishes and smaller

animals eaten by fishes, these protozoans are not without impor

tance to man, fish being one of his staple sources of food supply.

Other marine Protozoa

(Radiolaria and Foraminifera) that

form shells of mineral matter, play quite a different part. In cer-

tain circumstances they can go to form solid rock. The shells of

DISTRIBUTION:

HISTORY]

PROTOZOA

dead individuals collect, often in enormous numbers, on the seafloor and form, generally with other mineral particles but sometimes without any other constituent, the fine silt or ooze that covers the bottom of the deep sea. In the Pacific (Rose atoll) a cubic metre of Globigerina ooze is laid down yearly over a surface of 150 sq.m.; in other words a layer o-66cm. thick every year or over two feet in a hundred years. 29.2% of the whole floor of the ocean, 2.€., over 40 million square miles, is covered with Globi-

631

the classical researches of the Englishman Ronald Ross and of the Italian B. Grassi deserve special mention, on account of their achievement with malaria, also the work of the German F. Schaudinn (1877-1906) on the life-cycle of the Coccidia and of many other Protozoans especially in regard to cytology. CLASSIFICATION

almost entirely, of the shells of fossil Protozoa, Foraminifera,

We have already mentioned the fact that the different forms of life included under the name Protozoa do not show the same relationships as the different classes that we recognize amongst the vertebrates; indeed that many of them cannot be shown to have any relationship whatever with one another. This is true for some, but not for all, classes and orders of the Protozoa; some of these, such as the Flagellata, Protomonadina, Rhizopoda, Heliozoa, are not to be regarded as natural groups at all. They are convenient

waters with much decomposing animal and vegetable débris the

assemblages of organisms not demonstrably related. We divide the Protozoa into five great classes :—

gerina ooze; the area covered with radiolarian ooze is estimated at nearly 12%.

Chalk and sandstone are nothing but the ooze and

silt of antediluvian seas; and certain rocks consist, entirely or

Radiolaria and Coccolithophorida. As compared with the marine forms the fresh water Protozoa play a modest part; they certainly provide food for some animals, but they do not figure very largely in the diet as a whole. In

protozoans take some part in what is called biological water-

cleansing. In a ditch or pond containing much decaying matter the water is polluted with all kinds of bodies, but gradually cleans itself. First the decaying matter is broken down by bacteria and

. partly consumed. In this materials are found—mostly evil-smelling—that are needed by certain Protozoa for food and the water is therefore freed of them. The bacteria themselves are eaten by other protozoans. A similar part is played apparently by the soil Protozoa. In one gramme of earth from 100—s0,000 amoebae, 1,000-100,000 flagellates and as many as 1,000 infusorians have been found. On the one hand they keep down the nitrifying bacteria (see BACTERIOLOGY) so necessary for higher plants; on the other hand they may effect nitrogen fixation themselves and so have the same effect as manure. The species of fresh water and soil Protozoa are cosmopolitan; the protozoan fauna of pools and rivers is the same in Africa as in North America. This is due to the fact that the conditions of life in pools are much the same all over the world, and that the fresh-water protozoans can be carried very easily, especially in the encysted form, by wind and animals. In the sea the case is rather different; the water of the Pacific is distinctly different in salt content, temperature and other respects from that of the Mediterranean and corresponding to these differences we find different species limited to different seas. As an example of a cosmopolitan species on the other hand we have Noctiluca miliaris, the luminous flagellate (fig. 18). The geographical distribution of parasites naturally follows that of their hosts. oe

HISTORY OF PROTOZOOLOGY Protozoa were first discovered in the latter half of the 17th

century by A. van Leuwenhoek (1632-1723) a Dutch amateur naturalist and chamberlain to the sheriff of Delft. Leuwenhoek carried on his investigations with magnifying glasses and microscopes he had designed and made himself. A systematic investigation and description of all known Protozoa was undertaken for the first time by the Dane, O. F. Müller

(1730-84).

In the roth century C. G. Ehrenberg, professor of

zoology in Berlin (1795—1876), tried to show that Protozoa had

an organization similar to that of the higher organisms. This attempt failed because Ehrenberg’s scientific opponent, the Frenchman Dujardin, was able to demonstrate the unicellularity

(in essence at least) of the Protozoa. The fact that Protozoa were unicellular was enunciated by the German zoologists M. Schultze (1861) and von Siebold. In the era of Darwinism the Protozoa were principally looked at from the point of view of the evolutionary theory; in them were seen the root-forms of the higher animals. Later on protozoans were recognized as causers ofdisease; the first pathogenic protozoan, Nosema bombycis, was discovered by Pasteur. The greatest advance in the study of pathogenic Protozoa began with the investigation of the Nagana cattle plague by David Bruce; by showing that this disease was

caused by Trypanosoma brucei he opened a new era of activity

in protozoological research which has carried us on to the present day. In this period the study of the body-structure, life-cycles and physiology have equally received attention. Amongst these

1. Mastigophora (Flagellata) 2. 3. 4. 5.

Rhizopoda Telosporidia Neosporidia Ciliophora (Infusoria)

It should be clearly understood that (zr) and (2) are both unnatural groups. 1. Class Mastigophora.

(Flagellata).—Amongst

the Masti-

gophora we count all Protozoans in which the vegetative individual is provided with flagella. The class itself is artificial; the first six of its nine orders are, however, natural. The Protozoa belonging to these orders are mainly autotrophic, but nearly all of these orders include colourless forms that are believed to have arisen by loss of their chromatophores; this process has been directly observed in some cases. Amongst these flagellates we ought therefore to regard the green forms as more primitive than the heterotrophous. Protozoa actually without a flagellum but showing a close relationship structurally to flagellate forms are naturally included in the Mastigophora. I. Order Chrysomonadina. Very small autotrophic flagellates; one or two flagella; always free-living, in fresh and salt water; the chromatophores usually contain a brown pigment. The cyst, furnished with plugged hole, is characteristic of many Chrysomonadina; its membrane contains silicic acid. Unicellular and uninucleate; reproduction by simple fission; fertilization processes are only known in a few forms. A very large order in the number of its species; the most important family is the Coccolithophoridae consisting of marine chrysomonadines, which have shells composed of chalk disks and are important as food for many plankton organisms. Important types: Chromulina, Ochromonas, Dinobryon, Syracosphaera. 2. Order Cryptomonadina. Biflagellate, autotrophic, entirely free-living flagellates of fresh water and sea. Chromatophores chiefly brown, characteristic flattened form of cell, unicellular, uninucleate. Reproduction by simple fission. Fertilization processes unknown. Important types: Cryptomonas, Chilomonas

(colourless). 3. Order Chloromonadina.

One or two flagella autotrophic; chromatophores with bright green colouring matter, the nature of which is not yet exactly known. One-celled, uninucleate. 4. Order Euglenoidina. Most have one, a few two, flagellae; usually autotrophic with a peculiar cystostome; (fig. 16); some of the autotrophic forms as well as the heterotrophic kinds can also eat solid food. Chromatophore green. In stagnant ponds and cesspools. The structure and division of the nucleus is characteristic. Unicellular and uninucleate. Reproduction by simple fission; fertilization only known in certain heterotrophic forms such as Scytomonas. Important types: Euglena, Phacus, Trachelomonas, Peranema (heterotrophic). 5. Order Dinoflagellata. Usually with two flagella, lying in a special and characteristic way in two body furrows, one disposed longitudinally and the other spirally around the body (fig. 17). Both the structure and method of division of the nucleus are also characteristic. Most dinoflagellates are autotrophic: but

632

PROTOZOA

there are also some that eat living organisms, heterotrophic, and many parasitic forms which flourish in marine animals; these do not possess a flagellum. The autotrophic dinoflagellates are most generally provided with a plated cellulose armour. They live for the most part as plankton organisms in the sea. Usually unicellular—a few of the parasitic forms are multicellular— and uninucleate. Reproduction by simple fission or multiple division (swarm-spore formation) fertilization processes unknown. Important types: Ceratium, Gymnodinium (naked) Blastodinium

(parasitic) Oddinium (parasitic). The organism responsible for phosphorescence

is Noctiluca miliaris (fig. 18) a rather large swollen bladdery uniflagellate protozoan, faintly red-coloured, heterotrophic, eating living organ-

isms, which produces an intense light at night but only under the stimulus of a physical or chemical shock. The relationship of this form with other dinoflagellates is shown by the organization of its swarm cells. 6. Order Phytomonadina (Volvocineae). A group containing entirely free-living autotrophous biflagellate species with cupshaped green chromatophores; a very few species are destitute of chromatophores and feed themselves in the way described above. The lower phytomonadines are unicellular, the higher, mnulticellular. Uninucleate. Reproduction by simple fission, or, in the multicellular forms, by rapidly succeeding divisions (fig. 2). Fertilization: in the lower forms (Chlamydomonas) hologamous and morphologically isogamous; in the higher forms (Volvox), odgamous. The zygote has a resting period and following this, in the unicellular forms four individuals slip out, and in the multicellular forms, a colony. The reduction division takes place shortly before the germination of the zygote. Important types:— Chlamydomonas (fig. 1), Polytoma (heterotrophous) Gonium, Eudorina (fig. 2), Pleodorina, Volvox (fig. 19). See also ALGAE, 7. Order Protomonadine (an artificial group). Heterotrophous organisms with one or two flagella. To this group belong the most important of the parasitic flagellates, the trypanosomes which are put with other forms in the family Herpetomonadinae. The possession of a so-called blepharoplast is characteristic of the trypanosomes and various closely related forms. This organoid is a little ball of protoplasm lying directly under the bdsal granule of the flagellum; it resembles the nucleus in several characteristic properties and divides by simple fission (fig. 7). Earlier it was often regarded as a second nucleus, and was even given the name “kinetonucleus,” but this view cannot be supported. The trypanosomes have only one flagellum; this is developed in the blood parasites as a characteristic undulating membrane (fig. 7). The equally parasitic Trypanoplasmae have also a second free flagellum; the free-living Bodonidae have two free flagella. The trypanosomes are blood parasites of the mammals, birds, amphibians and fishes; they swim in the blood plasma and are for the most part carried from one host to another by blood-sucking insects, or (in the case of fishes and frogs) by leeches. The related Leishmaniae are cell-parasites which only pass through the body fluids and are normally not equipped with flagella (fig. 20). Other relatives of the trypanosomes, the Leptomonadae, live in the intestines of insects that do not suck blood and are supposed to be the ancestral forms of the trypanosomes. Some| trypanosomes are harmless, great numbers on the other hand are pathogenic; e.g., Trypanosoma gambiense, the cause of African sleeping sickness of man; Trypanosoma rhodesiense, cause of another kind of sleeping sickness; Schizotrypanum cruzi cause of schizotrypanosis of man in Brazil; Leishmania donovani (fig. 20) cause of the kala-azar disease of man; Leishmania tropica, cause of Oriental sore; Trypanosoma brucei (fig. 7) cause of the Nagana pest of hoofed animals in Africa; Trypanosoma evansi, cause of the surra pest of hoofed animals in India; Trypanosoma equiperdum, cause of the stallion plague (dourine) of horses. The Trypanoplasmae flourish in the blood and intestines of

many fishes as well as in the intestines of many invertebrates; it is not yet certain whether any of them are pathogenic. All parasitic Herpetomonadina feed osmotically. The group is unicellular and uninucleate, and reproduction is by simple or occasionally by multiple division. Sexual processes are unknown.

[CLASSIFICATION

Another important family of the Protomonadina that must be

mentioned is the Craspedomonadidae;

it consists of free-living

unicellular, heterotrophic flagellates; they have a delicate collar around the flagella. They are unicellular and uninucleate. Reproduction by simple division, fertilization unknown. Important types: Codosiga, Salpingoeca, 8. Order Polymastigina. Flagellates, parasitic and “eating,”

with a very characteristic division of the nucleus. The lower forms (trichomonads) have 2-5 flagella, the higher (hypermastigina) have often several hundred. All are innocuous intestinal parasites of vertebrates, including man, and of insects. The Trichonymphidae are symbiotic with the wood eating termites

(see above). The Polymastigina are unicellular and usually uninucleate; only a few of the higher forms such as Calonympha are multinucleate. Reproduction is by simple fission, no sexual process being known. Important types: Trichomonas (T. intestinalis is a harmless intestinal parasite of man, T. buccalis lives in the

tooth-insertion of man), Trichonympha. 9. Order Distomatina.

Heterotrophic, free-living and eating liv-

ing organisms or parasitic;

they have the appearance of two

flagellates stuck together. They have two nuclei and two flagellar

apparatuses. Reproduction is by simple fission; fertilization — processes are unknown. Important type: Giardia, an intestinal parasite (probably innotuous) of man and many other mammals, 2. Class Rhizopoda.—These

are heterotrophic protozoans in

which the vegetative individual moves and feeds with the aid of pseudopodia. It is an altogether unnatural group; this faculty of producing pseudopodia cannot be regarded as a specific character, for it is found in such widely distinct structures as leucocytes (white blood corpuscles) and some spermatozoa of animals and even in the gametes of some algae.

1. Order Amoebina. Rhizopoda that have amoeboid movement, i.€., they travel by means of broad pseudopodia produced over the whole body surface. This group is as unnatural as the class Rhi-

zopoda (see above). The amoebae were for a short time regarded as the most primitive, because structurally the simplest, of living organisms. Nowadays this view is not held. We know, for instance, that certain Chrysomonadae are definitely without flagella and show amoeboid movement; they are amoebae. Yet in every other character they are typical Chrysomonadae. It is therefore entirely reasonable to imagine that many amoebae are extreme secondarily altered forms of the other groups of Protozoa,

All amoebae are heterotrophic and feed on living organisms; many are free-living, in fresh water, sea water and soil; some are parasitic, as a rule in the gut. They are entirely unicellular and for the most part uninucleate.

Reproduction is by simple fission

or multiple division in cysts (Entamoeba fig. 21). Fertilization processes are known only in very few species. The amoebae are divided according to their method of nuclear division. Important

types:—Wahlkampfia

(fig. 15) and Hartmanella

(free-living,

feeding on bacteria), Amoeba proteus (living in water), Entamoeba histolytica (fig. 21), the cause of amoebic dysentery of man, Entamoeba coli, an innocuous gut-parasite of man, Eniamoeba gingivalis, a parasite, possibly harmless, of the slime covering the tooth-bases of man. (See also AMOEBA.)

2. Order Thecamoebina.

Free-living Rhizopoda whose bodies

are surrounded by a cup- or flask-shaped shell. Pseudopodia are extruded from the opening in the shell. Characteristic also 1s the presence of layers or zones of protoplasm which stain deeply with the so-called nuclear stains, and are therefore described as

chromidia (see above). The shell may be composed either of

a stiff protoplasmic

skin or of “pseudochitin” or of plates of

silica, produced by the animal itself (Euglypha), or of foreign

bodies picked up by it as it goes along and saved for the purpose (Diffiugia). The group is entirely unicellular and as a rule

vninucleate. Reproduction is by simple fission, or, in the hard-

shelled forms, characteristically by gemmation. The mother indi-

vidual extrudes a portion of its protoplasm from its aperture

and this grows a new shell. In the “wall-building” forms the “building materials” accumulated by the mother-animal pass t0

the surface of the gemma;

only then does a daughter-nucleus

from the newly divided mother-nucleus wander into the gemma,

PROTOZOA

CLASSIFICATION]

which then becomes free. Fertilization is unknown in this order.

_ 3. Order Foraminifera.

Relatively large Rhizopoda; the body

is enveloped in a many-chambered porous calcareous shell. The pseudopodia, usually branched, make their way through the pores.

They are free-living, heterotrophic,

and feed on living

organisms; entirely marine. Inland they appear only in salt-lakes —residues of earlier seas—as in Transylvania. The shells of

many Foraminifera are very complex in structure but the principle is always the same. The germ-cell (agamete or zygote)

surrounds itself with a shell and usually resembles a Thecamoeba : after some time, protoplasm makes its way out of the opening in the shell, spreads over a part of the shell-surface and forms

a new shell; this makes the second chamber. This process goes on until the number of chambers in an adult animal may exceed a hundred. Only rarely are all the chambers arranged in a row, usually they are rolled up to form a spiral like a snail-shell, (fig. 13). Very frequently each chamber is completely built around by the one following. The shell-material is either the chalk that the animal excretes or extraneous material (grains of sand, etc.). There are also Foraminifera with unchambered shells and others whose shells are imperforate. Most foraminiferans live on the bottom of the sea, only a few are plankton forms. All are unicellular and most uninucleate. Reproduction is by multiple division and gamete formation. Fertilization is effected by flagellate gametes. An alternation of generations is established. The Foraminifera, especially some fossil forms, are the largest unicellular organisms. They are of

practical importance as stone-formers.

Important types: Rotalia,

Polystomella (figs. 13, 14), Globigerina (plankton, see GLOBIGERINA), Miliolina, Nummulites (fossil). 4. Order Heliozoa. Relatively small Rhizopoda characterized by the possession of so-called axopodia. Entirely free-living, heterotrophic, feeding on living organisms. Found as a rule in fresh water. A small group; the only natural sub-order is the Centrohelidia, ball-shaped protozoans with a so-called central granule; this is a cytoplasmic structure capable of division, which lies in the middle of the cell and serves as the point d'appui of the axopodium. It was earlier thought to be a true centrosome, but it really is nothing of the kind. Some primitive forms (Dimorpha) have a true centrosome which functions both as a basal granule and as the insertion-point of the axopodium. Many species have a peculiar shell made of loosely packed silica needles. They are unicellular and chiefly uninucleate. Reproduction is by simple fission or gemmation; the gemmae grow into flagellate “swarming” individuals. Fertilization processes unknown. Important types:——Acanthocystis, Dimorpha (always provided with two flagella), Wagnerella (sessile, with a stalk; marine). The remaining Heliozoa are probably related neither with one another nor with the Centrohelidia. Actinophrys (fig. 11) is unicellular, uninucleate, in fresh water, fertilization paedogamous. Actinosphaerium is multinuclear, the fertilization process as in Actinophrys; every individual breaks up into numerous gamonts, each one of which behaves like an Actinophrys preparing for fertilization. Clathrulina elegans has a ferruginous

lattice-work shell: fertilization process unknown. Nuclearia is lke Clathrulina without a shell; reproduction by simple fission. 5. Order Radiolaria. Relatively large Protozoa. The body of the protoplasm is divided into two parts by an internal membrane, the central capsule; the so-called intra-capsular cytoplasm contains the nucleus or nuclei and in the extra-capsular cytoplasm the food is digested. They are usually provided with a silica skeleton and also with a gelatinous sheath. The pseudopodia are intermediate in form between the Rhizopodia and Axopodia. Always free-living, heterotrophic, eating living organisms, Marine plankton organisms.

Some are capable of devouring

multicellular animals as big as a water-flea. contain symbiotic Dinoflagellates,

Many Radiolarians

so-called Zooxanthellae.

For

the most part these forms are unicellular and uninucleate. Reproduction by simple fission and multiple agamete formation; the agametes are flagellate and may sometimes show a strong resemblance to dinoflagellates; some contain peculiar crystals. The life-cycle of Radiolarians is still very imperfectly under-

633

stood, part of it being carried through in the deep sea. The Radiolaria are classified according to their skeleton and the form of the central capsule into four sub-orders:—

(a) Sub-order Spumellaria. Central capsule pierced in all directions by fine pores. Skeleton may be wanting or may be composed simply of fine, loose needles. Some species form colonies. Important types: Collozoum, Thalassicolla. (5) Sub-order Acantharia. Central capsule pierced in all directions; skeleton consists generally of 20 needles sticking together in the central capsule. Myonemes are attached to the needles and their contraction stretches the gelatinous integument and makes the animal lighter. Important types: Acanthometra, Aiphacantha., (c) Sub-order Nasselaria. Central capsule provided with only one complicated aperture. Skeleton very complex. (d) Sub-order Tripylea. Central capsule with three complex apertures. Skeleton very highly developed. Important types:— Aulacantha, Coelacantha. 6. Order Mycetozoa, also known as slime moulds but are not true fungi. (a) True Mycetozoa (Myxogasteres). These are Rhizopoda whose vegetative stage, the so-called plasmodium, is a gigantic Amoeba with thousands of nuclei. A contracted plasmodium of Fuligo varians, “flowers of tan,” can be as large as a man’s fist. These Amoebae are not compact, but form a peculiar net in whose meshes the endoplasm flows back and forth. The creeping forward movement of the plasmodium is caused by the fact that the plasma streams longer in one direction than in the other. The plasmodia live in moist earth, dung and rotten wood and they live partly on particles of decaying vegetable matter and partly on bacteria. The plasmodia cannot as a rule multiply vegetatively, they can only increase in size and in number of nuclei. When the plasmodium dries it changes to a number of thickly crowded multicellular cysts and is then known as a sclerotium. When food runs short the plasmodium forms fruiting bodies, the protoplasm collecting itself into little clumps at various parts of the net; from every clump a stalked ball-shaped body grows up: this fruiting structure is surrounded by a firm membrane and contains a great number of unicellular cysts or spores. At the formation of the fruit-bodies only a portion of the protoplasm is used up in the formation of spores; the rest goes to the making of the stalk, fruit-body membrane and fibres of a particular kind called elaters, which lie between the spores. The spores can stand drought, but as soon as they come in contact with water uniflagellate swarm-spores escape from them which either mate immediately or change first into Amoebae, losing their flagellae. The amoeboid zygote then grows straight on into a new plasmodium. Important types: Didymium nigripes, on dung and garden soil; Fuligo varians, on tanner’s bark, (6) The Acrasiaeae are also counted with the Mycetozoa although in no way related to them. The vegetative stage is a uninucleate amoeba multiplying by fission; on the formation of fruit-bodies many thousands of these organisms come together, and gradually build ball-shaped fruit-bodies which are often stalked; some of the amoebae are transformed into stalk cells, others into the membrane, the greater number form uninucleate spores. Important type: Dictyostelium mucoroides. (c) Perhaps other plasmodial Rhizopoda such as Labyrinthula, Leptomyxa and such forms should belong to the Mycetozoa but we know as yet little of their life cycles. (See Funer.)

3. Class Telosporidia.—A

small group of exclusively para-

sitic Protozoa whose zygotes break up inside a membrane into numerous sporozoites. Nutrition purely osmotic. Chromosome reduction at the first division of the zygote nucleus. 1. Order Coccidiomorpha. Telosporidia in which the vegetative individual dispenses with every cell organoid; they flourish inside cells and reproduce by multiple division. (a) Sub-order Coccidia. From the sporozoites or merozoites arise the vegetative Individuals or macrogametocytes and microgametocytes, which give rise to a large number of gametes. The zygote breaks up inside its membrane into several sporoblasts which themselves grow an enveloping membrane to become spores and whose protoplasm breaks up into sporozoites. Coccidians are

634

PROTOZOA

found in many different groups of animals, including man, and in the most diverse tissues, very often in gut cells; some cause dangerous diseases, as Eimeria stiedae, a serious intestinal complaint of the rabbit; others are practically innocuous. Important types: Eimeria stiedae (rabbit), Eimeria schubergi (intestine of Lithobius forficatus, a centipede), Aggregata eberthi (intestine of Sepia and crabs). One family of the Coccidia, the Haemogregarinae, provides the transition to the Haemosporideae. The Haemogregarinae are distinguished from other coccidians, with which the resemblance is otherwise very close, in that the zygote, called the odkinete because it is at first motile, is enveloped in a membrane; the sporozoites have no spore membrane. The haemogregarines are parasites of the red blood corpuscles of reptiles, frogs and mammals; some of them have a similar alternation of host to that of the Haemosporideae; some are pathogenic, such as Hepatozoön perniciosum, of the wild rat. Important types: Karyolysus (chief host, lizards, intermediate host, mites), Hepatozodn (rats). (b) Sub-order Haemosporidia. Coccidiomorpha whose zygotes are without a membrane; they show alternation both of generations and of hosts. They are parasites of the red blood corpuscles

of mammals and birds. Many pathogenic. Important types: Plasmodium vivax, P. falciparum (the cause of ague or tertian fever in man), Plasmodium malariae (quaternary malaria), Laverania malariae (tropical fever of man), Haemoproteus (various birds). The Babesiae lie very close to the true haemosporidians but their fertilization and development are insufficiently known. They are parasites of the red blood corpuscles (intermediate hosts, ticks) and often pathogenic. Important types: Theileria parva (coastal fever of cattle in Africa), Babesia bigemma (Texas fever of cattle in America), Babesia canis (malignant jaundice of dogs). 2. Order Gregarinidae. Telosporidia whose bodies have usually a definite individual shape. The zygote changes into a spore which contains many sporozoites. (a) Sub-order Eugregarinaria (Gregarines). The body of the typical gregarine is made of at least two elements—the protomerite and the deuteromerite, the latter containing the nucleus (see fig. 25); a third element when present is called the epimerite, and is usually developed as an attachment organ. The possession of longitudinal and circumferential myonemes is highly characteristic; the peculiar creeping movement described earlier is also characteristic. The gregarines are parasites of the gut and bodycavities of invertebrate animals and are for the most part harmless. They occur chiefly in insects and annelid worms, living not inside the cells but (at least in their young stages) clinging to them by the epimerite. The mature animals are usually quite freely motile. Alternation of hosts does not occur. True gregarines cannot reproduce agametically but only sexually, as shown above. It should also be mentioned that the cysts in which the gametes are enclosed can produce processes of various forms which assist in the distribution of the spores. Important types: Monocystis (in the seminal vesicles of various earthworms), Gregarina blattarum (in the gut of the cockroach), Gregarina cuneata (in the gut of the larvae

of the meal-bug). (b) Sub-order Schizogregarinaria. These gregarines are transitional forms between the true gregarines and the coccidians; the vegetative individuals are not far removed in body structure from the gregarines but can reproduce asexually like the coccidians by multiple division. Fertilization however is like that in the gregarines; but only small numbers of gametes and spores are formed. The Schizogregarinaria flourish in various invertebrate animals, such as insects and crabs, but are for the most part innocuous. Some, such as Porospora, have an alternation of hosts. Important types: Ophryocystis (Malpighian tubules of the meal-bug), Porospora (gut of the lobster and other crustaceans, with fertilization in mussels). 4. Class Neosporidia.—Multinucleate plasmodial Protozoa almost destitute of cell organoids; the spores are equipped with a complex polar capsule. Entirely parasitic, nutrition osmotic. No flagellate stage. Some forms show an amoeboid movement.

1. Order M+yxosporidig,

The vegetative individuals are more

[CLASSIFICATION

or less formless clumps, often showing amoeboid movement; they contain in the fully developed condition many thousands of nuclei. They are able to reproduce themselves asexually both by simple

fission and by gemmation; they can also form spores, though

whether fertilization precedes this process, or follows it, we cannot

say. The Myxosporidia flourish in the tissues and body cavities (such as gut and gall-bladders) of fishes and amphibians, and some are pathogenic. Important types: Myxobolus pfeiferi (cause of barbel-pest), Myxobolus neurobius (forms swellings in the brain and spinal marrow of trout and graylings), Myxidium lieberkiihnit (urinary bladder of pike; harmless). 2. Order Microsporidia. The vegetative individuals look just like those of the Myxosporidia and simply multiply asexually. The Microsporidia are all cell-parasites of various animals: many are pathogenic for the vegetative individuals may grow to an enormous size and thus cause swellings. Important types: Glugea anomala (in stickleback, pathogenic), Thelohania (in larvae of gnats), Nosema apis (cause of Isle of Wight disease of bees), Nosema bombycis (cause of pébrine disease of silk worms), 3. Order Haplosporidia. The true Haplosporidia are probably Microsporidia whose spores do not produce a polar capsule. They occur in the tissues of animals, chiefly invertebrates; distinctly

pathogenic forms have not been found. Important types: Haplosporidium (in various worms), Ichthyosporidium (in marine fishes, such as Crenilabrus). Many forms of “Sporozoa” have been included in this group about whose developmental history nothing exact is known; for example, Rhinosporidium seeberi, which produces tumours in the mucous membrane of the nose in man. Some of these forms belong perhaps to the Haplosporidia; others, however, to the fungi. 4. Order Actinomyxidia. The vegetative stages of these pro-

tozoans are not yet well known. Spore-formation probably follows a course broadly the same as that described for the Haplosporidia; there is for instance a paedogamous fertilization. The spores are very complex, of triradiate symmetry and containing three polar capsules. A very peculiar character is the way the spore-shell, in some species, is formed not around the amoeboid germ but quite apart from it, the germ only slipping into the shell when the latter is complete. Almost all known Actinomyxidia

live in the Tubificidae (relatives of the earthworm) and are more

or less harmless. Important types:—Sphaeroactinomyxon, Triactinomyxon. 5. Order Sarcosporidia, It is still doubtful if these protozoans are related to the Neosporidia or not, their life-cycle being as yet

imperfectly known.

The vegetative individuals or “utricles” are

usually oval or spindle-shaped multinucleate clumps, which may attain to a considerable size—as much as two inches long. The Sarcosporidia are muscle-parasites of vertebrates, chiefly mammals; the utricle in its young stages lies in the muscle-fibres, the adult utricle lies between them. Some species are markedly pathogenic, for example Sarcocystis miescheriana of the pig, which may lead to laming of the hind legs. It is noteworthy that it was in the Sarcosporidia that toxins were first recognized. Important

types: Sarcocystis miescheriana (pig), Sarcocystis tenella (sheep). 5. Class Ciliophora. Protozoa that move by means of numerous cilia; free-living or parasitic. I1. Order Opalinida. Uniformly ciliate Protozoa, usually multinucleate, whose nuclei (in contradistinction to those of the Ciliata) are all alike (fig. 24). Harmless intestinal parasites, feeding osmotically. Reproduction by simple fission; fertilization is by copulation, this being a second distinction from the Ciliata.

Important types:—Opalina ranarum (rectum of the grass frog). 2. Order Ciliata. (Infusoria.) More or less uniformly ciliate, nuclei varying from two to many, always of two kinds, macro-

and micronuclei (fig. 4). Only the latter kind can divide mitotically, the macronuclei degenerate at conjugation. Most ciliates are free-living and take in food by gulping it or whirling it in. The

same applies to most of the parasitical forms—the greater part

of which are external or intestinal parasites; but there are also parasitic forms that feed osmotically. Alternation of hosts does not occur. These organisms are unicellular throughout but some times form colonies. Reproduction by simple transverse fission

PROUDHON or (more rarely) by multiple division in a cyst. Fertilization by conjugation.

The Ciliata are divided according to the arrangement of the

cilia and other characteristics into numerous groups which need not be further discussed here.

Important types:—Paramaecium

(fig. 4), Seylonychia, Vorticella, Stentor (fig. 3), Chilodon (fig. 8),

Didinium (fig. 5) (all free-living pond-dwellers), Tintinnus (and related marine plankton forms, with cup- or jug-shaped shells), Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (parasitic on the skins of fresh-water fish, trout, etc.; pathogenic), Balantidium coli (gut of man and of the pig; possibly not quite harmless),

Ophryoscolex,

Ento-

dinium and related forms (characterized by meagre ciliation and possession of a strong cellulose armour; enormously abundant in the stomachs of almost all the hoofed animals—cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, antelopes, etc.), probably symbionts like the Trichonymphidae, but not indispensable.

3. Order Suctoria. These Protozoa although without cilia show their close relationship to the ciliates in the possession of macroand micro-nuclei and by their conjugation.

For the most part

they are free-living and sessile. They feed themselves by sucking

tubules, to which the passing prey sticks, remains attached and

is finally sucked up. The parasitic forms—almost all ectoparasites—also feed themselves in this peculiar way. The Suctoria are usually uninucleate, always unicellular. Reproduction by simple or multiple gemmation; sometimes the gemma forms inside the mother-animal in the so-called brood-pouch; the liberated gemmae are freely-moving ciliate organisms at first, only becoming sessile later. Fertilization: conjugation. Important types: Tokophrya, Sphaerophrya pusilla (one of the few protozoans that live on other protozoans, such as Paramaecium and other ciliates); Dendrocometes paradoxus (an ectoparasite on the gill-plates of the fresh-water shrimp Gammarus). BrBLioGRAPHY.—Only given.

The

literature

the most important general text-books are of special groups

is quoted in these books.

O. Bütschli, Protozoen in Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Tierreichs, three volumes (1880-89), out-of-date in many ways, but good for the Ciliata; von Prowazek-Nöller, Handbuch der pathogenen Protozoen (Leipzig, 1911-28), in many parts considerably out-of-date; E. A. Mindin, An Introduction to the Study of the Protozoa with special reference to the parasitic forms (London, 1912), out-of-date in many particulars; M. Hartmann and C. Schilling, Die pathogenen Protozoen und die durch sie verursachten Krankheiten (Berlin, 1917), primarily a survey of the pathogenic forms; A. Kühn, Morphologie der Tiere in Bildern, “Flagellata” (Berlin, 1922) ; “Rhizopoda” (1926), deals only with anatomical structure; W. Nöller, Die wichtigsten parasitischen Protozoen des Menschen und der Tiere (Berlin, 1922), one volume, “General & Rhizopoda,” only at present out and the book deals

only with parasites; G. N. Calkins, The Biology of the Protozoa (1926), deals very thoroughly with the Ciliata; C. M. Wenyon, Proto-

zoology (1926), only deals completely with parasitic forms, but in this' respect the best modern book; Doflein-Reichenow, Lehrbuch der

Protozoenkunde

(Jena, 1927~28), the best exhaustive modern work.:

see also R. W. Hegner, Protozoology (1930).

PROUDHON,

PIERRE

JOSEPH

(K. T. B.)

(1809-1865), French

socialist and political writer, was born on Jan. 15, 1809, at Besancon. He came of poor parents, and was mainly self-educated. At 19 he became a working compositor; and later, as a proofreader, he acquired a competent knowledge of theology and Hebrew, which he compared with Greek, Latin and French. On the strength of the knowledge acquired in this way he wrote an Essai de grammaire générale. In 1838 he obtained the pension Suard, a bursary of 1,500 francs a year for three years, for the encouragement of young men of promise, which was in the gift of

the academy of Besancon. In 1839 he wrote a treatise L’Utilité de la célébration dudimanche which contained the germs of his revolutionary ideas, and in the following year, after a short sojourn in Paris, he published Quw’est-ce que la propriété? His famous answer, “La propriété, c’est le vol” (property is theft), displeased the academy of Besançon, and there was some talk of withdrawing his pension; but he held it for the regular period. For his third memoir on property, which took the shape of a letter to the Fourierist, Considérant, he was tried at Besançon but was acquitted. In 1846 he published his greatest work, the Système des contradictions économiques ou philosophie de la misère. In 1847 he settled in Paris, and in the following year gained notoriety during

635

the revolution. He was the moving spirit of the Représentant du peuple and other journals of advanced views, and as member of assembly for the Seine department he proposed an impost of one-

third on interest and rent, which was rejected. His attempt to found a bank which should operate by granting gratuitous credit was also a complete failure. For his violent speeches, Proudhon suffered three years of imprisonment at Paris. As Proudhon aimed at economic rather than political innovation, he accepted the second empire, and lived in comparative quiet till the publication of his work, De la Justice dans la révolution et dans l'eglise (1858), in which he attacked the church and other existing institutions. To escape imprisonment he fled to Brussels, returning later to France in broken health. He died at Passy on Jan. 16, 1865. Personally Proudhon was one of the most remarkable figures of modern France. His life was marked by the severest simplicity; he was affectionate in his domestic relations, a loyal friend, and strictly upright in conduct. He opposed the prevailing French socialism; and, though an enemy of the dominant ideas and institutions, he was free from feelings of personal hate. In all that he said and did he was the son of the people, who had not been broken to the usual social and academic discipline; hence his roughness, his one-sidedness, and his exaggerations; but he is always vigorous, and often brilliant and original. Although in his own words “the great part of his publications formed only a work of dissection and ventilation, so to speak, by means of which he slowly makes his way towards a superior conception of political and economic laws,” yet the groundwork of his teaching is clear. He believed in the absolute truth of a few moral ideas, with which it was his aim to mould and suffuse political economy. Of these fundamental ideas, justice, liberty and equality were the chief. What he desiderated, for instance, in an ideal society was perfect equality of remuneration on the principle that the duration of labour is the just measure of value. He pursued this theory to its logical conclusion, but looked forward to a period in human development when the present inequality in the capacity of men would be reduced to an inappreciable minimum. From the principle of service as the equivalent of service is derived his axiom that property is the right of aubaine, i.e., the right in virtue of which the sovereign, from the earliest monarchy, claimed the goods of an unnaturalized stranger who had died in his territory. Property is a right of the same nature, with a like power of appropriation in the form of rent, interest, etc. Proudhon’s aim was to realize a science of society resting on principles of justice, liberty and equality thus understood; “a science absolute, rigorous, based on the nature of man and of his faculties, and on their mutual relations, a science which we have not to invent, but to discover.” But he saw that such ideas could only be realized through a long process of social transformation. He attacked the schools of Saint-Simon and Fourier for thinking that society could be changed off-hand by a ready-made and complete scheme of reform. In social change Proudhon distinguishes between the transition and the perfection of achievement. With regard to the transition he advocated the progressive abolition of the right of aubaine, by reducing interest, rent, etc., but he had no clear conception of the goal. The organization he desired was one on collective principles, a free association which would take account of the division of labour, and which would maintain the personality both of the man and the citizen. Connected with this was his famous paradox of anarchy, as the goal of the free development of society, by which he meant that through the ethical progress of men government should become unnecessary. “Government of man by man in every form,” he says, “is oppression. The highest perfection of society is found in the union of order and anarchy.” Proudhon, indeed, was the first to use the word anarchy, not in its revolutionary sense, but to express the highest perfection of social organization. A complete edition of Proudhon’s works, including his posthumous

writings, was published at Paris (1875). See also P. J. Proudhon, sa vie et sa correspondance, by Sainte-Beuve (1875); Beauchéry, Economie sociale de P. J. Proudhon (Lille, 1867); Spoll, P. J. Proudhon, étude biographique (1867); Marchegay, Silhouette de Proudhon (1868); Putlitz, P. J. Proudhon, sein Leben und seine positiven Ideen (1881) ;

636

PROUST—PROUSTITE

Diehl, P. J. Proudhon, seine Lehre und sein Leben (Jena, 1888-89); Miilberger, Studien iiber Proudhon (Stuttgart, 1891) ; Desjardins, P. J. Proudhon, sa vie, ses oeuvres et sa doctrine (1896) ; Miilberger, P. J.

Proudhon (Stuttgart, 1899).

PROUST, JOSEPH LOUIS (1754-1826), French chemist,

prisoned, as in a net, his whole experience of life; in which the salon life he loved was revived in all its details and observances like the court life in Saint-Simon’s memoirs; in which the people he had known provided the materials for new, fuller and richer characters (M. de Charlus, for example, is a blending of three dif-

was born on Sept. 26, 1754, at Angers, where his father was an apothecary. After beginning the study of chemistry in his father’s shop he came to Paris and became apothecary in chief to the Salpetriére, also lecturing on chemistry at the musée of the aeronaut J. F. Pilatre de Rozier, whom he accompanied in a balloon ascent in 1784. Next, he went to Spain, where he taught chemistry first at the artillery school of Segovia, and then at Salamanca, finally becoming in 1789 director of the royal laboratory at Madrid. In 1808 he lost both his position and his money by the fall of his patron (Charles IV.), and retired first to Craon in

ferent people of Proust’s acquaintance), and in which the author sought out and lived the past over again. Hence the general title

Mayenne and then to Angers, where he died on July 5, 1826. Proust’s great contribution to chemistry was his establishment of

When it did appear its qualities were at once appreciated by Léon Daudet, whose enthusiastic articles, followed by the award of the Prix Goncourt in 1918, brought Proust’s name prominently be-

the fundamental principle of the constant composition of many compounds. On this subject he maintained a long controversy with C. L. Berthollet, who was led by his doctrine of mass-action to deny that substances always combine in constant and definite proportions. Proust, on the other hand, maintained that compounds always contain definite quantities of their constituent elements, and that in cases where two or more elements unite to form more than one compound, the proportions in which they are, present vary per saltum, not gradually. In 1799 he proved that copper carbonate, whether natural or artificial, always has the same composition, and later he showed that the two oxides of tin and the two sulphides of iron always contain the same relative weights of their components and that no intermediate indeterminate compounds exist. His analytical skill enabled him to demonstrate the inaccuracy of the researches by which Berthollet attempted to support the opposite view, and to show among other things that some of the compounds which Berthollet treated as oxides were in reality hydrates containing chemically combined water, and the upshot was that by 1808 he had fully

vindicated his position.

Proust also investigated the varieties

of sugar that occur in sweet vegetable juices, distinguishing three kinds, and he showed that the sugar in grapes, of which he announced the existence to his classes at Madrid in 1799, is identical with that obtained from honey by the Russian chemist J. T. Lowitz (1757-1804). Besides papers in scientific periodicals he published Indagaciones sobre el estañada de cobre, la vajilla de estaño y el vidriado (1803); Mémoire sur le sucre de raisins (1808); Recueil des mémoires relatifs

& la poudre a canon (1815) ; and Essai sur une des causes qui peuvent amener la formation du calcul (1824).

PROUST, MARCEL

(1871-1922), French man of letters,

was born in Paris on July 10, 1871. His father was a professor of medicine, and his mother was of Jewish extraction. He was educated at the lycée Condorcet, and about 1892 he was for some time associated with Léon Blum, Louis Mirhlfeld and Tristan Bernard on the Revue Blanche, a periodical conducted by a select group of intellectuals, mostly Jewish. Becoming a favourite in

given to the 15 volumes of the series, A la recherche du temps

perdu (1913, etc.). This lengthy work had almost been completed when Proust published the first part, Du côté de chez Swann, in 1913. The freshness and minuteness of the recollections of childhood attracted some attention, but none the less Proust, who had had to publish the first part at his own expense, had difficulty in finding

a publisher for the second, L’ombre des jeunes filles en fleurs,

fore the public, and he was read, discussed and criticised everyTwo more parts appeared during Proust’s lifetime—Le cété de Guermantes and Sodome et Gomorrhe, both in 1921,

where.

When he died in Paris, Nov. 18, 1922, he left three parts still in manuscript—La prisonniére, published in 1924, Albertine Disparue

(1926) and Le temps retrouvé (1926). Proust’s influence, especially since his death, has been con-

siderable.

He introduced into the novel an analytic method which

has a superficial resemblance to that of Meredith, but is more properly comparable with that of Freud. That the name and notion of time should appear in the general title of his great work is not without significance. By a curious coincidence he was related by marriage to Bergson, the philosopher of “creative time,” and the term “creative time” aptly describes the psychological time which Proust explores, seeks and recovers. His people are never given as “characters” in the fashion of La Bruyère or Balzac; they are always in process of development, change and continual creation. Part of Proust’s success was due to the very thing that is likely to tell against his lasting reputation, viz.: the fact that his characters, beginning with the “I” of the book, are exceptional, an erotic and mysterious group having little in common with the generality of mankind. This is true not only of Sodome et Gomorrhe and Proust’s emphasis upon homosexuality, but also of the idle life and ultimate nothingness of the people of his world, their lack of all interests other than those of social life, and the indifference that the ordinary reader must always feel as to their fate. On the other hand, there will be a taste for Proust so long as there is a taste for pyschology as an end in itself, and so long as the play of memory, the searching and brooding that pertain to

the conquest of the past, afford to some men a sufficient reason for living or a romantic manner of not living. The following translations by C. K. Scott Moncrieff appeared in English: Swann’s Way (1922); Within a Budding Grove (1924); The

Guermantes Way (1925); Cities of the Plain (trans. of Sodome et Gomorrhe) (2 vols. 1927); The Captive (1929). (A.T.)

the salons—especially those of Mme. de Caillavet and Madeliene See Marcel Proust, an English tribute, collected by C. K. Scott Lemaire—he wrote a number of society love-stories (collected Moncrieff (1923) ; Jacques Riviere, Marcel Proust (1924); L. Pierrein 1896 under the title Les plaisirs et les jours) distinguished by Quint, Marcel Proust, sa vie, son oeuvre (1925, Eng. trs. 1927); their psychological subtlety. He also attained reputation as a Benoist-Méchin, La Musique et Pimmortalité dans l'oeuvre de Marcel clever writer of pastiches. He became an enthusiastic admirer of Proust (1926); R. Dreyfus, Marcel Proust à dix-sept ans (1926), and Souvenirs sur Marcel Proust (1926); G. Gabory, Essai sur MarJohn Ruskin and translated several of his works into French, in- cel Proust (1926); Marcel Proust, by various writers, with bibliogcluding the Bible of Amiens, to which he contributed a valuable raphy (1926); P. Souday, Marcel Proust (1927); R. Fernandez, Les Cahiers de Marcel Proust (1924); and Clive Bell, Proust (1928). preface. In 1902 Proust’s health began to fail. Thenceforward he was His Lettres inédites were published with a preface by Camille Vettard reluctantly obliged to lead an extremely retired and careful life, in 1926. Chroniques, a selection of his articles chiefly from Le Figaro, was edited by R. Proust (1927). and for many years it looked as if he had altogether abandoned litPROUSTITE, a mineral consisting of silver sulpharsenite, erature, in which his name hitherto had not been known outside a small circle of friends. He was reading and writing a great deal, Ag:AsSs, known also as light red silver ore, and an important however. The interminable discursiveness of Ruskin, which French readers do not suffer gladly, was to him a constant source of delight, and Saint-Simon, ever one of his favourite authors, exerted a powerful influence upon him at this time. Thus it came about that, having unlimited time at his disposal, he embarked upon a long and leisurely work, full of minute detail, in which was im-

source of the metal.

It is closely allied to the corresponding

sulphantimonite, pyrargyrite, from which it was distinguished by the chemical analyses of J. L. Proust in 1804, after whom the mineral received its name. Many of the characters being 50

similar to those of pyrargyrite (g.v.) they are mentioned under

that species. The colour is scarlet-vermilion and the lustre ada-

PROUT— PROVENÇAL

LANGUAGE

AND

LITERATURE

637

mantine; crystals are transparent and very brilliant, but on exposure to light they soon become dull black and opaque. The streak is scarlet, the hardness 2-5, and the specific gravity 5-57. The mode of occurrence is the same as that of pyrargyrite, and

to Northern France, Italy, Spain and Portugal. When Languedoc passed to the House of France (1272) two languages, Latin almost exclusively and French to a very limited degree, were employed for administrative purposes. Minute examination of the the two minerals are sometimes found together. Magnificent documents contained in the archives of Southern France has regroups of large crystals have been found at Chafiarcillo in Chile; cently proved that French exerted only inappreciable influence other localities which have yielded fine specimens are Freiberg upon Provençal down to the close of mediaeval times. The and Marienberg in Saxony. Frenchification was not the outcome of a long, slow process. PROUT, SAMUEL (1783-1852), English water-colour Indeed at the end of the Hundred Years’ War, Provençal was painter, was born at Plymouth on Sept. 17, 1783. He spent whole still highly vigorous both in administrative and general use; it summer days, in company with the ill-fated Haydon, in drawing was then, from 1450 to 1600, very rapidly penetrated by French. the quiet cottages, rustic bridges and romantic water-mills of First to yield was Northern Limousin; it was followed next by Devon. It was not however, until about 1818, when he visited the Périgord, Bordelais, Agenais, then Gascony, and finally by the Continent and first saw the quaint streets and market-places of Pyrenees which resisted till the last years of the 18th century. continental cities, that Prout discovered his proper sphere. All his The initial period of this penetration may be placed about 1540 faculties sprang into unwonted activity. His eye readily caught the (see A. Brun, Recherches historiques sur introduction du franpicturesque features of the architecture, and his hand recorded çais dans les provinces du midi, 1923), The various patois, conthem in drawings which were admirable in line, composition and tinuing to be spoken by the middle class and peasantry developed colour. At the time of his death, on Feb. 10, 1852, there was freely. The new lease of life upon which the Southern idioms scarcely a nook in France, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands entered during the second half of the roth century, must not be which his quiet, benevolent, observant eye had not searched for regarded as an unexpected accident. It had been prepared by antique gables and sculptured pieces of stone. In Venice especially the reawakening sense of nationality and promoted by the efforts there was hardly a pillar which his eye had not lovingly studied of scholars, historians and men of letters, all of whom united and his pencil had not dexterously copied. in lauding the qualities of the ancient tongue and urging the See a memoir of Prout, by John Ruskin, in Art Journal for 1849, Southerners to voice their native feelings and aspirations in and the same author’s Notes on the Fine Art Society’s Loan Collection of Drawings by Samuel Prout and William Hunt (1879-80) ; see also their native “language.” Amongst the leading representatives of the “Winter Number” of the Studio (1914-15), for reproductions of the movement must be mentioned F. Mistral, not only on achis sketches. count of his literary masterpieces, especially his immortal Miréio PROUT, WILLIAM (1785-1850), English chemist and (1859), but also for his publication of Lou Tresor d'ou Felibrige physician, was born at Horton, Gloucestershire, on Jan. 15, 1785, (1878-86), the Provencal French dictionary which conferred and died in London on April 9, 1850. His life was spent as a lettres de noblesse on the new classical language of Provence, practising physician in London, but he also occupied himself with sprung from divers patois of the Bouches-du-Rhône. Provençal chemical research. He was an active worker in physiological (including Catalan) is spoken by some 10,000,000 persons in chemistry, and found in 1803 that the acid contents of the stomach France. contain hydrochloric acid which is separable by distillation. In The Provengal dialects are less divergent from Latin than is

1815.he published anonymously in the Annals of Philosophy a the case with French. The following particulars will help to paper in which he calculated that the atomic weights of a number make clear what has been called “the archaic character” of of tke elements are multiples of that of hydrogen; and in a second Provencal and give, at the same time, a concise view of its special paper published in the same periodical the following year he sug- phonetic features. gested that the mporn wAn of the ancients is realized in hydroI. VOWELS gen, from which the other elements are formed by some process of condensation or grouping. This view, generally known as “Prout’s (a) Latin tonic free vowels: L. amare, Pr. amar (later ama), hypothesis,” at least had the merit of stimulating inquiry, and F. amer (later aimer). L. pedem, Pr.pe, F. pre (later spelt pied). many of the careful determinations of atomic weights undertaken L. credere, Pr. crezer (later crese in some parts), Bearnais creder since its promulgation have been provoked by the desire to test (later crede); F. cree (later crorre); L. solum, Pr. sol, Fr. sul its validity. It is also particularly interesting in view of recent de- (later seul); L. florem, Pr. flor, F. four (later feur). velopments in the study of atomic structure (see Atom). (b) Latin tonic free diphthong au: L. aurum, Pr. aur, F. or. (c) Posttonic a: L. clara, Pr. clara (later claro), F. clerg (later PROVENCAL LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The term Provençal is employed in two different meanings. claire). (1) Lato sensu, it embraces all idioms of Latin origin spoken in Southern France over a zone extending south of a line which starts at the mouth of the Gironde, passes through Bordeaux, Libourne, Mussidan, Péngueux, Nontron, Mouhet, Bellac, Limoges, Guéret, Chénérailles, Montluçon, Verneuil, Clermont-Ferrand, Saint-Bonnet-le-Château, Saint Sauveur-en-Rue, Gilhoc, Saint-Vallier, Romans, Die, Montmaur and finishes at Puy-Saint

André. (2) Stricto sensu, it is applied to the idioms spoken in the Alpes-Maritimes, Basses-Alpes, Var and Bouches-du-Rhône departments. It was long customary to distinguish the dialects of Southern France by the names of the old provinces in which they occur, viz., Béarnais, Languedocien, Rouergat, etc. The classification now generally adopted is: (1) Gascon, (2) Proven-

çal moyen and Provençal alpin (from Agen to Mentone), (3) Auvergnat and Limousin, (4) Catalan (g.v.). With the r2th century arose a literary language used as a Kou?)

by the Troubadors.

As some of the most celebrated of these

poets, Bernard de Ventadour, Arnaud Daniel, Bertrand de Born

and Jaucelm Faidit came from the Limousin, this xow7 was long known as lengua lemosina; a name, however, not to be misinterpreted. The literary language was not homogeneous, but composite.

The Troubadors conveyed this form of Provençal with them

(d) Latin intertonic free a: L. duramente, durement. IL. CONSONANTS

Pr. duramen,

F. “

(e) Latin C and G before A were kept C and G in Provencal (except Limousin and Auvergne) and became CH (first pronounced TCH) and J (first pronounced DJ) in French (except Normanno-Picard dialect where they persisted as C and G, like Provencal): L. caballum, Pr. Caval, F. cHeral; L. callina, Pr. Galina (later calino), F. celine. (f) Latin intervocalic C: L. pacare, Pr. pacar (later paca), F. pacer; L. securum, Pr. secur (in part of Basses-Pyrénées secur). Latin intervocalic G: L. placa, Pr. placa (later placo), F. plaie; L. ruca, Pr. ruca (later ruco), F. rue. Latin intervocalic T: L. vita, Pr. vipa (later vino), F. vie; L. quaTernum, Pr. cazern, F. cahier. Latin intervocalic D: L. crepere, Pr. crezer (in part of Basses-Pyrénées creper), F. creire (later croire). N.B. In some parts of Mod. Pr. therẹ is a form creire which

represents the state of evolution to be found in France till the 13th century.

Latin intervocalic DR,

TR: L. quapratum, Pr.

carrat, F. carré, L. patrem, Pr. parre, F. pére (later père). (g) In the group S-++1 or 2 consonants, s has been kept in Provencal spelling and pronunciation;

from French pronuncia-

638

PROVENÇAL

LANGUAGE

tion it disappeared since the 13th century, although it was preserved in spelling till the middle of the 18th century (suppressed in the 3rd edition of the Dictionnaire de l'Académie Française, 1740); L. scribere, Pr. escriure, F. escrire (later écrire); L. castellum, Pr. castel, F. chasteau (later château). (h) Among the final consonants let us quote p, v, s, Vulg. L. capum (cl. L. caput), Pr. cap (a regression of cat—a form which is not attested in the documents at our disposal), F. chier; L. brevem, Pr. brèu, F. brer. Final s has been preserved both in spelling and pronunciation in the greatest part of Provençal; it disappeared from the pronunciation of French in the course of the 13th century. L. causas, Pr. cauzas (later cauzos), F. choses. Among the Provencal dialects Gascon has quite peculiar features, the following three are most specially characteristic: (a) Change of Latin intervocalic JJ to r; L. appeLLare, Gasc. aperar (later apera); (b) change of Latin final I to ¢: L. agneLLum, Gasc. agneT; (c) change of Latin f to aspirate k: L. Femina,

AND

LITERATURE

dition to the Holy Land in rror.

And it must further be men-

tioned that in one of his pieces (Ben voil que sapchon lì plusor) he

makes a very clear allusion to a kind of poetry which we know

only by the specimens of later date, the partimen, or, as it is called in France, the jeu parti. William IX. was born in 1071 and died in 1127. The contrast in form and subject between the Boethius

poem and the stanzas of William IX. is an indication that by the tith century Provençal poetry was being rapidly developed in

various directions. Whence came this poetry? How and by whose work was it formed? That it has no connection whatever with Latin poetry is generally admitted. The view which seems to meet with general acceptance, though it has not been distinctly formu-

lated by any one, is that Romanic poetry sprang out of a popular poetry quietly holding its place from the Roman times, no specimen of which has survived—just as the Romanic languages

are only continuations with local modifications of Vulgar Latin, There are both truth and error in this opinion. Romanic versifica-

Gasc. Femna till the end of the 13th century, then Hemna (later Henno). Note that there are two other peculiar features (d) the pronunciation of b as in Spanish (ż.e., an intermediary sound between b and v); (e) the fall of Latin intervocalic n as in Portuguese: L. gallina, Gasc. garia (later gario). But (d) has gone beyond Gascony since the middle ages, and (e) is not to be found in Bordelais. As general remarks on the morphology it may be pointed out that the declension of nouns and adjectives ceased to exist earlier than in French: the 13th century is the limit reached by the dis-

tion, as it appears in the Boethius poem and the verses of William IX., and a little farther north in the poem of the Passion and the Life of St. Leger (10th or 11th century), has with all its variety

LITERATURE Provençal literature is much more easily defined than the language in which it is expressed. Starting in the rrth and 12th centuries in several centres it thence gradually spread out, first over the greater portion, though not the whole of southern France, and then into the north of Italy and Spain.

language it understood; and vernacular literature continued gradually to develop partly on original lines and partly by borrowing from the literature of the “‘clerks.” From what class of persons then did it proceed? Latin chroniclers of the middle ages mention as ioculares, toculatores, men of a class not very highly esteemed whose profession consisted in amusing their audience either by what we still call jugglers’ tricks, by exhibiting performing animals, or by recitation and song. They are called joglars in Provencal, jonglers or jongleurs in French; and they were the first authors of poetry in the vernacular both in

some general and permanent characteristics; it is rhymed, and it is composed of a definite number of syllables certain of which

have the syllabic accent. This form has evident affinity with the rhythmic Latin versification, of which specimens exist from the close of the Roman empire in ecclesiastical poetry. The exact type of Romanic verse is not found, however, in this ecclesiastical

Latin poetry; the latter was not popular. However, it may be assumed that there was a popular rhythmic poetry from which Romanic verse is derived. tinction between the two cases. In some parts like Béarn no Again, as regards the substance, the poetic material, we find trace of any declension at any time is to be found. In the conjugation we find (a) a past simple ending in—ei (like cantei, can- nothing in the earliest Provençal which is strictly popular. The test, cantet, cantem, cantetz, canteron; vendei, vendest, etc.), most extremely personal compositions of William IX. have nothing in likely corresponding to L.—édi—éti, as in dedi steti. (b) a rem- common with folk-lore. They are subjective poetry addressed to nant of Latin pluperfect ending in aram (contracted from a very limited and probably rather aristocratic audience. The averam), tram (contracted from iveram), ederam, e.g., cantara same may be said of the Boethius poem, though it belongs to the or cantera, partira, vendera used in the meaning of a conditional. quite different species of edifying literature; at any rate it is not There is a great similarity in the aspect of old and modern popular poetry. Vernacular compositions seem to have been at Provencal. The only important facts since the r5th century are first produced for the amusement, or in the case of religious poetry, (a) the change of final a into o (except in some parts where it for the edification, of that part of lay society which had leisure has persisted as a, and in others where it became e, closer than and lands, and reckoned intellectual pastime among the good things of life. Gradually this class, intelligent, but with no Latin in French). (i) The great simplification of the conjugations, many verbs education, enlarged the circle of its ideas. In the rath century, and still more in the 13th, historical works and popular treatises having passed to the—ar conjugation. (L. B.)

on contemporary science were composed for its use in the only

Origin.—It took poetic form; and its oldest monuments show a relative perfection and a variety from which it may be concluded that poetry had already received a considerable development. The honour of being the oldest literary monument of the Provençal language must be assigned to a fragment of 257 decasyllabic verses preserved in an Orleans ms. and frequently edited and annotated since it was first printed by Raynouard in 1817 in his Choix des poésies originales des troubadours. The writing of the ms. is of the first half of the r1th century. The peculiarities of the language point to the north of the Provençal region, probably Limousin or Marche. Itis the beginning of a poem in which the unknown author, taking Boethius’s treatise De consolatione philosophiae as the groundwork of his composition, adopts and develops its ideas

the south and in the north of France.

(See Edmond Faral, Les

Jongleurs en France au moyen age, Paris, 1910, and R. Menéndez Pidal, Poesia juglaresca y juglares, Madrid, 1924.) Poetry of the Troubadours.—Centres of poetic activity are found first in Limousin and Gascony. In Limousin lived a vis-

count of Ventadour, Eble, who during the second part of William of Poitiers’s life seems to have been brought into relation

in the original. Thus from some verses in which Boethius contrasts his happy youth with his afflicted old age he draws a lengthy homily on the necessity of laying up from early years a treasure of good works. A little later, at the close of the same century, we have the poems of William IX., count of Poitiers, duke of Guienne. They consist of rr very diverse strophic pieces, and were meant to be sung. We also know from Ordericus Vitalis that William IX.

with him, and according to a contemporary historian, Geffrel, prior of Vigeois, erat valde gratiosus in cantilenis. We possess none of his compositions; but under his influence Bernart of Ventadour was trained to poetry. Bernart gained the love of the lady of Ventadour, and when on the discovery of their amour he had to depart elsewhere, received a gracious welcome from Eleanor of Guienne, consort (from 1152) of Henry IT. of England. Of Bernart’s compositions we possess about 5o songs of elegant simplicity, some of which may be taken as the most perfect specimens of love poetry Provencal literature has ever produced. At the same pê-

had composed various poems on the incidents of his ill-fated expe-

riod, or earlier, flourished Cercamon, a Gascon, who composed,

and gives them a Christian colouring of which there is no trace

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LANGUAGE

AND

LITERATURE

639

James I., king of Aragon (1213-1276), Peire Cardinal, Bernart Sicart de Maruejols, Guiraut Riquier, At de Mons; Peter III., king of Aragon (1276—1285), Paulet of Marseilles, Guiraut Riquier, Serveri de Girone; AtpHonso IX., king of Leon (11381214), Peire Rogier, Guiraut de Borneil, Aimeric de Pegulhan, Hugh de Saint Circq; ALPHONSO X., king of Castile (1252-1284), Bertran de Lamanon, Bonifaci Calvo, Guiraut Riquier, Folquet de Lunel, Arnaut Plages, Bertran Carbonel. Italy—BontFaceE II., marquis of Montferrat (1192-1207), dours and briefly indicate in what conditions their poetry was developed and through what circumstances it fell into decay and Peire Vidal, Raimbaut de Vacqueiras, Elias Cairel, Gaucelm finally disappeared: Peter of Auvergne (Peire d'Alvernha), who Faidit (?); FREDERICK II., emperor (1215-1250), Jean d’Aubusin certain respects must be classed with Marcabrun; Arnaut son, Aimeric de Pegulhan, Guillem Figueira; Azzo VI., marquis of Daniel, remarkable for his complicated versification, the inventor Este (1196-1212), Aimeric de Pegulhan, Rambertin de Buvalelli; of the sestina, a poetic torm for which Dante and Petrarch express Azzo VIII., marquis of Este (1215-1264), Aimeric de Pegulhan. The first thing that strikes one in this list is that, while the an admiration difficult for us to understand; Arnaut of Mareuil, who, while less famous than Arnaut Daniel, certainly surpasses troubadours find protectors in Spain and Italy, they do not seem to have been welcomed in French-speaking countries. This, howhim in elegant simplicity of form and delicacy of sentiment; Bertran de Born, now the most generally known of all the trouba- ever, must not be taken too absolutely. Provençal poetry was dours on account of the part he is said to have played both by his appreciated in the north of France. There is reason to believe sword and his sirventescs in the struggle between Henry II. of that when Constance, daughter of one of the counts of Arles, was England and his rebel sons, though the importance of his part in married in 998 to Robert, king of France, she brought along with the events of the time seems to have been greatly exaggerated; her Provençal jongleurs. Poems by troubadours are quoted in the Peire Vidal of Toulouse, a poet of varied inspiration who grew French romances of the beginning of the 13th century; some of rich with gifts bestowed on him by the greatest nobles of his time; them are transcribed in the old collections of French songs, and Guiraut de Borneil, lo maestre dels trobadors, and at any rate the preacher Robert de Sorbon informs us in a curious passage master in the art of the so-called “close” style (trobar clus), that one day a jongleur sang a poem by Folquet of Marseilles at though he has also left us some songs of charming simplicity; the court of the king of France. The decline and fall of troubadour poetry was mainly due to Gaucelm Faidit, from whom we have a touching lament (planh) on the death of Richard Coeur de Lion; Folquet of Marseilles, political causes. When about the beginning of the 13th century the most powerful thinker among the poets of the south, who the Albigensian War had ruined a large number of the nobles and from being a troubadour became first a monk, then an abbot, and reduced to lasting poverty a part of the south of France, the profession of troubadour ceased to be lucrative. It was then that finally bishop of Toulouse (d. 1231). The troubadours could hardly expect to obtain a livelihood many of those poets went to spend their last days in the north of from any other quarter than the generosity of the great. It will Spain and Italy, where Provencal poetry had for more than one consequently be well to mention the most important at least of generation been highly esteemed. Following their example, other those princes who are known to have been patrons and some of poets who were not natives of the south of France began to comthem practisers of the poetic art. They are arranged approximately pose in Provencal, and this fashion continued till, about the middle in geographical order, and after each are inserted the names of of the 13th century, they gradually abandoned the foreign tongue in northern Italy, and somewhat later in Catalonia, and took to those troubadours with whom they were connected. France.—ELEANOR OF GUIENNE, Bernart de Ventadour (Venta- singing the same airs in the local dialects. About the same time in dorn); Henry CURTMANTLE, son of Henry II. of England, Ber- the Provengal region the flame of poetry had died out save in a tran de Born (?); RICHARD COEUR DE Liron, Arnaut Daniel, Peire few places—Narbonne, Rodez, Foix and Astarac—where it kept Vidal, Folquet of Marseilles, Gaucelm Faidit; ERMENGARDE OF burning feebly for a little longer. In the 14th century composition NARBONNE (1143—1192), Bernart de Ventadour, Peire Rogier, in the language of the country was still practised; but the proPeire d’Alvernha; Rarmon V., count of Toulouse (1143-1194), ductions of this period are mainly works for instruction and edifiBernart de Ventadour, Peire Rogier, Peire Raimon, Hugh Brunet, cation. As for the poetry of the troubadours, it was dead forever. Form.—Originally the poems of the troubadours were intended Peire Vidal, Folquet of Marseilles, Bernart de Durfort; RAIMON VI., count of Toulouse (1194~1222), Raimon de Miraval, Aimeric to be sung. The poet usually composed the music as well as the de Pegulhan, Aimeric de Belenoi, Ademar lo Negre; ALPHONSE words; and in several cases he owed his fame more to his musical H., count of Provence (1185-1209), Elias de Barjols; RAIMON than to his literary ability. Two manuscripts preserve specimens BERENGER IV., count of Provence (1209-1245), Sordel; BARRAL, of the music of the troubadours, but, though the subject has been viscount of Marseilles (d. c. 1192), Peire Vidal, Folquet de Mar- carefully investigated, we are not able to form a clear opinion seilles; WrLLram VIII., lord of Montpellier (1172—1204), Peire of the originality and of the merits of these musical compositions. Raimon, Arnaut de Mareuil, Folquet de Marseilles, Guiraut de The following are the principal poetic forms which the troubaCalanson, Aimeric de Sarlat; RoBEerT, dauphin of Auvergne (1169- dours employed. The oldest and most usual generic term is vers, 1234), Peirol, Perdigon, Pierre de Maensac, Gaucėlm Faidit; by which is understood any composition intended to be sung, no GUILLAUME DU Baus, prince of Orange (1182—1218), Raimbaut matter what the subject. At the close of the 12th century it be-

says his old biographer, “pastorals” according to the ancient custom (pastorelas a la uzansa antiga). Among the earliest troubadours is Marcabrun, a pupil of Cercamon’s, from whose pen we have about 40 pieces, those which can be approximately dated ranging from 1135 to 1148 or thereabout. His songs, several of which are historical, are free from the commonplaces of their class, and contain curious strictures on the corruptions of the time. We cannot here do more than enumerate the leading trouba-

de Vacqueiras, Perdigon; SAVARIC DE MAULEON (1200-1230), Gaucelm de Puicibot, Hugh de Saint Circq; BLACATZ, a Provençal noble (1200?—1236), Cadenet, Jean d’Aubusson, Sordel, Guillem

came customary to call all verse treating of love canso—the name vers being then more generally reserved for poems on other themes. The sirventesc differs from the vers and the canso only by

Saint Circq; perhaps Hucu IV., count of Rodez (1222?-1274)

topics. The tenson is a debate between two interlocutors, each of whom has a stanza in turn. The partimen (Fr. jeu parti) is also a poetic debate, but it differs from the tension in so far that the range of debate is limited. This poetic game is mentioned by William, count of Poitiers, at the end of the r1th century. The

Figueira; Henry I., count of Rodez (1208-12227), Hugh de its subject, being for the most part devoted to moral and political and Henry II., count of Rodez (1274-1302), Guiraut Folquet de Lunel, Serveri de Girone, Bertran Carbonel; SANCHEZ, count of Roussillon (d. 1241), Aimeric de Bernarp IV., count of Astarac (1249-1291), Guiraut Amanieu de Sescas. i

Spain.—ALPHONSE

II., king of Aragon

Riquier, NuUNYO Belenoi; Riquier,

(1162-1196),

Peire

Rogier, Peire Raimon, Peire Vidal, Cadenet, Guiraut de Cabreira, Elias de Barjols, the monk of Montaudon, Hugh Brunet; PETER I., king of Aragon (1196-1213), Raimon de Miraval, Aimeric

de Pegulhan, Perdigon, Ademar lo Negre, Hugh of Saint Circq;

pastoreta, afterwards pastorela, is in general an account of the love adventures of a knight with a shepherdess. All these classes have one form capable of endless variations: five or more stanzas and one or two envois. The dansa and balada, intended to mark the time in dancing, are pieces with a refrain. The alba, which has also a refrain, is, as the name indicates, a waking or morning song

640

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at the dawning of the day. All those classes are in stanzas.

AND

LITERATURE

The

ture betokens so much quickness of intellect or is so instructive

tween them. It is generally reserved for themes of love. Other kinds of lyric poems, sometimes with nothing new about them except the name, were developed in the south of France; but those here mentioned are the more important. Chansons de Geste and Historical Poems.—Northern France remains emphatically the native country of the chanson de geste ; but, although in the south different social conditions, a more delicate taste, and a higher state of civilization prevented a similar profusion of tales of war and heroic deeds, Provencal literature has some highly important specimens of this class. The first place belongs to Girart de Roussillon, a poem of ten thousand lines, which relates the struggles of Charles Martel with his powerful vassal the Burgundian Gerard of Roussillon. The existing recension seems to have originated on the borders of Limousin and Poitou;

verse very similar to the Provençal ones, and into Italy, where in

descort is not thus divided, and consequently it must be set to in regard to the manners and usages of polite society in the 13th music right through. Its name is derived from the fact that, its century. From the south of France the novel spread into Catacomponent parts not being equal, there is a kind of “discord” be- lonia, where we find in the 14th century a number of novels in

but it is a recast of an older poem no longer extant, probably

either of French or at least Burgundian origin. To Limousin also seems to belong the poem of Aigar and Maurin (end of the 12th century). Of less heroic character is the poem of Daurel and Beton (first half of the 13th century). Midway between legend and his-

tory may be classified the Provencal Chanson of Antioch, a mere fragment of which, 700 verses in extent, has been recovered in Madrid and published in Archives de l’Orient latin, vol. ii. This

poem (see G. Paris, in Romania, xxii. 358), is one of the sources

general the prose form has been adopted. Didactic and Religious Poetry.—The more important works are: Daude de Prades (early 13th century), Auzels cassadors, one of the best sources for the study of falconry; a translation by Rai-

mon d’Avignon (about A.D. 1200) of Rogier of Parme’s “Surgery”

(Romania, x. 63 and 496); the Boethius poem (unfortunately a mere fragment) already mentioned as one of the oldest documents of the language, and really a remarkable work; an early (rath

century?) metrical translation of the famous Disticha de moribus

of Dionysius Cato (Romania, xxv. 98 and xxix. 445). More original are some compositions of an educational character known under the name of ensenhamenz, and, in some respects, com-

parable to the English nurture-books.

The most interesting are

those of Garin le Brun (12th cehtury), Arnaut de Mareuil, Arnaut Guilhem de Marsan, Amanieu de Sescas. Their general object is the education of ladies of rank. Of metrical lives of saints we

possess about a dozen (see Histoire littéraire de la France, vol. xxxii.), among which two or three deserve a particular attention: the life of Sancta Fides (A. Thomas and E. Hoepffner’s editions),

written early in the 12th century; the life of St. Enimia (13th

century), by Bertran of Marseilles (C. Brunel’s edition) and that of St. Honorat of Lerins by Raimon Feraud (about 1300), which is distinguished by variety and elegance of versification, but it is

of the Spanish compilation La gran conquista de Ultramar. To history proper belongs the Chanson of the crusade against the almost entirely a translation from Latin. Lives of saints (St. Albigensians, which, in its present state, is composed of two poems Andrew, St. Thomas the Apostle, St. John the Evangelist) form one tacked to the other: the first, containing the events from the a part of a poem, strictly didactic, which stands out by reason of beginning of the crusade till 1213, is the work of a cleric named its great extent (nearly 35,000 verses) and the somewhat original William of Tudela, a moderate supporter of the crusaders: the conception of its scheme—the Breviari d’amor, a vast encyclosecond, from 1213 to 1218, is by a vehement opponent of the paedia, on a theological basis, composed by the Minorite friar enterprise. The language and style of the two parts are no less Matfre Ermengaut of Béziers ca. 1288—1300. different than the opinions. Finally, about 1280, Guillaume AneDrama.—The dramatic literature of southern France conlier, a native of Toulouse, composed, in the chanson de geste form, sists of mysteries and miracle plays seldom exceeding two or three a poem on the war carried on in Navarre by the French in 1276 thousand lines, which never developed into the enormous dramas and 1277. It is an historical work of little literary merit. All of northern France, whose acting required several consecutive these poems are in the form of chansons de geste, viz. in stanzas of days. Generally those plays belong to the 15th century or to the indefinite length, with a single rhyme. Gerard of Roussillon, Aigar r6th. Still, a few are more ancient and may be ascribed to the and Maurin and Daurel and Beton are in lines of ten, the others in 14th century or even to the end of the 13th. The oldest appears lines of twelve syllables. The peculiarity of the versification to be the Mystery of St. Agnes (edited by Bartsch, 1869), written in Gerard is that the pause in the line occurs after the sixth syl- in Arles. Somewhat more recent, but not later than the beginning lable, and not, as is usual, after the fourth. of the 14th century, is a Passion of Christ (not yet printed) and Narrative Poems.—We possess but three Provençal romances a mystery of the Marriage of the Virgin, which is partly adapted of adventure: Jaufré (composed in the middle of the 13th cen- from a French poem of the 13th century (see Romania xvi. 71). tury and dedicated to a king of Aragon, possibly James I.), Blan- A manuscript, discovered in private archives (printed by Jeanroy din of Cornwall and Guillem de la Barra. Connected with the and Teulié, 1893), contains not less than 16 short mysteries, three romance of adventure is the novel (in Provençal novas, always in founded on the Old Testament, 13 on the New. They were the plural), which is originally an account of an event “newly” written in Rouergue and are partly imitated from French myshappened. Some of those novels which have come down to us teries. At Manosque (Basses Alpes) was found a fragment of a may be ranked with the most graceful works in Provencal litera- Ludus sancti Jacobi, inserted in a register of notarial deeds ture; two are from the pen of the Catalan author Raimon Vidal (printed by C. Amaud, Marseilles, 1858). The region comprised de Besalú. One, the Castia-gilos (the chastisement of the jealous between the Rhone and the Var seems to have been particularly man), is a treatment, not easily matched for elegance, of a fre- fond of representations of this sort, to judge by the entries in the quently-handled theme—the story of the husband who, in order to local records (see Romania xxvii. 400). At the close of the rsth entrap his wife, takes the disguise of the lover whom she is ex- and the beginning of the 16th centuries many mysteries were pecting and receives with satisfaction blows intended, as he thinks, played in that part of Dauphiné which corresponds to the present for him whose part he is playing; the other, The Judgment of department of Hautes-Alpes. Five mysteries of this district, comLove, is the recital of a question of the law of love, departing con- posed and played somewhere about rs500 (the mysteries of St. siderably from the subjects usually treated in the novels. Mention Eustace, of St. Andrew, of St. Pons, of SS. Peter and Paul and of may also be made of the novel of The Parrot by Arnaut de Car- St. Anthony of Vienne), have come down to us, and have been cassonne, in which the principal character is an eloquent parrot, edited by Abbé Fazy (1883), the four others by Canon P. who assists the amorous enterprises of his master. Novels came Guillaume (1883-1888). The influence of the contemporar to be extended to the proportions of a long romance. Flamenca, French sacred drama may to some extent be traced in them. y which belongs to the novel type, has still over eight thousand Prose.—In the r2th century we find in Languedoc sermons, lines, though the only ms. of it has lost some leaves both at the whose importance is more linguistic than literary (Sermons du beginning and at the end. This poem, composed in all probability XIIe siècle en vieux provençal, ed. by F. Armitage, Heilbronn, In 1234, is the story of a lady who by very ingenious devices, not 1884). About the same time, in Limousin, were translated chapters unlike those employed in the Miles gloriosus of Plautus, eludes xiii.=xvii. of St. John’s Gospel (Bartsch, Chrestomathie proventhe vigilance of her jealous husband. No book in mediaeval litera- çale). Various translations of the New Testament and of some

PROVENCAL

LANGUAGE

parts of the Old have been done in Languedoc and Provence dur-

ing the 13th and 14th centuries (see S. Berger, “Les Bibles pro-

vencales et vaudoises,” Romania xviii. 353; and “Nouvelles re-

cherches sur les Bibles provençales et catalanes,” ibid. xix. sos). The Provençal prose rendering of some lives of saints made in the early part of the r3th century (Revue des langues romanes,

1890) is more interesting from a purely linguistic than from a

literary point of view. To the 13th century belong certain lives

of the troubadours intended to be prefixed to, and to explain their poems. Many of them were written before 1250, when the

first anthologies of troubadour poetry were compiled; and some

are the work of the troubadour Hugh of Saint Circq. Some were composed in the north of Italy, at a time when the troubadours found more favour east of the Alps, than in their own country.

Considered as historical documents these biographies are of a very doubtful value. To the same period must be assigned Las Razos de trobar of the troubadour Raimon Vidal de Besalú (an elegant little treatise touching on various points of grammar and the

poetic art), the Donatz proensals of Hugh Faidit, and the Life of St. Douceline, who died in 1274, near Marseilles, and founded an order of Béguines. The leading prose-work of this period is the treatise on grammar, poetry and rhetoric known by the name of Leys d’amors.

(See J. Anglade, Las leys d’amors, 4 vol., Toulouse, 1919-1920.)

The Leys L'amors (composed in Toulouse circa 1350) was to be the starting-point and rule of the new poetry; it is the best pro-

duction of this abortive renaissance. The decay of Provencal literature, caused by political circumstances, arrived too soon to allow of a full development of prose. This accounts, in some measure

for the complete absence of historical compositions. The 14th and 15th centuries were in no respect a prosperous period for literature in the south of France. In the 15th century people began to write French both in verse and prose; and from that time Provencal literature became a thing of the past. From the 16th century such poetry as is written in the vernacular of southern France is generally dependent on French influence. The connection with ancient Provengal literature is entirely broken.

AND

LITERATURE

64.1

In the 16th century there are signs of a revival and we may single out the following: the Gaston Pey de Garros who translated in 1565 the psalms into his dialect, and two years later published a volume of poems; Auger Gaillard (c. 1530-1595); du Bartas (in his trilingual Salut, 1579); Louis Bellaud de la Bellaudière (1532—1588). Post-Renaissance.—Later on come: Claude Brueys (15701650), remarkable chiefly for comedies that deal largely with duped husbands (Jardin deys musos provensalos, not published till 1628); Gaspard Zerbin (La Perlo deys musos et coumedies prouvensalos, 1655). The most consistently popular form of poetry in the south of France was always the noël. Nicholas Saboly (16141675), produced the best pieces of this class. In Languedoc four poets are cited as the best of the age—Goudelin, Michel, Sage and Bonnet. This is certainly so in the case of Pierre Goudelin (Goudouli, 1579—1649), of Toulouse, the most distinguished name in south French literature between the period of the troubadours and that of Jasmin. Goudelin essayed and was successful in almost every short genre (Lou Ramelet Moundi, 1617, republished with additions till 1678), the piece of his which is most generally admired being the stanzas to Henri IV. Other writers worth mentioning in the 17th century are: Jean Michel, of Nimes; Daniel Sage, of Montpellier (Las Foulies, 1650); the avocat Bonnet, author of the best among the open air plays that were annually performed at Béziers on Ascension day: a number of these (dated 1616-1657) were subsequently collected, but none can compare with the opening one, Bonnets Jugement de Péris; Nicolas Fizes, of Frontignan, whose vaudeville, the Opéra de Frontignan (1670), dealing with a slight love intrigue, and an idyllic poem on the fountain of Frontignan, show a real poetic gift. A number of Toulouse poets, mostly lauréats of the Academy, may be termed followers of Goudelin: of these Francois Boudet, who composed an ode, Le Trinfe del Moundi (1678), in honour of his native dialect deserves mention. The classical revival that may be

noted about this time is also generally ascribed to Goudelin’s

influence. Its most distinguished representative was Jean de Valés, of Montech, who made excellent translations from Virgil See Joseph Anglade, Les Troubadours, Paris, 1908; and Histoire and Persius, and wrote a brilliant burlesque of the former in the sommaire de la littérature méridionale aw moyen age. Both volumes manner of Scarron (Virgile deguisat, 1648). contain a bibliography. Documents and dissertations on various points The best of the pastoral poets was Francois de Cortete (1571— of Provençal literature will be found in almost all the volumes of Romania (Paris, in progress since 1872, 8vo), and the Revue des 1655), of Prades, whose comedies, Ramounet and Miramoundo langues romanes (Montpellier, in progress since 1870, 8vo). See also (published, unfortunately with alterations, by his son in 1684), the other journals devoted to the Romanic languages, m L. B) are written with such true feeling and in so pure a style that they can be read with real pleasure. A comedy of his dealing with MODERN PROVENÇAL LITERATURE! Sancho Panza in the palace of the Duke has been edited. Daubasse Provençal literature never died out entirely. The Academy of (1664-1727), of Quercy, who belonged to the working classes, Toulouse, founded in 1324, was flourishing in the r4th century, was patronized by the nobility in exchange for panegyrics. Gasand, after many vicissitudes, is flourishing stil. The poets crowned cony produced two typical works in the 17th century: Ader’s Genby this body between 1324 and 1498 stand in the same relation to tilhomme gascoun (1610) and G. d’Astros’s Trinfe de la lengo the troubadours as the Meistersinger do to the Minnesänger: aca- gascouo (1642). Gabriel Bedout (Parterre gascoun, 1642) is demic correctness takes the place of inspiration. The institution chiefy noted for his amorous solitari. Louis Baron (b. 1612), flourished, even to the extent of establishing branches in Catalonia celebrated with great tenderness his native village of Pouyloubrin. In the 18th century the number of authors is much larger, and Majorca; and in 1484, when its prosperity was threatened, a semi-fabulous person, Clémence Isaure, is said to have brought but the bulk of good work produced is not equally great in proabout a revival by instituting fresh prizes. The town of Toulouse portion. The priests are mainly responsible for the literary output never ceased to supply funds of some kind. In 1513 French poems of Languedoc. The chief of the band is the Abbé Favre (1727were first admitted in the competitions, and under Louis XIV. 1783), the prior of Celleneuve, whose Ou sermoun de Moussu Sis(from 1679) these were alone held eligible. This arrange- tre delivered a drunken priest against intemperance, is a masterment held good till 1893, when the town very properly trans- piece. He also wrote a successful mock-heroic poem (Szége de ferred its patronage to a new Escolo moundino, but very soon re- Caderouss) travesties of Homer and Virgil, a prose novel depictstored its support to the older institution, on learning that Pro- ing the country manners of the time (Histouéro de Jean-l’an-prés), vençal poetry was again to be encouraged. In the two centuries and two comedies, which likewise give a vivid picture of the vilthat. followed the glorious mediaeval period we have a succession lage life he knew so well. Two genuine poets are the brothers of works, chiefly of a didactic and edifying character, which Rigaud of Montpellier: Auguste’s (1760-1835) description of a served to keep alive some kind of literary tradition. Religious vintage is deservedly famous; and Cyrille (1750-1824) produced mystery plays, which, though dull to us, probably gave keen en- an equally delightful poem in the Amours de Mounpéié. Pierre joyment to the people, represent a more popular genre; the latest Hellies of Toulouse (d. 1724) a poet of the people, whose vicious that have come down to us may be placed between the years life finds an echo in his works, has a certain rude charm, at times distantly recalling Villon. In Provence Toussaint Gros (16981450-1515. In accordance with general usage, we are employing the term 1748), of Lyons, holds undisputed sway. His style and language Provencal for the whole of the south of France, save where special are admirable, but unfortunately he wasted his gifts largely on | trivial pieces d’ occasion. Coye’s (1711-1777) comedy, ou Novy. reservation is made.

642

PROVENCE

para, is bright and still popular, while Germain’s description of a siasm at Montpellier in 1878, and successfully produced (some visit paid by the ancient gods to Marseilles (Bourrido dei Dious, years later in Aréne’s version) by Antoine at his Théâtre Libre We need not do more than glance at the work of the fourth 1760) has considerable humour. In Gascony the greatest poet is of the group of poets who alone, amidst the numerous writers Cyrien Despourrins (1698-1755). The 19th Century.—The Revolution produced a large body of lyrics and other works that attain a high level of excellence of literature, but nothing of lasting interest. Scholars like appear to us to have so far secured permanent fame by themagniRaynouard (1761—1863), of Aix, occupied themselves with the tude of their achievement. Félix Gras (1844-1891) settled at brilliant literary traditions of the middle ages; newspapers sprang Avignon in his youth. His rustic epic, Lèi Carbounié (1876) is up (the Provençal Bouil-Abaisso, started by Désanat, and the full of elemental passion and abounds in fine descriptions of bilingual Lou Tambourin et le menestrel, edited by Bellot, both in scenery, but it lacks proportion. The heroic geste of Toloza (1882) 1841); poets banded together and collected their pieces in volume in which Simon de Montfort’s invasion of the south is depicted form (thus, the nine troubaire who published Lou Bouquet prou- with unbounded vigour and intensity, shows a great advance in vencaou in 1823). Much has been written about the précurseurs art. Li Roumancero provençal (1887) is a collection of poems de Félibrige, and critics are sorely at variance as to the writers instinct with Provencal lore, and in Ls Papalino (1891) we have that most deserve this appellation. We shall not go far wrong if some charming prose tales that bring to life again the Avignon of we include in the list Hyacinthe Morel (1756-1829), Louis the popes. Finally, the poet gave us three tales dealing with the Aubanel (1758-1842); Auguste Tandon, “the troubadour of period of the Revolution (Zi Rouge dou miejour, etc.). Since the end of the 19th century the Félibrige has considerMontpellier”; Fabre d’Olivet (1767-1825); Diouloufet (17711840); Jacques Azais (1778-1856); D’Astros (1780-1863), Castil- ably developed: it now constitutes important groups in the differ. Blaze (1784-1857); the Marquis de Fare-Alais (1791-1846). ent parts of Southern France from the Pyrenees to Auvergne, While these writers were all more or less academic, and appealed Velay and Dauphiné. These groups represent the most varied to the cultured few, four poets of the people addressed a far wider opinions in politics and religion, and for the expression of their public: Verdié (1779-1820), of Bordeaux, who wrote comic and ideas they resort to the whole range of dialects and patois actually satirical pieces; Jean Reboul (1796-1864), the baker of Nimes, used in Southern France. The spirit of the movement, is purely who never surpassed his first effort, L’Ange et Penfant (1828); literary; it has never been expressed with greater terseness, force Victor Gelu (1806-1885), relentless and brutal, but undeniably and truth than in the three verses set by Félix Gras at the head powerful of his kind (Fenian et Grouman; dix chansons proven- of his Carbounié: “I love my village more than thy village; I cales, 1840); and, greatest of them all, the true and acknowledged love my Provence more than thy province; I love France more than all.” forerunner of the félibres, Jacques Jasmin (q.v.). See Emile Ripert, Le Félibrige (Paris, 1924. Contains an excellent Roumanille and Mistral—In 1845 Joseph Roumanille bibliography). (H. O.; L. B.) (1818-1891) of Saint-Remy became usher in a small school at PROVENCE, a province in the south-east of ancient France, Avignon, which was attended by Frédéric Mistral (g.v.). Roumanille had composed some pieces in French; but, finding that bounded on the north by the Dauphiné, on the east by the Alps his old mother could not understand them, he determined thence- and Italy, on the west by the Rhone, and on the south by the forth to write in his native dialect only. These poems revealed a Mediterranean sea. About 600 B.c., according to tradition, some new world to young Mistral, and spurred him on to the resolve traders from Phocaea founded the Greek colony of Massalia that became the one purpose of his life—de remettre en lumiére (Marseille). Other colonies in the neighbourhood, such as et conscience de sa gloire cette noble race qu’en plein ’89 Mirabeau Antibes, Agde, Nice, originated in this settlement. During the nomme encore la nation provencale. There is no doubt that Mis- wars which followed the inhabitants of Massalia asked assistance tral’s is the more puissant personality, and that his finest work from the Romans, who thus made their first entry into Gaul towers above that of his fellows; but in studying the Provengal (125 B.c.), and conquered the territories between the Alps, the renaissance, Roumanille’s great claims should not be overlooked, sea and the Rhone (with the province of Narbonne on the right and they have never been put forward with more force than by bank of this river). These lands formed the Provincia romana, Mistral himself (in the preface of his Isclos d’oro). Roumanille’s and the name was retained by Provence. The town of Aix secular verse cannot fail to appeal to every lover of pure and sin- (Aquae Sextiae) was founded to form the capital of this concere poetry (Li Margaritedo, 1836-1847; Li Sounjarello, 1852; Li quered land. Under the empire the territory of the former Flour de Sauvi, 1850-1859, etc.), his moéls are second only to Provincia was divided into the new provinces of Narbonensis those of Saboly, his prose works (such as Lou mege de Cucugnan, II., of the Maritime Alps and of Viennois, and formed an im1863) sparkling with delightful humour. He it was who in 1852 portant centre of Roman learning and civilization. Arles was collected and published Li Prouvençalo, an anthology in which made the chief town of the province, becoming after the capture all the names yet to become famous, and most of those famous of Trèves by the barbarians (A.D. 418) the capital of Gaul. By already (such as Jasmin), are represented. In 1853 he was one the sth century bishoprics had been founded in all the cities of of the enthusiastic circle that had gathered round J. B. Gaut at Provence. At the beginning of this century Provence was attacked by the Aix, and whose literary output is contained in the Roumavagi dei Troubaire and in the shortlived journal Lou gay saber (1854). Visigoths. In 480 Arles was captured by Euric I., and the country At the same time the first attempt at regulating the orthography south of the Durance thus came definitely under Visigothic rule. of Provencal was made by him (in the introduction to his play, The more northern cities, such as Orange, Apt and TroisLa Part dou bon Dieu, 1853). And in 1854 he was one of the Chateaux, were joined to the kingdom of Burgundy. Towards seven poets who, on May 21, foregathered at the castle of Font- sto Visigothic Provence was ceded to Theodoric, king of the ségugne, near Avignon, and founded the Félibrige. (See Emile Italian Ostrogoths, by Alaric II. in return for the support given Ripert, La Renaissance Provençale.) The other six were Mistral, to him during the war against the Franks, and soon afterwards the Aubanel, A. Mathieu (a schoolfellow of Mistral’s at Avignon), Ostrogoths took advantage of the wars between the Franks and E. Garcin, A. Tavan and P. Giera (owner of the castle). Of these, the Burgundians to extend their lands in the north as far as Gap Théodore Aubanel (1829-1886, of Avignon, son of a printer and and Embrun. Witigis, king of the Ostrogoths, ceded Provence to following the same calling) has alone proved himself worthy to the kings of the Franks about 537, when the northern cities and rank with Mistral and Roumanille. “Zani,” the girl of his youthful those on the coast (Arles, Marseille, Toulon, Antibes, Nice) and passionate love, took the veil; and this event cast a shadow were given back to Burgundy, whilst a narrow strip of territory, over his whole life, and determined the character of all his poetry with Avignon, Apt, Cavaillon, Riez, etc., extending from the west (Lou midugrano entre-duberto, 1860; Li Fiho d’Avignoun, 1883). to the east as far as the Alps, was added to the kingdom of AusHis is, without a doubt, the deepest nature and temperament trasia, and from that time followed the fortunes of its dependency among the félibres, and his lyrics are the most poignant. His of Auvergne. In the 8th century western Provence was for a time conquered powerful love drama Lou pau dou peccat was received with enthu-

PROVENCE by Arabs from Spain. In 739 they were expelled by Charles Mattel, who brought the country definitely under Frankish rule. Under Charlemagne and Louis the Pious the history of Provence became incorporated with that of the rest of the empire. At the

partition of Verdun (843) Provence fell to the share of the emperor Lothair I., who joined it to the duchy of Lyons in 855 to form a kingdom for his youngest son, Charles. On the death of the latter in 863 his inheritance was divided between his two brothers, when Lothair II., king of Lorraine, received the northern part, Lyonnais and Viennois, and the emperor Louis II., king of Italy, received Provence. At his death in 875 Provence passed

into the hands of Charles the Bald, and he entrusted the govern-

ment to his brother-in-law, Duke

Boso, who reconstituted the

former kingdom of Charles, the son of Lothair, and in 879 was acknowledged as its sovereign at Mantaille in Viennois. Thus arose the kingdom of Provence (Provence, Viennois, Lyonnais and Vivarais), sometimes called Cisjuran Burgundy. Boso died in 887, having succeeded in maintaining his inde-

pendence against the united Frankish princes. His widow Ermengarde, daughter of Louis II., with the assistance of the emperor Arnulf, had her son Louis acknowledged king at an assembly held at Valence in 890. Louis attempted to seize the crown of Italy in goo, and in gor was even crowned emperor at Rome by Pope Benedict IV.; but in 905 he was surprised at Verona by his rival Berengar, who captured him, put out his eyes, and forced him to give up Italy and return to Provence, where he lived till his death in 928, leaving an illegitimate son, Charles Constantine. The principal figure in the country at this time was Hugo “of Arles,” count, or duke, of Viennois and marquis of Provence, who had been king of Italy since 926. To strengthen his position

there he gave the kingdom of Louis the Blind to Rudolph II., king of Burgundy (qg.v.), and thus the kingdom of Burgundy extended from the source of the Aar to the Mediterranean. But the sovereignty of Rudolph II. and his successors, Conrad (937-993) and Rudolph III. (993-1032), over Provence was little more than nominal, and conditions changed little when, on the death of Rudolph ITI.. the kingdom of Burgundy passed into the hands of the German kings, who now bore the title of kings of Arles. Local Countships.—At the beginning of the roth century Provence was in a state of complete disorganization. All the real power was in the hands of local counts. It is probable that from the oth century several of the Provencal countships were united under one count, and that the count of Arles had the title of duke, or marquis, and exercised authority over the others. In the middle of the roth century this position was held by a certain Boso, of unknown origin, who left it to his two sons William and Roubaud (Rotbold). From the end of the roth century the descendants of the two brothers, without making any partition, ruled over the different countships of Provence, only one of them, however, bearing the title of marquis. The counts of Provence had, from about the middle of the 11th century, a tendency to add the name of their usual residence after their

title, and thus the lordships, known later under the names of the countships of Provence, of Nice and of Venaissin grew up. At last, by the marriage of an heiress in 1112 to Raymund-Beérenger,

count of Barcelona, the marquisate of Provence, with the overlordship of this region, passed to the house of Barcelona. The definite establishment of the countships of Provence, Venaissin and Forcalquier belongs to this period. After the death of Raymund-Bérenger III. (1166) his cousin Alphonso II., king of Aragon, took the title of count of Provence.

643

quences of the war of the Albigenses, and it was not until after

his death (1209), during the minority of his son RaymundBérenger IV., that Provence was involved in the struggle of the count of Toulouse against Simon de Montfort, when the part played by the city of Avignon in the Albigensian movement finally led to Louis VIII.’s expedition against the town. RaymundBérenger had also to fight against Raymund VII, count of Toulouse, who had received from the emperor in 1230 the countship of Forcalquier. The intervention of St. Louis, who in 1234

had married Margaret, the eldest daughter of the count of Provence (the second Eleanor married Henry III. of England in 1236), put an end to the designs of the count of Toulouse. Raymund-Bérenger died in 1245, leaving a will by which he named as his heiress his fourth daughter, Beatrice, who shortly afterwards, in 1246, married the celebrated Charles of Anjou (see CHARLES I., king of Naples), brother of the king of France. After her death, in 1267, Charles still maintained his rights in Provence. The countship of Venaissin was left to him by bis sister-in-law, Jeanne, countess of Toulouse, but in 1272 King Philip III. took possession of it, giving it up in 1274 to Pope Gregory X., who had claimed it for the Roman Church in pursuance of the treaty of 1229 between Raymund VII. of Toulouse and St. Louis. Charles of Anjou was continually occupied with his kingdom of Naples. His government of Provence was marked by his struggles with the towns. In the first part of the 12th century the towns of Provence began to form municipal administrations and consulates, independent of the viscounts, who in theory represented the authority of the count in the towns. Marseille, Arles, Tarascon, Avignon (whose consulate laws date from the t2th century), Brignoles and Grasse had become self-governing and elected their magistrates, sometimes negotiating with the count, as a power with a power, and concluding political or commercial treaties without consulting him. The city of Nice, which was joined to Provence in 1176, had retained its freedom. This state of affairs was in direct opposition to the arbitrary policy of Charles of Anjou. In 1251 he seized Arles and Avignon and placed them under a viguier (vicar) nominated by himself. In 1257 Marseille was also subdued, and ministers nominated by the court performed their duties side by side with the municipal officials. Annexation to France.—The successors of Charles of Anjou were chiefly interested in maintaining their rights over the kingdom of Naples. Charles II. (1285-1309) lived in Provence during the latter years of his reign, and tried to introduce reforms into the administration of justice and finance. Robert of Calabria (1309-43), his son, was succeeded by his granddaughter Joanna, widow of Andrew of Hungary, who sold her rights over the city of Avignon to Pope Clement VI. in 1348 to raise money to continue the struggle against the house of Aragon in Naples. Charles IV. resided in Provence and had himself crowned king of Arles in 1365. He gave up his claims to Louis, duke of Anjou, brother of Charles V., but the expedition which this prince made to take possession of Provence only resulted in the seizure of Tarascon, and failed before Arles (1368). Joanna had nominated as her heir Charles of Anjou-Gravina, duke of Duras, who had married her niece Margaret, but to provide herself with a protector from Louis of Hungary, who accused her of murdering her first husband Andrew and wished to dispute her right to the kingdom of Naples, she married again and became the wife of

Otto of Brunswick.

Charles of Duras therefore took part against

her, and she in her turn disinherited him and named Louis of Anjou as her eventual successor (1380). He took possession of His succession was disputed by the count of Toulouse, Raymund Provence, whilst Charles of Duras made the queen prisoner at V. Most of the lay and ecclesiastical lords of Provence recognized Naples and gave orders for her to be put to death (1382). Louis Alphonso, who in 1176 signed a treaty with his competitor, by of Anjou also made an expedition to Naples, but did not arrive which Raymund V. sold his rights to the king of Aragon. Alphon- till after her death, and he died in 1384. His son Louis II. (1384-1417), only resident in Provence towards the end of his so was represented in Provence by his brothers Raymund-Beérenger and Sancho in turn, and in 1193 by his son Alphonso, who life, established a parlement in 1415. The wars carried on by his succeeded him. This Alphonso gave Aragon and Catalonia to his successor, Louis III. (1417-34), against the kings of Aragon, his brother Peter (Pedro), and kept only Provence for himself, but rivals at Naples, were the cause of the temporary ruin of Marseille on the death of his father-in-law, Count William IL. in 1208, by the Aragonese fleet. René, duke of Lorraine (g.v.), Louis’s whose son had been disinherited, he added to it the county of brother and successor, after an unsuccessful attack on Naples Forcalquier. He was able to protect Provence from the conse- (1460-61), retired to France, and after 1471 generally resided in

PROVERBS

644

Provence, where he built the castle of Tarascon and interested himself in art, literature and pastoral amusements. In 1474 he

left his territories by will to his nephew Charles, count of Maine, who on his death in 1482 bequeathed Provence to Louis XI., king of France. Under Louis’s successor, Charles VITI., Provence was definitely annexed to France, though even then it preserved a certain individuality. In laws relating to this country the sovereigns added to their title of king of France “and count of Provence and of Forcalquier,” and Provence always preserved a separate administrative organization. Religious Troubles.—In the 16th century Protestantism made its appearance in Provence. A sentence passed in 1540 by the parlement of Provence against the heretics was carried out with great severity in 1545 by the president d’Oppéde and the baron de la Garde. The movement drew a fair number of followers from the ranks of the lesser nobles. Charles IX.’s journey in Provence in 1567, followed by the establishment in the parlement at Aix of a court (chambre), in which Catholics and Protestants had an equal number of seats, led to a momentary cessation of hostilities. These were resumed between the Carcistes (Roman Catholics) and Razats (Protestants), and again interrupted by the peace of 1576, which gave some guarantees to the Protestants, with La Seyne as a place of security, and also by the plague of 1579, which affected the whole country. The League, on the other hand, made rapid progress in Provence, and the governors of Epernon and La Valette vainly tried to pacify the country. La Valette and the political party or Bigarrats were finally more

or less reconciled to the Protestants,

and, at the

time of the death of Henry ITI., the struggle was no more than a question of local politics. In 1596 the religious wars in Provence were definitely ended by the capitulation of Marseille. Under Richelieu the restriction of local freedom led to a rising which Condé suppressed in 1630-31. At the time of the Fronde additional taxes were levied by the parlement at Aix, and a period of local unrest began which culminated in an insurrection at Marseille in 1660 followed by the abolition of the last remaining municipal liberties of the town. Provence was severely tried by the imperialist invasions of 1706 and 1746, and the great plague of 1720.

Administration.—Provence, with its own language and its law so closely related to Roman law, was quite separate from the

other French provinces. Until 1639 it retained its provincial estates, the origin of which has been traced back to the r2th century. They met annually, and included representatives of three orders: for the clergy, the archbishop of Aix, president ex officio of the estates, the other bishops of Provence, the abbots of St. Victor at Marseille, of Montmajour and of Thoronet; for the nobility, all the men of noble birth until 1623, when this privilege was restricted to actual holders of fiefs; for the third estate the members of the 22 chief towns of the vigueries divisions corresponding to the prévdiés of the rest of France, and 15 other privileged places, among which were Arles and Marseille. There were theoretically no taxes, but only supplies given freely by the estates and assessed by them. The administrative divisions of Provence were constantly changing. At the end of the ancien régime the government (gouvernement) of Provence, which corresponded to the généralité of Aix, was made up of eight sénéchaussées, those of Lower Provence—Atx, Arles, Marseille, Brignoles, Hyères, Grasse, Draguignan, Toulon; and four of Upper Provence—Digne, Sisteron, Forcalquier, Castellane. For judicial purposes the parlement of Aix had replaced the former conseil eminent or cour souveraine. There was a chambre des comptes at Aix, and also a cour des aides. A decree, dated Dec. 22, 1780, divided Provence into the three departments of Bouches du Rhone, Basses-Alpes and Var, and in 1793 Vaucluse, the former county of Venaissin, which belonged to the pope, was added to these. The boundaries of Var were modified in 1860 after the annexation,

when the department of the Alpes Maritimes was formed.

periods of history see P. Cabasse, Essais historiques sur le parlement de Provence (3 vols., Aix, 1826); G. Lambert, Essai sur le régime municipal et Vaffranchissement des communes en Provence (Toulon

1882);

F. Kiener,

Verfassungsgeschichte

der

Provence,

510-1299

(Leipzig, 1900); R. Poupardin, Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens (1901); G. de Manteyer, La Provence du ier ay sie

siécle (1907).

PROVERBS,

(R. P.; X.)

BOOK

OF. This Old Testament book falls

into nine sections. Each of these has its special stylistic and other characteristics, some of them containing evident traces of compila-

tion from earlier collections, one (as has only lately been recog-

nized) being almost completely paralleled in an extant Egyptian book, while individual proverbs are found to bear traces of the “international” character of their origin and are variously related to the culture of Egypt, Babylonia, Greece, etc. (see Wispoy LITERATURE). Moreover the tradition preserved in the book itself which ascribed certain parts of the book to Solomon (x. 1, xxv. I), the “sages” (xxii. 17, xxiv. 23), Agur (xxx. 2), King Lemuel’s

mother (xxxi. 2) militates against the view that any one author

was responsible for the composition of these various sections of the book: the ascription to Solomon ini. 1 probably referred originally to chs. i~ix—though this was probably the last section to be compiled. Wellnigh the only characteristics common to all sections of the book may be summed up under three heads and these are not confined to the Book of Proverbs but are to be found in nearly all the

extant gnomic literature of the Hebrews—the presuppositions that “wisdom” comes from Jehovah, that wisdom is, or should be, the guiding principle of life, and that cardinal social virtues such as industry, thrift, discretion, truthfulness, honesty, chastity, thought for others, including the lower animals, should be inculcated.

Consequently in its present form the book represents the last stage in a long compilatory history and provides many useful examples of Hebrew proverbial and gnomic thought at various stages of its development. The date of each section and sub-section must be alternately determined by the character of its contents, the relation in which the latter stands to the extant gnomic literature of other peoples, and the stage or stages of moral and theological development reflected in it. Chapters i—ix.—The first section serves as an introduction to the whole book, but in origin it is of late date and its contents suggest that, like the book as a whole, it was compiled from more than one source. At times, for instance, the motive advanced for good conduct is moral and religious (¢.g., ii. 5-8): at times it is frankly utilitarian (e.g., vi. 1-5). Instead of a series of unrelated proverbial couplets, such as those in the following section, comparatively long discourses follow on each other. The sage addresses his remarks to young men. Though not confining his warnings to these two offences, he warns them more especially against highway robbery and adultery—unless indeed the latter is

an only too thinly veiled warning against Hellenism (cf. “Madam Folly” in ch. ix. 13-18) conceived of as a prostitute enticing the uninstructed (“ye simple ones”) from their allegiance to their true love, the “wisdom” which comes from Jehovah, incarnate, as it were, in His religion, Judaism. Somewhat similar warnings against woman’s wiles are given by Egyptian sages such as Amenophis and Ptah-hoteph, and by the Mesopotamian author of the Wisdom of Ahikar. The section is chiefly remarkable for the developed thought contained in viii. 1-31 as to “wisdom,” her relation to God, the universe and man. It is perhaps more developed than, not only Eccles. xxiv. 1-19, but also the descriptions of her in the Book of Wisdom. “Wisdom” claims to have existed

prior to the universe (cf. “in the beginning” with the first words of Gen. i. r and John i, 1) as a possession of God (viii. 22 sf.), to have witnessed the creation of the universe, and even to have acted as a clerk of the works or architect in the process of the creation, unless, as the parallelism of the verse makes probable, the vocalization of the Hebrew word translated “master work-

man” should be altered to justify the rendering “nursling.” But

BrerrocrapHy.—There is no good general history of Provence. For it is questionable whether even here the Hebrew author does more a complete work consult the ancient works of H. Bouche, Chorographie et histoire, chronologique de Provence (2 vols., Aix, 1664); than poetically personify the principle of wisdom: he scarcely J. P. Papon, Histoire générale de Provence {4 vols., 1777-86); L. gives her a real hypostasis and does not go so far in this direction Méry, Histoire de Provence (3 vols., Marseille, 1830-37). For special | as did Philo in his description of the Logos as “a second god.

PROVERBS It is not, however, outside the bounds of possibility that the author of the prologue to the Fourth Gospel was considerably influenced

by this description of wisdom rather than by Philo’s descriptions of his Logos, even though he substituted the latter term for “wisdom.” This advanced thought as to wisdom is not confined to ch.

645

second section, chiefly short independent proverbial aphorisms; but it has some of two or more verses in length, and advances from the consideration of worldly matters in chs. xxv.—xxvil. to matters of more specifically religious import in chs. xxviii., Xxix., where the observance of “the law” in particular is emphasized, and

prophecy is specified as a sine qua nom of popular self-restraint (xxix. 18). In spite of the presence in this section of proverbs which occur elsewhere, it contains several of considerable interest. It reflects a somewhat hostile attitude to the monarchical form of government, but attempts to deflect criticism from the person of the king to his courtiers. Whether “the king” is a native Jewish ruler, Davidic or Maccabaean, or a Ptolemaic or Seleucid overcharacteristic of Deuteronomy which are most prominent; suffer- lord, or merely figures impersonally in a set of proverbs of ining is divine chastisement administered, however, in love (iii. 12). ternational vogue cannot be decided: consequently it gives no Chapters x.-xxii.—The second section illustrates earlier real help in fixing the date of the section. In at least two respects stages in the literary productions and ideals of the exponents of this collection provided the inspiration for practical and ethical wisdom. Each proverb is confined to two lines, antithetical in advice too often supposed to have originated in Christian circles, form if we except a few in which synonymous parallelism occurs. namely xxv. 7 which evidently inspired Luke xiv. 8—11, and xxv. The utilitarianism of the compiler of this section is often over- 21 which is quoted in Rom. xii. 20. Chapter xxx. (1-16).—The sixth section has the cryptic and emphasized: it contains, on the contrary, sentiments which anticipate some of the highest ideals expressed in the New Testament not very convincing title “The words of Agur, the son of Jakeh, and to which the latter owe their literary form (e.g., x. 12 cf. I of Massa (R. V. mg.),” followed by a line which has defied all Cor, xiii, 7, 1 Pet. iv. 3, James v. 20; xiv. 31; xvii. 5, cf. Matt. xxv. efforts to translate it. This, like xxxi. 1, though a frank confes40, 45; XX. 11, cf, Matt. vil. 16; xx. 22, cf. Matt. v. 39, Rom. xii. sion by the Jewish sages that they were prepared to welcome 17, 19, etc.). It reflects, moreover at times the “prophetic” revolt aphorisms of foreign origin, and having done so, openly to ascribe against the hollowness of merely external sacrificial worship (xv. 8, them to a foreign author, really throws no light upon the origins xxi. 3) cf. the emphasis on the national virtue demanded by Amos and background of the present section. It would appear to date (xiv. 34) and on inner purity (xx. 9) and on the omniscience of from a period when problems of theology and philosophy were Jehovah (xv. 3, 11). Thus, in date, the section shows no trace of- being discussed ad nauseam and to emanate from an author who the developments of religious, theological and philosophical found little comfort, but much disturbance of faith in speculations thought for which the latter post-exilic Judaism was responsible; of this nature. Consequently confessing his own limitations of on the other hand, along with much which might be the product intellect (v. 2 seg.), he plaintively asks who in point of fact has of any period, it presupposes, at least in the above respects, the ever penetrated into the supra-mundane sphere to return with a knowledge adequate to justify him in propounding such riddles very latest products of pre-exilic piety. Chapters xxii. (17) to xxiv. (22).—The third section (v. 4). And so he takes refuge in the revealed “word” of God and bears the title “words of the wise.” Its contents are presented to utters a warning against human endeavours to supplement it or the reader in a strophic form, forming a miniature discourse, and detract from it in self-confidence or insolence. He ends by pointhaving four lines to a strophe, as in the newly deciphered Egyptian ing out the shortcomings of his generation (vv. 5-14). It is the “Teaching of Amenophis.” It is the remarkable similarity of the answer of a religious obscurantist rather than, as is too commonly section to this latter book which has especially concentrated atten- supposed, of a pious agnostic. Final Section.—The seventh section, chap. xxx. 15-33, contion upon it since 1924. The similarity between the two continues, with certain exceptions, throughout a considerable portion of the sists of miscellaneous dicta introduced by an unintelligible line and section and creates a problem which is scarcely solved by the bound together by their “numerical” form of introduction. In theory that both reflect gnomic sayings which were common to these few words is concentrated a wealth of insight into the normal all nations of the orient. Indeed so close is the relationship that and abnormal, the obvious and mysterious in life and nature, it is possible to emend with a fair degree of certainty, on the basis which, as it were in a nut-shell, illustrates the keenness and the of the Egyptian tradition, passages in which the Hebrew text is breadth of observation to which the “wisdom” writers, the humanmanifestly corrupt: thus “excellent things” (xxii. 20) without ists of Israel, trained themselves. The eighth section, chap. xxxi. 1-9, purports to be a further any change in the consonantal text, should be read as “thirty (sayings),” the exact number of the “chapters” into which The instance of foreign wisdom, again from “Massa,” and indeed an Teaching of Amenophis is divided. It would appear unlikely that illustration of a king’s instruction by his mother. The vices against the Egyptian sage borrowed from the Hebrew, and we are there- which he is warned include impurity, drink and maladministration fore compelled to suppose that either a copy of the Egyptian book of justice. These vices were prevalent in most oriental courts penetrated into Palestine and its contents gradually became of the period during which the section could have been written, “Hebraised,” its Egyptian theology slowly yielding to that of the and do not necessarily presuppose the vices which Hellenism in Hebrews and proverbs from other sources gradually attaching particular communicated to the petty kings of oriental states into themselves to it; or a Hebrew sage, visiting or living in Egypt, which it penetrated. The ninth and last section, chap. xxxi. 10-31, is perhaps the became acquainted with it, expurgated its Egyptian polytheism and made it acceptable to those who saw in Jehovah the only God who masterpiece of this remarkable collection of the literary output tuled every department of life. Either of these alternatives can of the humanists of Israel. Incidentally it is an “alphabetical” best be visualised as happening in pre-exilic rather than late post- poem, each verse beginning with a letter of the Hebrew alphabet, exilic days, but to dogmatise as to the exact date, whether the and each letter appearing in its correct sequence. The lie is here reign of Hezekiah, the early years of the exile or otherwise is to given to the depressing picture, though one too often fully justified, substitute guesswork for reason. An outstanding one among the which is mostly drawn in the Old Testament, of woman’s personal many sayings common to the Hebrew and Egyptian gnomic writers and economic position among the Hebrews as the slave and chattel occurs in the next section (xxiv. 23-34, an appendix to the present of her husband who was legally free to possess not one but many one) as well as already in the preceding one (xx. 22): it is the wives. But practice reinforced by economic necessity, probably earliest extant form of “the golden rule,” later extolled by Hillel rose in this respect above precept. At any rate, in the wealthy and Jesus, which is thus proved to be in its origins Egyptian and prosperous household here depicted monogamy is presupposed and the poet depicts the wife as its master-mind as well as its rather than Hebrew or Jewish. . Chapters XXV.-xXxXix. (27).—The fifth section, attributed mainstay. To what extent such a régime pressed heavily on the traditionally to Hezekiah’s scribes (xxv. 1), contains, like the female slaves and other underlings we do not know since no litera-

viii, but seems to be more or less presupposed throughout the section. The author’s philosophy of life otherwise shows little of a pronouncedly modern character. Righteousness and wickedness are rewarded in this life (e.g., ii. 21); the sacrificial worship is inculcated (ii. 9, ili. 9); the words “law” and “commandment” are used now of the Mosaic system, now of parental injunctions, now of the sage’s advice. It is the language and philosophy of life

PROVIDENCE

646

ture emanating from them has survived. Next to their passion for the highest morality of their day, and their unswerving loyalty to their ancestral faith, certain of the Hebrew gnomic writers whose work has survived in the Book of Proverbs will be held in honour most of all for their ability, which, as stated at the outset, is only now beginning to be realized, to master the gnomic literature of Egypt and of Mesopotamia, of Edom and of Massa, to expurgate from it what was unworthy, and to transform it into an instrument for the instruction of successive generations of the worshippers of Jehovah. Only a study of the Book of Proverbs in the light of the comparative study of gnomic literature can make the reader realize this; for instance in addition to close relationship with the Egyptian Teaching of Amenophis, there are more than 70 dicta in the Wisdom of Ahikar (g.v.) and of these more than half find an echo in this book. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—For the literature, which is considerable, see the commentaries of Toy (1898), and especially W. O. E. Oesterley, The Book of Proverbs (1928) in the Westminster Commentaries, who gives striking parallels and references to the latest literature. See also Cheyne, Job and Solomon (1887); id., in Sem. Studzes (ed. Kohut, 1897); id., Jew. Relig. Life (1898) ; Montefiore in Jew. Quart. Review (1898-1890) ; Cohen, Ancient Jewish Proverbs; Elmslie, Studies in Life from Jewish Proverbs; Goldman, Proverbs of the Sages (1911). For materials for the comparative study of Hebrew proverbial literature and that of other ancient nations, see D. C. Simpson, The Hebrew Book of Proverbs and The Teaching of Amenophis in Journal of Egyptian Archaeology (1926); Oesterley, The Wisdom of Egypt and the Old Testament (1927) ; Langdon, Babylonian Wisdom (1923) ; Hindu:

Monier-Williams, Indian Wisdom Parallelen z. A. T. (1897).

PROVIDENCE,

(1875);

Arabic:

Jacob, Altarab. (D. C. S.)

the capital and largest city of Rhode

Island, U.S.A., a port of entry and the county seat of Providence county; at the head of Providence river (the north arm of Narragansett bay), 27 m. from the Atlantic ocean, 45 m. S.S.W. of Boston and 185 m. E.N.E. of New York city. It is on Federal highways r and 6; and is served by the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad and 8 steamship lines, including the Fabre line operating to Mediterranean ports. There are several privately owned airports in and near the city and a project for a State airport here is under way. Pop. (1920) 237,595 (39% of the total population of the State), of whom 68,951 were foreign-born white; in 1930 it was 252,981. The city has a land area of 18-34 sq.m., diversified in natural character and irregularly laid out. The Seekonk and the Providence rivers bound it on the east; the Providence and the Moshassuck divide it into east and west sides; and the Woonasquatucket divides the west side into north and south sections. The east side (the part of most historic interest) embraces hills rising to a height of 200 feet. The newer business district lies along the west bank of the Providence river, and some of the largest buildings stand on made land. Most of the factories are on the banks of the Woonasquatucket and the Moshassuck. The names of the older streets (such as Benevolent, Benefit, Hope, Friendship, Peace, Pound, Sovereign, Shilling, Dollar and Doubloon) recall the religious spirit of the early city and its commercial character. From the Union station one steps directly into the civic centre, a broad open plaza surrounded by government (Federal, city and county) and business buildings and hotels. Aloof on a hill to the west, but only half a mile distant, the most conspicuous feature of the landscape and commanding a wide view of city, bay and surrounding country, is the large State house (designed by McKim, Meade and White and completed in 1902) of Georgia marble and white granite, surmounted by a marble dome 235 ft. high. In it is a full length portrait of

Washington, by Gilbert Stuart (who was born in Rhode Island), and many other interesting paintings, and here is preserved the original charter of the Colony, framed in wood from the “Gaspee.” Adjacent to the civic centre on the east is the retail shopping and business district, where tall modern structures of steel and stone rise above the older buildings. An interesting building is the Arcade (1828) with six massive Ionic columns at each entrance. The chamber of commerce occupies the old Market house, built in 1773, where a local “tea-party” was held on March 1, 1775, and Rochambeau’s troops were quartered later. Behind the business district College hill rises steeply, covered

with historic landmarks.

On its slopes lies the campus of Brown

university (g.v.), where Revolutionary troops were quartered in

university hall. At its foot stands the First Baptist meetinghouse (built in 1775 to house the church organized by Roger Williams in 1636), which has one of the finest church spires in America and a beautiful interior, with a crystal chandelier in use since

1792. Its bell still rings the curfew at nine o’clock. Near by jg

the old Colony house, where the Rhode Island Declaration of Independence was signed on May 4, 1776, two months before the

event in Philadelphia. Farther up the hill are the museum ang library of the Rhode Island Historical Society, the ivy-covereq Athenaeum, and Pendleton house: (a museum), furnished with one of the finest collections of early American furniture in existence. Among the old mansions still standing are the homes of John Brown (built in 1786), Thomas Poynton Ives (1806), Col. Joseph

Nightingale (1791), Joseph Russell (1772), Peter Randell (1748), Stephen Hopkins (1742) and that of Esek Hopkins (1718-1802), commander of the American navy during the Revolution, stand-

ing in a park formed from his estate. The Providence Art club occupies the homes ef Nicholas Brown (1787) and Siril Dodge (1793). Many more modest colonial houses (usually of red brick with white marble

trimmings,

and occasionally set in a

walled garden) add to the charm of this section of the city. The

Friends’ meeting house was erected in 1759. The first Unitarian church (organized 1773) has a bell cast by Paul Revere and his son. The city’s parks and playgrounds cover 790 ac., and there are also large reservations under the control of the State. Chief

among the municipal parks is Roger Williams park (451 ac.), part of the original tract ceded to Williams by Miantonomo, in which is the cottage (1775) of Betsy Williams, a lineal descendant. The North burial ground contains the graves of many men of prominence in the early history of the State and the nation. In addition to Brown university, Providence has within its limits the Rhode Island college of education (1854); the Rhode Island school of design, affiliated with Brown (1876); Providence college (Roman Catholic; 1919); the Rhode Island institute for the deaf (1876); and several private secondary schools of high standing. The public-school system has ‘profited in various ways by the presence of Brown university, and has been a pioneer in such educational schemes as transition classes between kindergarten and primary grades and open-air classes for delicate children. There are four daily newspapers. The Journal (Independent) was established in 1829. Among the numerous charitable institutions are the Butler Hospital for the Insane, one of the oldest institutions of its kind in the country (established by a bequest of Nicholas Brown in 1841), and the Dexter Asylum for the Poor, endowed by the Dexter fund, which limits its beneficiaries to those who have a legal settlement in Providence (że. have paid taxes for five years on $200 worth of property) and

consequently is very restricted in its application. The privately supported welfare agencies and philanthropic organizations unite in a joint annual campaign for funds. Providence river and harbour have been under improvement by the United States since 1852. The channel to the ocean is 30 ft. deep at mean low water and from 600 to 1,800 ft. wide. A State pier (built in 1913) and a municipal wharf provide modern terminal facilities for the public on equal terms, and there are 5 wharves owned by steamship lines, 10 by the railroad, and 43 by other private interests. Providence is the principal port of southern New England. Its water-borne commerce averaged 4,306,076 tons annually for the years 1920-25, and in 1926

amounted to 5,294,370 tons (valued at $437,480,000), of which

736,544 tons represented foreign trade (92% imports of petroleum and petroleum products). The great bulk of the domestic commerce consists of incoming coal, lumber, crude and fuel oil and petroleum products. Providence is one of the leading centres of the country for the manufacture of jewellery, silverware, worsteds, textile machinery and tools. Its aggregate factory output in 1925 was valued at $212,117,987, of which $38,888,861 represented worsteds, $29,823,076 jewellery (18% of the total made in the United States), and $7,730,531 the dyeing and finishing of textiles. Among the long-established firms of national reputation are the

PROVINCE Gorham Manufacturing Company, which introduced the jewellery and silverware industry; the American Screw Company, the Brown and Sharpe Manufacturing

File Company.

Company

and the Nicholson

Here the famous Corliss engines were first made

in 1847. The tity operates under the original charter of 1832, with

various amendments, providing for a mayor and council form of

government.

The franchise is limited to persons who pay a tax

on $134 worth of real property or $200 worth of personal prop-

erty. A town meeting is still held annually for the administration of the Dexter fund. The assessed valuation for 1927 was $630,-

340,520. Bank debits in 1926 aggregated $1,958,125,000. Providence was founded in 1636 by Roger Williams after his banishment from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He bought a tract of land from the Narragansett sachems Canonicus and Miantonomo, built a house opposite the confluence of the Moshassuck

and the Woonasquatucket rivers (so ft. east of North Main street), and with a few followers who had accompanied him into exile promptly set up a town government. In 1637, after the arrival of a few more settlers, a plantation covenant was adopted, embodying the novel principle of complete separation of religious and civil affairs. Providence was incorporated as a town by the

(tributum, stipendium).

647 It is to this class of communities

(the

civitates vectigales or stipendiariae) that the majority of the provincial states belonged. In a better position were those states whose freedom was guaranteed by Rome on the ground of old alliances or special loyalty. Their freedom was recognized either by a treaty or by a decree of the Roman people or senate. As a decree of the people or senate could at any time be recalled, the position of the free states without a treaty was more precarious than that of the treaty states (civitates foederatae). The latter enjoyed internal freedom, retained their lands, paid no taxes, and were bound to render those services only which were expressly stipulated for in the original treaty. Amongst such treaty states were Massilia (Marseille), Athens, Rhodes and Tyre. The privileges of the free states without a treaty were somewhat similar. All political distinctions, save that between slave and freeman, disappeared when Caracalla bestowed the Roman franchise on the

whole empire (A.D. 212). Provincial Diets.—Every province had, under the empire, a provincial assembly or diet of its own (concilium or commune), and these diets are interesting as the first attempts at representative assemblies. The diet met annually, and was composed of colonial assembly in 1649, and was chartered as a city in 1832. deputies (legati), from the provincial districts. It arranged for The name was chosen by Roger Williams in recognition (he the celebration of religious rites and games, especially for the says) of “God’s merciful providence unto me in my distress.” wotship of the emperor. The celebration was under the conduct Between 1730 and 1760 its area was reduced from 370 sq.m. to of the high priest of the province. The diet also passed votes of ss sq.m. by the setting off of Scituate, Gloucester, Smithfield, thanks to the outgoing governor, or forwarded complaints against Cranston, Johnston and North Providence, some of which were him to Rome; and it had the right of sending embassies direct further subdivided subsquently; and since 1860 the 5-5 sq.m. have to the senate or the emperor. The Provincial Governor.—The provinces were administered been increased to over 18 by re-annexations of contiguous territory. During King Philip’s War, in 1676, the town was attacked by governors from Rome, who held office for a year. From the by Indians and the northern half was burned. In June 1772, a formation of the first provinces in 227 B.c. down to the time of British schooner, the “Gaspee,” running aground at. what has Sulla (82 B.c.) the governors were praetors (see PRAETOR); from since been known as Gaspee point, was captured and burned by the time of Sulla to that of Augustus the praetors remained in Abraham Whipple (1733-1819) according to a plan devised by Rome during their year of office, and at the end of it assumed John Brown (1736—1828), one of the town’s prominent merchants. the government of a province with the title of propraetor. A During the Revolution, Providence was a centre of privateering, province which was the seat of war, or was in a disturbed state, and in consequence of the occupation of Newport by the British, was committed to the care either of one of the consuls for the took over much of the foreign commerce of that port. It re- year, or of a commander specially appointed for the purpose, mained an important port for 4o or 50 years, but after 1830 with the title of proconsul. The senate determined which provmanufactures became the dominating interest. Since 1900 its inces were to be governed by consuls and which by praetors, and water-borne commerce has again increased, more than doubling the consuls arranged between themselves which of the provinces in volume in the first quarter of the century. Providence shared each should have, and similarly with the praetors. The Sempronwith Newport the honour of being the seat of the State govern- ian law of 123 B.c. provided that the senate should nominate the two consular provinces before the election of the consuls, and ment until 1900; since 1900 it has been the sole capital. . PROVINCE, a term applied in ancient Rome (Lat. provin- that the consuls should, before their entry on office, arrange which cia) to the sphere of duty assigned to one of the higher magis- of the two provinces each should have. The Pompeian law of 53 trates, the consuls and praetors (qq.v.). Only those magistrates B.c. enacted that no one should hold the governorship of a provwho had military power (imperium) had a province. When the ince till at least five years after his consulship or praetorship. province of a quaestor is mentioned it refers to the province of This law was repealed by Caesar, but was re-enacted under Authe consul or praetor to whom the quaestor is subordinate. gustus; it severed the connection between an urban magistracy When the government of conquered countries grew to be one and the governorship of a province, and turned the latter into an of the most important duties of the higher magistrates, the term independent office. A provincial governorship was regularly held province, from designating the government of a conquered coun- for one year; but it could be prolonged by a vote of the people try as one particular duty of a Roman magistrate, came to be or a decree of the senate. The necessary supplies of men and money were voted to the governor by the senate. His staff inused generally as a designation of the country itself. The provinces paid tribute to Rome, for it was a recognized cluded one or more lieutenants (legati) and a quaestor (g.v.). principle that they were the estates of the Roman people and Besides these the governor took with him young men of the upwere to be managed for its benefit. The constitution of a province per classes to assist him in the government. These were known was drawn up by the victorious Roman general, assisted by ten as the companions (comites) or suite of the governor. They were commissioners appointed by the senate, and the province was chosen by the governor himself, but they were maintained at the governed on the lines laid down in this constitution or charter expense of the state, and under the empire, received regular pay. (lex provinciae). For administrative purposes the province was In addition there was a crowd of subordinates. Before setting divided into districts, each with its capital, for judicial purposes out for his province the governor, clad in the purple military mto circuits (conventus) and in the chief town of each circuit robe of his office, offered sacrifice on the Capitol; then immediately after receiving the imperium or military command he the governor of the province held assizes. The lands of cities captured by force of arms were turned into marched out of the city (for the imperium could only be exercised Roman domains, and were let out by the censors to private outside of Rome and was forfeited by staying in the city), preceded persons. Royal domains, such as those of Macedonia and Cyrene, by his lictors and accompanied by his suite. His year of office were also confiscated. Communities which surrendered were usu- began from the day he set foot in his province. In the hands of ally allowed to retain their personal freedom and private proper- the governor all powers military and civil were united. He comty; but all the lands were subjected to a tax, consisting either manded all the troops in the province, and had power to raise

of a payment in kind (vectigal) or of a fixed sum of money

levies of Roman citizens as well as of provincials, and to make

64.8

PROVINCETOWN—PROVISION

requisitions of war material. He possessed both criminal and civil jurisdiction; as criminal judge he had the power of life and death, and from his sentence none but Roman citizens could appeal; as civil judge he was guided partly by the charter of the province (lex provinciae), partly by the edict which it was customary for him to issue before his entrance on office (see PRAETOR). Condition of the Provinces under the Republic.—The

Roman people regarded the provinces as so many estates from which they were to derive revenue. Hence agriculture and commerce were encouraged, settlements were made, roads and aqueducts were constructed; in short, the Roman aimed at exploiting his empire by a system of prudent economy. But the Roman governors were apt to look on their provinces as their own peculiar prey; they had usually bought their way to office at vast expense, and they now sought in the provinces the means of reimbursing themselves for the expenditure they had incurred at Rome. Redress was to be had by a complaint to the senate; after 149 B.c. there was a court established at Rome for the trial of cases of extortion (repetundae) by provincial governors. But, even when the provincials had arraigned their oppressor, it was difficult to secure his condemnation at the hands of juries composed of men who had a fellow-feeling for the offender because they had themselves committed, or hoped for means of committing, similar offences. Besides the governor, two classes joinedyin wringing the uttermost farthing from the unhappy provincials. These were the publicant (q.v.) or farmers of the taxes, and the money-lenders (negotiatores). Both these classes were recruited from the equites (q.v.) and, since from 122 B.C. the juries were drawn at first exclusively and after 70 B.C. partially from that order, the provincial governor could not check their excesses without risking a condemnation at the hands of their brethren. Accordingly he generally made common cause with them. The Provinces under the Empire——Under the empire the provinces fared better. Romans and provincials were reduced to a common level of subjection to the emperor, who meted out equal justice. The first centuries of the Christian era were for some of the countries included in the Roman empire the happiest of their history. Augustus, in 27 B.C., divided the provinces into imperial and senatorial. Those which required the presence of an army were placed under the direct control of the emperor; those which needed no troops were left to the senate. (1) The senatorial provinces were ruled by annual governors called proconsuls. Their powers were much the same as they had been under the republic, except that they had now no troops, or only a handful to maintain order. (2) The imperial provinces were governed by imperial lieutenants (legati Caesaris), who were nominated by the em-

peror and held office at his pleasure; all of them had the power of the sword (ius gladii). For the administration of the finances these lieutenants had procurators under them, while the governors of the senatorial provinces continued to have quaestors. Certain other possessions were regarded as domains of the emperor, and were managed by a procurator or praefect (see PRAEFECT), responsible to the emperor. See T. Mommsen, Roman Provinces under the Empire (1884); T. M Taylor, Constitutional History of Rome (1899); J. E. Sandys, Companion to Latin Studies (1921), with useful bibliography. For imperial domains, see H. F. Pelham, Essays on Roman History (1911), BP. 275-299

PROVINCETOWN,

a town of Barnstable county, Massa-

chusetts, U.S.A., occupying 95 sqm on the tip of Cape Cod; served by the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad, and steamboats to Boston. The resident population was 4,246 in 1920; 3,808 Federal census 1930. There are many visitors in summer, among whom are a large number of artists, attracted by the

beauties of the sand dunes and the marine views. The town is almost surrounded by water, and there are three lighthouses on its coast. Its harbour (to the south) is protected on three sides by land. A magnificent beach stretches for 30 m. along Cape Cod bay to Eastham. Provincetown is a port of entry. The principal industries still (as since its settlement) are the catching, curing, packing and selling of fish, chiefly cod and mackerel. The large whaling fleet of former days has entirely disappeared. It

was in Provincetown harbour that the Pilgrims, in the cabin of the “Mayflower,” drew up their memorable Compact, before proceeding to Plymouth. Here John Carver was chosen as the first governor of Plymouth Colony, and this was the first land-

ing-place (on Nov. rı [O.S.], 1620) of the Pilgrims in the New World. There has been a settlement here since 1620. The town was set off from Truro and incorporated in 1727. Much of the

territory was originally “Province land” (hence the name) and there is still a large State reservation between the village and

the back ocean shore, which has been stocked with game birds

and planted with beach grass and pine trees.

PROVINS, a town of northern France, capital of an arron-

dissement of the department of Seine-et-Marne, at the junction

of the Durtain with the Voulzie (an affluent of the Seine), ṣọ m,

E.S.E. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1926) 7,354. Provins began to figure in history in the oth century. Passing from the counts of Vermandois to the counts of Champagne, it quickly became prosperous. Cloth and leather were its staple manufactures, and its fairs were attended by traders from all parts of Europe, throughout which its money had currency. Plague and famine reduced the population in the r4th century and the Hundred Vears’ War completed its ruin. During the religious wars it sided with the

Catholic party and the League, and Henry IV. obtained possession of it in 1592 only after thirteen days’ siege. The town has mineral waters which contain iron, lime and carbonic acid, and also a trade in roses. Provins is divided into two quarters—the vile-

haute and the less ancient ville-basse—which in the 13th century

were surrounded by fortifications. In the ville-haute stands the large tower known as the king’s, Caesar’s or the prisoners’ tower, a very curious 12th century keep. The base is surrounded by a thick mound of masonry added by the English in the rsth century when they:held the town. The tower serves as belfry to the church

of St. Quiriace, which dates from the 12th century. The palace

of the counts of Champagne, some fragments of which also belong to the 12th century, is occupied by the communal college. The old tithe-barn is a building of the 13th century with two fine vaulted chambers, one of which is below ground. The church of St. Ayoul dates from the rath to the 16th centuries, the transept being oldest; it is dilapidated and the choir is used as a storehouse. St. Croix belongs partly to the 13th century. There is a subprefecture and a tribunal of commerce. There is an active trade in grain, livestock and wool, and the industries include nurserygardening, brickmaking and the manufacture of porcelain, gas and petrol engines, agricultural implements and sugar.

PROVISION, in ecclesiastical law signifies the act by which

an office or benefice is conferred by a person having competent authority for the purpose; and the word is specially used of appointments made by the pope in derogation of the rights of ecclesiastical patrons, Innocent III. (1198—1216) seems to have been the first pope who directed prelates to collate his nominees to canonries and other benefices, but it was during the pontificate of Innocent IV. (1243~1254) that the practice first assumed alarming proportions. The English parliament held at Carlisle in 1307 petitioned the king for a remedy against this abuse, but though he promised redress nothing was done. Meanwhile the popes had been asserting claims to appoint bishops in certain

events on their own initiative, and at last Clement V. (1305-

1323) reserved to himself the right of appointment in all cases. After his time there is scarcely an instance of an English bishop being elected in accordance with the older procedure by the cathedral chapter. If an election were made the pope usually either overrode it by another appointment or, ignoring the election, ap-

pointed the elected clerk by a bull of provision. The Hundred Years’ War caused an outburst of indignation against the use of

papal provisions when non-resident French clerics were appointed to English benefices. To remedy the evil the first “Statute of Provisors” was enacted in 1357, the “Statute of Praemunire” in 1353, and a second “Statute of Provisors” in 1364 These appear to have

had little effect until in 1389, a third “Statute of Provisors” was enacted which provided that the statute of 1351 should be firmly

holden for ever and “put in due execution from time to time in all manner of points.”

PROVISIONAL

ORDER—PROVOST

649

and industry out of the desert. It is the centre of the mining interests of the State, and of the developing iron and steel industhe Church of England; W. Stubbs, Con-~ tries. Manufactures within the city are not important, but at stituttonal History of England; Anglia sacra. Ironton and other suburbs there are large iron and steel works, PROVISIONAL ORDER, in Great Britain, a direction by creosoting plants, and factories making cast-iron pipes. The city a Government department sanctioning (usually at the instance of was settled by the Mormons in 1849 and was chartered in 1851. a local authority or public undertaking) some project otherwise It has a commission form of government. unattainable without private bill legislation, e.g., the compulsory PROVOST, atitle attached to various ecclesiastical and secutaking of land or the building of a tramway. Originally the order lar offices. In ecclesiastical usage the word praepositus was at first is “provisional” because subject to parliamentary veto. The ob- applied by the Church fathers to any ecclesiastical ruler or digjects depend upon the enabling statute. nitary. It early, however, gained a more specific sense as applied The procedure generally involves: (1) preliminary local en- to the official next in dignity to the abbot of a monastery, or to the quiry and report by a departmental inspector; (2) departmental superior of a single cell. In England the title “provost” has thus decision as to the framing of the order; and (3) inclusion of the everywhere given way to that of “dean”; in Germany, on the order (singly or grouped with others) in a provisional order con- other hand, “Probst” is still the style of the heads of certain formation bill introduced into parliament by the minister con- chapters. The name praepositus was also sometimes used for BIBLIOGRAPHY

Statutes of the Realm; Calendar of Papal Registers;

J. Le Neve,Canon Fasti Law ecclesiae anglicanae; Rolls of Parliament; F. W. Maitland, in

cerned. Such bills, if opposed, are referred to a select committee;

they also go before examiners who see that the contents comply with standing orders.

An early instance is the Inclosures Act of

1845 whereby commissioners could provisionally order the en-

closure and regulation of commons. In 1853 the Charity Commissioners were authorized to give provisional approval to new schemes for the application and management of charities.

Grad-

ually the system was extended to the varied purposes of local government (especially the alteration of areas), public health,

gas, water and electricity supply, acquisition of school and hous-

ing sites, formation of pilotage and drainage districts, facilities

for harbours, docks, railways and other forms of transport, fish-

ery regulation, validation of marriages, etc. The early enactments have mostly been superseded and the process of devolution has been progressively developed. Two railway acts in 1864 initiated

the provisional certificate which embodied schemes for railway

construction or working agreements, and, unless the schemes were opposed, required no express parliamentary sanction. A further

delegation of legislative power enabled a local authority to make orders for the acquisition of land (as under section g of the Local Government Act, 1894): if not objected to, they had the full force of a statute; if objected to, they could be confirmed not by parliament but by the department concerned. Later a “special order” procedure was evolved whereby a draft of the proposed order is published and (on objection) a local enquiry is held but a confirmatory act of parliament is not required. The National Health Insurance Act of 1928 even authorizes a “provisional special order.” Under this variant (invented in 1912 to accelerate the action of special orders under the 1911 Act) the appropriate

Minister, instead of waiting for criticisms of his draft orders, can bring them into force forthwith provided that he certifies the expediency of such action.

Some special orders, such as those

which decide the application of unemployment insurance or trade boards legislation to particular trades, take effect forthwith, subject to annulment on adverse resolution by either house-of parliament within a time limit; others, e.g., those under the Electricity (Supply) Act of 1919 or the Gas Regulation Act of 1920, require the affirmative resolution of both houses. Special orders are often allowed to do all that a provisional order could formerly do. Scotland has her own machinery under the Private Legislation (Procedure) Scotland Act, 1899, operated through the Scottish Office, with special panels of commissioners for holding enquiries. Northern Ireland follows the Westminster model. see Clifford, Private Bil Legislation, II., ¢. 18.

(C. T. C.)

PROVO, a city of Utah, U.S.A., on the Provo river, 3 m. E. of Utah lake and 45 m. S. by E. of Salt Lake City; the county seat of Utah county. It is on Federal highway gr, and is served by the Denver and Rio Grande Western, the Union Pacific, the Utah, and the Salt Lake and Utah (electric) railways. The population Was 10,303 in 1920 (90% native white) and was 14,766 in 1930 by the Federal census. The city has an altitude of 4;512 ft., in a region of fine scenery. It is the seat of the State hospital for the insane and of Brigham Young university (founded and amply endowed by President Young in 1875), which has an enrolment of over 2,600. Provo is a “garden city,” surrounded by the richest agricultural and horticultural district of Utah, created by irrigation

the secular advocatus of a monastery. With the ecclesiastical use of the title is connected its English application to the heads of certain colleges; “provost” is still the style of the principals of Queen’s, Oriel and Worcester colleges at Oxford, of King’s college at Cambridge, of Trinity college at Dublin and of Eton college, where, however, the head-master, though technically subordinate to the provost, is the effective head of the school. As a secular title praepositus is also very old; we need only instance the praepositus sacri cubiculi of the late Roman empire, and the praepositus palatii of the Carolingian court. The important developments of the title in France are dealt with below. From France the title found its way into Scotland, where it survives in the style (provost) of the principal magistrates of the royal boroughs (“lord provost? in Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Perth and Dundee), and into England, where it is applied to certain officers charged with the maintenance of military discipline. A provost-marshal is an officer of the army appointed when troops are on service abroad for the prompt repression of all offences. He may at any time arrest and detain for trial persons subject to military law committing offences, and may also carry into execution any punishments to be inflicted in pursuance of a court-martial (Army Act, 1881, s. 74). A provost-sergeant is an officer responsible for the maintenance of order when soldiers are in Great Britain. A provost-sergeant may be either garrison or regimental, and he has under his superintendence the garrison or regimental police. The Provost in France.—The word prévét (provost) in old French law had many applications. In conformity with its etymology (praepositus) it could be applied to any person placed at the head of a branch of the public service, a position which, according to the old principles, habitually carried with it a right of jurisdiction. It is thus that there was at Paris the “provost of Paris,” who was a royal judge, and the “provost of the merchants” (prévét des marchands), the head of the Paris municipality. There were besides—to mention only the principal provosts—the ‘“provosts of the marshals of France” (prévdts des maréchaux de France), of whom more below; “the provost of the royal palace” (prévôt de l'hôtel du roi) or “grand provost of France” (grand prévôt de France), and the “provost general” (prévôt général) or “grand provost of the mint” (grand prévôt des monnaies). But the most important and best known provosts, who formed part of a general and comprehensive organization, were the “royal provosts” (préuéts royaux), the lower category of the royal judges. Tt must be borne in mind, however, that the magistrates belonging to the inferior category of royal judges (juges subalternes) had different designations in many parts of France. In Normandy and Burgundy they were called chdtelains, and elsewhere—especially in the south—vzguters. Some time in the 11th century the provosts replaced the viscounts wherever the viscounty had not become a fief, and it is

possible that in creating them

the Crown was imitating the

ecclesiastical organization in which the provost figured, notably in the chapters. The royal provosts had at first a double character. In the first place they fulfilled all the functions which answered locally to the royal power. They collected all the revenues of the domain and all the taxes and dues payable to the king within the

650

PROXY—PRUD’HON

limits of their jurisdiction. Doubtless, too, they had certain military functions, being charged with the duty of calling out certain contingents for the royal service; there survived until the end of the ancien régime certain military provosts prévéts d'épée (provosts of the sword) who were replaced in the administration of justice by a lieutenant.

Finally, the provosts administered justice,

though certainly their competence in this matter was restricted. Their second characteristic was that their office was farmed for a time to the highest bidder. It was simply an application of the

usually embodied in the articles of association. In England a proxy to vote at a meeting must bear a revenue stamp. (See ProcuraTION.) In the early practice of the admiralty courts a proxy was the authority by which the proctor or advocate appeared for either party to a suit. In the ecclesiastical courts a proxy is the warrant empowering a proctor to act for the party to a suit. Two

proxies are usually executed, one authorizing the proctor to insti.

tute, the other to withdraw, proceedings. They are signed by the parties, attested by two witnesses, and deposited in the registry specuthe received thus provost The system of farming the taxes. lative right to collect the revenues of the royal domain in the dis- of the court (Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law). In the convocations trict under his jurisdiction; this was his principal concern, and his of the Church of England those who are absent are allowed to judicial functions were merely accessory. By these short appoint- vote by proxy. (See also PRocuRATION.) Marriage by proxy or ments the Crown guaranteed itself against another danger: the deputy was a custom recognized either for reasons of State or possible conversion by the functionary of the function into a ceremonial. The extension of the doctrine to ordinary marproperty. Very early, however, certain provostships were be- riages was recognized in a few wartime cases in the United States. PRUDENTIUS, AURELIUS CLEMENS (348-c. 410), stowed en garde; i.e., the provost had to account to the king for all he collected. The prévôtés en ferme were naturally a source of the most remarkable of the earlier Christian poets in the West, abuses and oppression, the former seeking to make the most of was probably born at Tarraco. The meagre autobiographical the concession he had bought. They disappeared in the 16th preface, which he affixed to the complete edition of his works century, by which time the provosts became regular officials, their when he was fifty-seven years old, makes it clear that he received a liberal education—being of noble family—practised as a lawyer office being purchasable. Other transformations had previously taken place. The creation and entered official life, and finally held some high office under of the royal baillis reduced the provosts to a subaltern rank. Theodosius. At the age of fifty-seven he retired to a monastery, Each bailli had in his district a certain number of provosts, who but died shortly afterwards. Bentley calls Prudentius “the Horace and Virgil of the Chrisbecame his inferiors in the official hierarchy. When appeals were tians,” but his diction is stilted and his metre often faulty. The their of instances earliest the of one instituted (and this was introduction) the provost, the sphere of whose competency was list of his works given in the preface mentions the hymns, poems limited, was subject to an appeal to the bailli, though his judg- against the Priscillianists and against Symmachus and Peristephament had hitherto been without appeal. Moreover, in the 14th cen- non. The Diptychon or Dittochaeon is not mentioned. The twelve tury they had ceased to collect the revenues of the royal domain, hymns of the Cathemerinon liber (“Daily Round”) consist of six

except where the prévété was en ferme, and royal collectors for daily use, five for festivals, and one intended for every hour (receveurs royaux) had been appointed for this purpose. The of the day. Prudentius shows Ambrose as his master here, but summoning of the feudal contingents, the ban and arriére-ban, had gives to Ambrose’s mystic symbolism much clearer expression. passed into the hands of the baillis. Thus the provosts were left The Apotheosis and Hamartigenia are polemic, the first against the for their sole function as inferior judges for non-nobles. (See disclaimers of the divinity of Christ, the latter against the gnostic dualism of Marcion and his followers. In them Tertullian is the BAILIFF AND BAILIE.) The “provosts of the marshals of France,” mentioned above, source of inspiration. Of more historical interest are the two were non-legal officials (officiers de la robe courte) forming part books Contra Symmachum, of 658 and 1,131 hexameter verses respectively, the first attacking the pagan gods, the second directed of the body of the maréchaussée which was under the ancien régime what the gendarmerie was after the Revolution, Their against the petition of Symmachus to the emperor for the restoraoriginal function was to judge offences committed by persons fol- tion of the statue of Victory which Gratian had cast down. The Peristephanon consists of fourteen hymns to martyrs. These lowing the army, but in the course of the 14th and 15th centuries were mostly Spanish, but some were suggested to Prudentius misdemeanand crimes certain judging they acquired the right of by sacred images in churches or by the inscriptions of Damasus. ours, by whomsoever committed. They became stationary, with liber and the Psychomachia, fixed spheres of authority, and the offences falling within their This book, with the Cathemerinon was among the most widely read books of the middle ages. Its competency came to be called cas prévétaux. These were the influence on the iconography of mediaeval art was great. The worst crimes of violence, and all crimes and misdemeanours comPsychomachia is aesthetically inferior, but had the greatest influmitted by old offenders (repris de justice), who were familiarly ence of all of Prudentius’s writings. In it he depicts the struggle known as the gibier des prévôts des maréchaux Be ) of Christendom with paganism under the allegory of a struggle J. P. E. the Christian virtues and the pagan vices. The Ditbetween PROXY (sbort for “procuracy”), a term denoting either (1) to explain a person who is authorized to stand in place of another; (2) the tochaeon is a series of quatrains, probably intended work is more interesting for The basilica. a of pictures forty-nine legal instrument by which the authority is conferred. Proxies are now principally employed for certain voting purposes. A proxy archaeology than for literature. works were published by Giselin at Antwerp in 1564, may in law be either general or special. A general proxy authorizes andPrudentius’s by F. Arevalo at Rome in 1788, with complete commentary. This the person to whom it is entrusted to exercise a general discretion last is the edition reprinted in J. P. Migne’s Patrologia Latina, vols.’ throughout the matter in hand, while a special proxy limits the lix—Ix. (Paris, 1847). More recent editions are by Obbarius (Tübingen, authority to some special proposal or resolution. Formerly a peer 1843) and A. Dressel (Leipzig, 1886), while a critical edition has been could give his vote in the British parliament by proxy, by getting undertaken by J. Bergmann. See also J. Bergmann, Lexicon prudentianum, fasc. t. [a-adscendo] another peer to vote for him in his absence, temporal peers only (Upsala, 1894); M. Schanz, Gesch. d. röm. Lit. (Munich, 1904); voting for temporal and spiritual peers for spiritual. However, on A. Ebert, Allgem. Gesch. d. Lit. des Mittelalters, vol. i. 2nd ed, (Leipzig, 1889) ; M. Manutius, Gesch. d. christl. lat. Poesie (Stuttgart, March 31, 1868, on the recommendation of a committee, a new standing order was adopted by which the practice of calling for 1891); T. R. Glover, Life and Letters in the Fourth Century (CamAur. Prud. Clem. in seiner Bedeutung proxies on a division was discontinued. In English and American bridge, 1901); C. Brockhaus, f. d. Kirche seiner Zeit (Leipzig, 1872) ; A. Pnech, Prudence; étude sur bankruptcy proceedings creditors may vote by proxy, and every la poésie latine chrét. au IVe siècle (Paris, 1888) ; F. St. John Thackinstrument of proxy, which may be either general or special, is eray, Translations from Prudentius (London, 1890); F. Maigret, Le issued either by the official receiver or trustee. Under the English Poète chrétien Prudentius (Paris, 1903) ; E. O. Winstedt, “The Double Bankruptcy Act of 1914 and the American Bankruptcy Act of Recension in the Poems of Prudentius”? The Classical Review, 1898 a creditor may still vote by proxy in the manner prescribed. vol. xvii. (1903). A shareholder in a limited liability company may vote by proxy, PRUD’HON, PIERRE (1758-1823), French painter, bom and regulations to that effect prescribing the requirements are at Cluny on April 4, 1758, was the thirteenth child of a mason.

651

PRUNELLA—PRUSSIA The monks of the abbey undertook his education, and by the aid of the bishop of Macon he was placed with Devosge, director of the art school at Dijon. In 1778 Prud’hon went to Paris armed with a letter to Wille, the celebrated engraver, and three years later he obtained the triennial prize of the States of Burgundy,

which enabled him to go to Rome, where he became intimate with Canova. He studied the work of Correggio and the affinity of his style with that of the great Italian has given him the name of “Corrége Frangais.” He returned to Paris in 1787. The illustrations which he executed for the Daphnis and Chloe published by Didot brought him into notice, and his reputation was extended

by the success of his decorations in the Hétel de Landry (now Rothschild), his ceiling painting of “Truth and Wisdom” for Versailles (Louvre), and of “Diana and Jupiter” for the Gallery of

Antiquities in the Louvre. In 1808 he exhibited “Crime pursued by Vengeance and Justice” (Louvre), which had been commissioned for the assize courts, and “Psyche carried off by Zephyrs.” These two compositions brought Prud’hon the Legion of Honour;

and in 1816 he entered the Institute. Consoled for the misery of his marriage by the devoted care of his pupil, Mlle. Mayer, Prud’hon’s situation seemed enviable; but Mlle. Mayer’s tragical suicide in 1821 brought ruin to his home, and Prud’hon died two

years later on Feb. 16, 1823. See P. Gauthiez, Prud’hon C. Clement respondance

(chief work), (1880).

PRUNELLA,

(1891); E. Bricon, Prud’hon

Prud’hon;

sa vie, ses oeuvres

(1907);

et sa cor-

a term obtained from the French Pruneile,

and applied to worsted or woollen twill fabrics of light but strong 2 texture, produced with the three-end ) warp-face twill

I weave and usually woven from hank-dyed yarn of a dark purple colour both for warp and weft, or else piece-dyed in the same colour and formerly much used for clerical garments. It is now made

in various grades of texture both plain and striped and used as

dress material, ladies’ sport skirts, and other articles of clothing both for men and women. A stronger and heavier texture of prunella cloth of a similar character to “everlasting,” is also produced from a worsted warp and cotton weft and woven with the double-stitch five-end warp-face satin weave, and used for ladies’ shoe-tops. The three-end warp-face twill weave is also described as the “prunella” twill, irrespective of the class of fabric to which it is applied. (H. N.)

PRURITUS, an ailment characterized by intense itching of

the surface of the body. digestive disorders,

It may occur in jaundice, diabetes,

etc., or as the result of the irritation pro-

duced by sons, and of sleep. the skin.

skin parasites. The most serious form affects old peris often a cause of great suffering, depriving the patient In such cases it is probably due to atrophic changes in No eruption is visible, except such marks as are produced by scratching. The treatment is, general, by tonics and, local, by soothing lotions.

PRUSSIA, a republic of Germany, and the largest, most populous and most important State of the German republic. It ‘Is bounded on the north by the Baltic, Mecklenburg, Denmark and the North sea, on the east by the frontiers of the republics of Lithuania

and

Poland,

on

the

south

by

Czechoslovakia,

the republic of Saxony, Thuringia, Bavaria and Hesse, on the west by Alsace-Lorraine, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. The republics of Oldenburg and Mecklenburg run like wedges from the coast into Prussian territory, and Brunswick and other small German States also form Prussian enclaves. With the exception of these enclaves, and of exclaves such as Hohenzollern and the province of East Prussia, the republic of Prussia forms a

tolerably compact mass of territory, and occupies almost the whole of northern Germany. Physical Features.—The

greater part of Prussia belongs to

the great north European plain, and may be generally characterwed as lowlands. The plain is much wider on the east, where only the southern margin of Prussia is mountainous, than on the west, where the Hanoverian hills approach to within less than too m. of the sea. A line drawn from Düsseldorf through Halle

to Breslau would, roughly speaking, divide the flat part of the country from the hilly districts. In the south-east, Prussia is separated from Czechoslovakia by the Sudetic chain, which begins at the valley of the Oder and extends thence towards the north-west. This chain includes the Riesengebirge, with the highest mountain in Prussia (Schneekoppe), and subsides gradually in the hills of Lusatia. The Harz mountains, however, beyond the Saxon plain, follow the same general direction and may

be regarded as a detached continuation of the system. To the south of the Harz the Prussian frontier intersects the northern part of the Thuringian forest, which is also prolonged towards the north-west by the Weser Gebirge and the Teutoburger Wald. The south-west of Prussia is occupied by the plateau of the lower Rhine, including on the left bank the Hunsriick and the Eifel, and on the right the Taunus, the Westerwald and the Sauerland. Between the lower Rhenish and Thuringian systems are interposed the Vogelsberg, the Rhön and other hills belonging to the Triassic system of the upper Rhine. The Silesian mountains are composed chiefly of granite, gneiss and schists, while the Harz and the lower Rhenish plateau are mainly of Devonian and Silurian formation. To the north of the Sauerland is the important Carboniferous system of the Ruhr, and there are also extensive coalfields in Silesia; a considerable portion of the Silesian coalfield has, however, been ceded to Poland. With the exception of the Danube, Prussia is traversed by all the chief rivers of Germany, comprising almost the entire course of the Oder and the Weser (see also GERMANY).

Climate.—The climate of Prussia may be described as moder-

ate, and is generally healthy. The greatest contrasts of temperature are found between the east and west, the mean annual temperature in the bleak and exposed provinces of the north-east being about 44° F, while that of the sheltered valley of the Rhine is 5° higher. In winter the respective means are 27° and 34°; in summer the difference is not above 2° to 4°. The highest monthly average is about 66° in July. The rainfall in the lowlands is about 25 in. at Cologne, 23 in. at Berlin and 25-5 in. at Königsberg, but in the east it diminishes inland to 19 in. or less. It is greater on the outstanding heights. Area and Population.—The republic of Prussia is made up

of the following provinces

and

divisions

(Gebietstezle),

viz.,

East Prussia, Brandenburg, Berlin, Pomerania, Border province (Grenzmark Posen and West Prussia), Lower and Upper Silesia, Saxony, Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Westphalia, HessenNassau, Rhine, Hohenzollern and Waldeck, with a total area of 113,740 sq.m. and a population (according to the 1925 census) of 38,175,989, excluding the Saar district but including Waldeck. The State of Waldeck was incorporated with Prussia, April r, 1929. Prussian boundaries are subject to change from the inclusion of .the territory of the adjacent Free States as these signify their desire for incorporation (Official German Information, Dec. 1928).

The population is densest in the mining and manufacturing district of the Rhine, which is closely followed by Westphalia; next to these come Hessen-Nassau, Silesia and Saxony. In 1925 Prussia contained 29 towns, each with upwards of 100,000 inhabitants. Communications.—With most internal means of communication Prussia is excellently provided. On April r, 1920, the railways became the property of the Reick, and on Oct. Ir, 1924, as a result of the Dawes Agreement, their management was put in the hands of a private company, though they remained State property. On March 31, 1923, the railways of the German republic in Prussia (excluding the Saar) were 19,339 m. in length. The most important trunk line of Prussia is that which enters the western frontier near Aachen and runs through Cologne, Diisseldorf, Hanover and Berlin, and crosses the Polish corridor between Chojnice and Tczew, and the Free State of Danzig between Tczew and Marienburg, proceeding via Königsberg to the eastern frontier at Eydtkubnen. Generally speaking, the principal lines of the country either radiate from Berlin or run alongside the frontiers and boundaries. Prussia possesses also an extensive system of natural and artificial waterways. The most important of the canals are the North sea and Baltic canal (officially the Kaiser Wilhelm canal), the

652

PRUSSIA

Elbe-Trave canal (to give Liibeck access to the Elbe), and the Dortmund-Ems canal and its continuation, the Dortmund-Rhine canal. Among the largest ship-owning ports are Flensburg, Stettin, Königsberg and Kiel.

Agriculture.—The north-eastern provinces of Prussia contain

a high proportion of poor soil, and in the north-west occur large tracts of heath and moor. The reclaimed marshlands in both districts, as well as the soil in the neighbourhood of the rivers, are usually very fertile, and tracts of fruitful ground are found in the valleys of the Rhine and its affluents, and in the plain around Magdeburg, the so-called Béhrde. The most fertile Prussian

[INDUSTRIES

growers in other countries of Europe, from the Oidium tuckeri and the Phylloxera, and the Government has spent large sums of money in endeavouring to arrest the ravages caused. Fisheries.—The fisheries on the Baltic sea and its bays, and on the North sea, are important. In the former the take consists mainly of herrings, flatfish, salmon, mackerel and eels, while the

chief objects of the latter are cod and oysters. Inland fishery has been encouraged by the foundation of numerous piscicultyral establishments and by the enactment of close-time laws. Ca perch, pike and salmon, the last-named especially in the Rhine are the principal varieties; sturgeon are taken in the Elbe and province is Saxony, while the least productive are East Prussia Oder, and the lakes of East Prussia swarm with bream and and the Grenzmark. The principal crop in Prussia is rye, of lampreys. Game of various kinds abounds in different parts of

which the ordinary bread of the country is made; it grows in all parts of the country, especially in the north and east, and occupies an area of nearly 8,000,000 ac. (1924). Oats occupy an area equal to about two-thirds of that devoted to rye, and are also grown most extensively in the north-eastern districts. Wheat, which is chiefly cultivated in the south and west, covers only about a fourth as much ground as rye. Barley is most largely grown in Saxony and Silesia. Other grain crops are spelt (chiefly on the Rhine), buckwheat (Hanover and Schleswig-Holstein) and millet; maize is grown for fodder in some districts. Potatoes, used both as food and for the distillation of spirits, are cultivated over an area of about 4,541,361 ac. (1924), and are specially predominant in the eastern provinces. The common beet is extensively grown for the production of sugar in the provinces of Saxony, Hanover, Silesia, Pomerania and Brandenburg. Flax and hemp occupy considerable areas in East Prussia, Silesia and Hanover. There is some cultivation of rape-seed for oil. Agriculture in Prussia is on a high level, with much application of the latest scientific improvements, including widespread utilization of electrical power. The number of farms of less than 5 ac. each was 1,877,824 in 1925; farms ranging from 5 to 5a ac. numbered 975,773; farms ranging from 50 to 250 ac., 129,975; and farms exceeding 250 ac., 14,795. In all the provinces farms under 5 ac. predominate, but larger farms (up to 50 ac.) are a marked feature in Hohenzollern. The cultivation of the beetroot for sugar has had a far-reaching effect upon Prussian agriculture, especially in the provinces of Saxony, Silesia, Hanover, Pomerania, Brandenburg, the Border province and the Rhine province. Also owing to the deep

Prussia, and the lakes are frequented by large flocks of waterfowl.

Mining and Metal Industries.—Prussia is the largest pro-

ducer of coal, zinc, salt, lead and copper amongst the States of

the German republic. Of the aggregate German output of coal Prussia supplies the high total of 128,552,469 tons (1925), valued at 1,827,537,717 reichsmarks, and of this the Rhenish-Westphalian district produces the largest quantity. An extremely important rôle is played in the coal industry of Prussia by the RhenishWestphalian Coal syndicate, which has succeeded in regulating the production and price of the coalfields generally. Out of a total

output of lignite for the entire German republic of 139,724,614 tons in 1925, Prussia yielded no less than 115,122,092 tons, valued at 298,735,754 reichsmarks. Almost all the zinc produced in Ger-

many comes out of the Silesian mines, but two-thirds of them are now in Poland. The chief iron-producing regions are the Rhine province, Westphalia, Hessen-Nassau and Silesia. Lead and manganese are also produced. Salt is mined principally in the province of Saxony (Stassfurt, Aschersleben, Erfurt, Halle, Merse-

burg, Sangerhausen), the kali salts near Magdeburg and Glauber salts in the Rhine province and Hessen-Nassau. Iron is worked principally in the districts of Arnsberg, Diisseldorf, Oppeln in Silesia, Treves and Coblenz, and zinc for the most part near Oppeln in Silesia; lead and silver near Aachen, Oppeln and Wiesbaden, and sulphuric acid in all the mining districts, as well as near Potsdam, Breslau, Magdeburg and Merseburg. Petroleum is extracted to a limited extent at a couple of places in the province of Hanover, which also contains considerable potash deposits. Amber has been mined in East Prussia. A little is also collected on the coast near Pillau. Industries.—It was during the last quarter of the roth century that Prussia became a great manufacturing country, industry being interwoven with agriculture, and both being dependent on the highest organization of technical skill. The educational system

cultivation of the soil and the incessant hoeing which the beet crop requires, the three or four crops which follow it are invariably good, and the liability to failure of the immediately succeeding crop is reduced to a minimum. Moreover, the fiscal policy of the Prussian Government has been of first-rate assistance to the Prussian farmer. Barley is grown on an area of nearly 2 million has been remarkably adapted to this end, and skill in the use of acres (1924). Chicory is produced chiefly in the Prussian prov- foreign languages is a special feature. The chief industrial disince of Saxony; the principal centres for its manufacture in tricts are, of course, those which yield coal with, in addition, the great cities—Berlin, Magdeburg, Hanover, Breslau, Géorlitz, StetPrussia are Magdeburg, Berlin and Breslau. Live Stock.—The province of East Prussia, with the principal tin, Essen, Dortmund, Elberfeld-Barmen, Diisseldorf, Cologne, Government stud of Trakehnen, is the headquarters of horse- Aix-la-Chapelle, Crefeld, Halle, Frankfurt-am-Main, Solingen, rearing. The horses bred there are generally suitable for the Remscheid, Königsberg, and many others. The iron and lighter kind of work only, and are in great request for military metal industries, especially the. making of machinery, electrical purposes. Horses of a stouter type are bred in Schleswig-Holstein plant, tramway plant, and the production of articles in wrought and on the Rhine, but heavy draught horses have to be imported copper and brass, rank in the forefront. In these branches Berlin from France, Holland, Belgium and Denmark. The best cattle and more lately its suburbs, as well as Magdeburg and Cologne,

are reared in the maritime provinces of the West. Forests.—Prussia contains a large proportion of woodland. The most extensive forests are in East Prussia, Silesia and Brandenburg, where coniferous trees prevail, and in the Rhenish and Hessian districts, where oaks and beeches are the most prominent growths. The north-west is almost entirely destitute of timber, and peat is there used universally as fuel. The admirably managed Government forests form a considerable proportion of the whole, and the State also controls the management of forests in private possession.

Viticulture The principal wine-growing districts of Prussia are the Rheingau and the Rhine province, though wine is also produced in Silesia, Westphalia and a few other districts. The valleys of the Nahe, Saar, Moselle and Ahr all produce excellent wine. German vine-growers have suffered in common with vine-

have played an active rôle, but the old centres of the metallurgical and iron and steel industries in the Rhine province and Westphalia remain outstandingly important, though their control has changed into French hands. The chemical industries, essentially a German specialty, take front rank, e.g., those which produce aniline

dyes, artificial indigo, illuminants (acetylene gas, Welsbach mantles, etc.), explosives, various chemical salts, pharmaceutical preparations, cellulose, glycerine, artificial (chemical) manures and perfumes. German shipbuilding is highly developed. Constitution—The present Constitution of Prussia dates from Nov. 30, 1920. The diet or landtag of Prussia contains 450 members, elected for a period of four years by universal secret suffrage on a basis of proportional representation. Every person over 20 years of age has one vote. The State Council or staatsrat is elected by the provincial assemblies on the basis of one member

RELIGION:

PRUSSIA

EDUCATION]

for 500,000 people, but every province has at least three repre-

sentatives, save that the Gebietsteil Hohenzollern has only one. This gives a total of 79 members. It is intended to be an institution parallel to the rezcksrat, and has the right of rejecting legislation adopted by the diet. The diet elects the premier, and

he appoints the rest of the cabinet.

Religion.—The centre of the republic is solidly Protestant, the proportion of Roman Catholics increasing towards east and west and reaching its maximum on the Rhine and in the Slavonic provinces. East Prussia, however, with the exception of Ermeland, is Protestant. The Roman Catholics greatly outnumber the Protestants in the Rhine provinces, and in Upper Silesia. Ab-

solute religious liberty is guaranteed in the republic. According to the census of 1925, the Evangelical Protestants in Prussia number 24,751,368, the Roman Catholics 11,940,978, the Jews

403,969, and those of other beliefs 1,023,858. The Evangelical or Protestant Church of Prussia consists, as it now stands, of a union of the Lutherans and Calvinists, effected under royal pressure in

1817. Those who were unable from conscientious scruples to join the union became Separatist or Old Lutherans and Old Calvinists, but their numbers were and are insignificant. The Evangelical Church is governed by “‘consistories,” or boards elected by the

people. There are also synods in most circles and provinces, and

general synods representing the old provinces only. The organization of the Roman Catholic Church differs in the various provinces. Altogether, in Prussia, there are two archbishops and ten bishops. Education.—In Prussia education is compulsory, and the general level attained is very high. Every town or community must maintain a school, supported by local rates and under the supervision of the State. All parents are compelled to have their children properly taught or to send them to one of these elementary schools, in which all fees are now abolished. By the Constitution of 1850, all persons are permitted to instruct, or to found teaching establishments, provided they can produce to the authorities satisfactory proofs of their moral, scientific and technical qualifications. Both public and private educational establishments are under the surveillance of the minister of public instruction, and all public teachers are regarded as servants of the State (Staatsbeamte). No compulsion exists in reference to a higher educational institution than primary schools. All children must attend school from their sixth to their fourteenth year. At the head of the administration stands the minister of public instruction and ecclesiastical affairs, to whom also the universities are directly subordinated. The higher (secondary) schools are supervised by provincial boards, appointed by Government, while the management of the elementary and private schools falls within the jurisdiction of the ordinary Regierungen or civil government. This is carried out through qualified school inspectors. The expenses of the primary schools (Volksschulen) are borne

by the communes

(Gemeinden), aided when necessary by sub-

sidies from the State. The teachers for the elementary schools are trained in normal seminaries or colleges established and super-

vised by the State.

The secondary schools of Prussia may be

roughly divided into classical and modern.

The classical schools

proper consist of Gymnasia. In these boys are prepared for the universities and the learned professions, and the full course lasts for nine years. The modern schools, or Realgymnasia, also have a nine years’ course; Latin is taught, but not Greek, and greater stress is laid upon modern languages, mathematics and natural science. The three lower classes are practically identical with those of the gymnasia, while in the upper classes the thoroughness of training is assimilated as closely as possible to that of the classical schools, though the subjects are somewhat altered. Ranking with the realgymnasia are the Oberrealschulen, which differ

only in the fact that Latin is entirely omitted, and the time thus

gained devoted to modern languages.

The gymnasial “certificate

of ripeness” (Maturitétszeugniss), indicating that the holder has passed satisfactorily through the highest class, enables a student to enrol himself in any faculty at the university. The great

majority of the secondary schools have been established and endowed by municipal corporations.

653

Prussia possesses 12 of the 23 German universities (not including the lyceum at Braunsberg; the medical academy at Diisseldorf,

and the Roman Catholic seminary at Minster). The largest Prussian university is that of Berlin, while Breslau, Bonn, Göttingen and Halle are the next in size. The oldest is the university of Greifswald, founded in 1456. Like the schools, the universities are State institutions, and the professors are appointed and paid by Government, which also makes annual grants for apparatus and equipment. Ranking with the universities are numerous technical high schools. Music is taught at several conservatoria, the best known of which are at Berlin and Frankfurt-am-Main. The science and art of Prussia find their most conspicuous external expression in the academies of science and art at Berlin, both founded by Frederick I.; and each town of any size throughout the kingdom has its antiquarian, artistic and scientific societies. Recognized schools of painting exist at Berlin and Düsseldorf, and both these towns, as well as Cassel, contain excellent picture galleries. The scientific and archaeological collections of Berlin are also of great importance. Besides the university collections, there are numerous large public libraries, the chief of which is the Reichsbibliothek at Berlin. (N. D.) See Statistisches Jahrbuch für den Freistaat Preussen, the Statistisches Jahrbuch für das deutsche Reick, and other publications of the statistical offices of Prussia and Germany. In addition, see Landeskunde Preussens (Berlin, 1901), edited by Beuermann, various volumes of Forschungen zur deutschen Landes- und Volkskunde: British Diplomatic and Consular Reports; and the bibliography for GERMANY.

HISTORY The State of Prussia, which has played so great a part in the history of Germany, came into being gradually, being formed out of wholly dissimilar components. The chief of these were the Mark of Brandenburg and the State of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. The history of each of these, up to their union, must be treated separately. The Mark of Brandenburg.—The territory between the Elbe and the Oder, which had been abandoned by the Germans in the time of the great migrations, and occupied by Slavonic tribes in the succeeding centuries, was gradually reconquered by the Germans after the roth century. To secure the safety of the new frontier districts, Marks were set up, the overlords of which—the markgrafs—enjoyed wider powers than the counts in the interior of the empire. The northernmost of these marks was the Nordmark, founded by Henry I. and enlarged by Otto I, Those parts of this Mark which lay east of the Elbe were, however, lost to German rule after the great rising of the Slavs in 983; only the present Altmark remained in German hands. The Markegraf Albert the Bear, of the Ascanian dynasty (113470), was the true founder of the State of Brandenburg. He conquered Priegnitz and the Havelland and at first took the title of markgraf of Brandenburg. His descendants, who remained masters of these districts until 1320, conquered the Ukermark, the districts of Stargard and Lebus, and the so-called Neumark, beyond the Oder. They were already aiming at possession of Pomerania, in order to obtain direct access to the sea. The Ascanian markgrafs invited a large number of German settlers into the country and founded a number of German towns, which soon attained considerable prosperity.

On the extinction of the Ascanians, Louis the Bavarian, the then German king, bestowed their lands on his younger sons (1324). The Wittelsbachs were unable, however, to retain for long their hold on these territories, which lay far distant from their family possessions. Finally they ceded them to the Emperor Charles IV. (1373), who attempted to combine them with Bohemia and Silesia in one great East German State. After his death, however (1378), his extensive dominions were divided up. The Mark fell first to his youngest son Sigmund, who gave it in pledge to his cousin, Jobst of Moravia. On the death of the latter (1411), the Mark reverted to Sigmund, who had in the meantime become German king. In r415 he conferred it on one of his most faithful adherents, the Burgrave Frederick of Nuremberg, of the house of Hohenzollern.

654

PRUSSIA

The two first electors of the house of Hohenzollern, Frederick I. (1415-40) and Frederick II. (1440-70) had a hard struggle against the nobles and towns of the Mark to restore the authority of the overlord and recover the frontier districts, some of which had been occupied by neighbours. Under the next electors, Albert Achilles (1470-86) and John (1486-99) the overlord’s power was further consolidated. Joachim I. (14991535) founded a university in Frankfurt-an-der-Oder, and was one of the keenest partisans of the old Church in the struggles provoked by Luther’s movement. His son, Joachim II. (15357~), however, was converted to Protestantism and introduced the Reformation into the Mark. The next electors, John George (1571-98) and Joachim Frederick (1598-1608) are of little importance for the further development of the State. John Sigmund (1608-19), by his marriage with the heiress of Prussia and Jülich, paved the way for the great change which the acquisition of those territories brought about. The Teutonic Order—In 1226 the Polish Duke Conrad of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights into his territory to combat the heathen Prussians. After a difficult struggle, the Order conquered the territory of the heathen Prussians, exterminated most of the native population, and invited German peasants and townspeople into the country as settlers. In the r4th century the State ruled by the Knights was a power in north-eastern Germany. It acquired Pommerellia and for a time the Neumark also, and through its connection with the Order of the Sword, of Livonia, extended its influence as far as Estonia. A string of flourishing cities sprang up along its coast. In Marienburg, since 1309 the seat of the Grand Master of the Order, the splendid castle was built which to this day testifies to the past glories of the Order, and formed the centre of its admirably organized administrative system. But even in the 14th century the Order was beginning to decline, owing mainly to the fact that once the struggle against the heathen was ended, it lost its original spiritual character, occupied itself only with purely mundane tasks, and thus lost touch with its original purpose. The rule of the Knights, who admitted none of the local nobility into their ranks, came to be felt by the inhabitants as a foreign rule. When Poland and Lithuania united into a powerful State at the end of the r4th century, and the rulers of this State began to aspire to possession of the Baltic coast, the Order could not rely fully either on the nobles or on the towns in its territory. After the defeat of their army at the battle of Tannenberg (1410) the Knights were forced to cede part of their territory to Poland. In a second war the Poles took Marienburg, and at the Peace of Thorn (1466) forced the Order to cede them West Prussia and Ermeland, with Danzig and Thorn, and to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Polish king for the rest of their territory. At the beginning of the 16th century, the Reformation began to penetrate these regions also, and the Grand Master of the day, Albert of Brandenburg, a grandson of the Elector Albert Achilles, proceeded, with the consent of the king of Poland, to take the decisive step which was tantamount to the end of the Order’s rule. He went over to Protestantism, at the same time proclaiming himself hereditary duke of Prussia (1525). As his only son, Albert Frederick (15681618) was an imbecile, the power passed almost wholly to the Estates. Albert Frederick’s eldest daughter, Anna, married the Elector John Sigmund, and through her Prussia passed in 1618 to the electors of Brandenburg. As Anna was also co-heiress through her mother of the great territories which had been united under the rule of the dukes of Jiilich, Cleve and Berg on the lower Rhine, and as this ducal house had become extinct a few years previously (1609), the electors of Brandenburg could hope to acquire not only Prussia, but also considerable domains in west Germany.

The Great Elector.—Under the Treaty of Xanten (1614),

John Sigmund had reached an understanding with the count Palatine of Neuburg, his most dangerous rival for the Jiilich succession, securing for himself the reversion of Cleve, Mark and Ravensberg. In order to obtain from the Calvinistic princes of west Germany the support which he needed to keep these acquisitions secure, he had become a convert to Calvinism—a

[HISTORY

step which aroused great discontent in his ancestral domains which were wholly Lutheran,

Lutheran.

and in Prussia, which was also

The Thirty Years’ War broke out at the end of John

Sigmund’s reign, and his son George William (1619-40), a weak

ruler, found himself confronted with a situation of extraordina difficulty. Although he urgently desired to remain neutral, both the Danes and Wallenstein’s troops invaded his territory. After his cousin, Gustavus Adolphus, landed in Germany, it was no longer possible to preserve neutrality. He was forced to con.

clude an alliance with the king, but on the latter’s death at once attempted to make peace with the emperor; later he even took sides against Sweden, who refused to grant him possession of Pomerania,

to which he had laid claim, on the strength of old

succession treaties, on the death of the last member of the old

ducal family (1637). The Mark of Brandenburg consequently again became the theatre of war, and the elector was obliged to flee to Prussia, where he died in 1640.

His young son, Frederick William, at that time only 20 years of age, became the real second founder of the Prussian State, He concluded an armistice with Sweden, and, in the face of great difficulties, organized for himself a small army of his own, with the object of achieving greater independence. In the Peace of Westphalia (1648) he succeeded in acquiring Lower Pomerania, and the secularized bishoprics of Minden, Halberstadt and Magdeburg as compensation for Upper Pomerania, which was

assigned to Sweden.

The last-named districts, however, only

actually passed to him in 1680, after the death of the previous administrator. In the decade which followed the Peace of Westphalia, Frederick William

reinforced his army.

In the first Northern War

(1655-60) be was thus a valuable ally to either of the contending parties, Sweden or Poland. First he joined the Swedes, and

helped them to win the decisive victory near Warsaw (1657). When, however, King Charles Gustavus was forced by the Danish attack to return to Sweden, the elector negotiated with Poland. By adroit manipulation of the situation he managed in the Peace of Oliva (1660) to secure from all parties concerned recognition of his full sovereignty over East Prussia. The importance of the great elector’s reign was even greater for the internal development of the Prussian State. His creation of a standing army gave him an instrument which could be turned against the claims of his own subjects also. After a vigorous struggle with the Estates, which assumed acute form in Kast Prussia, he succeeded in restricting their rights in important respects. The system of taxation was radically reformed; the old administrative system, which was largely controlled by the Estates, was reinforced by new official bodies, which were purely State organs. The elector’s privy council, which had hitherto been a purely Brandenburg institution, was made into the central organ of the whole State. In important deliberations the elector presided personally, and all subordinate officials were accustomed to send in regular reports on their work to the privy council. All these measures bore clear witness to the elector’s ambition to create a unified single State out of the different territories, scattered throughout Germany, which had gradually come into his family’s possession. When Frederick William died in 1688, his State was already the most powerful and the best administered in northern Germany. (For a detailed account of early Prussian history see BRANDENBURG.)

Frederick William I.—Under the elector’s son, Frederick I.

(1688-1713)

the internal development of the State was tempo-

rarily arrested.

In the international sphere, however, Frederick

scored an important success when, by promising to support him in the War of the Spanish Succession, he induced the

emperor to consent to his assuming the title of king. As the electorate of Brandenburg formed part of the German empire,

and was under the suzerainty of the emperor, the title of king could only be attached to those lands which the elector ruled as sovereign prince, viz., the duchy of Prussia. On Jan. 18, 1701 Frederick took the title of “King in Prussia,” and solemnly assumed the royal crown in Königsberg. So it came about that

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PRUSSIA

FREDERICK WILLIAM I]

PRUSSIA

to be used as the generic name for the Hohenzollern dominions. The new king kept up a splendid court, and thereby ruined the economic equilibrium which his father had laboriously achieved. He also took a lively interest in intellectual matters. He founded the Academy of Arts and the Academy of Sciences in Berlin 1701). ( is successor, Frederick William I. (1713—40) has long been unjustly represented as a crude tyrant. He was a sober-minded

man, Without any strong intellectual interests, but a first-class organizer and imbued with a stern sense of duty, based on religious sentiment, and he deliberately devoted his whole soul to the service of the State. He resumed the work begun by his

grandfather, and is the true father of the Prussian administrative system and Prussian officialdom. He created a new central ad-

ministrative service in the shape of the General Directory, for which he drew up the instructions himself (1723). This organ acted as a general ministry, in which the agenda was distributed to the several members, partly by subject, partly on local lines, while all important measures were decided in general conference. The king reserved to himself the final decision. Each official received a commission stating his duties, emoluments and exact

official regulations.

Prussian State was watched with concern, and towards the end of his life was forced into an increasingly sharp opposition to the house of Habsburg. Frederick the Great.—Frederick William died in 1740. He was succeeded by his son, Frederick the Great (1740-86), who

was at that time 28 years of age. He had had violent conflicts with his father in his younger days, as his passionate and freedom-loving nature revolted against the severe discipline which his father thought necessary. Furthermore, the younger man’s inclinations led him towards the new ideas of the Aufklärung, while the old King was a strict Calvinist. The crown prince’s

attempted flight (1730) brought this conflict to a head. The king had his son imprisoned, and even had an idea of excluding him from the succession; Frederick was only able to buy a reconciliation at the price of complete submission to his father’s will. He was obliged to pass through a strict training in the administrative service and the army, a training which did much to prepare

him for his later career. For Frederick’s conflicts with Maria Theresa, which filled the first half of his reign, see GERMANY; AUSTRIA; AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR oF, etc. They ended in the acquisition of Silesia,

All official bodies had to keep a record of, with the exception of a few small districts south of the Riesen-

and send in a weekly report on their activities.

In most cases

officials were nominated by the king at his full discretion; only in the selection of the Landrdte, who were in charge of the provincial districts (Kreise) the nobles still had a certain voice. Officials and magistrates were obliged to pass through a definite course of training, and could not be appointed unless they had passed the prescribed examination. The king organized a regular procedure of judicial appeal, making the Kammergericht in Berlin the supreme judiciary instance for the whole State. Judicial procedure was also simplified and improved in important respects. In the financial administration he introduced the strictest economy. He succeeded in increasing the revenue from the royal domains and prerogatives and from the indirect taxes to a considerable degree, and in achieving an annual surplus. This he put into a State exchequer, which contained 7,000,000 thaler at his death. He made special efforts to encourage trade and industry, following the principles of the mercantile system, which at that time were everywhere accepted. As the country was thinly populated, he encouraged the immigration of efficient labour. Just as his grandfather had admitted a large number of the Huguenots expelled from France after the repeal of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV., so Frederick allowed the Protestants expelled by the archbishop of Salzburg to enter his kingdom, settling most of them in East Prussia. First and foremost a soldier, the king devoted especial attention to the training of the standing army, the numbers of which he raised from 40,000 to 89,000, It was still a mercenary army, recruited from volunteers at home and abroad. He took pains, however, to ensure that as high a proportion as possible should be composed of his own subjects and divided the whole Prussian territory into recruiting districts, the so-called “cantons”; each district was obliged to supply the men for one specified regiment. The recruiting was often done in a very arbitrary fashion, which gave rise to many complaints. Definite instructions were drawn up and tegular inspections carried through to ensure uniformity of training; the army thus created was superior to those of most other States. It was Frederick William who first gave Prussia the characteristic stamp of a military and bureaucratic State. For all his military inclinations, Frederick William was an unusually peaceable man by nature, and in his foreign policy always avoided military entanglements. When he came to the throne, Prussia was embroiled in the Northern War; at the conclusion of peace he succeeded in securing Upper Pomerania up to the Pene, which had formerly been in the hands of Sweden, with the important commercial town of Stettin. He failed, however, to secure support for his claims which were based on old succession treaties, to further portions of the Cleves-Jiilich heritage, and to parts of Silesia. As a loyal German, he thought it his duty to maintain as good relations as possible with the emperor; but encountered profound mistrust in Vienna, where the growing strength of the a

655

gebirge, which remained in the hands of Austria. Frederick’s successful resistance in the Seven Years’ War against Austria, France and Russia raised his prestige enormously. From this time onward his State was recognized as a European great Power. In addition to Silesia, he had also acquired East Frisia, which came to him in 1744 on the extinction of the old princely house, through a succession treaty. At the first Partition of Poland (1772) healso acquired West Prussia (except Dantzig and Thorn), a particularly important district, as it bridged the gap between East Prussia and the Brandenburg family dominions. Frederick carried on the internal development of the Prussian State on the lines laid down by his father. He instituted a general civil code for his State in’ the shape of the Prussian Landrechti—a work not completed until after his death; accelerated judicial procedure, abolished torture, and introduced the principle that the Crown should not interfere with the course of justice. In administrative matters, he sought to pay special consideration to the local peculiarities of the different provinces, and paid frequent journeys of inspection to satisfy himself that his orders were being carried out. The fiscal system was further developed; but an attempt to introduce the farming of taxes, on the French model (1766), proved unsuccessful and had to be abandoned. Under his rule the State revenue increased largely; on his death he left 55,000,000 thaler in the State exchequer. He had the low lying country of the Oder and the Warthe drained, settled villages of colonists in the Pomeranian forests, arranged for the plantation of hops and potatoes, and founded factories. He left several detailed exposés of his administrative and political principles, notably in his famous political testaments of 1752 and 1767, which were designed to serve as a guide to his successor. Like his father, he considered himself the first servant of the State, and expressed the thought that the duty of the prince was to govern as though he had to render account to his subjects for ali his measures. The political philosophy of the day, however, was absolutist, and Frederick too was convinced that the conduct of a great State demanded a single guiding will, which could only be that of the monarch, and he called for unconditional obedience, not only from his officials, but also from each of his subjects. He rarely consulted with his ministers in person; he called for reports from them in writing, and dictated the answers, which he

sent to them in writing. His liberal views in matters of religion led him to adopt the policy of toleration, on principle, towards the different Churches: a policy which was also naturally dictated by practical considerations in a State which included a Protestant majority and a strong Catholic minority. His lively interest in all intellectual questions led him to take measures to improve the level of public education. In the upper schools the classics were made the principal subject of instruction. The king would have wished to establish compulsory primary education for the whole population, from the fifth to the thirteenth year,

PRUSSIA

656

but lack of means made it impossible to carry this out. Although Frederick was deeply influenced by the humanitarian ideas of the Aufklärung, and considered the furtherance of the people’s welfare and of popular education to be among the monarch’s essential duties, yet his guiding thought remained always to raise the forces of his comparatively small, weak State, by better organization, so as to maintain the position of power which he had won. Collapse and Reform.—As Frederick left no issue from his marriage, contracted at his father’s orders, with a princess of Brunswick, and as his eldest brother, Augustus William, had predeceased him, the latter’s son, Frederick William IT., succeeded

him on the throne (1786-97).

He was indolent and dissipated,

squandered the State Exchequer and left the cares of government to his favourites. Under his reign no progress was made in the domestic organization of the State. In foreign affairs his participation in the war against revolutionary France brought him only losses, while the large accessions of territory that the second and third Partitions of Poland (1793 and 1795) brought him were gains of but doubtful value. For the Prussian State, which after 1795 extended as far as Warsaw and Kovno, thus received so large a percentage of Polish blood that had these frontiers proved permanent, its German character would have been endangered. His son, Frederick William III. (1797-1840) was a man of the best intentions, but pedantic, vacillating and narrow. The Government fell more and more into the hands of the cabinet councillors who, under the system introduced by Frederick the Great, formed the sole channel of communication between the king and the ministers. But while under Frederick the councillors had been only executive organs of the king’s will, under his weak successors they became the all-important personal advisers of the monarch. The Prussian State still kept the outward form

given it by Frederick William I. and Frederick the Great; but the living spirit was gone from it, and its swift and complete collapse after the first great military reverse (Jena, 1806), is easily comprehensible. Under the Peace of Tilsit (1807) Frederick William was obliged to cede his entire territory west of the Elbe and the greater part of his acquisitions in Poland; he retained only Brandenburg, Pomerania, Prussia and Silesia. This fearful collapse, however, also released the forces of reconstruction which still lived on within the State, and during the so-called “period of reform” a complete reconstruction of the State was begun. The king himself always remained disassociated from, and at heart hostile to these efforts, which appeared to him as a concession to Jacobinism; but as he knew no plan of his own for reconstructing the shattered State, he was forced to let the apostles of the new ideas have their way. Freiherr von Stein became the leading figure in the administration. He had long been urging reforms, but before 1806 without success. His fundamental idea was that in a modern State the people itself must be required to help in the conduct of public affairs, because the State cannot exist unless it can count upon the willing co-operation and devotion of its citizens. The most important measures which he carried through were the liberation of the peasants from serfdom, the reintroduction of municipal self-government under the Municipal Act of 1808, and the abolition of cabinet government. He also planned to introduce self-government in the rural districts and participation of representatives of the people in the provincial administration and the central Government. He was unable, however, to carry these measures into practice, being dismissed in the autumn of 1808, at Napoleon’s order. The reforms were taken up again by Freiherr von Hardenberg, in 1810, on his appointment as head of the ministry, although on lines rather different from those intended by Stein. Hardenberg really inclined more to enlightened despot-

ism than to Stein’s ideas of self-government.

His principal

achievements were the reorganization of the finance and of the administrative system, the abolition of restrictions in industrial life, and the edict of 18z1 which made the peasants free pro-

prietors of their holdings, in return for the cession of a part of them to the former landlords. The peasants were thus re-

[WARS OF LIBERATION

quired to buy their ownership at the price of giving up part of their holdings. Moreover, as the smaller holdings were excluded from the measure, the landlords could now take full possession

of them, and their former cultivators sank to the position of

propertyless agricultural labourers. These years also saw a great reorganization

of the army

carried through by Generals von Scharnhorst and von Boyen

The underlying principle was the transformation of the mercenary army into a national army. Universal service was introduced degrading punishments abolished, admission to the Corps of Officers revised and the internal organization

of the army re-

arranged in more practical form. But for these reforms in all directions, the little State would have been incapable of the great achievements which it performed during the Wars of Liberation. The Wars of Liberation.—The pressure of the alien rule of

France evoked the first great popular movement in German history since the peasant wars of the 16th century. After Napoleon’s defeat in Russia, popular opinion carried the doubtful and hesitating king with it, and led finally to the expulsion of the French from Germany and to a complete remodelling of conditions in Germany. The State of Prussia, too, was altogether reshaped

through the decisions of the Congress of Vienna in 1815. As compensation for the Polish districts ceded to Russia,

Prussia then received New Upper Pomerania, the northern part

of the kingdom of Saxony, the whole of Westphalia and the

Rhineland.

Of the ten million inhabitants of Prussian territory

in 1816, nearly four belonged

to the newly-acquired territory.

It was only now that Prussia lost the character of a purely North Germanic State; it had assimilated elements from southern and central Germany, and from now onward was a Germany in petto. The old Prussian nobility and bureaucracy found it no easy task to adapt themselves to the inhabitants of the new dis-

tricts, who had grown up in quite other traditions. They succeeded, however, in maintaining their hegemony for several decades longer. The western districts, and especially the Rhineland, now

began to form

the principal focus of the Liberal

movement.

This met at first with small success. The danger once over, Frederick William III. abandoned the tendencies of the reform period altogether. He had previously promised to introduce a “United Diet,” but this was now forgotten; only meetings of the provincial Estates for the individual provinces were introduced and these were only given an advisory voice in local affairs (1823). By economical administration and abstaining from external entanglements, the king managed to do with the existing taxes and excises. He opposed an obstinate resistance to all demands of the Liberals. The 1848 Revolution.—On the death of Frederick William

III., his eldest son, Frederick William IV. (1840-61) ascended the throne. He had grown up in an age when the theories of romanticism had dominated Germany; these theories swayed him, and, like his father, he was averse at heart to the modern political demands. After long consideration, however, he determined in 1847 to convoke the members of all provincial diets to a “United Diet” at Berlin. This body, however, immediately put forward a demand to be convoked at regular intervals, and

recognized as a partner, with equal rights, in the legislature. The king refused to admit such claims, and the deliberations led to no practical result. Nevertheless, it was an event of no small importance that representatives of all parts of the Prussian State had, for the first time, met for common parliamentary debates. Soon after this, the revolution broke out in all Germany.

Although the military remained the victors in the street fighting of March 18 in Berlin, the king nevertheless decided way and withdraw the troops from Berlin. He agreed convocation of a Constituent National Assembly, which meet in Berlin and collaborate with him in drawing up a

tution.

to give to the was to Consti-

But as democratic elements gained the upper handm

this Assembly, the king dissolved it and enacted a constitution

(Dec. s, 1848), with the proviso that a freshly elected parliament

should negotiate further on its final form. These negotiations proving very protracted, the parliament was again dissolved 2

PRUSSIA

WILLIAM I]

the spring of 1849, and it was only when a chamber was elected

on the three-class franchise that agreement was at last reached

on a definitive constitution, to which the king took the oath on Feb. 4, 1850. Prussia now received a parliament, consisting of two chambers; the first chamber, called the Herrenhaus after

657

also became current for the new German empire, and the growth of Prussian ascendancy continued. The campaigns of 1864-71 which led to the union of Germany

under Prussia’s leadership cannot be described here. (See SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION; GERMANY; AUSTRIA; FRANCO-GERMAN

1854, was composed of representatives of the large landed pro- War.) The acquisition of Hanover, Kurhesse, Nassau and Frankprietors and of the larger towns, and of members nominated by furt-am-Main after the war of 1866, gave Prussian territory a the king, either for life, or as hereditary members. The second chamber was elected by all tax-paying citizens, but as the electors

were divided into three categories, according to taxes paid, electors with larger incomes were given much greater influence than the poorer classes.

During the revolution of 1848 an attempt had already been made to place the king of Prussia at the head of a German

empire, to include all the German states except Austria. These

plans, however, met with resistance, both from the king himself, and from the Prussian nobles and bureaucrats. Ever since the Wars of Liberation, wide circles of the population had become convinced that a strongly united Germany could only be achieved

by an alliance between Prussia and the Liberal elements which

formed the backbone of the movement for union. The creation of the German Zollverein (g.v.), under Prussia’s leadership (1834), which created an economic unity out of all German States, except Austria, seemed to be a step along this road. The king’s legitimist views, however, revolted against making common cause with the revolution to force the other princes into a position of subordination and his national sentiments, swayed by the tendencies of romanticism, were shocked at the thought of excluding the Germans of Austria, while the nobles and official classes feared that they would be unable to maintain their existing influence in a German empire with parliamentary government. Accordingly, Frederick William IV. refused the imperial crown offered him on April 3, 1849, by the Frankfurt National Assembly. As his efforts to weld Germany into closer unity by agreement with the other princes were also unsuccessful, the movement towards unity led at the time to no results. William I.—After 1850 a period of reaction set in in Prussia and the rest of Germany. Attempts were made to restrict the rights of the newly-created parliament, as far as possible. During Frederick William IV.’s last years, a feudal Party Government reigned in Prussia. In 1857 the king succumbed to an incurable mental disease; his younger brother William assumed the regency, and on Frederick William’s death (Jan. 2, 1861) ascended the throne as William I. (1861-88). He, too, was a thorough conservative at heart, but saw more clearly than his brother the necessity of making concessions to the spirit of the times. Even during his regency he admitted liberal-minded men into his cabinet, and announced that his Government would stand above parties. Nevertheless, he became involved in a severe struggle with parliament when he demanded large sums for the reinforcement and reorganization of the army, which he held to be absolutely necessary. As the king refused to agree to the conditions made by the second chamber (two-year service and an independent Landwehr), parliament, after agreeing provisionally to the extra grants for military purposes on several occasions, ended by rejecting them. The king adhered to his plans and refused to dismiss his existing ministers in favour of advisers enjoying the confidence of the second chamber; thereupon the chamber rejected the whole budget. The king saw in this behaviour an attempt to rob him of his sovereign rights. At first he thought of abdicating in favour of his son; then replied by appointing Bismarck minister-president. The constitutional conflict dragged on for several years more, and was only solved after the successful outcome of the war of 1866 had brought about a change in the composition of parliament. The new parliament sanctioned the expenditure of the previous years retrospectively by the socalled Indemnity Act. The importance of this struggle lay in the fact that the Crown’s independence of parliament in its choice of advisers for Prussia was now assured; parliament’s attempt to secure a supreme

control over State affairs similar

to that existing in England had failed in Prussia. And as at this ume Prussia took the leading place in Germany,

these views

wholly new aspect. Its eastern and western halves, which up to this date had been separated by these districts, were now linked up into a single great North German State, containing nearly two-thirds of the total population of Germany (in 1914, 40,000,000 out of a total population of 65,000,000). The great problem which arose for Prussia out of the unification of Germany was, how far the independence and individuality of the Prussian State were to be retained within the new empire. Bismarck

attempted to solve this problem by uniting the offices of administrative head of the empire (Reichskanzler) and Prussian ministerpresident in one person, just as the dignity of the German emperor was indissolubly united with that of king of Prussia. Attempts to divide the two offices having proved impracticable, this arrangement lasted until 1918. The alliance concluded by Bismarck with the Liberals at the time of the foundation of the empire had important effects. The Local Government Act of 1872 increased the autonomy of the rural districts, thus linking up with the traditions of the age of Freiherr von Stein. The so-called Kulturkampf—the struggle against the Catholic Church which was waged in the ’70s—was also in accord with Liberal ideas. It ended, however, finally, with the State restoring to the Church its control over the preliminary training of the clergy, and retaining only a right of veto over appointments to ecclesiastical posts. During the short reign of Frederick III. (March—June 1888) and under William II., the situation remained in essence unchanged. The new Rural Districts Act (Landgemeindeordnung)

of 1892 carried existing institutions a step further. The fiscal reform carried through about the same time by von Miquel made self-assessment the basis of taxation, and provided relief for the poorer classes and heavier contributions from large incomes. On the other hand, the repeated efforts to introduce a radical reform of the franchise for the second chamber and abolish the three-class franchise, led to no result. After the revolution of 1918 Prussia adopted the republican form of State and general and secret franchise. The struggles of the latest period turned in the main round the remodelling of the bureaucracy, in which the new régime wanted to replace the old conservative element by persons more in sympathy with the democratic and socialist views of the new majority. The relation between Prussia and the Reich now took on an essentially new form, the personal union which had hitherto been customary in the higher posts having ceased to exist. Prussia was not given a special president of State; but the Prussian minister-president was separate altogether from the chancellor of the Reich. The friction which consequently arose between the greatest German State and the Government of the Reich was a cause of lasting difficulties, and the question arose, whether it would not be better to subdivide Prussia into a number of smaller states. It seemed very doubtful, however, whether this expedient would prove at all successful.

(See also GERMANY: History.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. —Early Period.

J. Voigt, Geschichte Preussens bis

zum Untergang der Herrschaft des Deutschen Ordens (9 vols.; 182739); H. von Treitschke, Das deutsche Ordensland Preussen (in his Historische und politische Aufsätze (1865); E. Holtze, Geschichte der Mark Brandenburg (1912). Later Period, L. von Ranke, Zwölf Bücher Preussischer Geschichte (Works), vols. 25-27, 1865-90); J. G. Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politik bis 1756 (2nd ed. 14 vols. 1868); E. Berner, Geschichte des Preussischen Staates (2nd ed., 1896); G. Schmoller, Umrisse und Untersuchungen zur Verfassungs-, Verwaltungs- und Wirt-

schaftsgeschichte,

besonders

des preussischen

Staates (1898),

and

Preussische Verfassungs-, Verwaltungs- und Finanzgeschichte (1921); H. Prutz, Preussische Geschichte (4 vols., 1899—1902) ; A. Waddington, Histoire de Prusse (to 1688, 1911) ; R. Koser, Geschichte der brandenburgisch-preussischen Politik, vol. i., to 1648 (1915); O, Hintze, Die Hohenzollern und ihr Werk (5th ed., 1916). (E. Bra.)

658 PRUSSIA,

PRUSSIA—PRUSSIC in the original sense, a territory of Germany,

stretching along the Baltic coast for about 220 m., and occupying an area of 24,083 sq.m. The eastern part of this territory formed the duchy of Prussia, conquered and colonized by the Teutonic Order and acquired by the elector of Brandenburg in 1618, furnishing his successor with his regal title in 1701. The western part, severed from the eastern half and assigned to Poland in 1466, was not annexed to Prussia until the partition of Poland in 1772, while the towns of Danzig and Thorn remained Polish down to 1793. The two districts were temporarily (1824-78) united to form a single province.

PRUSSIC ACID, also called hydrocyanic acid and hydrogen cyanide, is a compound of hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen (HCN), best known on account of its exceedingly poisonous nature. It

is a very volatile colourless liquid boiling at 25.7° C and freezing at —13° C. As the parent substance of the cyanides it gives, on substitution of the hydrogen atom by metals, salts of prussic acid, e.g., potassium cyanide, KCN; while substitution by organic radicals gives the organic cyanides, e.g., methyl cyanide, CH3-CN. In its chemical character the radical, CN, resembles the halogen elements, e.g., chlorine, in being acidic (electronegative) and univalent, corresponding compounds having similar formulae, e.g., KCI and KCN, and analogous chemical behaviour. Prussic acid was discovered in 1782 by Scheele who obtained it from Prussian blue. In variable but generally very small proportions it is widely distributed among plants in the form of compounds with sugars, the glucosides (g.v.) e.g., amygdalin (g.v.), contained in bitter almonds, from which the free acid can readily be obtained by hydrolysis. Preparation.—The most convenient method of obtaining prussic acid in the laboratory is to add a concentrated solution of sodium cyanide gradually to sulphuric acid (about 70%), when hydrogen cyanide vapour is rapidly evolved: NaCN-+H,SO,= HCN-++-NaHSO, (more concentrated acid gives carbon monoxide, see below). On the large scale this process may be carried out in large covered iron vessels lined with lead and provided with mechanical stirrers. The vapour of hydrogen cyanide, after drying by calcium chloride, is condensed to an almost anhydrous liquid, from which the last traces of water may be removed by distillation with phosphoric oxide. An older method consists in distilling potassium ferrocyanide with dilute sulphuric acid:

aKiFe(CN).+3H2SO.= 3K2S0.+-KeFe[Fe(CN)s]--6HCN. Hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen at very high temperatures, as in the electric arc, combine directly, with the absorption of much energy, to form hydrogen cyanide, which is thus an endothermic substance. Instead of the three elements, their compounds such as ammonia NH3, cyanogen C2Ne, acetylene C2H2, methane CHu, oxides of nitrogen N2O or NO, may be used, often with advantage in the direction of greater yield and lower temperature of reaction. If alkaline substances are present, cyanides (g.v.) are formed. These high-temperature reactions account for the presence of hydrogen cyanide in crude coal gas. Physical and Chemical Properties.—In many of its physical properties hydrogen cyanide resembles water. Like the latter it is an ionizing solvent, many salts dissolving in it to form solutions which are good conductors of electricity. This property of liquids

is associated with high dielectric constant, the magnitude of which is even greater for hydrogen cyanide than for water, indicating great electric polarity of the molecules (compare as a

rough illustration a magnet with its north and south poles). Such polar molecules are more firmly held together than in liquids composed of non-polar molecules, and combination between them

ACID

molecule as well as of substituting other atoms for its hydrogen, Thus it combines with hydrogen giving methylamine H;C-NH, and yields addition compounds with hydrogen chloride. Substity. tion occurs with halogens, e.g., chlorine gives cyanogen chloride:

HCN+Cl=CNCH-HC1. The cyanides, being similarly yp. saturated, also undergo addition reactions. Thus molten potassium cyanide readily unites with free or combined oxygen giving potassium cyanate KCNO, or with sulphur giving potassium, sulphocyanide (thiocyanate) KCNS, and accordingly at elevated temperatures potassium cyanide reduces many metallic oxides and sulphides to the free metal. Prussic acid combines with water slowly when heated, more rapidly in the presence of mineral acid. The addition of water occurs in two stages thus:

H-C=N

_

+ HO

n/O

= H-CO y, (formamide)

Zu

m0

H-CK Nm, TEO =H-CLONH,

(ammonium

formate)

With concentrated sulphuric acid the last substance is converted by loss of water into ammonia NH; (which combines with the

sulphuric acid) and carbon monoxide gas CO thus: H-CO-ONH: = NH;3+CO+H20; consequently sodium cyanide with concentrated sulphuric acid

yields not hydrogen cyanide but carbon monoxide.

Ammonium

formate on heating is reconverted into formamide, which again

on heating with phosphoric oxide or a catalyst (see Cyanmes) yields prussic acid. Solutions of cyanides on boiling slowly react

to give ammonia and a formate: KCN—+2H:0=NH:;-+H.CO.0K

(potassium formate). In common with many cyanogen compounds, liquid hydrogen cyanide readily undergoes polymerization (g.v.), that is combination with itself. The pure substance may be kept indefinitely without change, but in the presence of traces of ammonia or any alkaline material (even that furnished by common soda-glass

vessels) it is gradually transformed into a solid brownish-black

insoluble mass called azulmin, an imperfectly known mixture of complex compounds containing some H3;C3;N3. Liquid hydrogen cyanide has even been known to explode spontaneously, probably owing to rapid polymerization in closed vessels with development of heat. It is commonly stabilized by the addition of small quantities of mineral acid, e.g., phosphoric acid, or other substance

which “kills” any polymerizing agent.

(See CyYANIDES.)

An aqueous solution of prussic acid, unlike its analogue hydrochloric acid, is an extremely poor conductor of electricity. It contains the ions H* and CN™ to a minute extent only, and is thus one of the weakest of acids. A comparison of their dissociation constants shows that carbonic acid, itself a very weak acid, is about 200 times stronger than prussic acid. In a decinormal solution (2-7 g. of the acid per litre) only 0-01% of the acid is present in the form of ions, a degree of acidity too small to affect the

colour of indicators (q.v.). The Cyanides

of the Metals, while resembling the halogen

salts, exhibit divergencies in chemical behaviour due to the extreme weakness of prussic acid, the decomposability of the CN radical, and its great tendency to form complex salts. The cyanides of the alkali metals, ¢.g., potassium cyanide, are all white crystalline salts, very soluble in water. The solutions are alkaline, being hydrolysed or partially decomposed by water into the component non-volatile strong base and volatile weak

acid: KCN-+-H,O=KOH-+HCN. Since the extent of salt bydrolysis increases with the weakness of the acid the amount offree

may occur to some extent, giving rise to association (g.v.). The physical properties of such “associated” liquids exhibit many

prussic acid and caustic potash in solutions of these cyanides 18 relatively large (in a decinormal solution 1% of the salt is hycharacteristic abnormalities as compared with those of normal drolysed), consequently they smell of prussic acid and lose it on non-polar liquids; thus hydrogen cyanide has a latent heat of | evaporation. The carbonic acid of the air, being 2 relatively evaporation greater than the value expected if it were normal. strong acid, slowly expels prussic acid from soluble cyanides The vapour of prussic acid burns freely in air with a violet | leaving

a residue of carbonate.

These

factors

complicate the

flame yielding nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water. As indicated by | preparation of pure cyanides by the usual process of evaporating its structural formula H~C==N or H-N=C, prussic acid is the solutions by boiling and crystallizing out. (For the manufacchemically unsaturated. It is capable of adding other atoms to its |ture of alkali cyanides, see Cvanrves.) The cyanides of the alka-

PRUSSIC

ACID

659

line earth metals, calcium, strontium and barium, e.g., Ca(CN)e,

are very similar to those of the alkali metals except that their

solutions are much more extensively hydrolysed. The simple cyanides of the heavy metals are insoluble in

water, with the notable exception of mercuric cyanide, Hg(CN)2

which is remarkable for its minute degree of ionic dissociation. If aqueous potassium cyanide is added to a solution of silver

nitrate, a white precipitate of silver cyanide, AgCN, is formed which dissolves when more potassium cyanide is added. This behaviour is typical of the cyanides of the heavy metals. The solution of silver cyanide in potassium cyanide on evaporation

deposits crystals of potassium argento-cyanide KAg(CN)s, or (KCN-+-AgCN), but in solution this “complex salt” gives practically only the cation K* and the complex anion [Ag(CN)2]-, the

ions Ag* and CN™ being present in such minute amount that some analytical tests fail to reveal their presence. This behaviour may be contrasted with that of typical “double salts,” eg., KCl,MgCl:,6H:20, which gives only the ions K*, Mg**, Cl- in solution. The tendency to form complex cyanides is most marked

În the metals of Group VIII., and contiguous metals (the transi-

tion elements, see PERtopic Law).

The numerous complex cyanides vary in stability. Some, like potassium ferrocyanide K*[Fe(CN).]Z, satisfy no ordinary test for Fe** and CN- ions, and even yield with cold mineral acid the

corresponding stable complex acid H,Fe(CN)e. Others, like K2*[Zn(CN).]=, are easily decomposed by acids with liberation

of prussic acid; and hydrogen sulphide added to a solution of

KeZn(CN)4 reveals the presence of a small proportion of Zn‘ and CN- ions by precipitating the zinc completely as zinc sulphide (the corresponding copper compound is not so precipitated).

Most complex cyanides are of the following types: K[R(CN)s], where R is Cu, Ag, Au; Ke[R(CN)4], where R is Zn, Cd, Hg, Ni, Pd, Pt; Ks[R(CN)¢], where R is Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ru, Os, Ir; Ks[R(CN)s], where R is Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Rh, Ir; K[R(CN}s], where R is Mo or W. Potassium ferrocyanide, K,Fe(CN)es, composed of 4KCN— Fe(CN)2 (ferrous cyanide), was formerly manufactured by heating nitrogenous organic refuse with iron and potassium carbonate, extracting the salt with water, and crystallizing out. The cyanogen compounds recovered from crude coal gas have for many years been converted by various methods into potassium ferrocyanide. The most recent process consists in melting calcium cyanamide, CaCNe, with common salt, dissolving out the resulting sodium and calcium cyanides, and converting them into sodium ferrocyanide by treatment with ferrous sulphate and sodium carbonate. Potassium ferrocyanide is a stable, yellow, crystalline salt (yellow prussiate of potash), not poisonous like the cyanides. On heating with dilute acid prussic acid is liberated; cold acid gives the white crystalline hydroferrocyanic acid HsFe(CN)s5. Potassium ferricyanide, KsFe(CN).¢, composed of 3KCN-+-Fe(CN)s3 (ferric cyanide), is conveniently prepared by oxidizing the ferrocyanide in solution by means of chlorine: 2KuFe (CN )6+Cl= 2K3Fe (CN )6t+2KClL

It forms dark red crystals (red prussiate of potash) from which acid displaces hydroferricyanic acid H;Fe(CN)s. Of the many salts of the complex iron-cyanogen acids it must suffice to mention only “insoluble Prussian blue,” ferric ferrocyanide Fe,[Fe(CN)¢]3 and “soluble Prussian blue,” potassium ferric fer-

—H,0

—H,0

R-CO-0H — R:CO-ONH, ———> R-:CO-NH, —-—> R-CN. Acid Ammonium salt Acid amide Nitrile

Acetic acid CH;-CO-OH gives CH;-CN, methyl cyanide, generally called acetonitrile (a member of the class of “nitriles”), and formic acid H-CO-OH gives prussic acid H-CN which may thus be regarded as formonitrile. This general method of formation indicates that nitriles have the structure R—C==N, the corresponding structure of prussic acid being H—C==N. Nitriles are also formed when cyanides of the alkali metals

react with iodides of organic radicals: KCN--RI=KI+RCN.

But if silver or mercury cyanide is used the product, which has quite different properties although the same composition, is an isomeride of the nitrile and termed an iso-cyanide or “carbylamine.” Since methyl cyanide certainly has the structure CH;3—C==N, that of the isocyanide can only be CH;—N=C, where the C atom of the CN group is bivalent. These structures are in full agreement with the chemical behaviour of nitriles and carbylamines. The latter are the less stable, being converted into the former on heating. Constitution

of

Prussic

Acid

and

Cyanides.—If

one

assumes a simple exchange of partners without any change of structure in the reaction RI+MCN=MI--RCN (M=metal), it would appear that silver cyanide is Ag—N=C and potassium cyanide K—C==N, although only one form of hydrogen cyanide is known. However, potassium cyanide yields a little methyl isocyanide with the main product of cyanide, and silver cyanide with acetyl chloride (CHsCO)CI gives acetyl cyanide, not isocyanide. What is the true constitution of the simple cyanides of the metals, and how is it that prussic acid can yield simple salts which behave so differently? Although these problems date from the discovery of isocyanides by Gautier in 1866, and in spite of all efforts to solve them, no entirely satisfactory solution has even yet been found. The isocyanide structure of all metal cyanides has been generally favoured, but a recent study of the question does not confirm this. The chemical evidence as to the constitution of prussic acid itself is very conflicting. Some reactions indicate the nitrile (H—C==N) structure, others the carbylamine (H—N=C) structure. With diazomethane, CH2Nz, it yields both cyanide and isocyanide. It must therefore be regarded as a typical “‘tautomeric” substance, behaving in some reactions as H—C==N, in others as H—N=C. The liquid may be composed of both molecules in dynamic equilibrium with each other (“dynamic isomerism”), the equilibrium being rapidly re-established if disturbed in any way, so that the substance may react either as H—C==N or H—N=C. (See Isomertsm.) Its physical properties indicate that liquid prussic acid consists almost entirely of H—C==N , and this view is generally accepted. Detection and Estimation.—Prussic acid has a characteristic smell, but this test is unreliable because of the remarkable fact that to many people it is odourless. Small quantities of the acid and its salts can be detected by converting them into intensely coloured derivatives, e.g., Prussian blue or red ferric sulphocyanide, Fe(CNS)s, and such tests may be made quantitative by the methods of colorimetric analysis. Larger amounts are generally precipitated and weighed as insoluble silver cyanide (or as silver), or the solution may be conveniently titrated with standard silver nitrate, the first appearance of turbidity marking the exact conversion of the cyanide into argentocyanide KAg(CN)>.

rocyanide KFe[Fe(CN),]. The complex cyanides being typical co-ordination compounds (see VALENCY and CO-ORDINATION), Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology.—The chief many derivatives are known in which the CN group is partly re- pharmacopoeial preparations of prussic acid are a 2% aqueous placed by other groups such as H:O, CO, NO, etc., e.g., solution (dose 2-6 minims), and compound tincture of chloroHe[Fe(CN)s(NO)] and its salt Nas[Fe(CN)s(NO)], sodium form and morphia containing a half-minim of the 2% solution nitroprusside. The latter is a useful reagent for detecting sulphur per ro minims. The therapeutic applications of the acid depend in organic compounds since with alkaline sulphides it gives a on its action as an anodyne. It allays itching and is useful in characteristic purple colour. some forms of neuralgia. Taken internally it relieves vomiting and The Organic Cyanides—The removal of hydrogen and oxy- gastric pain, and in cases of asthma and phthisis it is of value in gen as water from ammonium salts of organic acids of the type relieving painful cough. R-CO.OH (where R is an organic radical like methyl, CH3) leads The toxic action of prussic acid and cyanides is due to their to the replacement of the CO-OH group by CN in the following inhibition of the normal oxidative processes in the tissues, resultmanner: ing in a form of asphyxia with paralysis of the heart and respira-

PRUTZ—PRYOR

660

tory organs. Inhalation of air containing sufficient hydrogen cyanide gas produces in rapid succession, giddiness, headache, palpitation, pain in the chest, followed in a few seconds by loss of consciousness, laboured respiration and death. On removing the case into fresh air recovery is rapid provided respiration has not stopped, and even if it has, artificial respiration with stimulation

(e.g., by cold water) may be effective (Official History of the War, vol. ii., p. 465). The toxic action of prussic acid and cyanides is so rapid that the use of antidotes is generally out of the question. As a poison gas, prussic acid (in gas shell) played only a very minor part in the World War. It probably caused fewer casualties than any other war gas. Investigation revealed the remarkable

fact that different species of animals (even though of the same size) differ greatly in susceptibility to prussic acid poisoning, dogs being particularly sensitive. J. Barcroft breathed air containing 1 part of prussic acid in 2,000 without ill effect for 14 min., but within this time the dog which accompanied him died. The effect is non-cumulative; for death to ensue the determining factor is that the rate of inhalation of the poison shall exceed its rate of elimination by the body. The lethal concentration for man is relatively high. (For prussic acid as insecticide, see CYANIDES.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Sir E. Thorpe, ‘‘Cyanides,’”? Dictionary of Applied Chemistry (1921); H. E. Williams, The Chemistry of Cyanogen Com-

pounds (1915); Y. Henderson and H. W. Haggard, Noxious Gases

and the Principles of Respiration Influencing

PRUTZ, HANS

(1843-

Their

ace

oa

), German historian, son of Rob-

ert Eduard Prutz (1816-1872), the essayist and historian, was born at Jena on May 20, 1843, and studied at Jena and Berlin. His Preussische Geschichte (4 vols., Stuttgart, 1899—1902) is an attempt to apply scientific rather than patriotic canons to a subject which has been mainly in the hands of historians with a Prussian bias. In 1902 Prutz resigned the chair of history in the university of Königsberg, which he had held since 1877. His other works include: Aus Phönicien, a collection of historical and geographical sketches (1876); Quellen-beiträge zur Geschichte der Kreuzziige (1876) ; Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzzüge (1883) ; Staatengeschichte des Abendlandes im Mittelalter (1885-87) ; Geheimlehre und Gekeimstatuten des Tempelherrenordens (Danzig, 1879); Entwickeli und Untergang des Tempelherrenordens (1888); D. geistl. Orden, 1907),

PRYNNE,

WILLIAM

(1600-1669), English parliamenta-

rian, son of Thomas Prynne, born at Swainswick near Bath, was

educated at Bath Grammar School and at Oriel College, Oxford. He was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1628. He was Puritan. In 1629 Prynne came forward as the assailant of Arminianism in doctrine and of ceremonialism in practice, and thus drew down upon himself the anger of Laud. WHistrio-mastix, published in 1633, was a violent attack upon stage plays in general, in which the author pointed out that kings and emperors who had favoured the drama had been carried off by violent deaths, and applied a disgraceful epithet to actresses, which, as Henrietta Maria was taking part in the rehearsal of a ballet, was supposed to apply to the queen. After a year’s imprisonment in the Tower Prynne was sentenced by the star chamber on Feb. 17, 1634 to be imprisoned for life, and also to be fined £5,000, expelled from Lincoln’s Inn, rendered incapable of returning to his profession, degraded from his degree in the university of Oxford, and set in the pillory, where he was to lose both his ears. The latter portion of the sentence was carried out on May 7, and the rest of his punishment inflicted except the fine and part of the imprisonment. There is no reason to suppose that his punishment was unpopular. In 1637 he was once more in the star chamber, together with Bastwick and Burton. In A Divine Tragedy lately acted he had attacked the Declaration of Sports, and in News from Ipswich he had assailed Wren and the bishops generally. On June 30 a fresh sentence, delivered on the 14th, was executed. The stumps of Prynne’s ears were shorn off in the pillory, and he was branded on the cheeks with the letters S.L., meaning “seditious libeller,” which Prynne, however, interpreted as “stigmata laudis”’ He was removed to Carnarvon Castle, and thence to Mont Orgueil Castle in Jersey, where he occupied himself in writing against popery.

Immediately upon the meeting of the Long Parliament in 1640

Prynne was liberated. On Nov. 28 he entered London in triumph

and on March 2, 1641, reparation was voted by the Commons, ae the expense of his persecutors. Prynne now attacked the bishops and the Roman Catholics and defended the taking up of arms by

the parliament.

He showed a vindictive energy in the prosecution

of Archbishop Laud.

He manipulated the evidence against him

and having been entrusted with the search of Laud’s papers, he published a garbled edition of the archbishop’s private “Diary,” entitled A Breviate of the Life of Archbishop Laud. He also published Hidden Works of Darkness brought to Light in order to prejudice the archbishop’s case, and after his execution, Canter. bury’s Doom .. . an unfinished account of the trial commissioned by the House of Commons. Prynne supported a national church controlled by the state, and issued a series of tracts against inde-

pendency.

He denounced

Milton’s

Divorce

at Pleasure, was

answered in the Colasterion, and contemptuously referred to in the sonnet “On the Forcers of Conscience.” He also opposed violently the Presbyterian system, and denied the right of any Church to excommunicate except by leave of the state (e.g., Four

Short Questions [1645]; A Vindication of Four Serious Questions [1645]). He was throughout an enemy of individual free-

dom in religion. Prynne took the side of the parliament against the army in 1647, supported the cause of the eleven impeached members, and

visited the university of Oxford as one of the parliamentary commissioners.

In 1648 Prynne was returned

Newport in Cornwall.

as member for

He at once took part against those who

called for the execution of Charles; the result was his inclusion in ‘‘Pride’s Purge” on Dec. 6, when, having resisted military violence, he was imprisoned. After recovering his liberty Prynne retired to Swainswick. On June 7, 1649, he was assessed to the monthly

contribution laid on the country by parliament. He not only refused to pay, but published A Legal Vindication of the Liberties of England, arguing that no tax could be raised without the consent of the two houses. He was imprisoned in various places from 1650 to 1653, and on his release renewed his pamphleteering activities. On the restoration of the Rump Parliament by the army of the 7th of May 1659 fourteen of the secluded members, with Prynne

among them, claimed admittance. He was prevented from taking his seat, and a second attempt in December also failed. He was returned for Bath to the Convention parliament and to the parliament of 1661. During 1663 he served constantly on committees, and was chairman of the committee of supply in July, and again

in April 1664. The last time he addressed the House appears to have been in Nov. 1667.

Prynne died unmarried, in his lodgings at Lincoln’s Inn, on Oct. 24, 1669, and was buried in the walk under the chapel there. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Article by C. H. Frith in the Dict. of Nat. Biography; Life of Prynne, in Wood’s Atk. Oxon., ed. by Bliss, ii, 844; Documents relating to the Proceedings against Prynne, ed. by S. R. Gardiner for the Camden Society (1877) ; Hist. of Swains-

wick, by R. E. M. Peach; Gardiner’s Hist. of England, of the Civil War and of the Commonwealth; Notes and Queries, 8th series, vol.

Vill., p. 361 (“Letter to Charles II., May 2, 1660’), oth series, vol. ii.

p. 336.

PRYOR,

ROGER

ATKINSON

(1828-1919), American

soldier and jurist, was born near Petersburg, Va., on July 19, 1828.

He graduated at the law school of the University of Virginia in 1848, and in 1849 was admitted to the bar.

He served as a

Democrat in the National House of Representatives, 1859-61, and was re-elected for the succeeding term, but owing to the

secession of Virginia did not take his seat. He served in the provisional Confederate congress (1861) and also in the first regular congress (1862) of the Confederate constitution. He entered the Confederate army as a colonel, became a brigadiergeneral (April 16, 1862), and took part in the battles of Williams-

burg, Seven Pines, second Bull Run disagreement with President Davis in 1863, and entered Gen. Fitzhugh He was taken prisoner Nov. 1864,

and Antietam. Owing to a he resigned his commission Lee’s cavalry as a private. but was released on parole

by order of the president. In 1865 he removed to New York city, where he practised law.

He was judge of the New York

court of common pleas, r890~94, and of the New York supreme

court, 1894—99, when he retired from the bench. He died in New

PRYTANEUM

AND

PRYTANIS—PRZEMYSL

York city on March 14, 1919.

PRYTANEUM AND PRYTANIS.

r. In ancient Greece,

each State, city or village possessed its own central hearth and

sacred fire; the fire (cf. at Rome the fire in the temple of Vesta) was kept alight continuously, tended by the king or members of his family. The building in which this fire was kept was the

Prytaneum (II puravetoy), and the chieftain (the king or prytanis)

probably made it his residence. The word prytanis is applied to those who, after the abolition of monarchy, held the chief office in the State. Rulers of this name are found at Rhodes as late as the rst century 3.c. The Prytaneum was regarded as the religious and political centre of the community. When colonists went out they took with them a brand from the Prytaneum altar

to kindle the new fire in the colony; the fatherless daughters of Aristeides, regarded

as children of the State at Athens, were

married from the Prytaneum as from their home; foreign ambassadors and citizens who had deserved especially well of the State were entertained in the Prytaneum as public guests. In Achaea, this central hall was called the Leiton (town-hall), and

a similar building is known to have existed at Elis. The site of the Prytaneum at Athens cannot be definitely fixed. The Prytaneum mentioned by Pausanias, probably the original centre of the ancient city, was situated somewhere east of the northern

661

complete. On the south-west front the garrison held a line a mile or two in advance of the ring of forts; elsewhere the line of the forts was held. The siege of the fortress was undertaken by RadkoDimitriev’s III. Army. While the arrival of the siege artillery material was still delayed by the state of the communications, the Austrians renewed the offensive in the early days of Oct. (see VISTULA-SAN, BATTLES OF THE). In the hope of capturing Przemysl by a coup de main bePRZEMYSL ss i SIEGES GF fore the progress of the enemy S% Rem Engh Miles offensive compelled the raising of the siege, Radko-Dimitriev carried out several violent assaults between Oct. 5-8 against 3 the Siedliska group of works to the south-east of the town. These assaults broke down with heavy loss, and the approach of the Austrian ITI. Army necessitated the withdrawal of the investing forces. The fortress was entered by Austrian infantry of the field armies on Oct. rz, on which date Radko-Dimitriev’s III. Army retreated to the east bank of the San.

cliff of the Acropolis. Curtius places the original Prytaneum south of the Acropolis in the old Agora, and regards that of Pausanias as a building of Roman times (Stadtgeschichte, p. 302). Many authorities hold that the original Prytaneum of the

Period Between the First and Second Sieges.—During the Austrian attempts to force the San line, which lasted throughout October, the fortress lay in the centre of the battle line and its garrison took an active part in the operations. Its reserves of sup-

Cecropian city must have been on the Acropolis. From Aristotle’s Constitution of Athens (ch. 3) we know that the Prytaneum was the official residence of the archons, but, when the new Agora was constructed they took their meals in the Thesmotheteion for the sake of convenience. There was also a court of justice called the court of the Prytaneum; it tried murderers who could not be found, and inanimate objects which had been the means of causing death.

plies and material were also largely drawn on by the field armies to make good the deficiencies caused by the poor working of the lines of communication. During their retreat the Russians had systematically destroyed the railways and bridges, and the continued wet weather had rendered the roads almost impassable. Thus it was natural that the reserves of Przemysl should be used

2. For the Prytanets of the Boulé see Boute. PRZEMYSL, a town of Poland, in the province of Lemberg, 6om. W. of Lemberg by railway. Pop. (1921), 48,000, mostly Polish. It is situated on the river San, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic and a Greek Catholic bishop, the cathedral dating from the 15th century. The industries comprise the manufacture of machinery, the refining of naphtha, corn-milling and the sawing of timber. The trade is chiefly in timber, corn, leather and linen. On the hill above the town are the ruins of an old castle, said to have been founded by Casimir the Great. Przemysl was founded at an early date on the borderland between Poland and Russia. Russian princes founded a State there in the 11th century, which became absorbed in the Principality of Galich or Halicz and was annexed by Casimir the Great after 1340. It was occupied by Austria in 1773 and held till rors.

PRZEMYSL, SIEGES OF. In 1914 Przemysl was protected

by a ring of forts 36 m. in circumference.

Some of the forts were

of recent construction, but the fortress as a whole was not strictly up-to-date. To clear the foreground in front of the fortiñed line no fewer than 18 villages and some five miles of forest were

levelled to the ground on mobilization.

The armament of the

fortress included four large modern howitzers of about

Izin.

calibre and some gin. and 6in. howitzers of older pattern. There

were in all about 1,000 guns in the fortress, but more than half of these were old, short-range weapons of little value except for close defence. There were 114 machine-guns, of which two-thirds were mobile. The eventual garrison left in the fortress when the Austrian armies retreated from the San on Sept. 18, 1914, consisted of: 613 battalions (of which 404 were Landsturm), seven squadrons, four field batteries, 43 fortress artillery companies, 48 Landsturm artillery brigades, eight sapper companies, and various technical and administrative units. The total strength was approximately 130,000 men and 21,000 horses. Provisions were available for three months.

The First Siege-—The Austrian armies withdrew from the

San on Sept. 18; by Sept. 24 the investmient of the fortress was

for the benefit of the field armies, from whose operations great results were expected at the time. But when the offensive proved fruitless and Russian pressure necessitated a retirement which would leave the fortress again isolated, special efforts were made hastily to reprovision it. They were so far successful that the fortress was enabled to hold out for 44 months in the second siege. Second Siege, Nov. 6, 1914—March 22, 1915,~The strength of the garrison was approximately the same as in the first siege, but a detachment of aeroplanes had been added. Kusmanek had now

laid out new entrenched positions from one to two miles in advance of the line of forts, to give more depth to the defence and to keep the Russian siege artillery at a greater distance. On Nov.

9 the investment of the fortress for the second time was complete. The siege was now undertaken by a specially formed XI. Army

under General Selivanov, consisting of four divisions of secondline troops. It had been decided to reduce the fortress by blockade rather than by assault. During November and December such fighting as occurred was initiated rather by the sorties of the garrison than by the attacks of the besiegers. During February and the first half of March the Austrian field armies made repeated efforts to advance to the relief of the for-

tress, but unsuccessfully (see CARPATHIANS, BATTLES OF THE), Meanwhile the Russians had gradually closed in and had commenced a systematic bombardment of the fortress. On March 13 they carried the advanced positions on its north front. Kusmanek’s situation was now desperate; his supplies and munitions were almost exhausted, and the final effort of the field armies to come to his rescue had definitely been abandoned. He determined on an attempt to save a portion of the garrison by a breakthrough to the east. The effort was made on the morning of the roth, but was soon brought to a stand. The fate of the fortress was now sealed. On the morning of March 22 Kusmanek sur-

rendered, after destroying the works and military stores as far as possible. The numbers of the garrison then amounted to about 110,000. Recapture of the Fortress.—The Russians did not hold the fortress for long. At the beginning of May Mackensen’s offensive on the Dunajec broke through the Russian line and drove their

armies back to the San (see Dunajec-San).

On May 30 the

662

PRZHEVALSK—PSALMS

Austrians attacked on the south-west and the Germans on the north of the fortress. The former made little progress, but the German heavy artillery, which included 42 cm. howitzers, made short work of the northern group of forts. On the night of June 2 the Russians abandoned the fortress. Conclusions.—Przemysl was the only land fortress of the World War which stood a prolonged siege after complete investment, but the length of its resistance was seemingly due to the Russians’ lack of efficient siege artillery, as is confirmed by the speed with which Mackensen’s heavy guns reduced the forts at the time of its recapture. Nor can it be admitted that the fortress served any strategical aim commensurate with the efforts expended on its defence and attempted relief. It is true that its resistance during the first siege was of value to the Austrians when their armies again advanced to the San, in assuring to them a bridgehead over the river. But during the second siege Przemysl was an embarrassment rather than a source of strength and led to several ill-considered efforts at relief which cost the Austrian feld armies dearly. The fortress did not control any line of supply vital to the Russian armies operating west of it towards Cracow, since there was a railway available through Jarostow. The Russians could therefore afford in the second siege to resort to a simple blockade by second-line troops, so that the fortress did not even weaken their field armies to any appreciable extent. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. Hillger, Krieg und Sieg, Befreiung vor Przemysl (1915); E. Ludendorff, My War Memories (trans. 1919); E. von Falkenhayn, General Headquarters, 1914-1916, and its Critical Decisions (trans. 1919); J. Daniloff, Russland im Weltkriege, 1914-1915 (1925); A. W. F. Knox, With the Russian Army, rorg-17 (1921). See also Woro War: (Bibl). (A. P. W)

PRZHEVALSK: see KARAKOL. GEORGE

PSALMANAZAR,

(c. 1679-1763), French ad-

venturer. After various escapades, including a pilgrimage to Rome in the guise of a Japanese convert, he came to London, where he imposed on many people, notably on the bishop of London, who employed him to translate the Catechism into what was supposed to be Japanese. In 1704 and 1707 he published fictitious works on Formosa. Eventually he confessed to his imposture. He died in London on May 3, 1763. His memoirs, Memoirs of ... commonly known by the name of George Psalmanazar (1764) do not disclose his real name or the place of his birth. His fictitious publications include: Historical and Geographical Description of Formosa (1704); Dialogue between a Japanese and a Formosan (1707); An Enquiry into the Objections .. .

lection of “Davidic” psalms, and that there has been a rearrange-

ment

of material bringing psalms of other groups

above the

rubric. In Bk. III. (lxxiii.-lxxxix.) there is an “Asaph” group

(Ixxiii—lxxxiii.) followed by a miscellaneous appendix (Korah David, Ethan). We have clear evidence of other editorial work jn the overwhelming predominance of the name “Elohim” for Coq in Psalm xlii.—Ixxxiii. as compared with the personal name, “Yahweh” (the occurrences are 200:43; in Psalms, i—xli, 15:272);

this is confirmed by the fact that Ps. xiv. of the first Book reappears as Ps. lii, with its fourfold “Yahweh” changed into “Elohim” (so also in Pss. xl. 13—17 and lxx.). In Bks. II. and III. alone do we get psalms ascribed to guilds of templesingers.

Bks. IV. and V. are divided by the doxology of cvi. 48

(cf. r Chron. xvi. 35, 36, where a liturgical formula has been transformed into a historical statement). But the division seems artificial (perhaps made to get five books of psalms corresponding with the five books of the law), since Psalms cv—cvii, are closely related in subject-matter. If, therefore, we take Bks. IV. and V. together, we find in them a distinct group of “Pilgrim”

psalms (cxx.—cxxxiv.), and a scattered one of “Hallelujah” psalms (civ.—cvi., cxi—cxiii., cxv.—cxvil., cxxxv., cxlvi—cl.) largely liturgical. Ps. cviii. seems to have been made by combining lvii. 7-11 and lx. 5-12, which again proves the existence of separate collections, since the same material would not originally appear twice in the same collection. The Hebrew psalms are in rhythmical, but unrhymed verse, the most frequent type being that of the three-beat line. The other characteristic of Hebrew poetry is its parallelism (“synonymous,” li. 2; “antithetic,” i. 6; “synthetic,” cxxi. 4). The musical accompaniment was melodic unison, not the harmonies of modern music, so that its chief use, beyond support to the singers, was to synchronize the beats, as by cymbals (1 Chron. xv. 19, Xvi. 5). Six distinct instruments are named in Ps. cl. (see Wellhausen, Psalms, Appendix, “Music of the Ancient Hebrews”).

The singing was by professional choirs with a response (“Amen,” “Hallelujah” ) from the worshippers (1 Chron. xvi. 36, 2 Chron. xxix. 27, 28). For a glowing description of the ritual see Ecclus.

l. 11—21. At first sight, the contents of the Psalter may seem to occasion relatively little difficulty to the exegete, as compared with the prophecies. The psalms are for the most part simple and often conventional in language, and without those references to obscure historical events which make the writings of the prophets so difficult. But the apparent gain is really a great loss to historical with George Psalmanazar’s Answer (undated). exegesis. Whilst the absence of reference to contemporary events PSALMS, the first in order and importance (cf. Luke xxiv. 44) makes the psalms much more capable of use then than now in of the third division of the Hebrew Old Testament, known as the worship and devotion—it was in some measure due, we may “Writings.” The Hebrew name of the Psalms is tehillim, or suppose, to elimination and adaptation—yet it also makes the “praise-songs,” which expresses a predominant, though by no investigation of the original meaning more difficult. Thus it is means the entire, character of the collection. This anthology of usually impossible to give a precise historical background to a Hebrew poetry also includes petitions (iv.), laments (xliv.), im- particular psalm. The titles professing to do this, and to ascribe precations (Iviii.), meditations (cxix.), historical reviews (cvi.), authorship, are of little use for critical purposes, and represent and even a marriage ode (xlv.). But there can be no doubt that a late and usually worthless conjecture. Scholars have now genthe purpose of the collection was to gather the sacred poetry of erally abandoned the earlier attempts to ascribe particular psalms Israel for use in the post-exilic worship of the temple. This is to precise events from the Davidic down to the Maccabean age; shown by the technical and professional titles of the psalms, as there is considerable variety of opinion as to the nature, date, well as by their general character and their occasional references authorship and origin of the psalms considered individually. (note the definite allusions to the destruction of Jerusalem, the Four main questions arise: (1) to what extent are the psalms exile or the dispersion in li. 18, Ixxxix. 38, 44, cvi. 47, cxxvi. 1, primarily and originally “cultic,” more or less officially composed CXXXVil. 1, cxlvii. 2). for use in public worship, and to what extent are they private As the booklies before us, it is a collection of collections, being religious lyrics, gathered from many sources, and subsequently divided into five books, which themselves contain certain smaller adapted to use in the temple-services? (2) In close relation with distinguishable groups of psalms. The first four books are each this question comes another as to the significance of the speaker closed by a doxology, at least as old as the Septuagint version in many of the psalms; does the “I” mean the whole community, (second half of 2nd century B.c.). In Bk. I. (i—xli.) practically or is it an individual person who is speaking? (3) To what period all the psalms are ascribed to David (the exceptions can be ex- of the religious history of Israel do the psalms chiefly belong, and plained). In Bk. IT. (xlii—lxxii.) there is more variety, xlii—xlix. to what extent are they pre-exilic in origin, though admittedly being ascribed to “the sons of Korah,” 1. to Asaph, li-lxv. to post-exilic in present adaptation and arrangement? (4) Are they David, Ixvi., Ixvii. simply to “the chief musician” or choir-con- a native product or are they dependent on Babylonian or Egyptian ductor, Ixviii—lxx. to David, lxxii. to Solomon (lxxi. is anonymous). models, as the creation stories of Genesis are dependent on BabyThe editorial note at the end of this book, “Finished are the lonian mythology? It will be seen that these are not merely prayers of David the son of Jesse,” shows there was once a col- academic questions, for each of them may affect the exegesis of

PSALMS a particular psalm. A quarter of a century ago, the answers to these four questions generally given by critical scholarship were

as follows: (1) the psalms are chiefly poems of the individual, though some were intended from the outset for use in the temple;

(2) the “I” of the psalms usually represents the community; (3) the psalms are almost wholly post-exilic in origin; (4) they are native products. All these answers are now being met with vigorous criticism. At the present moment the protagonists in this criticism are the German scholar, Gunkel, and the Norwegian scholar, Mowinckel. Some account of their views must be given, as they cannot be neglected by the modern student of the psalms. Gunkel’s leading principle is that the psalms should be studied

in their “classes” (Gattungen) or types, of which he finds four of chief importance, viz., “hymns” (¢é.g., cxlv., cxlvii., cxlviii., cl.),

“national laments” (e.g., xliv., lxxix., lxxx., lxxxiii.), “individual laments” (iii., xiii., liv., Ixxxviii.) and “individual thanksgivings”

(xxx., lxvi., 13 seq.). These classes are differentiated by the use of regular formulae, such as “Deliver us, Yahweh,” or “I will thank Yahweh,” and by more or less regular forms of composition, so

that we are not left to subjective impressions only when deciding as to what class a particular psalm belongs.

On the basis of this

differentiation Gunkel constructs a general history of the “classes,” partly from internal evidence, such as the greater length, individualization, or composite character of the later representatives of the class, and partly from the parallels with psalm-like com-

663

cultic element in the Psalter, Mowinckel regarding practically the whole Psalter as cultic in origin, whilst Gunkel regards the majority of the psalms as of private and occasional origin, though subsequently introduced into the cult. On this point Gunkel’s view seems more convincing, from the intrinsic evidence and from the general probabilities. Like a modern hymn-book, the Psalter seems to contain many poems not originally intended for use in worship, but subsequently adapted to it—indeed, the religious wealth of the Psalter seems largely due to this variety of origin. On the other hand, Mowinckel does make a strong case for the special interpretation of the psalms of the enthronement of Yahweh, even though he brings far too many under this head. His explanation of the “eschatological” features is also attractive; less so seems his too sweeping connection of sickness and misfortune with magic, though there is probably an element of real truth in his contentions (the tendency of those who discover some neglected truth is to generalize to excess on the basis of it). In a collection so extensive and varied as the Psalter we need not regard any one explanation or theory as necessarily applicable to more than a part of the material. Variety of origin almost follows from variety of date, and their issue is most naturally variety of meaning, even where the same conventional phrases may be used. In regard to the closely linked question as to the collective or

individual interpretation of the speaker in the psalms, Gunkel follows Balla in reaction from the view that was general a quarter of a century ago (e.g., Smend, Cheyne), 7.¢., that the “I” of the Psalms is collective, personifying the nation. Mowinckel agrees with Gunkel so far as the “individual laments” are concerned, but recognizes a primitive “‘corporate personality” finding utterance through the leader or king as its representative. We may ask whether this principle does not admit of a wider application than even Mowinckel allows. It seems to go a long way towards explaining the puzzling combination of “collective” and “‘individual” elements in such a psalm as the xxii., and the rapid transitions so often found (cf. xliv. 5-7 and 14, 15). The same phenomena occur in relation to the Servant of Yahweh in Deutero—Isaiah, and admit of the same explanation—that the primitive mind draws no such hard and fast limits between the individual and the community as we do (see The Cross of the and indeed barely admits the existence of any psalms not cultic Servant, by H. Wheeler Robinson, pp. 32-36; The Psalmin origin (his exceptions are i., cxii., cxxvii.). The psalms were ists, ed. D. C. Simpson, pp. 82 seq.). We may often find it imcomposed by the temple-singers, whom he regards as existing possible to decide whether a psalm is collective or individual— from the early days of the temple. The class of psalms to which because the ancient category was neither one nor the other, but he gives primary attention is that containing references to the a third category including both. In regard to dating the composition of individual psalms, there enthronement of Yahweh as king (xlvii., xciii., xcv.—c., with which many others are to be linked). These he connects with an seems to be some danger of a similar excessive reaction from the alleged festival of the New Year (originally beginning in the view associated with the name of Wellhausen, open as that is to autumn), a festival after the analogy of that celebrated at criticism. The arguments of Gunkel and Mowinckel, amongst Babylon in honour of Marduk. The cultic acts of this festival others, do show in their different ways that psalms were com(e.g., the procession bringing the ark into the temple) were posed in the pre-exilic period, a fact which has been too grudgrealistically conceived, 7.e., they were supposed to help in bring- ingly admitted. The intrinsic evidence of some of the psalms, ing about that which they “dramatized.” Thus they anticipated such as the reference to a human king, or the processional the future (eschatology) while recalling the past (mythology). features of the second part of xxiv. (“Lift up your heads, O ye There is a similar “realism” in Mowinckel’s interpretation of the gates’), or the primitive cosmology of the first part of xix., numerous petitionary psalms, which are held to attribute mis- confirms the probability that some of these pre-exilic producfortune and sickness to magicians and sorcerers, who are the tions would survive in a post-exilic Psalter. So long as we are original “workers of iniquity” so frequently mentioned. Such thinking of the origin and original meaning of a particular psalm, psalms were employed, with suitable accompanying rites, as part we must always be prepared to admit that it may go back to a of the temple-cult; they counteracted adverse magic by exorcisms relatively early date, however much modified in its present adapand imprecations of these “enemies.” There were prophets as tation to the needs of the second temple. On the other hand, we well as priests, or priest-prophets, attached to the temple, who use any psalm in its present form as an early document only at gave oracles; thus the petition of Ps. lxxxv. 1-7 is answered considerable risk; we may conjecture, but we cannot prove. The by the oracle of vv. 8~13. It should be said that a “cultic” inter- main reasons for regarding the contents of the Psalter as largely pretation of the psalms as a whole has been independently urged post-exilic remain unaffected by recent criticism, z.e., those that by other scholars, e.g., by J. P. Peters, who further conjectures spring from the general relation of the religion of the psalms to that the “Elohistic” psalms belonged to northern temples (cf. the prophetic religion. If with Gunkel we regard the majority the northern “Elohbistic” saga-writers), the Korahite to Dan, the of the psalms as the expression of individual piety, we have to Asaphite to Bethel, and were afterwards incorporated in the ask whether such wide-spread piety is conceivable before the liturgy of Jerusalem. work of the great prophets. The psalms represent a partial fulIt will be seen, therefore, that there is considerable division of filment of the prophecy of the New Covenant made by Jeremiah; opinion at the present time in regard to |our first question, the |is it likely that they preceded it? We cannot reasonably doubt

positions found elsewhere in the Old Testament, which it is possible to date with confidence, such as the Song of Miriam (Exod. xv. 21), the song of the seraphim heard by Isaiah in the temple (vi. 3), the lyrics of Jeremiah and the “Psalms of Solomon” (1st century B.c.). Gunkel’s general conclusion is that hymns of praise and national laments were found at an early date, whilst individual laments arose later, but prior to Jeremiah. He admits that prophecy influenced the language, eschatological outlook and spirituality of the Psalms, but claims that this influence was exerted before as well as after the exile. He argues that the existence of similar compositions in Babylonia and Egypt at a much earlier date confirms the intrinsic evidence that ‘“Psalmcomposition belongs to the earliest periods of Israel’s history.” Mowinckel, whilst recognizing and using the classification of psalms by their type, throws his emphasis on their cultic character,

664

PSALMS

that the prophets of the 8th and 7th centuries were pioneers, and that they taught truths that were new to their contemporaries, even though they may have used forms of expression and even of thought which were more or less conventional. Nor can there be

(cxxxix. 7-12), and eternal (xc. I, 2; cil. 26-28). Around this

great and exalted personal centre in heaven, but on the lower level of earth, we may trace a series of concentric circles in nature history, human society, the temple, narrowing at last to the

any doubt that the religion of the Psalter as a whole is closely related to the prophetic teaching. We seem to have parallel phenomena in the formulation of Israel’s laws (Deuteronomy, the Law of Holiness, the Priestly Code) and in the Wisdom Literature; in all three cases ancient elements are given a new setting, but the new setting gives them a new meaning. Laws, proverbs and psalms are alike reinterpreted and restated in the light of the prophetic teaching, which had certainly taken time to permeate the nation’s religion. Nothing has come to us through the editorial sieve that could not be given a plausibly orthodox meaning according to post-exilic standards. Thus the psalms as a whole must still be treated as a post-exilic book. This might be confirmed by the subtler test of psychological usage, hardly to be simulated; the word “spirit,” for example, is used of man in the psalms with psychical predicates in a way not found elsewhere in the pre-exilic literature of the Old Testament. As for the relation of the psalms to the similar compositions of Babylonia, we find many interesting and instructive parallels of form, language and thought, but not less striking differences which must not be ignored, due to the far higher religious standpoint of Israel, and the suppression of magic in the interests of religion (though some of the older forms and expressions doubtless continued to be used). The resemblances may be partly explained by the independent development of closely related peoples

personal religion in which man can look right up to God. Nature is directly controlled in all its detail by God, and no “laws of

(G. R. Driver, in The Psalmists, pp. 109 seg.), and partly by the

we seem to owe the most “spiritual” of the psalms. They live in

entrance of the Hebrews into a land dominated by Mesopotamian influence (as the Tell el-Amarna tablets prove); but it is quite possible that there was some direct influence also, even prior to the exile. This possibility also applies, but in a much smaller degree, to the influence of Egypt; there is the well-known parallelism of the ‘“Hymn to the Sun” of Ikhnaton with Ps. civ., which matches the close relation of the “Teaching of Amenophis” to our canonical Book of Proverbs. But whatever contributions came directly or indirectly from without, there is good ground for holding that in all that really matters the Psalter is a native product, and that to Israel still belongs the undiminished glory of carrying the religious lyric to its highest point of development. Any attempt to characterize the teaching of this anthology must be made with the full consciousness of its variety of authorship, purpose and date. It is the most varied of the books of the Old Testament, and offers many unreconciled antitheses. Devotion to the sacrificial system and ritual of the temple is found side by side with prophetic protests against the popular reliance on them. Faith in the exact retributive justice of God within the limits of earthly life does not exclude the perplexities of those who could not be blind to the sufferings of the innocent and the prosperity of the wicked. The nationalistic demand for supremacy over, and even for vengeance on, enemies is neighbour to the universalistic sense of Israel’s missionary stewardship for all the world. The recoil from the shadow of death, which leaves no light of Yahweh’s presence beyond the grave, does not wholly prevent the conviction of a fellowship with God that virtually conquers death. But certain comprehensive truths may be usefully remembered in the study of the Psalms. The central religious principle is, of course, the idea of God.

a society of mingled elements, and have many enemies, without and within, for there are imprecations against unworthy Israelites

nature” come between Him and His creation.

The cosmology

of the “nature” psalms (viil., xix. 1-6, xxix., lxv., civ., cxlviii)

is crude; man walks on a flat earth, with the “shades” of Sheol

beneath his feet, and Yahweh with His angels above his head, on the solid firmament; round about the earth is the primaeval ocean and its monsters, overcome long since by Yahweh’s creative

power. The great facts which emerge from this primitive setting of man’s life are the dignity and glory of his high place (viii.) amid the glories of Yahweh’s creation (xix. 1-6) and His universal providence (civ.). The power of the enthroned Yahweh is manifest in the majesty of the thunderstorm which sweeps the earth, whilst in the heavenly palace His angels glorify Him (xxix.), The peculiar providence of God is, however, best seen in the redemptive history of Israel (lxxxi. ro). At great crises, Yahweh has intervened to save His chosen people (cxiv.). The God of the past (cv., cvi.) will be the God of the future, when His rule shall be proved supreme over all (xlvii., and the other “enthronement” psalms). A prince of the house of David shall be his vicegerent (Ixxxix. 35 seq.; cf. li., Ixxii.) and the final judgment of men shall vindicate His righteousness (i. 5). This is the essential faith of the righteous, the company of those who fear Yahweh and are remembered by Him (cf. Mal. iii. 16), the group to whom

(lxix., cix.) as well as against the ungodly heathen (cxxxvii, Ixxxiil., lix., Iviii.), and they may be under unjust rulers (lii.), Their great problem is that which troubled the best minds and hearts of Israel, and found no solution within the Old Testament, i.e., the strange and perplexing prosperity of the wicked and the adversity of the righteous in a world governed by an omnipotent and righteous God (xlix., xxxix., xxxvii., lxxiii.). The sacramental centre of this faith is the Temple in Jerusalem, to which the exile turns with passionate longing (xli., xliii— originally a single psalm). (The devotion to the “Law” came later, except for i., xix. 7—14, cxix.)

To the temple come the pilgrims

from afar (cxx.—cxxxiv.), full of pride in the holy city (xlviii.), the spiritual home of many proselytes as well as of Jewish exiles (Ixxxvii,). The temple is Yahweh’s earthly dwelling-place (cxxxii,

13,14) to which His “guests” may come (Xv., xxiv.); its sacrifices (lxvi. 13-15, cxvi. 13) and processions (lxviii, 24-27, cxviil., xxvi. 6) mark supreme moments of religious experience. This is the normal attitude of the Psalmists towards the temple; but the emphasis of the Book is prophetic rather than priestly, and this finds utterance sometimes in the contrast of “spiritual” religion

with external rites (xl, 1, li, except for the added verses, li. 18, 19). The personal religion of the psalmists is marked by trust In Yahweh based on history and experience (xvi., xxiii., xci., cili.), by the consciousness of “righteousness” (xviii. 20-24), not

divorced from fundamental ethical qualities (xv., xxiv., ci., l.) by the awakening to a sense of sin and of the need of forgiveness, usually, it would seem, through misfortune, sickness, the fear of death (xxxii., li., cxxx.), and in the highest examples, by a vicThe monotheism is sometimes implicit rather than explicit, for torious conviction of fellowship with God (lxxiii. 23-26) which there are a number of references to other “gods” (Ixxxvi. 8, even death will not be able to break. This last is the more Ixxxix. 6, xcv. 3, etc.); yet these are perhaps no more than the noteworthy, because there does not seem to be either here or survival of ancient phraseology. The general standpoint of the elsewhere in the psalms any explicit teaching of immortality or psalms is that of an exalted and imageless monotheism (cxv.), resurrection (some have found the hope in xvi., xvii, xlix.), Such is the relatively simple faith of the most influential book unlimited in power, universal in range. The most prominent attributes of Yahweh are “lovingkindness” (chesedh) and “right- of the Old Testament, which has claimed so supreme a place in eousness” (sedhek, sedhakah), combined in cxiv. 17, expanded the public worship and private devotion of Jew and Christian. in xxxvi. 6-11; they are complementary, not antithetical. To these must be added the mystery and majesty of God—the

quality which we have come to call “the numinous,” best expressed in Ps. xc.; the wrath of God cannot be measured by human norms of right and wrong. This great God is omnipresent

Its magical secret lies in its simple and concrete expression of universal religious experience. Its value is altogether independent of. our enquiries into its sources; indeed, it has won its place by its lowly submissiveness to reinterpretation in order to meet the

ever-changing needs of the unchanging human heart.

PSALTERY—PSILOMELANE BIBLIOGRAPHY. —T. K. Cheyne, The Book of Psalms (1st edition) (1888), and Tke Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter (1891) ; J. Wellhausen, Tke Book of Psalms (Eng., 1898); B. Duhm, Die

Psalmen (1899); F. Baethgen, Die Psalmen (1904); S. R. Driver, The Parallel Psalier (trans., 1904); C. A. Briggs, The Book of Psalms {2 vols. 1906, 1907); R. E. Prothero, The Psalms in Human Life (1914); C. F. Kent, Songs, Hymns & Prayers of the Old Testament (1914); W. G. Jordan, Religion in Song (1917); C. G. Montefiore,

“The Psalter: its Contents and Date,” Quarterly Review, July 1918, pp. 1-20; J. E. McFadyen, The Psalms in Modern Speech (trans., 1916); W. E. Addis, in Peake’s Commentary (1919) ; S. Mowinckel, Psalmenstudien (i-Vv1. 1921-24) ; J . M. P. Smith, The Religion of the

Psalms (1922); R. Kittel, Die Psalmen (1922); J. P. Peters, The Psalms as Liturgies (1922); A. Lods, Les Idées de M. Mowinckel

(Revue de L’Histoire des Religions, 1925, pp. 15—34); H. Gunkel, Die Psalmen (1926-28); A. C, Welch, The Psalte? in Life, Worship and History (1926), D. C. Simpson (ed.), The Psalmists (1926); H. Gunkel, in Old Testament Essays (Griffin & Co.; a convenient summary of his views in English); N. Nicolsky, Spuren Magischen

Formeln in den Psalmen (1927).

PSALTERY,

PSALTERION

W. R.)

or

SAWTRIE, an ancient stringed instrument twanged by fingers or plectrum, and mentioned many times in the English Bible,

though precisely what form of instrument is implied by these various references is

doubtful. In its mediaeval form it consisted of a shallow box-sound-chest over

which strings varying in number were stretched, being fastened at one side to

pegs and at the other to wrest pins. In the pitch being varied by their thickness and

tension.

When the triangular form suc-

ceeded the rectangular, the stringing was that of the harp, pitch being dependent on

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the length. The psaltery was held in an upright position against the chest of the DET-

BY COURTESY OF THE METROPOL-

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ber of strings, it grew too cumbersome, THE PSALTERY, A MEDIwhen it was placed flat on a table or on the ae ee si ah ea knee. From the psaltery descended spinet and the harpsichord.

PSAMMETICHUS

the prectrum

(Egypt. Psammetk), the name of three

kings of the Saite, XXVIth Dynasty, called by Herodotus respectively Psammetichus, Psammis and Psammenitus. The first of these is generally considered to be the founder of the dynasty; Manetho, however, carries it back through three or four predecessors who ruled at Sais as petty kings under the XXVth, Ethiopian, Dynasty. It is known from cuneiform texts that zo local princelings were appointed by Esarhaddon and confirmed

by Assur-bani-pal to govern Egypt.

PSELLUS, MICHAEL CONSTANTINE “the younger,” (ro18-c. 1079), Byzantine writer, was born at Nicomedia, or Constantinople, of a consular and patrician family. Under Constantine Monomachus (1042~1054) he became one of the most influential men in the empire. As professor of philosophy at Constantinople he revived the cult of Plato at a time when Aristotle held the field. At the height of his success as a teacher he was recalled to court, where he became state secretary and vestarch, with the honorary title of "Yraros rr Pirocddwy (prince of philosophers). Presently he entered the monastery of Olympus (near Prusa in Bithynia), where he assumed the name of Michael. But, finding the life little to his taste, he resumed his public career. Under Isaac Comnenus and Constantine Ducas he exercised great influence, and was prime minister during the regency of Eudocia and the reign of his pupil Michael Parapinaces (1071-1078). It is probable that he died soon after the fall of Parapinaces. i In character Psellus was servile, unscrupulous and weak. But as a literary man, he will be remembered as the forerunner of the great Renaissance Platonists. His works embraced politics, astronomy, medicine, music, theology, jurisprudence, physics, grammar and history.

early rectangular form the strings, number-

ing 10 to 12, were of uniform length, the

665

Niku (Necho), father of

Psammetichus, was the chief of these kinglets, but they seem

to have been quite unable to hold the Egyptians to the hated Assyrians against the more sympathetic Ethiopian. The labyrinth built by a king of the XIIth Dynasty is ascribed by Herodotus to the Dodecarchy, or rule of 12, which must represent this combination of rulers. If the dynasties were numbered thus before ane the numeral may be the cause of Herodotus’s conusion,

After his father’s death Psammetichus I. (664-610 B.C.) was able to defy the Assyrians and the Ethiopians, and during a long reign marked by intimate relations with the Greeks restored the prosperity of Egypt. The short reign of the second Psammetichus

(594-589 B.c.) is noteworthy for the graffiti of his Greek,

Phoenician and Carian mercenaries at Abu Simbel (g.v.). The third of the name was the unfortunate prince whose reign terminated after six months in the Persian conquest of Egypt (s25 B.C.). It has been conjectured that the family of the Psammetichi was of Libyan origin; on the other hand, some would recognize negro features in a portrait of Psammetichus I., which might connect him with the Ethiopian rulers. See Eoyrt: History; on the name, F, Ll. Griffith, Catalogue of the Rylands demotic papyri; the portrait H., Schäfer in Zeitschrift für àegyptisċhe Sprache, xxxiii. iii, 116. (F. Lr. G.)

Of his works, which are very numerous, many have not yet been printed. We may mention: Chronographia (from 976-1077); three Epitaphioi or funeral orations over the patriarchs Cerularius, Lichudes and Xiphilinus, and nearly soo letters. The most important of his works have been published by C. Sathas, who has also edited the Chronographia in Methuen’s Series (1899), in his Meoanwyzx} BiBdrobjien, iv. 5. On Psellus himself see Leo Allatius, De Psellis et eorum scriptis (1634); J. E. Sandys, Hist. of Classical Scholarship (1906), i. 411;

P, Wiirthlein, Rhetorische Studien, Paderborn (1919).

PSEUDO-DIPTERAL,

in architecture, a term applied to

a temple in which the single row of columns at the side of cella is separated from the cella wall by a space equal to distance between two pairs of adjacent columns, so that width of the whole is the same as if the colonnade on each were a double one.

PSEUDO-PERIPTERAL,

the the the side

in architecture, a term applied

to a building or temple in which the cella or enclosed portion has engaged or attached columns which line with the side columns of the front porch or portico, and thus simulate a surrounding colonnade. Examples are: the temple of Zeus at Agrigentum in Sicily (probably late 6th century B.c.), in which the cella wall includes all the columns of the exterior; and the more normal Maison Carré at Nimes (probably about ap. 1). In certain Roman examples, such as the temple at Tebessa in Algeria (probably of the Antonine period), pilasters replaced the engaged columns.

PSEUDOPOD, PSEUDOPODIUM,

an extension of the

naked protoplasm of certain Protozoa for crawling or for the prehension of food, but not for active swimming (see AMOEBA).

PSICHARI, ERNEST

(1883-1914), French author, grand-

son of Renan, and son of Jean Psichari, director of studies at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes in Paris, was killed on the Western Front on Aug. 22, 1914. He was one of the leaders of the young generation before the World War who sought to “rationalize” war and the defence of their country; he sought to provide the psychological basis for heroic action. His work is that of an intellectual who must justify the “great sacrifice.” In the year before the World War L’Appel des armes had a powerful moral effect among young. intellectuals. It is the story of a captain in the Algerian army who converts to the military ideal the anti-militarist son of an internationalist, who finds mental peace in military obedience. This book was followed by Les Voix qui crient dans le désert. Le Voyage du Centurion appeared as the finished form of this work, In 1917 Jean Psichari presented to the Luxembourg library his collection of 25,000 volumes on mental subjects, in memory of his son Ernest. A second son, Michel, was killed in May 1917. See Henri Massis, La Vie d’Ernest Psickart (1916); L. Aguettant,

Ernest Psichari (1920); H. D. Noble, Ernest Psichari; sa conversion

religieuse (1924); A. M

Goichon, Ernest Psichari, etc. (1925).

PSILOMELANE, a mineral consisting of hydrous manganesé oxide with variable amounts of barium, potassium, etc., of importance as an ore of manganese.

The amount of manganese

CHE PSITTACOSIS—PSY

666

present corresponds to 70-80% of manganous oxide with 10-15% of “available” oxygen. The mineral is amorphous and occurs as botryoidal and stalactitic masses with a smooth shining surface and submetallic lustre. The name has reference to this character-

istic appearance, being from the Greek yuAds (naked, smooth) and uéħas (black); a Latinized form is calvonigrite, and a German

Its strong walls and its 40 large and wealthy churches bear testimony to the wealth of the inhabitants, who then numbered about 60,000. As early as the 13th century Pskov was an impor-

tant station for the trade between Novgorod and Riga. A century later it became a member of the Hanseatic League. Its merchants

and trading associations had factories at Narva, Reval and Riga,

name with the same meaning is Schwarzer Glaskopf. Psilomelane is readily distinguished from other hydrous manganese oxides (manganite and wad) by its greater hardness (H=5-5); the sp.gr. varies from 3-7 to 4-7. The streak is brownish-black and the fracture smooth. The mineral is soluble in hydrochloric acid with evolution of chlorine, and occurs under the same conditions and has the same commercial applications as pyrolusite (g.v.). It is found at many localities; amongst those which have yielded typical botryoidal specimens may be mentioned the Restormel iron mine at Lostwithiel in Cornwall, Brendon Hill in Somerset and Hoy in the Orkneys. With pyrolusite it is extensively mined in Vermont, Virginia, Arkansas, Nova Scotia and India. A distinctly crystallized variety from India has been called hollandite.

and exported flax, corn, tallow, skins, tar, pitch, honey and timber for shipbuilding. Silks, woollen stuffs and all kinds of manufactured wares were brought back in exchange. In 1399 the prince of Moscow claimed the privilege of confirming the elected prince

characteristics (see TypHorp FEVER) and ending fatally in a large proportion of cases. It is conveyed to man by parrots suffering from the disease, either directly or by way of their dried excreta. A bad outbreak of the disease occurred in Argentina in 1929 and in England in 1928-29. Cases have also occurred in other parts

was besieged (1581) for seven months by Stephen Bathory during

PSITTACOSIS,

an acute disease often with typhoid-like

of Pskov in his rights; and though, 50 years later, Pskov and Nov-

gorod concluded defensive treaties against Moscow, the poorer classes continued. to seek at Moscow protection against the rich.

After the fall of Novgorod (1475) Pskov was taken (1510) by

Basil Ivanovich, prince of Moscow, and a voyvode or deputy was nominated to govern the city. Moscow, at the end of the ryth century, abolished the last vestiges of self-government at Pskov, which thenceforward fell into rapid decay. Near this city the

Teutonic knights inflicted a severe defeat upon the Russians in 1so2.

Pskov became a stronghold of Russia against Poland, and

the Livonian War, and in 1615 by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. Under Peter the Great it became a fortified camp. Under the Tsarist régime the government of Pskov extended from Lake

Peipus to the sources of the western Dwina, and after the 1917

of Europe and in the United States. It is doubtful whether the cause is due to Bacillus psittacosis, first isolated in 1892 or to a filter-passing virus (g.v.). (See Brit. Med. Jn. 1930, i. 197.)

revolution the province of Pskov, though much diminished, remained an administrative unit. In 1927 it was incorporated in the newly created Leningrad area (q.v.).

district of the Leningrad area, in 57° 48’ N., 28° 22’ E., situated on both banks of the Velikaya river, 9 m. S.E. from Lake Pskov. Pop. (1926) 39,765. The chief part of the town, with its kremlin on a hill, occupies the right bank of the river, to which the ruins

of varying size covered with silvery white scales. It occurs frequently during infancy and early adult life, and rarely begins

PSKOV, in German, Pleskau, a town of Russia in the Pskov

of its old walls (built in 1266) descend.

PSORIASIS, a skin affection characterized by flat dry patches after fifty. Though a parasitic origin has been suggested, no bac-

teriological factor has yet been found. The usual starting point The old cathedral in is either the elbows or the fronts of the knees. It is nearly always

the kremlin has been four times rebuilt since the 12th century; the present edifice (1691~99) contains some very old shrines, as also the graves of the bishops of Pskov and of several Pskov princes. The church of Dmitriy Solunskiy dates originally from the 12th century; there are others of the 14th and isth. History.—Pskov, formerly the sister republic of Novgorod and one of the oldest cities of Russia, maintained its independence and its free institutions until the 16th century, being thus the last to be brought under the rule of Moscow. It already existed in the time of Rurik (gth century); and Nestor states that in the year 914 that Olga, wife of Igor, prince of Novgorod, was

symmetrical in its distribution, and spreads over the trunk and

the extensor surfaces of the limbs, in contrast to eczema, which

selects the flexor surfaces. The hairy scalp may also be affected. The symptoms are usually slight, there is little itching, and no pain except in a form which is associated with osteo-arthritis. The disease, though chronic, is subject to sudden exacerbations. The most effective local application is chrysarobin used as an ointment. After a hot water or alkaline bath, in order to remove all the scales, the ointment is applied, but must be used over a small area at a time, as it is apt to set up dermatitis. Unguentum picis liquidae, creosote ointment or liquor carbonis detergens, the brought from Pleskov (i.e., Pskov). The Velikaya valley and sulphur-water baths of Harrogate, Aix-les-Bains and Aachen, river were from a remote antiquity a channel for the trade of radium and X-rays are also useful in some cases. The internal the south of Europe with the Baltic coast. Pskov being an im- administration of antinaony in acute cases, or of arsenic in chronic portant strategic point, its possession was obstinately disputed cases, is beneficial. PSOROSPERMIASIS, the medical term for a disease between the Russians and the Germans and Lithuanians throughout the rrth and 12th centuries. It became in the 12th century caused by the animal parasites known as psorosperms or Gregara prigorod of the Novgorod republic—z.e., a city having its own inidae, found in the liver, kidneys and ureters. PSYCHE, in Greek mythology, the personification of the free institutions, but included in certain respects within the jurisdiction of the metropolis, and compelled in time of war to march human soul. The importance, in Platonic philosophy, of love (in against the common enemy. Pskov had, however, its own prince the highest sense) as an agent of the soul’s progress leads, in art (defensor municipii); and in the second half of the 13th century from the 4th century B.c., to representations, allegorical or playPrince (Timotheus) Dovmont fortified it so strongly that the town ful, of Psyche (generally represented as a winged girl, a relic of asserted its independence of Novgorod, with which, in 1348, it con- the old conception of the soul as a bird or insect) in company cluded a treaty wherein the two republics were recognised as with Eros (g.v.), usually in amatory scenes. The tale of Cupid equals. Its rule extended over the districts of Pskov, Ostrov, and Psyche, in the Metamorphoses of Apuleius, is interesting as Opochka and Gdov (farther north on the east side of Lake the only ancient fairy-tale which is told as such. In it Psyche, the Peipus). The vyecke or council of Pskov was sovereign, the youngest daughter of a king, arouses the jealousy of Venus, who councils of the subordinate towns being supreme in their own orders Cupid to inspire her with love for the most despicable of municipal affairs. The council was supreme in all affairs of gen- men. Cupid, however, falls in love with her and carries her off to a eral interest, as well as a supreme court of justice, and the princes were elected by it; these last had to defend the city and levied secluded spot, where he visits her by night, unseen and unrecogthe taxes, which were assessed by 12 citizens. But while Novgorod nized by her. Persuaded by her sisters that her companion is a constantly showed a tendency to become an oligarchy of the hideous monster, and forgetful of his warning, she lights a lamp wealthier merchants, Pskov figured as a republic in which the in- to look upon him while he is asleep; in her ecstasy at his beauty fluence of the poorer classes prevailed. Its trading associations, she lets fall a drop of burning oil upon the face of Cupid, who supported by those of the working classes, checked the influence awakes and disappears. Wandering over the earth in search of of the wealthier merchants, him, Psyche falls into the hands of Venus, who forces her to

667

PSYCHIATRY undertake the most difficult tasks. The last and most dangerous of these is to fetch from the world below the box containing the

ointment of beauty.

She secures the box, but on her way back

opens it and is stupefied by the vapour. She is only restored to her senses by Cupid, at whose entreaty Jupiter makes her immortal and bestows her in marriage upon her lover. BrstrocrapHy.—See O. Waser in Roscher, Lexikon, III., 2,327, et seq.; L. C. Purser, The Story of Cupid and Psyche (1910).

PSYCHIATRY, a special branch of medical science dealing with the causes, symptoms, course and treatment of disorders and diseases of the mind. The ultimate aim of this branch of medicine should be to ascertain the best means to promote normal thought and action individually and collectively, and to apply the knowl-

edge so obtained to the causation and prevention of mental defects, disorders and diseases. See ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY; PsycHOSIS, etc.

The causes of mental disorders and diseases are never single, but they naturally fall into two great groups: (1) Endogenous (from within) and (2) Exogenous (from without). They may be somatic, psychical or social. The hereditary factor is the most important endogenous cause. The Endogenous Factor of Mental Disorders.—The life of the individual begins at the moment of conception, 7.e., at the con-

jugation of the male and female germ cells. The raw material of character is a complex of inherited tendencies and dispositions impressed upon the individual by sex, species, race and ancestry, giving each individual a specific predetermined plasticity to receive and store stimuli and react to them in a particular way. Like tends to beget like—as Galton’s History of Similar and Dissimilar Twins shows, in the dispositions and temperaments of the offspring. A well-balanced mind is due to an inherent equipoise of the latent potentialities of character, and its efficient activity depends upon the potential psychophysical energy derived from the parental stocks. The study of heredity (1) by statistics, (2) by pedigrees and (3) by experience shows the importance of this factor in the causation of the true insanities which are not due to organic brain disease, where chance counts for everything and heredity for little or nothing. The raw material of mentality is conditioned by the innate potentialities of the fertilised ovum as it starts its course in life. At later stages of development, the fertilised ovum is influenced by pre-natal and post-natal exogenous environmental factors in addition to the hereditary factors. Pre-natal Exogenous Factors.—Much may happen while the embryo is developing in the mother’s womb. Owing to abnormal conditions of growth, interfering with the circulation and nutrition of the great brain, various degrees of arrest of development of the highest and latest evolutional structures of the brain may occur, viz., the cerebral hemispheres, which by their size especially distinguish the brain of man from the lower animals, and to which he owes his superior intelligence, may suffer from various congenital effects. (See Insanity.) Likewise prolonged labour or unskilful use of instruments may damage the brain and arrest growth. `

Hereditary Factors.—Study of the hereditary factor in psy-

choses and psychoneuroses by the construction of a large number of pedigrees extending to three, four and five generations with collaterals, and by a card system of 4,000 relatives who were or who had been in the London County Council asylums, proves that heredity plays a very important part in neuroses and psychoses. Neuroses may be classified as follows: (1) hysteria, (2) neurasthenia, (3) obsessional psychasthenia, (4) epilepsy and (5) migraine; and psychoses as (1) paranoia (systematised delusional

insanity), (2) dementia praecox, (3) manic-depressive insanity,

of which there are several types, viz.: alternating periods of excitement and depression (folie circulaire) and recurrent periods of maniacal excitement or of melancholic depression, alternating with periods of sanity, (4) involutional melancholia occurring at the climacterium in women, also in men between the ages of 55 and 65, though less frequently met with than in women. Both the latter forms of mental disorder may terminate in dementia. These three last-named types are in some ways related to one

another, and their onset is associated with the maturation or waning of the sex instinct. An involutional melancholic or senile dement may have offspring in whom manic-depressive insanity or dementia praecox may occur in adolescence, or a parent with

manic-depressive insanity may have one or more offspring with dementia praecox. This phenomenon together with the fact that not infrequently several members of the same co-fraternity suffer with either dementia praecox or manic-depressive insanity or an atypical form, coming on at puberty or adolescence, at about the same age, shows antedating and hereditary predisposition as the important factor. There may be atypical cases in some respects resembling both these forms of mental disease, and it is a matter of opinion to which category a particular case should belong. This shows

how fallacious

classifications

may

be.

The

many

changes which Krapelin has made in his classification emphasise the fact that each case must be regarded as a biological problem with two factors to consider, viz.: what an individual was born with; and what happened after fertilisation of the ovum—that is, pre-natal and post-natal conditions. There is, it seems, a causal correspondence in these three types of insanity connected with the “life reaction” of the primal instinct of propagation. Disintegration of Psychic Unity.—The biological concept of mental disease propounded by Hughlings Jackson in his Theory of Evolutional Levels will help in the understanding of the causes and symptoms of insanity—dissolution of the highest level bringing into relief lower levels. Thus a negative condition of the highest evolutional level of control permits of over-action of the lower level of ideation, e.g., the delirium of fever. In mental disorders there may be a negative condition of the highest level of control with disordered ideation manifested by hallucinations and delusions, owing to partial disintegration of the psychic unity. Such hallucinations and delusions may determine various active uncontrolled and irresistible impulses—disorders of conduct. When the disease has sunk to a lower depth of dissolution of evolutional levels there may result emotional indifference and apathy reflected in a mask-like expression, and motor inertia or katatonic stupor with flexibilitas cerea. Stuporose states with mental confusion indicate a more diffuse toxic influence on evolutional levels and are more hopeful of recovery than the persistence of hallucinations and delusions, the mind remaining clear. Post-natal Exogenous Causes.—These do not play an important part per se in the production of the true insanities. They may, however, act as exciting or contributory causes in individuals with an hereditary latent tendency. Stress per se from disease and disasters of every kind cannot be the important factor believed to be in the production of the true insanities as distinct from organic brain disease, e.g., general paralysis and lethargic encephalitis. This was clearly shown during the World War by the fact that Bonhöffer, an eminent Austrian psychiatrist, only found five insane among 10,000 Serbian prisoners. Organic brain disease may cause various symptoms of irritations such as fits, headaches, pains, stiffness of muscles, and delirium or drowsy stupor, loss of memory, paralysis and dementia, according to the pathological process and the structures affected.

BIBLIOCRAPHY.—A Brit. Međ. Assn. Lecture; J. Hugblings Jackson, “The Factors of Insanities,” Medical Press and Circular (June, 13, 1894); Mercier, Disorders of Conduct; White, Outlines of Psychiatry; Buckley, The Basis of Psychiatry; Sir F. W. Mott, “Articles on Dementia

Praecox,”

Myerson,

The Inheritance

Archives

of Neurology

of Mental

and Psychiatry, vol. 8;

Disease; Sir T. S. Clouston,

Unsoundness of Mind (1911) ; Sir F. W. Mott, “A Study of the. Neuro-

pathic Inheritance Especially in Relation to Insanity,” Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, vol. 6 (1914); C. G. Jung, Analytical Psychology, 2nd ed., authorised translation (1920) ; J. B. Watson, Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviourist; Hugh Eliot, Human Character (1922); Sir F. W. Mott, “The Biological Foundations of Human Character,” Edin. Review (July 1923) ; William McDougall, An Outline of Psychology (1923); Maudsley, Pathology of Mind; W. Sullivan, Crime and Insanity; Sir F. W. Mott, “Psychology and Medicine,” B.M.J.

(March 10,

1923);

“Memorandum

of Evidence

Given

on

Behalf of the Royal Medico-Psychological Association to the Royal Commission on Lunacy and Mental Disorder,” Journal of Mental Science, vol. 70, No. 294; Sir F. W. Mott, “The Investigation of Some of the Causes of Insanity,” Presidential address to Royal Medico-Psychological Association, Journal of Mental Science, vol. 71 (Oct. 1925).

668

PSYCHICAL

PSYCHICAL RESEARCH is the study of the supernormal of human personality. The word

faculties (real or supposed)

RESEARCH from all parts of the world, civilized and barbarous; familiar instances in England are the Tedworth Drummer

(1662) and the

“supernormal” is merely a short equivalent for “not recognized

occurrences in the Wesley household at Epworth

by general scientific opinion,” and is free of all implications of

It would at first sight appear as if Poltergeists should provide a useful standard of comparison for arriving at an opinion ag to what causes, supernormal or otherwise, produce similar Dhenomena in the séance room. Unfortunately, they give little assistance. In the earlier cases (up to, say, 1850 or thereabouts), the

the “supernatural.” The function of psychical research is to collect and weigh all the available evidence for and against all such supposed faculties, to the end that they may either be accepted by general scientific opinion, or may safely be consigned to oblivion. Thus some of the subjects mentioned in the original programme of the Society for Psychical Research (founded 1882) have already passed out of its scope, “hypnotism” for example, and “Reichenbach’s rays.” Mainly as the result of the labours of members of the S.P.R. in different countries, the study of hypnotism was brought to a point where it could be handed over to specialists in medical psychology, while the existence of “‘Reichenbach’s rays” was fairly well disproved. But, for the most part, the “debatable phenomena” of 1882 remain almost as debatable in 1929. This would be a surprising fact, in view of the number of scientists and philosophers of the highest eminence, who have interested themselves in psychical research, if the study were not one of exceptional difficulty. “Mental” and “Physical” Phenomena.—lIt is customary to divide the phenomena of psychical research into two classes, “mental” and “physical.” If a table is moved without the application of any force known to science, that is a “physical” phenomenon. If a medium in trance gives information outside his normal knowledge, that is a “mental” phenomenon; there is not necessarily anything supernormal in trance-speaking: the supernormality is to be found, if anywhere, in the content of the words spoken. If, however, the information is given through a trumpet floating in the air at a distance from the medium, that is both a “physical” and a “mental” phenomenon. The main problem of psychical research on the “physical” side is whether the alleged phenomena in fact occur; with the “mental” phenomena the evi-

dence permits us to accept the occurrence of some of them as a working hypothesis, and to proceed to the further stage of attempting an explanation. The reasons why the two branches of research vary so widely as to the progress made are not far to seek. The student of mental phenomena can avail himself of three lines of approach, and compare the results obtained along one line with those obtained along the other two. He can compare the records of professional trance mediums with a large quantity of good evidence for spon-

taneous phenomena on the one hand, and with the results of

experiments conducted with quite non-professional automatists of good repute on the other. The student of physical phenomena is more limited: such spontaneous phenomena as Poltergeists do not, for reasons discussed later, give him much serious assistance; the unprofessional “physical” medium has been, since the death of Stainton Moses, hard to discover; he is, therefore, practically confined to the observation of professional mediums.

Unfortunately the quality of professional “physical” mediums has declined since the golden age of D. D. Home (died 1886). Home, who accepted no fees, but lived by his mediumship, and

may therefore be classed as semt-professional, sat under conditions, as regards light in particular, much more favourable for observation than modern mediums will submit to, and enjoyed an immunity from exposure which most of his succéssors may envy. Against this it must be noted that the technique of investigation was then in its infancy, and that while many of Home’s sitters were persons of distinction, such as Crookes, they were not experts in this particular line. Spontaneous Physical Phenomena.—Poltergeists (a German term meaning “‘Racketing Spirits”) constitute the principal type of spontaneous physical phenomena. The word, which has now became a technical term without any spiritistic implications, is used to describe those frequently recurring cases of strange

noises, movements of furniture and breakages of crockery which appear inexplicable to the inmates of the houses where they occur, and also similar cases of stone-throwing out of doors.

Cases of

this kind have been recorded for many hundreds of years, and

(1716-1717),

observers, even where they were intelligent and responsible persons like the Wesleys, did not know what were the significant

points to which to direct their attention; and nowadays the investigator who knows what to look for does not usually arrive on

the scene until a crowd

of enterprising journalists, dogmatic

spiritualists, and sensation-hunting members

of the public has

hopelessly “queered the pitch,” and prevented the collection of

first-hand, uncoloured evidence. The best Poltergeist cases, from the student’s point of view, are those investigated in the latter half of the roth century. There is a good collection of cases occurring between 1883 and 1896, and analysed by F. Podmore, in §.P.R. Proceedings vol. xii.; and the spirited controversy between Podmore and Andrew Lang in vol. xvii. of the Proceed-

ings is instructive. Poltergeist cases show a degree of uniformity which is remarkable, in view of their being so widely distributed in time and

space.

It can almost invariably be shown that there is some

one agent whose presence is essential for the production of the phenomena, although occasionally a secondary agent assists in their production; if the principal agent is removed the phenomena cease at once. The agent is usually a person of some marked mental or physical abnormality, often a girl in her “teens,” less often a boy of the same age, and only rarely an adult. In some cases there is obvious trickery, easily discoverable by any fairly good observer; in others the trickery is so cleverly done that

only a skilled investigator can find it out; in a few cases trickery does not seem to be an adequate explanation of the facts, assuming these to have been accurately reported. Finally, there is an absence of any apparent motive sufficient, from the point of view of a sane adult, to account for all the trouble to which the agent puts himself and others; nothing is gained by the agent but the notoriety of a nine-days’ wonder. The problem is whether the undoubted existence of fraud (usually “hysterical fraud”) in many of the cases justifies us in assuming that the same factor has operated in the unexplained residue. Podmore thought that it did; Lang that it did not. The controversy remains very much where they left it, owing to the paucity of well-recorded cases in recent years. Although Poltergeists, for the reasons stated, are not as helpful in the study of experimental physical phenomena as might be expected, or as they would be if competent observers were given a fair chance to observe them, there are, nevertheless, two ways in which they throw a useful light on doubtful problems of the séance-room. First, on the question of motive: with the evidence derived from Poltergeist cases in mind, it is less difficult to imagine that “physical” mediums, who often have a strong vein

of childish vanity, may think that the sensation they create by their performances is in itself, quite apart from any material advantage, a sufficient compensation for maintaining over a long period an elaborate scheme of deception, sometirnes imposing on the medium no little physical discomfort. Secondly, as to the ease and rapidity with which skill in deception is acquired: a

child after a few weeks’ practice and relying on its own perverted ingenuity, may produce phenomena as baffling as a professional medium who has had years in which to perfect his technique, and

who has some knowledge of the methods of other mediums. Experimental

Physical Phenomena.—The

word “experi-

mental” is open to misunderstanding; the investigator of séancetoom phenomena soon discovers that the limits within which he

is permitted tò experiment are extremely narrow, that the sub-

ject-matter of his proposed “experiments,” the medium, dictates most of the crucial conditions of the investigation, and that fot all practical purposes he is simply an observer.

It is impossible to classify, or even enumerate, all the kinds

PSYCHICAL of “physical” phenomena which have been reported; they include apparent breaches of all the generally accepted laws governing matter. Two kinds, however, have received closer study and attained more

credence than the rest, telekinesis and tele-

plasm (also called ectoplasm). Telekinesis is the movement of objects without the application of any physical force known to science, and has a history dating back to the early days of spiritualism.

Horne, Eusapia

Palladino, Kathleen Goligher, Willy Schneider and “Margery” (Mrs. Crandon) may be named amongst the best known telekinetic mediums.

RESEARCH supernormal;

see, e.g., Hodgson

669 and Davey’s paper in S.P.R.

Proceedings, vol. iv. The “mental” and “physical” elements should be judged separately, neither being permitted either to support or to discredit the other. Thus, though the trumpet business is, in general, open to suspicion, there is some evidence for super normality in the content of messages received through some

trumpet-mediums (e.g., Valiantine and Mrs. Blanche Cooper). Mental Phenomena.—These consist, for the most part, in some form of “supernormal cognition,” that is, knowledge shown by a percipient of matters which he has no normal means of knowing. (“Percipient” is here used, for lack of a better word,

Teleplasm is a “substance” extruded from the medium’s body;

to include not only percipients in telepathy, but automatists of

it may be either wholly invisible, or visible but amorphous, or it may take the form of a complete human figure, apparently

all kinds, trance mediums, etc.) The supernormal knowledge may

relate to another person’s thoughts, or to events distant in time or space; it may arise spontaneously, so far as the percipient is reality Crookes testified. Among recent teleplastic mediums may conçerned, or as the result of deliberate experiment on his part. The percipient may be in the normal waking condition, or asleep, be mentioned Eva C., Kluski, Kathleen Goligher, “Margery.” It will be noted that two names are common to the telekinetic or in trance, or in the state of slight dissociation produced by and teleplastic lists, and as the result, especially of Crawford’s crystal-gazing (see separate article) or other similar devices. Telepathy and Clairvoyance.—It is best to treat these two experiments with Kathleen Goligher, it is a general opinion among those students who accept the genuineness of both classes of terms as complementary and mutually exclusive, assigning all phenomena (and they include several scientists of repute, es- manifestations of supernormal knowledge derived from another pecially on the Continent), that it is by force exerted through person’s mind to telepathy, and all manifestations of supernormal teleplastic rods or structures that telekinetic movements of objects knowledge not so derived to clairvoyance. It is not, however, are effected. For teleplasm itself the “‘ideoplastic” theory has easy to say under which head every particular case should be gained wide acceptance. According to this theory, teleplasm is classified: to meet this difficulty Richet has coined the inclusive moulded into definite shape by the thoughts of the medium word ‘‘cryptaestheoia.”’ Supernormal cognition in some form is the most generally acand the sitters; attempts have been made to fortify the theory by analogies from the real or supposed facts of normal biology, cepted phenomena of psychical research. The evidence for it, the influence, e.g., of a mother’s thoughts on the development both spontaneous and experimental, is impressive alike in quantity and quality. Some of it is ambiguous as between telepathy and of the child within her womb. For telekinesis pure and simple it is easy to formulate methods clairvoyance; so far as discrimination is possible, the first is better of control, adequate to prevent deception without being harassing attested than the second. Spontaneous and Experimental Phenomena.—tThe sponto the medium. Telekinesis would rest on a firm basis if it were certain that in all cases where positive results are reported, the taneous evidence is particularly strong. One of the first tasks of conditions of control stated in the reports had, in fact, been con- the S.P.R. was to undertake a “census of hallucinations” of tinuously exercised throughout the sittings. But telekinesis has, various kinds, particularly of apparitions of dying or recently of recent years, become very closely associated with teleplasm, dead persons, seen by friends who were at a distance, and who and the control adequate for telekinesis is not adequate for tele- had no normal reason for anxiety. Gurney, Myers and Podmore, plasm. This substance is reported to possess at different times such who analysed the results (Phantasms of the Living, 1886) came contradictory properties as to make the task of formulating con- to the conclusions: (1) That such apparitions occurred tao freditions for sittings where its production is anticipated extremely quently to be explicable by chance-coincidence: elaborate statisdificult. Too delicate to endure even the lightest touch, but strong tics are given in support of this conclusion; (2) that in the enough to shift heavy weights; sometimes so sensitive to light majority of cases the most probable explanation was the transas not to be able to endure even the dim glow of a red lamp, mission of an impression from the mind of the dying man to the at other times so insensitive as to be capable of being photo- mind of his friend, and these externalized in the form of a “subgraphed by flash-light; how is the researcher to plan conditions in jective hallucination,” rather than the presence of any semiadvance, when he cannot know in which form the substance may material wraith. The society has continued to investigate cases of this kind; a large number are collected and classified by Mrs. appear? At present there is a deadlock in the research into “physical” Sidgwick in vol. xxxiii. of its Proceedings. If the experimental evidence for clairvoyance were as good as phenomena, owing to the encouragement given to mediums who pick and choose their sitters, and dictate conditions which seem to that for telepathy, veridical hallucinations could, in most cases, serve no purpose except to make control more difâcult (e.g., the be attributed with equal probability to either faculty, although the rare cases, in which the agent has succeeded in consciously constant presence of a “next friend” at all sittings). Such mediums can find no lack of investigators willing to take them seriously, willing that the percipient should see an apparition of him, are and all the publicity they need in the all too hospitable columns clearly telepathic. At the time when Phentasms of the Living of many “psychic” periodicals. Unless and until an international was written the experimental evidence for clairvoyance was so pact between researchers is made (and observed) not to print slight as to lead the authors decisively to reject it as an exany report of mediums who decline to sit under reasonable test planation of the cases they were considering. The evidence for conditions (without a “next friend”) to any responsible investi- clairvoyance is rather stronger now, and in cases of veridical gator who asks for a sitting, no progress can be made. Much hallucinations not coincidental with the death of the person of the literature on telekinesis and teleplasm is worthless, but a whose phantasm is seen, or with any other crisis, such as illness good prima facie case for further investigation can be found in or accident, from which telepathic activity on the part of his the reports in S.P.R. Proceedings on Eusapia Palladino (vol. sub-conscious mind might reasonably be inferred, the possibility xiji.), Eva C. (vol. xxxii.) and Willy Schneider (vol. xxxvi.), of clairvoyance pure and simple cannot be excluded. Experimental Telepathy and Clairvoyance.—Experiand in Schrenck-Notzing’s records of his sittings with the two ments in thought-transference have been conducted for many last-named. _ Combined Mental and Physical Phenomena.—Slate-writ- years past in most civilized countries, and the conditions of the Ing, “spirit photography” and trumpet-mediumship all seem con- experiments have been diverse. Sometimes the percipient has Vincingly fraud-proof to those who have not made themselves been in a normal waking condition, sometimes in hypnosis; sémefamiliar with the records of what can be, and has been, done in times in the same room or house as the agent, sometimes at a disthe way of reproducing these phenomena without recourse to the tance of many miles, or even in a different country. The subject endowed with energies of its own, like “Katie King,” to whose

670

PSYCHICAL

matter has also varied greatly; attempts have been made to transfer impressions of numbers, simple or complex diagrams, the suit and value of playing cards, landscapes or pictures, incidents from books and imaginary scenes. Records of various experiments on these lines will be found in S.P.R. Proceedings passim, and in books such as N. W. Thomas’s Thought Transference (1905), Tischner’s Telepathie und Hellsehen, Warcollier’s La Télépathie. In experiments with numbers or a pack of cards it is possible to make a statistical computation as to how far (if at all) the successes exceed those which can be assigned to chance; the mathematics

are not quite as simple as is sometimes

supposed

(see Proc., vol. xxxiv., p. 185 sg.). In experiments with diagrams, scenes and incidents, no such computation is, of course, possible. Where agent and percipient are in the same room, the possibility of hyperaesthesia (ż.e., an unusual acuity of the normal

RESEARCH In some cases the agent justifies his name by deliberately Willing to transmit impressions; in others it is possible that it is the percipient’s subliminal mind which goes to look for impressions, so

to speak, rather than passively receives them.

The fact that

the process takes place subliminally makes it impossible to estimate how frequently it occurs. It has even been suggested

that every subliminal is constantly transmitting impressions to, and receiving them from, every other subliminal, and that from time to time something happens which, as regards a particular percipient, raises the height of the unperceived, ever flowIng stream above the level of consciousness. It is hard to imagine any kind of evidence which could either prove or disprove such

an hypothesis, which seems to have been invented simply as a

weapon

to be used against spiritists, when

all others fail (see

p. 671, “Evidence for Survival’). As regards the distribution of the faculty the experimental evidence and the spontaneous evidence taken separately would senses of sight, hearing, etc.) must be taken into account. This is suggest different conclusions. In all the experiments which have the explanation which Prof. Gilbert Murray is disposed to accept been conducted few percipients have been discovered capable for the remarkable successes obtained by him in receiving im- of receiving impressions as complex as those which give rise to pressions of incidents from books or imaginary scenes (see phantasms of the dying, with the same degree of vividness and S.P.R. Proceedings, vols. xxix. and xxxiv.). Prof. Murray was accuracy that the numerous percipients of such phantasms have not, in fact, in the same room as the agents, and for this and displayed. The divergence seems to be due to the presence in oiher reasons it is difficult to accept hyperaesthesia as the ex- the case of phantasms of an emotional stimulus lacking in experiplanation. It is greatly to be regretted that Prof. Murray has ments. The probable inference is that most persons are potential not continued the experiments under conditions which would agents and percipients, but that some are better than others; leave no reasonable doubt as to the operative cause. with some the faculty is brought into action by the ordinary nonAnother factor, which does not always receive sufficient atten- emotional type of experiment with cards or diagrams; with others tion, is that of fatigue or boredom on the part of the percipient. the faculty will only be aroused by some strong emotion. DifFrom recent experiments in clairvoyance by Miss Jephson in ferences of age, sex, race, culture, education, seem to have no England (S.P.R. Proc., vol. xxxviii.) and Estabrooks in America bearing on the distribution of the faculty. (Boston S.P.R. Bulletin 5) it is clear that there is a well-marked If, as is generally supposed, telepathic impressions pass first “fatigue curve,” that is to say, there is a tendency for percipients from the agent’s conscious to his subliminal mind, then from his to score most of their successes in the early stages of an experi- subliminal to that of the percipient, and finally emerge from the ment, while in the later stages the results may fall definitely percipient’s subliminal mind to his consciousness, there are three below the line of chance probability, apparently as the result of stages at which the impression may become distorted; it is from some inhibition due to boredom or confusion. the distortions observed in experiments where only partial success For experiments where the agent and percipient are widely is obtained that it is possible to form some opinion as to the form separated see S.P.R. Proceedings, vol. xxi. Experiments are now in which impressions are transferred. For instance, the difficulty in progress between a French group, organized by Warcollier, and experienced in transmitting unfamiliar names suggests that, whatan English group organized by S. G. Soal. ever form the impressions take, it is not usually that of definite Reference has already been made to Miss Jephson’s recent words, still less sentences. Visual images are more easily transexperiments in clairvoyance, but so far much less has been ac- mitted, but it would appear that what is usually transmitted is a complished with clairvoyance than with telepathy. The usual series of more or less generalized ideas from which the perform of experiment is to set the clairvoyant to “guess” the suit cipient, as each idea floats up into his consciousness, builds a and value of cards taken from a shuffled pack held face down- complete impression more or less resembling that which the agent wards, or the content of writings enclosed in envelopes externally sought to convey. identical in appearance; if the experiment is properly carried out This inference has an important bearing on the question nobody has normal knowledge of the correct answer, and telep- whether the process of transmission is physical, by some sort of athy is therefore excluded. Where the clairvoyant is not a per- “waves” or “effluence” or purely psychic. All normal modes of son whose bona fides is absolutely above suspicion, the same communication depend on the existence of some pre-arranged precautions against deception and the same alertness on the ob- code of sounds, symbols, dots and dashes, etc.; what is the code server’s part are necessary as in investigating “physical” phe- by which generalized ideas can be transmitted as such, and who nomena, The reading of the contents of sealed letters, in par- arranged it? Those who assume that telepathic transmission is ticular, is a favourite trick of dishonest mediums. For some by some kind of “waves” may fairly be asked to be rather more successful experiments with sealed envelopes, in which the in- precise about the nature of these waves, their length, etc., and to vestigators were fully on their guard, see the Report of the War- indicate what organ of the human body is capable of transmitting saw International Congress (1923), p. 201. physical waves to the opposite side of the globe. Why, again, The Modus Operandi in Telepathy and Clairvoyance.— does telepathy appear to be an exception to the general law of While taking the spontaneous and the experimental evidence to- the inverse square? There is abundant evidence, both spongether, there is a strong case of accepting telepathy, and a fair taneous and experimental, that it is not affected by distance. case for accepting clairvoyance, there are still many obscure Until these and other questions have been satisfactorily anproblems as to the manner in which these two faculties function. swered, we must provisionally assume that the mode of telepathic It may, for instance, be asked: Are the faculties common to all transmission is psychic and not physical. humanity, or confined to particular individuals? How far does the Psychometry and Dowsing.—‘“Psychometry” is the clumsy exercise of them depend on conscious effort? In what form are name given to supernormal knowledge of the past history or impressions conveyed, as words, as ideas, as visual images? Are associations of objects handled by the medium. The experiments they conveyed by means of any physical “waves” or “effluence’’? of Pagenstecher and Walter Prince reported in vols. xv. and xvi. To some of these questions it is possible to suggest a tentative of the Proceedings of the American S.P.R. are, perhaps, the answer. Ideas may be telepathically transmitted without con- most notable, but much more evidence will have to be obtained scious deliberate effort on the part of either agent or percipient, before psychometry receives general acceptance. transmission taking place between their subliminal minds direct. | If “dowsing” (the discovery of underground water by other

PSYCHICAL means than calculation based on geological knowledge) is to be reckoned one of the forms of clairvoyance, it is the best attested of them all. It is the only branch of psychical research which has yet established itself in the world of practical commercial utility. Government departments, business firms and landowners in many

countries regard the employment of a dowser as an every day matter. Dowsing has a long history; it was formerly used to find other things hidden underground besides water, metals for instance, and even dead bodies (see Barrett and Besterman, The Divining Rod, 1926); and Barrett, who had made the subject a special study for many years, maintained the view that the faculty of dowsing was purely psychic, and did not depend on any electrical current or other physical nexus between the dowser and the invisible water supply. Certain German investigators, on

the other hand, consider that they have established that the dowser is influenced by electricity. Dowsers habitually, though not always, hold a forked twig, which twists in their hands when they approach underground water; the movements of the twig are, it is generally agreed,

671

RESEARCH

they formed, in fact, a very complicated “cross-correspondence”’ (see p. 672). The scripts were not confined to forecasting the war; they also foretold certain developments of human affairs not to this date realized: at any rate no one can say they are “prophecies made after the event.” Perhaps, however, the case for precognition is strongest where the things foretold are in themselves most trivial, and farthest removed from the probability of normal inference. Instances can be found in any book dealing with “mental” phenomena. The chapter on premonitions in Richet’s Traité de Métapsychique is instructive not only for the cases quoted by the author, but for the excellent analysis and classification. Precognition, if it is a genuine phenomenon, does not fit very easily into any theoretic

scheme based on the more

accepted phenomena, such as telepathy.

generally

Some people, however,

seem to find modern ideas as to a “space-time complex” of assistance in enabling them to accept precognition. Dunne’s An Experiment with Time is interesting on the theoretical side. The Evidence for Survival.—Recent discussions in the daily “automatic,” i.e., due to unconscious muscular action stimulated press suggest that most persons make up their minds on the issue of survival without considering the evidence furnished by by the impression sub-consciously received by the dowser. Precognition.—The bulk of alleged instances of supernormal psychical research; for them the question is finally settled one knowledge of future events will be considerably reduced if we way or the other by revealed religion or the dogmas of physiology. discard: (1) “Prophecies made after the event,” or so vague The psychical researcher must, however, politely but firmly inthat they are only recognized as prophecies after the event; in sist that any Judgment is premature which ignores the mass of no branch of psychical research are authentic contemporary rec- well-attested relevant facts that he has accumulated. He will, of ords and corroborative testimony so necessary, and in none are course, base his claim only on such phenomena as are above they usually so lacking; (2) “Prophecies that bring their own suspicion of fraud, the mental phenomena in particular, and will fulfilment”; or the fulfilment of which rests wholly with the candidly admit that these are difficult of interpretation. To prophet; under this head were many of the cases where persons meet the objections of à priori materialism, he will have to have accurately foretold a future illness, the fulfilment following put the case for telepathy as a non-material process, and will at by auto-suggestion; in some cases where a person has predicted once be answered that, unless he can put some definite limits to his own death by accident, the cause of death has, on more care- the operation of telepathy between living persons, he has proved ful investigation, been found to be suicide. (3) Intelligent antici- too much and left nothing further to be explained. The issue, therefore, is whether there are any mental phepation based on normal knowledge. The last class shades off imperceptibly into the class of apparent true precognition. The nomena, ostensibly spiritistic, which cannot be accounted for by knowledge may be normal, ze., acquired through the ordinary telepathy between the living; and the answer depends, largely but channels of sense, but not conscious. For instance, a quarry- not entirely, on whether telepathy be accepted in its widest conowner who, however, had little expert knowledge of quarrying, ceivable form, a sort of universal subconscious leakage, or shortly after visiting a quarry where everything seemed going whether it is to be confined within the limits, vague as they well, was so impressed by a sense of danger that he sent a tele- may be, of the spontaneous and experimental evidence, with a gram to the manager instructing him to remove the men at work reasonable margin over. Telepathy between the living must not in a particular part of the quarry. The manager, who had not, be assigned ad hoc a wider field than would be conceded if the while the owner was visiting the quarry, seen any ground for ostensibly spiritistic phenomena had not got to be accounted for. Communications Through Trance-mediums. — Several alarm, acted on the telegram. An hour later the whole face of the rock fell in. Did the owner’s comparatively inexpert eye note trance-mediums, whose bona fides, after prolonged investigation and pass on to his subconscious mind something dangerous in by critical sitters is generally accepted, have made correct statethe state of the rock, which the manager’s expert eye had failed ments of verifiable facts which, humanly speaking, were quite to detect, and did this idea lurking in his subconscious mind force outside their normal knowledge, and these statements purport to its way later into consciousness, or was this a true case of pre- have been communicated to the medium (through the “control” cognition? (See §.P.R. Proc., vol. xxxiii., p. 119.) This am- by discarnate intelligences. Among such mediums may be menbiguous type is not infrequent. tioned Mrs. Piper, Mrs. Thompson and Mrs. Leonard. The outbreak of the World War set a large part of the public The verifiable matter is sometimes mixed up with quite nonin all countries hunting up old prophecies to see whether any of evidential utterances, moral platitudes, descriptions of a future them fitted, and some were found to fit quite well after they state, etc. A large proportion of “padding” is a sign of an inhad received a little judicious alteration. (For a parallel in competent sitter; good sitters are not seriously afflicted with it. ancient times see Thucydides, ii. 54 on the oracle supposed to In any case the presence of the “padding” does not depreciate have foretold the plague at Athens.) Many of the prophecies the value of the evidential matter, of which there is sufficient were, however, bad misfits; a well-known medium, whose super- on record in the Proceedings of the S.P.R. to satisfy the most normal powers are undoubted, had several years before the war diligent student. This may relate to facts present to the sitter’s predicted that in the next war England and America would be conscious mind; or facts once known by him and since forgotten; leagued against France and Russia, with Germany neutral! or facts never known to him, but known to persons with whom The “Forecasts in Scripts concerning the War,” published in he is in close touch; or facts which can only be verified by vol. xxxiii. of S.P.R. Proceedings, derive their interest not so enquiry among persons with whom neither he nor the medium much from the fact that they foretold the war for several years has any close connection. At each stage telepathy between the before it occurred (many persons made similar forecasts by the living can be put forward as a possible explanation, but at each ordinary processes of reasoning) or that they foretold a few stage with diminishing plausibility, until at the last stage nothing particular incidents of the war, e.g., the sinking of the “Lusitania” will serve but the hypothesis of universal leakage, which is un(which may have been due to chance-coincidence), but from the supported by any evidence. For a case which raises this problem act that the forecasts were distributed piecemeal among several in an instructive way see S. G. Soal’s paper, S.P.R. Proceedings, automatic writers, each ignorant of the others’ scripts, so that vol. xxxv. “Personal Control.”——But there may be more than comthey could only be understood by putting all the scripts together;

672

PSYCHOANALYSIS

munications of fact. The “control” may recede and allow the “communicator” to address the sitter direct. Sitters who have experienced this declare that the characteristic turns of speech

and habits of mind of persons whom the medium never knew are reproduced in a startlingly lifelike way. Granted that the subconscious mind has a flair for dramatising whatever comes its way, including knowledge gained telepathically from the sitter, will this enable the medium to build up a recognizable personality complete in everything but corporeal appearance? The affirmative is argued by T. W. Mitchell (Hibbert Journal, Jan. 1928), but he has not, so far, succeeded in convincing those who have had experience of “personal control” at its best. Cross-correspondences.—It was on the phenomena of trancemediumship that Myers mainly based his argument for human survival in the work on which he was still engaged at his death in 1901 (Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death). Since then, however, a new type of phenomenon has arisen, which it is even more difficult to fit into any theory of telepathy between the living than “personal control,” namely ‘“‘cross-correspondences” in automatic writing. Neither the faculty of automatic writing nor much of the content of automatic scripts can claim

that the subconscious minds of two living persons conspired to produce a design not in the conscious intention of either. The question of design is raised in a slightly different form ip the literary puzzles produced by one member of the SPR

group.

The most interesting of these is The Ear of Dionysius,

reported in S.P.R. Proceedings, vol. xxix. Readers who find the cross-correspondence too complex and tedious are recommended to study this case. “Inspirational” Literature.—When William Blake claimed

to have written poems “from immediate dictation” of his “friends in Eternity,” “without premeditation and even against my will” (letter April 25, 1803), was he merely mistaking the efforts of his more or less dissociated subliminal mind for the promptings of discarnate intelligences? That the subliminal mind can produce poetry of the highest order is shown by Kubla Khan, and Blake was at least as much a poet born and bred as Coleridge. For a test of external inspiration we must look for literature of a high order produced by someone not so permeated through and through by imagination as Blake. We naturally cannot expect

to find work of the same quality as Blake’s, but cominga little down in the scale we may find cases of work

of considerable

to be supernormal. In the case, however, of a particular group of merit, purporting to be inspired by discarnate intelligences and automatists (all persons whose good faith is above suspicion) it produced by persons who, in their ordinary life, are entirely was observed that the same phrases occurred in the scripts of commonplace. A striking example is The Case of Patience Worth, different automatists with a frequency not to be explained by examined by W. F. Prince (Boston S.P.R., 1927). Until the chance-coincidence. As the scripts continued (and they have age of 23, Mrs. Curran had no literary tastes and was mainly now gone on for more than 25 years), a further development interested in outdoor pursuits; she then began to write novels was noticed: Automatist A would write a phrase X, Automatist and vers libres purporting to be inspired by “Patience Worth,” B a phrase Y; there was no apparent connection between X and who said she was a settler in New England in the 17th century. Y, but automatist C would write a phrase Z which connected X The writings show a power of vivid expression and a historical and Y and gave a coherent meaning to the three phrases. That, knowledge which those who know Mrs. Curran well declare to be in bold outline, is what is meant by a “complementary cross- altogether beyond her normal capacity. Prince’s conclusion is: correspondence,” of which numerous examples are to be found “Either our concept of what we call the subconscious must be in S.P.R. Proceedings from 1906 onwards. The importance of radically altered, so as to include potencies of which we hitherto them is that they seem to indicate a desigm originating outside have had no knowledge, or else some cause operating through but the group. In point of fact, they purport to originate with the not originating in the subconsciousness of Mrs. Curran, must be surviving intelligence of Myers. Claims of this kind need not acknowledged.” always be accepted at their face value; in judging, however, BIBLIOGRAPHY.—(1) Books: The “classics” of psychical research in the validity of this claim, it must be noted that the cross-corre- the English language are undoubtedly Phantasms of the Living and spondences began shortly after Myers’ death, that they seem to Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death, both already mentioned. Abridged editions of both have been published. Next in supply a defect in the evidence existing at his death of which importance come Podmore’s books, especially Modern Spiritualism, a he was fully conscious, and that their literary content is very History and a Criticism (1902). Other important books dealing comprehensively with psychical research are Richet, Trazté de Métapsychcharacteristic of him. Cross-correspondences are a difficult study. They present a ique (1922) (Eng. trans., Thirty Years of Psychical Research), and Okkuliismus in Urkunden, edited by Max Dessoir (1925). This tangle of quotations from authors, ancient and modern. In this Der book is in two parts, dealing with physical and mental phenomena maze which the plain man of ordinary literary tastes is apt to respectively, and is highly critical both of physical phenomena, and of wonder whether the alleged orderly arrangement exists outside the evidence for survival. The battle as to physical phenomena rages the subtle imaginations of the annotators. The sceptic of literary furiously in Germany, the positive side being ably upheld by Notzing, Materializations Phiinomene (1914), (Eng. trans. training will admit the orderly arrangement, but will say that it Schrenck 1920); Experimente der Firnbewegung (1924), etc. For a good short is due to telepathic influence from some living person, possibly discussion of the evidence for survival see Whately Smith’s The Founone of the automatists. dations of Spiritualism (1920). See also separate articles MEDIUM, But the automatists may fairly be acquitted. It is not sug- SPIRITUALISM. (2) Periodicals: The Proceedings of the S.P.R. are of first imporgested that any one of them was a deliberate or conscious agent, tance; much of the evidence regarding trance~-mediumship, cross-corand there is no evidence which would support the view that an respondences, etc., is not to be found elsewhere. The publications of the elaborate design could be first subconsciously formulated and American $.P.R. until the recent “split,” and since then of the Boston then subconsciously transmitted. Moreover, practically all the original members of the group have dropped out, for death or other reasons, and still the cross-correspondences pour out with no important change of type, just as if the original group had not been replaced by a new one. Looking, then, outside the group, we may ask, who is this remarkable person who has for 25 years been transmitting ideas to a round dozen of automatists with a success unrivalled in the history of experimental telepathy, and who still remains mute, inglorious and incognito? Unless we are prepared to accept indefinitely a verdict of telepathy by some person or persons unknown, we may have to take seriously the claims of the scripts to be inspired by Myers. The only case in which there is any evidence for telepathy from a living person influencing cross-correspondence is the “Sevens Case” (S.P.R. Proceedings, vol. xxv.). But in that case, if telepathy from the living is to be involved at all, we must suppose

S.P.R. are also important. Of Continental periodicals, Zeitschrift für Parapsychologie and Z, f. Kritischen Okkultismus (the latter recently

discontinued) may be mentioned. (W. H, Sa.) PSYCHOANALYSIS: FREUDIAN SCHOOL. In the years 1880-82 a Viennese physician, Dr. Josef Breuer (18421925), discovered a new procedure by means of which he relieved

a girl, who was suffering from severe hysteria, of her various symptoms. The idea occurred to him that the symptoms were connected with impressions which she had received during 4 period of excitement while she was nursing her sick father. He therefore induced her, while she was in a state of hypnotic somnambulism, to search for these connections in her memory and to live through the “pathogenic” scenes once again without inhibiting the effects that arose in the process. He found that when she had done this the symptoms in question disappeared for good.

This was at a date before the investigations of Charcot and Pierre Janet into the origin of hysterical symptoms, and Breuetr’s

PSYCHOANALYSIS discovery was thus entirely uninfluenced by them.

But he did

not pursue the matter any further at the time, and it was not until some ro years later that he took it up again in collaboration with Sigmund Freud. In 1895 they published a book, Studien über Hysterie, in which Breuer’s discoveries were described and an attempt was made to explain them by the theory of Catharsis. According to that hypothesis, hysterical symptoms originate

through the energy of a mental process being withheld from conscious influence and being diverted into bodily innervation (“Conversion”). A hysterical symptom would thus be a substitute for an omitted mental act and a reminiscence of the occasion which should have given rise to that act. And, on this view, recovery would be a result of the liberation of the affect that had gone

astray and of its discharge along a normal path (“Abreaction”).

Cathartic treatment gave excellent therapeutic results, but it was found that they were not permanent and that they were dependent

on the personal relation between the patient and the physician. Freud, who later proceeded with these investigations by himself, made an alteration in their technique, by replacing hypnosis by the method of free association. He invented the term “psychoanalysis,” which in the course of time came to have two meanings:

(1) a particular method of treating nervous disorders and (2) the

science of unconscious mental processes, which appropriately described as “depth-psychology.”

has also been

Subject Matter of Psychoanalysis.—Psychoanalysis finds a constantly increasing amount of support as a therapeutic procedure, owing to the fact that it can do more for certain classes of patients than any other method of treatment. The principal field of its application is in the milder neuroses—hysteria, phobias and obsessional states, but in malformations of character and in sexual inhibitions or abnormalities it can also bring about marked improvements or even recoveries. Its influence upon dementia praecox and paranoia is doubtful; on the other hand, in favourable circumstances it can cope with depressive states, even if they are of a severe type. In every instance the treatment makes heavy claims upon both the physician and the patient: the former requires a special training, and must devote a long period of time to exploring the mind of each patient, while the latter must make considerable sacrifices, both material and mental. Nevertheless, all the trouble involved is as a rule rewarded by the results. Psychoanalysis does not act as a convenient panacea (“cito, tute, jucunde’’) upon all psychological disorders. On the contrary, its application has been instrumental in making clear for the first time the difficulties and limitations in the treatment .of such affections. The therapeutic results of psychoanalysis depend upon the replacement of unconscious mental acts by conscious ones and are operative in so far as that process has significance in relation to the disorder under treatment. The replacement is effected by overcoming internal resistances in the patient’s mind. The future will probably attribute far greater importance to psychoanalysis as the science of the unconscious than as a therapeutic procedure.

Depth-Psychology.—Psychoanalysis, in its character of depthpsychology, considers mental life from three points of view: the dynamic, the economic and the topographical. From the first of these standpoints, the dynamic one, psychoanalysis derives all mental processes (apart from the reception of external stimuli) from the interplay of forces, which assist or inhibit one another, combine with one another, enter into compromises with one another, etc. All of these forces are originally in the nature of instincts; that is to say, they have an organic origin. They are characterised by possessing an immense (somatic) persistence and reserve of power (“repetition-compulsion”); and they are represented mentally as images or ideas with an affective charge (“cathexis’’). In psychoanalysis, no less than in other sciences, the theory of instincts is an obscure subject. An empirical analysis leads to the formation of two groups of instincts: the so-called “ego-instincts,”’ which are directed towards self-preserva-~ tion and the “object-instincts,” which are concerned with relaotis to an external object. The social instincts are not regarded as elementary or irreducible. Theoretical speculation leads to the

suspicion that there are two fundamental instincts which lie con-

cealed behind the manifest

673 ego-instincts and object-instincts:

namely (a) Eros, the instinct which strives for ever closer union, and (6) the instinct for destruction, which leads toward the dissolution of what is living. In psychoanalysis the manifestation of

the force of Eros is given the name “libido.” Pleasure-Pain Principle——From the economic standpoint psychoanalysis supposes that the mental representations of the instincts have a cathexis of definite quantities of energy, and that it is the purpose of the mental apparatus to hinder any dammingup of these energies and to keep as low as possible the total amount of the excitations to which it is subject. The course of mental processes is automatically regulated by the “pleasure-pain principle” ; and pain is thus in some way related to an increase of

excitation and pleasure to a decrease. In the course of development the original pleasure principle undergoes a modification with reference to the external world, giving place to the “realityprinciple,” whereby the mental apparatus learns to postpone the pleasure of satisfaction and to tolerate temporarily feelings of pain. Mental Topography.—Topographically, psychoanalysis regards the mental apparatus as a composite instrument, and endeavours to determine at what points in it the various mental processes take place, According to the most recent psychoanalytic views, the mental apparatus is composed of an “id,” which is the reservoir of the instinctive impulses, of an “ego,” which is the most superficial portion of the id and one which is modifed by the influence of the external world, and of a “super-ego,? which develops out of the id, dominates the ego and represents the inhibitions of instinct characteristic of man. Further, the property of consciousness has a topographical reference; for processes in the id are entirely unconscious, while consciousness is the function of the ego’s outermost layer, which is concerned with the perception of the external world. At this point two observations may be in place. It must not be supposed that these very genéral ideas are presuppositions upon which the work of psychoanalysis depends. On the contrary, they are its latest conclusions and are in every respect open to revision. Psychoanalysis is founded securely upon the observation of the facts of mental life; and for that very reason its theoretical superstructure is still incomplete and subject to constant alteration. Secondly, there is no reason for astonishment that psychoanalysis, which was originally no more than an attempt at explaining pathological mental phenomena, should have devel-

oped into a psychology of normal mental life. The justification for this arose with the discovery that the dreams and mistakes (“parapraxes,”’ such as slips of the tongue, etc.) of normal men

have the same mechanism as neurotic symptoms. Theoretical Basis.—The first task of psychoanalysis was the elucidation of nervous disorders. The analytical theory of the neuroses is based upon three ground-pillars: the recognition of (1) “repression,” (2) the importance of the sexual instincts and (3) “transference.” Censorship.—There is a force in the mind which exercises the functions of a censorship, and which excludes from consciousness and from any influence upon action all tendencies which displease it. Such tendencies are described as “repressed.” They remain unconscious; and if the physician attempts to bring them into the patient’s consciousness he provokes a “resistance.” These repressed instinctual impulses, however, are not always made powerless by this process. In many cases they succeed in making their influence felt by circuitous paths, and the indirect or substitutive gratification of repressed impulses is what constitutes neurotic symptoms. Sexual Instincts.—For cultural reasons the most intensive repression falls upon the sexual instincts; but it is precisely in connection with them that repression most easily miscarries, so that neurotic symptoms are found to be substitutive gratifications of repressed sexuality. The belief that in man sexual life begins only at puberty is incorrect. On the contrary, signs of it can be detected from the beginning of extra-uterine existence; it reaches a first culminating point at or before the fifth year (“early period”), after which it is inhibited or interrupted (“latency period”) until the age of puberty, which is the second climax of

074

PSYCHOGALVANIC

its development.

REFLEX

This double onset of sexual development seems

mental activity; but the strongest reason was undoubtedly the

to be distinctive of the genus Homo. All experiences during the first period of childhood are of the greatest importance to the

general disinclination of mankind to concede to the factor of sex-

individual, and in combination with his inherited sexual constitu-

spite of this widespread opposition, however, the movement in

tion, form the dispositions for the subsequent development of character or disease. It is a mistaken belief that sexuality coincides with “genitality.” The sexual instincts pass through a complicated course of development, and it is only at the end of it that the “primacy of the genital zone” is attained. Before this there are a number of “pre-genital organisations” of the libido— points at which it may become “fixated” and to which, in the event of subsequent repression, it will return (“regression”). The infantile fixations of the libido are what determine the form. of neurosis which sets in later. Thus the neuroses are to be regarded as inhibitions in the development of the libido. The

Oedipus

Complex.—There

are

no

specific

causes

of

nervous disorders; the question whether a conflict finds a healthy solution or leads to a neurotic inhibition of function depends upon quantitative considerations, that is, upon the relative strength of the forces concerned. The most important conflict with which a small child is faced is his relation to his parents, the “Oedipus complex”; it is in attempting to grapple with this problem that persons destined to suffer from a neurosis habitually fail. The reactions against the instinctual demands of the Oedipus complex are the source of the most precious and socially important achievements of the human mind; and this probably holds true not only in the life of individuals but also in the history of the human species as a whole. The super-ego, the moral factor which dominates the ego, also has its origin in the process of overcoming the Oedipus complex. Transference.—By “transference” is meant a striking peculiarity of neurotics. They develop toward their physician emotional relations, both of an affectionate and hostile character, which are not based upon the actual situation but are derived from their relations toward their parents (the Oedipus complex). Transference is a proof of the fact that adults have not overcome their former childish dependence; it coincides with the force which has been named “suggestion”; and it is only by learning to make use of it that the physician is enabled to induce the patient to overcome his internal resistances and do away with his repressions. Thus psychoanalytic treatment acts as a second education of the adult, as a correction to his education as a child: Within this narrow compass it has not been possible to mention many matters of the greatest interest, such as the “sublimation” of instincts, the part played by symbolism, the problem of “ambivalence,” etc. Nor has there been space to allude to the applications of psychoanalysis, which originated, as we have seen, in the sphere of medicine, to other departments of knowledge (such as anthropology, the study of religion, literary history and education) where its influence is constantly increasing. It is enough to say that psychoanalysis, in its character of the psychology of the deepest, unconscious mental acts, promises to become the link between psychiatry and all of these other fields of study. The Psychoanalytic Movement.—The beginnings of psychoanalysis may be marked by two dates: 1895, which saw the publication of Breuer and Freud’s Studien über Hysterie, and 1900, which saw that of Freud’s Traumdeutung. At first the new discoveries aroused no interest either in the medical profession or among the general public. In 1907 the Swiss psychiatrists, under the leadership of E. Bleuler and C. G. Jung, began to concern

themselves in the subject; and in 1908 there took place at Salzburg a first meeting of adherents from a number of different countries. In tg09 Freud and Jung were invited to America by G. Stanley Hall to deliver a series of lectures on psychoanalysis at Clark University, Worcester, Mass. From that time forward interest in Europe grew rapidly; it showed itself, however, in a forcible rejection of the new teachings, characterised by an emotional colouring which sometimes bordered upon the unscientific. The reasons for this hostility are to be found, from the medical point of view, in the fact that psychoanalysis lays stress upon psychical factors, and from the philosophical point of view, in its assuming as an underlying postulate the concept of unconscious

uality such importance as is assigned to it by psychoanalysis.

In

favour of psychoanalysis was not to be checked. Its adherents formed themselves into an International Association, which passed successfully through the ordeal of the World War, and at the present time comprises local groups in Vienna, Berlin, Buda-

pest, London, Switzerland, Holland, Moscow and Calcutta, as well as two in the United States. There are three journals representing the views of these societies: the Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse, Imago (which is concerned with the application of psychoanalysis to non-medical fields of knowledge), and the International Journal of Psycho-Analysis.

During the years 1911-13 two former adherents, Alfred Adler,

of Vienna, and C. G. Jung, of Ziirich, seceded from the psychoanalytic movement and founded schools of thought of their own. In 192 Dr. M. Eitingon founded in Berlin the frst public psychoanalytic clinic and training school, and this was soon followed by

a second in Vienna.

(See ABNORMAL PsycHOLocy.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Breuer

and Freud, Studien über Hysterie (1895);

Freud, Traumdeutung (1900), Zur Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens

(1904), Dret Abhandlungen zur Sexualtkeorie (1905) ; Vorlesungen gur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse (1916). Freud's complete works have been published in Spanish (Obras completas) (1924), and German

(Gesammelte Schriften) (1925); the greater part of them has been translated into English and other languages. Short accounts of the subject-matter and history of psychoanalysis will be found in: Freud, Ueber Psychoanalyse (the lectures delivered at Worcester, U.S.A.) (1909); Zur Geschichte der psychoanalytischen Bewegung (1914); Selbstdarstellung (in Grote’s collection Die Medizin der Gegenwart)

(1925). Particularly accessible to English readers are: A. A. Brill, Psycho-Analysis (1922); E. Jones, Papers on Psycho-Analysis (1923) ; S. Ferenczi, Theory and Technique of Psychoanalysis (1927). (S. Fr.)

PSYCHOGALVANIC

REFLEX.

The term psychogal-

vanic reflex (P.G.R.) was first used by Veraguth to describe the change in electrical properties of the human body (or any living animal body) in response to nocuous (emotional) stimuli. The terms galvanic skin reflex, skin constrictor reflex and. sweat secretion reflex have been used synonymously. This reflex is usually demonstrated in one of two ways. (a) Electrodes connect the hands directly to a galvanometer. When the subject is stimulated by a pin prick, threat of injury, etc., the galvanometer, after a latent period of about two seconds, will show a deflection indicating an increased output of electromotive force from the human body. This rises to a maximum within 2 to ro seconds and subsides in about the same time. (b) The human subject forms the fourth arm of a balanced Wheatstone bridge electrical cir-

cuit. On stimulation the galvanometer will deflect as described above. In this case, the deflection indicates a decrease and increase in apparent ohmic resistance of the body. This phenomenon was first described by Vigouroux (1879). It remained, however, for Veraguth (1909) to draw the attention of a large scientific audience to the psychogalvanic reflex. The physics of the “reflex” is still a matter of dispute. According to Gildemeister it is due to a change in conductivity of the human body which is dependent upon polarization of the membranes of the cells of the skin, so changing the cellular permeability to different ions. The anatomical control of the psychogalvanic reflex has been shown to lie in the sympathetic nervous fibres which lead to the smooth musculature of the walls of sweat glands and capillaries. Any stimulus resulting in activity of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system will consequently result in changes in tonicity of the involuntary musculature of the skin surfaces of the body which are shown by the secretion of sweat, changes in circulation, local skin temperature, etc. This combined action leads in turn to variations in electrical conductivity (psychogalvanic reflex). Psychologists have, for the past twenty years, been interested in this phenomenon, particularly following the suggestion of

Binswanger (1907) that only emotional stimuli elicit the reflex. This view has been held by many subsequent investigators. The work of Radecki (1911) and more recently of Aveling questions the validity of this assumption. It is probable that the psycho-

PSYCHOLOGICAL

ARTICLES—PSYCHOLOGY

galvanic Reflex is elicited most frequently by nocuous stimuli, but that it is not specific to “emotional” situations.

The reflex has found application in many fields of research. Otologists have used it to detect the feigning of deafness in

dubious cases. Psychoanalysts have used the phenomenon together with word association tests as a means of discovering hidden complexes.

Many

investigators have made

use

of the

Psychogalvanic Reflex for the demonstration of individual differences in emotionality. There seems to be fairly good evidence

that such differences may be established in this fashion. Psy-

chiatrists have made use of the reflex in differential diagnosis of organic and functional orders. Attempts toward the practical

application of the reflex as an indicator of emotional stability of men who were applying for positions in hazardous occupations have not met any great success. BrBLIOGRAPHY.—Veraguth, Das Psychogalvanischer Reflex-phanomenon (1909); Wechsler, The measurement

of emotional reactions (Ar-

chives of Psychology No. 76, 1925); Landis and De Wick, “Electrical Phenomena of the Skin” (Psychological Bulletin, 1929). (C. La.)

PSYCHOLOGICAL ARTICLES.

The section of psychol-

ogy is in some points closely bound up with philosophy. The outstanding psychological articles in the present edition are— ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY; APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY; EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY; FEELING, PSYCHOLOGY OF; INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLocy; INSTINCT IN MAN; PHENOMENOLOGY; PSYCHICAL ReSEARCH; PSYCHOANALYSIS; PsycHoLocy; PsycHoLocy, History or, and WILL.

PSYCHOLOGISM, in philosophy, is the view that problems of epistemology, that is, problems relating to the validity of human knowledge, can be solved satisfactorily by the psychological study of the development of mental processes. Locke’s Essay on the Human Understanding may be regarded as the classic of psychologism in this sense. A more moderate form of psychologism only maintains that psychology should be made the basis of other studies, especially of logic.

PSYCHOLOGY is the study of the mind, or of “mental phe-

nomena,” or of the higher functions of beings “endowed with mind,” The last definition emphasizes the fact that ordinarily the term is restricted to the study of mental functions connected with living organisms. Though psychological studies may be sald to have begun with the De Anima of Aristotle they were merged in what would now be regarded as purely biological questions. An absolute separation of the two sciences only came about through the general acceptance among scientists, twenty centuries later, of the Cartesian Dualism. A sharp distinction was drawn between matter and mind, as radically different substances with mutually incompatible attributes; psychology became then the science of mind and biology was assimilated to the group of studies concerned with material things. With this ontological dualism, a dualism of method was combined. To the study of mind was allowed a special source of information—“introspection”—the use of distinctive concepts, and explanation by reference to ends. On the other side of the chasm a rigid discipline was established. In the material sciences, facts are only admitted when guaranteed by common observation (in contrast to the alleged privacy of introspection), descriptions must be couched in purely physical terms, and the phenomena must be given a physico-chemical or “mechanistic” explanation, From the success of this discipline there has come about the general leftward trend of the sciences; chemistry is reduced to physics, biology to chemistry, and psychology has tended to play the part of the poor relation to the natural sciences. The culmination of this movement in the twentieth century has taken the form of an attempt to establish a purely “objective” psychology—a science of the higher functions of an organism

physically conceived.

Since, then, both in its origin and in one

of its latest developments, the postulate of a distinctive mental

substance has been absent it is undesirable to embalm in the definition of psychology any reference to “the mind.” To begin with, the conception of “vital functions” will cover the relevant facts.

Further enquiry will show which of these may be regarded as of distinctively “mental” nature.

675

The wider field has come to be embraced in the psychologist’s sphere of investigation in the course of a tendency to retreat psychological problems only as part of another science which might be better described as general psycho-physics. Originally, this latter term applied only to the study of certain relations obtaining between sensations and their physical stimuli. The term, however, admits of application, with equal propriety, to the study of all the inter-relations between psychical phenomena, on the one hand, and their physical and physiological antecedents, concomitants and consequents, on the other. Whatever further relations may be involved there is certainly an extensive parallelism between mental process and certain kinds of physical process. Sensations are generally paralleled by certain modes of stimulation, and probably quite invariably by certain cerebral processes. Similarly pleasure, desire and aversion correspond to certain cerebral conditions and have their outward manifestations. One consequence of this parallelism is that almost every mental state has an obvious “behaviouristic” equivalent; and where direct introspective evidence is uncertain it is natural to seek for information from the external manifestations. But the facts of behaviour admit of independent systematization from the objective point of view, and terms originally applied to the mental state come to be used for the connected bodily process in relative isolation. Sensation comes to stand simply for receptivity, perception is identified with the behaviour which constitutes its external criterion, desire means restlessness of a certain kind, and purpose is defined in terms of the behaviour by which it is expressed. In this way there has arisen a systematic duplication of the meanings of psychological terms. So far has this tendency gone that a complete presentation of contemporary psychology must involve a corresponding duplication in exposition—an account of mental process in itself, and an account of the correlative bodily life from an external point of view. In what follows we shall explore first the possibilities in the purely objective standpoint, but the reader may proceed at once to the exposition from the traditional point of view which opens in the section on Psychology as the Science of Individual Experience. THE

OBJECTIVE

APPROACH

Introduction.—Among the objects presented by nature for our contemplation are living things endowed with powers which call for explanation. Vital functions, externally observed, consist primarily in movements. Movements, then, constitute our data; and so far psychology would conform to the traditional dynamical scheme of the natural sciences as a whole. The activities with which we are concerned can be arranged in hierarchical order, the lowest being found in all, even the simplest forms of life; the highest, only in beings of a very elaborate type. Nowadays, the distinction between the higher and lower functions would receive an evolutionary interpretation, but the older, Aristotelian, way of defining it has also important implications: the lower, whilst presupposed by the higher, may occur in independence. Among the former are the processes of metabolism which result in. self-conservation and growth, by reference to which the animate is defined. The cycles of self-conservation are repeated in movements of a higher order, in the grosser movements of a body supplied with organs and limbs. In the higher organism we find complex forms of behaviour involving a sensitive and discriminating responsiveness to stimuli and more highly organized movements which, whilst maintaining a general self-conserving tendency, appear as the intelligent pursuit of widely differentiated ends. The hierarchy appears to be continuous, but whilst the lower functions fall clearly within the province of biology, the higher are more particularly what interest the student of psychology. Rigid demarcations are out of the question. The most that can be said from this point of view is that the psychologist commences higher up the scale, whilst the biologist is working down to foundations. The psychologist follows on a higher level, or perhaps he starts with the biological data most explored, and works in the other direction, linking up the line of explanation to the facts of those who are working higher still. Such is the programme from the objective point of view. Reflex Action.—The familiar observation that movements

676

PSYCHOLOGY

are often the outcome of stimulation suggests a generalization whereby these grosser movements of the body can be viewéd in an orderly way. If movements are universally the result of stimulation the vertebrate organism can be treated as simply a jointed frame actuated by muscles which respond to various forces which play upon sensitive areas of the body, the link consisting in some conductive process. Stimulation starts the process, releasing potential energy expended in movements which directly or indirectly are the means of restoring the balance of energy so expended. This is self-conservation at a higher level. The abstract unit of this secondary type of self-conserving system is the response to stimulation, based on a structural coun-

terpart—the simple reflex arc. Three essential components are here involved, a specific receptive organ, a conductive neural bond, and a responsive muscle or gland. Receptor, Conductor and Effector are thus invariably to be sought in the interpretation of conduct. The receptors, which in their higher elaborations constitute the sense organs, are primarily specialised structures with delicately selective sensitivity to certain forms of stimulation. As contrasted with the generalized responsiveness of undifferentiated protoplasm each type of receptor has a “lowered threshold” to some specific “adequate” stimulus, such as heat, light or sound. The conductive filaments consist of chains of elongated neurones periodically interrupted by points of junction, the highly important “synapses” through which the receptor not only gains communication with its “own” effector, but also becomes functionally integrated in the system as a whole. The process terminates in contractile or secretory organs, stimulation thus evoking two distinctive modes of response—movements proper and glandular activities. The latter is an important element in emotional excitement. The two reactions are neither independent nor mutually exclusive. They are quite frequently combined. Earlier studies of reflex action led to an over-emphasis of the fixity and the inevitable character of the response, but neither feature would seem to be invariable or of fundamental importance. The total organization is of ah extremely labile constitution, adaptable in the extreme and subject to various forms of inhibition and control. “Volitional” so far from being opposed to reflex action emerges from it by progressive integration. To trace the steps of this elaboration we must commence with a modification of the foregoing abstract scheme. The unit reflex arc is an undue simplification. In no developed organism do we find a single receptor linked with only one effector. Every receptor has a path to various effectors, every effector is at the behest of many receptors, the system so comprising a network of converging and diverging arcs. In this way the effects of a simple stimulus may irradiate a group of effectors producing extremely complex movements. These movements, in their turn, or their external effects, may provide the adequate stimulus for a further series of reactions. Thereby complex co-ordinated movements (simultaneous or successive) are secured, the otderly arrangement of which is further guaranteed by a system of inhibitions. A dominant reflex being evoked, all reactions of an antagonistic nature are automatically prevented from occurring. The guiding principle of the reflex thus directly explains the more uniform and the more mechanical functions, simple “involuntary” actions such as blinking, sneezing, and withdrawing the limbs from harmful stimuli. Such rhythmic functions as bréathing and orderly series of movements in processes such as swallowing all fall easily under the general scheme. Many constituent acts in locomotion and in instinctive behaviour are similarly explained. But as yet no clear light is thrown on many important features of animal behaviour. All is exceedingly wooden. We may test the theory in more detail by inquiring into four such

characteristics as variability, apparent spontaneity, educability and intelligence. Vatiability.—Clearly the conduct of an organism is far from

comparable to the antics of a mechanical doll. Even the best

established reflex has its refractory phdse and is subject to in-

hibition. Variability takes several forms. A stimulus repeated may fail to elicit any overt response at all, different responses may

be called out at different times, and the same response may be

[OBJECTIVE APPROACH

provoked in various ways and in greatly varying degrees. The organization by which a receptor may distribute the outcome of stimulation among many diverging tracts, and by which impulses separate in origin may converge upon a final common path to some effector, provides a structural basis for such vari. ability. The problem, however, is far from being merely structural,

nor are the prevailing paths of conduction, and their variations, adequately explained by the original distribution of resistance and accidental variation in conductivity, which changes in temperature or nutrition, for example, might produce. The variations

in question subserve self-conservation too efficiently to be wholly explained along these lines. They suggest the presence of some

specific regulative machinery.

The fact that the uniformities of behaviour are only approxi-

mate, and formulated as tendencies, not as invariable laws, suggests that we are only inadequately acquainted with the operative conditions.

Generally,

responses

seem

to depend upon multiple

stimulation, or upon some receptive “pattern.” Were this wholly a matter of the external receptors there would still be unex-

pected failures of the organism to respond to an apparently adequate stimulus, on account of certain contributory factors

being overlooked, or on account of other factors working in an an-

tagonistic sense. But sole dependence on the external receptors is (if real) the exception, not the rule. The majority of movements depend on the co-operation of internal receptive organs inaccessible to direct observation. The dog reacts to food, but

only if he is hungry, and “hunger” may for the present be conceived as implying only a certain organic state. The “touchi-

ness” of an organism “out of sorts” is proverbial. Changes in organic state would seem generally to disorganize (or adaptively

re-organize) the conditions of collateral internal stimulation upon which our normal conduct depends. To these factors must be added the progressive ripe