Encyclopaedia Britannica [17, 8 ed.]

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OUDE and PERSIA. By E. B. EASTWICK, Professor of Hindustani and leluga, East India College, Haileybury. OWEN (JOHN). By ANDREW THOMSON, D.D. PAINTING. By BENJAMIN ROBERT HAYDON, with Supplement by W. B. JOHNSTON, R.S.A. ^ PALAEONTOLOGY. By RICHARD OWEN, F.R.S., Superintendent of the Departments of Natural is o y British Museum. PALESTINE and PERU. By DAVID KAY, F.R.G.S. PALEY and PASCAL. By HENRY ROGERS, Author of “ The Eclipse of Faith, &c. PALIMPSESTS, and PAPYRUS. By C. W. RUSSELL, D.p. PANTHEISM. By JOHN DOWNES. PAPAL STATES. By the Author of the article “ Italy.” PAPER. Revised by CHARLES COWAN, M.P. PARASITE. By Dr DORAN. PARIS. By JAMES CARMICHAEL, M.A., one of the Masters in the Edinburgh Academy. PARLIAMENT. By JOHN HILL BURTON. PARRY (Sir WILLIAM EDWARD). By his Son, EDWARD PARRY. PARTNERSHIP (LIMITED and UNLIMITED LIABILITY). By J. R. M‘CULLOCH. PATENTS. By JAMES YATE JOHNSON, Editor of the “ Patentee s Manual, &c. ST PAUL, and ST PETER. By W. L. ALEXANDER, D.D. PEEL (Sir ROBERT). By GOLDWIN SMITH, M.A., Regius Professor of Modern History, Oxford. PENDULUM, and PERSPECTIVE. By EDWARD SANG, F.R S.E. PENN (WILLIAM). By ROBERT CARRUTHERS. PESTALOZZI. By JOHN TILLEARD. ST PETERSBURG.

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Chines^f structures, w’li be found described undtrNAtu™®. The pagodas of Benares, Sianb URE § On Inknown. (See JUGGERNATH, and ARCHITECTURE, S dian Structures.) _ , . rrnld or silver coin The term pagoda is also applied to a g nrobablv current in Hh/dustan, value from ^Jy deriving its name from the images of the gods onain y

» E. ^ “h^ifMenler^ others presents a h^d rockyj t runs a chain of is little known. Along the westt The ^^^"atterofwhich is exported in

.

45 P A I his satire. He begun the attack in January 1775 by publish- Paington. Pahlun- large quantities. The rajah of Pahang, though nominally ing Common Sense, a pamphlet which boldly sounded the |1 pore subject to the sovereign of Johore, ^virtually mdepen en . note of rebellion, and summoned the colonies to prepare Painswick v Population variously estimated from o0,000 to 16,000. The for separating themselves from the mother country. The '— Paine. town of Pahang stands at the mouth of a river of the stirring effect which this work produced, and the unpresame name, 135 miles N.E. of Malacca, /t is ch.efly cedented popularity which it acquired, fairly involved the built of wood and bamboos, and has 8000 or 10,000 inhabi- author in the contest. As the great struggle for independence proceeded, he found himself called upon, in a series of ^ PAHLUNPORE, a small state of British India, under papers called The Crisis, to console the Americans for any the superintendence of the presidency of Bombay, lies check they might have encountered, and to ridicule the Bribetween N. Lat. 23. 57. and 24. 41., and between E. Lon tish for any deed they might have done. All these services 71 51 and72.45. It is bounded on the N. by the Rajpoot were rewarded during the continuation of the war by the principality of'Serohee, E. by KeyraUa and Daunta, S. by office of clerk to the Committee for Foreign Affairs, and at the district of Puttun, and W. by Thurraid; area, 1850 the conclusion of hostilities by a donation of 3000 dollars square miles. The north-east part of the country is and an estate near New Rochelle. The peace which foloccupied with mountains, from which the rivers Bunass, lowed between America and Great Britain was not the Surruswuttee, and Numrodakee take their origin, and flow proper element for a spirit that revelled in revolution and into the Runn. The reigning family of Pahlunpore is of misrule ; and accordingly, in no long time, Paine had begun Afo-han origin, and received this country from the Emperor to look towards a new sphere of action. Repairing to Europe of Delhi towards the end of the seventeenth century. _ 1 his in 1787 with the professed purpose of exhibiting a model state being in 1813 in a condition of anarchy and civil war, of an iron bridge, he commenced to incite and inflame the British government interfered to restore older. An airangement was accordingly made that Futteh Khan, the the insurrectionary feeling that was secretly growing in rightful heir, should reign under the guardianship, during England, and openly venting itself in France. For some his minority, of his uncle, Shumshere Khan. But the latter, time he continued to pass between the two countries like having failed to fulfil his agreement, was in 1817 de- a firebrand, carrying the flame of rebellion from the one to prived of his authority; and Futteh Khan finding himself the other. At length, in 1792, his arraignment by the Briunable to manage his affairs, a British agent was sent to tish government on account of his seditious publication superintend the finances, but with no power to interfere, The Rights of Man, forced him to flee to France, and to except by recommendation, with the internal affairs of the play an active part in the bloody and undiscriminating restate. No tribute is paid to the British beyond the ex- volution which was raging there. Barely escaping the penses of this agent, but L.5000 is paid to the Guicowar. guillotine on one occasion, and suffering imprisonment on The average annual revenue is little less than L.30,000; another, he was for several years a member of the French the expenditure, exclusive of the above tribute, L.20,000. National Convention. He brought his destructive labours Pop. 130,000. The town of Pahlunpore stands on the to a climax in 1794-5 by attempting, in his celebrated book road between Neemuch and Deessa, 80 miles N. of The Age of Reason, to overthrow Christianity, and introAhmedabad. It is walled, and has some trade and manu- duce into religion the anarchy and disorder of his political creed. From this time the influence and happiness of factures. Pop. estimated at 30,000. PAIMBCEUF, a town of France, capital of an arron- Paine began simultaneously to decline. During the redissement of the same name, in the department of Loire- mainder of his stay in France he was fast falling into disInferieure, stands on the left bank of the Loire, het e 3 repute, and yet he was afraid to set sail for the United miles broad, 24 miles W. of Nantes. The river is lined States lest he should be seized by British cruisers. On with quays; and the town contains dockyards, a custom- his return to America in 1802, the decay of his fortunes house, school of navigation, and has a convenient harbour became still more apparent. His profane attacks upon for the largest vessels, formed by a mole 214 feet long. religion had alienated many of his political friends; his The people are employed in ship-building, making bricks, growing worthlessness cooled the attachment of the few tiles, canvas, cordage, marine stores, and other articles; as that were left; and his insolent resistance of all interference, well as in the fisheries and the coasting trade. Steamers repelled those strangers who would willingly have done ply daily to Nantes ; and large vessels generally discharge him service. The wretched old man was thus driven to throw off all regard for his fellow-men, and consequently their cargoes into lighters here. Pop. (1856) 4135. PAINE, Thomas, a notorious political and deistical all respect for himself. Thenceforth he lived alone in writer, was the son of a Quaker, and was born at fhetford lodgings, abandoning himself to sordid sloth, and deadenin Norfolk in 1737. The early part of his career was marked ing the pangs of his awakening conscience, and the by a restless love of vicissitude. A scanty education had uneasiness of his diseased body, with the stupor of scarcely been received, and his father’s trade of staymaking intoxication. His miserable condition was terminated had scarcely been learned, when he went out into the only by his death in June 1809. (Cheetham’s Life of world to seek his fortune. He shifted ceaselessly from PCLITIC PAiNGTON, a town of England, county of Devon, town to town ; divorced one wife after burying another; and plied, according as necessity compelled him, the various at the head of Torbay, 6 miles N.N.E. of Dartmouth. vocations of staymaker, sailor, exciseman, schoolmaster, The parish church is an old building, containing a curious grocer, and tobacconist. In 1774 he was a garret writer stone pulpit. There are several other places of worship, in London; and in the following year he arrived in Phila- schools, and a reading-room. Large quantities of cider are delphia, a literary adventurer, with a letter of introduction made in the vicinity. Pop. of parish, 2746. PAINSWICK, a town of England, county of Gloucesfrom Dr Franklin. Paine now began a new era of his ter stands on the southern slope of Sponebed Hill, near life by appearing upon the field of political controversy as a defender of the rights of the American colonies. For the Slade Water, 6 miles S. of Gloucester. It is irregularly engaging in such a contest with spirit and success he was built, and has an old church, several other places of worship, well qualified both by disposition and training. His wea- schools, and benevolent institutions. A large number of pons were a rough, ready, and vigorous intellect; a coarse the inhabitants are employed in the manufacture of woollen and merciless wit; a stock of impudence with which he cloth ; and freestone quarries are worked in the vicinity. could out-brave all the claims of propriety ; and a supply of Many Roman coins and antiquities have been found in the venomous ill-humour into which he could dip all the darts of neighbourhood. Pop. of parish, 3464. PAH

46

PAINTING. Painting. Painting is the art of conveying thought by the imitation munication. But independently of all theory, there cannot Painting, ^ of things through the medium of form and colour, light and be adoubt of the extreme antiquity of painting. The walls ot Babylon were painted after nature with different species of Definition, shadow. Colour, and light and shadow, can by themselves animals, hunting expeditions, and combats. Semiramis was do little more than excite sensations of harmony and senti- represented on horseback striking a leopard with a dart, and ment, independently of action, passion, or story; but i her husband Ninus wounding a lion. “ And I went in and founded upon form, thoughts become clear, expressions ot saw, and behold every form of creeping things, and abomipassion intelligible, and actions, gestures, and motions ot the nable beasts, and all the idols of the house of Israel, pourhuman frame defined and decided. Form therefore is t le tray ed on the wall round about.” (Ezek. viii. 18.) “ She basis of painting, sculpture, architecture, and design of every saw men pourtrayed upon the wall, the images of the Chaldescription. , , pourtrayed in vermilion, girded with girdles upon Any school of painting, therefore, which is established deans their loins, exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads, all of unon a principle different from this, or which makes the sub- them princes to look at, after the manner of the Babyloordinate parts of colour, light, and shadow the principal law nians and Chaldeans” (chap.xxiii. 14, 15.) It is inferred of its practice instead of a component part, is in opposition from a passage of Diodorus Siculus, that these figures were to the most celebrated schools in the world ; for the most painted first on the brick before burning, and then vitrified eminent both in Greece and in Italy, were indebted for their fire.1 But before this was done, experience must have celebrity and renown to the strict observance of the doctrine by been of the liability to decay of painting upon exhere enunciated. In Greece, the schools of Sicyon, Corinth, ternalacquired walls ; and considering, too, that great statues were Athens and Rhodes, and in Italy, those of Pisa, Florence, erected in Babylon, the arts must have existed amongst the Rome, and Bologna, were the most important, the most use- Babylonians long before the period here referred to. ful, and the most intellectual; and in all these form constiBut a great revolution has taken place in our ideas on this Antiquity tuted the great and fundamental law of their practice. But from the decyphering of hieroglyphics, and we are of art in in Venice, colour took the lead ; it predominated too in Hol- subject, 10 lianow assured of the extreme antiquity of art, in ages hitherto I land and Flanders ; and it has always reigned, to the sacn- deemed almost entirely fabulous. From Asiatic art we have fice of common sense, in Britain. Yet for sound and phi o- been accustomed to turn to that of the Egyptians ; but it is sophical views of art, as a vehicle of passion orotmoral nationlonger considered as a matter of speculation that the Ethioal influence, neither of these schools can be referred to, with no pians the latter in knowledge, and that from this the same conviction or confidence with which all nations can ancientpreceded people the Egyptians received gradually a knowledge refer to the former great sources of sense, principle, and of art. The course of civilisation probably descended from Ethiopia to Egypt; and yet we have evidence of the existence Origin of ^ In what country Painting first originated, is nearly as dif- ofEgyptian painting and sculpture more than eighteen centurpainting. ficult to discover, as it is to find a country where it never exbefore Christ, and even then the arts were in the highest isted at all. Design, the basis of painting, must have begun ies with the very first instrument of necessity which man required. condition that the Egyptian school ever attained. From the The origin of any art, science, or discovery, is not so much ow- most ancient records of the Jewish and Greek historians, in which Egyptian and Ethiopian monarchs are mentioned, ing to the particular accident which happened to the individual and their actions narrated, we can now turn to correspondconcerned, as to the intellectual adaptation of that individual ing traces of their existence and exploits commemorated upto receive impressions of a peculiar nature from the particu- on the durable materials of the temples, tombs, and palaces lar circumstance which occurred. Thus whether Music was which still remain. When therefore it is found that this meinvented by the man, who, listening to the sound of an anvil, thod of interpreting hieroglyphics has proved to be correct, instantly composed notes ; or whether Painting was disco- in all that we know of the Csesars and the Ptolemies, or see vered by the lovely girl, who, watching the shadow of her casually alluded to respecting the Pharaohs,we have no right lover, as he sat silent at the prospect of parting, traced it at all to dispute the truth of the same mode of interpretation upon the wall as a memento of their mutual affection ; whe- when it indicates a still higher antiquity, though we have not ther it originated with Philocles in Egypt, or Cleanthes in the means of confirming it by collateral reference. Eighty Corinth, or long before Egypt or Greece were habitable; miles above Dongola, Lord Prudhoe discovered the remains the principle is the same. Without an inherent suscepti- of a magnificent city, which he conceives to have been the bility to the impressions of sound, in preference to all °t er capital of Tirhakah mentioned in the Bible ; and amongst impressions, in the man, or an inherent susceptibility to the these ruins he observed two nobly executed lions, specimens impressions of form equally intense in the girl, the inte ec- of Ethiopian skill. On the shoulders of one is the name of tual faculties of either would have never been excited to Amenoph III., who was called Memnon by Greek historians. compose notes, or to define figures. The art originate wi i The style and execution of these great works are evidence the first man who was born with such acute sensibility to the of the talent of this people.2 It is now certain that as early beauty of form, colour, and light and shadow, as to be im- as the nineteenth century before Christ, the walls and pelled to convey his thoughts by positive imitation. When the Spaniards landed in South America, the mode temples of Thebes were decorated with paintings and sculpcommemorating personal and historical events ; and by which the natives conveyed intelligence of their arrival to ture, certainly in comparing the designs on these temples with king Montezuma was by painting the clothes of the strangers, Egyptian their looks, their dress, and their ships. This certainly must those of a later period, we must conclude that the 3 school of painting never exceeded their merit. have been the most ancient, because the most simple and obThe conclusion to be drawn is, that at this time the Egypvious mode in the world of conveying thought, after oral com2 2 See last vol. of Sculpture (Dilettanti). 1 Now in the British Museum. Barry’s Lectures,

PAINTING. 47 Painting, tian priesthood had not interfered with art or artists ; but very want of ideal beauty gives an assurance that the figures Painting, '•^“V^'that the painters were left freely to commemorate the great are Egyptian nature, and that every habit, public, private, actions of their employers, to study nature, and to do as they civil and religious, is laid open to us, by the wonderful discoliked. Many of these actions are delineated in a natural man- veries of Belzoni and his followers: it is almost as impossible ner, and there is a great deal of dignity in the figure of the now for an artist to be incorrect in painting an Egyptian subhero; the sea fights are also well grouped, and there are many ject, as it would be to err in painting a British one. In a tomb of the Trajan-column figures, and not more gross perspec- laid open by Belzoni, the characters of the procession were adtive is visible. The colour is a mere illumination, and the mirably distinguished; the Jew, the Egyptian, the Negro, and composition as a whole infantine ; but there is proportion, the Chaldsean, were as little liable to be confounded as if they and not absolute ignorance of the component parts.1 After had been before us. In their sculpture, however, there is more this period, artbecame a mere tool in the hands of the priests; of science than in their painting. Sculpture was practised and as the law compelled the son to follow the profession of by the priesthood, and sculptors were called sacred stonehis father, it may be supposed that painting degenerated cutters. The great head of Memnon in the British Museum into the mere fac-simile of prescribed forms of gods, god- is beautifully cut, the nose and mouth especially ; and, condesses, and men, and that in the time of the Ptolemies it sidering its remote antiquity, it is really a great wonder. was little better than an illuminated hieroglyphic. Upon the whole, it is impossible to believe that the art Character of The Egyptians appear to have done every thing with re- of painting, amongst other nations, owed much to the EgypEgyptian ference to form. Their painting was at best but coloured tians ; they had no colour, and no light and shadow, but only design. sculpture. They seem to have been aware of the mortality some form, some expression, and some character. The groups of colours, and to have said, “ As colours must go, let us cut of the ruins of Elythia shew a great deal of nature and simout the designs in stone, so that at least form may remain plicity ; the animals are varied, and the cows are lowing and in our granite sculpture, and defy every thing but the con- gamboling ; yet it is after all but childish work, and as the vulsion of the earth.” First the designer drew the outline in paintings at Thebes are the best, those of Elythia have not red, then the master artist corrected it, then the sculptor cut much to boast of. it, then the painter coloured it, gods blue, goddesses yelWhether the Greeks owe their beginnings to Egypt, is low, men red, and draperies green and black; and such is the more than doubtful, from the simple fact of the early Greek extreme dryness of the climate, that a traveller says, he saw painters using no blue, whilst it was the constant practice in Nubia, a bas-relief half cut, with the red outline left for of Egyptian painters to use blue in every thing.7 Athens the rest, and that he wetted his finger and put it up, and was founded by an Egyptian colony, and painters might be immediately obliterated a part of the red chalk. amongst the emigrants, as well as masons and sculptors; yet The Egyptians would seem to have been a severe people, in the early state of things, painters were not an article of 2 as hard as their own granite. They had an awful feeling of necessity, and it is problematical if in this alleged emigration, respect for the wisdom of their ancestors ; they hated re- there were any persons of that class. The beginning of art form ; no physician dared to prescribe a new medicine, and was the same in all nations. They might improve each no painter dared to invent a new thought. Plato says, that other ; but we do not believe that painting was ever originthe pictures of his day in Egypt were just the same as from ally brought into one nation by another, or that there ever ages immemorial ;3 and, according to Winkelman, another existed any, where it has not always been more or less known cause of their inferiority in painting, was the little estima- from the remotest period of their history. tion in which painters were held, and their extreme ignoAfter Ethiopian and Egyptian art, that of the Hebrew State of art rance. Not a single painter of eminence has reached us, people must next be examined. That they .had sculptors amongst and but one sculptor, viz. Memnon, author of three statues and chasers, is evident; but it is not so certain that paintingthe IIe’ at the entrance of the great temple at Thebes. In the know- was practised. Though the cunning work of the curtains in Q^er^a ■! ledge of the figure it is impossible they could be great; for Exodus means tapestry, and for any cunning work of the kind, ernnati0nS. there is proof that they dared not touch the dead body for dis- designs coloured must have been executed; yet there is section, and even the embalmers risked their lives from the no proof in any part of the Bible that painting as an art was hatred of the populace. ever practised by them ; and even the designs alluded to Winkelman divides Egyptian design into three periods; were exclusively applied for the purposes of religion. “ MoreFirst, from the earliest times to the conquest of Cambyses ; over, thou shalt make the tabernacle with ten curtains of fine secondly, from the conquest of Cambyses to the subjugation twined linen, with blue, and purple, and scarlet; with cheruof the Persian and the establishment of the Greek dynasty bim of cunning work shalt thou make them.” (Exodus xxvi. 1.) in Egypt; and, thirdly, from that period to the time of Ha- “ And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, See, I have called drian.4 When the paintings at Thebes were executed is by name Bezaleel the son of Uri, the son of Hur, of the tribe not known. But they 5were upon the walls at the expulsion of Judah ; and I have filled him with the spirit of God, in of the Shepherd Kings, and this was the first period of their wisdom, and in understanding, and in knowledge, and in all art, and before Moses. The Egyptians never, in either art, manner of workmanship, to devise cunning works, to work reached the power of making men, as Aristotle said of Po- in gold, and in silver, and in brass, and in cutting of stones, lygnotus, better than they were; in other words, they never at- to set them, and in carving of timber, to work in all manner tained the true ideal beauty, founded on nature, yet above it. of workmanship? (Exod. xxxi. 1—5.) Yet when Solomon I heir figures are debased transcripts of what they had about wanted artists, he sent to Tyre, which is presumptive evithem, and therefore, so far authentic as to character. The dence of a deficiency of skill at Jerusalem. No allusion is Egyptian female heads6are far from displeasing ; they have a made to the existence of the art of painting amongst the Hesleepy voluptuous eye, a full and pleasant mouth, high cheek brews ; yet it is hardly possible to suppose a people working bones, dark brows, and there is something by no means dis- in stone, and silver, and gold, and timber, designing and agreeable in the silent lazy look of their expression* But the weaving a cunning work of cherubims on curtains and bor2 n; 1 e,.{ren( :!1 na fi°nal work on Egypt. 45 Wink. lib. ii. chap. 2. y 3n l ' Xy.V' ‘ See 2d vol. of Ancient Sculpture, (Dilettanti.) 1 6 ee 7 Cnl ”‘ \ • S Description del'Egypte, tom. i. plates. ays tliere ]s a wfiethp/thftr! ® . remnant of blue Pliny on the temple of Theseus; but that may be as applied to architecture. The question is, the r art i>0 colon! r «>lor No ? USG t U inpure 'blue ‘is used. says no> and Quintilian confirms him by applying to them the expression simple* colour is simplex where

1

painting. Painting. 48 B.G., ne says, y , there , andat Ardea Rome was b r • yet, vet he pictures were were olderbeautiful than Kome ^ Painting, ders for garments, and havmg been so long arno g ^ Lanuvium, ^ that before Rome was built, — Egyptians, to have been ignorant ofa paint mg nm ^ llvlI opinion of one of the greatest ^. ^ painting was not casting of metal, sculpture, and painting existed in Etnina anterior to any connection of the Etruscans with Greece , that the representation of any objec y p S according to Winkelman the Etruscans were advanccdi Pe he WUh1elc t “toting of the PlKenicians; Petstos art before the Greeks, and it was a tradition of the remote thnt Duedalus living from Minos settled m Etruria and I„S anS cLete. it was tn the earliest first’ sowed the seeds of design. When Etruria beca™6 ,a edebrated fo^ Roman province, Marcus Flavins PlaccusbesmgedV^ nium, the etymological meaning of which is, The b

from an efephant, though scarcely *°“

Anir;r Tn r«« ~.

ora„ce

garments, and their want of science, are s g ^ rred to that they have been -er wrlPbe,^^ eL”L" PhSshew'edmore knowledge of the monument of suWonnding nations, there .s no fi™g them antiouitv. It is clear, however, that painting flourished in jtaly before it5 did in Greece ; such at least is the opinion of Tiraboschi. Pliny says nothing about it before the 18th Etruscan Olympiad in Greece, wh/reas in the 16th there were paintart. M^hS^SeS^nings in the above towns in Italy, and works too shewing Hdes’temselves. Who the Etruscans were nobodyknows , m-eat refinement; which the Romans admired m their days bn all.agree that they were not abo;igj"eS, and^ns ,s es- of splendour, and which their emperors wished to remove, surrounded as they were by the finest productions of Grecian alw^^thdr mL Wmds Their civil and religious rites not being the same as t Ae EjymLTand there "being no traces of embalmmg rt may thence be concluded that they were not of Egyptian hTd,y\l™~S;^eof||«

0r,

An hopes of discovering any of their pamtmgs, any important work which should give us evidence of their talents in S" were given up, till in 1760 Paccaudi ^covered a^vet decided where they came from, and who they were, an ouinia, tombs decorated with designs; andin 1837 tac simues [fie consults all whohave written on the subject ftom He- of Sural decorations of other tombs were exhibited in Lonrodotus to M. Raoul.Rochette.he IS “ beJk^rove don with the monumental statues themselves, and in pa s were Extremely beautiful in taste, design, expression, and rthCVh^rUke *! early works of almost all bar- dranerv rThe extremities were correctly and sweetly drawn; She expression and character of the head, which were ris^pStSanSS^s die gods ot the reruvra , .neor, tionsaU over the world; Sv interesting,6 would not have disgraced any period of Gre'ek or Italia ; design, though they wonU not have hothe finest. It is impossible to judge ot the colour and'the d;j,enctes,baudy-legged sixteen head^h^h, of this myster J ^ noured of the Etruscan school from these specimens, or from the vases called Etruscan. Fresco, stucco, or distemper are adap ed neither for depth nor for tone; oil or encaustic is the on y them in contact with trreece anu byE ’ evidence that vehicle fit for harmony, and oil or encaustic was never practiced bv them. With respect to the painted vases called both nations become apparent, but thlS , other> St cnL because they are found in Etruria, we might just as well assert, if one discovered in the middle of Yorkshire, a mass of china, that it must be of English manufacture because it was found in Yorkshire. Alter the Greeks whad points, Heyne ^ '^°d Greek o pZgic art; settled in the south, their vases might be and no doubt ere gross; the second ef'b'te'l trace^ot Wee^ was»bet(er . an article of commerce ; of course they were imitated, but surely the design andorigin are wholly Grecian, whatever the the third had a taint 0t Eoyp G k mythology ; and Etruscans might after long intercourse do in the way of imitathe fifth produced “ beau y arf Greekmytho ^ tion The principles of designand proj^rtioti in these beautithis completes the pe™d ,550 Cuma nized 801 b.c. ; but t Etruscans in contact ful productions, are the same as in the %est works of Gree sculpture with an occasional but triflinganation. Raftaelle B.C. This neighbourhood b^bt *0 Eftuscans could not have exceeded the purity of form expressed with Greek art, when abou cvilv and the intercourse himself Greek colonies were established in i y> , wondered, that , i- :n drapery or figure. In the finest vases the artists and m le e being reciprocal ^ P ^ ’Lons became fascinated and seem to have been perfect masters of the figure, and to have right round with the stylus, till the contour of the part the more ignorant of the tw0 ® ren(lered Etruscan zone g comnletelv expressed. Nor is there any thing wonderinoculated by the superior one, an ,1 ,iouut and so like Greek art, that it has ever since produced doubt ana fl in this considering the manner in which Greek artists and manufacturers began, proceeded, and concluded their CO Acco0rding to Pliny, the arrival of Demaratus with Clean- studies. According to Plato, a perfect mastery of the forms thes from Corinth, first brought art into Etruria about 650 3 See Heyne’s Notes on Winkelman, vol. i. 1 B.C. 1556. / See ?°”dS*to it for more extensive information on the Etruscans. This is a most able article, and the reader is referre f Storia della Letteratura Italiana.

£

PAINTING 49 Painting, of man and animal was the basis of all instruction in de- brutes, and they settled the principles of beauty in that form Painting, and figure. The philosophers recommended to all classes ^We have thus brought down the history of the art to a the study of art, as a refined mode of elevating their percepperiod, when our information, though imperfect, is more cer- tion of beauty ; and the government seconded the recomtain ; but we can never sufficiently estimate the loss of all mendation of the philosophers. The priests found the relithe ancient treatises on art, though we ought to be very gious feeling rendered more acute by painting and sculpture; grateful for what we possess in Plato and Aristotle, Pliny and the authorities discovered, that the emotions of patriotism and Quintilian, and other ancient writers, Greek and Ro- were doubled by the commemoration of great national events, man, down to the middle ages, and till the subject was taken in temples and in public halls. Now, add climate as adaptup by Vasari and Lanzi.1 The continued existence of this ed for such productions and their preservation, and genius, glorious art, can always be proved, more or less subject of the gift of God, as the first cause, and no one surely need course, like everything human, to those alternations of splen- wonder that all these causes mutually acting on each other dour and calamity, triumph and misfortune, which are the produced the miracles of perfection in art which the world has gazed at ever since with an incredulous and bewilderlot of every thing here below. Greek The superiority of the Greeks in art is always attributed ed astonishment. The passion for the beautiful in poetry, painting, music, school of to the secondary causes of climate and government, forgetart ting the one important requisite, without which the influence and nature, led them to abhor the bloody amusements of of the most genial climate, or the patronage of the most per- the Romans. To contest for glory by pictures, poems, or fect government could avail little ; we mean natural and in- music, to race for the prize of swiftness, or wrestle for the herent genius. If the Athenians, the Rhodians, the Corin- crown of strength, were the innocent and delightful objects thians, and the Sicyonians owed their excellence in art to of their Olympic games ; and during those noble commethe climate, why did not the same climate produce equal per- morations, war ceased, and all Greece assembled in happifection in the Spartans and Arcadians ? If climate be the ness and joy. Even the harsh Spartans signed a truce of secret, why are not all people under the same latitude equally fifty days with the Messenians, that they might keep a fete gifted and equally refined? Climate may be more or less in honour of Hyacinthus. The greatest men disdained not. favourable to intellectual development, but is never the these contests. Plato appeared amongst the wrestlers at Cocause of its existence. Government may elicit genius by rinth, and Pythagoras carried off the prize at Elis. What iostering and reward, but can never create it. All the la- must have been the effect of all this upon a people of strong mentation about the climate of England, Scotland, or Flan- susceptibilities and of high natural genius ? Consider the respect which must have been paid to great ders, did not prevent Hogarth’s appearance in the first, Wilkie’s in the second, or Rubens’ in the last of these coun- artists, when such a man as Socrates pronounced them the tries ; nor could all the beauty of climate in Greece or Italy, only wise men. Aisop took the greatest pleasure in loungever have made Mengs a Raffaelle, or David the Titian of ing in their painting-rooms; Marcus Aurelius took lessons modern times. It would be absurd to deny altogether the in- in philosophy from an artist, and always said that the latter fluence of climate in the extremes. It is not impossible but first taught him to distinguish the true from the false ; and that genius might melt to indolence under the line, or freeze when Paulus iEmilius sent to the Athenians for one of their to apathy within the arctic circle; but even genius there ablest philosophers to educate his children, they selected Mewould assert its superiority in something or in some way. trodorus the painter, and, let it be remembered, that amongst What we contend for is, that Winkelman’s theory of limit- the children placed under his care, was one of the Scipios. ing the gifts of God, intellectual or corporeal, to latitude or What must have been the effect on the rising youth of Greece longitude, is not borne out by facts, the great test of all theo- when the Amphictyonic council decreed that Polygnotus, their greatest monumental painter, should be maintained retical principles. The Greeks were idolaters, and their love of beauty was at the public expense wherever he went, as a mark of the naa principle of their religion. The more beautiful a face or tional admiration for his greatest work, the Hall at Delphi. form could be rendered in painting or sculpture, the better The glory and the fortune of a great painter did not dechance had the artist of the blessing of the gods here, and pend, as now, upon the caprice of individuals; he was the their immortal rewards hereafter. As beauty was so much property of the nation ; he was employed by countries and prized by this highly-endowed people, those who were gifted by cities; and his rewards were considered as a just portion of with it became ambitious of making it known to great ar- the national expenditure. The educated and the high-born tists, and by them to the world. Artists fixed the fame of were brought up with a conviction of the propriety and jusbeauty in man or woman, and even children who gave pro- tice of this principle ; and when they became members of mise of being beautiful were allowed to contest for a prize, the government, considered this as useful a method of puband the child who won it had a statue erected to him. Many lic expenditure, as squandering thousands on matters merely people were complimented by being named from the beauty diplomatic, or in vain shows, mummings, and pageants. And of any particular part, and Winkelman quotes an instance, such will yet be the system of our own country, when the where one was called XapiTo^Xec^apos,that is, “having eye- people become fully instructed, and are made sensible of lids where the graces sat.” There were games instituted near the moral and commercial influence of painting. the River Alphaeus, where prizes were adjudged to the most When we reflect upon the money spent in England by beautiful; and the Lacedaemonian women in their bed-rooms the government, and the consequences which so often attend kept continually before their eyes the finest statues. Still, this that expenditure, and when we find in Greece the different admiration of beauty was but a secondary cause ; for though results of the same interference on the part of the state, and the Lacedaemonians showed this love of beauty, they did that the works there produced have been canons of beauty not produce great artists. The Greeks had a strong sen- to the world ever since; it is natural to inquire, what was sibility to beauty and an intense acuteness of understand- the system by means of which genius was so successfully reing. Every artist was a philosopher, and every philosopher warded ? The secondary causes must have been, the comrelished art, and understood it. The artists began by the petence of the tribunals to which poets, painters, musicians, study of geometry and of form ; they analyzed the peculiari- sculptors, historians, wrestlers, boxers, and philosophers with ties of the form of man, by contrasting it with that of the such confidence appealed. It must have been the taste and * See a beautiful passage De Legibus, lib. ii. p. 669.. -If every scholar would mark and transcribe every passage relating to art, a code might soon be made out. VOL. XVII. G

painting. Painting, knowledge of the members which composed the judgment brated every five years, that is, they were celebrated on the vPainting. fifth year after the fourth had passed; and Sir Isaac Newton is '—' ' boards, and their sincere conviction ofthe importance ot their of opinion that they were originally instituted in celebration office. One has only to sift for a moment the nature ot their of victories. Why the Olympic games had always the pregreatest tribunal, that ofthe Olympian games ; one has only ference, there is no knowing; but the grand statue of Jupiter to reflect on the deep feeling, the solemn sincerity, the awtu at Elis, must no doubt have had considerable influence. piety of their conviction, that what they had to do involvcc The privilege of presiding at the Olympic games was atthe future prospects of the rising youth of Greece, and that tended with such dignity and power, that the Eleans who on their moral honesty depended the glory of their country, had been in possession of it from the earliest times, were and that of its painters, sculptors, architects, philosophers, more than once obliged to maintain their right by force ot iioets, and heroes. Before proceeding to detail the rise arms. After various disputes about the number of presidents and progress of Greek art, and Greek artists, as the paint- or hellenadicks, they remained at the original number often; ing of every nation is connected with its civil, religious, and and Pausanias says, that for ten months preceding t e scientific insti'utions (though more musta must always ways depend epe on they jweit together in a house appointed for them, amlaiUed from them^ ami calieu irom Uiem, hellanodiceum. By the most eetupulous attention, they did every thing to qualify themselves a rapid examination ofthe principles which guidec tie e for being deservedly the judges of all Greece; to which cision of one of their most important tribunals, composed end they were patiently instructed by officers ca.led guarof the greatest men the world has seen, ought to form a por- dians ofthe laws, and they attended every day in the gymtion of every history of the art. ,, TT • i nasium, upon the preparatory exercises of all those who were Olympic Aristotle in his Politics,1 as quoted by Mr Hamilton in his admitted as candidates, and who entered their names also tribunal, pamphlet on the Houses of Parliament, observes . ten months before, and exercised during apart, not the whole, taught ypa^ara ox literature, gymnastics, and music, and of this time, in preparing themselves for the combat. Being many rr)v ypcxfnKrjv, or the art of design, as being a un ^ Y exposed to the severest scrutiny, the judges had by these useful for the purposes of life, but mainly because it enables means frequent opportunities of trying the skill of the comus to appreciate the merits of distinguished artists, and car- batants, and also of exercising their own judgment; and both ries us to the contemplation of real beauty ; as letteis, iv uc prepared themselves for the praise or censure ot an awtul are the elements of calculation, terminate in the contemplacould only «ion of truth.” A people thus educated to Z most exact impartiality on the part ofthe basis of beauty in art, and to believe that the ; judges,Ldthe mostsincere and earnest efforts forsuperionty when they became judges of genius, involved t e J e ^^ c etitors> in addition, the judges swore intellectual taste and repute, and who gave ^' solemn oath before the statue of Jupiter, upon their finishin the presence of kings, philosophers, and P^^ere^ fffhe examination, to act according to the strictest equity little likely to be biassed by unjust pieddection a » precautions against human frailty, liberty of nature could be ; though, of course, intook the to the senate at Elis was allowed to any one who felt Nero and the emperors, great abuses P hu_ a™rjeved. The judges had also the power of excommumcatMarathonian period, ever partiahty was ban in ia|whole nations! Once an Athenian found guilty of corrupman honours, it was banished from the 01>mp g ’ » „ , ^ refused to pay. The Athenians sancthose immortal days of glory and patriotism At tins extia- Jjon was fined,^ndje were exduded from all the ordinary assemblage, kings enter ed tie i , ^ deci_ games, till they repented and paid the penalty. When the Laspected the judgment, or if they refused to ab y cedsemonians were impertinent, other nations took up arms, sion of a just tribunal, they were exclu ) fi what was and compelled them to submission. Such power hada wonderpaid the fine and acknowledged their error. And what was andcompeiiea tne ^ Greece< 1 the result? The highest honours were obtaine in ticse con u ^ time approached, the candidates were rigorously tests, because every one gifted m art; P^^ofile-crown no examined as to their virtuous descent, and their own moral sical strength, knew that if he deseived • of life . and when they passed in public review dow n the stapartiality, no nephew of the judges sis kl e ,S d Ue £ yy b diu^ a herald demanded with a loud voice, “ Is there any the judge’s wife, would deprive him f ' ^^ ^. ^ se thisisman any crime is heway a roba fl a ns c ho can accU ing did his best, and if that ^tailed, he had a co g slave? he of wicked or in? any descious conviction that he had been honourab y, an ione j, ed?„ Themistocles once stood up at the ceremony and nobly beaten by a better. It is astomsl &, 1 bd t Hiero, king of Syracuse, because he was a tire confidence exist between judge and competitor, to what and oDjecreu ^ of ^ Greece .; and A ^ r ti/rant, a name odious^ to the democracies a de-ree this confidence affects both ; what a spring it gives there could not be a stronger evidence of their utter deto mind and body, and how honestly every thing is done: testation of the name, than refusing to admit a king to conAnd if confidence be, from repeated experience, withhe d, tend because he was a tyrant; thus placing him upon a level it is wonderful how half the faculties of the mind, and the with a slave, who could not by law be admitted. The canpowers ofthe body and soul, sink under the impression. Na- didates having passed in public review with honour, were poleon used to say, “ that if the moral feeling ot an army was then sworn, that they had done all which was required by wa equalto 40 000 men 1 m ta favour of a campaign, it was 1 II m . in such scases, equaldisgu to 40,0UUgmen.ate^ ^ . &nd m’arch^ ral confidence be lost ’ connexi0ns, and families, who encouraged them to do their apathy, indifference, and failure are the resu . d appealed to the gods to smile on their exertions, In order to understand the Greek character drotougWy, best, anoajv for ^ flgh8 And being thus thought wor. the system of excitement that was worked on, ^ ^ contest, even defeat was considered by them as rials that were used to rouse the energies of comp i ’ The olive crowns and palm qn evidence of their honour. conduce to the understanding of the secondary cause , were placed before their eyes on beautiful tripods, 2 b perfection, if the nature of the Olympic games be exa • cite their utmost exertions, and when victorious it was They are universally acknowledged to have subsiste ounCed by proclamation ; they were crowned by the hethe rise of chronological dates and records; and the i ec ‘ , d tben led a]on„ preceded by trumpets, their names Olvmpic conquerors after their restoration, is the > sh0uted aloud throughout the vast assembly ; and on the Olympic known chronological date. Pausanias says they were cele 2 See West’s Pindar. 1 Lib. viii. c. 31.

50

PAIN T I N G. 5i with a needle. At a sale of antiquities in London there was Painting, Painting, their return to their native city, they entered through a breach in the wall, drawn in a chariot. And such was the a regular Greek tablet with a wax ground, a stylus attachhigh feeling engendered by these judicious excitements, that ed to it as boys hang slate-pencils to their slates, and a seneven Alexander himself was refused permission to contend, tence of Greek actually half-cut. The word ypcufico being because he was a barbarian, nor was he1allowed until he had used for painting, design, or writing, makes the instrument proved his ancient descent at Argolis. “ In the republic the same in either case. This tablet was like a slate ; the of the fine arts,” says the catalogue to the designs for a Na- middle had been planed smooth, and the frame was left tional Gallery, “ competition is the great source of excel- round it. The progress of the Greeks is very interesting, lence ; but so to frame institutions, and invite competition and shews how the mind gradually advances to the imitation as to secure all the attainable talent, and so to form a tribu- of reality, and rests impatiently on mere outline, as a reprenal as to derive all benefit for the public, and to do justice sentation of nature. After a certain time, the early arto the competitor, have been matters of great difficulty in tists, when they had drawn an outline, ventured to colour it inside with black. This mode of imitation was called all ages and all countries.” The whole history of ancient art shews the estimation in (TKiaypacpia, and the paintings o-Kiaypappara, or skiagrams, which the2 unsophisticated judgment of the public was held. from o-iaa shade, and ypacfra) to draw. Our black profiles Aristotle says, “ The multitude is the surest judge of the and whole figures seen in shop windows, are the skiagrams productions of art;” “ If you do not get the applause of the of the ancient Greeks. This was hailed as a great step, and public,” says some one else, “what celebrity can you attain?” the painter who could fill up a face or a figure with black and Cicero 3makes the public the supreme judge. Thus then, was regarded as a man eminent in art. After a little came no one ought to wonder at the perfection of Greek genius in the genius with more extended views, who invented the poevery thing, stimulated as it was by these secondary causes, voypappa or monogram from povos only, and ypa, to draw ; and the one acting upon the other, in a climate adapted in that is, to define by line only, an outline without a shade. every way for comfort, for health, and for convenience. The Next came the man who had the nerve to try a positive coname, Cleophantus of Corinth; Greeks were men like ourselves, not larger as their arms prove, lour. Pliny has preserved his 4 and not handsomer, for there exist as fine forms in either he ground up a red brick, and therefore the Greeks claimsex, in Great Britain, as ever graced the atelier of Zeuxis ; ed the invention of colour, although the Chaldaeans had paintindeed Cicero complains of the plainness of the Athenians. ed men red on the walls of Babylon, and so had the EgypWhen genius and secondary causes unite, as they sometimes tians on their tombs, nearly a thousand years before them. or monochrom, singledo, then such men as Pericles and Alexander, and Polyg- This discovery was called povoxpupa, u JLa notus, Zeuxis, and Apelles, are the result; for all the Olym- coloured from povos alone and xP 5f colour, and this was pic games, and Greek tribunals, could never have made Hud- their first attempt at imitating flesh. Next came the white son Apelles, nor Caligula the benevolent Howard. “ If any ground (the gesso of the Italians and lime and plaster of the thing were wanting,” says Flaxman, “ to convince us of the Egyptians) covered with wax. From one colour, naturally high estimation painting was held in by the Greeks, the enough came the others; for if brick produced red, earths, facts alone, viz. that Plato studied it, and Socrat s was a burned or natural, would produce other colours, and polycolour, was formed. sculptor by profession, are enough. But nothing is want- chrom, from ttoXvs many, and The art having now discovered its materials, soon ading.” In ancient painting, we certainly owe more to Pliny than vanced steadily and gloriously to excellence. “ How long to any other author; though in point of exquisite tact for hit- the brush assisted only the cestrum, and when it superting at once the characters of the great geniuses in art, he seded it,” says Fuseli,6 “ cannot be ascertained; it cannot is not to be compared to Quintilian. There is more dis- be proved, that it ever entirely superseded it, and there is crimination in theshort account Quintilian gives ofthepaint- every reason to believe they were always combined.” It * ers and sculptors, than in all the delightful connoisseur chit- has been contested that painting was not known in Homer’s chat for which Pliny must ever be the leading favourite. Yet time, because he speaks not of art; but what would be said certainly his gossip and anecdotes are sometimes underrated of any man who argued that painting was not known in Milby learned critics ; for in two instances of gossip, about the ton’s time, because he did not speak of it. Homer speaks partridges and grapes of Zeuxis and Protogenes, and the con- ot painting ships, and Milton alludes to “ the painted stoa test of Apelles and Protogenes very deep principles of Greek but colouring and design must have been known from the form and Greek imitation may be settled. Painting is said shield of Achilles, and the tapestries of Helen and Androby Pliny to have existed before the foundation of Rome in mache, if the walls of Thebes and those of Babylon had not Italy, as illustrated by designs on the walls at Ardea, Lanu- settled the question. Troy was taken 1184 before Christ; vium, and Coere. This is always mentioned with a sort of but painting flourished in Egypt 1900 years before our era, doubt by antiquarians, who suspect that to the arrival of De- that is, 716 years before Troy was taken, and 993 years bemaratus from Corinth, the father of Tarquin, king of Rome, fore the era of Homer. Italy owes her first knowledge of painting ; but it has been The nature of distemper and encaustic painting amongst shewn that this cannot be so, if pictures were executed in the Greeks involves one or two questions interesting to Italy before Rome was founded. Pliny sneers at the Egyp- artists. Their distemper was our tempera, and consisted tians for boasting of the antiquity of their painting ; whereas in dissolving colour in water, and mixing it with glue; the Greeks equally deserve a sneer for believing that they had and though in Pliny, glue is only mentioned once, and that invented design. in conjunction with (tectores) plasterers, it is evidently Tabular ra Greeks painted tabular pictures on wood, and mu- to be inferred from the brushes used in its practice, that and mural ^ pictures on walls. The materials were either encaustic tempera intensely varnished was the general practice of pictures; or wax painting, and distemper or glue-painting. In en- the tabular painters, and encaustics the exception. On all distemper caustic on wood, they painted with a metal point called sty- encaustic pictures, the Greeks put (evwaucrev) “ burnt in c stem er and what justified them in doing so ? Merely the general tic palatine ^ P they brushes, and in were encaustic on walls ^they also usedpainted brushes.withTabular pictures pre- application of fire to melt wax, or a particular mode of pracpared with a ground ot wax, and the composition was drawn tice. Was the cestrum or stylus heated, whilst finishing the in with a stylus or point as we draw upon an etching ground work, after the wax had been laid on ? or was any actual 1 4 trita, Plin. lib. xxxv. 4 See Notes on West's Pindar5 Testa, ut ferunt, De Republica, iii. c. 7. ^lo)ioxi(>ct>fjt.utrev dictum, ibid* 6 * De Oratore, c. 49. Fuzeli, Lecture first.

PAINTING. ; but Vitruvius guides you to the degree, which is every Pain noheat applied to amalgamate the colour in the conclusion, fire which justified such a term ? or was the wax actually melted thing in the practice of the art of painting. The paulo, thereand used whilst boiling ? Pliny says, that there were cer- fore, is invaluable; do not boil, but heat your wax, then hquety tain colours which would not stand without varnish; and that it, then varnish, then when dry heat it with a chaffing-dish rub it smooth. To artists this practice is beautiful, and after they were laid on walls and dry, they were varnished and though was supposed to be unknown to the with a mixture of warm punic wax and oil. Every Greek Greeks, oil-painting this was very near the point, and if used by Polygartist had his chafing-dish or Kavr^piov ; and when the var- notus at Delphi or Thespim, would have justified the term nish was dry, it was heated by fire from the chafing-dish burnt in, without the use of the cestrum. “ usque ad sudorem,” until it sweated, when it was rubbed It is not settled by Pliny who first discovered encaustic with wax candles, and polishedl with white napkins. This painting ; it is not known, he says, whether Aristides may method the Greeks called K.ave was always an important part in an encaustic painting, because Philiscus painted a painter’s room (atelier) with a little boy blowing ^ the liquid you paint with ; varnish, the liquid you put over the work, when done, to preserve it. : i-Umur, ^^ ^ tautan.• That Reynolds introduced WMI4 SermSfy wtether tabular painting waa or was not the principal practice of 6 Not many years ago a dispute raged in F to a ny „reat extent. Letronne says cloth was not used anciently to paint the ancients, and whether mural painting ^ cioth one hundred and twenty feet high ; hut the madness insinuated does on, and that Pliny thinks the of a portrait one hundred and twenty feet high in cloth. Why should canvas not apply to the cloth, or canvas, hut to the X the middie affes ? Is this likely ? As a curious specimen of the blind he only once used in antiquity and never before o L wrote t0 gim from Athens, that in the temple of Theseus they discoviolence of party, the friends of one of the c®“bat^ ’ , COntours of the works of Polygnotus cut in on the plaster with the cestrum, vered by candle-light round the upper part Letronne waf decidedly right as to his theory of paintthe colours having been picked out by tbe early J"h"S.tla° ’ , hi8 POI)DOnfnt Raoul-Kochette, wrote him in turn that they did not see a ing on walls. Yet would it be believed, that the friends of his opponent, Kaou^ ^ ^ which were let into the tingle contour cut m, but that they discovered a sinking in wprp scarcelv ever painted on walls, but nearly always on wood, is walls, and thus the theory of Raoul-Rochette^viz., that pic ure ^re carcely ever V™ ^^ J ^ ^ . for the right, whilst the former gentlemen assert that there are contours on atest Klory y was obtained by easel pictures, he affirms ancients painted on walls as well as wood ; and though Hmy says th th g abular pictures, he says pictures on walls that there were also pictures on walls, because in giving one of his rea*° P tabular pictures. If pictures had not been painted cannot be saved in case of fire (ex mcendns rapt non possunt), and that he preie I r on walls as well as on wood, how could he have illustrated his preference ?

PAINTING. 53 duct was immediately judged worthy to be commemorated Painting, Painting. Letronne says, that there does not exist a well authenticated by the highest authority in Greece, the Amphictyonic Counevidence of fresco, except as mere ornament in ceilings. Having thus laid before the reader the different modes cil, who ordered that Polygnotus should henceforth be mainof Greek practice, without which no subsequent account tained at the expense of Greece. Pliny has certainly not of their arts or artists would have been intelligible, it is said enough of Polygnotus, whose great work at Delphi, detime to say something of the artists themselves, who practised scribed by Pausanias, proves him to have had colour in a these various modes of imitating nature. Of their different high degree, imagination in the highest, and all which, accordmethods, their white grounds descended to them from the ing to Aristotle, forms the most important requisite in the eastern nations, and have come to us through the middle language of painting. His work at Delphi was executed by ages. Some of their colours we use now, and for some we order of the Cnidians, who had a treasure there, and had also have substitutes as good. If their principles were as easily built a stadium. Besides this building, they employed Poattainable as their colours, we should have very little to de- lygnotus to adorn the great Hall, leaving him the choice of subjects ; and as Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, was murS re> ^ n •r' Ancient In the earliest state of Greek art, Philocles from Egypt, dered and had a tomb near the spot, these subjects related Greek art- and Cleanthes from Corinth, were the inventors of outline, to the Trojan war. It is supposed that because Pausanias describes one thing ists. anc[ Ardices from Corinth, and Telephanes from Sicyon, the first who put it in practice, without any colour. To1 this as above another, composition was little known, and that there early period may be applied the accusation of iElian, that were several subjects in one plane. But any one might dethe artists were obliged to write underneath their wretched scribe the Cartoons at Hampton Court in the same way, illustrations, “ This is a bull, this is a horse, this is a tree.” and make a reader, who had never seen them, believe that The next were single-colour painters, or monochromatists, one figure was above another, and several subjects too. as Hygiomon and others. Now the sexes began to be dis- Might not one say, “ Above Pythagoras in Raffaelle’s School tinguished, when Cimon the Cleonean had energy to attempt of Athens, is Alcibiades listening to Socrates but because the imitation of every thing. He it was who invented fore- they are above one another, that is no proof that they do shortening, and drawing things at an angle.2 He it was who not retire. Aristotle settles his high rank better than Pliny had courage to vary the characters and forms of heads, to or Quintilian. “Polygnotus,”says he, “made men betterthan than they are, and Dionysius the make them looking up, looking down, and looking behind; he they are, Pauson worse 3 Polygnotus, therefore, expressed the articulated his joints, shewed the veins and muscles, and gave same as they are.” undulation and folds to his draperies. Panaenus, Phidias’s leading points of the species man, and cleared the accidenbrother, painted the shield of Minerva at Elis, and also the tal from the superfluous. Cimabue did not do this, nor Masbattle of Marathon ; and so much had the knowledge of co- saccio, nor Giotto ; but Raffaelle and Michel Angelo did ; lour and art advanced, that portraits of the great leaders, and when this is done, in painting or sculpture, the comMiltiades, Callimachus, and Cynegyras, on the part of the ponent parts of art must be equally advanced. Besides, when Greeks, and of Datis and Artaphernes, on that of the bar- did Polygnotus flourish? Between the 84th and 90th Olymbarians, were introduced, and known by the spectators. It piad. The Parthenon must have been built; the beauties was at this period that the glorious contests for victory in of Phidias’s immortal hand must have been executed, such art were begun at Corinth and Delphi; and Panaenus was as we see them in the Theseus, Ilyssus, metopes and frieze conquered by Timagoras of Chalcis, who commemorated his of the Elgin marbles. And could any painter be a Goth in victory by a poem ; “though I doubt not,’’says Pliny, “ there composition, when such knowledge of the art is visible in these perfect wonders ? Polygnotus put the names to many is some chronological error.” The Greek national and monumental painter Polygnotus, of his figures ; Annibale Caracci put “ genus unde Latinum” flourished at this period or before it. He seems to have to Venus and Anchises ; Raffaelle gilded his glories ; but been really a great man, and to have possessed a mighty soul. what argument is that against the genius of either ? The He was born in Thasos, an island in theiEgean Sea ; and his power of Polygnotus in painting the daemon Eurynome, with works seem all to have been national, votive offerings of cities a skin the colour of a blue-bottle fly, shews the truth of his and his country. He was worthy of the finest period of imagination, as well as his power of observation and imitation. Greece, and met his noble patrons by a suitable return ; he Polygnotus was a great genius, worthy of his age; and the his works, only was one of those beings who are born for the time or be- “ simplex color,” applied by Quintilian to yond it, and of whom the time is in want, or for whom it is proves the purity of his taste in using it.4 Simplicity is not barbarism, any more than gorgeousnot enough advanced. He first clothed lovely women in light and floating draperies, adorned their beautiful heads ness is true taste. About the 90th Olympiad the light bewith rich turbans, and thus advanced the art immense- gan to dawn and to give promise of a glorious sunrise. Aglaly. In expression of face he ventured to make the mouth ophon, Cephissodonus, Phrylus, and Evenor, the father oi of beauty smile, and thus softened, by shewing the teeth, the Parrhasius, and preceptor of the greatest painters, appeared. ancient rigidity of his predecessors. He painted gratuitously These were all celebrated in their day; but one of the most the Hall at Delphi, and the Portico at Athens, called UoiklXt], important reformers was Apollodorus the Athenian, who flouthus offering a contrast to Micon,who was paid. Such con- rished in the 93d Olympiad. He was the first, according to 1 2

iElian, lib. x. chap. xii. . .. Catagrapha invenit, hoc est, obliquas imagines et varie formare voltus, respicientesque, suspicientes vel despmientes. Fuseli says catagrapha means profiles ; but how could he invent profiles when profiles are the characteristics of the earliest art ? At first all art is piofile ; but Cimon was a reformer. To draw downwards he invented oblique views, and varied the views of the head and face, looking behind, looking up, and looking down. Fuseli says catagrapha means profile ; but profiles are not oblique representations but sections of the figure and face, in the same sense as architectural sections, that is, equal halves. The “ obliquse imagines, are angular views, seeing things at an angle; the passage is directly illustrated by the circumstances, that he made bis heads looking behind, &c.; and how can a head looking behind be & profile? In some places it may mean so; in Pausanias, xum in radical meaning is downwards, as if the eye looked at the3 top of the head to the feet, which foreshortening. Aristotle, Poetics. 4 Hardourn’s Pliny, lib. xii. c. 10, p. 893. Clari Pictores fuisse dicuntur Polygnotus, atque Aglaophon; quorum simplex color tarn sut studiosus adhuc habet,” etc. Now the simplex color of Polygnotus and Aglaophon was not one colour, like monochroms, but modesty in the arrangement of the three colours, red, yellow, and black, without blue. How then could the monochrom apply to Polygnotus, whose works at Thespiae, Delphi, and the Poikile at Athens, were painted in all the variety these three colours could produce, and not confined to owe colour ’

PAINTING. who was born at Ephesus,and celebratedfor great excellence. Painting Painting. Pliny, who expressed the species; and hewasalso the firstwho He first gave correct proportions to painting; airs to tlie^^y~* 'did honour to the glory of the pencil. But, after PhahasPa- head, elegance to the hair, and beauty to the countenance. ncenus, Micon, and Polygnotus, one is inclined to quest on Bv the acknowledgment of all artists, the manner m which whether he was the first who expressed the species. Phidias, he lost the contours of his forms, was exquisite. Many peoin the opinion of the ancients, was the greatest artist m sculp- ple can execute the parts of which the middle of things is ture Plato says that Phidias was “ skilled in beauty , but composed; but few can finish the boundaries of objects as to be skilful in beauty, argues the power of expressing the if the substance was round, and did not end with the conspecies, and a perfect knowledge of the construction; for tour which defined it; thus giving one an idea as if somebeauty is the last operation, and is based upon the first. How thing was concealed, and exciting the imagination to conthen Apollodorus could have expressed the species better than ceive what the eye did not see. This excellence XenocraPhidias or Polygnotus, it would perhaps have puzzled P y tes, and Antigonus, who wrote on painting, conceded to Parrto explain. However, let us take what the gods have spared, hasius ; and not this excellence alone, but also many others. and be grateful. “ His, is the adoring priest,” says Phny, The best idea than can be given to the moderns of the “and Ajax defying the lightning at Pergamus ; nor was a y works of Parrhasius, is by referring them to the pictures ot tablet worth looking at before.” That may be. 1 ® P " Corregio, of which this is the great excellence. Parrhavious works were monumental, national, or mural, painted sius appears also to have had the same defect; for he sofwith brushes, and bold in execution. Tabular pamti^ g tened the centres of his figures, and gave them too much may have been a more delicate workmanship, but it is n pulpiness for the heroic. There remained, in Pliny s time, to be compared with the true epic, any more than the bigWy* sketches of subjects, and of hands and feet, from which arwrought easel pictures of Raffaelle, are to be compared with tists learned a great deal. He contrived in ^ Picture to paint the people of Athens, and to give a true idea of their Ancient ^“Thetoors,” says Pliny, “ that Apollodorus had opened, variable character; humble yet vam-glonous, timid yet Zeuxis boldly marched through, about the 95th Olympia , ferocious ;—and all these contrasts he expressed wi h great Greek painters. daring every thing the pencil could do, and carrying i power. But Parrhasius disgraced his genius by yielding to thp1 ereatest dory. Some place him in the 89th Olympiad, what Johnson calls “ the frigid villany of studied lewdness, fut fhU is “Sake. Delphilus or Naseas was h s m- and sacrificed his noble art to pander to the beastly appetites of ter. Apollodorus became envious of Zeuxis, because the la the debauched; in fact, Tiberius kept one of his licenUter improved upon the style he had introduced, and wrote a ous pictures in his bed-room, namely, that of Me eager a lampoon. Zeuxis became very rich, grew very haughty, an Atalanta. But whatever may have been the habits ot a always appeared at the Olympic games m a purple robe, tiquity, and however indecencies may have been connected with his name in gold letters on the border. So high was with religion, it is clear the greatest men did not approve ot his opinion of his own pictures, that, thinking no money could such prostitution of talent. Aristotle censures the practice, equal their value, he gave them away. From this feeling and warns tutors to guard their pupils from such corruptions. he presented an Alcmena to the Agngentines, and a Pan to Timanthes followed, the great painter of the sacrifice of Archelaus; he also painted a Penelope, in which her moral Iphi°-eniain Aulis. No picture had more reputation for touchbeauty of character was visible, and an athlete, so much to ing art and delicacy than this. After exhausting expression his own delight, that he wrote underneath, It is easier to in all the principal agents, the artist covered the face ot the criticTse thaiftoexecute.” His greatworkswerejup.ter and father, not daring to trust his hand to attempt mutation, and all the gods, and Hercules strangling the serpents. He was leaving every spectator to imagine an agony of his cm n. As censured for large heads and violent markings, but otherwise Euripides has the same incident, Fuseli thinks the lonou™ he was strictly correct. Pliny varies his history with current being the first inventor is due to 1 imanthes. In the death stories, and We can almost get at the principles of Greek art of Germanicus, Poussin hid the face of his wife. 1 imanthes from them as well as from the account of the art i tself. Cu.rre" seems to have been ingenious in his inventions ; to give 11 stories and proverbs should never be disregarded ; for, if no idea of great size to a sleeping Cyclops, he introduced two true they may be taken as inventions characteristic of the satyrs trying to span his thumb. Phny adds, that there was mrties or they would never have been believed. The Agn- a head painted byPhim in the Temple of Peace at Rome, and Lntines, says Pliny, ordered a picture for a temple of Juno which was a perfect specimen of art. Lucinia, and theyallowed the painter to select the finest girls Euxenides taught Aristides, the great master of expiesas models. Cicero1 says it was the Crotomates who employed sion, and Eupompus taught Pamplnlus, who was the master him- and as Zeuxis always studied nature, the most beautiful of Apelles, a name synonymous with perfection in finish, but srirls were ordered by government to come to him, and havmg not for invention like Zeuxis, monumental commemorations selected five, he then painted his Helen. Zeuxis made his hkePolygnotus, composition like Amphion, or expression like sketches in black and white (pVm< etmonockromataex alboj Aristide*. No ; Apelles was the deity of tabular pictures, or of a single colour heightened by white. His contempora- the greatest glory of the art in Pliny’s mind, but not m the ries and rivals were Timanthes, Androcydes, Lupompus and minds of those who see beyond the range of a dimng-parParrhasius. The contest of the last with Zeuxis, m which lour. Eupompus painted a victor with a palm branch in Ins the one deceived the birds by grapes, and Parrhasius Zeuxis hand ; and such was his influence in Greece, that he was alhimself by his curtain, contains the great principle of Greek lowed to divide painting into three schools, ’V1Z-t*16 l0™an’ art viz. That the most perfect imitation of reality was not Sicyonian, and Athenian. Pamphilus was a Macedonian, incompatible with the highest style. Antiouaries are d who combined literature with painting and made it a prinnosed to laugh at these stories as beneath the dignity ot ciple of tuition, that no man could be great in either who belief; but artists knowwell enough, that, so far from being was not a mathematician ; for he denied that without geounworthy of credit, all the stories of Phny and ^han te metry art could be perfected. He taught nobody under a more or less to illustrate a principle. Zeuxis painted a boy talent, which both Apelles and Melanthus paid. So great and grapes, and the birds flew at the fruit; but his rival ob- was the influence of this distinguished man, that first at biserved that, if the boy had been equal to the grapes, the birds cyon, and afterwards in all Greece, he got it established as would have been frightened. Zeuxis was a great painter a principle ofeducation, that all clever boys should be taught and discovered the principles of light and shadow. ^ on tablets the art of delineating, which is the foundation of After Zeuxis came Parrhasius, “liquidis ille coloribus, 2 Horace. 1 De Invent, lib. 2. chap. x»

54

55 PAIN TING. fleeting lines (tres lineas effugientes) and yet superior to all Painting, Fainting, painting. He considered this art as the first that should be taught in a liberal education. Slaves were prohibited the that was to be found in the finest works. Unfortunately it exercise of design; which was an absurd law, because in was burned at the destruction of the palace. Now comes the question, what were these lines which literature it would have prevented ;Esop or Terence from developing their genius. What right have any creatures, who could thus speak to artists who had never seen each other, are obliged to eat and sleep like the meanest slave, to pass a the common language of a common code of law for design. law to prohibit the exercise of any natural talent, if the Al- “ Secuit lineal does not mean actually to cut the lines in mighty has not disdained to think one worthy of being so gift- two, but in the technical idiom of English artists, to strike ed ? The consequence of this was, that no slave ever dis- a line. It was not the metal cestrum, but the hair brush, and therefore cut in this sense could not have been meant. tinguished himself in the arts. About the 107th Olympiad, after Echion and Therami- To cut with a brush means to design with an air of power. chus, came tne god of high finish and grace, Apelles. His Three lines varied in shape would mean nothing, if nothing style is always the precursor of decay. First came a race was expressed ; but if some known contour of the body was in art, amongst whom invention, expression, form, colour, and taken in repose, three variations of its position without alexecution, in a series of pictures intended to illustrate a princi- teration would be as much as could be expected in the ple were enough, provided the principle was expressed. These contour. Suppose that Apelles drew a line from the claviwere the monumental geniuses. But when the art becomes cle A to the pubis B of a body in profile, shaping all the parts national and glorious, the noble and the opulent become am- as he went correctly like fig. 1. Next, suppose that Protobitious to share the glory with their country; and the art sinks genes having come in saw the line, and knew that in finelyto the humble office of adorning apartments. As is the de- formed men, the stomach, from great exercise and tempermand, such will be the supply; and the genius of a country is ate living, becomes small; the contour would curve in at C, would retire, as in thus turned from national objects and public commemorations so that that portion of the rectus muscle r to private sympathies and domestic pleasures. Atthisperiod many of the Greek statues. He w ould then take the same of Greek taste appeared Apelles ; refined, accomplished, de- contour, draw it again on the wax tablet, and make this varilicate, devoting his whole soul to single perfections equally ation. Again, suppose that Apelles returned and on seeadapted for a temple or a palace, and patronised equally by ing himself vanquished, took the brush and drew the same his sovereign and the people. Educated by Pamphilus, he contour, allowing the variation of Protogenes, but rememwas grounded to the very foundation, and consequently drew, bering that in powerful men, the pyramidalis D, fig. 3, arisas Burke says to Barry, with “ the last degree of perfection.” ing from the pubis and going into the rectus, makes another Apelles, Aristides, Nichomachus, and Protogenes, were the and the last variation. Then Protogenes returning, and seeing that nothing more could be done unless the body was most distinguished artists of Alexander’s time. Apelles wrote copiously on his art, and explained its prin- altered in position, he would acknowledge the line to be comciples. His treatises were extant in Pliny’s time, and even in pleted. that of Suidas,1 who speaks of them ; and as they were proFig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig 3 bably illustrated with designs, the loss is much to be deplored. Beauty was the leading feature of his style, as well as of that of the greatest painters of the same period. In grace he defied competition ; and this explains the secret of his triumph. “ I know when to leave off,” said he, “ which is a great art; Protogenes does not. Over-working is injurious.” He was a very generous man, and acknowledged when others were superior to him ; observing that Amphion2 was a better composer, and Asclepiadorus more correct in proportion. Amongst all the stories of Pliny, the most delightful is that of Apelles and Protogenes, which seems to be an authentic fact; and even if it were not, it would illustrate the principles of Grecian art. Protogenes lived at Rhodes and Apelles sailed to see him. Having landed, he called, and found the artist “not at home.” Being shewn by an old woman into his painting-room, he found a tablet with its wax ground ready for a picture, and taking up a brush, drew an exquisite line in colour down the tablet. Protogenes having returned, was shewn what had happened ; and, contemplating the beauty of the form, he said it must be Apelles, as nobody else could draw so perfect a work. He then took the brush and drew another still more refined? saying, if the stranger call again, shew him this, and say that that is what he is seeking. Apelles returned, and blushing to see himself outdone, again In Conduci’s Five Dialogues, it is stated that Michel Antook a brush and drew a third, leaving nothing to be exceed- gelo thought it must have been a contour of some part of ed in refinement, (nullum relinquens amplius subtilitati lo- the body. Now, this singular contest would be felt by all cum.) Protogenes when he saw this immediately sought his artists as one of the greatest utility. It would be wondered visitor, saying that he could carry the line no further. The at by connoisseurs, and would illustrate a great principle ; tablet with these lines upon it, was considered by all the namely, that a knowledge of construction was the basis of corand the foundation of all beauty. Greek artists as a miracle of drawing. After the death of rect design It wras the continual practice of this eminent man to do Apelles and Protogenes, and the conquest of the Romans, it was preserved in the palace of the Caesars on the Palatine something every day, whatever happened; and hence the hill, w'here it was seen by Pliny containing nothing but three proverb, “ No day without a line.” If artists were to write 1 2

About the year 1100 of our era. Junius (Dg Pictura Veteruni) only finds Amphion mentioned twice in ancient authors, and it is hence supposed that Echion would be a better reading. .

PAINTING. 56 Painting, this over their painting-room doors, it would not be without and he thatembellishes most, without losing resemblance, will Painting, * ' advantage. Rubens rose at four, and was in his painting ti be the most welcomed, as Apelles was, by the world. put Apelles in comparison with Polygnotus is out of five in the afternoon, with occasional variations. All the theTo Highly-wrought individual figures, little more greatest men of antiquity and of modern art, have been the thanquestion. portraits of beautiful nature, cannot rank so high in the most diligent and the most industrious. And here is the most judgment, though they may in the delicate sympathies of celebrated of the tabular painters of antiquity afraid to let a the world. But that single terrific conception of the demon day pass without the use of the pencil. Apelles used also to Eurynome, for which no prototype in nature could be found, hide himself behind his works to hear the remarks of the pub- that momentary blush which crimsoned his Cassandra,1 Arislic. This deference to the public voice evinced by sculptors, totle’s praise that he made men better than they were, and painters, and statesmen, is a beautiful proof of the sense am Plato’s ranking him with Phidias, settles the question of his understanding of the time. Nothing was done in defiance greatness ; and as a portrait expression must be seen before of public taste, but every thing in conformity to its dictates ; it can be done, and must be like or it is nothing, there is and though this does and often did lead to great injustice in an end of the highest quality of human genius, invention. political matters, in art the maxim is infallible. _ Indeed, whatever the vanity of the world may be inclined to Apelles of Cous excited envy enough, and notwithstand- feel, the greatest portrait painter is but an inferior artist. ing his graceful manners, his tender heart, and his accom The age of Polygnotus and Phidias was the meridian age plished mind, when driven by stress of weather into Alexan- of Greek art; and that of Apelles was the setting glory. dria, the courtiers of Ptolemy, hating his superiority, and From the latter period it sunk gradually as if nature had been fearing his probable fortune, sent him a pretended invitation exhausted by the previous effort. Such ages have never to sup with the king. Apelleswent; the king felt astonished since been seen ; such perfection had never been realized at the liberty, and sending to demand explanation, discovei- before, and never will be again ; for in order to become such ed the imposition. On inquiring if Apelles knew the person sculptors and painters, men must also become idolaters. who had given him the invitation, he immediately sketched Ins But to return and conclude the notice of Apelles, this courtface on the wall, and the king recognised the culprit. Courts, favourite of antiquity. Notwithstanding the education ot kings, and people can onlyjudge of results. The infinite num- Alexander by Aristotle, notwithstanding that rj ypafyucr] was a ber of repeated acts, the nulla dies sine linea, the failures, the portion of his education, Alexander was little more than a glorecoveries, the musings, the thinkings, that had taken place rious barbarian in art. He talked so absurdly in the paintingwith the “ cestrum cum lumine,” they had not witnessed ; room of Apelles, that the artist was obliged to request that his therefore, knowing their utter incapacity to do as Apelles did, majesty would be cautious, lest the boys should laugh as they they concluded that he was a wonder, and he of course be- ground their colours. Apelles may be considered as the came a favourite. As an evidence of that peculiar tact by Titian of Greek art, with the addition of all that vast knowwhich such men are sure to please kings and nobility, namely, ledge of form, which every painte’* and every school was obby the power of seizing the most agreeable expression ot any liged to master. But the disposition to perfect single figures, sitter’s face, however ugly, and rendering his very defects a and the acknowledgment that others exceeded him in compocause of elegant concealment; he painted Antigonus, who sition, clearly point out the extent of his fertility. Though had lost one eye, in profile, concealed his defective eye, and Pliny describes many beautiful pictures, his greatest are sinmade him as graceful as if he were Alexander. This was gle figures. His Venus Anadyomene was the most celebratthe great secret of his fortunes, as it was that of 1 itian s, V an- ed of all his works; but being painted upon wood, it was desdvke’s and Reynolds’; and though not to be compared m troyed by insects in the time of Augustus. He began anopoint of taste or knowledge of the art, this was also the se- ther, and having completed it as far as the bosom, died; but cret of the popularity of Lawrence, mere portrait painter as although the contours were completed for finishing, nobody he was, and nothing more. r, • n would venture to touch it, such was the extreme veneration Polygnotus, Pausias, Aristides, Timanthes, Zeuxis, Farr- entertained for him. By this description we see the nature hasius, Pamphilus, Euphranor, and Timomachus did not so of the Greek process; first, the ground, then the drawing in, completely gratify the vanity of their contemporaries, and next the impasto preparation, and then the completion part were not such personal favourites as Apelles; for there is no by part. He had got the picture finished as far as the bosom ; gratitude equal to the gratitude of being successfully painted. and therefore to finish highly by degrees was his system. He Kings bow to the unknown power of having their momen- was not deficient in expression, for he painted persons dying tary expressions observed, seized, transferred, and fixed for with great power. His imitation must have been perfect, ages, and whilst colours and canvas last, carried on, for the for his painted horses are said to have made real horses neigh; admiration of a distant age, when the existing one is past and and his colour must have been exquisite, for he glazed like forgotten. What can equal the gratitude of a woman to have the Venetian school. Pliny mentions him as one ot those her beauty preserved, whilst she is in her bl°om,lbr the ad- who painted with four colours ; but this is a mistake ; for it miration of her children when age has shrivelled her form, was in the age of Polygnotus that blue was not used. From or misfortune destroyed her happiness ? The world may be a passage in Cicero,2 it appears that that age was famous for elevated, excited, roused, by the commemoration of the gieat “ form and contour;” whereas, according to the same writer, deeds of ancestors or heroes ; but no sympathy is eve^x’ all things were perfect in the works of Protogenes, Nichocited, and no personal vanities are ever so happily gratified machus, Echion, and Apelles. by any class of painters, as by the great portrait-painter. 1 Pliny is therefore right in saying that pictures which condegree of imagination required is not of that irresistible kind stituted the opulence of towns, were painted with four colours which forces him to leave the model before him, using i on y only ; but he is not as clear as usual in regard to the period to realise his own burning conceptions, so that all likeness o to which this observation applies. Quintilian, calling the the individual is lost; he requires no more than to retain in colour of Polygnotus “ simplex color,” seems to indicate the his mind the best expression of the individual before him o absence of blue ; whilst red, yellow, black, and white did not identify it upon canvas. But it must be exactly like, or it is produce such gorgeous splendour as in the age of Apelles. nothing. After the likeness is completed, the sitter will have Thus Quintilian, as well as Cicero, collaterally proves Pliny no objection to the highest degree of embellishment. There to be in part right. It is extraordinary that Reynolds did not the great portrait-painter shews the degree of fancy wanted, 1 * Brutus, c- 18. Lucian.

PAINTING. 57 Fainting, allude to the absence of blue in the enumeration of Pliny. if, like the Greeks, he has always nature for his works, he Painting, Great depth, fine tone, simplicity, and modesty, can be ob- never can degenerate into manner. Of the other painters, Asclepiodorus was celebrated for protained without blue, but never that tremendous magnificence produced by the contrast of the deep and awful azures of I itian. portion ; Nicomachus for rapidity of hand, and Theon for wild Though Polygnotusdid not use blue, his black was made from conceptions, “ quas Graeci vocant fyavrcurias.” Pliny places vine-stalks and wine-lees,1 which render blackmoreblue than Theon amongst the herd, whilst Quintilian and iElian place the ivory black of Apelles, which was discovered by him, himamongst the illustrious, where heoughtto be. He paintand is used to this hour in Europe. There were several of ed a single warrior dashing forward on the spectators ; and the same name, but Apelles Cous distinguishes the great collecting the public, he kept the picture behind a curtain, when in the midst of a blast of trumpets, the curtain was Apelles, as Aristides Thebanus does the great Aristides. After this long account of the courtly, accomplished, and dropped, and the wonderful figure terrified the people. He highly-wrought Apelles, there may be something interest- also painted Orestes, distracted and insane, and proved himing to allude to Aristides the “ great master of expression,” self a great and wild inventor. The three remaining great as Fuseli calls him. He was the first who painted deep men of the fine period, were Pausias, Euphranor, and Timohuman emotions, fierce passions, and distressing perturba- machus. No passage has excited so much discussion as the tions ; but he was hard in colour, says Pliny, and not so har- well known one in Pliny, where he says, “ nulla gloria artifimonious as Apelles, probably like Raffaelle, the great Italian cum est, nisiqui tabulas^m^re,” as if he meant that the only master of expression, in comparison with Titian. His finest glory in art consisted in tabular pictures, “ irivaKes,” on wood, picture was that of a mother dying from a wound which she and that there was but little in monumental and mural efforts. had received in the sacking of her native city. Her infant Pliny, however, does not here contrast the tabular pictures was trying to reach the nipple with its boneless gums, whilst of Apelles with the mural paintings of Polygnotus, but with the mother, faint and exhausted, appeared struggling to save the works of one Ludius, a Roman, a mere ornamental it from sucking, lestbloodmight mingle with its nourishment; landscape-painter upon walls, like our Bond Street paper a tender and affecting thought. Alexander was so touched painters. This was much the fashion in Pliny’s time, which by this picture at 2Thebes, when the city was taken, that he laments; and many examples of the same species may now be seen in Pompeii. he sent it to Pella. Having thus described the fancies and caprices by which Protogenes was another of the great men of this time. It is indeed extraordinary to reflect how genius in art and the art had been degraded, Pliny turns to the highly beauliterature seems always to come in clusters in every coun- tiful tabular works of Apelles, and observes natui ally enough; try. He was born at a small town on the coast of Asia Minor, “ This is not the thing ; the glory of art and of artists consubject to the Rhodians ; and he got his living till he was sists in the Venus of Apelles, the mother of Aristides, the fifty years old, in great poverty, painting beautiful ornaments lalysus of Protogenes, and not in this mechanical whim, for the prows of ships. He was not a man of fertile inven- which is not the glory and the end of painting.” This, pertion, and spent years over single works, which induced Apel- haps, is the explanation which he wnuld give if he were alive les to say that he never knew when he had finished. His and able to answer us. Is it not unjust then to take up such celebrated work was Talissus, which occupied him seven groundas M. Raoul-Rochettehas done in France, and Payne years. Titian took eight to paint the Pietro Martyre, and Knight in England, and infer that there was no real glory in seven to finish the Last Supper for Charles V. ;3 and yet any other mode of painting ? The ancients estimated mural in Titian’s works there is no appearance of over diligence. painting at Delphi, as the Italians do in the Vatican. But Pliny says he painted his pictures four times over, so that they did not undervalue tabular painting, small pictures, enif one picture was destroyed another might be ready. No- caustic, landscapes, or humour ; they painted in every style thing shews so completely the exact degree of knowledge and they excelled in all. Pliny now proceeds to the encaustic painters, of whom which Pliny had of art as this absurd conclusion from an admirable practice. Protogenes proceeded with his works Pausias and Euphranor appear to have been the greatest. as Titian did, by stages ; and each stage was a separate im- Pausias was a master of foreshortening, as we learn from pasto of colour, which helped the next till completed. Of Pliny’s description of a bull which he painted in front this artist the story is told of his flinging his sponge at a and projecting beyond the tablet. After Pausias came the dog’s mouth in a rage, because he had vainly tried to hit Isthmian Euphranor, who wrote on symmetry and colour, breath coming out of it, and by that accident succeeding; painted great and small works, and delineated statues and a circumstance which shews that it was tempera painting, animals. He said of his Theseus, that “ it was real flesh, for a sponge would not have done for wax. Such a habit of whilst that of Parrhasius had fed on roses.” Ihen came daily application had Protogenes, that when Demetrius be- Nicias who painted women beautifully, understood light and sieged Rhodes, he would not leave his painting-room, but shadow, and was another pillar of art. Metrodorus was both proceeded daily in his studies amidst the noise of battering a philosopher and a painter ; and when the victorious Paulus rams and catapultae. The king came often to visit him ; desired Perseus to send him a philosopher to educate his and that part of the town where he worked was. spared, and children, and a painter to arrange his triumph, Metrodorus the picture thus finished was said to have been done at the was despatched as a person capable of executing both tasks. point of the sword. Protogenes painted the mother of Aris- Timomachus is the last of this splendid list whom it is necestotle ; and the philosopher urged him to execute the battles sary to mention. He died, like Apelles, leaving an important of Alexander; but he was not a man of rapid conception or work unfinished. fertile invention for a series, and could not be moved. Such were the most illustrious men of the three finest (jjory and It is curious to reflect, that all the great painters painted periods of Greek painting. The first period of Greek art decline of portraits; which proves that they thought it essential to that was that before Pericles ; the second, or that of Pericles Greek art. truth which was the foundation of their ideal beauty. Indeed, himself, was the finest, the highest, and the purest in paintevery great painter should paint a portrait a month ; and ing, sculpture, and architecture; the third was the epoch 1 See Pliny, lib. xxxv. The sea in the Venus Anadyomene is quoted as a proof that blue must have been used. But where is there any8 blue in Vandervelde ? We do not think that a picture exists with blue in his sea. Raffaelle imitated this in his plague, where a fine youth is putting away an infant from a dying mother’s bosom ; but the utter want of taste in making the hoy hold his nose for fear of infection, renders the sentiment not pathetic but at once disgusting and ridiculous. 3 See, in Ridolphi, Titian’s letter to the emperor. H VOL. XVII.

PAINTING. 58 the Sistine Chapel, Raffaelle when he entered the Painting. Painting. of Alexander, the most refined, but prophetic of the corrup- painted Vatican, or Phidias when he adorned the Parthenon ; that tion which followed ; then came the subjugation of the Ho- supernatural, incomprehensible something, which inspires mans, when the noblest works of the Greeks were seized “when the whole world seems adverse to desert,” was as tribute, or matters of right, and Italy was inundated by hope, gone from the earth like the glory which had blazed in the the productions of Greek talent. temple. All that the savage, splendid, imperial Romans This influx of foreign productions entirely suttocated Effects of the con- native Italian genius. Greek productions became matters ot could do, all the honours and riches they had to confer, were quest of Greece. formed to produce genius, which had sprung up from na- ed, and Augustus was said “ to have found Rome thatched, tional demand without a single gallery or a single collec- and left it marbled.” Not Babylon tion of any works, except the productions of their native soil. Nor great Alcairo, such magnificence The most celebrated works were copied and re-copied by Equalled in all their glories, to enshrine the Greeks in all parts of the Mediterranean. Horace alBelus or Serapis2 their gods, or seat ludes to this ; and there can be no doubt whatever that the Their kings, when Egypt with Assyria strove In wealth and luxury. effect was to render all native attempts of the Romans and Etruscans no longer available. For not one great artist is Claudius built a superb aqueduct, and Nero burned3 and named during the whole period of progressive decay from the rebuilt a golden palace ; but he could not replace the lines Caesars to Constantine; and the Romans or Latins never pro- of Apelles and Protogenes, or the miracles of Timanthes duced any talent worth consideration till the revival ot art in and Aristides, which perished in the conflagration. Galba, Italy, after so many ages, in the fifteenth century. Then, the Otho, and Vetellius were hurried through life and empire same principle operating, and the church and state demand- too rapidly for art; whilst Vespasian and Titus bewildered ing art as an assistant, outpoured an abundance of native ta- the Romans with their Cyclopean masses. Hadrian, himlent, because there was a vent, as there had been before, in self an artist, endeavoured to recover art by indiscriminately Greece, Egypt, and Chaldaea; and the genius of Rome, b lo- encouraging Etruscans, Greeks, and Romans ; “ but such a rence, Pisa, and Venice, vindicated their long suppressed medley of principle as their works displayed, says Agmclaims to originality. Amongst the illustrious Romans, court,4 “ hastened the decay of art, and rendered the emperTulius Caesar seems to have been a magnificent collector , or hopeless of reviving it.” The art thus went floundering hut whether, like Napoleon, he was also a magnificent patron on until Diocletian, with all the gorgeous splendour of an of the talent of his time is not known. He bought Greek eastern monarch, mingled together Roman, Greek, and oripictures, and presented them to Roman temples ; but one ental art, and corrupting all taste led to its extinction. It was work of native art, produced by native patronage, is more between the reign of Commodus and that of Constantine, honour both to patron and to artist than a gallery of foreign that those causes were generated which undermined the empictures be they ever so divine. . pire, and brought art, science, and literature into the chasm. Upon the whole, before tracing art from its decay to its Of forty emperors who, from the second to the fourth cenrevival, we cannot but acknowledge as evident, that a period tury had struggled for the diadem and obtained it, twenty of dearth in genius has generally succeeded in the world to had been murdered by the army and the people. “ Amsi one of prolific production. In painting and sculpture, second- says Montesquieu “ comme la grandeur de la republique, fut ary causes, such as the nature of the government, or the circum- fatale au gouvernement republicain, la grandeur de 1 emstances of the two arts being required for political purposes, pire le fut a la vie des empereurs.”* Constantine’s remomay considerably facilitate the development of genius. But val of the seat of empire did not so much begin the destrucit is not so with the poet. He can give vent to his immortal tion of art as complete it; for previous causes, domestic and thoughts in poverty or wretchedness, independently of the political, had been preparing the ruin for centuries before. taste of the times, or the patronage of the state. Milton, in Agincourt thinks that as far as art is concerned, too much Age of obscurity and blindness, wrote Paradise Lost; and Savage, in has been attributed to this removal of the empire. But yet Constanpoverty and wretchedness, composed his Bastard \n the the first epoch of what may be called modern art in oppo-™e. • a Artist streets, begging bits of paper as he walked, when he had ^ —. ^^must date from theCk intrnflnir>Yl introduction of CHirist Christmore thoughtsthan his mind could contain, and thus,P as effec- sition to when the whole moral feelings of tually preserved them as if he had been br^ f / GreJk anq Romans took another turn in painting and sculphad sheets of the finest hot-pressed to recei Although Constantine only grafted Christianity on ture< tions.1 , f ^ Pao-anism and founded more Catholicism than Christianity, of Inferiority After the Greece, and theremova by meeting and uniting the prejudices of both Pagans and Jf the Ho artists to Rome, the genius of painting seems to have leR °y S surelyy if genius could ever be created by g man school, the world. The Roman school of painting and sculp^ Ghnstian8 y of C onstantine, and those of Charleis scarcely worth a ^ngle t^ Magnet and Louis XIV. ought to have rivalled those of Perepublic the art sunk rapidly. Augustus tried to rev ^^ ^ was the rage for splendour in this but though the pupils and descendan s ° ^ writ_ rei that the quarries of Phrygian marble and of the isle tto?Apellet EuSal, a^d SpMus, Je all in existence, and their principles known and acted upon, genius was nowhere to be found. That divine *Par 'y1 1 s a tendant whisper, unseen but not unheard, whic ever a 1 tends the gifted who are born for great objects, w.e^ supported Columbus amidst the storms of the Atlantic, Alexander as he plunged into Asia, Napoleon as he rushe m o Italy, Wellington at Waterloo, Michel Angelo when he

of destroyed to fltmish,palaces forProconnesna, the emperor,were his almost sons, and his ministers. Temples, palaces, forums, triumphal arches, colossal statues, an hippodrome, and eight public baths were built and adorned at once ; and in addition, splendid commissions were given to the painters for pictures of Christ, the Virgin, the prophets, and the apostles. Rome, Naples, Capua, Antioch, Tyre, Jerusalem, and even Bethlehem, felt the effects of this mag-

e of Serapis short, whereas it is in reality long, Serapis; 2' See Johnson’s Lives of the Poets, art. Savage. In tms beautiful passage, the immortal author has made tue pe y llabl an error which could scarcely have been expected in one who was a great sc o P ^ ^ ^ pomainSi 3 Tacitus does not seem altogether to believe it. 4 Agmcourt, Histoire de l Art, tom-1^

PAINTING. 59 Golzius and Spranger, there began the cant of “ nature putPainting, Painting, nificent employment; but what were the results to paintNothing, absolutely nothing, to guide anybody except ting an artist out.” What Zeuxis did not dare to do, what the antiquary ; and if any evidence were wanting to show Apelles never thought of, what Phidias never permitted to that the genius and the patron must exist together, or the be mentioned in his school, a parcel of painters brought into result will be nothing, the end of Constantine’s splendour practice by the very mysticism of their impossible theories. Man was corrupt, being born in sin and vicious in practice ; would abundantly supply it. The moral character of ancient Greece was gone; the to take him as a model therefore when painting holy subjects, instinct of public glory was passed; their olive crowns, the was to act under the influence of Satan. Man was banished, adequate reward of talent on a great principle, were sneered and so was woman, and nature in every thing ; till at last all at; and “ Lucian,” (as the author of the Discours Histor- painters painted in one way, and in came manner into the great ique observes) “ had already ridiculed this tribunal,” which art of nature, and like a “ leperous distillment” stained her had listened with rapture to Herodotus, and crowned Action garment and poisoned her beauty. Yet the traditional maxims for a fine picture, and which in its days of Marathonian glory, of the ancient fathers, on beauty and art, give one a very had done more than ever was done before or since in rous- good idea of what were the maxims of the finer Pagan periing human effort, mental and bodily, to its highest pitch of ods. “ Art is nothing but an imitation of nature,” says St. excellence. Luxury, indolence, vice, fanaticism, cant, so- Athanasius, (Orat. contr. Gent. c. xviii. p. 18.) “Ancient phistry, intrigue, and imposture, had supplanted the pure as- artists sought to surpass each other by faithful imitation,” pirations of patriotism and glory. “ The great and the (Arnob. Advers. Gent, lib.vi.fol. 68) “ Nature is the archeopulent,” says Pliny and Vitruvius, “ were fonder of gold type, art the image ; every image has a model, and painters and glitter than purity of design or pathos of expression, or imitate what they see,” (Theodoret.) “ Imitation is the perfection of form; overwhelmed with colours from all the merit of painting; be not seduced by an illusion,” (St. Clecountries of the earth, with double the advantages of Polyg- ment.) “ When begging the people not to be seduced by notus, and Zeuxis, and Aristides,” who painted with four pictures and statues as if they were gods, tell them that piconly, “ nulla nobilis pictura est.” Of course, this is al- tures and statues are imitations of nature, and therefore ways the end, when the moral and national importance of cannot be gods.” These maxims of the fourth century had painting is undervalued. When native art is despised, and clearly descended from a nobler era. Besides the treatises spurious foreign productions are preferred; when connois- of Apelles, Euphranor, and Pamphilus, were all in existence, seurs of what is past abound, and connoisseurs of what is and were read by the educated and accomplished ; and we passing exist not; when painting is considered as a bauble see how skilfully the fathers of the church tried to save fine or a bit of furniture, and painters share dignity with upholster- works from destruction, by assuring the people that they ers and gilders, what wonder if “ nulla pictura” is the cry ? were mere imitations of life, for such was the principle of Gold and vermilion being thus introduced upon the walls artists. Are not these quotations then collateral evidences of of palaces and preferred to beautiful art, in came arabes- the practice of the Greeks, if we had known nothing of the ques. Claudius had before introduced Indian patterns and girls of Crotona sitting to Zeuxis ? But Christianity was at first the ruin of art, by making influence mosaic pictures, which had hitherto been kept for pavepurity of heart every thing, and physical ugliness, or defer- 0f Chnstiments, till Commodus, for the sake of a new sensation, had a portrait in his palace of Piscennius Niger,1 painted in mity, nothing; by teaching that as all beautiful works of artanity on mosaic, which may be considered as the first picture of this were remnants of idolatry, they ought to be destroyed; and the arts, description. When painting was in this staggering condi- by inculcating that mankind being corrupt and born in sin, tion, Justinian gave it a final blow by ordering encaustic no Christian painter ought to look at the naked figure whilst and distemper designs, as vulgar, to be banished from ceil- he was painting it. Add to these prejudices, the predilecings and walls, and mosaic, marble, and gold, to be pre- tion of eastern nations for gold and silver, the preference of ferred. Though mosaic was perhaps one of the means of eastern dresses to the simplicity of Greek clothing, the conpreserving art and of introducing it into Italy, yet it should troversies which took place as to whether our Saviour was only be used in pavements, or to preserve the works of great ugly or handsome, and the vehemence with which Pagans masters. The anti-pagan zeal of the early Christians is and Christians both entered into them; and no one can wonwell known. They used to put ropes round the necks of der at the state into which painting declined. Apollos and Venuses to try them publicly, like criminals, The division of opinion about the person of Christ, and Represenfind them guilty, and pound them to dust. But human na- the dread of the early Fathers to expose the cross to Pa-tations of ture is always the same. A thousand years afterwards a gans, who, familiar with golden-locked Apollos and perfum- Christ, similar scene was acted in Scotland by John Knox and the ed Venuses, could not comprehend that suffering and mareformers,2 nor had England escaped the fury of iconoclasm. jestic pains were founded upon a higher philosophy, so emEusebius informs us that in the empire whole towns rose barrassed the painters, that to avoid collision they painted and destroyed the temples in which they had just worshipped. Christ as an allegory thus lingering with their Greek feelThe air echoed with the noise of hammers, the crashing of ings about the form of beauty and of grace. It must be pediments, the breaking of pillars, and the shouts of a mad- interesting to all readers thus to trace the progress of feeling dened and frenzied populace. The finest works of Phidias, relating to the head of Christ.3 In the fourth, fifth, and sixth Scopas, Polycletus, and Praxiteles, and all that was left of centuries, beauty and youth still predominated ; and he is Polygnotus, Apelles, Zeuxis, or Euphranor, were demolished painted youthful and handsome, crushing the lion under or burned, like wretches who had infected religion, and their his feet, or as a young shepherd with his flock. With alleashes were danced on with fanatical exultation. So great in- gory the beauty of our Saviour ended, whilst the Fathers of deed had been the destruction, that when Arcadius and the church, like the priests of Egypt, interfered, and issued Honorius issued a fresh edict to go on destroying, they an edict ordering him to be represented in agony on the added, as well they might, “ Si qua etiam nunc in templis cross. But here the order was evaded. The Greeks still fanisque consistent, “ If any pictures or statues are still left.” struggled for the beautiful, and as if it were the never-dying During this frenzy was introduced into art, painting with- principle of their souls, painted our blessed Saviour dying out nature., and after producing a race of monsters down to upon the cross, but smiling with triumphant glory as if re1 3

Spartian, In Vita Pise. Nig. cap. 6. * Montesq. Decadence des Bomains, 133. St. Augustin declares that in his time no faces of Christ or the Virgin were known, and that no pictures were painted of them before the council of Ephesus; yet there are seven reported originals, four of which are by St. Luke’s own hand, now in Rome.

PAINTING. 60 Though the art suffered at the death of Charlemagne, yet Painting, Painting- ioicing in his sacrifice. In whatever the Greeks were com- it was kept alive by monks and by bishops. At Rome, at ' pelled to do, beauty seemed still to be the basis of their art. Palermo, and at Milan, religious painters preserved itfrom de- ^ By degrees, however, the poor descendants of Apelles and cay ; they sprung up all over Europe, and even St. Uunstan, Polygnotus finding no employment except on the conditions Archbishop of Canterbury, is spoken of as a skilful painter prescribed, the person of Christ became gradually degraded and maker of instruments. , t in art; and at the separation of the Latin church, to pain It is curious, after all that has been written about oil him uo-ly, bloody and agonized, was the settled principle ot painting, and the discovery made by John Van Eyk, to find a representation, and has more or less influenced his represen- writer of this period called Eraclius, in a treatise on painting, tation ever since. There seems to be some doubt as to the ex- speaking of oil painting : “ De omnibus coloribus cum oleo tentofthe devastation committed by the Goths. Alaric stayed distemperatis.” Another monk wrote a treatise, in which but three days in Rome, and Attila had himself painted in one he says, “ he will tell the world how the Greeks mixed of his Milan palaces seated on1 a throne, and receiving the their colours.” Now, as according to Suidas, the writings of homage of a Roman emperor. Theodoric seems to have Apelles and Euphranor, were in existence in the tenth cenhad a very good feeling for art. He laments, in a letter to tury, and these people lived about that time, there is reason Symmachus, the ruins of works of genius, begs their preser- to believe that they were aware of oil painting having been vation, and concludes with observing that Rome has still a practised in ancient Greece, and that subsequent discovepopulation of statues with herds of bronze horses, i he ex- ries were but different revivals. . . pulsion of the Goths and the invasion of the Lombards, again Whilst the art feebly struggled on in the west, the court afflicted the art; but it had found its way into France, and of Constantine Porphyrogenituswasthe rendezvous of artists, the churches of Paris, Tours, Bordeaux and Clermont, were and in 997 St. Mark was built at Venice by Greeks, in ornamented by native painters. ,11 a contrasting Greek with Roman art at this time, the Greek is Epoch of Though the popes had begun to adorn the churches, and still superior. The Greek composition did not want dignity, Charleart in the earliest times had been kept alive with consider- whilst in the Roman, all sound principle seemed dead. I he magne. able talent in the catacombs in Rome ; though Lurope had most ignorant Greeks shewed taste in their draperies, and their been astonished by the splendour of the ecclesiastical patron- heads have character, and in the arrangement of hair, they age of painters ; yet the next great epoch after Constantine remind one of the Panathenaic procession ; whilst the Hooriginates in the efforts of the illustrious Charlemagne. lie mans, with their large heads and long limbs, evince a gross formed the plan of renovating art, science and literature; and ignorance of beauty. . , , he would have accomplished his object, if the genius of the b In the tenth century, tapestry for a time superseded age had been worthy of the emperor. The ancient practice painting; though in Germany, France, Italy and England, of painting churches, kept alive by previous popes, he con- many painters flourished. In England, historical commefirmed by a law ; and agents every year visited the provin- morations were in fashion, and the Duchess of Northumces to see that the lawwas observed. If a royal church was to berland adorned Ely Cathedral with a series of pictures be painted, the bishops and abbots were responsible, if, in the illustrating the deeds of her distinguished lord. ^ liei1 midst of a campaign, an order was issued for a church, one William the Conqueror came, he introduced a new style ot to paint the walls was included; and no church was con- architecture ; but both at York and Canterbury, paintings sidered as finished till that was done, the object of the em- then adorned the walls. In 1013, ahead of Christ was exeperor being to obliterate the remembrance of the splendid cuted in mosaic, and is still considered as the wonder of the altars of the Pagans, by still more magnificent Christian or- middle ages. . . , naments. “ Repair your church,” says the archbishop of After so many vicissitudes of fortune, painting now began Symptom* Treves ; “ you know the decision of the emperor. to shew symptoms of revival. Frescos had been executed m 0 reviv Two monkish painters of the time are celebrated; and Rome in 498,and in795; and there was a head of Christ paintFrance and Britain began even at this early period, to take ed in St. John Lateran, and still to be there seen, which an interest in the arts. Biscop, abbot of Weremouth, had gave evidence of great feeling. But the grand impulse was broughtpictures from Italy. Charlemagne had invited king given in the year 1066, when St.Didier sent for Greek artists Offra to protect painting, with but little effect; yet though to adorn Monte Casino at Subiaco. The example was folthe walls of English churches were whitewashed, the Lnglisli lowed. Pisa, Venice, Amalfi, Genoa, and Milan, ml munibegan to adorn the ceilings and the windows, and hung ta- cipal corporations rivalled each other; and when Pisa sent to Greece to collect as many splendid remains of art as could PC In Spain, the Arabians had introduced their art, such as it be obtained to adorn the dome of the city, Buschetto, a celecould be, under the prohibition of Mohammed ; and minia- brated Greek architect, was engaged to superintend their tures or manuscripts were so eagerly bought all over u- embarkation, to accompany them during the voyage, and to rope, that the artists in France, Germany and Italy, devoted land them safely for the purchasers. Buschetto was received themselves to this production; though here again it was with so much enthusiasm, that he founded a school of sculpacknowledged by all, that they were beaten by the Greeks. ture, which existed for two hundred years ; and ultimate y In spite of all this, the art continued to decay; andatthe se- out of this very Greek school, came the great artist Nicolo cond Council of Nice the members gave evidence of the state Pisano, the head of the Italico-Pisan school. From this .0 which monks and bishops had reduced it. ow moment art, after having sunk to the lowest barbarism, went painters be blamed?” saythey; “ the painter on improving till the taking of Constantinople by MohamInvention and composition belong to the Fathers , t med II., an event which scattered the Greeks collected at iiloneisthe painters’.” Inadvertently, too, tie emperor m that court all over Europe. Hundreds went to Italy as paintjured the art by altering the dress of his cavalry an 00 . ers, sculptors, chasers, and mosaic painters ; and by their The women as usual followed the example, and having re struggles for existence, inoculated Italian artists with some linquished the pure taste of the Greeks, dress has in conse remnant of their taste for beauty, decayed as it was. Cimaquence become an annual novelty and change. The a a in bue was their pupil, and Giotto was his. The Catholic churcn and his horse were covered with iron and mail; angles an wanted artists, and genius again began to shew itself. One straight lines predominated; the naked form was more than man of genius appeared after another, till Michel Angelo, ever concealed, and the artist deprived of his materials. 1

Suidas.

2

William of Malmesbury.

s Concil. Nic. ii. act. vi. tom. iv. ed. 1714.

♦ Strutt.

61 PAINTING. Painting. Leonardo, Raffaelle, Titian, and Corregio, were the glorious crucifixion by Guinta Pisano, who, according to an inscrip-v Painting, w results. And though it cannot be denied that the high as- tion, learned his art from the Greeks in 1210. This was be- ' *“V" pirations of Christianity, by placing every thing human on fore Cimabue ; but Lanzi says that the work is not inferior its proper level on earth, in comparison with eternal happi- to Cimabue, and in drapery, colour, light, and shadow, comness, had justly prostrated the splendid beauty of Pagan position and expression, very like the contemporary Greeks. art, by exposing its idolatrous tendencies ; though the suf- Guinta disappeared and died, nobody knows where or how. ferings, and the agonies of its founder and its martyrs had Guido di Sienna was another name of this early period. In revived its pathos with higher objects than mere beauty of the Louvre there were some exquisite heads of angels with form or face, and saved painting and sculpture from ex- gilt glories, full of beauty and expression, executed by this tinction ; yet it must be acknowledged, that the beauty of artist. Then followed Margaritone, who painted on canvas, Christian art has never rivalled the indisputable perfection covered with size and plaster for a ground ; which the Egypof the Pagans. To their enthusiastic overestimate of the tians, Greeks, and Romans, had done long before his time. During the time that the neighbouring cities had foundreligious value of physical, as emblematic of moral beauty, is their perfection attributable ; but if it can only be revived ed a new style, Florence had no painters ; but when the auby some similar delusion, the result will in our opinion more thorities called in some Greeks in 1250, it is asserted that than atone for any thing that seems doubtful or questionable there was a painter called Bartolomeo. Vasari wishes of course to infer that Cimabue was the first Italian painter in the principle. The most eminent pictures of the middle ages, setting aside who gave the impulse ; but Lanzi proves the contrary. the cemeteries or catacombs, which cannot legitimately be Although there is no city we owe so much to as Florence, referred to the middle ages, but to the earliest ages of yet the Florentines ought not to be allowed to deprive their Christianity, are to be found in Rome. The greatest works old enemies of the honour of having produced earlier painof the middle ages are the series of Popes, begun in the fifth ters, besides Pisano. Cimabue, who was both architect and painter, was honour- Cimabue. century, and continued down to the present time. The next, which was executed in the year 1011, is the painting of the ably descended. That he might have been the scholar of church of St. Urbano, where some of the acts of the Apos- Guinta is probable, because the Italians knew more than the tles are represented on the walls. Though the mosaics of Greeks of that time; but there is every reason to believe St. Mark’s, executed by Greeks, were earlier, and kept art that he learnt of those Greeks who had been called to Floalive, yet, according to Lanzi, nothing in reality appeared rence, and whom, according to Vasari, he stood whole days, which gave symptoms of the approach of any thing extraor- when a boy, watching as they painted in Santa Maria Nodinary, till about the thirteenth century ; and this revolu- vella. From this moment indeed may be dated the excitement which impelled him to become a painter. At Astion of style was entirely owing to sculpture. Italian The glory of this art belongs partly to the Tuscans, the le- sisi his genius seems to have been put forth with most power. schools of gitimate descendants of the ancient Etruscans, but most es- Lanzi concludes the notice of him by saying, that Cimabue painting— pecially to the Pisans, who first had the courage to burst the was the Michel Angelo, and Giotto the Raffaelle of his age. The Tus- y0jce Greek art in its fallen state had imposed upon In the Louvre there were one or two large examples of Virgins, staring and Gothic, and which the French, still more em 1 Pisano th > and to go at once to the antique ; and this glory be1San °‘ longs to Nicolo Pisano, a pupil of the school originally found- Gothic, were absolutely repainting. Vigorous in his colour, ed by the Greek Buschetto. There were in Pisa several and colossal but ill-proportioned in his figures, Cimabue first ancient sarcophagi, but especially one, containing the body gave indications of attempting something new in painting ; of Beatrice, mother of the Countess Matilda, with a bas-re- indeed, his watching the Greeks all day is so like an infatulief in good style, which served as the model of Nicolo ; on ated youth, that it bears truth on the face of it. Florence this he formed his style, in which there is something of the was often in commotion when his works appeared ; and antique, especially in his heads and draperies. Many artists although he was not actually the oldest painter, he was the who had not done so before, immediately devoted them- first of that series which ended in Raffaelle. His style was selves to sculpture ; and Nicolo Pisano must be considered meagre, his drapery sharp, and his colour a species of illuas the first Italian, who opened the eyes of his contemporaries mination ; but though he had no light and shadow or perto the true principle of using the antique, that is, keeping spective, he was a great man for his time; and in some of nature in view at the moment of practice. In 1231 he cut his heads there are both character and expression. Men of genius assist to call forth men of genius. In the Giotto, an urn in Bologna, whence he was called “ Nicolo of the urn;” and he produced two stories of the last judgment at neighbourhood of Florence, Cimabue accidentally found a Orvieto, and another work at Pisa, which convinced the youth tending sheep, and trying to draw one upon a slate. world that he was born to found an epoch. He executed After some conversation with the boy, finding the youth amother great works, and was really the head of the illustrious bitious to become an artist, he consulted his father, took school which produced Orcagna, Donatello, and the famous him immediately under his own tuition, and advanced him Lorenzo Ghiberti, who made the beautiful bronze doors of rapidly. Cimabue was amply repaid for his generous conwhich Michel Angelo said, that they were worthy to be the duct, as the innocent youth was Giotto, afterwards one of gates of paradise. the great men of the time. No man can judge of Giotto s Many other eminent men came from his school. All Italy genius in England, because fragments of single heads or bits was more or less affected by Pisano’s genius; and though a of altar pieces, are no fair criteria of a genius like his. His sculptor, his effect on design was so great, that he must series of pictures in the Campo Santo are admirable, if allowbe considered as having had a material influence on paint- ance be made for the taste and simplicity of the age; but there ing. Painting remained behind sculpture, and even mo- are many actions and positions of Giotto, as fine as can be consaic ; and Vasari exaggerates the effect of Cimabue’s ap- ceived, and which other artists by aggrandising in form, have pearance in the year 1240; for Lanzi proves that there were rendered models of imitation. He was the friend of Dante, Pisan painters of talent before that period, and that the and painted the portrait of the great poet. He seems to early art does not in the first instance owe so much to the have been a facetious and amiable man as well as a genius, Florentines as Vasari has asserted. At Assisi there is a and was indisputably the greatest painter till Massaccio. He 1 The writer of this article, who saw a Frenchman solidly repainting a large picture of Cimabue in the private rooms of the Louvre, where he was admitted by Denon, asked the Frenchman who it was by; “Monsieur,” said he, “ je ne suis pas peintre, je suis restaurateur."

PAINTING. G2 Painting, went about Italy scattering seeds every where, and when or any period cannot be compared to the finest works of Parting. yet a good style of design was established, but un’ the Papal See was moved to Avignon, he went with the court. Greece, equal to those refined forms of beauty, so palpable in the merest Giotto was the greatest of the Florentine school. He was fragments of the works of the school of Phidias, which have the father of painting, as Boccaccio was the father of liter- all the look of life without any of its vulgarities, all the esature. He was sought for at Ravenna, and at all the great sential details, without a single superfluous one. This cantowns of Italy, and was patronised by all the first families. not be said of the naked figures of the period in question, or He was an object of study and admiration, until the time of any period of Italian art, not even of the art of Michel of Raffaelle, and that of the Caracci, and is so even at the Angelo and Raffaelle. There was a want which Greek forms present time. There are in Giotto instances of pathos and only supplied ; there was an absence of refinement and a expression, which would do honour to any period. Thus want of something which the Greeks possessed. Michel Anthe greater part of the merit belongs to the Florentines, but gelo and Raffaelle were educated without system, there not the whole. Giotto died in 1336, when painters had in- was no school in Italy like the schools of Sicyon and Rhodes, creased immensely. In 1290, the first society of artists in Athens, and Corinth, where all the hidden secrets of perfect Venice was established, under the protection of St. Luke. form were taught, that is, the secret of beauty. Michel AnThey were not academies, but associations of artists, comand Raffaelle owed their greatness to their own genius ; posed of engravers, painters, sculptors, and orefici. Their gelo and their art died with them. There has been nothing in object was to advance design in all arts ; and had they the world like the art of Phidias, except the poetry of Shakesalways continued to act on this honest and simple princip e, peare. The intellectual powers and perceptive senses of we should not now have had to lament in Europe a race the Greeks must have been several degrees more refined who are synonymous with every thing weak, mannered, and than those of all preceding or subsequent nations. absurd in art. „ . ... , The followers of Giotto had advanced the art from infancy Massaccio. The next distinguished artist was Buffalmaco. Although in colour, composition, and expression ; but in perspective, totally independent of Giotto, he was also intima-te v it i and light and shadow, they left it as they found it. Uccello Boccaccio. He was very capricious, and worked only when had given symptoms of perspective, and Massohno da Pamhe liked, yet he was inferior to no one. He painted the cale of light and shadow, until the appearance of Masso di Crucifixion, Resurrection, Ascension, and Creation of the Giovanni, a youth so immersed in study, so utterly abWorld in the Campo Santo ; in fact, the Campo Santo seems S. sorbed in his divine art, that he neglected dress, health, food, to have been a receptacle for all the distinguished geniuses sleep, and seemed only to be conscious of life when he touchas they appeared in that age. In it there are things as fine ed a pencil. For this entire neglect of the humanities and in conception as were ever imagined ; and the foundation of comforts of life, the Italians, whose satirical turn is ever apsome of Raffaelle’s best compositions in the Vatican may be parent, added accio to Masso {accio affixed to any word exthere found. Vasari’s life of Buffalmaco is exceedingly en- citing associations of dirt or ugliness), so that Massamo tertaining, as indeed all his lives are. meant a dirty and neglectful man. Neglectful as he was, The OrThe two Orcagnas, Andrea and Bernardo, were the next cagnas. artists of this early school. Andrea painted the Judgment however, he was the immediate precursor of Raffaelle ; ami all the great subsequent painters studied him. Raffaelle borand the Inferno, in the Campo Santo. He was full of in- rowed from him Paul in Elymas, the Adam and the Eve in vention, but not equal to the Giotto school, though he first the Loggia, and other entire figures. Like Apollodorus, he gave evidence of perspective. Lanzi thinks that the art did opened the doors; and Raffaelle having passed through, not advance so quickly after Giotto’s death as it ought to never forgot his obligations. Ghiberti and Donatello formhave done. Taddeo Gaddi, his best pupil, was to him ed his style ; from Brunaleschi he learnt proportion ; and what Julio Romano was to Raffaelle. Vasari, who saw his though the finest antiques were not known in his time, he pictures in good condition, says, that he excelled his master improved himself by study ing suchas were in existence. Ihe in fleshiness and colour. Agnolo Gaddi the son of 1 addeo, airs of his heads are Raffaellesque, says Mengs ; yet, would was a humble imitator of Giotto and his father, and had as it not be more just to say, that Raffaelle’s heads are iuashis pupil Cennino Cennini, whose treatise on the mechanical saciesque ? Raffaelle died the favourite of a court, loved, preparations of the art is very valuable. Fortunate would lamented, and in competence. Massaccio so excited the it have been had the treatises of Apelles and Euphranor envy of his inferiors, that it is suspected he was poisoned also reached \is* at the age of twenty-eight, before he had fairly taken his Florentine Pisa now began to decline, and the Florentines took pos- ground. Surely, then, when Massaccio is praised for what school. session of that city in 1406. Hated and detested by their must have been his own, it is not quite fair to teim his exconquerors, the spirit of the citizens sunk into the greatest cellence, that of a man who came after him, and perhaps depression ; the artists left the city, and the school entirely owed it to him. His works are at S. Ambrogio and del decayed. The Florentines now rose in the ascendant. Carmine in Florence, and St. Catherine in Rome. His heads The Medici began to appear. Cosmo, the father of his are full of character, his drapery is beautifully composed, and country and the protector of genius, gave fresh energy to his composition is unaffected, but his knowledge of the naked art, science, and public affairs. Lorenzo followed, and their form is feeble and vulgar. Some of the heads of del Carhouse became the refuge and resort of all who were cele- mine are full of character like Holbein, with the same look brated in painting, poetry, sculpture, architecture, and of rigidity in expression ; but he was a true genius, benephilosophy. Massaccio, the two Piselh, the two Lippi, fitino- by his predecessors, going beyond them, and enabling Binozzo, Sandro, and Ghirlandaio, received from the Me- those who studied him to carry the art to the highest point dici protection and employment. The pictures 0 t e ime it ever reached in Italy. Pietro Perrugino, Leonardo, Rafhave perpetual portraits of the Medici. The citizens e faelle, and Michel Angelo, all studied and all were benefitcame animated with the same spirit; frescoes covere t e ed by him. In the Palazzo Pitti there is a portrait of a churches, and smaller works filled the houses. Up sprung, young man who looks alive. _ ,• too, that host of painters, marble-cutters, bronze-casters, After several names of great merit, we reach one who ad-Ghirlandaio and chasers, by which the principles of design passed from vanced towards the great era ; we mean Domenicho GhirPisa to Florence ; and out blazed before the world Dona- landaio, the master of Michel Angelo, a circumstance which tello, Brunelleschi, Ghiberti. The most exquisite productions of sculpture, marble, and bronze followed. The youth alone is a passport to immortality. Fuseli says, that he was first Florentine who added truth to composition by truth became inoculated; sound design became the first necessity the of perspective. The abolition of gold fringes in drapery may of manufacture; and though the finest works of Italy at this

PAINTING. 63 Painting, be dated from him; though his historical figures are little and never seemed to have hit the exact medium between Painting, more than portraits well selected. The last important name all three, like Phidias. Their colour was not rich, like the of the first epoch of Italian art was that of Luca Signorelli, Venetians; their draperies clung too closely to the limb as who had glimpses of real grandeur. His dome at Orvieto, if they were wet; they made an ostentatious display of the where he painted the Last Judgment, has bold fore-shorten- limb underneath; in fact their system degenerated into ing, with absurdities of an earlier date mixed up in it; manner, and beauty seems not to have been a primary obhut Michel Angelo adopted many of his ideas, as well as ject in the Florentine school, any more than in that of their Dante’s; and certainly the absurd assertion that he “disdain- ancestors the Etruscans. At Fontainebleau, though the ed to look abroad for foreign help,”1 is successfully refuted designs of Primaticcio were full of talent, yet they gave a5 very good idea of the excess of the Florentine manner. by this fact. One can see how gradually art sunk after its decay into The two great luminaries of Florence were Da Vinci and Gothicism ; how gradually it advanced again to nature and Michel Angelo. Da Vinci was less of a mannerist than the common sense, and from common sense to elevation. Dur- other great man. He was, in fact, the link between the ing this first period the approaches to ideal beauty, imperfect meagreness of the first period of design, and the vulgar as it was in Italian art, were gradual, and would have been swing of the second. longer in coming had not the discovery of the Apollo, and Leonardo was born in 1452. He was a natural son, and Leonardo other ancient works, opened the eyes of all the great men had all the eccentricity, sloth and fire, weakness and energy, da Vinci, living, and a spring taken place from Perrugino, Ghirlandaio, idleness and diligence of that class. A poet, a musician, a and the Bellini, which was soon visible in the works of Itaf- mathematician, an hydraulist, a mechanic, a modeller, and faelle and Michel Angelo. Leonardo seems not to have been a painter; he excelled in all. Keen, eager, minute, searchsmitten by the ancients to the same degree as the other two ing and indefatigable, handsome in face, beautiful in perwere. There is less obligation to any nation in him; son, tall in figure, athletic and skilled in manly exercises, a and unquestionably few as are left of the effusions of his graceful dancer, a splendid horseman, and an harmonious genius, they are more original than the Vatican or Sistine singer; he equally delighted the people, infatuated the Chapel. What was there in the world to put us in mind of women, and bewitched the sovereign. And yet with all the Standard struggle or Last Supper of Da Vinci ? this vast power, the gift of his Creator, he was so deficient Oil paint- But before proceeding, it may be as well to allude to the in concentration of mind, that he seemed to have no power ir 'gquestion of oil painting. It was long a supposition that Van of collecting its rays sufficiently long to make discoveries Eyk discovered it, and that it was not known before ; where- in any thing. He was the scholar of Verocchio, by whom as, it was used in England in 1230, long before the time of he wras infected with a lazy love of design in preference to Van Eyk. Cennino Cennini wrote a treatise on the techni- the vigorous energy of using the brush. He passionately cal practice of the Italian painters ; he was a pupil of Ag- loved geometry, horses, and soldiers ; and in his horses he nolo Gaddi, who was a pupil of Taddeo Gaddi, who was a never left nature like Raffaelle, Julio Romano, or Michel pupil of Giotto, who was a pupil of Cimabue, who was a pupil Angelo, but gave them their natural characteristics of fleshy of the Greeks. There can be no question that from the nostrils and projecting eyes. mixture of oil with punic wax2 as a varnish, the use of oil His two greatest works are his Last Supper, and his Batwas known to the ancient Greeks, and that it was 3carried tle of the Standard. The beautiful humility of Christ, the on to the tenth century, when the monk Theophilus wrote tender amiability of St. John, the powerful expressions of all his treatise. He positively describes how to mix the colour the apostles waving to and fro in their attitudes, as if disturbwith oil instead of water, and how to boil the oil; and then ed in their feelings, by the remark of Christ, that “ one of we can prove its existence by actual documents in the rolls them should betray him,” prove the extent of his genius, and of the Exchequer in England (1239), and by the 23d of the depth of his perceptions. But even here, the bane of Henry III., wherein the king issues an order to “ our trea- his existence, that disposition to experiment, has ruined the surer Odo the goldsmith and his son, to be paid 117 shill- work, more from the consequences of his own preparations, ings for oil, varnish, and colors bought, and for pictures than either time or damp. Such men are never regarded made in the chamber of our Queen at Westminster,”4 nearly as steady lights by posterity; painting was only a portion two hundred years before Van Eyk. There can be no of his occupations, and not the end of his life. One quarter doubt that oil painting has never been unknown, even to of the lives of such men is spent in experiments ; another the Egyptians; it has been forgotten and revived, but none quarter in putting them in practice ; a third in lamenting of the periods of revivals are entitled to the honour of dis- their failure ; and the last amidst the bitterest remorse, decovery. “ Cbaque nation a ses avantages, et ses desavan- voting themselves to their real pursuit, to satisfy the cravtages, said a Frenchman to us, whilst shrugging his shoul- ings of conscience and the reproach of the world. What has ders as a spout of water from a roof drenched him to the Leonardo left us in all his various pursuits to compensate us skin in Paris ; and “ Ogni nazione ha le sue virtu, ha i suoi for the loss which accrued to painting ? Geometry was as vizi,” says Lanzi. Every nation which confesses its vices, much a caprice of his extraordinary mind, as any other is sure to have justice done to its virtues. There is no Ital- science. What has he left us in poetry, which poets could ian school, however good, which has not its errors, and none look up to ? What in mechanics, that Watt could have which has not its excellencies as well as its mistakes. founded on ? What in music, that would have benefited Florence was distinguished for fresco more than for oil Mozart ? What in hydraulics, that would improve our painting. The Florentine style of design, in its best days, shares in canals ? The genius that composed such works was always peculiar; the figures were long in proportion, as the Standard and Last Supper, need not to have shrunk their feet were small, and so were their knees ; there was from competition with Michel Angelo, young as he was. always a look, in Florentine design, as if the muscles of the There is no doubt the world is always delighted to pull body were suffering from a temporary knotted cramp ; they down an established artist by pushing up a younger rival were, in design, too circular, too elliptical, or too angular, in his face; but if you become irritable, and desert your ’ Reynolds’ note. 2 piiny, Jib. xxxv. Cera punica cum oleo liquefacta. c e la 'd .m" C’j 8a‘ a A' n 'P .semen lini et exsicca illud in sartagine super ignem sine aqua, &c. Again, “cum hoc oleo tere minium, super ^4 o, Clau £ ' ’ “ iiccipe colores quos impone volvens, texens eos diligenter cum oleo lini.” (De omni Scientia Artis Pinqendi.) s- 23d Henry III. Walpole’s Works, vol. iii. p. 16. 5 R°;11 81 '•ne writer saw the remains. There was a naked youth over one of the gateways, which had all the peculiarities of this schooi.

PAINTING. 64 Painting. the day, Michel Angelo had every advantage in early eduPainting, country from disgust, men only laugh ; whereas the soun of cation. He came, too, when he was wanted; when ancient principle is, Laugh at the world, stay in your country, and literature and ancient art were breaking through the obscuwork harder than ever. rity which had overwhelmed them, and the discovery ot The fact is, that such men as Leonardo are great geniuses, printing was scattering their beauties throughout Europe. but not the greatest. The evidence of superior genius is Men’s minds were roused up with wonder and delight at the power of intellectual concentration. Such powers had every fresh discovery. Painting, architecture, poetry, and Newton, Milton, Bacon, Locke, Watt, Michel Angelo, Na- science were hailed with a gusto which nothing can account poleon, Raffaelle, Titian, Rubens, Vandyke, and our own for but the misery of the ages that had passed. Reynolds. Such men only are examples, and not beacons , Michel Angelo, after his day’s study in the gardens which such men only are blessings to their species. As a speci- Lorenzo had opened for the youth of Florence, retired to men of his extraordinary caprice of character, his want ot the coins, cameos, and fragments of the palace. v\ ith his perseverance and his notions of the most elaborate mush acuteness, energy, and perception, it is not wonderful that were at least equal; he took four years in painting one face, he soon perceived the inferiority of the forms of his master, and then said it was not done. His children are exquisite; in comparison with the full beauty of the form, the result but his women have an air of modesty to conceal meritrici- of perfect construction in the antique. He corrected with ousness, and his oil-works are far from models of excell- his boyish hand the narrow meagreness of Ghirlandaio ; and ence, the over-wrought finish being hard. There is always announced, thus early, that self-will and vigorous decision, in his expressions an air as if they were set in enamel, and which enabled him subsequently to accomplish whatever could not relax. The picture, in our national gallery, ot he undertook. Here was the germ of that mighty power Christ and the Doctors, is a celebrated work; but why which placed the Pantheon in the air, as he predicted and should Christ, who disputed with the doctors at twelve years realized in the dome of St. Peter’s. Here was the embryo of age, be larger in person and head than the doctors who fearlessness, that brought him through the vast ceiling ot are sixty? And why should Christ be like a woman m the Sistine Chapel in fresco, though when he began it, he men’s clothes, and look out of the picture, and talk with his had never painted in fresco before. Michel Angelo was fingers to the spectators, instead of being, as he was, a fine one of those rare beings who are wanted when they come, boy of twelve years old, handsome, intellectual and angelic • and have opportunities put in their way adequate to deveWe should like to have heard Leonardo’s reasons, if he had lope the powers with which they are gifted. Julius II. was any, for such an apparent absurdity. as wonderful a man as Michel Angelo ; and they mutual y In design, and tempera or fresco-painting, Da Vinci was inspired each other. What Julius willed, Michel Angelo great; but in oil pictures he is false in taste, petty in exe- was as ready to perform; and what the inspirations ot cution, and unskilful in backgrounds. By his depth ot Michel Angelo’s genius suggested, the vigorous pope, whose light and shade, and also of colour, which gave an impulse fine old venerable head a helmet would have suited better to all Italian art, he had a sense of beauty which greater than a tiara, had comprehension to value. They were both steadiness might have brought out to perfection. Butwhen fierce, both self-willed, both proud and haughty, both indea man flies off from painting to make a lion, which will walk pendent and ungovernable. If Julius wished what Miche by machinery, to meet the king of France who approached Angelo was in no humour to do, he would not do it; and ® . -i .14^ execute, A. ^ on insound 11'lPS Ol Milan,* . to stand legs without human help, to IIangeio iVllCOClwas^ Allgciu w *principles 1J of inupon_ ahis hind Inc nrms inside open his own belly, and showthe king of France his arm ” r^ hat the Iged pontiff did not comprehend, he would do a w it, whatcouldbe expected from his talents, great as they were art, what the aged pontiff did not comprehend, he would do it, in spite of denunciations of banishment, or threats ol Nowhere does his character show itself more conspicuously displeasure. They were made for each other, they underthan in his treatise on painting ; in fact it is not a treatise, stood each other, and they were attached to each other; they but a collection of separate disjointed thoughts, like the re- quarrelled, became friends, and quarrelled again. When cipes of a cookery book. It is very easy to put down your will the ceiling be finished?” said Julius, as he trod on the thoughts as they occur without arrangement; but the dif- scaffolding with a stamp that made the boards tremble, alficulty is, to collect them for the illustration of a principle ter climbing to the top, where the great artist lay on his like Fuseli or Reynolds. Every man can put down sepa- back on a mattress, hard at work, painting with vigour, rate thoughts, but every man has not the power so to ar- a When I can,” said Michel Angelo, irritated at the interrange them as to throw light upon an art. Leonardo dis- ruption. “ When thou canst,” thundered out the pope ; sected and drew finely; but there was a meagre common- “ Art thou minded to be hanged ?” _ model style in his figures, a want of perfect construction, as This was the man for Michel Angelo. Conscious of his if men had never worn clothes. On the whole, this illus- acre, conscious that death followed him wherever he went, an e 0C trious man cannot be referred to as the head P ^ he began, proceeded with, and finished all he undertook, as He was a component part of it, but not like Michel An if he had not an hour to live. By his perpetual watching, he gelo or Raffaelle the great engineer. What he did in paint- hurried Michel Angelo through the ceiling of the chapel in ing made one lament that he had not done more. An ar- twenty months, a time by no means equal to that which ought tist,” says Reynolds in his letter to Barry, “ should bring his to have been devoted to it. The hurry is visible in the fierce, mind to bear on painting, from the moment he rises till e rapid execution ; and that which was entirely owing to the goes to bed ; and if his mind be calm and undisturbed by impetuosity of his old patron, has been attributed as a merit other objects, he will find it quite enough to fill up life, it and a principle to the great painter. Such is the infatuait was longer than it is.” , . tion of praise when a man is really great. Of this astonishNo man could be more opposite to Leonar o ian Michel ir u us ing work, it seems that enough can never be said ; though Angelo. great successor Michel Angelo, patient, laborious, ^ ® language has been exhausted to do it justice. Fuseli was and indefatigable, painter, architect and sculptor , e e a the first who cleared up the mystery of the composition, work in each art that advanced the rankof his country. o in a style that places the commentator on a level with the turn to such a character, is a relief and a blessing. In him inventor. “ It exhibits,” he says, “ the origin, the progress, the aspiring youth contemplates the result of conduct totally and the final dispensation of theocracy.” But Fuseli’s chathe reverse of that we have been considering. Solitary, racter of Michel Angelo is overdone. It is an effort to exand highly gifted, despising the subterfuges of society, he press the deepest feelings in the strongest language ; and lived alone ; and in addition to his genius he was a great all such efforts the language invariably becomes inflated moral being. Brought up by the liberality of Lorenzo de in Medici, admitted freely to his table with the illustrious men and turgid.

65 PAINTING. whether in action or expression, always look as the unconPainting, Painting. In comparing this illustrious sovereign of modern de^’V'^^sign with Phidias, or the Greeks generally in the naked scious agents of an impulsion they cannot help. You are figure, he must unquestionably yield to them the palm. Mi- never drawn aside from what they are doing by any apchel Angelo often perplexed his limbs with useless anatomy; pearance in them, as if they wished to make you consider it must not be denied, and cannot be refuted, that he did how very grand they were, or how very gracefully they not always clear the accidental from the superfluous. If were moving. They seem impelled by something they canthe principle be a sound one, namely, “ that any two parts not control; their heads, hands, feet, and bodies immeof a body bearing comparison must keep a consistency diately put themselves into positions the best adapted to throughout, similar in essence and similar in development,” execute the intentions wanted; whereas often in Michel then is Michel Angelo grossly inconsistent; because il the Angelo, and always in his imitators, there is a consciousspine of the ilium in front be covered fully by the muscles ness as it were in his arms and limbs, which destroys all around it, so ought the spine of the scapula behind to be idea, as if his figures were the unconscious agents of an equally covered. If the former be, and the latter be not, impulsion they could not help, and which acted by means then the figure is inharmonious and inconsistent, and what of the will on the muscular system. It is an inherent principle of life never to disturb itself Phidias would never have tolerated. Now the figure of Michel Angelo’s Christ standing with a cross, has the spine for grace, or for any other object either in action or repose, of the scapula prominent and bony, and all the muscles not immediately the natural consequence of the impulsion shrinking from it, the characteristics of a thin man ; whilst which moved the body. Style in design is a result and the spine of the ilium of the same figure in front, is entirely not a cause. Whatever object is represented in painting covered by the muscles around it, the marks of a muscular or sculpture, the intentions of God in its bodily formation and fleshy man. What authority had Michel Angelo in should be ascertained ; the means which God has bestownature or antiquity for such inconsistency ? These are the ed on it to enable it to execute its only will or gratify its excesses which bring dissection into contempt, and which own instincts, should be investigated ; and then the aberrainduce anatomists to doubt whether the Greeks dissected tions produced by time, accident or disease, or other causes, or not, because they were never guilty of such absurdities, will be clearly known, so that he who takes upon himself and because they had too much self-control to make that to represent any object in painting, will be able to distinan end of art which was but a means of the perfection of guish accident from essence, and shew the object in its esart. And yet Vasari calls it “ mirabilissima.” This figure sential properties of body as God first created it. The exand the Lazarus in Piombo’s, as well as several figures in the ternal form in that body will then be essential, and the reLast Judgment, are justifiable grounds for asserting he was sult of its completion in art will be style in design. There not equal to the Greeks in the naked figure ; though in the are certain inherent principles of our common nature to conception and arrangement of a vast whole to illustrate a which all bodies must yield, viz. that compression and exgrand principle, he approaches but does not surpass the Par- tension must have different effects, and so must repose and thenon in its glories. In the form he must,not be compared action. If a great artist represents a figure and makes its to the Greeks; gigantic as he is, he was decidedly inferior. parts the same in either case, he must be ignorant of nature Michel Angelo’slineisbynomeans “uniformlygrandand or above its simplicity. No doubt, the conception of an his women maybe “ moulds of generation,” but certainly not idea may be so grand, the beauty of a character may be of love. His infants may “ teem with the man,” but they so angelic, the pathos of an expression may be so deep, have nothing of the infant. His men may be a “ race of that errors or inadequacy in the mode of representation giants,” but they are brutal in expression, fierce in action, may be overlooked or forgiven ; but in order to bring the and distorted in position. It is useless in a rapid and ge- art to the perfection to which the Greeks brought it, neral view of art to go over ground which has been so of- there must be nothing to forgive or to overlook. An idea or ten gone over before; to talk about the prophets and si- conception being the nobler part of the art, we may, in our byls, after three hundred years’ enthusiasm, is worse than common conviction of human frailty, overlook any inadeuseless. Europe knows the awful grandeur of one or two quacy in the means of imitation ; but the very admission of them, looking like beings to whom God has spoken, and proves there must be something to be overlooked and somewho have never since ceased meditating on the awful voice. thing which, we have a notion, has not been adequately reThe style of Michel Angelo has been called the style of presented. the gods; but if majesty without pretension, humility withAn art the modes of which to convey thoughts, being the out feebleness, power without exertion, and an awful pre- imitation essentially of natural objects, ought surely to have sence without vulgar assumption, be the characteristics of the imitation perfect, because the imperfection of the means a god, what figure of Michel Angelo’s deserves that appel- has always detracted from the impressions of the thought. lation ? Is it in the bullying defiance of Moses ? the twist- Poets are not endured if their grammar is bad, or their laned tortures of Jonah ? the cramped agonies of the sleep- guage defective ; and why should drawing, form, colour, or ing Adam ? or the galvanized violence of the ornamental light, shadow, and surface, the grammar of art, be excused figures at the tombs ? It must be admitted, that the Pen- more than the poets’ ?. Because the simplest imitation is at soso-Duca is majestic and silent; but this is an exception, once recognised as the imitation of the prototype, why not an habitual characteristic. “ Michel Angelo’s mind,” should facility of imitation be any excuse for defect ? Ah, says lleynolds, “ was so original that he disdained to look but it’s the style. Yes, the grand style of Europe abroad for foreign help.” Disdained! Why there is not a for the last three hundred years ; but was it the grand style prophet, a sibyl, or a naked figure in the whole chapel of the Greeks ? Certainly not; their grand style was nature where the torso cannot be traced. And what are the works elevated not violated, with none of her inherent bases of of both Michel Angelo and Raffaelle, but improved comple- life altered a hair’s point, none of her essential details tions of all that their predecessors had done for a thousand omitted, and none of her essential principles overwhelmed years in barbarism and obscurity ? Shakespeare’s plots are by useless detail. all borrowed ; Lady Macbeth is not his own ; that hideous When you see an outline like iron, that is the grand style* expression “ know Macduff’was from his mother’s womb un- When hands were twisted, heads distorted, one leg up, and timely ripped,” is Hollingshed’s. But what of that ? It is the other so far removed from the body, that you may quest le new thoughts he puts into them, which give him claim tion if it will return, that is the grand style. All this absurto the sympathy of the world. Phidias and Raffaelle have dity originated with Michel Angelo ; and though he is not one great and decided beauty in their works ; their figures, answerable for the excesses of his admirers, there must be vol. xvn. i

painting. 66 “What matter where, if still I be the same, says Sat, Painting, something erroneous if every imitator has led to such ex Could such a sentiment have ever been uttered by the wretch ' travagance from Goltzius downwards. Michel Angelo was who is dragging a figure down to the bottomless pit, m a a tremendous genius, and his effect on the art was vital; but way delicacy forbids one even to think of, much more to he did not like the Greeks suffer the unalterable principles of write or to paint ? Michel Angelo’s demons would not only life to keep in check his anatomical knowledge. Ibis was torture the damned, but feed upon their bodies. an error, because we can imagine no beings, and no wor t It is clear, however, that there mas a time when he was where malleable matter is not influenced by the common not so exaggerated. The holy Family, in sculpture, brought principles of the solar system, or where any creatures com- by Sir George Beaumont from Italy, is playful, natural, simposed of bones, muscles, tendons, and skin, must not yield pfe, and beautiful; it is in fact a divine work. Perhaps the to the laws which God instituted for their government when violence of Julius in hurrying him through the Sistme Chahe created them. pel, and the necessity of painting with tremendous exaggeThus Michel Angelo often overstepped the modesty ol_ ration, on so large a space, got his hand into a fierce power Ever truth, and gave a swaggering air to his figures. . y that it never lost. Painting on grand ceilings « hke talk o-ure of his looks as if he was insulted and preparing to re- ing in large theatres. He never entirely finished any thing , turn a blow. If they sleep they seem as if they would he left no grand pupils, like Raffaelle ; he assisted the hu kick • if they move when they are awake, they seem as it ble, but never instructed the gifted. The figure of Lazaall their mulcles were cracking. We allude particularly rus in our national picture, especially the hand and thumb to the naked figures; Jeremiah and the Duke are exceP“^ ’ that press the shoulder of the attendant on the left > but they are only exceptions. Fuseli observed that Mic certainly by him ; and if it be compared to the timid paintAngelovas the salt of art; but it would have been more just ing of the Christ, the spectator will be convinced of it. in to have-called him the pepper, because very little indeed fine, Michel Angelo was a great genius; but let the students will do for a seasoning. In poetry of sentiment the Me - of Europe be assured that his style has been grossly oveidici tombs would perhaps have competed wdh PMias rated; let them banish his works from their eyes, and subfor Michel Angelo being a painter »s well as Phidms, he stitute the Theseus and Ilyssus, and the real grand natmal combined in his sculpture a knowledge of effect. In selec- style of Phidias will soon exclude the satamc Etruscan, and tion of subject and daring execution of hand, perhaps the violent anatomical distortions of Michel Ange o. e may Sistine Chapel might equal the great works ox painting be and was a giant in art; but Raffaelle was an angel, and amongst theancients; but in naked representations * cannot be compared to it. The Elgin marbles had not ^en enhght- ^T^neft Florentine of power was the monk Bartolomeo. 1tetol»» ened the world. The due subordination of all science to He studied under Rosselli, and Leonardo aroused and exture had not then been so exquisitely seen ; the due combi- cited him ; he was grand in colour, light and shadow, and nation of life without meanness, and of abstraction without execution, surface, and character. In the Louvre there were losing sight of life, were not so apparent m the great works of works worthy of any hand, any competitor, or any genius. He anciaxt art which were found before this period. Had Michel had the honour of advancing Raffaelle; he invented the ay Angelo seen the Theseus and Ilyssus, Jupiter’s breast and figure, and made the proper use of it; he never put drapery horse’s head, he would have felt the difference between the on it till he had drawn the naked figure first, so that the muscular swing of a blacksmith, and a hero naturally born naked parts affected the forms of his folds ; he had grea powerful, without his muscles being distorted by manual depth, grandeur, and a certain wildness of air, hed e labour ; and that a hero might be elevated and yet simple, finely, and his tones were solemn and elevated. Wilkie fleshy without fatness, and muscular without being skin- speaks with the highest enthusiasm of his Assumption of the ny. Vichel Angelo has been called the Deity of design , Virgin. It is impossible not to feel the deepest interest in but he was rather the Devil. One can imagine the con- Bartolomeo, and not to be astonished that he did not found sternation of Phidias and his pupils, if suddenly at Olym- a school, and head an epoch. Such things, however, are pia the galvanized figures of the tombs had bf611 let down never done by the mere influence of talent; the character througlAhe roof, whilst they were preparing the Olympian of the man is principally though not wholly the cause. He Jupiter, with his quiet, solemn, steady, thinking, peaceful, painted a S. Sebastiano, which was so beautiful, that it became a favourite of Italian ladies. He was ordered to adorn “"Reynolds says he prepared the way for the sweeping out- the great hall of council at Florence, as Da Vinci and Mir nf TCuhpns • but how many tnousands has he ruinocl. chelangelo had done before ; but as if a fatality attended WluttXsthe excellence of the dist Judgment ? Is that hall, he died without going further than the designs. evidence of power in arranging a whole, like Rubens, T This is curious. Da Vinci designed the Standard struggle ; tian, or Tintoretto ? Is there any application of any prin- Michel Angelo the group of soldiers alarmed by the trumciple of our nature by the due combination of variety and pet, and dressing themselves; and now Bartolomeo began repose ? Is it not a mass of separate groups, vulgar in de- his designs, and died in 1517, without completing them. S?n academic in action, and demoniac in expression ? Is Bartolomeo was a great artist. His method was fn st to draw h8e Christ worth, of GoWns ? Surely tt would have d.s- the naked figure, then clothe it, then paint the whole picorared him;ami then what devils! Are l cse.thC ture in light and shade in oil, and then tone and colour, Ss of heaven? they are the legitimate olfsprmg of hell. guided by the tremendous depth of his first impasto painting. S “aTILI thTbeings whose glory was obscured n„ e Andrea del Sarto is another name enthusiastically over-Andrea del guished? whose majestic forms f isted \ ^ 'Ltrovrated by Vasari. He might be called Andrea senza erron ; Sarto, whose beauty was only disturbed by PaSs1’ , • but what genius “ senza errori,” ever enchanted the world . rand hero C te ed? who were the same S \ ! l I ^ ^Zv'from Give us the vigour of Michel Angelo, with all his violence, ever, but scathed by lightning, singed by fire, digy the dash of Tintoretto with all his caprice, the colour of darkness, lacerated by thunder, their splendour sparkhng Titian with his want of drawing at first, the sweetness of through the horrid obscurity, in which they meditated Corregio with his namby-pamby men, the composition of venge ? To give them mouths like wolves, ears like asses, Rubens with his flabby women, the expression ol Raffaelle noses like pug-dogs, and tails like monkeys, with ee c li- with his hardness of effect; but spare us from that poet, ven and misshapen, was not to represent a fallen ange , painter, musician, or moral character, who is so perfect that a deformed monster. Though evil, they were beautiful. he must be admired without the gusto of finding fault, “ Their forms had not yet lost above all, spai e us from the Grandisons of art. Andrea was 41/ their original brightness.”

PAIN TING. Painting, one of those to whom talent is more applicable than genius ; whatever excellence he attained, he would have never attained to that degree, but for the existence of his superiors. The greater part of the works attributed to him in England, are copies by his pupils which he retouched. Decline of After these great men, it would be useless to detail the the Floren-decay of the Florentine school; it yielded to the circumstantine school, ces of the time, and the misfortunes of the Medici. The continual political squabbles turned men’s minds from art as in ancient Greece ; but the great want of course wras the want of genius, which no efforts have since been able to rear. Though the style of the Florentine school was not so pure as that of the Roman, it led the way in a noble manner, and kept side by side with it; they benefited each other. Leonardo gave an impulse to art; and though from the caprice of his character, he did not complete the impulse he had given, and was more the cause of greatness in others, than the man who established his own, yet the art is indebted to this highly-gifted man, who had an effect on Georgione, Bartolomeo, Raffaelle, and Michel Angelo himself; and gratitude is due to his genius. This great school was brought to utter ruin by what Lanzi calls the Cortoneschi, or pupils of Cortona, where art had degenerated into mechanism, and thoughtless, endless, and sprawling groups. The descendants of the Medici breed had more disposition than power to patronise, till Leopold reigned in 1765. The academy was renovated in 1785, and once more in 1804 ; but these renovations end in nothing. The great men were passed without these conventional distinctions ; the little ones who came after, live only by their embellishment. Boys are educated to draw tolerably well, to colour with tolerable harmony, to invent tolerably insipidly, to become intolerable painters, accomplished academicians, to die, be buried, and decay; and thus leave room for another race as intolerably imbecile in art, as their illustrious performers before them. It is quite absurd to read in Lanzi, always at the end of the epochs of a school, “ Decadenza dell’ arte, e fondazione deW academia per avivvarla“ decay of art, and foundation of an academy, to give it life.” But after a few galvanic twitches it stretches out its feeble legs, gasps with an expiring quickness, gives a trembling of its eyelids, which it opens once more, stares with a fixed look, sighs deeply, and drops its jaw for ever. Then come the vain efforts to restore circulation, then the delusive assurances that it is still living; then doctors and nurses dress up its helpless head with laurel, and put some abracadabra on its cold breast; but all won’t do for it’s gone and there is no hope. Such have been the results of the academies. Genius fled at their foundation, and left them useless bodies without soul, life, or circulation. The sovereigns of Europe will at last find out that no academies should go further than schools; and till they do, the end of art will be forgotten, in a vain contemptible struggle for its conventional distinctions. Roman The three leading lights of art as schools, are the FlorenSchool. tine, the Roman, and the Venetian. The Par man must in spite of all the beauty of Corregio, be considered as the beginning of corruption. The other schools, the Modenese, the Cremonese, the Ferarrese, Genoese, and the Piedmontese, are but different branches. Raffaelle. The glory of Italian art is Raffaelle. Had he been born in Greece, and qualified by a Greek education, he would have been as great in painting as Phidias was in sculpture; but the education of all the Italian artists was imperfect, and they seemed to be grounding themselves, (even Raffaelle himself,) on the meagre style of the early painters. The discovery of ancient statues in some degree opened their eyes, but they wTere not, like the ancients, gradually prepared for such perfection, nor was Raffaelle himself ever skilled in those perfect principles of beauty, as applied to the naked figure, which distinguished the Greeks. Wonderful, amiable, and gentle creature as he was, the reverse of Michel

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Angelo in every way, who proved himself decidedly the in- Painting, ferior man. In all his endless inventions, a single repetition of himself, even in the folds of a drapery, is not to be found ; he was not like Titian, an exquisite colourist, but his colour is always agreeable, though not distinguished for light and shade ; and his groups are never obtrusive, though not remarkable for aerial perspective. Every object keeps its place; though no face of his can compete with the beauty of the ancients, his women always enchant; his great power was character and expression, and telling a story by human passions and actions; in these he was unrivalled in modern art, and not surpassed by the ancients. His father being a painter, he was bred up in the art; and his master Perrugino, was a great man in his way, though somewhat of a Goth. In style, therefore, Raffaelle lost time with him ; but could he have gone in early life to such a school as Sicyon, there is no knowing to what a pitch of perfection he might have carried the art. His latter excellence is entirely owing to his own sense, based on the antique ; for most of what he learnt from Perrugino he had afterwards to unlearn. He entered the Vatican at twenty-five, and died at thirty-seven. What then must have been his diligence, his devotion, and his genius. In any history of painting, at this time of day, to talk of the subjects of the Vatican, or the Madonnas, so often copied, so often engraved, so often seen, so often praised, would be trespassing on the temper of the reader. His character, as well as that of his art, was the very converse of Michel Angelo. Michel Angelo envied his equals, was kind to his inferiors, and always insulting to his superiors ; whilst Raffaelle was kind to all, and the idol of the society in which he moved. Michel Angelo associated with no men but admirers. The consequence was that his life was written by his flatterers Condivi and Vasari, a great portion, perhaps, delicately insinuated by himself; and, as might be expected, they have sacrificed Raffaelle to the Dagon of their idolatry. Vasari insinuated that Raffaelle was greatly indebted to Michel Angelo ; and Reynolds following Vasari and Condivi, goes farther than either, asserting that Raffaelle owed his existence to Michel Angelo. Was there ever such gratuitous assumption ? If it means any thing, it means that but for Michel Angelo, his genius would never have been developed. Is such an absurdity worthy of Reynolds’ understanding ? Surely not, and in fact it can be made clear that Raffaelle did not owe his existence to Michel Angelo. If he owed any thing to that great artist, he owed the corruption of his own pure style. After the Capella Sistina was opened, Raffaelle, bit like every body else by its heavy, cumbrous, vulgar, broad, and circular design, immediately tried it; but it did not suit his beautiful nature any more than it would have suited the elliptical beauty of the heroic forms of Greece. What does Reynolds mean when he says, that “ Raffaelle had more taste and fancy, Michel Angelo more genius and imagination ?” If genius be nothing more than the ordinary faculties of men carried to a greater pitch of intensity than ordinary men possess them, wherein had Michel Angelo more genius than Raffaelle ? Their geniuses were both equal; but the road which each took for the exercise of his genius was different. Raffaelle excelled in expressing the passions; Michel Angelo in sublimity of character, independently of all passion and emotion. Though the materials of Raffaelle’s art are generally borrowed, are they more so than Michel Angelo’s ? Is not Michel Angelo as much indebted to Luca Signorelli and the Campo Santo, for Ids choice of subjects in the Sistine, as Raffaelle is in the Vatican ? This does not invalidate their genius ; whilst their predecessors were the root, the stem, the leaves, and the bud, they were the full blown flower. Michel Angelo was a great genius, and so was Raffaelle; but each owed his genius to a power totally independent of the other. Their geniuses were equal, their temperaments different. Raffaelle was at the mercy of pleasure ; Michel Angelo disdained it:

PAINTING. 68 Painting. Raffaelle was made for society; Michel Angelo despised it. fair estimation of Raffaelle and his glorious school, is much Painting, ' In Raffaelle’s works there is a geniality of soul with which more likely to benefit the student, and instruct the general It is not, on the whole, morally just; but many every man’s and woman’s heart beats in sympathy ; whilst reader. eminent men become thus swallowed up in the blaze of we have no sympathy with the characters of Michel Angelo their successors. As Shakespeare nearly deadens all feeling who overwhelms our imaginations, but never touches our for previous excellence, so does Raffaelle, though Shakehearts. We are awed by his sibyls, but we could never speare, Michel Angelo, Raffaelle, and Titian were all inthink of loving them ; and his demons are surely unworthy debted to their predecessors. of the fiery solitudes of hell. How could Ariosto say ot If Julius was adapted for Michel Angelo, Leo X. was him, peculiarly so for Raffaelle; though Mengs says that the hon “ Michel, pin che mortel, ours and indulgences he received from Leo, made him luxAngel divino urious and idle, and that he was not so industrious as durand then herd up Raffaelle with Sebastian and inferior men ; ing the short reign of his first patron Julius. Yet his rapid Michel Angelo was perhaps the more moral man of the two, advance from the first picture he painted in the Vatican, to but not the greater painter. Heliodorus, is extraordinary ; and, as according to VaVasari and Condivi would never have been allowed to the sari, he sent artists to draw for him in Greece, there is no publish their falsehoods, as Lanzi says, had Raffaelle been doubt that he had a sketch of the pediment of the Partheliving; but where were Julio Romano, Luca Penni, and non, before it was blown up, and that the Heliodorus is but Polidoro, whom Raffaelle had raised from a mason’s boy to a skilful adaptation of the Ilyssus. He was so much overa great painter ? Where were they ? where were his “ dear whelmed by employment and honours, that his latter works pupils ?” “ Let no man,” says Johnson, “ look for influence in the Vatican were wholly placed in the hands of his pubeyond his grave.” Vasari asserts that Michel Angelo, in pils, and carried on with the spirit of a manufactory. He flying to Florence, when he quarrelled with Pope Julius II., was then appointed architect to St. Peter s at the death of left the keysofthe Sistine Chapel, which he was then pamting, St. Gallo, which distracted his thoughts. Incessant applito Bramante, Raffaelle’s uncle, who dishonourably let in Raf- cation, and incessant thinking of course weakened his delifaelle ; and that the latter, on seeing the grand design of the cate frame, nor did the capricious and harrassing attendprophets, changed his whole style. This absurdity was ances on such a court increase his strength; added to which current in Europe for two hundred and fifty years, till Lan- the maddening love of women for one so highly gifted and zi, with his usual acuteness, opened the eyes of the world. so handsome, his own devoted passion for Fornarina, and Would any one believe, that when Michel Angelo fled to the endless demands on his brain, brought him to the grave Florence, it was in 1506, years before Raffaelle ever enter- at thirty-seven, absolutely borne down, like Byron, by exed Rome, and four or five before the chapel was ever be- citement of every description, nervous, bodily and mental. gun or painted? It may be presumed that Raffaelle did This is the way with the world ; they kill a favourite by not surreptitiously derive any advantage from works four kindness, and an offender by cruelty. years before they were conceived or painted ; and we conIn some life of him an attempt was made to prove that ceive that Bramante could not give Raffaelle the keys to he caught cold by hurrying from his work to the palace at open a door which was never locked, especially as Michel the Pope’s order, and standing while in a profuse perspiration Angelo did not leave any keys, if ever he left them at all, in a draught. Butthatis no refutation of the previous causes ; till four years after the time Vasari dates as the period. the question is, what prepared him to be killed by such a The prophet Esaias which Vasari says shewed an alteration cause ? Incessant work and dissipation ; no painter can do of style in consequence of the stolen views of works which both. Of course princes must be obeyed at any expense , were not in existence, was painted one or two years before they seem to feel little for their dependants, as if in revenge Michel Angelo touched this very chapel. So much for for being themselves deprived of so many enjoyments by Vasari’s sacrifice of Raffaelle to the great Dagon of his ido- ceremony and etiquette. Napoleon used to take great delatry ; and so much for Reynolds’ absurd and unthinking light in never suffering old German maids of honour with assertion, that “but for Michel Angelo, Raffaelle would never fifty quarters in their arms to sit in his presence. have existed.” Vasari’s is a delightful book, and all his last work, according to Mengs, was his I ransfiguration principles of art are sound, for they are the result of con- in His oil, a deficient in masterly execution, and having a versations with the greatest men; he was most intimate labouredwork look of smoothness. In drapery, in character, and with Michel Angelo, and Titian, and all the great artists in expression it was fine ; but in the Louvre it looked small. of the day, and constantly in their painting-rooms, at their By the side of Corregio, it seemed hard ; by that of 1 itian, tables, and in their society. raw; by that of Tintoretto, tame ; and the Christ’s head was In the first years of Raffaelle, his feeling was so com- not equal to Corregio’s at the National Gallery. It was not pletely Perrugino’s, that it was almost impossible to distin- an example to hold forth to a young man as faultless. 1 he guish their works ; though there is a difference in feeling, Cartoons at Hampton are finer in point of execution alone ; and that difference is in favour of the pupil. In the Louvre they are his finest works for all the requisites of art. He ivas were three of his early works of cabinet size. 1 he Annun- not restrained by designing for tapestry ; his genius was put ciation was one of these ; and more grace, innocence, or forth with a Venetian power of brush ; and there are heads sweetness, were never put on canvas. Raftaelle s penci equal to any, especially the frightened woman’s head in the seemed always to melt when he approached a woman or an Ananias, in these wonderful works. angel. What an age of genius this was, and how nearly all In beauty he was far inferior to the Greeks; in form he the great men seemed to come together. Da Vinci was could not approach them ; in composition he was perfect; born in 1452, Bartolomeo in 1469, Michel Angelo in 1474, in expression, deep; and in telling a story, without a riTitian in 1480, and Raffaelle in 1483. . . Taking into consideration all the great men in modern In a rapid and concise history of art to detail the inferior val. names, who gradually by little and little, conduce to the art," this young man, not highly educated like Rubens, must ultimate expansion of genius, is impossible. A historian of be placed on the throne, till one arises who shall have what had not, in addition to his own perfections; and that this description has only time for leading points, or head- he vouno- man will probably arise in Britain. He was an exlands in the voyage ; he has not leisure to dive into every traordinary creature ; modest, timid, and amiable ; affeclittle cape, bay, and projection, which by degrees, push the tionate to his equals, and gentle to the highly-born, his mainland into the ocean. The older painters of the Roman premature death gave a shock to Rome, which those only school will not add much to the interest of the art; and a

PAIN TING. 69 bastian del Piombo attempted to repair them after the solPainting, Painting, can estimate, who know the depth of Italian sensibilities. s^-^^w'But did he die too young? Not at all. He might have diersweregone ; and Titian, when in Rome, notknowing Se-^^V ^* bastian, actually asked him who had been spoiling those beaudecayed, or he might have become more luxurious and more neglectful. No man dies too young who dies with all the tiful heads ? The art went on sinking rapidly till 1595. Rafsympathies of the world unexhausted about him. The fu- faelle had been dead seventy-five years ; Giorgione, eightyror Raphaelis is the best species of fury that can seize a four ; Corregio, sixty ; Michel Angelo, thirty ; and Titian, young student. He has no manner, no affectation, no vice, nineteen. When the usual apprehensions of getting on a no grand style; all is simple, natural, and unaffected. His lee-shore seized the patrons and the artists, and the usual women are creatures of gentleness and love, though none signal of distress was hoisted, Muziano, a pupil of Titian, are perfectly handsome. Perhaps he was more adapted founded St. Luke’s Academy in order to raise a new batch for the characteristic heads of apostles than the naked forms of Raffaelles and Corregios, and save the noble vessel. The of Greece; in fact he was a great Christian painter, and seem- only man who since dazzled for a moment, was Michel Aned born to extend the influence of Christianity by his art. gelo Caravaggio. He had great and original talent, though His father being a painter, he began early of course, and founded on common nature, without any abstract notion of at sixteen, had painted a picture at Gastello, the composition form, any conception of beauty of women, or any refi nement in of which was in advance of the age. At seventeen he anything. With a sledge-hammer for a pencil, he seemed painted another of the Virgin and Child. In the Sacristy, at resolved to batter down all opposition; and by fierce exSienna, he assisted Pinturichio with designs ; in 1504, he tremes of light and shade, bearded men, dead Christs, and went to Florence, where Michel Angelo and Da Vinci were Transteverine beggars for apostles, he founded a school, got making a great noise with their cartoons for the hall; he stu- a character, and raised a name, which cannot be forgotten died both, and improved his perspective and colour, in con- in the art of Europe. Lanzi seems to class in the Roman school every body nexion with Bartolomeo. When Bramante, his uncle, who was architect to the Pope, advised his Holiness to send for who practised there for the last three hundred years, but Raffaelle, the pope consented ; and in April 1508, Raffaelle that is not fair. On this principle, all the Flemings, Dutch, Germans, Russians, Spaniards, and English, may be of the entered Rome, and was admitted into the Vatican. From the continual occupations of Raffaelle in his art school, because they studied there ; and Rubens, Vandyke, from boyhood upwards, he could not have had a classical Velasquez, the Caracci and their pupils, as well as our Reyeducation to any great extent. He knew a little Latin, as nolds, were, on the same principle, of the Roman school. all Catholics did; but he was intimate with Bembo, Castig- About the seventeenth century, this eminent school, in spite lione, Ariosto, and Aretino; and these men must have of the academy of St. Luke, went on declining. Birth, dehelped him in historical or philosophical knowledge, or mo- struction, and reproduction seems tobe the principle of every ral allegory, for the completion of his great works. Raffaelle thing physical, but not of moral or mental powers. Lanzi left a noble school; and as soon as grief for the loss of their attributes this decay to any cause but the right one ; namely, master had subsided, his pupils set about completing the the absence of genius, the great primary cause, and which works he left unfinished. The battle of Constantine was no academy can ever supply. Cortona, Bernini, and Sacchi,were the heroes of this day; Cortona, done by Julio Romano and Perino del Vaga. As Raffaelle Bernini, lay in state, the Transfiguration was placed at the head of and at a later period appeared Carlo Maratta. Raffaelle be- an( came to him a substitute for nature ; though in 1689, he gave * SacchL his coffin. Julio Ro- Julio Romano was the most eminent of his pupils. With sufficient tone to art, to induce Clement XI. to employ him. mauo. vast poetry of mind, he did things in a style of execution, But here, as well as elsewhere, genius was wanting. Carlo which renders him the purest poet in his art. His sun set- was as heavy as the lumbering folds of his own drapery ; and ting, and moon rising over our heads, in the Palazzo del T, so insipid are his large pictures, that it is a question whether is nowhere equalled or approached. Though he put forth they did not generate in Europe a contempt for large scriphis genius at Mantua, he was a Roman in practice, and to ture subjects, which has lasted ever since. However, imRaffaelle owed the elements of his art. His colour was crude becility had not done spawning; and in a faint struggle for and his execution harsh ; yet no one can fail to see in his offspring against nature, out came Pompio Battone, and RaPolidoro. works, the real poetry of painting. Polidoro was another phael Mengs. To complete the farce, academies began to great man of the same school. He was originally a mason’s be founded in France and in the rest of Europe ; and Pomboy, and used to prepare the walls for fresco ; but he got peo Battoni, and Raphael Mengs may be looked upon as a interested in seeing the young men at work, tried to draw very fair sample of what academies can produce, have prohimself, and Raffaelle having assisted him, he became an duced, and will probably produce to the end ot time. Mengs eminent painter. was every thing but a man of genius. He was a bad painter It is interesting to reflect on the affection with which and a deep critic ; and his predicting that we had not the Raffaelle was surrounded. He never went to court without works which the ancients esteemed the most, was verified, in being attended by fifty gallant artists. Little must he have a most astonishing manner, by the discovery of the Elgin made others feel his superiority; and for once a man of genius marbles. The prediction does honour to the sagacity of seems to have made envy smile. Though there is an in- Mengs. Thus end two great schools of form, conception, stinct in the world, the moment a man of genius appears, yet expression and composition; the I lorentine and the Roman. it depends upon himself whether he is received as a blessing But of these the Roman was unquestionably the greater. or an annoyance. Mankind will assault the man who atWe now come to the Venetian, a great school of colour, Venetian tempts to command by superiority, instead of leading by cour- light and shadow, impasto, and execution, completing the school, tesy ; but they will hail him let his superiority be what it imitation of reality; and in summing up the character of may, who seems willing to help his inferiors with kindness, Italian and Greek art, we shall see that these components of or supply their want of knowledge, as if they were doing him imitation, each of which characterised an Italian school, were a favour to listen. The whole of this is based on goodness combined in all schools, as a necessary requisite in the perof heart, tender sympathies, and a consciousness without the fection of Grecian imitation. The most ancient work of Venetian art known, is in Veappearance of conceit. Decline of ^he glory seems to have gone from the Eternal City after rona, in the cellar of a monastery, (Santi Nazarioa Celso). It the Roman Raffaelle’s death. In 1527, Rome was stormed and taken is inaccessible to the public, but can be seen in the woodschool. by foreign soldiers. The savages bivouacked in the Vatican, cuts of Dionisi. In the part which formed the oratorio of the and injured the frescoes by their smoking and fires. Se- faithful, has been painted the mystery of redemption ; it is a

PAINTING. 70 faelle, and Michel Angelo, will ever rank higher than Titian, Painting, work of 1070, when the Doge Silvo invited Grecian mosaic as Polygnotus will rank higher than Protogenes or Apelles. painters to adorn St. Mark; men who though rude in art, Prolific thinking, is surely of more value than intensity o could nevertheless paint. Thus commenced the art in V e- imitation, though intensity of imitation must be added to nice, whither, after Constantinople was takenby the V enetians realize the idea of a perfect painter. . ., , in 1204, Greek painters and sculptors, as well as orehci, nockTitian began in the style of his master Bellini, with the ed in crowds. j ™ most minute finish ; a capital basis for future practice, it a In the thirteenth century, painters had increased so much, man have comprehension to know when to leave it, as iithat a company was formed, like the English constituent tian did. To shew the young artist that it is never too late body to which Hogarth belonged, and laws and constitutions to improve, let him compare the Bacchus^and Ariadne in were made. Things were proceeding m this tram when our National Gallery, when he could not draw finely, with Giotto, returning from Avignon, painted at V erona and a- the Pietro Martyre when he could. In modern art, he was dua. Nothing of his, however, is left in Verona; but at Padua the only painter who hit the characteristic of flesh. Lvery the remains of his works are still quite fresh in fresco, and great painter’s flesh is paint; Titian’s had real circulation o full of grace and vigour. Such was the early beginning ot blood under the skin. On comparing the Ganymede, in our this great school, in which it will be seen that Greeks, as National Gallery, fine as it came from Titian s pencil, with the usual! had the first hand. Various names sprung up in this Theodosius by Vandyke, which is close to it, as fine a speperiod, but the Bellinis are the most important. One ot cimen of Vandyke’s fire of brush as can be seen, the heavy them was engaged by Mohammed II. and by his talents up- leathern look of Vandyke’s colour excited astonishment. In held the honour of the Venetian name; another was the the flesh of Ganymede, colour, oil, brush, and canvas, were master of Titian and Giorgione, two of the greatest names all entirely forgotten ; it quivered, it moved with the action of the Venetian school. of the limbs. In Vandyke, the materials of art are upperGiorgione. Giorgione was a great genius ; and his executmn was en- most ; you think of them, you wonder at the touch, you to/‘" tirely above vulgar prejudices. He saw and seized the lea get the subject, the expressions as it were scenting of the ing points of leading objects, and hit them with a touch and painter’s room and the easel. And so you do with all the e an impasto, of which he had no previous example even in Flemings, but never with Titian. T^gh, we "I16 Leonardo. His breadth and tone were beautiful; and he Titians in England, the Dianabeing at LordEgerton s, and a first opened the eyes oi of Titian x man to m the u.c superior value of breadth head at the Duke of Sutherland’s ; yet it must be confessed, and touch, as compared with over-wrought labour and smooth that the Louvre possesses Titians more perfect, ^specia y finish. Giorgione died in the vigour of hishfe, to the greatloss the entombing of Christ. In Josephine s collection at Malof the art; forthere is no knowing how much farther hewould maison, there were a Venus and Cupid, as perfect as our nave carried his principles, or how successfully he would have Ganymede, and not injured by restoring, the fatal propensity disputed the crown with Titian. Lord Carlisle has a small pic- of the French. In Titian whenever you see the blues sober ture by this eminent man, of a youth buckling on the ai mour and in harmony, the picture is uninjured; whenever you see of a knight, which is exquisite in tone, brilliancy, depth, and them harsh and too brilliant, they have been rubbed, and feeling ; and had he not been cut off by the plague, there the last tone has been taken off. _ , r is no knowing how far he might have gone. He certainly In colour, he was never equalled; in execution of the brush, first opened Titian’s eyes to the value of breadth, and that he was quite perfect; and in character and expression of porcomprehension of mind required to seize the leading cha- trait he waslike Reynolds elevated andsubhme; but the dullracteristics of objects by a touch, leaving the atmosphere ness which portrait, if perpetually practised, engenders in to finish at a given distance. After his death, Titian was the capacity to idealise and elevate, rendered his conception Titian. without a rival. This great painter began, of course, like all of poetical characters defective. Nothing can exceed his Venetians, to paint directly from nature, without having pie- Aretino, his senators, and his popes; nothing can exceed viously dissected or drawn ; nor was he sensible of this error Sir Joshua’s Lord Heathfield and Mrs. Siddons; but noof the Venetian school, till coming to Rome and seeing the thing can be meaner than some of Titian s attempts, like works of Michel Angelo, Raffaelle, and the antique, he, like Raffaelle, at high poetical expression, except some of Reya great genius, set about remedying his deficiency; and nolds’ heads in the Beaufort. The nerve and beauty ot the the perfection of this union of form and colour is seen in his colour in Diana and Acteon are so touching, that one can P-reatest work, Pietro Martyre, any attempt to move which almost fancy one hears the water ripple and the leaves wave. from Venice, the Venetian senate decreed should be punished Glazing was the great feature in his tone, as it was m that with death. This picture occupied him eight years; and of Apelles ; and there is no perfect colour without it. eight years were well spent in such a production. The terThe first requisite in fine colour is the ground or preparific gasping energy of the assassin, who has cut down the ration spread over the canvas to receive the colours. It is monk • the awful prostration of the monk, wounded, and im- either of a nature to absorb the oil, or to resist the absorpploring heaven ; tL flight of his companion, striding away m tion. If it resist the absorption of the oil out of the colour terror, with his dark mantle against a blue sky , the tower put on it, it is an oil-ground ; if it absorb the oil, it is a waW and wavinc- trees, the entrance, as it were, to a dreadful ter-ground. And it has long been an interesting question, forest; the embrowned tone of the whole picture, with i s whether the Venetians used an oil-ground or an absorbent dark azure and evening sky, thedistant ”oun,ta'"s ^orTof ground; whether, like the Greeks, they worked in tempera, splendid glory above, contrasting with the gloomy horrors o and varnished out, or whether they judiciously mingled the murder ; its perfect, though not refined drawmg,.ttsu- both oil and tempera together. One would think that Vablime expression, dreadful light and shadow, and exqmst e sari, living as he did with all the great painters, could not colour; Si united, render this the most perfect pcture in be ignorant of their various methods of practice. In lob/ Italian art. Why does not one perfect work entitle a man or 1568, he called on Titian, saw him,stayedwithhim,wasin to rank as highly as a series of imperfect works, like the his painting-room, and must have talked on art, and perCapella Sistina? The answer is, because there is greater haps dined or supped with him.1 But Vasari distinctly says range of capacity shewn in a series of conceptions to i us in a sort of recipe-introduction to his lives (edition 15b8) trate a theory, than in the completion of one work alone, “ that the ground on wood was gesso, plaster of Paris ; that although all the component parts may be perfect; and 1 a r supper, hi in Tichozri have been i All the great painters seemed, to prefer i icnozzi, Titian seems to^ ^ a sociable man, and there are extracts from Titian’s and Aretino’s letters, alluding to pheasants, and presents o

PAINTING. 71 Painting, then they mixed three colours, white, yellow, and amber, execution never attracts by itself alone, but as the vehicle Painting, and spread them equally over the white ground; and that of the object it imitates. In colour he is never gaudy, after tracing their cartoons, they painted their pictures.” A never black in light and shadow, never forced or affected, more abominable ground never was mixed ; to those who and in drawing, latterly, grand. In composition he was not have an organ of colour it is an absolute emetic; and though so perfect nor so fertile as Raffaelle ; but in the imitation of it might have been Vasari’s and the Florentines’ ground, flesh, no other artist in the world, except Apelles perhaps, it never could have been endured by the eye of a Venetian. could rival him. As a painter of portrait and landscape, no u This was the method,” says Vasari, “ for pictures on one has surpassed him. He did not grace his senatorial heads wood; but when canvas became the fashion, gesso being with the beauty of the backgrounds of Reynolds or Vanlikely to crack in ceiling, they made a ground of flour (fa- dyke ; but the absence of all gaiety behind the heads, perrina), white lead, 1and nut-oil, after the canvas had been haps added to the sublimity of their expression. It is curious to read in Boschini’s little work, that young Palma, smoothed by size.” Nowwhen this was published, Titian, Tintoretto, and Paolo who had it from old Palma, a pupil of Titian, told him Veronese were alive and all at work; and it is but common that Titian very often finished with his thumb. Palma dissense to conclude, that had it been false, they would have tinctly says, that he has seen Titian put on with his thumb contradicted it. Vasari concludes with saying, “ So are paint- and fingers masses of colour which gave life to a picture. In a word, neither of the great Italian schools showed ed all the great works in St. Mark’s Place, Venice.” In that place was the Miracle of the Slave, by Tintoretto, afterwards the sense of the ancients. The Romans omitted colour and seen by every body in the Louvre. Lanzi says, that the V ene- imitation from sheer accident; the Venetians drawing and tians preferred canvas, but that at first they painted in tem- form ; and Reynolds, without going into the causes of these pera, and then came oil-painting, which the Venetians first mutual deficiencies, laid it down as a principle, that colour adopted. On the arrival of the Bacchus and Ariadne in and reality were incompatible with high art; whereas, when England, a little bit chipped off at the corner showed the each school found out its deficiency, each endeavoured to ground underneath to be of the purestwhite. Now, if a white correct its peculiar defect. ground is absorbent, it sucks the oil out of the oil colours, The giant of Titian’s school was Tintoretto, who gave Tintoretto, and becomes the colour of oil. Sir Humphry Davy said to such early indications of self-will and genius, that Titian, the author of this article in 1823, that in process of time oils mean and jealous, turned him out of the house. Raffaelle become varnishes ; and it is not impossible that the white would not have done this; he did not turn out Julio Roround of Titian may have been absorbent, and though it mano. But Tintoretto was not to be crushed by the bad ad sucked out the oil in the course of three hundred years, passions of his envious master; and took it very properly as it may have recovered its original whiteness. The author’s an evidence of his talent. And what did Titian get by his experience extends only to thirty years, and in that period paltry meanness ? Nothing but pity. Tintoretto, young as an absorbent ground which sucked out oil has never recovered he was, immediately formed a plan of his own, for combinits whiteness. ing the drawing of Michel Angelo with the colour of Titian. But, if the Venetians painted first in tempera upon the He devoted the day to the one, and many parts of many nights, white ground, and finished in oil, the tempera intervening and often whole ones, to the other. In a few years, the result between the last painting and the ground would preserve was the Miracle of the Slave and the Crucifixion. Al though the ground white ; and as Titian’s method of proceeding the execution of Tintoretto looked daring and impudent was gradual and progressive in successive layers, like that by the side of the modest, senatorial dignity of Titian, yet of Protogenes, so that each layer became a help to the suc- there was a grand, defined dash about it. The original ceeding one, there is no reason to doubt that tempera might sketch of the Miracle of the Slave, formerly in the possession have been the first impasto. In parts of the Pietro Mar- of Rogers the poet, is a very fine thing. Everybody speaks tyre, there certainly was the crude look of tempera prepa- of the Crucifixion as a wonderful instance of power. But in ration, softened by a glaze, especially about the projecting colour it is lurid and awful; in expression, character, and leg of the assassin. That the basis of Venetian pictures was delicacy of feeling, discordant and offensive. His pictures a white ground, there can be no doubt; like the intonacos seem to be a mass of fore-shortenings, affected twistings, of Apelles, and the plaster-grounds of the painted mummy- dashing darks, and splashing lights, with a hundred horsecoffins of Egypt. Tintoretto and Bassano used dark grounds power of execution ; bearded heads, Venetian armour, silks, to save trouble; but they are ruinous. They come through satins, angels, horses, architecture, dogs, water, and brawnythe thin half-tints of the picture, and render it distinct mas- armed and butcher-legged gondoliers, without pathos, passes of dark and light, like most of the Lombard school. sion, or refinement. He used to put little models in boxes, Many of the works of Paul Veronese, who painted one hun- and light them in different holes, for effect. Like all Itadred years before, were in perfect preservation in the Louvre, lians, he was accustomed to model and hang up his models whilst a number of the Lombard pictures were gone. The by threads for fore-shortening. His style of form was a white ground was the “ luce de dentro ” of the Italians, mixture of the pulpiness of the Venetian, and the long, ano“ the light within.” Upon this beautiful white ground they tomical, bony look of the Florentine school. He cannot be placed their colours purely and crudely, and then by spread- depended upon for correctness of proportions, but he was ing thin transparent tones, took down the rawness, without a grand and daring genius ; and his conduct, when oppresslosing the force of the tint. This was the practice of the ed by Titian, should ever be held up as an example for the Greeks, and is also the present practice of the British school. aspiring youth, when trodden upon by his elders. When Cicognara, the president of the Venetian academy, Whilst Tintoretto was astonishing the Venetians by his Paul Verowas in England, he remarked to the author on the singular daring, which made even Titian tremble, Paul Veronese, nese. fact, that the British was the only school of colour left in the other great contemporary, was mildly pursuing his azure the world, though our climate was the worst; and such was and beautiful course. Of a nature the reverse of Tintoretto, the state of Venice some years since, that an English consul and not equal to him in sublimity or terror of conception, he could get nobody to paint the king’s arms for him, and being yet gave equal evidence of being run away with by his brush. the soil of a painter, he was actually obliged to paint them Ceilings, canvas, halls, walls, and palaces, were so many proofs of his power. His greatest work is at Paris. It is the As an example for the student, Titian is perfect. His Marriage of Cana, a wonderful instance of executive power ; 1

This is Vasari’s account, pp. 51, 52, 53, Firenze, volume i. 1568.

PAINTING. 72 ishes one the most. If any fault is to be found with him, Painting, Painting, but here all story, sentiment, and pathos, are buried in the his men have a touch too effeminate. His colour is exqui-^v^ a < v ' noise, bustle, eating, drinking, and fiddling of Venetia site • his light and shadow are enchanting, but his forms city feast. Paul Veronese was certainly the most coirup defective ; his composition is simple and infantine ; his e painter of the time. . r> i session unimpassioned, but sweetness itself; and when sorgreat men, the uie ni ^ ^eayj i And Pa . row or suffering was to be represented, who ever did it more Cannaletti, After these greatmen, artl began to &£C. Veronese and Tintoretto gave symptoms of a conventional tenderlythan Corregio? Let any manwhodoubts this, dwell mode, which, when taken up by infer,or men, hastened its for a moment on the gentle suffering, and the feminine yet ruin. Down to the present age, with the exception of two manly beauty of the Christ above mentioned. It is the very or three mannerists, no name occurs worthy of eminence ChSwho commanded by submission; without weakne s selection. Cannaletti was a genius in Ins way. Sebastia beautiful without effeminacy tender; without taint the Ricci, and Marco Ricci, were much employed in England nersonification of love. His hands, his shoulders, Ins beard, to disfigure ceilings and palaces by wholesale, with gods and his hair, belong to that divine being who vanquished sin, goddesses, in subjects ahegoricah poetical, mythological arul by yielding to torture. It does not seem painted but as it nonsensical, to understand which it required pages of expla- we/e spread upon the canvas by an angel s breath. His nation, and to see which a nine-feet telescope by Dolland. men look as innocent as girls ; his women as guileless as inMontague, Burlington, and Bulstrode houses, are signs o fants; and his infants as if they had just co«je{rom the skies In the cupola at Parma, the great wonder is the fore the infatuation of the English nobility at that time janifatuation, however, which shewed a disposition to employ shortening ;Pand in the mouths of the vulgar this is techniad been ’employed in Italy, and » *0 gen.ua had Sl perfection; whereas there is nothing more P-ely mebeen equal to the opportunity, the result would have been chanical, nothing in fact you can so easily teach.Ocsine smile of Corregio’s angels, one touching look of Kaftaelle Lombard ^hTnext school of any importance is the Lombard school, apostles, Si°e sentiment0 of the Duke de Lorenzo by Michel and Par- which comprehends the Mantuan, the Modenese, the Cre- Ano-elo, one crimson tone by Titian, are wmth all the tore man schoo!. monese and the Milanese. Andrea Mantegnais thehero o shortening on earth. The greatest ^ their tbrettaMmituan school, and Vasari says, that his master-pieces are relli, Buonarotti, and Corregio, are said to ^ their tore the tempera designs which we have at Hampton Comt. I hey shortenings ; whereas the greatest excellencies of BuonaTe fine things ; Rubens used them ; and they are a mine of rntti and Corregio are not their fore-shortening at all. costume, though the formshave too much the look of the moIn spite of the perfections of this wonderful man, he del Julio Romano’s great work is at Mantua, yet he must be foundeTUit were the decay, “le commencement & considered as a RomL The works of Mantegna we*,, as la fin.” His breadth in fresco produced Lanfranco, Co Lanzi says, the greatest effort of the last style before Leoand Giordano, who covered Italian palaces with t ie nardo da5^ Vinci Introduced a new one, which overturned tona, sweepinq brush of our patent chimney-cleansers, beginthe Gothic. After Julio Romano, the art decayed, and ning^ fn the morning, finishing it by the evfni«g standthen of course came the old story, “ Una accadem.a per ing on the floor, and disdaining a scaffold, previous study, or avvivarla.” This academy has been splendidly kePtJT previous thinking ; and others came who bedaubed the pa by Austria, and,inasthree usual,hundred has notyears. produced a single ma faces of Europe with clouds like feather-beds, cornucopias of ereat genius and Jupiters, till one’s brain aches in thinking of them. Contiguous to the Modenese school is the Parman ; and Reynolds was immensely indebted to Corregio ; for RemCorregio. now we come to the most unaccountable and delightful of all brandt and Corregio certainly the bases onus st>le. painters, Corregio. When it had been determined to or- One of the most beautiful works in the Lou ‘ nament the great cupola of St. John, Corregio, 1‘|'n Marriao-e of St. Catherine, which when once seen haunts avouno- man, was selected to paint it; and, like Raffae e, us in after life in dreams. In a word, Corregio was an hi genius expanded with the opportunity. After Raffael e, angel that passing this earth in its flight, firoopeditswings Titian Michel Angelo, Da Vinci, and Bartolomeo, who and dropped upon it, to give us a foretaste of the smiles would have thought that another style, independent of either^ which welcome a happy spirit in a purer sphere. rndunlike any thing else in theworld, couldhave burst out? W Parmegiano is the next important name in this school, Parmeg.But so it was. ^ Of all the painters that ever lived in the world, who grafted the grace of Corregio on the affectations o there is no accounting for Corregio. Unlike Greeks, Ro- Michel Angelo. His greatest work is in our National mans and Italians, out he came into the world, in colour, Gallery; the Vision of St. Jerome. The Christ is a beautiful drawing, 1 ight and shadow, composition, expression, and foi m, boy, but affected ; the Virgin is Michel-Angelesque, having like naturet and unlike every body e se, who ever studied na- the Glumdalclitch look of his Brobdignagian women d all Michel Angelo, Raffaelle, Titian, we can tiace , St. John is finely drawn, but not unexceptionable, and the we see upon whom they^vyer® graft®d»^vhen^kcy budded^nd St. Jerome is sleeping in a position as it he had got into a burst forth. But who is Corregio r Nobody is certain cramp in the first part of the vision, and could not &et out Onefswears he was poor, another that he was we 1 off; ano- Iffl it was over. It is raw in colour, skinned m construeSer died in consequence of a fever winch he caught tion, and spoils the composition altogether. His small p c tures are beautiful but long in proportion. His fingers seem by carrying all his money m copper t),e pnce of a p.c m another protests it was no such thing. Men always to move to music ; and his limbs to be consciou the best and Vasari's mostly without ?"*™ty- 51 . . gracefully they are disposed. He lias often been a fatal that about Ins portra, factThere there isis uncertainty as much dispute it as tie■» '" cj' ™® / jj“ example to the young. Nor is his Moses, whatever Gray may say of it, an instance of the sublime. 1 he expression peare’s; and here are his beautiful works, N°“e> '“s. is mean, and the form overdone. Parmcgiano died, like Catherine, his Christ in the Garden, Ins Magdalene, his Raffaelle at the age of thirty-seven, when all t int was exnus and Mercury, and his Ercello'mo in the a ion. ' . . ’ pected of him had not been realised, and \>ncn, if he had the only head of Christ in the world. Tins head of Clmst lived longer, perhaps he would have done worse. ought to be reverenced as the identification o , In 1570, the best Corregieschi were grown old or dea , School^ ter, as much as the head of Jupiter by Phidias was in and the school of Parma began to give way to that of Bo-Bol g Pagan world. There is no Christ’s head by Raffaelle which lojrna the truly great academical school. This was not an at all approaches it, either in the Transfiguration or in any academy in th/ modern sense of the word ; it was a school, other work ; and the head by Leonardo da Vinci in the ga - and nothing but a school, without distinctions, and managed lery cannot be endured after it. Of all painters, he aston-

PAINTING. 73 Painting, by directors ; and it is the only academy which has ever pro - their ii cara sposa; and to all the confusion of a bachelor’s Painting, duced any genius. Dominichino, Guido, and other names house, added the slang of a mere painter’s habits. At the of the second period, came between unrivalled excellence dinner-table, crayon and paper were always at hand to and approaching destruction, and stopped for a little time catch attitudes, actions, and expressions, and groups ; as if expressions and attitudes could not have been rememberthe decay of the art. Of the Cremona school, there is no great name. In the ed in the solitude of the study, and kept till wanted with Milanese school, Da Vinci seems the hero; he founded just as much effect as this vulgar intrusion on the usages of an academy which, according to Lanzi, was the first in Eu- society. A great artist is always a man of the world; an rope that reduced art to rules, the works of Leonardo be- inferior one a man of the palette. Raffaelle, Titian, Angelo, ing the canon. His great work is in the refectory. But Rubens, and Reynolds, would have passed a twelvemonth fifty years afterwards Aramini says that it was spoiled ; in in any society w ithout being discovered to be artists; but 1642 Scannelli writes, that it was with difficulty made out; the Caracci would have talked of tone and touching during and Barry ultimately saw it destroyed by a restorer. When the first half-hour. A genteel woman, accidentally travelling Eugene Beauharnois was viceroy of Italy, he drained the in a coach with three artists who were palette-men, expresrefectory and had it paved with tiles; and it is said in a re- sed afterwards her wonder and suspicion as to the state of port, that the colours began to revive. Da Vinci’s acade- their intellects. For after the usual dead silence, one of them my having produced no talent, Maria Theresa founded said, with an air of vast profundity: “ How finely the white another, which, though full of casts of every description, has sheet in the hedge carries oft' the colour in the sky.” “ And nevertheless proved equally unsuccessful. look at that old woman’s cloak taking up the brick-wall,” The Caracci and their pupils were the last crop of genius said another. “ Yes,” said the oldest of the set, “ how finewhich Italy threw up, and though they were second-rate, ly it was done yesterday by a red night-cap in a pretty bit they came of the breed of the great who were no more. of Sir George.” Johnson used to say, “Sir, we were reduThe style of Michel Angelo seems to have taken early root ced to talk of the weather.” But even the weather is preferain Bologna, perhaps from his executing in that place the ble to this detestable affectation. Though the deepest prinstatue of Julius II. Giotto, in the first instance, excited ciple of the ancients was the preservation of beauty in everyemulation by flying about Italy; but he seems to have scat- thing, they never sacrificed beauty to expression, but altered everywhere the seeds of art, and Tibaldi, after hav- ways combined the two ; whereas Guido, by an eternal reing studied in Rome, certainly founded this style at Bo- petition of the expression of the Niobe in Christs and Virlogna. The first school formed was by Bagna Cavallo, and gins rendered the preservation of beauty at such an expense Primaticcio. It failed in 1564; upon which Primaticcio went insipid. The beauty of the Helen and Paris .was truly exto France, and Tibaldi to Spain, and the art was of course quisite; but hundreds ofHerodias’s daughters with St. John’s neglected. heads, “ have a look,” as Lord Byron says, “ of bread and The Caracci succeeded them and were extraordinary butter.” His grace was the grace of theatres ; his pencil men ; but what would they have done if Raffaelle, Michel light, airy, and beautiful, though rather careless than masterAngelo, Titian, and Corregio had never lived? They ly. Dominichino, on the other hand, obedient, slow, and saw nature only by the help of their great predecessors. timid, imitated everybody and fell short of all. But GuerWhatever the Caracci did had the appearance of labour; cino was the most original of the school; his finest manner whilst whatever was done by their great predecessors, had is his candlelight manner, yet still there is a vulgarity in an air as if there was something that no labour could at- his forms. tain. Ludovico had more feeling than his brothers, and None of the Caracci or their school, had they been born had the honour of being instructed by Tintoretto. They at an earlier period, would have advanced the art one iota bewere the sons of a tailor, and founded an academy in their yond their predecessors, so entirely dependent were they upown house. Agostino principally engraved, and Annibale on the great who had gone before. “ Such was the state principally painted ; but they each contributed instruction of art,” says Fuseli, “ when the spirit of machinery destroyto the school in which were formed Dominichino, Guido, ed what was yet left of meaning;” when contrast and Lanfranco, Guercino, and Albano. grouping meant composition and thinking, and a mass of Guido, Gu- The greatest genius of the school was Guido ; but he was rapid, thoughtless, empty, impudent frescos disgraced the ercino, and envied by the Caracci; and even in this school the vices of walls, palaces, and churches of Italy. Pietro of Cortona Albano. an academy began to appear. We did not find Raffaelle and Luca Giordano are the heroes of this inundation of sowing discord amongst his pupils by putting one against splashiness; and yet what artists they were ! The decay the other. Albano was opposed to Guido. Dominichino was which it announced, was the decay of the giant Italian fresco an eminent but heavy genius; and his communion of St. Je- hand that still struggled to do its duty, whilst the head was rome is a fine thing though dull. There was a vulgar gran- fast approaching imbecility in thought. The meanest pupil deur about Guercino, and an insipidity about Albano. The of the meanest machinist would have swept the first-rate great work of Annibale Caracci is the Farnese gallery, British artist that has ever yet existed into the earth, with which is excellent in every thing, but nerve and genius. Say his tiptoes and exhibition-glare. what you will about the Caracci, there is a want in their art, Thus, with the Caracci and their school, ended the great- Decline of which affects the pen of him who is attempting to do them ness of Italian art; nor has there been one single painter of Italian art. justice. They lived together, did not marry, and were ill such genius since, from Andrea Sacchi to Cammucini the paid and ill-tempered ; like all old bachelors they were dis- present hero of the Romans. Rubens, Vandyke, and Remcontented, they did not know why, and fidgety, they did not brandt turned it into a new channel in Flanders; Velasknow for what; they envied the talents they were desirous quez and Murillo kept it alive in Spain ; Teniers, Ostade, of bringing forward, called the art their “ wife,” and were and Jan Steen preserved it from extinction in Holland ; the never satisfied, living in a perpetual fret of teaching, and paint- Poussins, Claude, and Salvator, meanwhile revived it in ing, and complaining. Annibale became dissipated and Italy; whilst the old Gothic masters in Germany, with their led early. It is an extraordinary feature in the moral cha- colour, and most of them with great invention but in bad racter ol the Italian artists, that the greater part did not taste, were an absolute dung-hill of diamonds and pearls, ence came which everybody has considered himself as having a right cant “ of the being wi e, with ^the natural the consequence, that art girls who their had to plunder, not even excepting Raffaelle himself. Whilst be 1 m dels the art was sunk to the lowest depths in Europe, Reynolds ^, ” generally ended by being mistresses. I he Caracci kept up this affectation, they said the art was in England broke forth with a brilliancy of colour which VOL. XVIL K.

PAINTING. 74 that of innate genius, confirmed it for ever RM>en-S^ Painting, has rendered it no longer a hopeless attempt to rival the riedin the splendour of the rainbow, whilst Rembrandt en-^V"* gorgeousness of Venetian splendour. If ever there was a joyed only the poetry and solemnity of twilight; when the refutation of Reynolds’ own theory, that « genius was the evening star glittered, and the sun was down, then was the child of circumstances,” he was a living one ; in spite ot all circumstances, in spite of the utter want of all education as h0ThefscholarPofaOtho Venius, Rubens, imbibed from his Rubens, a painter, in spite of all the apathy of the nation, and the master an emblematical taste ; he spent eight years m Italy, extinction of art in Europe, out he came with a vigour and hurried back at the death of his mother and painted that beauty which have ever since defied rivalship in portrait and wonder of art the Elevation of the Cross, before he was thirty. It is the perfection of a fearless hand and daring brush, conThe Germans are an extraordinary nation, but always scious of its principle ; and though the sweep of Michel AnGerman school. more or less under the influence of a wrong taste. I hen- gelo’s contours, applied to butchers’ backs and coal-heavers early painters are full of thought; and as a proof of what legs, rather increased their vulgarity than added to their reRaffaelle’s estimation of them must have been, he adopted finement, yet the dashing power of that astonishing picture, almost to the letter, in his famous Spasimo in Spain, Shoen- in spite of its Flemish, pallid, and ugly wretches for women, e-aer’s magnificent composition of Christ bearing the cross. renders it the bloom of his powers. Rubens was a man of The hand leaning on the stone, with the momentary action such general knowledge, that the Marquis of Spinosa said, of the drapery, is in Shoengaer. The brute pulling Christ, in that painting was his least qualification. He was ambassador an old German dress, Raffaelle has taken and improved , to Spain and England, and adorned the banqueting ceiling and he has also placed the Marys in the fore-ground which at Whitehall, the centre portion forming an amazing picture. Shoengaer placed in the back-ground; but the whole of Educated classically, he carried classical feeling into eveiy the composition is Shoengaer’s, though Raffaelle of course thing but his art; and after spouting Virgil with enthusiasm, has added to it his own perfections. he turned to his canvas and painted a ^mish butcher with Albert Albert Diner is considered as the greatest man ot tl e bandy legs (if he happened to have such) for Aineas. How Durer. German school; but there is nothing which he has ever extraordinary it is that, relishing as he (hd, Homer, \irgu, done that can compete, in expression and composition, with and Livy, he should give Dutch Helens, Flemish Junes, and this fine production of Shoengaer’s. Fuseli says, “Albeit German Diomeds, for classic art. His greatest work is the Durer was a man of great ingenuity, but not of genius. His Luxembourg Gallery; and for once he hit a sweet female exproportions of the human figure are on a comprehensive pression in the mother of Mary de’ Medicis, after accouchprinciple founded on nature, and the result of deep think- ment. One of his finest pieces, the Rape of Proserpine, is ing” He had sometimes a glimpse of the sublime, but it at Blenheim, where the Arethusa, as a water nymph, is putwas only a glimpse. The expanded agony of Christ on the ting up her hand, with her back towards you. That a man Mount of Olives, and the mystic conception of his figure who could occasionally paint with such delicacy, should so of Melancholy, are thoughts of sublimity, though the ex- often disgust us with his flabby vulgarity, is not to be acpression of the latter is weakened by the rubbish he ha counted for. He painted portrait finely, landscape sweetly, thrown about her. His Knight, attended by Death and the and animals with great power, except the lion, whose straig t Fiend, is more capricious than terrible ; and his Adam and shaggy mane he always curled like the ancients, and lost its Eve are two common models shut up in a rocky dungeon. noble look. He was a great man, and painted wherever he « If he approached genius in any part of his art, it was *n co- went. He was diligent and religious; he rose at foui, heard lour ; his colour went beyond his age, and as far excel le mass, and went to his painting-room, where, with little interin truth, and breadth, and handling, the oil colour of Raf- mission, he painted till five ; he then rode, and returned to faelle, as Raffaelle excelled him in every other quality. 1 his friends, many of them the most celebrated men of the speak of his easel-pictures; his drapery is broad thoug day, who were assembled to meet him at supper ; at eleven much too angular, and rather snapt than folded. Albert he retired, and again proceeded to work at day-break, is called the father of the German school, though he nei- is interesting to contrast this virtuous courseof so great aman, ther reared scholars nor was imitated by the German artists with the vulgar infidelity which alone distinguishes the most of his or the succeeding century. That the exportation incompetent in the art; and it is impossible not to conclude, of his works to Italy should have effected a temporary that those whom God has most endowed with gifts, are the change in the principles of some Tuscans who had studied most sensible of their own imperfections. Rubens was thrice Michel Angelo, as Andrea del Sarto, and Jacopo da P°nt0- married, and educated his children highly; one of them rino, is a feet which proves that minds as well as bodies wrote a very learned work, De lato Clavo, which shews remay be at certain times subject to epidemic influences. search and learning. . -r Lucas von Leyden was the Dutch caricature of Albe Flemish Nowhere did Rubens shine so effectually as in the LouDurer; and ere'long the style of Michel Angelo was vre. In all the world, perhaps, there never was such a school. Von Ley- adopted in the same way as by Pelegrino Fibaldi, and be splendid opportunity for studying to perfection the princiden. inePspread by the graver of Giorgio Mantuano, provoked ples of the great men in the art, as was afforded in the Louvre tlmse caravans of German Dutch, and Flemish stodents, in its full glorv ; and injurious as the formation of that colwho, on their return from Italy, introduced at the courts lection had proved to the cities of Italy, yet Napoleon gave a of Prague and Munich, in Flanders and the Netherlands, dignity and an importance to the art, which it has not since that preposterous manner, that bloated excrescence o lost, by making the productions of its great men subjects ot swampy brains, which in the form of man left «^hmg hu- treaty, and receiving them as equivalent to territory or treaman, distorted action and gesture with insane affectatio , sure. There you rushed from the Romans to the Venetians, and dressed the gewgaws of children m colossal shapes, in from the Flemings to the Spaniards, from Titian to Raffeelle, the style of Golzius and Spranger. But though content from Rembrandt to Rubens, and settled principles in halt to feed upon the husks of Tuscan design, they imbibed the an hour, which it took others months, perhaps years, to accolour of Venice, and spread the elements of tha e*ce complish. It cannot be denied, that in force of effect, Rulence which distinguished the succeeding schools o an bens bore down all opposition, from his breadth, biightness, ders and of Holland. At this moment out blazed upon and depth ; and let every painter be assured, that if he keep the world that giant of execution and brute violence o these three qualities of effect, the leading qualities in the brush, and brilliant colour, and daring composition, Ru- imitation of nature, he will defy rivalship in the contest o bens ; and another mysterious and extraordinary being, exhibition. Rembrandt, who seemed born to confound all theory but

PAINTING. 75 ards painted the people about them for all sorts of subjects Painting, Painting. Rembrandt, with all his magic, painting on too confined a principle, lost in power, and looked spotty and individual. and all sorts of characters ; and they are only more refined Paul Veronese and Tintoretto had not that solidity, which than the Flemings because the Spaniards are a more cultiis the characteristic of Rubens ; Titian seemed above con- vated people. The long possession of the Moors preventtest, and relying on his native majesty of colour, exhibited ed the Spaniards from advancing as soon as Italy. The great a senatorial repose, which gave to Rubens a look almost of im- schools in Spain have been those of Madrid, Seville, and Vapertinence ; but still you could not keep your eyes off the lencia. In 1446 Antonio Rincon abandoned the Gothic seducer, and even if you turned your back, you kept peeping of the European artists; in 1475 Gallegos was so like Albert over your shoulder. Here all peculiarity suffered. The sil- Diirer, that he is suspected to have been a pupil; in the sixvery beauty of Guido looked grey ; the correctness of Raf- teenth century riches flowed in, patronage was liberal, and, faelle looked hard ; Rembrandt failed most by the bright- what is most important of all, genius existed in Spain. Beness of Rubens, the magic of Corregio, or the sunny splen- cerra de Baeza, pupil of Michel Angelo, painted in fresco, dour of Titian ; and after wandering about for days, you de- at Madrid, Salamanca, and Valladolid; and in theTrinita del cided that he suffered most who had most peculiarity. With Monte in Rome, there is also a picture of his. Various paintall his grossness, want of beauty, and artificial style, Rubens’ ers follow of course in all the schools, till the coming of the brightness and breadth carried the day, as far as arresting real hero of Spanish art. Velasquez was born at Seville in 1599- He became a pupil Velasquez, the eye, and forcing you to look at him, hate as you might his vulgarity, and his Flemish women, and his Flanders breed of Herrera, and left Seville in 1622, to seek his fortune in the metropolis; where he succeeded so completely as a portrait of horses. Rembrandt Rembrandt van Rhyn, was next to Rubens, in point of painter, that he got to court, and having become acquainted art, and more than equal to him in originality. Whether in with Rubens, often visited his painting-room. Rubens must portrait, landscape, or historical pictures large and small, he have been of the greatest use to him. Velasquez then visited was like nobody; as wonderful as any, and sometimes superior Italy, but could not bear the Roman school after the Venetian. to all. His bistre-drawings are exquisite, his etchings un- In masterly execution and life he surpassed Rubens and Vanrivalled ; his colour, light and shadow, and surface, solemn, dyke. Of all the great painters, he seems to have despised the deep, and without example ; but in the naked form, male or most the vulgar appetite for what is called/mwA, that is, polishfemale, he was an Esquimaux, His notions of the delicate ed smoothness. Every touch from Velasquez is a thought calform of women, would have frightened an Arctic bear. Let culated to express the leading points of the thing intended the reader fancy a Billingsgate fish-woman, descending to a to convey it. Masterly beyond description, and delightful bath at a moment’s notice, with hideous feet, large knees and beyond belief, he conveyed the impressions of life as exquibony legs, a black eye, and a dirty night-cap,—and he will sitely as if his imitation breathed. But so utterly decayed is haveaperfect idea of Rembrandt’s conception of female beau- the present Spanish school, with its pompous academy, that ty. Though his historical pictures are often remarkable for Spaniards when asked how they can reconcile their hideous pathos and expression, his characters are sometimes abso- polish with the freedom of Velasquez, have answered that lutely ridiculous. Flis Abrahams are Dutch old clothesmen; Velasquez was always in a hurry. After Velasquez ranks Murillo, a man of a tenderer genius, Murillo, and yet his Jacob’s Dream is sublime beyond expression. Whatever he painted, he enriched ; his surface was a mass but equally alive to life. He has the surface of Corregio and of genius, and his colour a rainbow, darkened by the gloom colour peculiarly his own; and he was what the Italians call of twilight. In portrait, sometimes, his dignity was equal a Naturaliste, indeed, the whole school was of that species. Like Rembrandt and Rubens, the heroes of history are to Titian ; but the characters he painted were inferior. These two wonderful men, each a perfect contrast to the always the countrymen of the Spanish painter. The Proother, revived art; Rubens on the principles of the Vene- digal Son is one of the finest works in the Duke of Suthertians, and Rembrandt in defiance of all principles. But the land’s collection; it is beautiful in execution, light and shalatter sacrificed too much to a peculiarity, and he was punished dow, and colour, but Spanish in character and expression. for it in the Louvre by the side of others. They never got beyond their model or their country ; and Vandyke, Rubens produced Vandyke, Snyders, and Jordaens, and this may in a great measure be owing to their masters hav&c. a whole host of pupils. Vandyke had more elegance, but not ing been Venetians, though Tibaldi and Torrigiano had visited so much imagination ; Jordaens more vulgarity, with equal Spain. Murillo was an exquisite painter, and if he had been power. Snyders was a mere animal painter, and he carried soundly educatedlike the Greeks, would have beenas refined the touch necessary to execute the hairy skin of an animal, in character and form as he is now in colour and handling. into every thing he did. Vandyke by his splendid portraits, He first got an insight into painting from Moya, a pupil of certainly generated a love of art in England, which has never Vandyke. Having sold his pictures to hawkers for what left us, after the destruction of historical painting at the Re- they would bring, he saved money and went to Madrid, formation. and, with the frankness of genius, at once introduced himTeniers, Rembrandt had pupils, who were by no means equal to self to Velasquez, who received him like another Raffaelle. &c. himself. David Teniers the elder was a pupil of Rubens. After three years of continued kindness, he returned to SeThese two extraordinary men were certainly the founders of ville, founded an Academy, and for his great work of St. An the Dutch school; and the great principles of their works tony at Padua, he received ten thousand reals. It is said were carried by David Teniers the younger, Jan Steen, that he covered more canvas than any body else; but after the Ostade, and Cuyp, into smaller and more delicate produc- acres of Rubens in the Louvre, that assertion is questionable. tions. A man of the highest ambition and noblest views in Velasquez and Murillo, of course, came like the rest, before art can study with the greatest benefit the dead fish and academies. One now exists in Madrid, and no genius has bunchesof turnips, servantgirlsand drunken boors, for beauty appeared since its institution. It is quite ridiculous to see of handling and effects in art. He who looks down on the the same results all over the world ; and it is still more riexcellencies of the Dutch school, does so from a narrowness diculous, to find the kings of Europe still continuing to found of understanding, and not an enlargement of views ; and if and embellish these useless establishments. an historical painter can see nothing to learn in their little In France, throughout all the middle ages, the art of de- pren^ beautiful works, he will not learn much from the greater pro- sign was never extinct, either in mosaic, glass, tapestry, fresco, schooL ductions of Titian. miniature, or tempera. Though the learned author of the Spanish “ Discours Historique” says, that the French were the first Directly after the Flemish comes the Spanish school, which, school. not so vulgar as the former, was equally unideal. The Spani- who presumed to personify the Almighty in the form of

PAINTING. purer. He is a plague-spot, a whitened leprosy in painting, Painting, man: yet nothing worth remembering occurred till the death that haunts the imagination with disgust. This he had the ot JLeonarao,^ in the me mT'lFrancis x ~ of Leonardo, L in 1518,’ ", and • arms .• • of _J riol the A*i,u hnaemt.P. impudence to say of Rubens. But since the peace, and from ployment of Primaticcio, Rosso, and Nicolo del Abbate. the connection with England, a better school of colour has Jean Cousin in 1462, and Vouet in 1582, were the first sprung up in France ; and La Roche gives evidence of bavFrench painters of any importance m this latter period, bi- in^ in some degree got rid of the furniture look of David, mon Vouet, the younger, was the master of Re Sueur, Le though it still poisons a French pencil. Brun, Mignard, and Dufresnoy ; he lived in 1600, and the Horace Vernet is a distinguished name ; indeed, he may best period of French art was from that time until 1665, the be called the first light-infantry grenadier of European art. beginning of the reign of Louis XIV. They, as usual, foun - He paints a head in five minutes, a whole imperial tamily ed an academy, ten years before Poussin s death; and Coy in ten minutes, and an historical picture in twenty ; and he pel, Jouvenet, and Rigaud, were the produce of the mstitu paints all three with talent and skill. Though the French tion ; whilst Poussin, Le Sueur, and LeBrun, had flourished are not yet sound in art, they are the best educated artists and obtained their reputation before it was founded. Van in Europe ; and if the English would combine their own Loo and Boucher succeeded Jouvenet and Rigaud, and gave colour with the careful habits of French early study, and it additional evidence of the utter incompetence ol the aca- each school could supply the deficiencies of the other, they demic system. About 1770, flourished Greuze, who began would make out a very good school between them. to evince a better taste, and was persecuted by the Ro>a In thus suffering ourselves to be led away to the moder Academy for his independence, till the Revolution of 1790 state of the French school, we have omitted to do justice put an end for the time to all imposture. Down went the Roy- to the great men of former times; Poussin, Sebastian, Boural Academy in an instant; and all the conventional distinc- don, and Le Sueur. Poussin is the hero of French art. tions in art, which are generally the cloak of jmbecihty, were His Death of Germanicus is very fine, as a specimen ot Hisfluttered off in the whirlwind. The people, long prevented tory ; and his Polyphemus sitting on the top of a mountain, from seeing fine works in the great galleries, now broke into and playing his pipe, with his back towards you, is a pure these galleries with brutal exultation. Bloody and dread u spechnen of the poetic. He studied the ancient Romans so asTere the consequences of the first burst of the French much, that he became Roman in his faces, drapery, ana Revolution, one of its most beneficial effects consisted in figures; and in his naked forms, the common model is too throwing open all matters of art and science to the people. apparent. His finest works are in England ; but though disNaigeon, the conservator of the Luxembourg, said, £ 18J4> tinguished for expression, there is always an antique heartthat^nothing was opened to the people before the Revolu- lessness, as if copied from the masks of an ancient theatre. ton - and we ourselves in England are now enjoying our Bourdon’s Return of the Ark is a high proof of his conMuseums, entirely in consequence of the effect produced upon ception ; and Le Sueur’s St. Bruno is pure in taste, but bad Mr. Fox and the English, who visited Pans m the year 1802, in colour. The Battles of Alexander by Le Brun show the and who were astonished at the noble frankness with which latter to have been of the family of machinists. His colour is the Louvre was exposed. _ .. bronzed and disagreeable. Le Brun was a court-favourite, The academy being swallowed up m the whirlpool o po i- and his Greeks, as well as barbarians, have an air ot the tical revolution, the Institute supplied its place. Napoleon opera at Versailles. His composition is artificial; and he is on becoming first consul, sent immediatelytefor David, who not a fit example for youth. The only man who coloured had been a furious republican during “le ™Ps 4e a J*' with exquisite feelingwas Watteau, whose touch anddehcacy reur a man of great talent, but of abominable taste. Na- of tint may be studied with great profit by any artist. poleon made him his court-painter, and gave such PreponIn a word, it is extraordinary that the French as a nation, have derance to his influence, that the detestable style of David never been right in art. Poussin was the only man who could became everywhere but in England the style of European have set them right, and they persecuted him so, that he setart. Gros, Prudhom, Guerin, deviated from the rigidity of tled in Rome. Claude Lorraine can hardly belong to them, David’s style. Prudhom was a man of genius. Hideous as and though Louis Philippe employed them by hundreds, was the style of David, in fact painted Roman sculpture, it nothing very eminent appears to have proceeded from such had some foundation in reason. This was, if possible, to encouragemCans ^ taking higher ground than any other Progress of bring the French back to classical art, after the flutter of Boucher, and the pomposity of Coypel; but, like all reform- nation, and are making rapid advances, part^ularly at Munich. They have begun again fresco painting ; and the li^The material s^or assisting them are so deficient, that the berality of their king has rendered Munich the most flougreatest artists have arrived at any thing ike ^ ^tatmn rishing city in Europe for arts and artists; but as Canova of nature only by the greatest science and skill. It is much said when he was in England, there is very little granJ ^ easier to paint abutton and a chair, than ahuman face; there- left in the world. It is extraordinary to reflect on the little fore the great artists dwelt upon the face with all their dex- original thinking that is to be found. This was more apteritv and touched off the button and chair with less an- parent in the Louvre than any where else ; and one could xietv’and care. The French used to say, that theirs was not help being amused at seeing the way in which Rubens, Se lystem of the ancient Greeks, and that it was our pre- who, like Michel Angelo, is supposed to have never looked judice to disapprove of it. But before we W done, we out of himself, had plundered the old Gothic painters ; the shall show that it was not the system of the "nt Gree , Fall of the Damned, by an old German, being the complete and as we pay all due deference to the Italians, Flem b , basis of the same subject by Rubens. . Dutch, Spaniards, and Greeks, and to their own Poussin and When incessant demands are made on the genius ot a Claude, they have no right to accuse us o preju i favourite, every aid to thinking is grasped at and ^F0^' cause we disapprove of David. We do not eny u Eaffaelle did this ; so did Rubens ; and even Reynolds used talent, because it must have required talent to mislead t to have portfolios brought him to look oyer at breakfast, an continent of Europe. In art David’s expression was taken select what would help him,saying, “Itwill save me the troufrom the theatre, and his actions were borrowed from i ble of thinking.” This involves averyserious question in art. opera house ; his forms were Roman and not Grecian, ant The utmost merit that can be allowed is that of skilful adaphis colour was hideous enough to produce ophthalmia. I tation. “ Nihil tetigit quod non ornavit may be said ot he and his pictures, with all he ever designed, and all he ever all these; and surely a good thought badly done is justifiab e invented, had not appeared in the world, or having appeared, food for a superior mind to render it better. had been utterly rooted out of it, the atmosphere would be

PAIN Painting. \V e come now to the British School, which, though the last founded in Europe, is inferior to none in variety of power. British There is no doubt that the art1 would have advanced in school. Britain side by side with the continental nations, if we had continued Catholics ; in fact, we were doing so, when Wickliffe’s opposition to the Catholic priests roused up the people to hate and detest every thing connected with their system. Painting of course came under this furious denunciation, and through successive ages went on till the period of the Reformation. Historical 1° Edward the Confessor’s time, there were executed basnotices of reliefs as good as any thing done at that time in Europe, and British art. by no means deficient in grace, though disproportioned, and unskilful in composition. In one of these there is a king in bed, and leaning upon his hand; which in an improved style might be made a fine thing. In Alfred’s reign and before, York and Canterbury were adorned with pictures and tapestry ; and in the tenth century, Ethelrida adorned Ely Cathedral with a series of historical pictures in memory of her famous husband Birthwood. As this is recorded, says Strutt, the practice must have existed before ; and that it continued to exist and be the fashion down to the Edwards and Henrys, there is good evidence; for in the time of Henry III. mention is made of the immortal Master Walker’s painting in Westminster, the no less renowned John Thornton of Coventry, painter there, and the east window of York.2 In the reign of Henry VIII. there was a chartered society of painters ; and in the seventeenth of Elizabeth it was moved in the House by Sir G. Moore, “ that a bill to redress certain grievances in painting be let sleep, and be referred to the Lord Mayor, as it concerned a controversy between painters andplaisterers and Sir Stephen Jones stood up and desired that the Lord Mayor “ might not be troubled, and it seemed to go against the painters? The painters who complained that the plaisterers used their colours, and took the bread out of their mouths, go on to say, that in the nineteenth of Edward IV., that is in 1480, there were orders issued “ for the use of oil and size” and that the “ painters’ only mixture was of/and size, which the plaisterers do now usurp and intrude upon.” In their petition they observe with the greatest simplicity: “ Workmanship and skill is the gift of God, and not one in ten proveth a workman, and that those who cannot attain excellence must live by the baser part of the science.” They add that “ painting on cloth is decayed ; that this art is a curious art, and requireth a good eye, and a stedfast hand, which the infirmity of age decayeth, and then painters go a-begging and then they conclude the petition to the House by this remarkable passage. “ These walls thus curiously painted in former ages the images so perfectly done, do witness our forefather? care in cherishing this art of painting? “ This bill,” said Sir

TING. Stephen Jones, “ is very reasonable and fit to pass,” and Painting, so it did.3 ° The above extract, proves that in Elizabeth’s reign the historical attempts were alluded to, as belonging to former ages, viz. from the tenth century downwards; that the House of Commons praised the wisdom of those times in cherishing painting ; and that this wisdom the Reformation had obviously discarded. In 1538, Henry issued an order against the use of pictures and statues to impose on the people ; yet pictures are called “bokes for unlearned people.” In 1542, in his letter to Cranmer, the king tries to restrain the destruction of pictures ; but it was too late. In the reign of Edward VI. the Duke of Somerset fined and imprisoned all those who possessed pictures of religious subjects. To such excess had the fury of the people been excited, that the recorder of Salisbury, Mr. Henry Sherfield, was fined L.500, and imprisoned in the Fleet for not breaking a painted window in Salisbury Cathedral. Walpole says that one Bleese was employed at 2s. 6d. a-day to break windows at Croydon ; and in Charles I.’s reign it was ordered,4 that all pictures having the second person of the Trinity should be burnt, and that all pictures having the Virgin should share the same fate. Cromwell stopped this barbarity, and it was owing to the self-will of this extraordinary man that the Cartoons of Raffaelle were bought in for L.300, at the sale of Charles’s effects. Thus it is clear the art was stopped by the Reformation. In St. Stephen’s Chapel, before the alterations made some years since, there were figures painted on the walls, as excellent as any figures in the Campo Santo, and perhaps executed about the same period. In Elizabeth’s reign, as we have seen, historical art is referred to with sorrow in the House, as a thing past but which had existed ; and in the same reign, says Hillier, “ men induced by nature,” to pursue high art, “ have been made poorer, like the most rare English drawers of story works? Now, Hillier would not have said this, if it had not been true that the drawers of story works were principally natives. In Henry VII.’s time, Torrigiano, the same youth who had felled Michel Angelo to the ground in the gardens of Lorenzo and shattered his nose, was in England, and executed important works. In the time of Henry VIII., commissions for high art being over, Holbein devoted himself to court portrait-painting, though in the city he painted some large pictures. Rubens’ and Vandyke’s visit excited Dobson, a capital painter of a head; but although Oliver was distinguished as a miniature painter, and although there are designs at Oxford, by English painters, no one genius seemed to arise till after Lely and Kneller had succeeded Vandyke. Cooper was the first English painter employed in foreign courts as a miniature painter. Thornhill, a man of talent,

0611 ln an in Flnrpnpp in ’t^ seelns ^a.ve advanced state in England, while it is doubtful whether there was a painter 68 n h land -md inn r> r " v-,at: nca • , aintln • ^d10111 ' i Florence sent for some Greeks because there was no painter ; yet at that period in Engseen le wpi-p nnintod^ t ’ ° lP S [ d quite the fashion amongst the upper classes. All the king’s rooms, as well as his chapel, rvnp+nn fnr " i -H vveilt 01 Edward III. in the rolls of the Exchequer, 26th September 1351, there is a charge to “ William of Padvun thp'hp-n'tifU C ures yariinri when the persuasions of their friends showed them their tion of muscle, bone, and tendon, and can help * young m d [! e before the committee presented a scene a very little way to correct notions. value «f Fu.eh s ^ tten in the history of English, pa nting, and Opie’s lectures m comparison with Flaxmans or Ba^ ^ esti0ns of finance, they proved satisfactorily the ry’s is evident; and the superiority o y ’ honour of their transactions ; but on all questions of ait more cept Fuseli in his lecture on Greek art, needs not t ^ roved against them than ever had been suspected.^ dwelt on. . .. ,, 0n„dl tn nil Theresignationof Reynolds, and the expulsion of Barry; the stothard, as an inventor m composition, was^equaU Jl, Th of of Joney to the art on the Waterloo moBtoihard. but as a painter, certainly m .* _ , d-d t d nument, in consequence of their not replying to Lord Casnot paint; he had no identity of imitation, he did n ^ ^ comnd1ttee . their refusal to let the artists also could not tell a story by human pa , ts of tbe supp0rt their exhibition, and have the same opportunities of designshowed great ignorance oft ^ • it th t fitPPg tbeir works for the public as at the British Gallery ; a be a figure. But there was . f^ fife to and, to crown all, their rendering the school of design lately breathed on every thing he did. He see ^ ^emain. established of no avail to the mechanic, by establishing a law, have dreamed of an angel, and P h design- that the study of the figure is not necessaryfor his education, der of his days in trying to endow every fig g though it was proved that-this study at the Lyons academy S ed, with something of t^e sweetness that he^had ®e®^ for m echanics, was the real cause of their superiority to us; sleep. Peace to his mild and tende p minutes are such indisputable evidence against their protestations possible to be in Stothard’s painting-room „ppm- of sincerity, that it has rendered the nobility and the naL°ri without being influenced by his angelic mm . suspicious of the truth of all the accusations which ed to us always as if he had been born in the wrong more than s^ p^ net. He had a son whose etchings from our ana In gcot]and tbe art is in a promising condition, and the Scottish ar are an honour to the country. He fell from a great he g t, school .n purer tagte than the English. Living as in pursuing his designs from some tomb in a country c > TX ZXZT^biects of Art and Manufacture are both considered; and no l See Report on Arts and Manufactures. In this Report the imp one with any pretensions to taste should be without it. e the appendix to this article. * Por a continuation of the history of Painting down to the presentt titime, se

PAINTING. 81 Was Italian art equal to Greek art? Certainly not. Inv, Painting, Painting, the artists do> in the most magnificent city in Europe, surrounded by a country pregnant with historical recollections, the finest Italian there is a want of beauty in form and face, ^V^^ and guidedbytlieirown shrewd understandings, the school in which Greek art could only supply. Poussin said, that RafEdinburgh will, before many years, take a very high rank faelle was an angel in comparison with the moderns, but in in the art. But there is some cause to apprehend that it will comparison with the ancients he was an ass. Though this is be checked at its most critical period, from the usual cause, vulgar, it is in our opinion true. The ancients combined the foundation of the old curse of Europe, an academy. the Venetian and Roman schools; they considered form, After having produced Runciman, Raeburn, Wilkie, and colour, light and shadow, surface, expression, and executhe other eminent men Scotland can boast of in art, they tion's allequally component parts of imitation, and all neceshave been persuaded to found conventional distinctions, sary to perfect that imitation which was to be employed as an in favour of a select few; and, as elsewhere, the result will be instrument to convey thought. They combined the drawthe same. No Wilkie, no Runciman, no Raeburn will come ing and the colouring of the two great Italian schools; as from it; for the best men they now possess were eminent be- these illustrious schools tried to do when they found out fore it was thought of. The art has no business with any aris- their error, in pursuing one at the expense of the other. Reynolds, from the defective practice of each school, laid tocracy of talent. Conventional distinctions, which are not hereditary, are laughable and absurd; and distinctions which it down that colour was incompatible with high art; and he are, ought to be reserved for high descent, heroic actions, land- also laid it down that the ancients could not be great painted property, or vast political genius. Such an aristocracy pro- ers in a whole, though they might be in a solo, from the picduces heart-burnings and injustice ; for it places power in tures on the walls of Pompeii. We do not wonder at any the hands of men, who are not amenable to justice for tyran- man so concluding before the Elgin marbles arrived ; but ny, and who cannot be reached by law, for calumny or in- we do marvel at Reynolds taking the works in the private sinuation. “ Of all hatreds,” said the Edinburgh Review, roomsofaprovincialRoman city asjustifiable grounds on which “ there are none to equal the hatreds weak men in power to estimate the extent of genius in Greek art at its finest bear to the man of genius without it.” It is a curious evi- period, five hundred years before. But after all, what are the dence of the sagacity of the Scotch, that whilst the English pictures of Pompeii ? Very probably the designs in Pomportrait painters, since the death of Reynolds, were all plac- peii would rank about as high in ancient art, as the designs of ing kings and queens on their toes, from sheer ignorance of our paper-stainers in Bond Street would in British art. perspective, Raeburn, Wilkie, and Gordon have never made The pictures at Pompeii are no more criteria of what the art of Apelles and Polygnotus really was, than any sculpture that mistake. In a word, it is our decided and unprejudiced conviction, dug up there would be a criterion of what the art of Phithat the genius of the British people, will never have fair dias was. Reynolds undervalues contemporary praise ; but play or be soundly advanced, till the Royal Academy is Quintilian, Cicero, Horace, Juvenal, Strabo, Polybius, and removed, or effectually remodelled; and this will be effected Pausanias, Valerius Maximus, iEiian, and Pliny, were not either by the positive interference of the queen or the go- contemporary ; and, therefore, the praises of Aristotle or of vernment, or by the rapidly increasing knowledge of the Plato who were, justify the enthusiasm of those who were people. Ifthe capital and the provinces were freed from the not. predominance of those men ; if the honours were abolished Since the works of Phidias arrived in England, we have and the constituencies restored; ifthe whole national galler- positive evidence that the Greeks knew the great principles ies were turned into a great school, with branch schools in the of composition and grouping, as applied to painting; because great towns ; if the Cartoons vrere removed to London for the metopes are instances of arrangement of line, that will the occasional sight of the people, as they might be inclin- do exactly in a picture, if the Laocoon had not shown it beed to drop in; and if a Native Gallery were arranged for the fore. Having now seen the Elgin marbles, which the Greeks best productions to be purchased as they appeared, and estimated as their finest work, and having found all the enthuthe House of Lords adorned with a series of grand works siasm of the ancients more than borne out, have we not a jusreferring to the British constitution ; then would the go- tifiable ground to argue from what we do see in one art, vernment do a real good to taste, refined pleasures, and design that what we do not see in another was equally excellent ? for manufactures, such as would entitle them to the ever- Will any man, after seeing the Theseus and Ilyssus, doubt lasting gratitude of the nation. that the ivory Minerva and Olympian Jupiter were equally, On the other hand, if all the ancient boroughs of the if not more beautiful ? Why should the ancient critics have land have been obliged to bend to the call for reform; if faith placed in all their decisions except those on painting ? the crown itself hasbeen obliged to yield up the oldHouse of Why should they lose their perspicacity of understanding Commons; if the salaries of our great officers of state have only when they talked of this art? After Aristotle and been cut down without complaint; if pensions bestowed Plato had admired the Minerva inside the Parthenon and equally for merit or for vice, are to be rigorously sifted ; if the sculpture outside, they might admire the pictures ; and the queen herself has been obliged to permit her expendi- nobody will deny them the power of making comparisons. ture to be questioned ; are a set of men without a lease of Had the Elgin marbles and the old antique never been seen, their House, or charter for their existence, without any one would not the same sophistry have been put forth to question legal claim to be considered as a constitutional body—are the merit of their sculpture as well as to deny that of their they alone to brave the Commons and the Lords, are they painting ? “ Nothing can be more perfect than Phidias,” alone to defy and deny reformation, taking their stand upon says Cicero. “You cannot praise him enough,” exclaims Pliny. their utter insignificance ? If so, it will be an anomaly in “ He made gods better than men,” says Quintilian. “ He the character of the British Legislature, which, in after times, was skilful in beauty,” says Plato. You believe all this, will .only be remembered as a proof of imbecility and folly, because you cannot contradict it; but the moment Quinif not of something still worse than either. tilian says, “ Zeuxis discovered light and shade ; Parrhasius General We have now gone through the great leading schools of was exquisite for subtlety of line ; Apelles for grace ; Theon eductions. Italy, France, Germany, Flanders, Holland, Spain, and Bri- for poetical conceptions ((pavrao-ias); Pamphilus for matain, and we have taken those names only, which may be thematical principle ; Polygnotus for simplicity of epic arconsidered as leading an epoch ; so that, in such a system, rangement in colour and form; Protogenes for finish —when many eminent men must of necessity have been omitted. Pliny commends Aristides for expression, and Amphion for rom the Petersburg, Copenhagen, Berlin, or Stockholm aca- composition, and speaks of the grand assemblage of the gods demies, no great genius except Thor waldsen has yet appeared. by Zeuxis, as well as the single figures of Apeiles, Reynolds VOL. XVII. L

PAINTING 82 snective to a much greater extent than, in consequence of Painting, Painting. replies, “ Admiration often proceeds from ignorance of higher some bad landscape discovered in Herculaneum has been ’ excellence, I willnot believe contemporaneous praise. We supposed ”* That they foreshortened is clear, from rimy s answer, that admiration oftener proceeds from knowledge description of a bull coming out of a picture frontways. of superior excellence; that the most enthusiastic admirThe inferences to be drawn from all this, are, first, from ers of Greek painting were not contemporary; and that Plutarch and Horace, that the Greeks had execution like Reynolds’ conclusions against Greek art are founded upon Titian and Vandyke ; secondly, from Pliny, that they mus data which are altogether erroneous. have had fine colour (lib. xxxv.) ; thirdly, from Quintilian, Taking the Elgin marbles as a standard, we cannot but that the principles of light and shadow were understood (lib. suppose that the finest great works of Greek art had t ie xii 'f • fourthly, from Vitruvius (lib.vn.), that they had suffifinest drawing, the most wonderful knowledge of form, the cient perspective to make objects recede and advance; and finest grouping, and the finest expression. To tftis may fifthly from the Elgin marbles, executed by and in the school _ v’ , ° L +V.O+ Viarl pvnrpssmn. be added, colour from Pliny, light and shadow from CAum QuinWeston, n TT"’a. nrno*. nWPiLini tilian; perspective from Vitruvnis; fore-shortening, dvv e i g ^ ’composition. If the three most important can be on the leading points, like Vandyke, and touching o ’-T tiieJ can and colour, light and shadow, and exeinferior parts from Plutarch; and, what was never suspect- F^^ore than Stored; what right has aneminentEned, execution with the brush from Horace, on the leading cu ’ortralt . grossly deficient as a painter of high principles of the Venetians. The French used to affirm, g^h P could not be great in extensive comasse y that David’s principle was the same as that of the Greeks, art,S1 to ’ ’nted walls of a provincial city gave the namely, obtruding on the attention all the superior pwts, an P® ^ of such excellence in their private houses ? forno neglecting the inferior ones. In Plutarch s life of Alexan e executed fivehundred years after the der, at the very beginning, lie desfrI'>esIras of Greek perfection, when Greece was a Roman proplan of writing his ^ ^Xwho when he! cities had been sacked, and her art was talkdwell^oiTthtf face, SgSe alou, Z remLing parts ”' His meaning is, that he would, like painters, dwe upon e leading points in the history of great men and hghtly touch off tKferior parts. Could he have made such an aftusion for the general reader, if this had not been the practice o the great Greek painters ? Again, Hoiace says of poetry, Ut pictura poesis erit; quae si propius stes, Te capiat magis ; quaedam si longius abstes.

ed of as a wonder that had passed away. i iple laid down for high art has been, that the Conclusion Iheaprinciple a 5 and that ^e-^ ; whereaSj the true 1 nc that both styl J address the mind through C P?r pp eye, but J in different ways ways;; the lower walk making the imitation of the actual substance the great object of pleasure only; and the higher walk making imitation the means of conveying a beautiful thought, a fine expression, or a grand form with greater power. The imitation though more That is, some pictures are painted for a close, others for a abstracted must not be less real or effective. Sir Joshua distant inspection. The former, of course, are wrought up; Reynolds affirmed, that the look of truth which fine colour, J , 1 /UcH.ar.toft thp pve from but points are by a touch, _ . in the > latter, ’1the leading Ao tn seized mprp bandlintr of the atmosphere to unfte. noldshasquotedPliny’s description ofglazmg,that is, spreadmg

^

a motLon,

and the sublimity of a

a thin transparent tint over the crude colours to > g conception, will be increased in proportion to the look of into harmony, which was the practice o ^ ‘ reau^j in the objects; and the practice of all the great Another passage completes the conviction . AJeetus e 7 .terSj Jnd of Raffaelle and Titian in their latter splendor, alius hie quam lumen, quern quia inter 1 oc P Transfiguration, and Pietro Martyre), proves vimbram esset, appenavciunb appellaverunt tonon” (Lib. xxxv. c. 5.) works (tne YpI Revumbram v—. that they hadira come gto the same conclusions. Yet ReyT was~added H ✓'./-l splendor, omlDW flnv* a fllftpTP] “ Now different thing from light, an nolds, with his usual sagacious policy, appears to waver lest which splendor, because it was between light and dark, he should be wrong. “ There is no reason, says he, why was called toner To the mind of an artist this is exquisite the great painters might not have availed themselves with in distinction; first, the colours on the tablet were fresh, caution and selection of many excellencies in the Venetian, unmixeci, unmixed, anu and raw raw;, then men was spread j over a transparent . t i gla t Flemish, Plomi^Ii and and Dutch JJutcn scnoois inert; ait; ouinc not nnt/ in m conschools 5; there are some re fWn. hut. reduced, different’ tradirtio’n t0 any style, a happy disposition of light and shade, to take off the crudeness ; then this crudeness being it was called splendor, glowing, rich, and deep, of these with their 2.x which tne breadth Dreaoui in in masses of colour, the union nf hm LTS is cold and white ;: and this splendor the grounds, and the harmony arising from a due mixture of hot Greeks called tone, as both the Venetians and the Brmh and cold tints, with many other excellencies which would denominate it. But the circumstance of tone being the cha surely not counteract the grand style.” And then he conracteristic of any school, is proof of an age for colour. cludes that “ a subdued attention to these excellencies must As to their perspective, let any man consult Vitruvius, be added to complete a perfect painter.” This is all that (lib vii.j. Agatharcus composed a treatise on the subject, is contended for. So far from these excellencies being inandfrom this hint, Democritus and Anaxa^raS,r?tea°Dn^ compatible with grandeur of style, they are essential to it, they snective explaining in what manner we should, in appea are the elements and the basis of it, they cannot be left out, ances^agreeable ^nature, from a emtoo/nomt make the or if they are, the style is deficient, absurd, and not founded lines to correspond with the eye and anu *e me uuce^*. irec , f - natur^ Tbere js not the least doubt that the Greek visual rays, and render the scene a true representation g considered the power of imitating natural objects buildings, that those objects which are drawn on a perpe i ^ u bt and shadoWj as necessary and requisite dicular plane, may appear some retiring from the eye, :n preparatory study as drawing or composition ; and the some advancing towards it. From a passage m t a , 0.riatest painters in the grand style in ancient Greece, were clear, that the Greeks carried the illusions of theatrical per- greatest painie a avdkauBavovciv, eXavisra ran' \outu>v pepoiv (ppovTi^ovrts. r 1 a>(T7rep ohv 61 fcoypa^oi ras opoLOTTjras ano tov TTpo , AAESIANAP02. * Theatre of the Greeks, p. 262, 3d edition, Cambridge-

PAINTING. 83 I Painting, just as capable of imitating still life as the possessors of it and exhibitions. “ Are they not,” they said, “ close corpo- Painting, rations for accumulating funds with which they pension aged ^ v-» ^ It may, therefore, be fairly deduced, that the Greeks members or the families of deceased members ? while possessed all parts of the art, and none particularly to the in their exhibitions they appropriate the chief places, favourexclusion of others; that, therefore, all parts of the art, in ably to display their own works, and give only inferior situadue subordination, may be considered as essential to an tions to the works of artists who have not had the good artist of the highest walk, as also in the more humble fortune to have been elected into their body. Academies department; and that the system of Reynolds, which and exhibitions ought to be put down.” excludes identity and power of reality from judicious imitaAs before stated, all these questions may now be contion of the objects painted, combining colour and light sidered as in a great measure set at rest. At the present and shadow, as well as expression and form, is false, and day paintings for churches used by Protestants are rarely should be exploded from all systems where art is considered commissioned; and though the decoration of churches enas a matter of importance to the dignity or glory of a grosses much attention, painting, except in the limited and nation. (b. r. h.) conventional mode as applied to glass for windows, is never resorted to; the unsatisfactory result of the efforts lately iuppleSince the foregoing article was written not more than made by government to encourage art by competitions for nental re- twelve years have passed, but in that short space the art of frescoes and historical paintings has set at rest the point of narks. painting has undergone such changes in theory and prac- government patronage of art; and academies and exhibitions tice that many opinions then unhesitatingly proclaimed, and never were so popular and flourishing as they are at present. received without a doubt, if propounded now, would be Glancing hurriedly over the pages of the history of the Governthought ridiculous; for, while it may be confidently British school from its commencement, one cannot fail to merit pastated as an admitted fact, that modern art in this country notice how much the founders deemed it an almost in- ^onage of is at present much more generally appreciated, and receives controvertible principle, that encouragement of art by the hlgh art' far higher encouragement than it ever did at any former church or by government was necessary for the growth time, it is equally true that this favourable state of matters of a national school in Britain. Sir Joshua Reynolds spent has arisen under a system founded on principles in many re- much valuable time in inculcating this principle and in tryspects directly opposed to those that not many years ago ing to prove it practically. Barry devoted his whole life to were generally laid down as indisputable. In place, then, what has been styled high art; and from his time till of altering the foregoing article by striking out or modify- within a few years of the present period, this has formed ing such statements as were based on notions formerly the theme of numerous writers on art, and has guided held regarding art, but which are now untenable accord- the practice of various British artists, the chief among ing to those now entertained, it has been thought a pre- whom were Benjamin West, Stothard, Hilton, and Haydon. ferable course to endeavour to point out some of these The last of these saw accorded in some measure what changes, and to show how they have operated; and so, to they, and he himself, the most eloquent and energetic of some extent, the soundness of the opinions given in the first them all, had so long contended for,—namely, a trial (with portion of this article will be tested by an examination of the reference to the Houses of Parliament) given by the practical results of the art of painting at the present day. government to their cherished notions, that church or Within these few years several questions that agitated state employment was the only true patronage for art; the British school from its commencement have received a and he, the only remaining representative of these opinions, trial, and to a considerable extent may be considered as was at last borne down by bitter disappointment at finding settled. Art, therefore, having greater freedom of action, that the benefits to art so long and so confidently predicted has assimilated itself more to natural tastes, and opened re- were not realised by that trial. sources of pleasure and enjoyment that at one time, from It is manifest that the result of this trial has been benenotions now deemed false and pedantic, were not thought ficial to art. The slavish adherence to rules and precedents to be within its proper province. The invention and rapid founded on what has been done in former ages, without development of photography within this period has also consideration of the important fact, that the wants and tbe operated powerfully in the settlement of these questions. enjoyments of the people of these past ages were very difThe following were the chief points so long and so ve- ferent from those of the public now, has been abandoned ; hemently put forward:—-1. It was maintained that art and art now flows for the use of the public in its natural would never reach a high position in this country till it was course, unobstructed by those impediments to the vigour patronized by the church and the state; that our art was and originality of a national school. crushed by the Reformation ; that pictures were excluded No doubt it was natural that at the foundation of a new from churches by bigotry and ignorance, for as they tended school the rules and precedents of celebrated schools in greatly to excite devotional feeling, they might be benefi- former times should be greatly relied on ; childhood recially employed in religious services; that the old masters quires support, and youth needs guidance and restraint. And of Italy, Germany, and Spain were always engaged on this accounts for what is often noted as extraordinary conScripture subjects; and that the British school of art ductonthepart of Reynolds,—namely, his having constantly never would rival or approach the schools these great impressed on artists tbe necessity of attending to the rules painters founded till its artists received similar employment. of the old painters, and having held up the style of the 2. It was pointed out that little or nothing was done pub- Caracci, and of Ludovico in particular, as a safe model for the licly for the encouragement of art; and it was said that artist to study. He formed this notion from the consideraie only way in which this could be carried out was by tion that the style of the Caracci was based on rules and government ordering the execution of large works illus- precedents ; and therefore he reckoned their works as well trating the history of the country, such works to be placed fitted to exemplify what he reverenced. It has been most 'Iifa,ac]es national buildings, to which access should be unjustly alleged that Sir Joshua strongly urged his brother 01 e t0 o oya , cademy the public. 3. Fine-artwere academies, which the artists and his pupils to follow out historical painting on a is the exemplar, strongly of condemned. grand scale, or on what were called high-art principles, not ? opponents of academies declaimed loudly against from his having any faith in those notions himself, but from 168 a ln an the unworthy motive of diverting their attention from the in tli e s°, ape § d or receiving grants from government of^ money accommodation for their schools field of portrait-painting, where he gathered riches and

PAINTING. 84 Bonington, Constable, Etty, and many others and their Painting, Painting, fame. This is absurd; he is entitled to full credit for the successors, the artists of our own time, are producing, and sincerity of his opinions. As a member ot a school at that have produced, works of such importance that the artists of time in Us infancy, when lecturing and theorizing on art, he the British school, in place of looking on the works of the was to a great extent trammelled by being obliged to refer old masters as unapproachable examples, can shovv works, to the maxims and examples of ancient schoo s; for it was some rivalling those of the old masters in many of their best by reference to the works produced in them that he was to qualities, and others executed in successful opposition to rules direct theoretically the members and pupils of the using and principles formerly considered as beyond dispute. sdiool. In this respect he was not able, or had not confiIt is remarked in Cunninghams Lives of the British dence enough, to go much beyond the opinions of his day. Painters, that Reynolds “ had amassed a fortune, and obAnd we cannot doubt his sincerity; because he misspent tained high fame in abiding by the lucrative branch of the much valuable time in trying to put these very theories into profession, whilst he (Barry) had perched upon the unpractice in the form of large historical compositions alle- productive bough of historical composition and had not gorical figures,—for example, those executed for the and windows been rewarded with bread” But it is needless to occupy of New College, Oxford and he freely offered still fu thei more time in showing that Reynolds, when he talked to waste his talents, and paint a Scripture subject to be placed learnedly on high art, did so honestly and sincerely, from in St Paul’s. As a writer or lecturer on art, Sn Joshua was convictions formed in his mind by education and imbibing no doubt the first in his time ; but his theories were just the the opinions of those with whom he came in contact, and not theories adopted generally by the world at that F («’ for the purpose of leading Barry away from that road a on clearly and elegantly given forth, and mixed here and there which he himself was impelled by his genius, m spite o with such opinions bearing on the practice of ar as on y an all conventional theories. What had he to fear ,n compeable artist could enunciate. But it was by his pictures tition with Barry ? In his own proper walk he ranks with that lie gained a name for himself, and contributed so greatly the greatest artists the world has produced. Among t le to the fkiry of the English school. The opinions in his chefs cfouvre in the Manchester Exhibition by Titian, time Inclined to a certain style of art as alone worthy of no- Rubens, Vandyck, and Velasquez, were there any superior tice ; he was carried along by these notions to the extent, to Sir Joshua’s “ Nelly 0‘Bnen ?” In h»s day pool Barry, not only of theorizing on them, but of wastmg time m pm - perched on his “unproductive bough, doubtless looked Using them ; but his genius, as it were, in spite of himselt, down with great contempt on such works as Sir Joshua s carried him beyond what, walking by rule and measure, he “ Nelly O’Brien” or “ Robinetta,” and consoled himselt thought the proper line, and he executed works winch, with the reflection, that posterity would do j^tice to his though then little esteemed in comparison with what were claims, and confirm the plaudits of the scanty knot of diletcalled his historical compositions, are those on which I s tanti admirers who gazed up at him. And all the paintei s fame now chiefly rests. What the public now prize ai e Ins since Barry’s time who have perched on the same bong i portraits —admirable embodiments of distinguished men and have experienced similar treatment, varied merely m deTovely women,-and his simple and natural representations ffree. West had a larger number of admirers than Bany* of the freshness and purity of chddhood. His labonous Lon., these was George IV., who commissioned him efforts to emulate the Caracci in depicting the Death ol to execute various works; and the artist acquired conDido” or the “ Continence of Scipio,” attract but hu e siderable riches and a certain temporary populan y, but sympathy now; and, as property, would be valued far lowei this barely lasted his lifetime. His works are held in htlle thanPhis portraits of Lord Heathfield or Nelly O Br.en, 01 estimation now. Some of Fuseli's fanciful compositions, his “ Gi/with a Mousetrap,” “ Strawberry Girl, or Shep- when transmitted through the medium of engraving atherd Boy.” It is recorded that the former works cost him tracted for a time a degree of notoriety. Stothard s fame many months of toil and trouble ; that the latter were hit will rest entirely on his designs and small compositions off with little effort. The same rules that hampered bu Etty can scarcely be classed among those who maintained could not restrain the genius of Reynolds, operated how- the claims of high art; his fame rests on other grounds, ever very differently on men like Barry and otheis, who namelv, his having most powerfully aided in increasing t e were gifted with considerable talent, but not genius to give strength of the English school in an art element that has tffmm courage to step out of what they looked on as the circle always entered largely into it; and his works now rank with of "tablished art. Barry was arc^nt and hadlugh asp, those of the greatest colourists. Haydon may tuily be rations and much determination and se f-will. H.s friends, considered the man who, by his paintings and especially and he himself, mistook these for the elernents of ^reat^p by his writings and lectures on art, made the chief elicits to uphold those notions as to art, and government patronth^mo^t Vaivourabfe wrw,1”must be pronounced to age of art, which led to the trial and settlement of the question. There can be no doubt that his energetic appeals executed in'* countries ^^fmmier^ perimls bV^ainters who had great influence. The extraordinary facilities afforded bv the erection of so vast and magnificent a pile as W estminster Palace and the Houses of Parliament were taken lions are chiefly to be 'distinguished by qu»l‘»esth advantage of by government, and a fair trial was given to not cared for, and elicited no sympathy * ^ the artists of the country. But though there was no lack public in Barry’s time. T he dilettanti a,ld of of talent displayed, the results have not justified expectaart of the period vehemently maintained ^ , s j^ol tions It is now seen that all that government will do, or working as the old masters worked ; and the „ j* ’ can ever be reasonably expected to do, must weigh as nobeing then but recently instituted, and most of the art,sU, thin^ in comparison with the encouragement annually of the time having been indoctrinated with ie , CTiven bv the public, which is patronage of the healthiest could not at once cast them off. Indeed, men like 1 - . kind, and rapidly increasing year by year; that painting and Gainsborough, and even Hogarth, with all u& o ^ on walls does not suit the style of the buildings in this ality, could not entirely free themselves from such m uen , > country, being often at variance with those notions ot but their genius eventually, by the works they ex ecu e , comfort and convenience which prevail in our arrangecarried them beyond every such bias. Since then e ments; that fresco-paintings encounter great risk of damage, English school has been getting gradually out of tne» from their surface affording so slight a resistance to anytrammels, and assimilating itself more and more to t ie thing coming it contact with it—those on the walls of the tastes and feelings of the times. Wilkie, Turner, Raeburn,

PAINTING. 85 said, this would be all very well if every one had the Painting, Painting, arcades of the public gardens at Munich, for instance, re^ quire so often to be patched up with tempera colours, same chance; but some works are hung where they are v that, though only executed about twenty years ago, they seen to great advantage, while others are so placed that can scarcely be called fresco-paintings now. Besides, they cannot be fairly appreciated. But really, is there any paintings are objects which bear great value ; and in a human institution that is perfect? Every work cannot be put mercantile community like ours, when money is invested in an equally good place, and some sort of classification is in that way, facilities for disposing of such property are ne- necessary. Of course, the best works should have the best cessary. Few would think of laying out ten or twenty places; but difference of opinion may arise here. The thousand pounds on pictures attached immoveably to the works of artists who have attained a reputation will natuwalls of a mansion, while many invest such sums in pictures rally first be attended to; that is but fair. These artists, that are portable; and these investments are often very in their early days, were obliged to struggle for their posiprofitable, while the capital employed may speedily be real- tion. But is it not evident, that, to the rising artist the ized by sale or transfer. The chief arguments in favour opportunity of having his works in a public exhibition is of large pictures fbr public buildings were drawn from the an advantage of the highest kind; while to the more adexample of foreign states, particularly France. But public vanced artist it must operate as a spur to continued exertaste in this country does not run in a channel similar to tion. If the works of the former evince improvement, they that in which it flows in France. With us art is to a great will gradually make way ; if those of the latter become less extent domesticated; in France it is government, on whom attractive, they must give place. In exhibitions public opithe people rely for many of their enjoyments, that has nion is a ruling element. In one of his lectures Haydon generally made use of its services. But now, even in France gave a graphic account of a meeting in Wilkie’s apartment on private employment is preferred by the principal artists to the morning of the day on which the exhibition of the Royal government patronage ; they find that they are better remu- Academy was opened. On the previous day, at the private nerated by private purchasers or by publishers than by go- view, Wilkie’s picture of the “ Village Politicians” had been vernment. Artists like Vernet, Scheffer, Delacroix, and very much noticed; large offers were made for it; and a others, now see that their works of moderate size are eagerly most favourable criticism had appeared in the newspapers. sought after; and it is a great loss to them, not only in Haydon had seen the criticism, and had rushed to Wilkie’s money, but in fame, to engage on large government works. to inform him of his success. The road to fame and forAlthough great numbers go to look at their pictures in tune was now opened to the hitherto unknown artist; and public buildings, those executed for private individuals are how? By means of the exhibition. Wilkie’s picture had seen by many more, for they are exhibited all over the world. been commissioned by a noble patron ; when nearly finished, That the remuneration is greater for pictures of moderate it had been shown to this patron, but he had demurred dimensions is proved every day : for example, at the sale of to the price. If there had been no exhibition to which the Duchess of Orleans’ collection of modern works of art, Wilkie could send his picture, he probably would have a cabinet picture by Delaroche, about feet by 2 feet, been obliged to have lowered his price; at all events, he brought L.2300,— more than double the sum paid to him would only have been paid grudgingly the very low sum for two years’ labour on cartoons for pictures for the church he asked ; and though he had been fully commissioned to go of the Madeline. Government patronage, too, often in- on continually at similar prices, he would barely have made volves elements distasteful to a high-minded man con- enough to maintain himself in the small lodging he then scious of the position his talents entitle him to. For in- occupied. But by the exhibition he was enabled to bring stance, when Delaroche was labouring in Rome at his his productions before the public, contrasted with the works cartoons for the Madeline, by court influence another of established artists who were handsomely remunerated painter was associated with him in painting this church, for their pictures; and by this comparison the high qualialthough there had been an understanding that the whole ties of Wilkie’s picture were fairly estimated, and a much work was confided to Deiaroche. Indignant at such treat- higher value put on and offered for it than he had venment, he threw up the commission, and returned the money tured even to think of. In opposition to all Haydon’s objecthat had been advanced to him when he was engaged on tions to academies and exhibitions, could any argument the cartoons. Thus was the labour of two years of a man stronger be brought forward than the simple narrative of of high talent entirely lost. In that time he might have the above anecdote ? In truth, it is by our annual exhibitions executed several works of great importance, which, exhibited of modern works that art is maintained in force in this in various countries, and circulated by engraving, would country; for they are in every way calculated to lead to have yielded him money and reputation, besides spreading the best of all results—originality, variety, and adaptation the taste for art. Even in France it seems likely that art to the feelings and requirements of the age. will soon rely very little on government support. But though it cannot be denied that art is in a prosperous The notions of Haydon and others, that the future of art condition, and that this state of matters has arisen just at a in England depends on government employment for artists, time when public exhibitions and academies are more enand that if pictures are painted for private patrons only, couraged than they ever were; yet by some people academies they will sink to the level of mere decoration, will be as- and exhibitions of modern art are opposed and decried. It is sented to when it is admitted that no artist can be a great not very likely that these institutions will be at all damaged painter who does not paint subjects from Scripture, heathen by such assaults; they will probably be benefited by them. mythology, or Greek and Roman history—the figures either Their strength and importance will thus be made still more nude or in conventional drapery, and at least 7 feet in height; evident; and by those who conduct them reforms and imand that the only competent tribunal for deciding on works provements will be adopted to make assurance doubly sure. of art is a committee, the members of which are selected on Haydon, and objectors of his class and time, denounced acaaccount of their rank, official status, or reputed dilettantism. demies and exhibitions because they interfered with their Academies ar ^ cry against academies, and against exhibitions, which favourite plan of government patronage ; but when it came to and exhi- e the chief features and supports of academies, has, of be seen that government commissions were as nothing combitions. course, in a great measure gone down with the one that pared with what was expended on art by the public, these was simultaneously raised.—namely, government patronage objections fell to the ground. They also opposed the Royal and high art. Can anything better be devised than the open Academy for reasons of a personal kind. They felt sore arena of an exhibition, on which every artist competes be- that they were not elected members of that body. No fore, and is judged by, the public ? No doubt, it may be doubt Haydon, John Martin, and some others of that time,

y

PAINTING. 86 If they ventured to compose works in any way differing Painting Painting, possessed higher qualities as artists than many who shared from those of the old masters, they were not only ac' the honours and privileges of academicians, yet, on le cused of heresy, but took guilt to themselves. Sir Joshua other hand, there were many other members ot the Aca- Reynolds held up Ludovico Caracci as a model, though he demy, who, as artists, ranked much above Haydon and himself was a much superior painter Wilson constantly Martin, who submitted to the ordeal ot election, and did referred to Claud ; and before he died the name of Vandyck not get up a feeling of indignation because they were was amono' the last words Gainsborough uttered. At not elected on their first application. It is scarcely to be the beo-inning of the century this feeling still prevailed. expected that the academicians, who are the electors, are Patronao-e of modern art was only hesitatingly given, never to err in their judgment. Judges and juries some- and occasionally the patron accompanied the commission times err ; but, with all its drawbacks, to this mode ot elec- with directions how to execute the work required by him. tion most of the greatest artists of this country have sub- It is recorded that Sir George Beaumont deemed no landmitted. No better mode has yet been devised,-—at least scape completed till a brown tree, in the manner of the none better has been successfully practised; at all events, ancients, was introduced, and could scarcely preserve his it is a preferable mode to that of allowing a competitor to equanimity when Constable bluntly questioned the soundbe the judge of his own claim, which, m plain words, is just ness of the maxim. Now, however, the extent and value what the objectors demanded. of the various collections ot modern art in London and the CognoS' Objections now-a-days are raised chiefly by cognoscenti, other emporiums of manufacture and merchandise is quite cend. namely, such as consider themselves, by education and taste, marvellous. The collections of Wells ot Readleaf; Barnard; better qualified than artists to decide on art, and all matters Arden ; Bicknell; Ditton of London ; Miller of Preston , that bear on it; but the flimsy attacks of such can cause but Edenof Leatham; Newsham, Preston; Fairbairn, Hull; Ashslight annoyance. The elements necessary to give a tit e ton, Manchester; Naylor, Houldsworth,and J. Miller,Liverto be classed as an art-connoisseur in the days ot good old pool ; Gillot, Birmingham ; Houldsworth and Denmstoun, Sir George Beaumont seem to have been various and im- Glasgow; Graham, Lancefield ; Wilson, Banknock; Cand, portant. He painted landscapes, he had formed a collec- Greenock are all very important, several of them of immense tion of ancient pictures, and he commissioned modern value And these and similar collections for the most part works. But now-a-days the title of connoisseur is assumed have been formed, not with the view of qualifying then-poson very slight qualifications. There are few amateur sessors to be ranked as connoisseurs,—though certainly the nainters now. The uselessness of such an occupation is frequent exercise of judgment must lead to knowledge, demonstrated by photography, for since that discovery, but on the sound principle of making art the mean* of imno sketchy or conventional mode will be tolerated as a repre- parting to themselves and their friends pleasure of a highly "entation of nature. If a man is to pamt, he must devote intellectual kind ; while from the exerc,Se of those large his life to it. An hour snatched from business or pleasure for but keen views that enter so much into the mercantile chasuch a purpose is just so much time thrown away. Hence racter, the sums invested on art-property are in most cases many who have that sort of liking for art that impels them at any time capable of being turned to good account, Tbus to dabble in it,—pushed aside by the photographer, have no the great vigour displayed by art in this country and the vent for their tastes and feelings but in criticising artists anc enormous patronage bestowed on it by the public within telling them how to paint. And as a glance at some of the these few years, must be set down to the circumstance of continental collections, and a few months residence m Rome, its being now admitted by artists, and the public generally, are thought undoubted qualifications, this class of connois- to be a settled principle, that in a community socially and seurs is large, and supplies most of the objectors to modern politically constituted like ours, art cannot and ought not art and modern exhibitions. Again, touching the title to to depend for encouragement on government Pa^0"a^* connoisseurship on the ground of possessing a collection ot Freed from the notions of government employment that obancient pictures, the acquisition of genuine woiks of cele- structed so many of our painters some years ago, the artis brated painters of former schools is within the reach of , can now give his whole attention to produce a work that When such occur for sale, they are purchased for public will interest the public, from its attracting sympathy by galleries, and nations compete for them. A exceedmg touching the feelings, or by recalling and illustrating past L.20,000 was lately given for one specimen of Mur events of importance, or by perpetuating momentous octhe Louvre, and more than L.13,000 for a work by Vero- currences of the times, or by placing before the eye scene* nese (a purchase that has received the full approval of the of beauty or grandeur ; and when this is done he knows hi* public) for the National Gallery of London. 1 he ridiculous efforts will not pass unnoticed, for in the exhibitions now notion that possesses some people of a chance of puichasing opened in all our large cities, his productions, if up to a at sales Correggios, Rubenses, &c., of marvellous value, at certain standard, will be admitted and brought before an marvellously small prices,-in truth, a species of gambling, assemblage eager to find out works evincing talent and ^-Ts fast going out; and the facility with which picture- by praising and purchasing them, to reward the ai lists y dealers can supply the most extensive demands for work* whom they are executed. . cn n. of the old masters has led purchasers, by making a very What is called the pre-Raphaelite movement is one of Pre-^ simple calculation with reference to the average ages of the results of the change in the notions of our artists r I painters, the time necessary to paint a pic lire t0 anda die gar ding the study of the old masters and high art, though it number of works ascribed to every artist of must be admitted that the invention and development ot the at the conclusion that not one in,a hun^red“ Lectures science of photography greatly aided it. stances, perhaps, not one in a thous^d-^f the pictures The question so frequently put,—namely, What is it tha ascribed to old painters could have been executed by them. distinguishes the style of art called pre-Raphaehtism from Hence, in these times of practical men and measures, the other styles of art?—is answered in so many different ways possessor of a collection of the old masters is not, without that it is manifest the ideas of most people regarding it considerable scrutiny and hesitation, admitted to ran as a are quite undefined. Some say that it is a style of art moconnoisseur. , , delled on that of the artists who painted before the period ,, .. .. The patronage that Sir George Beaumont and ot nf Raohael in whose time the classic element which shoitly n of aTbv° kindred spirits bestowed upon British art, though high y before S been superinduced on the Gothic had entirely the pubhe. honourable to them, was very different from that now ac- superseded it; that though by this, art gained many high corded by our merchant princes. In the early days ot an qualities, it lost several of greater importance, particulai ly truth in this country our artists scarcely knew their own powers.

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iello. and simplicity; and that pre-Raphaelitism aims at returning to the purity and simplicity of the style of these old painters. Others allege that it is an attempt to represent nature as truly and faithfully as the means employed will allow, neither omitting, nor adding, nor changing anything. But the explanation oftenest given is, that it means a style of painting involving great labour and careful and minute execution, or what, technically speaking, is ca\\ed finish. Now, though in each of these attempts to define what pre-Raphaelitism is, some of the elements that enter into it are pointed out, yet by none of them is a complete explanation given of it, while a combination of all these definitions would involve contradiction. For instance, the very name the followers of this style have adopted implies an assimilation to the style of the art. before Raphael’s time; but though in the works of many of these old painters we find several high qualities, a very close resemblance to nature assuredly is not one of them. We no doubt see that an effort is made to attain it, and that may be pointed at as a sufficient motive; but again, these old painters knew nothing of breadth, and not much of light and shadow ; and pre-Raphaelites constantly aim at these qualities (particularly the latter) in their works. Then, as to its being merely a faithful representation of what the artist sees, that would be putting his work on a level with one produced by machinery; this notion is evidently based on exaggerated ideas raised by too much reliance on photography, PAISIELLO,1 Giovanni, a very distinguished Italian musician, was born at Taranto, in the Neapolitan States, on the 9th of May 1741. His aptitude for music having been early remarked, he was admitted, in May 1754, as a pupil of the Conservatory of St Onofrio at Naples. There he received lessons from Durante, and afterwards from Cotunni and Abos. In 1759 he obtained the place of assistant master. He finished his studies in 1763, and the fame of an intermezzo which he then composed, obtained for him an immediate engagement to write two operas for Bologna. The success of these was so great that his reputation at once spread through all Italy. In 1777 he was, at the same moment, offered engagements at Vienna, at London, and at St Petersburg. In June 1777 his opera Dal finto al vero was represented at Naples ; and on the 25th of July following he set out for Russia. He resided eight years at St Petersburg, where he received a large salary, and composed some of his finest works; among others, his opera II Barbiere di Seviglia. On his way back to Italy, he stopped at Vienna, and composed there twelve symphonies for a large orchestra, and the operabuffa 11 Re Teodoro, which contains a septuor that became celebrated throughout Europe. During his stay at St Petersburg, Paisiello had made some changes in his style of composition; and at Rome, in 1785, when he brought out his opera UAmor ingegnoso, he found that his countrymen loudly disapproved of these changes. He then settled at Naples, where he had no rival, Guglielmi and Cimarosa being absent. For the next thirteen years he composed for the Neapolitan theatres, and produced, during that time, some of his best operas. Ferdinand IV. appointed im his chapel-master, with a salary of twelve hundred Aica.ts per annum. In 1788 the King of Prussia invited aisiello to visit Berlin; but this invitation was declined, as well as a second one to St Petersburg, and a first one o London. In 1797 General Bonaparte opened to competitors the composition of a funeral march in honour of eneral Hoche. Paisiello and Cherubini each sent a marc i, and Bonaparte, very unjustly, decided in favour of

P A l 87 which, though extremely useful, is only an auxiliary to Paisley, art. While to make minute finish the distinguishing fea- v ture of pre-Raphaelitism would be assigning to it bv no means a high position ; and, indeed, in the works of several painters we find many of the faults which pre-Raphaelites strongly censure united to very high finish. But, indeed, pre-Raphaelite art has even already undergone modification ; and what has lately drawn forth bitter ridicule from some, and inflated praise from others, is rather an excrescence on a style which is entitled to high praise as one of the many vigorous efforts by which British art, emancipated from the notions and prejudices that so long have clogged it, has established its claim to originality and power. On reviewing the state of painting in Great Britain, it may be truly said that our artists, freed from conventional rules, having cast aside vain notions of government patronage, and aided by those appliances (photography chiefly) that science has put within their reach, now study nature with the greatest earnestness and success. And the numerous opportunities afforded by exhibitions, of bringing their efforts before the public, rapidly improving in taste and in ability to appreciate and reward art,—has led to such results, that many of the works of the British school, even in our own day, will compete successfully with those of the most celebrated ancient schools that have conferred honour on the countries where they flourished. (w. B. j.)

Paisiello. In consequence of the revolution at Naples in 1799, and of his own political tergiversation, Paisiello lost his royal appointments for two years. Soon after their being restored, Bonaparte, then First Consul, requested the King of Naples to send Paisiello to Paris, in order to direct the consular chapel; and he was accordingly sent thither in September 1802. His treatment by Bonaparte was munificent, while Cherubini was quite neglected. (See the article Cherubini.) The opera of Proserpine, composed by Paisiello in 1803, was ill received by the Parisians; and this check, and his failing imagination, induced him to request leave to retire, under pretext of his wife’s ill health. Bonaparte unwillingly granted the request, and Paisiello returned to Naples and to his former service. Afterwards, under Joseph Bonaparte and Murat, Paisiello retained his appointments until a new revolution reduced him to indigence. He died on the 5th of June, 1816, aged seventy-five years. He was a member of the French Institute, and of the Royal Society of Arts and Sciences at Naples, and was president of the directors of the new Neapolitan Conservatory of Music. It appears that he was excessively jealous of all musical rivals, and that he used unworthy means of intrigue to injure Guglielmi and Cimarosa, and also Rossini, when the latter began his brilliant career. The charm of Paisiello’s style consists in sweet and graceful melody, and great simplicity of structure. His compositions were very numerous. He himself believed them to amount to two hundred. In published lists of his works we find ninety operas and four cantatas ; an oratorio {La Passione), and eighteen masses, requiems, &c.; eighteen instrumental quartets; two volumes of harpsichord sonatas, &c. ; six pianoforte concertos; funeral march for General Hoche; a collection of figured basses for the study of accompaniment. (g. f. g.) PAISLEY, the principal town of Renfrewshire, Scotland, is finely situated on the banks of the White Cart, about 3 miles S. of the River Clyde. The ancient and principal part of the town occupies the summit and slopes of a beautiful declivity, the eastern base of which is washed by the

Dr Burney, in his Tour and History, Signor Perotti, in his Dissertazione, and some other writers, spell the name “ Paesiello.’

PAISLEY. 88 Paisley, river, which divides the burgh into two parts, that on the leges are so very considerable as almost to equal those of Paisley. east side being styled the New Town, from its more recent a royal burgh. Previously to 1770 the burgh had a voice v erection. Paisley is generally considered as the ancient in the election of a member of Parliament for the county. Vanduara of Ptolemy, and as having been a Roman town Now, bv the Scottish Reform Act, Paisley sends a member or station during the presence of these invaders in the to represent it in Parliament. The constituency in 18o7 northern part of Scotland. As late as the beginning of the was 1349. Formerly the government of the town was vested last century, considerable vestiges remained of a Roman in a provost, three bailies, and seventeen councillors; but camp on the western side of the hill on which Paisley is by the Scottish Burgh Reform Act there are now a provost, a treasurer, and ten councillors. built; but these have long since been obliterated by the fourInbailies, 1553 John Hamilton, the last abbot, conveyed by progressive extension and improvement of the town. 1 he deed the revenues and privileges of the abbacy to Lord latitude of Paisley is 55. 51. N., and the longitude 4. 26. aClaud Hamilton, then a child of ten years of age. He was W. The climate is temperate, but humid. In former times afterwards deprived of the latter on account of ms adherinfectious diseases were of rather frequent occurrence. In 1645 a pestilence committed great ravages in this place ; ence to the fortunes of Queen Mary; but in 1591^ they restored, with the title of Lord Paisley. In 1653 the and in 1765 dysentery prevailed to an alarming extent. were second Earl of Abercorn disposed of his interest in the In 1771 pleurisy carried off numbers of the inhabitants; abbacy to the Dundonald family; and in 1658 the magisand virulent influenza has visited it at various times. trates and council purchased this superiority. Since that ley, however, has never been considered unhealthy; and time Paislev has held directly of the crown. In 1857 the the registrar-general’s returns for the years 1855, 1856, and real annuafrent of all the property within the burgh was 1857, show, that in regard to mortality it occupies a medium L.99,628. position among the large towns of Scotland. During The topography of Paisley and its vicinity is not vel7 years the rate of mortality in Paisley has not been so high remarkable. Previously to the year 1736 the whole of as in Greenock or Glasgow; it has been very nearly the this district was included in one parish, known by the name same as in Dundee, and it has been higher than in Aber- of the parish of Paisley ; but since that time the burgh has deen or Edinburgh. Whether the Roman town or station called V anduara was been divided into three parishes—the High, the Middle, and Low. The Abbey parish now comprehends the New a place of any size or importance is unknown. A cloud over- the hangs the history of Paisley till about the year 1163, when Town, which, with a trifling exception, is separated from burgh by the River Cart, and the populous villages ot WaFter, the first Stewart, founded a monastery on the east- the Johnstone, Elderslie, Thorn, Quarrelton, Nitshill, Hurlet, ern bank of the Cart, opposite to what is now termed the and Dovecot Hall, with the country districts. io the Old Town of Paisley. At this period there does not appear north, and affording noble view from the eminence on to have been a village or hamlet, however small, in exist- which Old Paisley is achiefly built, extends the great plain ence ; but the protection which the monastery afforded in the lower valley of the Clyde, anciently called Straththose rude times, and the multitude of pilgrims, travellers, of On the south the Gleniffer, or Paisley and persons of distinction who frequented it, gradually in- qryffe. distant about 3 miles, swell gently up to the height of 760 duced a population to assemble in its vicinity ; and a village of some extent made its appearance on the western bank feet above the surface of the Cart. J he soil is of a mixed character, but in many places rich and fertile. From the of the river, and began slowly to clamber up the gentle heights just mentioned descend a variety of minor streams, slope of the hill on that side. In 1220 the monastery was elevated tor the dignity of an abbey, and many valuable of great utility to the agriculturist and manufacturer, and privileges w ere subsequently conferred upon it by the Pope, adding to the richness and beauty ot the scenery. Ihe of the country in the neighbourhood, with the exand bv its founder and successive patrons. Its jurisdiction surface of that to the north, which is flat, is agreeably and revenues were very extensive, extending to, and being ception diversified, and broken into gentle swells and soft declivities, derived from, localities at a great distance ; its abbots were which, with the mixture of gentlemen’s seats, farm-houses, commonly men of the highest family connections, and ap- bleaching-fields, and other public works, confers a picpear frequently as prominent actors on the stage of Scottish turesque and animated character upon the entire vicinage. civil and ecclesiastical history. After the Reformation, the Valuable minerals abound in the parish, such as coal, limerevenues and privileges of this ecclesiastical establishment stone of the coal formation, and ironstone. In the strath were bestowed upon Lord Claud Hamilton, and have since to the north-west of the town, extending towards Linwood, become the property, though greatly reduced, of the noble valuable blackband ironstone has recently been discovered family of Abercorn. A considerable part of the ancient and is now being extensively worked by Messrs Meiry and abbey still remains, and is in excellent preservation. Ihe Cunningham, and others. A great mining population is skeleton of a beautiful window, 35 feet in height by 18 in rapidly collecting in that district. There are also very exbreadth, almost the only fragment of the more ancient part tensive coal-pits wrought in the neighbourhood, chiefly at of the building, has been much admired for its size, light- Johnstone ; and in that vicinity, and at Hurlet, the cheminess, and fine proportions. The external architecture o cal works of the Messrs Wilson and others are on a very the remaining portion is perhaps scarcely equal to that ot large scale. Very fine freestone is also obtained in the some other ecclesiastical edifices in Scotland; but the ap- neighbourhood. . . pearance of the nave, which is occupied as a parish church, As it is chiefly, however, to its being one of the principal is grand and striking in no ordinary degree; and some ew manufacturing stations in the kingdom that Paisley owes fragmentary remains of the old monastery exhibit hne spe- its celebrity, we shall now present a brief sketch of the cimens of the purest Gothic. Before the accession o t e history, progressive improvement and increase, and present Stuart family to the throne of Scotland, their burying-place extent of its principal manufactv.res. There is no certain was in the abbey; and even after that event two of its account as to the precise period when the art of weaving members were interred there, viz., the queen ot Robeit 11., in 1387, and Robert III., in 1406. The tomb of Marjory was introduced. It appears, however, that the manufacture Bruce, daughter of Robert I., is still to be seen in the of linen was carried on to a considerable extent during the famous sounding aisle, now occupied as a burial-vault by last century. Shortly after the Union the spirit of manufacturing enterprise sprang up in the west of Scotland, and the Abercorn family. Notwithstanding the wealth and manufacturing import- Paisley was not slow in availing itself of the general imance of Paisley, it is only a burgh of barony ; but its privi- pulse. Craufurd, describing the state of Paisley in 1710,

89 PAISLEY. Paisley, observes :—“ That which renders this place considerable is sources of Paisley. The present annual amount of the v Paisley, i a-v—> its trade of linen and muslin, where there is a great weekly trade and manufactures of Paisley has been roughly cal- ''— sale in its markets of those sorts of cloth, many ol the in- culated at nearly two millions sterling. To give anything habitants being chiefly employed in that sort of manufac- like a view of the various inventions and improvements in tory” From 1744 *to 1784 the linen manufacture in- the art of weaving, by means of which Paisley has attained creased in amount from L. 18,886, los. lOd. to no less than its present eminence as a chief seat of the silk and cotton L. 184,385, 16s. 6£d. About the year 1722 the manufac- manufactures in Scotland, would swell this article beyond ture of linen thread was introduced into Paislej, and cai- all due bounds. The hasty sketch which we have supplied ried on to a large extent. For several years it reached the affords some general data to the reader, who may consult, amount of L. 100,000 annually. Cotton thread, having if he wishes for more minute information, Wilson’s Survey superseded that made from linen yarn, is manufactured to of Renfrewshire; Craufurd’s Description of the Shire of with Robertson’s continuation; and the New a very considerable extent, and forms one of the principal Renfrew, manufactures of the place. Besides the establishment of Statistical Account of Scotland. The spinning of cotton the Messrs Coats, which is said to be the most extensive, yarn is also extensively carried on by Paisley manufacturers the most valuable, and the most magnificent of the kind in in the town and parish, but there are no data to be relied the world, there are now about ten others, some of which on for ascertaining its annual amount. Bleaching and dyeare very extensive. The value of the thread annually ing, as might be expected, are prosecuted to a very conmanufactured in Paisley at the beginning of the present siderable extent. Soap-making is a trade of some antiquity century was estimated at L.60,000. It is now about and importance ; and malting, the distillation of raw spirits, L.400,000. In 1760 silk gauze began to be manufactured and silk-throwing, have also a considerable capital embarked in Paisley; and in a short time the skill and ability with in them. Owing to the frequent and severe depressions which this manufacture was prosecuted caused its aban- that have recently occurred in connection with the weaving donment by the manufacturers of Spittalfields, the original trade of Paisley, a considerable number of those formerly seat of the silk manufacture in Great Britain. 1 his ma- engaged in that line have transferred their industry to other nufacture flourished extensively until near the close of the employments. By this means some branches of business, last century. From 1772 there existed also a considerable formerly existing in the town, have been very much exmanufacture of ribbons and other articles in silk. In 1744 tended, and others entirely new have been introduced. the value of the manufactures of Paisley was L.579,185, Among the branches thus increased or introduced, the and in 1769 it amounted to L.660,385. In 1744 only 867 principal are the thread manufacture already mentioned, looms were employed in the weaving of linen; and forty shawl-printing, soap-making, iron-founding, engineering, years afterwards no fewer than 5000 looms were engaged and iron ship-building. Thursday is the market-day in Paisley, and there are in the manufacture of silk, the produce of which amounted four fairs annually, which last three days each. The races to L.350,000. Towards the end of last century the making of silk goods at St James’ Day Fair were long well known in the west declined rapidly ; but a new species of manufacture sprang of Scotland, and attracted great numbers from the surup, which has since been carried to a much greater extent. rounding districts. For many years they were much freThe manufacture of shawls, of cotton, silk, and fancy quented by the sporting world ; but after the close of the woollen fabrics, has now become the staple trade of Paisley. races, on the last day of the sport in August 1857, a serious In little more than forty years after its introduction (in and disgraceful riot occurred on the course. A number of 1834) this manufacture produced about a million sterling; the inhabitants memorialized the burgh trustees, and the provost and magistrates, against the continuance of the and since then it has increased considerably. Previously to the present century fine shawls had been races. After several meetings, the burgh trustees and the manufactured in this country chiefly at Norwich and Stock- town council agreed to discontinue the races. I he grounds, port in England, where they were made in imitation of the including the course, were let for agricultural purposes; rich India shawls. The latter, from their high price, were and the Paisley race-course, one of the best in the kingbeyond the reach of all but a few' wealthy individuals, when dom, is now a ploughed field. Paisley is abundantly supplied with the means of exterthe manufacturing skill and enterprise of Paisley embarked in the manufacture, and, by successive inventions and im- nal communication. The Glasgow and Greenock, and the provements in the loom, and in the kind and quality of the Glasgow and South-Western railways, both pass through materials, prosecuted for a long series of years, succeeded it. There is a railway to the Clyde near Renfrew; and in realizing a nearly perfect imitation of those oriental although the Glasgow, Paisley, and Johnstone Canal has fabrics in colours, texture, and design, and at a mere frac- ceased to carry passengers, it is still available, and largely tion of the cost. Besides the extraordinary cheapness, used, for the conveyance of goods. The yearly returns of the post-office show the growing the variety of new and beautiful fabrics and designs which have been introduced into the shawl manufacture have nrosperitv of Paisley. In 1 (20 the amount was only L.28, largely contributed to its extent and success. The manu- 13s.; 1769, L.223, 3s. 8d.; 1809, L.2814, 17s. 4d.; 1834, facture of shawls is almost wholly confined to Paisley ; but L.3194. Since the introduction of the penny postage, the a considerable proportion of these find their way to the delivery of letters from the Paisley post-office has risen to Glasgow markets for home and foreign sale. The kinds about 676,000 in a year. In the money-order department produced are various in quality and cost, and there is a there are about 14,000 transactions in a year. The river Cart is navigable to Paisley for vessels of from great variety in the styles and fabrics. Some are wholly made of silk, but these are not now much in demand; 60 to 80 tons burthen. The river dues in 1835 amounted others of silk and cotton, and a great many of Persian and to L.260, and at the present time they are about L.600. Paisley is well supplied with the means of religious infancy wools mixed with both or either. Thibet cloth shawls, a very rich and fanciful fabric; Chenille shawls, a struction. There are 8 congregations in connection with beautiful imitation of silk velvet; Canton crape shawls; the Church of Scotland, 6 with the Free Church, 6 with and various other and newer kinds, of every possible variety the United Presbyterian Church, and about 16 of various in size, texture, pattern, and price, are produced from the other denominations. There is, therefore, on an average, looms of Paisley, with a rapidity and abundance which, one congregation for every 1350 of the burghal population. whilst it tends occasionally to overload the market, affords The number of scholars attending the different sabbath satisfactory evidence of the manufacturing skill and re- schools in Paisley during the year 1857 amounted to 6614. M YOL. XVII.

PAL 90 P A I Paisley. The grammar school of Paisley was established by King as a composition for its anti-Jacobite predilections. The Pajou || v . y James VI. Tlie charter of erection is dated ^ at Halie- magistrates afterwards memorialized government for comrude House,” 3d January 1576, but the oldest date on the pensation, but they never obtained it. In 1597 the queen Pafaeologua tablet in front of the building is 1586. Besides the gram- of James VI. honoured the inhabitants with a visit to their mar school, there are three other burgh schools, and a town, when it would appear that the royal entertainment number of private or adventure schools. Within the last fell so heavy on the burgh funds, that in 1617, when her few years large sums have become available for the educa- royal consort also visited it, the civic dignitaries prudently tion of the poor. The late John Neilson bequeathed a sum forbore so costly a welcome, but in lieu thereof employed for this purpose, which is supposed to have accumulated to “ a prettie boy, a son of a Sir James Semple of Beltrees,” about L.30,000. He died in 1839; and the school was opened to make him' a speech, which was judiciously spiced for in 1852. Other sums of smaller amount have been be- James’s royal ear. In 1695 the population of the town of Paisley, exclusively queathed for similar purposes. At present, active preparations are being made for opening an institution for reclaiming of the Abbey parish, where there were then very few houses, youthful offenders. The late Miss Kibble, some years ago, be- was only 2200. In 1755, sixty years after, it amounted in queathed for that purpose a sum now amounting to L.10,000, the town and Abbey parish to 6799; and in 1781 to 11,100 in the town alone, the population of the Abbey The Educational Association supports several schools which parish not being given in the register. In 1791 the total supply education to a great number of pupils at a very cheap population was 24,592; 1801, 31,179; 1811, 36,722 ; rate; and the Ragged School furnishes a home and educa- 1821,47,003; 1831, 57,466; 1841,60,487 ; 1851,60,332. tion to the houseless and the destitute. Hutcheson’s Cha1851 the population of the parliamentary burgh was rity, though possessed of very scanty means, gives gra- In tuitous education to a large number of children; the Ge- 48,026 ; and in 1858 the same was estimated at 48,302. PAJOU, Augustin, an eminent French sculptor, was neral Session educates gratuitously 100 pupils; and seveial born at Paris in 1730, and studied in the workshop of of the congregations support schools in which education is Lemoine. His talents and facile skill were soon recognised, given either gratuitously or at nominal fees, in some cases and his career of distinction began early. At the age of as low as one penny a week. In addition to all this, the eighteen he gained the French Academy’s grand prize for Committee of Privy Council on Education have at different sculpture, and the attendant privilege of being sent to Rome times granted considerable sums to assist in building schoolto complete his studies. On his return at the end of twelve houses ; and large sums are annually received from the same source to supplement teachers’ salaries, and to pay for years, he immediately assumed a high place in his profession. pupil teachers for the education of the poor. The amount He was elected forthwith a member, and in 1767 a proreceived in Paisley in 1857 for these purposes, together fessor, of the Academy. Louis XVI. also employed him to with the sum required for reducing the price of school- adorn with sculptures the faqade of the Palais Royal, and books, could scarcely be less than L.1000. In future years to execute statues of Pascal, iurenne, Bossuet, Buffon, and Descartes. From these and his numerous other works this sum will be very considerably increased. The town is well lighted with gas, and there is an Pajou had realized a handsome competency; but the Revoluabundant supply of excellent water, collected from the tion deprived him of it, and left him for the rest of his days neighbouring heights in two large reservoirs, from which it in comparative poverty. His death took place in 1809.J PAK P ATT AN, or the Pure Town, a town of India, in is conveyed into the town by gravitation. The assessment for the poor in the three town parishes for the year ending the Punjab, stands on a mound 40 feet high, in the midst May 1858 was L.5200; and in the Abbey parish for the of a plain, 5 miles W. of the Ravee, and 98 S.S.M. of Lahore. It derives its name from having been long the resisame year the assessment was L.5000. There are few public buildings of importance in Paisley. dence of a famous Mohammedan saint, whose tomb, a plain Besides the Abbev, may be mentioned St George’s parish edifice in a depression below the general level of the town, church, the Free High church, the Episcopal church, and is much frequented by pilgrims, both Hindu and Mohamalso the Oakshaw Street and Abbey Close United Presby- medan. Pak Pattan is believed to be the site of the coterian churches. The coiinty buildings are of considerable lossal altars erected by Alexander the Gieat to maik the extent and elegance, in the castellated style ; and the news- limits of his conquests. PAKS, a town of Hungary, county of Tolna, stands on room at the Cross is also a handsome building. J he John the right bank of the Danube, 62 miles S. of Buda. The Neilson Institution is in itself a very fine building, and occupying, as it does, by far the best situation in Paisley, inhabitants are chiefly employed in the culture of the vine, and in sturgeon-fishing. There are two churches and a it appears to great advantage. There are three bridges synagogue, a cattle market, and it has some ti ade in corn. over the Cart, connecting the Old and the New 1 own of Pop.n(f846) 7310. , Paisley, but none of them is remarkable. The most imPALAEOGRAPHY (TraXato?, ancient, and ypa^xo, 1 portant public charity in Paisley is the infirmary, supported write), is that branch of knowledge which has to do with by voluntary subscriptions. interpretation of ancient inscriptions and documents. The civil history of Paisley affords little to interest or the (See Archaeology, Diplomatics, Hieroglyphics, and deserve the attention of the general reader. Its ecclesiasr Egypt. For an account of the catalogues of manuscripts tical history is curious and interesting, but supplies few n in the British Museum and elsewhere, see Libraries.) points sufficiently salient and compact to be entered |tpo PALaEOLOGUS, the name of an illustrious Byzantine in so brief a sketch. The famous “ Black Book of Pa,s" ley,” which was long supposed to have been a history of family, first mentioned in history in the eleventh century, Paisley and its monastery, has been ascertained to be the from which period it played an important part in the affairs Scotichronicon of Fordun, a monk of the fourteenth cen- of the empire till its downfall. The family of Palseologus tury. The inhabitants of Paisley early embraced the doc- occupied the throne of Constantinople without interruption trines of the Reformation, notwithstanding the naturally from 1260 to 1453, when that city was taken by the lurks. adverse influences of the great monastic establishment; and (See Constantinopolitan History. A full account of displayed their attachment to these on various occasions this powerful house will be found in the Familice Byzanduring the civil wars and prelatical persecutions of the tince of Ducange, pp. 230-348 ; and a stemma of the family seventeenth century. In 1715 and 1745 they showed equal is (fiven under “Palaologen,” in Ersch and Gruber’s Lncyzeal for the House of Brunswick ; and the burgh had to pay clopadie; also in Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman a fine of L.500 to the Young Chevalier at the latter period, Biography and Mythology.)

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PALEONTOLOGY1 Introduc- Is the science which treats of the evidences of organic tion. beings in the earth’s strata; evidences mainly consisting ot V—petrified or fossil remains of plants and animals belonging Definition, to species that are mostly extinct. ApplicaThe endeavour to interpret such evidences has led to comtion to parisons of the forms and structures of existing plants and compara- animals, which have greatly and rapidly advanced the science tive anacomparative anatomy, especially as applied to the animal torny ’ kingdom, and herein more especially to the hard and enduring parts of the animal frame, such as corals, shells, crusts, scales, bones, and teeth. physioIn applying the results of these comparisons to the relogy, storation of extinct species, physiology has benefited by the study of the relations of structure to function requisite to obtain an idea of the food and habits of such species. It has thus been enriched by the well-defined law of “ correlation of structures.” zoology, Zoology has gained an immense accession of subjects through the determination of the nature and affinities of extinct animals, and its best aims have been proportionally advanced. Much further and truer insight has been gained into the natural arrangement and subdivision of the classes of animals since palaeontology expanded our survey of them. Thus a few hard-scaled fishes,—Polypterus, Lepidosteus, e.g.,—which represent a subordinate group of the herring family (Clupeidce), in the second edition of Cuvier’s Reqne Animal, have been found to be the remnants of an almost extinct order, equivalent to the whole Malacopterygii of that naturalist; and the Ruminantia, which Cuvier deemed to be a very natural and well-defined order, has since become known to be a peculiarly modified subdivision of a wider and more natural group of hoofed quadrupeds, the Artiodactyla. homology, The knowledge of the type or fundamental pattern of certain systems of organs, e.g., the framework of the Vertebrata and the teeth of the Mammalia, has been much advanced by the more frequent and closer adherence to such type discovered in extinct animals, and thus the highest aim of the zoologist has been greatly promoted by palaeontology. geology, But no collateral science has profited so much by palaeontology as that which teaches the structure and mode of formation of the earth’s crust, with the relative position, time, and order of formation of its constituent stratified and unstratified parts. Geology has left her old hand-maiden mineralogy, to rest almost wholly upon the broad shoulders of her young and vigorous offspring, the science of organic remains, geography, By this science the law of the geographical distribution of animals, as deduced from existing species, is shown to have been in force during periods of time long antecedent to human history, or to any evidence of human existence ; and yet, in relation to the whole known period of lifephenomena upon this planet, to have been a comparatively recent result of geological forces determining the present configuration and position of continents. In this relation, palaeontology throws light upon a most interesting branch of geographical science, that, viz., which relates to former configurations of the earth’s surface, and to other dispositions of land and sea than prevail at the present day. and philoFinally, palaeontology has yielded the most important sophy. facts to the highest range of knowledge to which the human intellect aspires. It teaches that the globe allotted to man has revolved in its orbit through a period of time so vast that the mind, in the endeavour to realize it, is strained

by an effort like that by which it strives to conceive the space Introductlon dividing the solar system from the most distant nebulae. Palaeontology has shown that, from the inconceivably remote period of the deposition of the Cambrian rocks, the earth has been vivified by the sun’s light and heat, has been fertilized by refreshing showers, and washed by tidal waves; that the ocean not only moved in orderly oscillations regulated, as now, by sun and moon, but was rippled and agitated by winds and storms ; that the atmosphere, besides these movements, was healthily influenced by clouds and vapours, rising, condensing, and falling in ceaseless circulation. With these conditions of life, palaeontology demonstrates that life has been enjoyed during the same countless thousands of years ; and that with life, from the beginning, there has been death. The earliest testimony of the living thing, whether coral, crust, or shell, in the oldest fossiliferous rock, is at the same time proof that it died. At no period does it appear that the gift of life has been monopolized by contemporary individuals through a stagnant sameness of untold time, but it has been handed down from generation to generation, and successively enjoyed by the countless thousands that constitute the species. Palaeontology further teaches, that not only the individual, but the species perishes; that as death is balanced by generation, so extinction has been concomitant with the creative power which has continued to provide a succession of species ; and furthermore, that, as regards the various forms of life which this planet has supported, there has been “ an advance and progress in the main.” Thus we learn, that the creative force has not deserted the earth during any of the epochs of geological time that have succeeded to the first manifestation of such force; and that, in respect to no one class of animals, has the operation of creative force been limited to one geological epoch ; and perhaps the most important and significant result of palaeontological research has been the establishment of the axiom of the continuous operation of the ordained becoming of living things. In entering upon the present survey of the evidences of organic beings in the earth’s crust, it is proposed to commence with the lowest or most simple forms, and, as the subject of fossil plants has been ably dealt with under the head Palaeontological Botany, in vol. v., p. 232, to treat chiefly of the remains of the animal kingdom. A reference to the subjoined “ Table ot Strata” (fig. 1) will indicate the relative position of the geological formations cited. The numerals opposite the right hand give the approximative depth or vertical thickness of the strata. Oro-anisms, or living things, are those which possess such Definition an internal cellular or cellulo-vascular structure as can lsms, ?f orSan' receive fluid matter from without, alter its nature, and add it to the alterative structure. Such fluid matter is called “ nutritive,” and the actions which make it so are called “ assimilation” and “ intus-susception.” These actions are called “ vital,” because, as long as they are continued, the of animals, “organism” is said “to live.” When the organism can also move, receive the nutritive matter by a mouth into a stomach, inhale oxygen and exhale carbonic acid, develop tissues the proximate principles of which are quaternary compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, it of plants, is called an “ animal.” When the organism is rooted, has no mouth or stomach, exhales oxygen, has tissues composed of “ cellulose” or of binary or ternary compounds, it is

I From Trcx.Xa.io}, ancient, ovra., beings, Xoyo}, a discourse.

92 Introduction.

PALAEONTOLOGY. ” But the two divisions Protozoa. Table of Strata and Order of Appearance of Animal, Life upon the Earth, called a “ plant. of organisms called “plants” and “animals” are specialized members of the great natural group of living things ; and there are numerous organisms, mostly of minute size and retaining the form of nucleated cells, which manifest the common organic characters, but without the distinctive superadditions of true plants or animals. Such organisms are called “ Protozoa,” and include the sponges or Amorphozoa, the Foraminifera or Rhizopods, the Polycystinece, the Diatomacece, Desmidice, and most of the so-called Polygastria ot Ehrenberg, or infusorial animalcules ot older authors.

MOLLUSCA

Cephalopoda Gasteropoda Brachiopoda

/ /V V E RnT E B RAT A Crustacea fyc. Annelids fyc. Zoophytes $c 20,000 Fig. 1.

PROTOZOA. Class L—AMORPHOZOA. Fossil sponges take an important place among the organic remains of the former world, not only on account of their great variety of form and structure, but still more because of the extraordinary abundance of individuals in certain strata. In England they specially characterize the chalk formation,—extensive beds of silicified sponges occur in the upper greensand, and in some beds of the oolite and carboniferous limestone. In Germany a member of the Oxford oolite is called the “ spongitenkalk,” from its numerous fossils of the present class. Existing sponges are divided into flinty, and limy, or “ceratose,” “silicious,” and “ calcareous,” according to the substance of their hard sustaining parts, which parts are commonly in the shape of fine needles, or spicula, of very varied forms, but in many species of sufficient constancy to characterize such species. The soft organic substance is for the most part structureless and diffluent; it is uncontractile and impassive. The larger orifices on the surface of a sponge are termed “oscula,” and are those out of which the currents of water flow : these enter by more numerous and minute “ pores.” The calcareous sponges abound in the oolitic and cretaceous strata, attaining their maximum of development in the chalk; they are now almost extinct, or are represented by other families with calcareous spicula. The horny sponges appear to be more abundant now than in the ancient seas, but their remains are only recognisable in those instances where they were charged with silicious spicula. M. D’Orbigny enumerates 36 genera and 427 spepies of fossil sponges ; and this is probably only a small proportion of the actual number in museums, as the difficulty of determining the limits of the species is very great, and many remain undescribed. Palaospongia and Acanthospongia occur in the lower Silurian ; and Stromatopora, with its concentrically laminated masses, attains a large size in the Wenlock limestone. Steganodictyum, Sparsispongia, and species of Scyphia, are found

PALAEONTOLOGY. 93 silica ; while those belonging to the genus Manon (fig. 2, q)* Protozoa, Protozoa, in the Devonian; and Bothroconis, Mamillopora, and having prominent “ oscula,” are superficially silicified, and ' Tragos, in the Permian or magnesian limestone. Several will bear immersion and cleaning with hydrochloric acid. The largest group of chalk sponges, typified by Ventriculites (fig. 2, 3), have the form of a cup or funnel, slender or expanded, or folded into star-like shape {Guettardia, fig. 2, i), with processes from the angles to give them firmer attachment. Some have a tortuous or labyrinthic outline, and others are branched or compound, like Brachiolites. Curious sections of these may be obtained from specimens enveloped with flint or pyrites. The burrowing-sponge, Cliona, is commonly found in shells of the tertiaries and chalk. The great cretaceous Exogyrce of the United States are frequently mined by them ; and flint casts of Belemnites and Inoeerami are often covered by their ramifying cells and fibres. Thin sections of chalk flints, when polished and examined with the microscope, sometimes exhibit minute spherical bodies (Spiniferites) covered with radiating and multicuspid spines. From their close resemblance to the little fresh-water organism Xanthidium, they long Amorphozoa ; Rhizopoda. bore that name ; but they are certainly marine bodies, and Siphonia pyriformis, Goldf.; Greensand, Blackdown, probably the spores of sponges. Guettardia Thiolati, D’Arch.; U. Chalk, Biarritz. Ventriculites radiatus, Mant,; XI, Chalk, Sussex, Manon osculiferum, Phil.; U, Chalk, Yorkshire. Fusulina cylindrica, Fisch.; Carboniferous, Russia. Class II.—FORAMINIFERA. Flabellina rugosa, D’Orb. ; Chalk, Europe. Lituola nautiioidea, Lam.; Chalk, Europe. The organisms of this class are small, and for the most Nummulites nummularia, Brug.; Eocene, Old World. part of microscopic minuteness,—of a simple gelatinous Orhitoides media, D’Arch.; U. Chalk, France. 9- Ovulites margaritula, Lam.; Chalk, Europe. 10. structure, protected by a shell. They grow by successive genera are common to the trias and oolites; and several gemmation from a primordial segment, sometimes in a more are peculiar to the latter strata. The Oxfordian straight line, more commonly in a spiral curve; and each sponges belong chiefly to the genera Eudea, Hippalimus, segment so developed has its own shelly envelope. As, Cribrispongia, Stellispongia, and Cupulispongia. Their however, they are organically connected, the whole seems fibrous skeleton appears to have been entirely calcareous, to form a chambered” or “ polythalamous” shell. The and often very solid ; their form is cup-shaped, or mammil- last-formed segment is usually distinguished by very long, lated, or incrusting; and many have a sieve-like appear- slender, pellucid, colourless, contractile filaments, like rootance, from the regular distribution of the excurrent orifices lets ; whence the name “ Rhizopods,” sometimes given to the class. But both the outer wall and the septa of the {os.cula) over their surface. The greensand of Faringdon in Berkshire is a stratum compound shell are perforated by minute apertures, through prolific in sponges, chiefly cup-shaped and calcareous, of the which either connecting or projecting filaments of the soft genera Scyphia and Chenendopora; or mammillated, like organic tissue pass; whence the name Faraminifera. The Cnemidium and Verticillopora. The Kentish rag is full of several segments or jelly-filled chambers are essentially sponges, which are most apparent on the water-worn sides repetitions of each other; and there is no proof that the of fissures. Some beds are so full of silicious spicula as to inner and earlier segments derive their nourishment from irritate the hands of the quarrymen working those beds. the outer and last-formed one. A Foraminifer may thereThe greensand of Blackdown is famous for the number and fore be regarded either as a series of individuals, organiperfect preservation of its pear-shaped Siphonice i); cally united, or as a single aggregate being, compounded whilst those of Warminster are ornamented with three or according to the law of vegetative repetition. The minute, chambered shells of Rhizopods enter largely more lobes. The latter locality is the richest in England for large cup-shaped and branching sponges (Polypothecia), into the composition of all the sedimentary strata, and are which are all silicified. The sponges, chiefly Siphonice, of so abundant in many common and familiar materials, like the upper greensand of Farnham are infiltrated with phos- the chalk, as to justify the expression of Buffon, that the very dust had been alive. The deep-sea soundings of the phate of lime, and have been used in agriculture. The sponges of the chalk belong to several distinct fami- Atlantic Telegraph Company have shown that the bed of lies. Choanites resembles the Siphonia> but is sessile, and that great ocean, at a depth approaching, or even exceedexhibits in section, or in weathered specimens, a spiral tube ing, two miles, is composed of little else than the calcareous winding round the central cavity. It is the commonest shells of a Globigerina and a few other Rhizopods, with sponge in the Brighton brooch-pebbles. Others are irregu- the silicious shields of the allied Polycy&tine force directed against their interspace. Thus the crushing force like the hunter, from Bohemia or the south of Germany. Of the . _Y ~ below presses upon a part between the two planes or points of re- twenty-three vertebrae so preserved in nearly their natural position, and with their under surface exposed, five belong to the tail, the sistance above, on the same principle on which we break a stick across the knee ; only here the fulcrum is at the intermediate point, rest to the trunk. Of these, two are sacral, two lumbar, the rest are the moving powers at the two parts grasped by the hands. It is dorsal or thoracic, with long and slender ribs connected with them. obvious that a portion of shell pressed between two opposite flat The neural arch appears to have been suturally united to the surfaces might resist the strongest bite, but subjected to alternate centrum with large zygapophyses. The articular end of the centrum is vertical to its axis; both are slightly concave. Between each points of pressure its fracture would be facilitated.1 centrum is a transversely oval, depressed ossicle, homologous with Genus Tanystroph.eus. Sp. Tanystrophceus compicuus, H. von. Meyer.— Certain long, the cervical wedge-bones or hypapophyses in Enaliosaurs. This is the chief peculiarity in Sphenosaurus, and recalls a character in the vertebral column of Archegosaurus. Genus Plesiosaurus.—The discovery of this genus forms one of the most important additions that geology has made to comparative anatomy. Baron Cuvier deemed the structure of the Plesiosaur “ to have been the most singular, and its characters the most anomalous that had been discovered amid the ruins of a former world.” “To the head of a lizard it united the teeth of a crocodile, a neck of enormous length, resembling the body of a serpent, a trunk and tail having the proportions of an ordinary quadruped, the ribs of a chameleon, Fig. 71. and the paddles of a whale.” “ Such,” writes Dr Buckland, “ are Tanystrophoeus (Trias). the strange combinations of form and structure in the Plesiosaurus, slender, hollow bones, from the German muschelkalk strata, a genus, the remains of which, after interment for thousands of were referred by Count Munster to the class Reptilia, under years amidst the wreck of millions of extinct inhabitants of the the name of Macroscelosaurus, under the impression that they ancient earth, are at length recalled to light by the researches of were bones of the limbs. H. von Meyer subsequently, in more the geologist, and submitted to our examination, in nearly as perperfect specimens, observing that each slightly expanded extre- fect a state as the bones of species that are now existing upon the mity of the long bone was terminated by a symmetrical oval con- earth.” The first remains of this animal were discovered in the lias of cave articular surface, surmounted by a pair of symmetrical lateral incurved plates, resembling confluent neurapophyses, with articu- Lyme Regis about the year 1822, and formed the subject of the lar surfaces, and with their sometimes confluent bases arching over paper by the Rev. Mr Conybeare (afterwards dean of Llana neural canal (as in the left-hand figure in cut 71), recognised daff), and Mr (afterwards Sir Henry) De la Beche, in which their vertebral character ; and, adopting the determination of their the genus was established, and named Plesiosaurus (“ approxireptilian nature, but repudiating the idea of their being limb- mate to the Saurians”), from the Greek words, plesios and sauros, bones, he discarded Munster’s name, and substituted for it that of signifying “ near ” or “ allied to,” and “ lizard,” because the Tanystrophceus,2 indicative of their peculiar proportions asvertebrae. authors saw that it was more nearly allied to the lizard than Although the articular ends are for the most part symmetrical, was the Ichthyosaurus from the same formation. The entire and undisturbed skeletons of several individuals, of the long intervening body is not so. It is subcompressed, usually broader and flatter below than above; sometimes more flattened different species, have since been discovered, fully confirming the on one side^than on the other, giving an irregular, vertically oval, sagacious restorations by the original discoverers of the Plesiosaurus. Vertebral Column.—The vertebral bodies have their terminal or triangular cross section. A low median ridge is not uncommon on the lower surface towards the ends of the vertebra ; and similar articular surfaces either flat or slightly concave, or with the less regular ridges project from the sides of the otherwise smooth middle of such cavity a little convex. In general the bodies preouter surface. The centrum is excavated by a canal, resembling a sent two pits and holes at their under part. The cervical vertebrae medullary one, but more probably filled, in the recent state, as in consist of centrum, neural arch, and pleurapophyses. The latter the long caudal style of the frog, with unossified cartilage. The are wanting in the first vertebra; but both this and the second walls of this cavity are compact, and in thickness about one-sixth have the hypapophyses. The cervical ribs are short, and expand at their free end, so as to of the diameter of the bone. The terminal neural arches support each a low median ridge or rudimental spine, which soon sub- have suggested the term “hatchet-bones” to their first discoverers. sides. The trace of neural canal in like manner disappears, or is They articulate by a simple head to a shallow pit, which is rarely continued by two distinct slender canals which traverse for a cer- supported on a process, from the side of the centrum ; but is comtain extent the substance of the thicker upper wall of the cavity of monly bisected by a longitudinal groove, a rudimental indication of the vertebral body. A single large vascular canal opens on the the upper and lower processes which sustain the cervical ribs in wider surface midway between the two ends of the body. There Crocodilia. The body of the atlas articulates with a large hypapophysis is no trace of transverse processes, rib-surfaces, or haemapophyses ; this, and the absence of the continuous neural canal, indicate these below, with the neurapophysis above, with the body of the axis singular vertebrae to belong to the tail. From the long caudo- behind, and with part of the occipital condyle in front; all the arvertebral style of anourous Batrachia the vertebrae of Tanystro- ticulations save the last become, in Plesiosaurus pachyomus, and prophceus differ in having distinct articular surfaces at both ends. bably with age in other species, obliterated by anchylosis. The forms the lower two-thirds, the neurapophysis conThe difference of shape and size in the few that have been found hypapophysis the upper and lateral parts, and the centrum forms the also indicates that there were more than two such vertebrae in the tributes or bottom of the cup for the occipital condyle. The second tail of the extraordinary animal to which they have belonged. middle is lodged in the inferior interspace between the Caudal vertebrae of the normal proportions and structure, from hypapophysis of the atlas and axis ; it becomes anchylosed to these and to muschelkalk of the same localities with Tanystrophceus have been bodies first hypapophysis. The first pleurapophysis, or rudimental referred to Nothosaurus. It is possible, however, that one or other the developed from the centrum of the axis. of the remarkable genera—Simosaurus, Placodus, e.g.—may have pos- rib,Asis the vertebrae approach the dorsal, the lower part of sessed the peculiar structure in the tail, or some part of it, which the costal cervical pit becomes smaller, the upper part larger, until it forms the tanystrophaean vertebrae indicate. The first four vertebrae of the the whole surface, gradually rising from the centrum to the neurneck or trunk of the Fistularia tahaccaria are those which most re- apophysis. semble in their proportions the vertebrae above described; but none of dorsal region is arbitrarily commenced by this vertebra, the fistularian vertebrae have the articular concavity, and the zyga- in The which the costal surface begins to be supported on a diapophypophyses, at both ends ; the first presents them at the fore end, and the last at the hind end, and the modifications of both these finished sis, which progressively increases in length in the second and articular ends pretty closely correspond with those of Tanystro- third dorsal, continues as a transverse process to near the end of phceus ; but the second and third vertebrae of Fistularia are united the trunk ; and on the vertebra above or between the iliac bones, with the first and fourth by sutural surfaces with deeply-inter- it subsides to the level of the neurapophysis. In the caudal vertebra the costal surface gradually descends from the neurapophylocking pointed processes. sis upon the side of the centrum ; it is never divided by the longiGenus Sphenosaurus. Sp. Sphenosaurus Sternbergii, Von M.—The fossil vertebrae on tudinal groove which, in most Plesiosauri, indents that surface in 1 Previous to the writer’s Memoir on Placodus in the Philosophical Transactions (1858), all palaeontologists had referred the genus to 2 From t0 the pycnodont order of fishes. «l°ngate, verto.

PALAEONTOLOGY. 147 Reptilia the cervical vertebrae. The neural arches remain long unanchy- it continues either parallel or with a slight swelling before round. Reptilia. , / , losed with the centrum in all Plesiosauri, and appear to be always ing into the obtuse anterior termination. The orbits are at or near the middle of the skull, estimating the distinct in some species. The pleurapophyses gain in length, and lose in terminal breadth in the hinder cervicals ; and become long length of this by that of the lower jaw, they are in advance of the and slender ribs in the dorsal region, curving outwards and down- middle in Plesiosaurus Hawkinsii. The orbits are rather subtriwards so as to encompass the upper two-thirds of the thoracic ab- angular than round, being somewhat squared off behind, straight dominal cavity. They decrease in length and curvature as they above, and contracted anteriorly. No trace of sclerotic plates has approach the tail, where they are reduced to short straight pieces, yet been discerned in any specimen. The temporal fossas are large as in the neck, but are not terminally expanded ; they cease to be subquadrate apertures. The nostrils, which are a little in advance developed near the end of the tail. The haemapophyses in the abdo- of the orbits, are scarcely larger than the parietal foramen. Beminal region are subdivided, and with the haemal spine or median neath them, upon the palate, are two similar-sized apertures, propiece, form a kind of “ plastron” of transversely-extended, slightly- bably the palatal nostrils. The lower jaw presents an angular, surangular, splenial, and bent, median and lateral, overlapping, bony bars, occupying the subabdominal space between the coracoids and pubicals. In the dentary element, in each ramus; the dentary elements being confluent at the expanded symphysis. There is no vacuity between tail the haemapophyses are short and straight, and remain re-united both with the centrum above and with each other below. The the angular and surangular or any other element of the jaw. The haemal spine is not developed in this region. This modification coronoid process is developed, as in Placodus, from the surangular, has been expressed by the statement that there were no chevron- but rises only a little higher than in crocodiles. The alveoli are bones in the Plesiosaur. The tail is much shorter in the Plesio- than distinct cavities, and there is a groove along the inner border in in the Ichthyosaurus. both jaws. The skull is depressed ; its length is rather more than thrice its When the successional teeth first project in that groove they breadth; but the proportions somewhat vary in different species. give the appearance of a double row of teeth. All the teeth are The cranial part, or that behind the orbits, is quadrate; thence it sharp-pointed, long and slender, circular in cross section, with fine contracts laterally to near the maxillo-premaxillary suture, where longitudinal ridges on the enamel j the anterior teeth are the longest.

Fig. 72. Plesiosaurus (Lias). The scapula is a strong triradiate bone, the longest ray being formed by the acromial or clavicular process which arches forward and inward to abut against the sternum or epicoracoid. The proper body of the scapula1 is short and straight, somewhat flattened ; the thick articular end, which forms the shortest ray, is subequally divided by the articular surface for the coracoid, and that for the head of the humerus. The coracoids are chiefly remarkable for their excessive expansion in the direction of the axis of the trunk, extending from the abdominal ribs forward, so as to receive the entosternum, which is wedged into their anterior interspace. The median borders meet and unite for an extent determined by their degree of curvature or convexity, which is always slight. The coracoids unite anteriorly with the clavicles as well as with the episternum ; laterally they articulate with the scapula, combining to form the glenoid cavity for the humerus. The episternum has the same general form as the median pieces of the abdominal ribs, being, like those pieces, a modified haemal spine, only more advanced in position ; the lateral wings or prolongations are broader and flatter; the median process is short; a longitudinal ridge projects from the middle of the internal surface. The humerus is a moderately thick and long bone, with a convex head, sub-cylindrical at its proximal end, becoming flattened and gradually expanded to its distal end, where it is divided into two indistinct surfaces for the radius and ulna. The shaft in most species is slightly curved backwards, or the hind border is concave, whilst the front one is straight. The radius and ulna are about half the length of the humerus ; the former is straight, the latter curved or reniform, with the concavity towards the radius 5 both are flattened ; the radius is a little contracted towards its carpal end, and in some species is longer than the ulna. The carpus consists of a double row of flat rounded discs,—the largest at the radial side of the wrist; the ulnar or hinder side appearing to have contained more unossified matter. The metacarpals, five in number, are elongate, slender, slightly expanded at the two ends, flattened, and sometimes a little bent. The phalanges of the five digits have a similar form, but are smaller, and progressively decrease in size ; 1

the expansion of the two ends, which are truncate, makes the sides or margins concave. The first or radial digit has generally three phalanges, the second from five to seven, the third eight or nine, the fourth eight, the fifth five or six phalanges. All are flattened ; the terminal ones are nailless ; and the whole were obviously included, like the paddle of the porpoise and turtle, in a common sheath of integument. The pelvic arch consists of a short but strong and straight narrow moveable ilium, and of a broad and flat pubis and ischium; the former subquadrate or subcircular, the latter triangular; the fore-and-aft expanse of both bones nearly equals that of the coracoids. All concur in the formation of the hip-joint. The ischium and pubis again unite together near their mesial borders, leaving a wide elliptic vacuity, or “ foramen ovale” between this junction and their outer acetabular one. The pelvic paddle is usually of equal length with the pectoral one, but in P. niacrocephalus it is longer. The bones closely correspond, in number, arrangement, and form, with those of the fore limb. The femur has the hind margin less concave, and so appears more straight. The fibula, in its reniform shape, agrees with its homotype the ulna. The tarsal bones are also smallest on the tibial side. Of existing reptiles, the lizards, and amongst these the old world Monitors (Varanus, Fitz.), by reason of the cranial vacuities in front of the orbits, most resemble the Plesiosaur in the structure of the skull. The division of the nostrils, the vacuities in the occipital region between the exoccipitals and tympanies, the parietal foramen, the zygomatic extension of the post-frontal, the palato-maxillary, and pterygo-sphenoid vacuities in the bony palate, are all lacertian characters, as contradistinguished from crocodilian ones. But the antorbital vacuities between the nasal, pre-frontal, and maxillary bones are the sole external nostrils in the Plesiosaurs; the zygomatic arch abuts against the fore part of the tympanic, and fixes it. A much greater extent of the roof of the mouth is ossified than in lizards, and the palato-maxillarv and pterygo-sphenoid fissures are reduced to small size. The teeth, finally, are implanted in distinct sockets. That the Plesiosaur had the “ head of a lizard ’ is an emphatic mode of expressing the amount of resem-

This is omitted in most of the published restorations of the Plesiosaurus.

PALAEONTOLOGY. 148 of answerable vertebrae, but are not shown in small differ- Reptilia. Reptilia. blance in their cranial conformation. The crocodilian affinities, tions of number in the cervical, dorsal, or caudal vertebrae. k* however, are not confined to the teeth, hut extend to the structure ences When any region of the vertebral column presents an unusual of the skull itself. _ . of development in a genus, such region is more liable to variIn the simple mode of articulation of the ribs, the lacertian am- excess ation, within certain limits, than in genera where its proportions nity is again strongly manifested ; but to this vertebral character are more normal. The differences of the number of cervical and such affinity is limited; all the others exemplify the ordinal dis- dorsal vertebrae, ranging 29 and 31 in the Plesiosaurus tinction of the Plesiosaurs from known existing reptiles. The Hawkinsii, e.g.—ns notedbetween in the description of that species in shape of the joints of the centrums ; the number of vertebrae be- the writer’s Report on British Reptiles, 1839, indicate the tween the head and tail, especially of those of the neck ; the slight range of variety observed in theFossil species of which, at that time, indication of the sacral vertebrae ; the non-confluence of the caudal the vertebral column of differentonly individuals could be compared. haemapophyses with each other, are all “ plesiosauroid.” In the size Genus Pliosaurus, Ow.—M. von Meyer regards the number of and number of abdominal ribs and sternum may perhaps be discerned cervical vertebrae and the length of neck as characters of prime a first step in that series of development of the haemapophyses of the importance the classification of Reptilia, and founds thereon his trunk which reaches its maximum in the plastron of the Chelonia. order calledinMacrotrachelen, in which he includes Simosaurus, PisThe connation of the clavicle with the scapula is common to the tosaurus, and Nothosaurus, with Plesiosaurus. No doubt the number Chelonia with the Plesiosauri ; the expansion of the coracoids— vertebrae in the same skeleton bears a certain relation to ordinal extreme in Plesiosauri—is greater in Chelonia than in Crocodilia, of : the Ophidia find a common character therein ; yet it is not but is still greater in some Lacerlia. The form and proportions groups their essential character, for the snake-like form, dependent on of the pubis and ischium, as compared with the ilium, in the pel- multiplied vertebrae, characterizes equally certain Batrachians vic arch of the Plesiosauri, find the nearest approach in the pelvis and fishes (Murana). Certain regions of the vertebral of marine Chelonia; and no other existing reptile now offers so (Ccecilia) are the seats of great varieties in the same natural group near, although it be so remote, a resemblance to the structure of column of Reptilia. have long-tailed and short-tailed lizards ; but do the paddles of the Plesiosaur. Amongst the many figurative illus- not thereforeWe separate those with numerous caudal vertebrae, as trations of the nature of the Plesiosaur in which popular writers “ Macroura,” from those with few or more. The extinct Bolichhave indulged, that which compares it to a snake threaded saurus of the Kentish chalk, with its proccelian vertebrae, cannot be through the trunk of a turtle is the most striking; but the num- ordinarily separated, by reason of its more numerous cervical verber of vertebrse in the Plesiosaur is no true indication of affinity tebrae, from other shorter-necked proccelian lizards. .As little can with the ophidian order of reptiles. _ we separate the short-necked and amphiccelian .PlioThe reptilian skull from formations underlying the lias, to which saur from the Macrotrachelians withbig-headed which it has its most intimate that of Plesiosaurus has the nearest resemblance, is the skull of the true affinities. Pistosaurus, from the German muschelkalk.1 The nostrils have a andThere is much reason, indeed, to suspect that some ol the similar position and diminutive size in Pistosaurus, but are some- muschelkalk which are as closely allied to Nothosaurus what more in advance of the orbits, and the premaxillaries enter as Pliosaurus Saurians, is to Plesiosaurus, may have presented analogous modiinto the formation of their boundary : the premaxillary muzzle fications in the number and proportions of the cervical vertebrae. and the temporal fossae are also somewhat longer and narrower. It is hardly possible to contemplate the broad and short-snouted The post-frontals and mastoids more clearly combine with malars skull of the Simosaurus, with its proportionally large teeth, without and squamosals in forming the zygomatic arch, which is of greater inferring that such a head must have been supported by a shorter depth in Pistosaurus: the parietal foramen is larger: there is no more powerful neck than that which bore the long and slender trace of a median parietal crest. On the palate, besides the \a- and Nothosaurus or Pistosaurus. The like inference is more cuities between the pterygoids and presphenoids, and the small head of the impressed upon the mind by the skull of the Placodus, foramina between the palatines, premaxillaries, and maxillanes, strongly shorter and broader than that of Simosaurus, and with vastly there is in Pistosaurus a single median foramen in advance of the still teeth, of a shape indicative of their adaptation to crushing latter foramina, between the pointed anterior ends of the ptery- larger molluscous or crustaceous shells. goids and the premaxillaries. In Nothosaurus the pterygoids exNeither the proportions and armature of the skull of Placodus, tend back, underlapping the basi-sphenoid, as far as the basi-occi- nor the mode of the food indicated by its cranial and pital, the median suture uniting them being well marked to their dental characters,obtaining permit the supposition that the head was suptermination; and there is no appearance of vacuities like the ported by other than a comparatively short and strong neck. Yet pterygo-sphenoid ones in Plesio- and Pisto-saurus. the composition of the its proportions, cavities, and other The tympanies are relatively longer, and extend farther back in light-giving anatomical skull, characters, all bespeak the close essential Pisto- than in Plesiosaurus. There is no trace of lacrymals in Pisto- relationship of Placodus to Simosaurus other so-called “macrosaurus ; and its maxillaries are relatively larger than in Plesiosaurus. trachelian” reptiles of the muschelkalk and beds. The writer continues, In Pistosaurus there are 18 teeth on each side the upper jaw, includ- therefore, to regard the fin-like modification of the limbs as a better ing the 5 premaxillary teeth ; in Plesiosaurus there are from 30 to ordinal character than the number of vertebrse in any particular 40° teeth on each side. In Pistosaurus the teeth are relatively region of the spine. But whilst retaining the term Enaliosauna larger and present a more oval transverse section : the anterior for the large extinct natatory group of saurian reptiles, the essenteeth are proportionally larger than the posterior ones than they tial distinctness of the groups Sauropterygii and Ichyopterygn, ty\nare in Plesiosaurus. The disproportion is still greater in Nothoby the Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus respectively, should be saurus, in some species of which the teeth behind the premaxillary fied borne in mind. and symphysial terminal expansions of the jaws suddenly become Sp. Pliosaurus brachydeirus, Ow.—The generic characters ot —e.q., in Nothosaurus mirabilis (fig. 70)-very small, and form a Pliosaurus are given by the teeth and the cervical vertebras. s straight, numerous, and close-set single series along the maxillary compared with those of Plesiosaurus, the teeth are thicker in proand corresponding part of the mandibular bone. portion to their length, are subtrihedral in transverse section, with Both Nothosaurus and Pistosaurus had many neck-vertebrae ; and one side flattened, and bounded by lateral prominent ridges from the transition from these to the dorsal series was effected, as in Plesiosaurus, by the ascent of the rib-surface from the centrum to the neurapophysis ; but the surface, when divided between the two elements, projected further outwards than in most Plesiosauri. In both Notho- and Pisto-saurus the pelvic vertebra develops a combined process (par- and di-apophysis), but of re ative y ar^er, vertically longer size, standing well out, and from near the fore part of the side of the vertebra. This process, with the coalesced riblet, indicates a stronger ilium, and a firmer base of attach ment of the hind limb to the trunk, than in Plesiosaurus. Both this structure, and the greater length of the bones of the fore arm an leg show that the muschelkalk predecessors of the liassic Plesiosauri were better organized for occasional progression on dry land. Fig. 73. More than twenty species of Plesiosaurus have been described by, or are known to, the writer : their remains occur in the oolitic, W ealPliosaurus (Kimmeridgian). den, and cretaceous formations, ranging from the lias upwards to the more convex sides, which are rounded off into each other, ana the chalk, inclusive. A comparison of remains of various Plesio- alone show the longitudinal ridges of the enamel; these are there sauri has led to a conviction, that specific distinctions are accompanied with well-marked differences in the structure and propor- very well defined. The vertebra of the neck, presenting a flat Yon Meyer, Muschelkalk Saurier,

149 FALCON T O L O G Y. to the Oxfordian and Kimmeridgian divisions of the upper oolitic Reptilia. Keptilia. articular surface of the shape shown in outline below the neck in system. They have been discovered in these beds in Russia [Plio- i ^ t . y fig. 73, are so compressed from before backward as to resemble the Worinskii and Spondylosaurus of Fischer), as well as in those vertebrae of the Ichthyosaurus, and as many as twelve may be com- saurus pressed within the short neck intervening between the skull and counties of England where the Kimmeridge and Oxford clays have scapular arch, as shown in fig. 73. For the rest, save in the more been deposited. massive proportions of the jaws and paddle-bones, the bony frameSub-order 2.—Ichthyopterygia. work of Pliosaurus closely accords with that of Plesiosaurus; and, as the vertebrae of the trunk resume the plesiosaurian proportions, Genus Ichthyosaurus.—The name (from the Greek ichthys, a they give little indication of the genus of reptile to which they fish, and sauros, a lizard) was devised to indicate the closer affinity truly belong, when found detached and apart. Some individuals of Pliosaurus appear to have attained a bulk of between 30 and 40 of the Ichthyosaur, as compared with the Plesiosaur, to the class feet. The remains of this modified form of Enaliosaur are peculiar of fishes. The Ichthyosaur (fig. 74) is remarkable for the shortness

Fig. 74. Ichthyosaurus (Lias). of the neck and the equality of the width of the back of the head zontality of their tail fin was provided by the addition of a pair of with the front of the chest, impressing the observer of the fossil hind paddles, which are not present in the whale tribe. The verskeleton with a conviction that the ancient animal must have re- tical fin was a more efficient organ in the rapid cleaving of the sembled the whale tribe and the fishes, in the absence of any liquid element, when the Ichthyosaurs were in pursuit of their prey or escaping from an enemy. intervening constriction or “ neck.” The general form of the cranium of the Ichthyosaurus resembles This close approximation in the Ichthyosaurs to the form of the most strictly aquatic vertebrate animals of the existing creation, that of the ordinary cetaceous dolphin (Delphinus tursio) ; but the is accompanied by an important modification of the surfaces form- I. tenuirostris rivals the Delphinus gangeticus in the length and ing the joints of the back-bone, each of which surfaces are hollow, slenderness of the jaws. The essential difference in the sea-reptile leading to the inference that they were originally connected to- lies in the restricted size of the cerebral cavity, and the vast depth gether by an elastic bag or “ capsule” filled with fluid,—a struc- and breadth of the zygomatic arches, to which the seeming expanse ture which prevails in the class of fishes, in the Labyrinthodonts of the cranium is due; still more in the persistent individuality of and a few extinct aquatic reptiles, in the existing perennibranchiate the elements of those cranial bones which have been blended into single though compound bones in the sea-mammal. The IchthyoBatrachia, but not in any of the whale or porpoise tribe. With the above modifications of the head, trunk, and limbs, in saurus further differs in the great size of the premaxillary and relation to swimming, there co-exist corresponding modifications of small size of the maxillary bones, in the lateral aspects of the nosthe tail. The bones of this part are much more numerous than in trils, in the immense size of the orbits, and in the large and numethe Plesiosaurs, and the entire tail is consequently longer ; but it rous sclerotic plates, which latter structures give to the skull of the does not show any of those modifications that characterize the bony Ichthyosaurus its most striking features. The true affinities of the Ichthyosaur are, however, to be elucisupport of the tail in fishes. The numerous “ caudal vertebrae” of the Ichthyosaurus gradually decrease in size to the end of the tail, dated by a deeper and more detailed comparison of the structure of where they assume a compressed form, or are flattened from side the skull; and few collections now afford richer materials for purthan the palaeontological to side, and thus the tail, instead of being short and broad as in suing and illustrating such comparisons series in the British Museum.1 The two supplemental bones of the fishes, is lengthened out as in crocodiles. The very frequent occurrence of a fracture of the tail, about one- skull, which have no homologues in existing Crocodilians, are the fourth of the way from its extremity, in well preserved and entire post-orbital and super-squamosal; both, however, are developed in fossil skeletons, is owing to that proportion of the end of the tail Archegosaurus and the Labyrinthodonts. The post-orbital is the having supported a tail fin. The only evidence which the fossil homologue of the inferior division of the post-frontal in those Laskeleton of a whale would yield of the powerful horizontal tail-fin certians—e.g., Iguana, Tejus, Ophisaurus, Anguis, in which that characteristic of the living animal, is the depressed or horizontally- bone is said to be divided. But in Ichthyosaurus the post-orbital flattened form of the bones supporting such fin. It is inferred, resembles most a dismemberment of the malar. Its thin obtuse therefore, from the corresponding bones of the Ichthyosaurus being scale-like lower end overlaps and joins by a squamous suture the flattened in the vertical direction, or from side to side, that it pos- hind end of the malar: the post-orbital expands as it ascends to sessed a tegumentary tail fin expanded in the vertical direction. the middle of the back of the orbit, then gradually contracts to a The shape of a fin composed of such perishable material is of course point as it curves upward and forward, articulating with the superconjectural, as is the outline in fig. 74. Thus, in the construction squamosal and post-frontal. The super-squamosal may be in like of the principal swimming organ of the Ichthyosaurus we may trace, manner regarded as a dismemberment of the squamosal; were it as in other parts of its structure, a combination of mammalian confluent therewith, the resemblance which the bone would present (beast-like), saurian (lizard-like), and piscine (fish-like) peculiari- to the zygomatic and squamosal parts of the mammalian temporal ties. In the great length and gradual diminution of the tail we would be very close; only the squamosal part would be removed perceive its saurian character ; in the tegumentary nature of the from the inner wall to the outer wall of the temporal fossa. The fin, unsustained by bony fin-rays, its affinity to the same part in super-squamosal, in fact, occupies the position of the temporal the mammalian whales and porpoises is shown; whilst its vertical fascia in Mammalia, and should be regarded as a supplemental eclero-dermal plate, closing the vacuity between the upper and position makes it closely resemble the tail fin of the fish. The horizontality of the tail fin of the whale tribe is essentially lower elements of the zygomatic arch, peculiar to certain airconnected with their necessities as warm-blooded animals breathing breathing Ovipara. It is abroad, thin, flat, irregular-shaped plate, atmospheric air; without this means of displacing a mass of water smooth and slightly convex externally, and wedged into the interin the vertical direction, the head of the whale could not be brought spaces between the post-frontal, post-orbital, squamosal, tympanic, with the required rapidity to the surface to respire; but the Ich- and mastoid. thyosaurs, not being warm-blooded or quick breathers, would not The principal vacuities or apertures in the bony walls of the need to bring their head to the surface so frequently or so rapidly skull of the Ichthyosaurus are the following:—In the posterior as the whale ; and moreover a compensation for the want of hori- region the “ foramen magnum,” the occipito-parietal vacuities, and 1 The anatomical reader is referred to the writer’s “ Report on British Fossil Reptiles,” Trans. Brit. Assoc. 1839, and to the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1858, p. 388.

PALAEONTOLOGY. 150 should still enter in the same relation with the Reptilia. lleptilia. the auditory passages; on the upper surface the parietal foramen premaxillaries although this involves an extent of anterior development y , , and the temporal fossae; on the lateral surfaces the orbits and nos- nostrils, t to the length of the jaws, the forward production trils, the plane of the aperture in both being vertical; on the infe- proportionate which sharp-toothed instruments fitted them, as in the morior surface the palato-nasal, the pterygo-sphenoid, and the pterygo- of dolphins, for the prehension of agile fishes. malar vacuities. The occipito-parietal vacuities are larger than in dern the Ichthyosaurs occasionally sought the shores, crawled on Crocodilia, smaller than in Lacertilia; they are bounded internally theThat and basked in the sunshine, may be inferred from the by the basi-, ex-, and super-occipitals, externally by the parietal bonystrand, connected with their fore fins, which does not exist and mastoid. The auditory apertures are bounded by the tympanic in anystructure porpoise, dolphin, grampus, and whale; and for want of and squamosal. The tympanic takes a greater share in the forma- which, chiefly, warm-blooded, air-breathing, marine animals tion of the “ meatus auditorius” in many lizards; in crocodiles it are so helplessthose when left high and dry on the sands. The strucis restricted to that which it takes in Ichthyosaurus. ture in question in the Ichthyosaur is a strong osseous arch, inThe orbit is most remarkable in the Ichthyosaurus, amongst rep- verted and spanning across beneath the chest from one shouldertiles, both for its large proportional size and its posterior position; joint other; and what is most remarkable in the structure in the former character it resembles that in the lizards, in the latter of thisto“ the scapular” arch is, that it closely resembles, in the number, that in the crocodiles. It is formed by the pre- and post-frontals shape, and disposition of its bones, the same part in the singular above, by the lacrymal in front, by the post-orbital behind, and by aquatic mammalian quadruped of Australia, called Ornithorynchus, the peculiar long and slender malar bar below. In crocodiles and and Platypus, or duck-mole. The Ichthyosaur, when so visiting in most lizards the frontal enters into the formation of the orbits, the shore' either for sleep or procreation, lie or crawl proand in lizards the maxillary also. The nostril is a longish trian- strate, or with its belly resting or draggingwould on the ground. gular aperture, with the narrow base behind ; it is bounded by the The most extraordinary feature of the head was the enormous lacrymal, nasal, maxillary, and pre-maxillary. It is proportionally magnitude of the eye : and from the quantity of light admitted by larger than in the Plesiosaurus, and is distant from the orbit about the expanded pupil, it must have possessed great powers of vision, half its own long diameter. Like the orbit, the plane of its outlet especially in the dusk. It is not uncommon to find in front of the is vertical. in fossil skulls, a circular series of petrified thin bony plates, The ptery go-palatine vacuities are very long and narrow, broadest orbit round a central aperture, where the pupil of the eye was behind, where they are bounded, as in lizards, by the anterior con- ranged The eyes of many fishes are defended by a bony covering cavities of the basi-sphenoid, and gradually narrowing to a point placed. of two pieces ; but a compound circle of overlapping close to the palatine nostrils. These are smaller than in most consisting is now found only in the eyes of turtles, tortoises, lizards, lizards, and are circumscribed by the palatines, ecto-pterygoid, plates curious apparatus of bony plates would aid in maxillary, and pre-maxillary. The pterygo-malar fissures are the and birds. theThis eye-ball from the waves of the sea when the Ichthyolower outlets of the temporal fossae ; their sudden posterior breadth, protecting rose to the surface, and from the pressure of the dense due to the eraargination of the pterygoid, relates to the passage of saurus when it dived to great depths ; and they show, writes Dr the muscles for attachment to the lower jaw. The parietal foramen element {Bridgewater Treatise) “ that the enormous eye of which is bounded by both parietals and frontals; its presence is a mark Buckland of labyrinthodont and lacertian affinities; its formation is like that they formed the front, was an optical instrument of varied and power, enabling the Ichthyosaurus to descry its prey at in Iguana and Rhynchocephalus. The temporal fossae are bounded prodigious great or little distances, in the obscurity of night, and in the depths above by the parietal internally, by the mastoid and post-frontal of the sea.” externally; they are of an oval form, with the great end forward. Of no extinct species are the materials for a complete and exact In their relative size and backward position they are more croco- restoration more abundant and satisfactory than of the Ichthyodilian than lacertian. ; they plainly show that its general external figure must In the Ichthyosaurus communis there are seventeen sclerotic plates saurus been that of a huge predatory abdominal fish, with a longer forming the fore part of the eyeball. In a well-preserved example, have and a smaller tail-fin; scaleless, moreover, and covered by a the pupillary or corneal vacuity, as bounded by those plates, is of tail a full oval form, l£ inch in long diameter, the length of the plates smooth or finely wrinkled skin, analogous to that of the whale (or breadth of the frame) being from 8 to 10 lines. In the same tribe. The mouth was wide, and the jaws long, and armed with numeskull the long diameter of the orbit is 4 inches. The deep posipointed teeth, indicative of a predatory and carnivorous nature tion of the sclerotic circle in this cavity showed how they had sunk, rous all the species; but these differed from one another in regard to by pressure of the external mud, as the eyeball became collapsed in the relative strength of the jaws, and the relative size and length by escape of the humours in decomposition. _ Whenever the antecedent forms an extinct genus of any class of the teeth. of masticated bones and scales of extinct fishes that lived are known, the characters of such genus should be compared with in Masses the same seas and at the same period as the Ichthyosaurus, have those of its predecessors rather than with its successors or with been found under the ribs of fossil specimens, in the situation where existing forms, in order to gain an insight into its true affinities. stomach of the animal was placed; smaller, harder, and more We derive a truer conception of the affinities of the Ichthyosaurus the digested masses, containing also fish-bones and scales have been by comparison with the Labyrinthodonts and other triassic reptiles, found, the impression of the structure of the internal suras we do of the Plesiosaurus by comparison with the muschelkalk face ofbearing the intestine of the great predatory sea-lizard. One of Sauropterygia, than of either by comparison with modern Lacertians “ Coprolites” is figured beneath the skeleton in fig. 74. and Crocodilians. It is commonly said that the Ichthyo- or the Plesio- these tracing the evidences of creative power from the earlier to saurus resembles more the lizards in such and such characters, theInlater formations of the earth’s crust, remains of the Ichthyosaurus and in a less degree the crocodiles, as in such a character. The are first found the lower lias, and occur more or less abundantly truer expression would be that the lizards, which are the predo- through all theinsuperincumbent secondary strata up to, and incluminating form of Saurians at the present day, have retained more sive of, the chalk formations. They are most numerous in the lias of the osteological type of the triassic and oolitic reptiles, and that and oolite, and the largest and most characteristic species have the crocodiles deviate further from them or exhibit a more modi- been found in these formations. fied or specialized structure. The posterior position of the nostrils, More than thirty species of Ichthyosaurus are known to the the small size and position of the palato-pterygoid foramen, are writer, many of which have been described or defined. marks of affinity to Plesiosaurus, in common with which genus the cranial structure of the Ichthyosaurus exhibits a majority of lacerOrder V.—Dinosatjria. Ua in comparing the jaws of the Ichthyosaurus termirostris with those of the gangetic Gharrial an equal degree of strength and of alveolar Char.—Cervical and anterior dorsal vertebrae, with par- and diapophyses, articulating with bifurcate ribs; dorsal vertebrae, border for teeth result from two very different proportions in winch with a neural platform, sacral vertebrae exceeding two in numthe maxillary and premaxillary bones are combined together to form the upper jaw. The prolongation of the snout has evidently ber ; body supported on four strong unguiculate limbs. no relation to this difference; and we are accordingly led to look The well-ossified vertebrae, large and hollow limb-bones, and for some other explanation of the disproportionate development of tritrochanterian femora of the thecodont reptiles of the Bristol the premaxillaries in the Ichthyosaurus. It appears to me to give conglomerate, together with the structure of the sacral vertebrae additional proof of the collective tendency of the affinities of the in the allied Belodon, indicate the beginning, at the triassic period, Ichthyosaurus to the lacertian type of structure. The backward an order of Reptilia which acquired its full development and or antorbital position of the nostrils, like that in whales, is related of characteristics in the oolitic period. to their marine existence. But in the Lacertians in which the nos- typical Genus Scelidosaurus, Ow.—By this name is indicated a Saurian trils extend to the fore part of the head, their anterior boundaries with and hollow limb-bones, with a femur having the third are formed by the premaxillaries: it appears, therefore, to be in innerlarge trochanter, and with metacarpal and phalangial bones, conformity with the lacertian affinities of the Ichthyosaur that the

PALEONTOLOGY. 151 low, most of them permeated by air-cells, with thin compact outer walls. The scapula and coracoid are long and narrow, but strong. Reptilia. The vertebrae of the neck are few, but large and strong, for the support of a large head with long jaws, armed with sharp-pointed teeth. The skull was lightened by large vacuities, of which one (o, fig. 76) is interposed between the nostril n and the orbit l. The

adapted for movement on land. The fossils occur in the lias at Charmouth, Dorsetshire. Genus Megalosaurus, Bkld.—The true dinosaurian characters of this reptile have been established by the discovery of the sacrum, which consists of five vertebrae, interlocked by the alternating position of neural arch and centrum. The articular surfaces of the free vertebrae are nearly flat; the neural arch develops a platform which in the anterior dorsals supports very long and strong spines. The dental characters are described and figured in the article Odontology, vol. xvi., p. 433, fig. 48. The oldest known beds from which any remains of Megalosaurus have been obtained are the lower oolites at Selsby Hill, and Chipping-Norton, Gloucestershire. Abundant and characteristic remains occur in the Stonesfield slate, Oxfordshire. Teeth of the Megalosaurus have been found in the Cornbrash and Bath oolite ; both teeth and bones are common in the Wealden strata and Purbeck limestone. Some of these fossils indicate a reptile of at least 30 feet in length. Genus Hyl^OSAURUS, Mtll. —Remains of the Dinosaurian so called have hitherto been found only in Wealden strata, as at Tilgate, Bolney, and Battle. The most instructive evidence is that which was exposed by the quarrymen of the Wealden stone at Tilgate, and obtained and described by Mantell in 1832. It consisted of a block of stone measuring 4J feet by 2J feet (fig. 75), and included the following parts of the skeleton in almost

Fig. 75. Hylceosaurus (Wealden). natural juxtaposition :—io, Anterior vertebrae, the first supporting part of the base of the skull; several ribs, 4, 4; some enormous dermal bony spines, 5, 6, 6, which supported a strong defensive crest along the back ; two coracoids, 7, 7 ; scapulae, 8, 8 ; and some detached vertebrae and fragments of bones. The sacrum was dinosaurian, and included five vertebrae. The teeth were relatively small, close-set, thecodont in implantation, with subcylindrical fang and a subcompressed slightly expanded and incurved crown, with the borders straight, and converging to the blunt apex. They indicate rather a mixed or vegetable diet than a carnivorous one. The skin was defended by subcircular bony scales. The length of the Hylaeosaur may have been 25 feet. Genus Iguanodon, Mtll.— Remains of these large herbivorous reptiles have been found in Wealden and neocomian (greensand) strata. Femora, 4 feet in length, showing the third inner trochanter, have been discovered. The sacrum included five, and in old animals six vertebrae ; the claw-bones are broad, flat, and obtuse. There were only three well-developed toes on the hind foot, and singular large tridactyle impressions, discovered by Beccles in the Wealden at Hastings have been conjectured to have been made by the Iguanodon. The characteristic dentition of this genus is described in the article Odontology, p. 435, figs. 42, 43, and 44. All trace of dinosaurian reptiles disappears in the lower cretaceous beds. Order VI.—Pterosauria. The species of this order of reptiles are extinct, and peculiar to the mezozoic period. Their chief characteristic is the development of the pectoral limbs into organs of flight (fig. 76). This is due to an elongation of the antibrachial bones, and more especially to the still greater length of the metacarpal and phalangial bones of the fifth or innermost digit (fig. 76, 5), the last phalanx of which terminates in a point. The other fingers were of more ordinary length and size, and terminated by claws. The number of phalanges is progressive from the first (fig. 76, 1) to the fourth (4), which is a reptilian character. The whole osseous system is modified in accordance with the possession of wings; the bones are light, hol-

vertebrae of the back are small, and grow less to the tail. Those of the sacrum are few and small, and the pelvis and weak hind limbs bespeak a creature unable to stand and walk like a bird. The body must have been dragged along the ground like that of a bat. But the Pterosauria may have been good swimmers as well as flyers. The vertebral bodies unite by ball-and-socket joints, the cup being anterior, and in them we have the earliest manifestation of the “ proccelian ” type of vertebra. The atlas consists of a discoid centrum, and of two slender neuropophyses ; the centrum of the axis is ten times longer than that of the atlas, with which it ultimately coalesces; it sends off from its under and back part a pair of processes, above which is transversely extended convexity articulating with the third cervical vertebra. In each vertebra there is a large pneumatic foramen at the middle of the side. The neural arch is confluent with the centrum. Dentition thecodont. Genus Dimorphodon, Ow. Sp. Dimorphodon macronyx, Bkd.—The Pterodactyles are distributed into sub-genera, according to well-marked modifications of the jaws and teeth. In the oldest known species, from the lias, the teeth are of two kinds; a few at the fore part of the jaws are long, large, sharp-pointed, with a full elliptical base; behind them is a close-set row of short, compressed, very small lancet-shaped-teeth. In a specimen of Dimorphodon macronyx, from the lower lias of Lyme Regis, the skull was 8 inches long, and the expanse of wing about 4 feet. There is no evidence of this species having had a long tail. Genus Ramphorhynchds, Von Meyer.—In this genus the fore part of each jaw is without teeth, and may have been encased by a horny beak, but behind the edentulous production there are four or five large and long teeth, followed by several smaller ones. The tail is long, stiff, and slender. The Ramphorhynchus longicandus, R. Gemmingi, and R. Munsteri belong to this genus. All are from the lithographic (middle oolitic) slates of Bavaria. Genus Pterodactylus, Cuv.—The jaws are provided with teeth to their extremities; all the teeth are long, slender, sharp-pointed, set well apart. The tail is very short. P. longirostris, Ok.—About 10 inches in length ; from lithographic slate at Pappenheim. P. crassirostris, Goldf.—About 1 foot long ; same locality (fig. 76.) P. Kochii, Wagn.—8 inches long ; from the lithographic slates of Kehlheim. P. medius, Mnst.— 10 inches long; from the lithographic slates at Meulenhard. P.

PALAEONTOLOGY. 152 upon more or less of the anterior trunk vertebrae being Reptilia. Reptilia. grandis, Cuv.—14 inches long ; from lithographic slates of Solen- based hofen. Two small and probably immature Pterodactyles, showing united by ball-and-socket joints, but having the ball in front, incrocodiles, behind. Cuvier first pointed out the short jaws characteristic of such immaturity, have been entered stead of, as in modern 3 as species under the names of P. brevirostris and P. Meyeri. The this peculiarity in a Crocodilian from the Oxfordian beds at Honfleur, and the Kimmeridgian at Havre. The writer has described latter shows the circle of sclerotic eye-plates. opisthocoelian vertebrae from the great oolite at Chipping The fragmentary remains of Pterodactyle from British oolite,— similar e.g., Stonesfield slate, usually entered as Pterodactylus Bucklandi,— Norton, from the upper lias of Whitby, and, but of much larger size, from the Wealden formations of Sussex and the Isle of Wight. indicate a species about the size of a raven. The evidences of Pterodactyles from the Wealden strata indicate These4specimens probably belong, as suggested by the writer in species about 16 inches in length of body. Those (P. Fittoni, and 1841, to the fore part of the same vertebral column as the vertebrae, fore part, and slightly hollow behind, on which he P. Sedgwickii, Ow.) from the greensand formation, near Cambridge, flat at the the genus Cetiosaurus. The smaller opisthoccelian vertebrae with neck-vertebrae 2 inches long, and humeri measuring 3 founded inches across the proximal joint, had a probable expanse of wing described by Cuvier have been referred by Von Meyer to a genus of from 18 to 20 feet. The P. Cuvieri, Ow., and P. compressirostris, called Streptospondylus. In one species from the Wealden, dorsal vertebrae measuring 8 Ow., from the chalk of Kent, attained dimensions very little ininches across are only 4 inches in length, and caudal vertebrae ferior to those of the greensand Pterodactyles. across are less than 4 inches in length. These More evidence is yet needed for the establishment of the ptero- nearly 7 inches the species called Cetiosaurus brevis.5 saurian genus, on the alleged character of but two phalanges in characterize Caudal vertebrae measuring 7 inches across and inches in the wing-finger, and for which the term “ Ornithopterus” has been length, from the lower oolite at Chipping Norton, and the great proposed by Von Meyer. at Enstone, represent the species called Cetiosaurus medius. With regard to the range of this remarkable order of flying oolite Caudal vertebrae from the Portland stone at Garsington, Oxfordreptiles in geological time, the oldest well-known Pterodactyle shire, measuring 7 inches 9 lines across and 7 inches in length, are is the Dimorphodon macronyx, of the lower lias; but bones of referred to the Cetiosaurus longus. The latter must have been the Pterodactyle have been discovered in the coeval lias of Wirtemberg. most gigantic whale-like of Crocodilians, unless it were equalled in The next in point of age is the Ramphorhynchus Banthensis, from bulk by the Polyptychodon of the chalk. the “ Posidonomyen-schiefer ” of Banz in Bavaria, answering to the alum shale of the Whitby lias; then follows the P. Bucklandi Sub-order 3.—PROCffiLiA.6 from the Stonesfield oolite. Above this come the first-defined and numerous species of Pterodactyle from the lithographic slates of Crocodilians with cup-and-ball vertebrae, like those of living spethe middle oolitic system in Germany, and from Cirin, on the cies, first make their appearance in the greensand of North America Rhone. The Pterodactyles of the Wealden are as yet known to (Crocodilus basijissus and C. basitruncatus). In Europe their remains us by only a few bones and bone fragments. The largest known are first found in the tertiary strata. Such remains from the plastic species are those from the greensand of Cambridgeshire. Finally, clay of Meudon have been referred to C. isorhynchus, C. ccelorhynthe Pterodactyles of the middle chalk of Kent, almost as remark- chus, C. Becquereli. In the calcaire grossier of Argenton and Castelable for their great size, constitute the last forms of flying reptile naudry have been found the C. Rallinati and C. Dodunii. In the known in'the history of the crust of this earth. coeval eocene London clay at Sheppy Island the entire skull and characteristic parts of the skeleton of C. toliapicus and C. ChampOrder VII.—Crocodilia. soides occur. In the somewhat later eocene beds at Bracklesham Char.—Teeth in a single row, implanted in distinct sockets, ex- occur the remains of the gavial-like C. Dixoni. In the Hordle beds ternal nostril single and terminal or sub-terminal. Anterior have been found the C. Hastingsice, with short and broad jaws; and trunk vertebrae with par- and di-apophyses, and bifurcate ribs ; also a true alligator (C. Hantoniensis). It is remarkable that forms sacral vertebrae two, each supporting its own neural arch. Skin of procoelian Crocodilia, now geographically restricted—the gavial protected by bony, usually pitted plates. to Asia, and the alligator to America—should have been associated with true crocodiles, and represented by species which lived, during 1 Sub-order 1.—Amphiccela. nearly the same geological period, in rivers flowing over what now Crocodiles closely resembling in general form the long and forms the south coast of England. Many species of procoelian Crocodilia have been founded on fossils slender-jawed kind of the Ganges called Gavial, existed from from miocene and pliocene tertiaries. One of these, of the gavial the time of the deposition of the lower lias. Their teeth were similarly long, slender, and sharp, adapted for sub-genus (C. crassidens'), from the Sewalik tertiary, was of gigantic the prehension of fishes, and their skeleton was modified for more dimensions. efficient progress in water by the vertebral surfaces being slightly Order VIII.—Lacertilia. concave, by the hind limbs being relatively larger and stronger, and by the orbits forming no prominent obstruction to progress Char.—Vertebrae procoelian, with a single transverse process on each side, and with single-headed ribs; sacral vertebrae not exthrough water. From the nature of the deposits containing the ceeding two. remains of the so-modified crocodiles, they were marine. The fossil crocodile from the Whitby lias, described and figured in the PhiloSmall vertebrae of this type have been found in the Wealden of sophical Transactions, 1758, p. 688, is the type of these amphiccelian Sussex. They are more abundant, and are associated with other species. They have been grouped under the following generic generic characteristic parts of the species, in the cretaceous strata. heads :—Teleosaurus, Steneosaurus, Mystriosaurus, Macrospondylus, On such evidence have been based the Raphiosaurus subulidens, the Massospondylus, to which must be added Pcecilopleuron, Pelago- Coniasaurus crassidens, and the Dolichosaurus longicollis. The lastsaurus, FEolodon, Suchosaurus, Qoniopholis, Polyptychodon. named species is remarkable for the length and slenderness of its Species of the above genera range from the lias to the chalk trunk and neck, indicative of a tendency to the ophidian form. But the most remarkable and extreme modification of the lacertian type inclusive. Suchosaurus of the Wealden is characterized hy the compressed in the cretaceous period is that manifested by the huge species, of crown and trenchant margins of the teeth; Qoniopholis, of the Pur- which a cranium 5 feet long was discovered in the upper chalk beck beds, by some of the dermal scales having the same peg-and- of St Peter’s Mount, near Maestricht, in 1780. The vertebrae are pit interlocking as in the scales of the ganoid fish in fig. 52; gently concave in front, and convex behind; there are thirty-four Polyptychodon of the greensand and chalk, by the well-defined between the head and the base of the tail: a sacrum seems to have numerous longitudinal ridges of the enamel; from the size of some been wanting. The caudal vertebrae have long neural and haemal of these teeth, this crocodile, like the Pterodactyles of the same spines, both of which arches coalesce with the centrum, and formed period, appears to have been the largest of its group; it surpassed the basis of a powerful swimming tail. The teeth are anchylosed all other Amphiccelians in size. to eminences along the alveolar border of the jaw, according to the acrodont type. There is a row of small teeth on each pterygoid 2 Sub-order 2.—Opisthoccelia. bone. For this genus of huge marine lizard the name Mosasaurus The small group of Crocodilia so called is an artificial one, has been proposed. Besides the M. Hofmanii of Maestricht, there 1 2 4 5

Amphi, both, koilos, hollow; the vertebra being hollowed at both ends. __ __ . 3 Opisthos, behind, koilos, hollow ; vertebra concave behind, convex in front. Annales du Museum, tom. xii., p. 83, pi. x., xi. “ Report on British Fossil Reptiles,” Trans. Brit. Assoc, for 1841, p. 96. _ _ They have since been referred to the dinosaurian order under the name of Pelorosaurus, but without any evidence of the true sacra characters of that order; the cavities of long bones are common to Crocodilians and Dinosaurs. 6 Pros, front, koilos, hollow ; vertebra with the cup at the fore part and the ball behind.

PALAEONTOLOGY. 153 Eeptilia. is a M. Maximiliani, from the cretaceous beds of North America, and ceps) have left their remains in cretaceous beds. The emydian Reptilia. a smaller species, M. gracilis, from the chalk of Sussex. The Leio- Protemys is from the greensand near Maidstone. The eocene terdon anceps of the Norfolk chalk was a nearly allied marine Lacer- tiary deposits of Britain yield rich evidences of marine, estuary, tian. Many small terrestrial Lacertians have left their remains in and fresh-water tortoises. More species of true turtle have left their remains in the London clay at the mouth of the Thames than European tertiary formations. are now known to exist in the whole world ; and all the eocene Order IX.—Ophidia. Chelones are extinct. One of them [C. gigas, Ow.) attained unusual dimensions; the skull, now in the British Museum, measures [Serpents.') upwards of a foot across its back part.2 The estuary genus Trionyx The earliest evidence of an ophidian reptile has been obtained (soft is represented by many beautiful species in the upper from the eocene clay at Sheppy : it consists of vertebrae indicating eoceneturtle) at Hordwell; the fresh-water genera Emys and Platemys by a serpent of 12 feet in length, the Pahxophis toliapicus. Still larger, as many species both at Sheppy and Hordwell. In the pliocene more numerous, and better preserved vertebrae have been obtained (Eningen remains of a species of Chelydra have been discovered ; from the eocene beds at Bracklesham, on which the Palceophis of form is now confined to America. Remains of landtyphceus and P. porcatus have been founded. These remains indi- this generic [Testudo, Brong.) indicate several extinct species in the cate a boa-constrictor-like snake, of about 20 feet in length. Ophi- tortoises miocene and pliocene formations of continental Europe. Strata of dian vertebrae of much smaller size, from the newer eocene at like in the Sewalik Hills have revealed the carapace of a torHordwell, support the species called Paleryx rhombifer and P. de- toise age 20 feet in length; it is called by its discoverers, Cautley and pressus. Fossil vertebrae from a tertiary formation near Salonica Falconer, Colossochelys atlas. The same locality has also afforded have been referred to a serpent, probably poisonous, under the the interesting of a species of Emys [E. tectum, Gray) name of Laophis. A species of true viper has been discovered in having continuedevidence exist from the (probably miocene) period of the miocene deposits at Sansans, South of France. Three fossil the Sivatherium to to the present day. Ophidians from the (Eningen slate have been referred to Coluber arenatus, C. Kargii, and C. Owenii. Order XI.—Batrachia. Order X.—Chelonia. It is only in tertiary and post-tertiary strata that extinct species, [Tortoises and Turtles.) referable to still existing genera or families of this order, have Reference has already been made to the impressions in sand- been found. The reptiles with amphibian or batrachian characstones of triassic age in Dumfriesshire, referred by Dr Duncan to ters, of the carboniferous and triassic periods, combined those chatortoises. These impressions have been finely illustrated in the racters with others which gave them distinctions of perhaps ordinal great work by Sir William Jardine on the foot-prints at Corn- value ; they illustrated, indeed, rather a retention of more general cockle Muir. The earliest proof of chelonian life which the writer cold-blooded vertebrate type, with concomitant piscine and saurian has obtained has been afforded by the skull of the Chelone planiceps, features, than any near affinity with the more specially modified from the Portland stone; and by the carapace and plastron of the reptilian forms to which the name Batrachia is given in zoological extinct and 1singularly-modified emydian genera Tretosternon and catalogues of existing species. Of the tailless or “ anourous” Batrachia, toads of extinct species Pleurosternon (fig. 77). In the first genus the plastron retains the central vacuity; in the second genus an additional pair of bones is [Palasophrynos Gessneri and P. dissimilis) have been discovered in interposed between the hyosternals [hs) and hyposternals [ps). In the (Eningen beds ; and frogs, more abundantly, in both miocene the specimen figured (fig. 77), the plastron, and the under surface and pliocene deposits of France and Germany. Of the salamander family, the most noted fossil is that which was referred, when first di-covered at (Eningen in 1726, to the human species, as Homo diluvii testis. Cuvier demonstrated its near affinities to the watersalamander [Menopoma) of the United States : more recently a living species of salamander has been discovered in Japan which equals in size the fossil in question—Andrias Scheuzeri. A retrospect of the foregoing outline of the paleontology of the class of reptiles shows that, unlike that of fishes, it is now on the wane; and that the period when Reptilia flourished under the greatest diversity of forms, with the highest grade of structure, and of the most colossal size, is the mezozoic. The manifestation of the more generalized vertebrate structure is illustrated by the affinities to ganoid fishes shown by the Ganocephala, Labyrinthodontia, and Ichthyosauria; by the affinities of the Pterosauria to birds, and by the approximation of the Dinosauria to Mammals. It is also shown by the combination of modern crocodilian and lacertian characters in the Thecodonts and sauropterygianEnaliosaurs. Even the Chelonia of the Purbeck period illustrate the same principle, by the more typical number of modified haemapophyses, or abdominal ribs, entering into the composition of their plastron. The diagram (fig. 78) gives a concise view of the geological relations, or distribution in time, of the principal groups of the class Reptilia. In the column opposite the right hand, the dark mark shows that the ganocephalous group represented by the Archegosaurus began, culminated, and ended in the carboniferous period. The Labyrinthodonts, culminating in the trias, disappear at the base of the oolitic system. Of the true Batrachia, those retaining the tail appear to have been at their maximum during the upper tertiary period, and to have begun to decline after that time; whilst the tailless genera and species are most numerous and various at the present day. The Ophidia resemble the Anoura, commencing in the older tertiary, and showing their maximum of development at the present day. The true procadian, and especially the pleurodont lizards, commencing a little earlier in the chalk, have also gone on increasing in number and variety of forms to Fig. 77. the present day. The acrodont group was represented by MosaPleurosternon emarginatum (Purbeck). saurus, under the maximum of size, during the cretaceous period. of the marginal pieces (2 to 12) of the carapace, of Pleurosternon The Thecodonts have but the partial affinity to modern Lacertilia em'xrginatum are shown. This fine Chelonite is now in the British which the Labyrinthodonts bear to the modern Batrachia. The Museum. great ordinal groups of Enaliosauria, Pterosauria, and Dinosauria, True marine turtles [Chelone Camperi, C. obovata, C. pulchri- together with the amphi- and opistho-ccelian crocodiles, passed 1

Monograph of the Fossil Chelonian Reptiles of the Wealden and Purbeck Limestones, 4to, 1853, Pal aeon togra phi cal Societv. The upper end of the femur from Sheppy, in t. xxix. of Monograph of Fossil Reptilia of the London Clay, Palaeontograi* hical Society 1850, belongs to this species. YOL. XVII. ..

154 Aves.

PALAEONTOLOGY. away ere the tertiary time had dawned. The proccelian crocodiles tain genera ; but the number of generic and subgeneric forms of culminating in the lower and middle tertiary times are now on the order now existing, as compared with the known extinct terthe wane. Perhaps, also, the same might be said of the Chelonia, tiary forms, is signified by the same expansion of the black mark in regard to the size of individuals, and number of species of cer- as in the case of the lizards, serpents, frogs, and toads.

Pliocene. Miocene. Eocene. Cretaceous. Wealden. Oolite. Lias. Trias. Permian. Carboniferous. Devonian. Silurian. Fig. 78. sion in the number of phalanges (toe-joints), from the innermost Class II.—AVES. to the outermost toe. When the back toe exists, it is the innerLong before any evidence of birds from actual or recognisable most of the four toes, and it has two phalanges, the next has three, fossil remains is obtained in tracing the progress of life from the the third or middle of the front toes has four, and the outermost oldest fossiliferous deposits upwards, we meet with indications of has five phalanges. When the back toe is wanting, as in some their existence impressed in sandstones of the triassic or liassic waders, and most wingless birds, the toes have three, four, and five phalanges respectively. When the number of toes is reduced to period. These earliest evidences of the class are by foot-prints in some two, as in the ostrich, their phalanges are respectively four and in number; thus showing those toes to answer to the two former tidal shore, preserved in one or other of the ways explained five toes in tridactyle and tetradactyle birds. in the section “ Ichnology.” The fossil bones of birds have not outermost The same numerical progression characterizes the two phalanges been found save in strata of much later date than the impressed sandstones; and they are much more rare than the remains of in most lizards from the innermost to the fourth ; but a fifth toe mammals, reptiles, and fishes, in any formations except the most exists in them which has one phalanx less than the fourth toe. It is the fifth toe which is wanting in every bird. In some Gallinacea, recent in certain limited localities,—e.g., New Zealand. Sir C. Lyell has well remarked, that “ the powers of flight pos- one or two (Pavo bicalcaratus) spurs are superadded to the metatarsessed by most birds would insure them against perishing by nu- sus ; but this peculiar weapon is not the stunted homologue of a merous casualties to which quadrupeds are exposed during floods. ’ toe. Dr Deane and Mr Marsh of Greenfield, United States, first The same writer further argues, that “ if they chance to be drowned, noticed, in 1835, impressions resembling the feet of birds in the or to die when swimming on water, it will scarcely ever happen sandstone rocks near that town. Dr Hitchcock, president of that they will be submerged so as to become preserved in sedi- Amherst College, United States, whose attention was called to mentary deposits.” 1 It is true that the carcase of a floating bird these impressions, first made public the fact, and submitted to a may not sink where it has died, but be carried far along the scientific ordeal his interpretations of those impressions as having stream : ultimately, however, if not devoured, its bones will sub- been produced by the feet of living birds, and he gave them the of Ornithichnites. side when the soft parts have rotted, and both the compactness of name It was a startling announcement, and a conclusion that must the osseous tissue, and the facts made known by the ornitholites of have had strong evidence to support it, since one of the kinds of the greensand near Cambridge, of the London clay at Sheppy, and the tracks been made by a pair of feet, each leaving a print of the Montmartre eocene quarry-stone, show that they can be pre- 20 inches had length. Under the term Ornithichnites giganteus, served in the fossil state. The length of time during which the however, DrinHitchcock not shrink from announcing to the geocarcase of a bird may float, doubtless exposes it the more to be logical world the fact did of the existence, during the period of the devoured, and so tends to make more scarce the fossil remains of deposition of the red sandstones of the valley of the Connecticut, birds in sedimentary strata. a bird3 which must have been at least four times larger than the Certain it is that the major part of the remains of extinct birds of The impressions succeeded each other at regular interthat have as yet been found are those of birds that were deprived ostrich. vals ; they were of two .kinds, but differing only as a right and of the power of flight, and were organized to live on land. foot, and alternating with each other, the left foot a little to The existence of birds at the triassic period in geology, or at the left the left, and the right foot a little to the right, of the mid-line betime of the formation of sandstones which are certainly interme- tween the series of tracks. Each foot-print (fig. 79, b and r) exdiate between the lias and the coal, is indicated by abundant hibits three diverging as they extend forwards. The distance evidences of foot-prints impressed upon those sandstones which between the toes, of the inside and outside toes of the same foot was extend through a great part of the valley of the Connecticut River, 12 inches. tips Each toe was terminated by a short strong claw proin Connecticut and Massachusetts, North America. from the mid toe a little on the inner side of its axis, from The foot-prints of birds are peculiar, and more readily distin- jecting guishable than those of most other animals. Birds tread on the the other two toes a little on the outer side of theirs. The end toes only; these are articulated to a single metatarsal bone at of the metatarsal bone to which those toes were articulated rested right angles equally to it, and they diverge more from each other, on a two-lobed cushion which sloped upwards behind. The inner and are less connected with each other, than in other animals, ex- toe (r) showed distinctly two phalangeal divisions, the middle toe three, the outer toe (6) four. And since, in living birds, the cept as regards the web-footed order of birds. Not more than three toes are directed forward :2 the fourth penultimate and ungual phalanges usually leave only a single when it exists, is directed backward, is shorter, usually rises higher impression, the inference was just, that the toes of this large foot from the metatarsal, and takes less share in sustaining the super- had been characterized by the same progressively-increasing numincumbent weight. No two toes of the same foot in any bird have ber of phalanges, from the inner to the outer one, as in birds. And, the same number of joints. There is a constant numerical progres- as in birds also, the toe with the greatest number of joints was not 2 1 Save in the Swift. Principles of Geology, ed. 1847, p. 721. 3 American Journal of Science for 1836, vol. xxix., pi. i.

Aves.

Aves.

PALAEONTOLOGY. 155 the longest; it measured, e.g., 12J inches, the middle toe from the have been found in the miocene lacustrine deposits of Cantal. In- Aves. y same base-line measured 16 inches, the outer toe 12 inches. Some dications of all the other orders of birds, save the great Cursores or of the impressions of this huge tridactylous footstep were so well Struthionidce, have also been discovered in miocene strata—those preserved as to demonstrate the papillose and striated character of of wading birds being the most numerous. Fossil eggs of birds the integument covering the cushions on the under side of the foot. occur in miocene deposits in Auvergne; and impressions of feaSuch a structure is very similar to that in the ostrich. The average thers have been discovered in the pliocene calcareous marls at extent of stride, as shown by the distance between the impres- Montebolca. In pliocene brick-earth deposits in Essex has been sions, was between 3 and 4 feet; the same limb was therefore found a fossil metatarsal of a swan, as large as, and not distincarried out each step from 6 to 7 feet forward in the ordinary guishable from, the existing wild swan ; in the pleistocene clay at Lawford a fossil' humerus like that of a wild goose. But most of rate of progression. These foot-prints, although the largest that have been observed the ornitholites of this recent tertiary period have been discovered on the Connecticut sandstones, are the most numerous. The gi- in ossiferous caverns. They belong to birds closely resembling gantic Brontozoum, as Principal Hitchcock proposes to term the the falcon, wood-pigeon, lark, thrush, teal, and a small wader. species, “ must have been,” he writes, “ the giant rulers of the The writer has received information of skeletons of birds found . valley. Their gregarious character appears from the fact, that at deeply imbedded in stratified clay at Aberdeen and Peterhead. some localities we find parallel rows of tracks a few feet distance The most remarkable additions to the present class have been obtained3from the superficial deposits, turbaries, and caves in New from one another.” The strata of red sandstone, with the above-described impres- Zealand. This island is remarkable for the absence of aboriginal sions, occupy an area more than 150 miles in length, and from 5 to species of land-mammals, and for the presence of a small bird with 10 miles in breadth. “ Having examined this series of rocks in very rudimental wings, and the keelless sternum and loose plumany places, I feel satisfied that they were formed in shallow mage of the Struthious order, but of a peculiar genus caMzA Apteryx: water, and for the most part near the shore ; and that some of the the legs are very robust, and have three front toes and a very small beds were from time to time raised above the level of the water back toe. Birds resembling the Apteryx in the shape of the sterand laid dry, while a newer series, composed of similar sediment, num and bony structure of the pelvis and hind limbs, some retainwas forming.” “ The tracks have been found in more than twenty ing also the small back toe, others apparently without it, formerly places, scattered through an extent of nearly 80 miles from N. to existed in New Zealand under different specific forms ranging in S., and they are repeated through a succession of beds attaining at height from 3 feet to 10 feet. They have been referred by the some points a thickness of more than 1000 feet, which may have writer to the genera Linornis and Palapteryx. The gigantic species are interesting as exhibiting birds equal to the formation been thousands of years in forming.”1 One of the evidences of birds from the Cambridge greensand, of tridactyle impressions as large as those of the Connecticut sandtransmitted to the writer by their discoverer, Mr Barret, is the stones called Ornithichnites [Brontozoum) gigas (fig. 79, r, b). In lower half of the trifid metatarsal, showing the outer toe-joint much higher than the other two, and projecting backwards above the middle joint; it indicates a bird about the size of a woodcock. In the conglomerate and plastic clay at the base of the eocene tertiary system at Mendon, near Paris, the leg and thigh bones (tibia and femur) of a bird (Gastornis Parisiensis) have been discovered : they indicate a genus now extinct. They belonged to a species as large as an ostrich, but more robust, and with affinities to wading and aquatic birds.2 In the eocene clay of Sheppy fossil remains of birds have been found, indicating a small vulture (Lithornis vulturinus); also a bird, probably of the king-fisher family (Halcyornis toliapicus), and a species of the sea-gull family. In the same formation at Highgate remains of a species of the heron family have been found. The fossil bones of birds from the gypsum quarries at Montmartre were referred or approximated by Cuvier to eleven distinct species. Good ornitholites have been obtained from the Hordwell fresh-water deposits. The most ancient example of a passerine bird is the Protornis Glarisiensis, founded on an almost entire skeleton discovered in the schistose rock of Glaris, referable to the older division of the eocene tertiary series. This skeleton is about the size of a lark, and in some respects similar to that bird. Comparisons of the ornitholites of the eocene tertiaries show that the following ordinal modifications of the class of birds were at that period represented, the raptorial, or birds of prey, by species of the size of our ospreys, buzzards, and smaller falcons, and most probably also by an owl; the insessorial, or tree-perching birds, by species seemingly allied to the nuthatch and the lark ; the scansorials or anisodactyles, by species as large as the cuckoo and king-fisher; the rasorials, by a species of small quail; the cursorials, by a species as large as, but with thicker legs than, an ostrich ; the grallatorial, by a curlew of the size of the ibis, and by species allied to Scolopax, Tringa, and Pelidna, of the size of our woodcocks, lapwings, andsanderlings; and the natatorial, by species allied to the cormorant, but one of them of larger size, though less than a pelican ; also by a species akin to the divers [Merganser). Fig. 79. The remains of birds become more abundant and varied as we approach the present time; especially in the miocene strata, so A. Dinornis elephantopus. B. Leg-bones of Dinornis giganteus. richly developed in Prance, although wanting in Britain. One of b, r. Impressions called Ornithichnites. the most singularly-modified forms of beak is shown by the flamingo. The fossil skull of a species of this genus (Phoenicopterus) has that cut is given a figure of the leg-bones of Dinornis giganteus, in been found in the miocene fresh-water deposits of the plateau which the tibia (t) measures upwards of a yard in length. In the of Gergovia, near Clermonte-Ferrand; the entire metatarsal bone entire skeleton [A) of another species, the metatarsus is as thick, of a species of eagle (Aquila) or osprey (Pandion) in the same de- but only half as long, as in the D. giganteus; the framework of posits at Chaptusal, Allier; and the humerus of a bird allied to the leg is the most massive of any in the class of birds ; the toeand as large as the albatross, in the molasse coquilliere marine at bones almost rival those of the elephant; whence the name Dinornis Armagne. Remains of a vulture, most probably a Cathartes, elephantopus, given to this species. Several other species of these 1 2 3

Lyell, Manual of Elementary Geology, 8vo, 1855, p. 348. Owen “ On the Affinities of Gastornis Parisiensis” Quarterly Journal of Geological Society, vol. xii., 1856, p. 204. These remains are described in eight memoirs by the writer, published in the third and fourth volumes of the Transactions of the Zoological Society of London. The description of the first fragment of the bone, indicative of the Dinornis, is in vol. iii., p. 39, pi. 3,

156 PALAEONTOLOGY. Mammalia. extinct tridactyle wingless birds have been determined—e.g., Chemical Composition of Bones. Mammalia Dinornis ingens, D. struthio'ides, D. rheides, D. dromidides, D. casuaTortoise. I Cod, Ingredients, rinus, D. robustus, D. crassus, D. gerandides, D. curtus. With these remains have been found bones of a bird the size of a swan, but of an extinct genus (Aptornis); also those of a large coot (Notornis Phosphate of lime, with 64-39 59-63 52-66 57-29 Mantelli) which,'founded originally on fossil remains, was aftertrace of fluate of lime ... 4-90 7-03 7-33 12-53 wards discovered living in the Middle Island of New Zealand. Carbonate of lime 0-82 2-40 0-94 1-32 Two species of Apteryx, not distinguishable from the existing kinds, Phosphate of magnesia were contemporaries with the gigantic Dinornis, and the writer has Sulphate, carbonate, and 1 0-90 1-10 0-92 0-69 chlorate of soda j received evidence that the D. elephantopus afforded food to the 31-75 32-31 27-73 29-70 natives at probably no very remote period. Some of the smaller Glutin and chondrin 1-33 1-34 2-00 0-99 kinds of Dinornis may yet be found living on the Middle Island. Oil In Madagascar portions of metatarsal bones, indicating a three10000 100-00 100-00 100-00 toed bird as large as, but generically distinct from, the Dinornis giganteus, have been discovered in alluvial banks of streams; and with them entire eggs, measuring from 13 to 14 inches in long diaThe most common change which bones first undergo is the loss of meter. The contents of one of these eggs is computed to equal those more or less of their original soft and soluble basis. This effect of of six ostrich eggs, or of one hundred and forty-eight hen’s eggs. long interment is readily tested by applying the specimen to the In the neighbouring island of Mauritius the dodo (Didus ineptus) tongue, when the affinity of the pores of the earthy constituent, has been exterminated by man within the period of two centuries; after having lost the gelatine, for fluid is so great, that the speciand in the islands of Bourbon and Rodriguez the “ solitaire ’ (Pezo- men adheres to the tongue like a piece of dry chalk. Bones and phaps) has also become extinct. Both these birds had wings too teeth in this state quickly absorb a solution of gelatine, and thus short for flight. their original tenacity may be restored.2 Petrified fossils need no such treatment; they are usually harder and more durable than the original bone itself. Class III.—MAMMALIA. The interpretation of such fossil remains requires a comparison (Warm blooded, Air-breathing, Viviparous Vertebrates.) of them with the corresponding parts of animals now living, or of Every calcified part of an animal, whether coral, shell, crust, previously determined extinct species. In the case of the verteanimals, such comparison is limited to the osseous and dental tooth, or bone, can preserve its form and structure when buried in brate The interpretation of a vertebrate fossil, therefore, prethe earth during the changes there gradually operated in it, until systems. a knowledge of the various modifications of the skeleton every original particle may have been removed and replaced by supposes teeth of the existing vertebrate animals; and the more extensome other mineral substance previously dissolved in the water and percolating the bed containing the fossil. A bone, or other part sive and precise such knowledge may be, the more successful will the efforts, and the more exact the conclusions, of the interpreter. so altered, is said to be “ petrified.” Not only are all its outward be The of the remains of quadrupeds is beset, as characters preserved, but even the minutest structure may be, and Cuvier determination remarks, with more difficulties than that of other in most cases is, demonstrable in the fine sections under the mi- organic truly fossils. Shells are usually found entire, and with all the croscope. Fossil bones and teeth have been discovered in every interme- characters by which they may be compared with their analogues the museums, or w-ith figures in the illustrated books, of natudiate stage of alteration, from their recent state to that of complete in petrifaction. Recent bones consist of a soft,—commonly called ralists. Fishes frequently present their skeleton or their scaly more or less entire, from which may be gathered the animal or organic,— basis, hardened by earthy salts, chiefly phos- coveringform of their body, and frequently both the generic and phate of lime.1 Fishes have the smallest proportion, birds the general characters which are derived from such internal or external largest proportion, of the earthy matter in their bones. The soft specific hard parts. But the entire skeleton of a fossil quadruped is rarely part is chiefly a gelatinous substance. found, and when it occurs, it gives little or no information as to Proportions of Hard and Soft Matter in the Bones of the Vertebrate the hair, the fur, or the colour of the species. Portions of the skeleton with the bones dislocated, or scattered pell-mell,—deAnimals. tached bones and teeth, or their fragments merely,—such are the FISHES. conditions in which the petrified remains of the mammalian class Salmon. Carp. Cod. most commonly present themselves in the strata in which they Soft 60-62 40-40 34-30 occur. Hard 39-38 59-60 65-70 Prior to the time of Cuvier but little progress had been made in the interpretation of such fragmentary remains. The striking 100-00 100-00 100-00 success which attended the application of the great comparative anatomist’s science to this previously neglected field of study, was REPTILES. referred by Cuvier to principles in the organization of animal Frog. Snake. Lizard. bodies, which he termed the “ Correlation of Forms and StrucSoft 35-50 31-04 46-67 tures,” and the “ Subordination of Organs,”—principles which his Hard 64-50 6996 53-33 philosophical biographer, M. Fiourens,3 in common with most contemporary philosophers, has regarded as the most effective and 100-00 100-00 100-00 successful instrument in the restoration of extinct animals. They MAMMALS. will be exemplified in the course of the present and concluding Porpoise. Ox. Lion. Man. section of the article Palaeontology. Soft 35-90 31-00 27-70 31-03 A terminal phalanx modified to fit a hoof may give, as Cuvier Hard 64-10 6900 72-30 68-97 declared, the modifications of all the bones of the fore limb that relate to the absence of a rotation of the fore leg, and all the mo100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 difications of the jaw and skull that relate to the mastication of BIRDS. food by broad-crowned complex molars. But there are certain associated structures for the coincidence of Goose. Turkey. Hawk. which the physiological law is unknown. “ I doubt,” writes Soft 32-91 30-49 26-72 Cuvier, “ whether I should have ever divined, if observation had Hard 67-09 69’51 73-28 not taught it me, that the ruminant hoofed beasts should all have 100-00 100-00 100-00 the cloven foot, and be the only beasts with horns on the frontal 4 The chemical nature of the hardening particles, and of the soft bone.” We know as little why horns should be in one or two basis of bone, is exemplified in the subjoined table, including a pairs on the frontal bone of those Ungulates only which have hoofs in one or two pairs; whilst in the horned Ungulates with three species of each of the four classes of Vertebrata:— 1 That this combination of phosphorus and calcium has ever taken place in nature, save under the influences of a living organism, remains to be proved. . . .v , j r 2 The writer’s experience of this effect led him to suggest the application of a similar process to the long-buried ivory ornaments from the3 ruins of Nineveh in the British Museum ; it proved successful. Plage Historique et VAnalyse Raisonnee des Travaux de G. Cuvier, 12mo, Paris, 1841, p. 42. 4 0ssemens Fossiles, 8vo, ed. 1834, tom. i., p. 184.

PALAEONTOLOGY. 157 Mammalia, hoofs, there should be either one horn, or two horns placed one not, nor have been, those who have contributed to the real advance- Mammalia, ,^ i behind the other in the middle line of the skull; or why the Un- ment of physiology or palaeontology. By reference to the “ Table of Strata” (fig. 1), it will be seen that gulates with one or three hoofs on the hind foot should have three . trochanters on the femur, whilst those with two or four hoofs on the earliest evidence of a vertebrate animal is of the cold-blooded water-breathing class in the upper Silurian period. Next follows the hind foot should have only two trochanters. “ However,” continues Cuvier, “ since these relations are con- that of a cold-blooded but air-breathing vertebrate, probably from stant, they must have a sufficing cause; hut as we are ignorant of the upper Devonian, but, under the batrachian grade, certainly in it, we1 must supply the want of the theory by means of observa- the carboniferous period. The warm-blooded air-breathing classes tion. This, if adequately pursued, will serve to establish empiri- are first indicated, as birds, by foot-marks in a sandstone of procal laws almost as sure in their application as rational ones.” bably triassic but not older age; and, as Mammals, by fossil teeth “ That there are secret reasons for all these relations, observation from bone-beds of the upper triassic system in Wirtemberg, and may convince us independently of general philosophy.” “ The of the same age near Frome, Somersetshire. Mammalian remains constancy between such a form of such organ, and such another have also been found in a coal-field in North Carolina, which may form of another organ, is not merely specific, but one of class, be earlier, but cannot be later, than the lias formation. Genus Microlvstes.—The mammalian teeth from German and with a corresponding gradation in the development of the two English trias indicate a very small insectivorous quadruped, to organs.” 2 “ For example, the dentary system of non-ruminant Ungulates which the above gel. eric name was given by Professor Plieninger. is generally more perfect than that of the Bisulcates ; inasmuch as The German specimens were discovered in 1847 in a bone breccia the former have almost always both incisors and canines in the at Diegerloch, about t vo miles from Stuttgardt, the geological relaupper as well as the lower jaw ; the structure of their feet is in tions of which are wtll determined as between lias and Keuper general more complex, inasmuch as they have more digits, or sandstone. The teeth of Microlestes from Frome, submitted to the hoofs less completely enveloping the phalanges, or more bones dis- writer by the discoverer, Mr Charles Moore, F.G.S., in 1858, are tinct in the metacarpus and metatarsus, or more numerous tarsal four in number, two being molars of the upper jaw, each with four bones ; or a more distinct and better developed fibula ; or a con- fangs ; one a molar with a n 'rrower crown and two fangs from the comitance of all these modifications. It is impossible to assign a lower jaw ; and the fourth a small, pointed, front tooth. The crowns reason for these relations; but, in proof that it is not an affair of of the molars are short vertically in proportion to their breadth ; chance, we find that whenever a bisulcate animal shows in its den- the distinct enamel contrasts wi.h the cement-covered fangs ; the tition any tendency to approach the non-ruminant Ungulates, it grinding surface shows a wide and shallow depression, surrounded also manifests a similar tendency in the conformation of its feet. by small, low, obtuse cusps, three of equal size being on one side, a Thus the camels, which have canines and two or four incisors in larger cusp near one end, and smaller and less regular cusps on the the upper jaw, have an additional bone in the tarsus, resulting side opposite the three. The lower molar shows a similar type, but from the scaphoid not being confluent with the cuboid; and the with the three marginal cusps less equal in size. The crown of the small hoofs have correspondingly small phalanges. The musk- largest of the upper molars does not exceed one line in its longest deer, which have long upper canines, have the fibula co-extensive diameter. Amongst existing Mammals, some of the small molars with the tibia, whilst the other ruminants have a mere rudiment of of the marsupial and insectivorous Myrmecobius of Australia otfer fibula articulated to the lower end of the tibia.” “ There is then the nearest resemblance to these fossil teeth; but a still closer one a constant harmony between two organs to all appearance quite is presented by the small tubercular molars of the extinct oolitic strangers to each other, and the gradations of their forms corre- Mammal called Plagiaulax (fig. 88, m, 1 and 2). spond uninterruptedly even in the cases where one can render no Genus Dromatherium.—It would appear that the Mammal reason for such relations.” “ But in thus availing ourselves of from the American triassic or liassic coal-bed (Dromatherium sylthe method of observation as a supplementary instrument when veslre, Emmons) also found its nearest living analogue in Myrmetheory abandons us, we arrive at astonishing details. The smallest cobius; for each ramus of the lower jaw contained 10 small molars articular surface (facette) of a bone, the smallest process, pre- in a continuous series, 1 canine, and 3 conical incisors, the latter sent a determinate character relating to the class, to the order, to being divided by short intervals. the genus, and to the species to which they belong; so that whoGenus Amphitherium (Thylacotherium, Val.)4—This genus is ever possesses merely the well-preserved extremity of a bone, he may, with application, aided by a little tact (adresse) in discerning analogies, and by sufficient comparison, determine all these things as surely as if he possessed the entire animal.” 3 There have been, of course, instances, and will be, where, for want of the “ efficacious comparison,” and the “ tact in discerning likeness,” such results have not rewarded the endeavours of the palaeontologist ; and these shortcomings, and the mistakes sometimes made, even by Cuvier himself, have been cast in the teeth of his disciples, as arguments against the principles by which they believed themselves guided in their endeavours to complete Lower Jaw and Teeth of the Amphitherium Prevostii (twice nat. size). the glorious edifice of which their master laid the foundations. The writer has, therefore, quoted from the well-known “ Prelimi- founded upon a few specimens of lower jaw, one ramus of which nary Discourse” to Cuvier’s great work on Fossil Remains, with a (fig. 80) gave the entire dentition of its side,—viz., three small view to neutralize the efforts of statements reiterated in apparent conical incisors (i), one rather larger canine (c), six premolars, uniignorance of the clear and explicit manner in which Cuvier there cuspid, with a small point at one or both sides of the base (p, 1—6), defines the limits within which the law of correlation of ani- and six quinque-cuspid molars (m, 1—6) not departing very far mal structures may be successfully applied, and indicates the in- from the type above-described. The molars, and most of the prestances in which,—the physiological condition being unknown, molars, are implanted by two roots. The condyle of the jaw is and the coincident structures being understood empirically,—care- convex, and is a little higher than the level of the teeth; the coroful observation and rigorous comparison must supply the place of noid process is broad and high; the angle projects backward, with the physiologically-understood law. a feeble production inward. It is, again, to the marsupial MyrThose who deny the existence of design in the construction of mecobius, amongst living forms, that the present genus is most any part of an organized body, and who protest against the deduc- nearly allied. The remains of Amphitherium are from the lower (fig. 82, stratum 8). tion of a purpose from the valves of the veins or the lens of the oolitic slates of Stonesfield Genus Amphilestes.6—This genus is founded on a ramus of the eye-ball, repudiate the reasoning which the palaeontologist carries out from the hoof to the grinder, or from the carnassial molar to lower jaw, from the Stonesfield oolitic slate, showing true molars the retractile claw, through the guidance of the principle of a of a compressed form, with a large middle cusp and a smaller, but pre-ordained mutual adaptation of such parts ; but such minds are well-marked, one at the fore and back part of its base; the “ cin1 “ Puisque ces rapports sont constants, il faut bien qu’ils aient une cause suffisante ; mais comme nous ne la connoissons pas, nous devons suppleer au defaut de la theorie par le moyen de 1’observation.” (Tom. cit., p. 184.) 2 “ En effet, quand on forme un tableau de ces rapports, on y remarque non-seulement une Constance specifique, si 1 on peut s’exprimer ainsi, entre telle forme de tel organe, et telle autre forme d’un organe different; mais 1 on aper^oit aussi une Constance de classe et une gradation correspondante dans le developpement de ces deux organes, qui montrent, presque aussi bien qu un raisonnement effectif, leur 3 influence mutuelle.” (Tom. cit., p. 185.) _ Tom. cit., p. 187. 4 For the full description and demonstration of the mammalian nature of this much-discussed fossil, see Owen, History of Brit. Fossil 5 Mammals, 8vo, p. 29. Owen, Hist. Brit. Foss. Mam., p. 58, fig. 19 (Amphitherium Broderipii).

PALAEONTOLOGY. 158 Mammalia, gulum,” or basal ridge, peculiar to mammalian teeth, traverses the order of development and succession, the Phascolothere may well Mammalia, 1 ^ ; inner ridge of the crown, where it develops three small cusps, one have had three premolars and four true molars. The difference between these teeth in the lower jaw of Didelphys at the base of the large outer or principal cusp, and the other two ‘ forming the anterior and posterior ends of the crown. This form is shown by the addition, in the true molars, of a pointed tubercle of tooth is unknown in existing Mammalia, but is as well adapted on the inner side of the middle cone. In Phascolotherium a mere for crushing the cases of coleopterous insects (elytra of which are basal ridge or cingulum extends along the inner side of the middle found fossil in the same oolitic matrix) as are any of the multi- cone. Such a ridge is present in the last molar of Sarcophilus, but cuspid molars of small opossums, shrews, and hats. The Amphi- not in the other molars; but in these there are two small hind cusps lestes Broderipii was somewhat larger than Amphitherium Prevostii. on the same transverse line, whilst that cusp appears to be single Genus Phascolotheritjm.—Although the evidence of the very in Phascolotherium. The cingulum, moreover, in the second to the slight degree of inflection of the angular process of the lower jaw penultimate of the molar series of this fossil, extends so far as to of Amphitherium may favour its affinity to the placental Insecti- form a small talon at the fore and back part of the crown ; thus vores, yet the range of variety to which that mandibular character making five points, which are very distinct in the third to the is subject in the different genera of existing Marsupialia warns us penultimate tooth inclusive; and by tbis character the dentition of against laying undue stress upon its feeble development in the Phascolotherium differs materially from any existing Marsupial, and extinct genus of the oolitic epoch, and incites us to look with repeats the type of molar which, as yet, would seem to be peculiar redoubled interest at whatever other indications of a marsupial to the Insectivora of the oolitic epoch. There is a feeble indication character may be present in the fossil remains of other genera and of this structure in the antepenultimate and penultimate molars of species of Mammalia that have been detected in the Stonesfield Thylacinus, but the hinder division of the crown shows two small cusps on the same transverse line, besides the rudimental hindmost slate. In the specimen of Phascolotherium (fig. 81) presented to the one; and there is no cingulum. Upon the whole, it would seem that, though the affinity may not be close, Phascolotherium most resembles Thylacinus amongst existing Mammals; but Thylacinus is now confined to Tasmania, and is there fast verging to extinction. The resemblance shown by the lower jaw and its teeth of the Amphithere and Phascolothere to marsupial genera now confined to Australia and Tasmania, leads one to reflect on the interesting correspondence between other organic remains of the Oxfordshire oolite and other existing forms now confined to the Australian con-

Fig. 81. Lower Jaw and Teeth of the Phascolotherium (nat. size in outline), Lower Oolite. British Museum by William J. Broderip, Esq., F.R.S., its original describer,1 which is as perfect in regard to the dentition as the jaw of the Amphitherium above described, the marsupial characters are more strongly manifested in the general form of the jaw, and in the extent and position of the inflected angle, while the agreement with the genus Didelphys in the number of the premolar and molar teeth is complete. The forms of the crowns of those teeth differ from those in Didelphys, and correspond so closely with those in the Amphilestes Broderipii, as to show the closer affinity of the Phascolothere with the latter oolitic Insectivora; and, accordingly, whatever additional evidence of marsupiality is afforded by the Phascolotherium, may be regarded as strengthening the claims of both Amphilestes and Thylacotherium to be admitted into the marsupial group. The general form and proportions of the coronoid process • of the jaw of Phascolotherium resemble those in the zoophagous Marsupials; and especially with that of the Thylacynus in regard to the depth and form of the entering notch between this process and the condyle. The base of the inwardly-bent angle of the lower jaw progressively increases in Didelphys, Dasyurus, and Thylacinus; and judging from the fractured surface of the corresponding part of the fossil, it most nearly resembles the jaw of Thylacinus. The condyle of the jaw is nearer the plane of the inferior margin of the ramus in the Thylacine than in the Dasyures or Opossums; and consequently, when the inflected angle is broken off, the curve of the line continued from the condyle along the lower margin of the jaw is least in the Thylacine. In this particular, again, the Phascolothere resembles that Australian Carnivore. In the position of the dental foramen, the Phascolothere, like the Amphithere, differs from the zoophagous Marsupials and placental Carnivora and Insectivora, and resembles the Hypsiprymnus, a marsupial Herbivore, that orifice being near the vertical line dropped from the last molar tooth. In the direction of the line of the symphysis, the Phascolothere resembles the Opossums more than the Dasyures or Thylacines. It is probable that the teeth at the fore part of the jaw showed the same correspondence. In the number of the molar series, the Phascolothere differs from Amphitherium, Amphilestes, and Myrmecolius, and resembles the Thylacine and Opossum, but without having the premolars (p, i, 2, 3) distinguished, as in them, from the true molars (m, 1, 2, 3, 4), by smaller and more simple crowns. As, however, these two kinds of teeth can only be determined by their

Fig. 82. (After Fitton.) 1. Rubbly limestone (cornbrash). 2. Clay, with Terebratulites. 3. Limestone rock. * 4. Blue clay. 5. Oolitic rock. 6. Stiff clay. 7. Oolitic rag, or limestone. 8. Sandy bed containing the Stonesfield slate. tinent and surrounding sea. Here, for example, swims the Cestracion, or Port-Jackson shark, which has given the key to the nature of the “ palates” from our oolites, now recognised as the teeth of congeneric larger forms of cartilaginous fishes. Mr Broderip, in his Memoir above quoted, observes, “ that it may not be uninteresting to note that a recent species of Trigonia has very lately been discovered on the coast of Australia, that land of marsupial animals. Our specimen lies imbedded with a number of fossil shells of that genus.” Not only Trigonice but Terehratulce exist, and the

Zoological Journal, vol. iii., p. 408, pi. xl., 1828.

~

PALAEONTOLOGY. 159 Mammalia. latter abundantly, in the Australian seas, yielding food to the Ces- middle true molar of Pliolophus vulpiceps, a small extinct herbi- Mammalia, tracion, as their extinct analogues doubtless did to the allied Pla- vorous Mammal from the London clay (fig. 91, m, 2). | 1 That the fragment in question is the jaw of a Mammal is ingiostomes with crushing teeth, called Acrodus,Psammodus, &c. Arau carioB and cycadeous plants, like those found fossil in oolitic beds, ferred from the implantation of the tooth by two or more roots. flourish on the Australian continent, where marsupial quadrupeds Most Mammals are known to have certain teeth so implanted. Such now abound ; and thus appear to complete a picture of an ancient complex mode of implantation in bone has not been observed in condition of the earth’s surface, which has been superseded in our any other class of animals. Why two or more roots of a tooth hemisphere by other strata and a higher type of mammalian orga- should be peculiar to viviparous quadrupeds, giving suck, is not nization. Fig. 82 represents a section of the strata overlying the precisely known. That a tooth, whether it be designed for grindslates whence the fossil mammalian jaws, with associated Megalo- ing hard or cutting soft substances, should do both the more effecsaurs, Pterodactyles, and other oolitic organisms, have been obtained tually in the ratio of its firmer and more extended implantation, is at Stonesfield in Oxfordshire. The vertical thickness of the strata intelligible. That a more perfect performance of a preliminary through which the shaft is sunk to the gallery is 62 feet; on the act of digestion should be a necessary correlation, or be in harside opposite the right hand is marked the depth of the horizontal mony with a more complete conversion of the food into chyle and gallery, where the slate is dug which contains the fossils; on the blood,—and that such more efficient type of the whole digestive machinery should be correlated, and necessarily so, with the hot opposite side the strata are numbered in succession. Genus Stereognathus.— The last evidence of a mammalian blood, quick-beating heart and quick-breathing lungs, with the animal discovered in the Stonesfield slate is of peculiar interest, higher instincts, and more vigorous and varied acts of a Mammal, because it exhibits a type of grinding teeth quite distinct from any as contrasted with a cold-blooded reptile or fish,—is also conceivof the previously acquired jaws from that locality, and affords evi- able. To the extent to which such and the like reasoning may be dence of a small vegetable-feeding or omnivorous quadruped. It con- true, or in the direction of the secret cause of the constant relations of many-rooted teeth discovered by observation,—to that extent sists of a portion of a lower jaw, a l c will such relations ascend from the empirical to the rational cateimbedded in the characteristic gory of laws. matrix (fig. 83), about 9 lines in extent, and containing three The interest which the above-described fossil from the Stonesfield molar teeth (a, b, c). It is nearoolitic slate excites is not exclusively due to its antiquity, its ly straight; the side exposed uniqueness, or its peculiarity; much is attached to its relations as a test in palaeontology of the actual value of a single tooth in the is convex vertically; a slight bend downwards, and decrease determination of other parts of the organization of the animal. Acof vertical diameter towards cording to our opinion of these unseen parts, we frame our expresthe end, indicates it to be part sion of the nature and affinities, or of the place in the zoological of a left ramus. This is unsystem, of the extinct species. From the resemblance of the lower usually shallow, broad or thick molars of Stereognathus to those of Pliolophus, which, though not Fig. 83. below, the side passing by a close, is closer than to the teeth of any other known animal, it is strong convex curve into the Stereognathus; Portion of Jaw, im- probable that the Stereognathus was hoofed, and consequently herlower part; a very narrow longi- bedded in Oolitic Matrix (nat. bivorous, or deriving the chief part of its subsistence from the vegetudinal ridge, continued after size). table kingdom. Cuvier has written,—“ La premiere chose a faire its subsidence by a few fine dans I’fstude d’un animal fossile est de reconnaitre la forme de ses lines, forms a tract which divides the lateral from the under sur- dents molaires; ou determine par-la s’il est carnivore ou herbivore, face; elsewhere the bone is smooth, without conspicuous vascular et dans ce dernier cas, on peut s’assurer, jusqu’a1 un certain point perforations. The depth or vertical diameter of the ramus is not de 1’ordre d’herbivores auquel il appartient.” In the case in more than 2 lines. Of the question the form of the molar teeth of one jaw is recognisable, but three teeth remaining in the herbivority of the fossil is not thereby determined. We can this portion of jaw, the only infer it to be more probable that the fossil was a Herbivore middle one is the least muthan an Insectivore or a mixed-feeding Carnivore. tilated. The crown of this Admitting the herbivority of the fossil, it is not certain that it tooth (fig. 84, B) is of a was hoofed ; there is nothing in the form and structure of the tooth quadrate form, 3 millito prove that. Both form and structure are compatible with the metres by 3J millimetres, hoofless muticate type of herbivorous Mammal, as shown by the of very little height, and Manatee; it is the small size of the Stereognathus which renders it supports six subequal cusps less probable that it was a diminutive kind of Manatee, and more in three pairs, each pair probable that it was a diminutive form of Ungulate. But seeing being more closely conthe manifold diversities of the multi-cuspid form of molar teeth in nected in the antero-posrecent and extinct insectivorous unguiculate quadrupeds, it is not terior direction of the tooth impossible but that the Stereognathus may have belonged to that than transversely. order ; there is no known physiological law forbidding it. The outer side of the The form of the cusps, and their regular symmetrical arrangecrown (fig. 83, b), supment in the Stereognathus, as compared with the known modificaported by a narrow fang tions of multi-cuspid molars in certain small extinct forms of hoofed which contracts as it sinks Fig. 84. quadrupeds, constitute the grounds upon which an opinion is into the socket, shows two Stereognathus ; Upper View of portion formed of its most probably belonging to the same section of Un ■ principal cusps or cones, of Jaw (nat. size), and Magnified gulata. and a small accessory basal Then, is it not true, it may be asked, that by virtue of certain of the Middle Tooth, B (Stones cusp. The hard and shin- View established laws of correlated structures, an extinct animal may be field Oolite). ing enamel which covers re-constructed from a single tooth or from a fragment of bone ? Is these parts of the crown contrasts with the lighter cement that the Cuvierian basis, or what has been so regarded, of palaeontology coats the root. The two outer lobes or cones are subcompressed, unsound ? Hot necessarily from aught that has been said or writand placed obliquely on the crown, so that the hinder one (o', fig. ten on the subject of the Stereognathus. We do not know the com84) is a little overlapped externally by the front one o, the fore parative anatomy of the family of quadrupeds to which the Stereogpart of the base of the hinder one being prolonged inwards on the nathus belonged. What we do know of its teeth suggests that that inner side of the base of the front cone. The two middle cones family may have had modifications of the skeleton so far differing (A, i) are subcompressed laterally, with the fore part of their base from those of any, the modifications of which are known, as to have a little broader than the back part. The two inner cones (p, p') constituted a type of, perhaps, a marsupial family; but a type as have their inner surface convex, with their summits slightly in- well marked, and as distinct, as the type of skeleton which Cuvier clined forwards. The fore part of the base of the hinder cone is inductively studied in the feline Carnivora (fig. 106), and in the prolonged obliquely towards the centre of the crown, beyond the ruminant Herbivora (fig. 107), and by which preliminary study he contiguous end of the base of the front cone, so as to cause an was enabled to enunciate that beautiful law of the “ correlation of arrangement like that of the two outer cones (o, o'), the obliquity forms and structures” to which allusion has been already made, of the posterior cone of both the outer and the inner pairs being and which will be illustrated by examples, and its mode of applisuch that they slightly converge as they extend forwards. cation pointed out, in another part of the present article. This type of tooth differs from that of all other known recent In certain instances of constant coincidences of structure, as deor extinct Mammals. The nearest approach to it is made by the monstrated by comparative anatomy, the sufficient—t.e. recognisable, 1

Ossemens Fossiles, 4to, tom. iii., 1822, p. 1.

i ' . . .A.A-V-.

PALEONTOLOGY. 3 Mammalia, intelligible, or physiological—cause of them is not yet known. But, the determination of a whole from a part; and it has not only Mammalia, ' as Cuvier in reference to such instances truly remarks, “ Since been asserted that the results of such determination are unsound, v these relations are constant, there certainly must be a sufficient but that the philosopher who believed himself guided by such law4 1 cause for them.” In certain other cases Cuvier believed that he deceived himself and misconceived his own mental processes ! could assign that “ sufficient cause,” and he selects as such the cor- But the true state of the case is, that the non-applicability of Curelated structures in a feline Carnivore, and in a hoofed Herbivore. vier’s law in certain cases is not due to its non-existence, but to the The physiological knowledge displayed by him in his explanation limited extent to which it is understood. The consciousness of that limitation led the enunciator of the of the condition of those correlations is most exact; its application in the restoration of the Anoplotherium and Palceotherium most law to call the attention of palaeontologists expressly to the extent to which it could then be applied, as, for instance, to the determiexemplary. In the ratio of the knowledge of the reason of the coincidences nation of the class, but not the order; or of the order, but not the of animal structures—in other words, as those coincidences become family or genus, &c.; and to caution them also as to the extent of “ correlations ”—is our faith in the soundness of the conclusions the cases in which, the coincidences being only known empirically, deduced from the application of such rational law of correlations ; he consequently enjoins the necessity of further observation, and and with the certainty of such application is associated a greater of caution in their induction. Cuvier expresses, however, his belief facility of its application. A knowledge of the physiological con- that such coincidences must have a sufficient cause, and that cause ditions governing the relations of the contents of the cavities of once discovered, they then become correlations and enter into the hones to the flight and other modes of locomotion in birds both en- category of the higher law. Future comparative anatomists will abled the writer to infer from one fragment of a skeleton that it have that great consummation in view, and its result, doubtlessly, belonged to a terrestial bird deprived of the power of flight, and to will be the vindication of the full value of the law in the interprepredict that such a bird, but of less rapid course than the ostrich, tation of fossil remains as defined by the illustrious founder of palaeontology. would ultimately be found in New Zealand.2 Genus Spalacotherium, Ow.—The next stratum overlying the This principle, however,—those modes of thought,—which Cuvier affirmed to have guided him in his interpretation of fossil remains, older oolites in which mammalian remains have been detected, is a and which he believed to be a true clue in such researches, were member of the newest oolitic series at Purbeck, Dorsetshire, called the “ marly ” or “ dirt-bed.” In a series of fossils discovered there repudiated or contested by some of his contemporaries. Geoffrey St Hilaire denied the existence of a design in the con- by Mr W. R. Brodie, and transmitted for determination in 1854 to struction of any part of an organized body; be protested against the writer, amongst the remains of fishes and small Saurians, conthe deduction of a purpose from the contemplation of such struc- stituting the majority of the specimens, were detected three unspecies, which were described tures as the valves of the veins or the converging lens of the eye. equivocal evidences of a mammalian 5 Beyond the co-existence of such a form of flood-gate with such a under the name of Spalacotherium tricuspidens. The specimen here course of the fluid, or of such a course of light with such a converg- selected (fig. 85) to exing medium, Geoffroy affirmed that thought, at least his mode of emplify the above extinct insectivorous Mammal, is thinking, could not sanely, or ought not to go. The present is not the place for even the briefest summary of a right ramus of the lower the arguments which have been adduced by teleologists and anti- jaw. The posterior half teleologists from Democritus and Plato down to Comte and Whe- contains four teeth, and well. The writer would merely remark, that in the degree in which extends backward beyond the reasoning faculty is developed on this planet and is exercised the dental series ; but in- Spalacotherium tricuspidens (twice nat. by our species, it appears to be a more healthy and normal condi- stead of showing the comsize), Purbeck beds. tion of such faculty,—certainly one which has been productive of pound structure which most accession to truths, as exemplified in the mental workings of that part of the jaw exhibits in the lizard tribe, it continues undian Aristotle, a Galen, a Harvey, and a Cuvier,—to admit the in- vided ; the convex surface showing a smooth depression for the instinctive impression of a design or purpose in such structures as the sertion of the temporal muscle ; the lower boundary answering to valves of the vascular system and the dioptric mechanism of the that going to the condyle and angle of the jaw, and the upper one eye. In regard to the few intellects,—they have ever been a small to that going to the coronoid process in the ramus of the jaw of the and unfruitful minority,—who do not receive that impression and mole and shrew'. The crowns of the teeth are long, narrow, and will not admit the validity or existence of final causes in phy- tricuspid, the inner part of the crown being produced into a point siology, the writer has elsewhere expressed his belief that such both before and behind the longer cusp which forms the chief intellects are not the higher and more normal examples, but rather outer division of the crown. Each of these teeth is implanted by a manifest some, perhaps congenital, defect of mind, allied or analo- fang divided externally into two roots, in a distinct socket in the gous to “ colour-blindness ” through defect of the optic nerve, or substance of the jaw. The multicuspid crowm, the divided root of the inaudibleness of notes above a certain pitch through defect of the tooth, its complex implantation, and the undivided or simple structure of the ramus of the jaw, all concurred, therefore, to prove the acoustic nerve. The truth of a physiological knowledge of the condition of a cor- the mammalian nature of this fossil. The other specimens showed that the Spalacotherium had ten related structure, and of the application of that knowledge to palaeontology, is not affected by instances adduced from that much molar teeth in each ramus of the lower jaw, preceded by a small more extensive series of coincident structures of which the physio- canine and incisors. The anterior molars are compressed, increase logical condition is not yet known. Nor is the power of the appli- in height and thickness to the sixth, and from the seventh decrease cation of the physiologically interpreted correlation the less certain in size to the hindmost, which seems to be the last of the series. because the merely empirically recognised coincidences have failed The sharp multicuspid character of so much of the dental series as to restore, with the same certainty and to the same extent, an ex- is here preserved repeats the general condition of the molar teeth of the small insectivorous Mammalia in a striking degree : one sees tinct form of animal. Certain coincidences of form and structure in animal bodies are the same perfect adaptation for piercing and crushing the tough determined by observation. By the exercise of a higher faculty chitinous cases and elytra of insects. The particular modification the reason, or a reason, of these coincidences is discovered, and they of the pointed cusps, as to number, proportion, and relative posibecome correlations; in other words, it is known not only that tion, resembles in some degree that of the Cape mo\e (Chrysochlora they do exist, but how they are related to each other. In the case aurea), but both in these respects and in the number of molars, the of coincidences of the latter kind, or of “correlations” properly dentition accords more closely with that of the extinct Amphitherium. so called, the mind infers with greater certainty and confidence, The chief interest in the discovery of the Spalacotherium is derived in their application to a fossil, than in the case of coincidences from its demonstration of the existence of Mammalia about midway which are held to’be constant only because so many instances of them between the older oolitic and the oldest tertiary periods. Both the Oxford oolitic slate and the Purbeck marly shell-beds have been observed. Because the application of the latter kind of coincidences is give evidence of insect life; in the latter formation abundantly. limited to the actual amount of observation at the period of such The association of these delicate Invertebrata with remains of plants application, and because mistakes have been made through a mis- allied to Zamia and Cycas, is indicative of the same close interdecalculation of the value of such amount, it has been argued that a pendency between the insect class and the vegetable kingdom, of rational law of the correlation of animal forms is inapplicable to which our power of surveying the phenomena of life on the present 160

1 2 4 6

Discours sur les Revolutions de la Surface du Globe, 4to, 1826, p. 50. 3 Transactions of the Zoological Society, vol. iii., p. 32, pi. 3. De Blainville, Osteographie, 4to, fasc. 1, 1839, p. 34. Prof. Huxley, “ Lecture on Natural History,” &c., Royal Institution of Great Britain, Feb. 15, 1856. From (riraAal, a mole, a beast.

PALAEONTOLOGY. 161 but implanted by a thick root in the fore part of the jaw, like the ,Mammalia, Mammalia, surface of the earth enables us to recognise so many beautiful ex- large lower incisor of a kangaroo or wombat. The three anterior amples. Amongst the numerous enemies of the insect class ordained to maintain its due numerical relations, and organized to pursue teeth in place have compressed trenchant crowns, and rapidly augand secure its countless and diversified members in the air, in the ment in size from the first (2) to the third (4). They are followed waters, on the earth and beneath its surface, bats, lizards, shrews, by sockets of two much smaller teeth, shown in other specimens to and moles now carry on their petty warfare simultaneously, and in have subtuberculate crowns resembling those of Microlestes. The warmer latitudes work together, or in the same localities, in their large front tooth of Plagiaulax is formed to pierce, retain, and kill ; allotted task. No surprise need therefore be felt at the discovery the succeeding teeth, like the carnassials of Carnivora, are, like that Mammals and Lizards co-operated simultaneously and in the the blades of shears, adapted to cut and divide soft substances, same locality at the same task of restraining the undue increase of such as flesh. As in Carnivora, also, these sectorial teeth are sucinsect life during the period of the deposition of the Lower Purbeck ceeded by a few small tubercular ones. The jaw conforms to this character of the dentition. It is short in proportion to its depth, beds. and consequently robust, sending up a broad and high coronoid G&nus Triconodon, Ow. Sp. Triconodon mordax.—This name isproposed fora small zoopha- process (6), for the adequate grasp of a large temporal muscle; and gous Mammal, whose generic distinction is shown by the shape of the the condyle (c) is placed below the level of the grinding teeth,— a character unknown in any herbivorous or mixed-feeding Mammal; crowns of the molar teeth of the lower whilst the lever of the coronoid process is made the stronger by the jaw, which consist of three nearly equal condyle being carried farther back from it than in any known carcones on the same longitudinal row, nivorous or herbivorous animal. The angle of the jaw makes no the middle one being very little larger projection below the condyle, but is slightly bent inwards, accordthan the front and hind cone; and ing to the marsupial type. these cones are not complicated by Sp. Plagiaulax minor, Fr.—In this species the first premolar (fig. Fig. 86. any cingulum or accessory basal cusp. The convex condyle is below the level Jaw of Triconodon mordax 88, p, 1) is preserved; the rest (p, 2, 3, and 4) show nearly the same shape and proportions as of the alveoli, and there is no angular (nat. size), Purbeck. in P. Becclesii. The first process projecting beneath it. The coronoid process is broad and high, with its hinder point not ex- molar (m, 1) has a broad tended so far back as the condyle; the depression marking the depression on the grinding insertion of the temporal muscle extends nearly to the lower border surface, surrounded by tuof the jaw. There are the obscure remains of three broken in- bercles, of which three are cisors, and the point of apparently a canine; next come the two on the outer border; the stumps or broken roots of a small premolar ; then the crown of a marginal tubercles of the second double-rooted premolar, which show a principal cone and second smaller tooth are a small anterior cusp; the next tooth is wanting ; then there is a smaller and more numerlarger premolar, with the two fangs raised some way out of their ous. In the general shape and Plagiaulax minor (four times nat. size), socket: the crown of this tooth shows a principal cone, with a Purbeck (after Lyell). small anterior and large posterior talon ; it rises, apparently from proportions of the large partial displacement, higher than the succeeding molars; these are premolar (p, 4) and sucthree in number, and present the characteristic three-coned struc- ceeding molars, Plagiaulax most resembles Thylacoleo (fig. 115, p, m, ture already described; each cone is smooth, and convex exter- 1 and 2),—a much larger extinct predaceous Marsupial from ternally. The three cones seem to answer to the three middle or tiary beds in Australia. But the sectorial teeth in Plagiaulax are principal cones of the molars of Amphilestes and Phascolotherium, more deeply grooved; whence its name. The single compressed but the front and hind cones are raised to near equality with the premolar of the kangaroo-rat is also grooved ; but it is differently shaped, and is succeeded by four square-crowned double-ridged middle cone in Triconodon. The lower jaw of this species, in the relation of the condyle to the grinders adapted for vegetable food; and the position of the conlower border, resembles that of Phascolotherium more than that of dyle, the slenderness of the coronoid, and other characters of the Amphitherium, but it differs from both; there is not the same lower jaw, are in conformity to that regimen. In Thylacoleo the gradual curve from the condyle to the symphysis as in Phascolo- lower canine or canine-shaped incisor projected from the fore part therium ; and, besides the lower level of the condyle, it is divided of the jaw close to the symphysis, and the corresponding tooth in by a less deep notch from the coronoid process. This process is Plagiaulax more closely resembles it in shape and direction than larger in proportion to the entire jaw ; approaches more nearly to it does the procumbent incisor of Hypsiprymnus. From this genus the quadrate or rhomboid form, the upper border being less curved; Plagiaulax differs by the obliquity of the grooves on its premolars; it affords a more extensive surface of attachment to the principal by having the analogous teeth vertically grooved; by having only biting muscles than in most predatory extinct or recent quadrupeds. two true molars in each ramus of the jaw, instead of four; by the This character, with the depth and strength of the jaw, suggested salient angle which the surfaces of the molar and premolar teeth the specific name. From the shape of the exposed part of the form, instead of presenting a uniform level line; by the broader, ramus, we may conclude that the part answering to the angle is higher, and more vertical coronoid ; and by the very low position bent inwards, and that Triconodon was a genus of the marsupial of the articular condyle. The physiological deductions from the above-described characorder. The specimen was discovered by Mr Beccles in the same “ dirt-bed” at Purbeck1 as that in which Spalacotherium was found. teristics of the lower jaw and teeth of Plagiaulax are, that it was Genus Plagiaulax, Fr.—The most remarkable of Mr Beccles’ a carnivorous Marsupial. It probably found its prey in the condiscoveries in the above formation are the mammalian jaws indi- temporary small insectivorous Mammals and Lizards, supposing cative of the genus above named, of which two species have been no herbivorous form, like Stereognathus, to have co-existed during the upper oolitic period. determined by Dr Falconer. In the Woodwardian Museum at Cambridge is a specimen of anSp. Plagiaulax Becclesii, Fr.—-Two specimens exemplified the chylosed cervical vertebrae of a cetaceous animal as large as a grampus, but presenting specific distinctions from all known recent and bf fossil species. It is stated to have been found in the brown clay or “ till” near Ely ; but in its petrified condition, colour, and specific gravity, it is so different from the true bones of the “ till,” and so closely like the fossils of the Kimmeridge clay, as to make it extremely probable that it has been washed out of that formation. In a recent visit to Cambridge the writer has identified true cetacean vertebrae which had been discovered associated with bones of Ichthyosaurus in the lower greensand (neocomian) near that town. No evidence of the mammalian class has yet been met with in the chalk beds. Fig. 87. The examples of the Mammalia first met with in tertiary strata are the Coryphodon and Palceocyon, respectively representing the Plagiaulax Becclesii (twice nat. size), Purbeck. ungulate (herbivorous) and unguiculate (carnivorous) modificashape and proportions of the entire jaw of this species (fig. 87). tions of the class; their remains have been found in the plastic clay The foremost tooth (i) is a very large one, shaped like a canine, and equivalent lignites in England and France. 1 An abbreviation for Plagiaulacodon, from vkoiyios, oblique, and «vAa|, groove; having reference to the diagonal grooving of the premolar teeth. VOL. XVII. X

162 Mammalia.

FALCON Genus Coryphodon, Ow.—Rarely has the writer felt more misgiving in regard to a conclusion based, in palaeontology, on a single tooth or bone, than that to which he arrived after a study of the unique fragment of jaw with one tooth dredged up off the Essex coast, and on which he founded the genus Coryphodon.1 The marked contraction of the part of the jaw near one end of the tooth seemed, at first view, clearly to show it to be the narrower fore part of the ramus ; in that case the tooth would have been a premolar, and of comparatively little value in the determination of a genus or species. But a closer inspection showed the line of abrasion of the summits of the two transverse ridges of the tooth to be on one side, and the general law of the relative apposition and reciprocal action of the upper and lower grinders in tapiroid Pachyderms determined that those oblique linear abrasions must be on the hinder side of the ridges. The smaller characters carried conviction against the showing of the larger and more catching ones. So, in determining the position of the nautilus in its pearly abode, when the animal without its shell was first brought to England in 1831, the reasons afforded by some small and inconspicuous parts in like manner outweighed the first impressions from more obvious appearances, as well as the bias from the general analogies of testaceous Univalves. Some contemporary naturalists asserted, and for a time it was 2believed, that the nautilus had been put upside down in its shell, just as some contemporary anatomists surmised that the writer had mistaken the fore for the back part of the jaw of his Coryphcedon, which, in that case, might only be the known Lophiodon. In both instances the conclusions founded on the less obvious characters have proved to be correct. And the writer would remark that, in the course of his experience, he has often found that the prominent appearances which first catch the eye and indicate a conformable conclusion are deceptive, and that the less obtrusive phenomena which require searching out, more frequently, when their full significance is reasoned up to, guide to the right comprehension of the whole. It is as if truth were whispered rather than outspoken by Nature. Truth, it is sometimes said, lies at the bottom of a well. The first additional glimpse that the writer obtained of the veritable nature of one of our most ancient tertiary Mammals was derived from the inspection of a fossil tooth brought up from a depth of 160 feet, out of the “ plastic clay,” during the operations of sinking a well in the neighbourhood of Camberwell, near London. It was a canine tooth,3 belonging, from its size (near 3 inches in length), to a large quadruped, and, from the thickness and shortness of its conical crown, not to a carnivorous but to a hoofed Mammal, most resembling in shape, though not identical with, that of the crown of the canine tooth of some large extinct tapiroid Mammals, which Cuvier had referred to his genus Lophiodon, but which has proved to belong to Coryphodon. The last lower molar of Lophiodon has three lobes; the molar determined to be the ultimate one, in the fragment of lower jaw above referred to, resembles that of the tapir in the absence of a third or posterior lobe, but the posterior ridge or part of the cingulum is less developed than in the tapir. It presents two divisions in the form of transverse ridges or eminences, the front ridge being the largest, and with its edge most entire. From the outer end of each division a ridge is continued obliquely forward, inward, and downward: the anterior one extends to the anterointernal angle of the base of the crown; the posterior one terminates at the middle of the interspace between the two chief divisions of the crown. The trenchant summit of the anterior ridge is slightly concave toward the fore part of the tooth, as in that of Lophiodon; but its outer and inner ends rise higher, and appear as more distinct cones or points ,• whence the generic name of Coryphodon. The posterior division is lower than the anterior one, and is bicuspid ; the trenchant margin connecting the outer and inner points does not extend across the crown parallel with the anterior ridge, as in Tapirus and Lophiodon, but bends back so as to form an angle, the apex of which rises into a third point. Some lophiodontoid fossils from the lignites of Soissons and Laon, and from the plastic clay of Meudon in France, including the upper molar tooth figured by Cuvier in the chapter of the Ossemens Fossiles entitled “ Animaux voisins de Tapirs,” pi. vii., fig. 6, belong to the genus Coryphodon. Cuvier compares this tooth with one from Bastberg, which he figures in pi. vi., fig. 4, and which is certainly the last upper molar of a true Lophiodon, and points out truly that the Soissons tooth differs in the external border passing into the posterior one, so that, instead of being quadrangular, its crown is triangular ; but he explains this difference on the hypothesis that the Bastberg tooth was a penultimate 1 3 4 5

T 0 L 0 G Y. molar. The reduction of the second or posterior ridge to a semi- Mammalia, circular one, developed at its middle and hindmost part into a i ^ ^ prominent cone, so far agrees with the modification of the same part of the last molar of the lower jaw of the Coryphodon as to render it very probable that the last upper molar from Soissons, figured by Cuvier in pi. vii., fig. 6, above quoted, also belongs to the genus Coryphodon. Cuvier states that the entire skeleton was found, indicative of an animal as long and almost as large as a bull; but that the workmen employed in the sandpit (sablonilre) preserved only that one tooth. Both the lower molar from Harwich, and the upper one from Soissons, indicate an animal of at least double the size4of the American tapir. Professor Hebert has recently described a very instructive series of teeth and bones from the oldest eocene deposits in France, which he refers to the genus Coryphodon : the last molar is identical in form with the tooth from the plastic clay of Essex, on which the genus was originally founded. Genus Pliolophus, Ow.—The most complete and instructive example of a Mammal from the next overlying division of the eocene tertiaries,5 viz., the “ London clay,” is that which the writer has described under the name of Pliolophus vulpiceps. It is a hoofed Herbivore, but presents a dentition not exhibited by any later or existing species of Mammal. The length of the skull (fig. 89) is 4 inches, its extreme breadth

Fig. 89. Skull of Pliolophus vulpiceps (half nat. size), London clay. 2 inches 2 lines, the height of the cranium opposite the first premolar tooth 9 lines. Its shape and characteristics determine the hoofed nature of this species, and its affinities to the Perissodactyla, or the order of Ungulata with toes in odd number. The extent and well-defined boundary of the temporal fossae by the occipital (3), parietal (7), and post-frontal ridges, and their free communication with the orbits, give almost a carnivorous character to this part of the cranium of Pliolophus; but as in the hog, Hyrax, and Palaeothere, the greatest cerebral expansion is at the middle and toward the fore part of the fossae, with a contraction toward the occiput; the brain-case not continuing to enlarge backward to beyond the origin of the zygomata, as in the fox. The zygomatic arches have a less outward span than in the Carnivora. In this part of the cranial structure Pliolophus resembles Palceotherium more than it does any existing Mammal; but the post-frontal processes are longer and more inclined backward. The incompleteness of the orbit occurs in both Anoplotherium and Palceotherium, as in Rhinoceros, Tapirus, and the hog tribe ; but in the extent of the deficient rim, Pliolophus is intermediate between Palceotherium and Tapirus. The orbit is not so low placed as in Palceotherium, Tapirus, and Rhinoceros, nor so high as in Hyrax or Sus. The straight upper contour of the skull (7 to 15) is like that in the horse tribe and Hyrax, and differs from the convex contour of the same part in the Anoplothere and Palasothere. The size of the antorbital foramen (a) indicates no unusual development of the muzzle or upper lip. In the conformation of the nasal aperture by four bones (two nasals, 15, and two premaxillaries, 22), Pliolophus resembles the horse, Hyrax, hog tribe, and Anoplothere, and differs from the rhinoceros, tapir, and Palaeothere, which have the maxillaries, as well as the nasals and premaxillaries, entering into the formation of the external bony nostril. The ungulate and herbivorous character of Pliolophus is most distinctly marked by the modifications of the lower jaw, especially by the relative dimensions of the parts of the ascending ramus

2 Hist, of Brit. Fossil Mammals, 8vo, p. 299, figs. 103, 104. In plate i. of the writer’s Memoir of the Nautilus, 4to, 1832. Hist. Brit. Foss. Mamm., p. 306, fig. 105. Comptes Rendus de VAcad, des Sciences, Paris, 26th January 1857 [Coryphodon Oweni, Hebert). Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. xiv., p. 54.

PALAEONTOLOGY. 163 tween the two anterior lobes, making three cones on the same Mammalia, Mammalia, which give the extent of attachment of the biting (temporal) and transverse line, and thus repeating the character of the molar i ! v , y grinding (masseteric and pterygoid) muscles respectively. In the shape of the mandible Pliolophus most resembles Tapirus among tooth of Stereognathus (fig. 92, e). The oblique ridge from the existing Mammals, and the Palceotherium among the extinct ones in outer and hinder lobe (c) abuts against the intermediate tubercle (e). which that shape is known. As in almost every species of eocene The nearest approach to the above dentition is made by the extinct quadruped yet discovered, the Pliolophus presents the type-dentition Hyracotherium, also a fossil from the London clay. The third trochanter on the femur of Pliolophus, and the assoof the placental diphyodont series, viz.:— ciation of three metatarsals in one portion of the matrix, as if 3 11 3-3 1—1 3A A belonging to the same hind foot, confirm the essentially pe3—3’ i=r i—V m — =44. rissodactyle affinities of that genus as shown by the skull and The incisors are preserved in the lower jaw with marks of attri- teeth. Pliolophus and Hyracotherium form a well-marked section tion on their crowns demonstrating corresponding teeth of the same in the lophiodont family, which seems to have preceded the palasonumber (6), and of similar size, in the upper jaw, from which the therian family in the order of appearance, and to have retained alveolar part of the premaxillaries had been broken away. more of the general ungulate type than that family. This is The canines are small in both jaws : they are separated by a vacant shown by the graduation of the tapiroid modification of the molar space from the outer incisors, and by a longer interval from the teeth into one more nearly resembling that of the Anthracotheria first premolars. These form a continuous series with the remaining and Chceropatami; by the absence of the postero-internal cone on teeth in the upper jaw, but are separated by a space of about half the ultimate premolar, by which all the premolars are, as in artiotheir breadth from the second premolar in the lower jaw. The suc- dactyles, less complex than the true molars, by the form and posiceeding teeth (p, T, 2, 3, 4) increase in size to the penultimate molar tion of the nasal bones and the structure of the external nostril. in the upper, and to the last molar in the lower jaw (p, 4, in figs. Genus Lophiodon, Cuv.—In the year 1800 Cuvier2 first an90 and 91), which tooth has a third lobe. nounced the discovery of the fossil remains of a quadruped allied to and of the size of the tapir, in the lacustrine deposits of the Montagne Noir, near Issel, department of Aude in Languedoc. The outer incisor of the lower jaw was shortened to give room to the longer corresponding incisor above, as in the tapir; the canines offered the same proportional development, but the three first molars (premolars) of the lower jaw presented a more simple structure, having the crown compressed, and forming two cones, the front one being the largest;—in short, a structure, the type of which is presented only by the first of the three premolars (p, 2) in the genus TapirusA Years elapsed ere Cuvier obtained clear evidence of the structure of the upper molars of this new fossil Mammal. Such detached teeth as had been obtained from the fresh-water formations near Issel were referred, owing to the way in which they departed from the type of the upper molar teeth of the Tapir, to the genus Rhinoceros. This fact is indicative of the4 annectant affinities of the Lophiodon in the perissodactyle series. Besides the character Fig. 90. fig. 91. of form, the upper molar series of Lophiodon differs, like the lower True Molars, Upper Jaw (twice True Molars, Lower Jaw (twice one, from that in Tapirus, in the greater simplicity of the last two premolars; these teeth have a single cone on the inner side in nat. size), Pliolophus. nat. size), Pliolophus. Lophiodon ; they have there two cones in Tapirus, forming the In the last premolar upper jaw (fig. 90, p, 4) the cingulum is inner terminations of two transverse ridges, as in the true molars. uninterrupted along the outer side from its anterior well-developed These teeth in the Lophiodon differ from those in the Tapirus in talon (e) to the back part. The two outer cones resemble those of the greater fore-and-aft expanse of the outer terminations of the the true molars; but there is only one inner cone, and the crown transverse ridges, and the less depth of the cleft between them—a of p, 4 differs accordingly from that of m, 1, in being triangular more complete coalescence of those parts causing a more entire ra her than square. A ridge is continued from the interspace be- outer wall of the crown, completes the transition to the Rhinoceros tween the anterior talon (c), and the outer anterior lobe obliquely type, towards which the Palaeotherium offers the next step. inward and backward to the inner lobe, swelling into a small Genus PALiEOTHERiuM, Cuv.—This extinct genus of quadruped tubercle at the middle of its course. was restored (fig. 93) by Cuvier through a series of admirably The first molar (m, 1) presents four low thick cones, two internal instructive steps, ultimately verified by a complete series of and two external: each external cone is connected with its opposite fossils, obtained chiefly from the upper eocene gypseous forinternal one by a low ridge, swelling into a tubercle at the middle mation at Montmartre and other parts of Prance. The molar of its oblique course. The cingulum (cc) seems to be continued teeth of Palceotherium (fig. 94) approach nearer to those of uninterruptedly round the crown of this tooth, thickest at the fore and back part, and at the interspace of the inner lobes; and developing the small accessory antero-external tubercle. The second molar (m, 2) is similar to, but rather larger than, the first; the tubercle on the oblique ridge connecting the two front lobes is less developed. The cingulum is obliterated on the inner side of the posterior lobe. The last molar is rather narrower behind than m, 2; the tubercle on the anterior of the oblique connecting ridges is smaller : that on the posterior ridge is almost obsolete. In the last lower premolar (fig. 91, p, 4) the division and development of the anterior lobe gives rise to a pair of e cones, one external (a), the other internal (6), ^ connected anteriorly by a basal ridge, in front ^ ^ of which is the fore part of the cingulum. The low posterior lobe (e) shows the rudiment of a second internal cone (d). The first molar (fig. 91, m, 1) has a pair of front lobes and a pair of hind lobes, with an oblique ridge continued from postero-interRestoration of the Palceotherium (Eocene Gyps.) nal lobe to the interspace between the front ,, , pair> ^ True Molar, TLower the rhinoceros; but in the number, kind, and general arrangeThe second molar (m, 2) shows an increase of ^awnat (m'ius Sn,)>00 1 1 ment the entire dentition resembles that of Pliolophus. The skull affords indications that the Palseothere possessed a short probossize ; but its chief and most interesting modi- reo 9 cis. It had three toes on each foot, each terminated by a hoof; fication is t ie development of a tubercle (e)be- cus’ 1 2

See art. Odontology, vol. xvi., p. 448, for Cuvier’s « Homologies3 of the Teeth,” and explanation of their symbols. 4 Ibid, p. 470, Art. Odontology, p. 471, fig. 136,2>, 2. Bulletin des Sciences, Paris, Nivose, an. viii., No, 34.

164 PALAEONTOLOGY. Mammalia, the middle one being the largest. The femur had a third trochanter, dental series is continuous, without break—a character which is Mammalia, ' ^ i and the dorso-lumhar vertebree were 21 in number. Several species only manifested by mankind among existing Mammals ; the crowns \ ^ — J of Palceotherium have been determined, ranging from the size of of the teeth, in Dichodon, being all of nearly equal height, as they a sheep (P. curtum) to that of a horse (P. magnum). Fig. 94 are in man. On each side of both upper and lower jaws there are gives the grinding surface of an upper molar of this species from in the Dichodon (art. Odontology, fig. 1.18) three incisors (i, i, the upper eocene of the Bembridge beds, Isle of Wight. The 2, 3), one canine (e), four premolars (p, 1, 2, 3, 4), and three true molars (m, 1,1 2, 3)—in all forty-four teeth, constituting the typical crown is divided into an Diphyodont dentition which so many mammalian genera, on their anterior (i>, d) and postefirst appearance in the eocene strata, exhibit. It is formalized rior (a, e) part by an obFrom he first lique figure (e), continued as follows :—i «jzT’ t incisor to from near the. middle of the third premolar the teeth have all a trenchant, and, after the the inner surface of the canine, a somewhat trenchant character. The back of the third precrown obliquely acrosstwomolar (p, 3), and all the fourth premolar, show the crushing form of thirds of the tooth. Each crown, which in the true molars, after the wearing down of the division is subdivided parfirst sharp cusps, produces the double crescentic lines of enamel tially into an outer {ab) which are now peculiar to the Ruminants amongst hoofed quadruand an inner (cd) lobes ; peds. The extinct species showing the above characters, and on the anterior division, by which the genus was founded,2 was nearly the size of a fallowthe terminal expansion (i) deer : it is called Dichodon cuspidatus, in reference to the number of the fissure («), the posteof sharp points on the unworn molars. The dentition indicates rior one by the fissure (gr). that its food may have been of a peculiar character, perhaps not Fig. 94. The lobes (c and d) are borof a vegetable nature. dered near their base by a Upper Molar, Palceotherium magnum exclusively In the same upper eocene formation of Hampshire have been (Eocene.) ridge. This is the type of instructive examples of some smaller members of the exgrinding surface, in which are superinduced the modifications of found anoplotheroid family. that surface in the upper molars of the rhinoceros and horse. The tinct Genus Dichobune,— The genus Dichobune (from 3/^a, bipartite; 1 The fiovvos, collis) was proposed by Cuvier, in the second edition of his Pt canines exceed in length the other teeth’ and there are conse- Ossemens Fossiles, 4to, tom. iii., 1822, p. 64, for the Anoploquently vacancies in the dental series for the lodgement of the therium minus of the original Memoir in the Annales du Museum, tom. iii., 1803, and for the A. leporinum of the 4to edition, 1822, crowns of the canines when the mouth is shut. Genus Anoplotherium, Cuv.—With the same dental formula tom. i., pi. 2, fig. 3 ; and tom. iii., pp. 70 and 251. It is closely as in Palceotherium. The present genus, like Dichodon, had no allied to the anoplotherioid genus Xiphodon ; the dental formula interval in the series of teeth; neither the canine nor any other is the same, only there is a slight interval between the canine and the first premolar in both jaws ; the first three premolars are subtooth rising above the general level. compressed, subtrenchant, but less elongated from behind forwards The grinding surface of the molar teeth than in Xiphodon. Besides the two normally-developed and somewhat resembles and prefigures the functional digits on each foot, there be one, sometimes two, suppleruminant type ; in the upper jaw the mented digits. crown (fig. 95) is divided into a front The best illustration of the structure of the upper true molars is (/c) and a back (fd) lobe by a valley afforded by the figure of one of these teeth in the Proceedings of the (e) extending two-thirds across. A Geological Society, May 20, 1846, published in the Quarterly second valley (gi) crosses its terminaJournal, vol. ii., p. 420. “ The anoplotherian character of the tion at right angles, forming a curved tooth is shown by the large size of the lobe (p, x, fig. 1), and the depression in each division, which it subgeneric peculiarity by the continuation of its dentinal base with thus subdivides into two lobes, concave Fig. 95. that of the inner and anterior lobe {id), at the early stage of attritowards the outer side of the tooth. There is a large tubercle (m) at the Upper Molar, Anoplothe- tion presented by the crown of the tooth in question. In the large rium commune (Eocene and typical Anoplotheria, the lobe (p) preserves its insular form wide entry of the valley (e). The Gyps.) and uninterrupted contour of enamel until the crown is much more Anoplothere (fig. 96) was of a lighter and more elegant form than the Palajothere ; its limbs terminated worn down than in the present tooth (fig. 1). In this respect, as each in two digits, with the metapodial bones distinct, and the last in the modifications of the lower molar teeth, the genus Dichobune phalanx hoofed. Some transitory characters of the embryo rumi- shows its closer affinity to the true Ruminants ; but the little fold nant were retained throughout life by the Anoplothere. The of enamel dividing the lobe id from p distinguishes the upper species restored in fig, 96 was about the size of a fallow-deer it molar tooth in question from that of any Ruminant.” (P. 421.) A new and interesting species of this genus, called Dichobune ovina, has been founded upon an almost entire lower jaw with the permanent dental series, wanting only the four middle incisors, which now forms part of the palaeontological collection in the British Museum. The dental formula, as shown by the mandibular teeth, and by the evidence on their crowns of the presence of the teeth of the upper jaw, is the typical one in diphyodont Mammalia, viz.:—«|^-, c^i, P 4E4) m|=4=44. The canine, with a crown like that of the first premolar, and not longer, is separated from it by an interval of half the breadth of the crown, and by a narrower interval from- the outer incisor. The first premolar is divided • by an interval of scarce a line’s breadth from the second. The rest of the molar series are inm-contact. The total length of the lower jaw is 5 inches 11 lines (0 148) j that of the molar series is 2 inches 11m,lines (0ra'075) ; that of the three true molars is 1 inch 4J lines Restoration of the Anoplotherium (Eocene Gyps.) (0 035). The near equality in height of the crowns of all the teeth, had a long and strong tail, and was probably of aquatic habits. and their general character, show that the animal belonged to the Smaller and more delicate species of Anoplotheroids from upper anoplotheroid family. The dentition of the present species differs eocene strata have been referred to distinct genera by later palae- from that of Dichodon in the absence of the accessory cusps on ontologists. The researches of Baron Cuvier, which resulted in the inner side of the base of the true molars; and both from Dichothe restoration of the Palceotherium and Anoplotherium, are the don cuspidatus and Xiphodon gracilis in the minor antero-posterior imost instructive which the palaeontologist can study. They form extent of the premolars ; it corresponds with Dichobune (as reprethe third volume of the 4to edition of the Ossemens Fossiles, 1822—5, sented by the D. leporina, Cuvier) in the proportions of the pre_ Genus Dichodon, Ow.—The upper eocene beds of Hampshire have molars and in the separation of the canine from the adjoining teeth ; yielded evidence of an extinct form of even-toed (artiodactyle) hoofed to this genus, therefore, the fossil is referable, provisionally, in the ,quadruped, most interesting as a transitional form between the Ano- absence of knowledge of the molars of the upper jaw, which are jplotheroids and the true Ruminants. Like the Anoplotherium the the most characteristic; and the writer has proposed to call the i1 See art. Odontology, p. 439.

2

Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, tom. iv., 1847, p. 36, pi. 4.

PALAEONTOLOGY. 165 Mammalia, species, from the size of the animal represented by the fossil, Di- culated, after the pattern of those of the bears ; but retaining, like Mammalia. Hycenodon, the perfect type of diphyodont dentition. Fig. 114, 1 ^ j chobune ovina. It is from Hampshire eocene. ~v Genus Xiphodon.—The genus Xiphodon was indicated, and its art. Odontology (vol. xvi., p. 464), shows the teeth of one'side of name proposed, by Cuvier, for a small and delicate, long and the upper jaw of the Amphicyon giganteus. The first and second slender-limbed anoplotherian animal, which, in his first Memoir molars (to, i and 2) have each two tubercles on the outer side and (Annales du Museum, tom. iii., p. 55, 1803), he had called Anoplo- one on the inner side; the last tubercular molar (to, 3) is of therium medium; but he altered the name, in the second 4to edition very small size. Fossil remains of Amphicyon have been found of the Ossemens Fossiles (tom. iii., pp. 69 and 251, 1822), to that principally in the miocene deposits at Sansans, south of France. Those of a smaller species from the miocene at Epplesheim, have of Anoplotherium gracile. The distinction indicated by Cuvier is now acccepted by paleon- been referred to the wolverine genus as Gulo diaphorus, Kaup. The proofs of the abundant mammalian inhabitants of the eocene tologists as a generic one, and a second species (Xiphodon Geylensis) has been added by M. Gervais (Paleontographie FranQaise, 4to, 1845, continent were first obtained by Cuvier from the fossilized remains p. 90) to the type-species, Xiphodon gracilis, of which he figures an in the deposits that fill the enormous Parisian excavation of the instructive portion of the dental series of both jaws, obtained from chalk. But the forms which that great anatomist restored were the lignites of Debruge near Apt. The dental formula of Xipho- all new and strange, specifically, and for the most part generically = distinct from all known existing quadrupeds. By these restorations don is the typical one, viz.:—iz ^, cyiy, p\ p naturalist was first made acquainted with the aquatic clovenThe teeth are arranged in a continuous series in both jaws. The the Anoplothere, and with its light and graceful congeners, the canines and first three premolars have the crowns more extended hoofed Dichobunes and Xiphodon, with the great Palaeotheres, which may antero-posteriorly, lower, thinner transversely, and more trench- be to hornless rhinoceroses, with the more tapiroid Lophioant, than in the type Anoplotheria (whence the name Xiphodon, or don,likened with the large peccari-like Pachyderm called Chceropotamus, sword-tooth). The feet are didactyle, with metacarpals and meta- and with tarsals distinct. The tail is short. The lower true molars have two Mammalia.about a score of other genera and species of placental pairs of crescentic lobes with the convexity turned outwards. Almost the sole exception to the generic distinction of these Genus Miceotherium.—Entire crania of Microtherium, from the forms from modern ones was yielded by the opossum of lacustrine calcareous marls of the Puy-de-D6me, are in the British eocene (Didelphis Gypsorum, fig. 97) ; and what made this Museum, and these show that the hinder division of the upper true Montmartre discovery the more remarkable was the fact that all the known molars was complicated by the additional (third) cusp. of that marsupial genus are now confined to With regard to Microtherium, the unusually perfect fossil skulls existing species and the greater part to the southern division of that of that small Herbivore, which did not exceed in size the delicate America, opossum appears to have been associated with the chevrotains of Java and other Indo-Archipelagic islands,—e.g. Tra- continent. An Hyracothegulus kanchil,—are of importance in regard to the question of their peccari-like in the eocene sand alleged affinity to the Ruminantia, on account of the demonstration rium Suffolk ; where likethey give of the persistent and functional upper incisor teeth. The of a porcine beast little eocene even-toed Herbivores, like the larger Anoplotherioids, wise, with tusks like ordinary thus departed from the characters of the true Ruminants of the canines (Chceropotamus), present day, in the same degree in which they adhered to the more some remains of general type of the artiodactyles. Had M. de Blainville, who be- aandmonkey (Eopithecus), lieved them to be Ruminants, possessed no other evidence of the have been found. With Microtherium than of the Dichobune murina and Dichobune obliqua, respect to the Didelphis Cuv., he would have had the same grounds for referring the Micro- Gypsorum, its generic theria, as the Bichobunes, to the genus Tragulus or Moschus (les relations were Chevrotains); but the entire dentition of the upper jaw of the from charactersdeduced the species Anoplotherium murinum and A. obliquum, referred by Cuvier lower jaw and of ; to his genus Dichobune, must be known before the existence of but these were teeth assoRuminants in the upper eocene gypsum of Paris can be inferred. No doubt the affinity of these small Anoplotheroids to the ciated with other parts Chevrotains was very close. Let the formative force be transferred of the skeleton in the from the small upper incisors to the contiguous canines, and the same block of stone. transition would be effected. We know that the Ruminant stomach When Cuvier expressed of the species of Tragulus is simplified by the suppression of the his convictions from the psalterium or third bag. The stomach of the small Anoplotheroids, teeth and other parts whilst preserving a certain degree of complexity, might have been first exposed and exasomewhat more simplified. The certain information which the mined, his scientific _ , . and ^ • gradations of dentition displayed by the above-cited extinct species associates were incredu- Pelvis Marsupial Bones of Dtdelphis impart, testifies to the artificial character of the order Ruminantia lous. He invited then*, Gypsorum (Eocene, Paris), of the modern systems, and to the natural character of that wider therefore, to witness a crucial test. The outline of the back part of the pelvis was exgroup of even-toed hoofed animals for which has been proposed the posed, the fore part buried in the matrix. By his delicate use of term Aryiodactyla.1 Genus Hy.enodon, Laiz.—With the delicate and beautiful Her- the graving-tool, Cuvier brought to light the fore-part of the bivora of the upper eocene and lower miocene periods, there co- pelvis with the two marsupial bones (fig. 97, a, a) in their natural existed carnivorous quadrupeds, which, to judge by the character of position. He thus demonstrated that there had been buried in the their flesh-cutting teeth (carnassials), were more fell and deadly in soft fresh-water deposits, hardened in after ages into the buildingtheir destructive task than modern wolves or tigers. Of these old stone of Paris, an animal whose genus at the present day is pecuextinct Carnivora a species of the remarkable genus Hycenodon, of liar to America. It is not uninteresting to remark that the Peccari, about the size of a leopard, has left its remains in the upper eocene the nearest existing ally to the old Chceropotamus, is, like the of Hordwell, Hampshire. Fig. 113, art. Odontology (vol. xvi., p. opossum, now peculiar to America ; and that two species of tapir, 464), shows the dentition of the under jaw of another species of the the nearest living allies to the Lophiodon and Palaeothere, exist in same genns from miocene beds at Debruge and Alais, France. The South America. The marine deposits of the miocene epoch show the remains of carnassial teeth (to, i, 2, 3), instead of being one in number in each ramus of the jaw, as in modern Felines, were three in number, extinct genera of dolphins (Ziphius and Dioplodon) and of whales equally adapted by their trenchant shape, to work like scissor- (Balcenodon). Petrified blades on the teeth of the upper jaw, in the act of cutting flesh. cetaceous teeth and earAfter the small incisors came a pair of large piercing and prehen- bones, called “ cetotosile canines (c), followed by four compressed pointed and trenchant lites” (fig. 98) have been premolars (p, 1, 2, 3, 4) in each side of the jaw; the whole of washed out of previous strata into the red crag this carnivorous dentition conforming to the diphyodont type :— of Suffolk. These fossils 4-4 3-3 ,, 1.3-3 c,1-1 belong to species distinct 3-3 ’ i-i ’ 4-4 > ”* 3-3 — Fig. 98. Genus Amphicyon. — With the foregoing predecessor of the from any known existing digitigrade Carnivora was associated a forerunner of the planti- Cetacea, and which, pro- Cetotolite or Fossil Ear-bone of Balcenodon gibbosus (Red Crag, Suffolk). grade family, viz., a large extinct species having the molars tuber- bably, like some contem* Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. iv., 1847.

PALAEONTOLOGY. 166 Mammalia, porary quadrupeds, retained fully-developed characters which are don typifies a distinct family or group, intermediate between Cetacea Mammalia, ^ y ^ embryonic and transitory in existing cognate Mammals. The teeth proper and Sirenia. Of the latter family or order, however, represented at the present of these Cetacea were determined in 1840, the ear-bones in 1843. The vast numbers of these fossils, and the1 proportion of phosphate day by the Dugongs, Manatees, and Stellerians or Arctic Manatees of lime in them, led Professor Henslow to call the attention of (if the species still survives), there were abundant and more widely agricultural chemists to the red crag as a deposit of valuable distributed representatives during the miocene period, having, manure. Since that period it has yielded a large supply, worth upon the whole, the nearest affinity with the existing African many thousand pounds annually, of the superphosphates. The Manatee {Manatus Senegalensis), but with associated characters of red crag is found in patches from Walton-on-Naze, Essex, to the Dugong (Halicore). There were, e.g., two incisive tusks in the Aldbro’, Suffolk, extending from the shore to 5 or 15 miles and upper jaw, and four or five small incisors along the deflected part more inland. It averages in thickness 10 feet, but is in some of each ramus of the lower jaw. The upper molars, with three places 40 feet. Broken-up septarian nodules form a rude flooring roots, were thickly enamelled, like those of the Manatee, but with to the crag, left by the washing off of the London clay, and called a pattern of grinding surface which led Cuvier to attribute de“ rough stone.” The phosphatic fossils, or “ cops,” as they are tached specimens to a small species of Hippopotamus. The lower now locally termed, occur in greatest abundance immediately above molars had two roots. All the bones have the dense or solid structhe “ rough-stone.” Thousands of cubic acres of earlier strata ture of those of the Sirenia. On the remains of this remarkable must have been broken up to furnish the cetacean nodules of the amphibious Mammal, discovered by Kaup in 1838, in the miocene tl red crag.” This is a striking instance of the profitable results beds at Eppelsheim, he founded the genus Halitherium. Other reof a seemingly most unpromising discovery in pure science,—the mains have been discovered in Piedmont, Ast6, and many parts of determination of what in 1840 was regarded as a rare, unique, and France, from the “ calcaire grossier” of the Gironde, containing Lophiodont fossils, up to the pliocene near Montpellier; at which most problematical British fossil.2 Our knowledge of the progression of mammalian life during the period the Halitherium seems to have become extinct. Genus Macrotherium, Lartet.—The edentate order, which is so miocene period is derived chiefly from continental fossils. These teach us that one or two of the generic forms most frequent in the abundantly and variously represented in South America, which has older tertiary strata still lingered on the earth, but that the rest its Orycteropes and Pangolins in Africa, and its Manises in tropiof the eocene Mammalia had been superseded by new forms, some cal Asia, has no living representative in Europe. Perhaps the of which present characters intermediate between those of eocene most unexpected form of Mammal to be revealed by fossil remains and those of pliocene genera. The Dinotherium and narrow- from European tertiary deposits, after a Marsupial, was a member toothed Mastodon, for example, diminish the interval between the of the edentate order. Cuvier, by whom the evidence of this exLophiodon and the elephant; the Anthracotherium and Ilippohyus, tinct animal was first made known, prefaces his description of the that between Chceropotamus and Hippopotamus ; the Acerotherium single mutilated phalangeal bone, on which that evidence was founded, by the remark, that “ nothing proves better the importwas a link connecting Palceotherium with Rhinoceros. One of the most extraordinary of the extinct forms of the ceta- ance of the laws of comparative osteology than all the consequences ceous order has been restored from fossil remains discovered in which one may legitimately draw from a single fragment.” One formations of the miocene age in Europe and North America. The willingly admits the proof so afforded of the former existence of teeth of this carnivorous whale, for which the generic name Zeu- animals now unknown ; but one may demur to the conclusion that glodon seems now to be generally accepted, were first described and their extinction was due to some sudden catastrophe. The single mutilated ungual phalanx on which Cuvier based his figured by the mediaeval palaeontologist Scilla, in his treatise entitled He Corporibus Marinis (4to, 1747, tab. xii., fig. 1), and have conclusions in regard to the species in question was discovered, since given rise to various interpretations. The originals were associated with remains of Rhinoceros, Mastodon, Dinotherium, and obtained from the miocene strata at Malta, and are now preserved Tapir, in a formation near Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt, which is now determined to belong to the miocene division of the tertiary in the Woodwardian museum at Cambridge. The remains of a gigantic species of the same genus, discovered series. This phalanx shows two distinctive characters of the edenby Dr Harlan in miocene formations of Arkansas, Mississippi, tate order:—1st, Its posterior surface for articulation with the were described and figured by him as those of a reptile, under the antepenultimate phalanx is a double pulley, hollowed out on each name of Basilosaurus.3 Teeth of a smaller species, discovered by side, with a salient crest between, constituting the firm kind of M. Grateloup, in miocene beds of the Gironde and Herault, were ginglymoid joint peculiar to certain Edentata ; 2d, The concave ascribed by him also to a reptile, under the name of SqualodonA arch formed by that pulley curves furthest backward at its upper In 1839 Dr Harlan brought over his specimens of Basilosaurus to part, which would prevent the claw being retracted upward, as in downward—“ ainsi c’est London, and submitted them to the writer’s inspection, by whom the cat tribe, and constrain the flexion 15 To the foregoing characthey were determined to be mammalian and cetaceous. The entire necessairement un ongueal d edente.’ skeleton has since been obtained from miocene deposits in Ala- ters are joined two others which Cuvier believed to determine “as bama, revealing a length of body of about 70 feet. The skull is necessarily ” the genus. The species of Myrmecophaga have on very long and narrow \ the nostril single, with an upward aspect, the upper part of the pointed end of the claw-phalanx a groove, above and near the orbits. The jaws are armed with teeth of two indicative of a disposition to bifurcate ; in the species of Manis kinds, set wide apart; the anterior teeth have sub-compressed, the bifurcation is complete, the cleftextending as far as the middle conical, slightly-recurved, sharp-pointed crowns, and are implanted of the claw-bone. The Pangolins (.Maw's) have not those bony by a single root; the posterior teeth are larger, with more sheaths, which, in the sloths, some ant-eaters and armadillos, rise compressed and longitudinally extended crowns (see fig. 65, art. from the base and cover the root of the claw ; there was a like abOdontology), conical, but with a more obtuse point, and with sence of any claw-sheath in the fossil. Thus the fossil claw-bone both front and hind borders strongly notched or serrated. The has no homologue in existing nature save those of the Manis ; and, crown is contracted from side to side in the middle of its base, so “according to all the laws of co-existence, it is impossible to doubt that bore it should as to give its transverse section an hour-glass form (see fig. 66, that the most marked relations of the animal 7 Odontology), and the opposite wide longitudinal grooves which have been with that genus of quadrupeds.” But what must have produce this form become deeper as the crown approaches the been its size ? The phalanx was not one of the largest on the foot socket, where they meet and divide the root into two fangs. The —for it had not those slight raised borders which one sees in the name Zeuglodon (yoke-tooth) refers to this structure. The mode large claw-bones of the Pangolins. This question, which Cuvier of succession of the teeth in this genus conforms to the general answered by the proportions of the short-tailed Manis, at 24 French mammalian type more than does that of any of the5 existing carni- feet, has had a more reasonable reply given to it by certain other vorous Cetaceans. In the figure given by Dr Carus of a portion of bones of the skeleton subsequently discovered in the miocene terthe jaw of Zeuglodon cetdides, a deciduous molar (fig. 65, a, Odon- tiaries of France. These discoveries have likewise rectified and tology) is about to be displaced and succeeded, vertically, by a moderated the absolute application of the correlative law to the second larger molar. This mode of succession is not known in the necessary determination of the genus as well as of the order. The Platanista or Inia, which among existing true Cetacea present teeth relations of the double-jointed and cleft phalanx to the Edentata most like those of Zeuglodon; but it is a mode of succession and dis- is beautifully confirmed; but the additional fossils, and especially placement affecting certain teeth in the herbivorous Cetacea, or some evidences of teeth, have shown that it belonged to a peculiar Sirenia ; and we thus seem to have in the Zeuglodon another of those and now extinct genus intermediate between the Manis and the numerous instances of a more generalized character of organiza- Orycteropus. And these relations are deeply interesting on action in older tertiary Mammalia. In systematic characters, Zeuglo- count of the geographical position of both those edentate genera, on 1 3 5 7

Proceedings, and Quarterly Jour. Geol. Soc., 1843. Medical and Physical Researches, p. 333. Nova Acta Cces. Leap. Carol., vol. xxii., tab. xxxix. B., fig. 2, p. 340. Ibid., p. 194.

2 Hist, of Brit. Fossil Mammals, 8vo, 4 Act. Soc. Linn, de Bordeaux, 1840, 6

p. 536. p. 201. Ossemens Fossiles, 4to, t. v., pt. L, p. 193.

PALAEONTOLOGY. 167 Mammalia, tracts of land, viz., which are now most contiguous to the conti- more vertical in position than in Troglodytes or Pithecus, but this Mammalia, character is offered by some of the small South American apes, i nent containing the remains of the extinct osculant genus. The locality in France is near the village of Sansan, near Auch, and cannot be cited as a mark of real affinity. From the portion ~ department of Gers, Haute-Pyrenees. The formation is a lacus- of humerus associated with the jaw of Dryopithecus, the arm would trine deposit of the miocene period. seem to have been proportionally longer and more slender than in Portions of two molar teeth have been found, 1 inch 8 lines in the chimpanzee and gorilla, more like that in the long-armed apes greatest transverse diameter; the tooth preserving the same size (Hylobates), and less like the arm of the human subject. and shape through the whole length of the portion—viz., inch. The characters of the nasal bones, orbits, mastoid processes, reThey resemble in shape those of the Orycterope, but are less regu- lative length of upper limb to trunk, relative length of arm to lar and have not the same tubular tissue. Their microscopic fore arm, relative length and size of thumb, relative length of texture appears not to have been analysed; it would be important lower limb ; and, above all, the size of the hallux and shape of the to determine whether it resembled that of the teeth of the sloths or astragalus and calcaneum, must be known before any opinion can armadillos. The humerus differs from that of the ant-eaters and be trusted as to the proximity of Dryopithecus to the human subject. armadillos by its greater length in proportion to its breadth, and Genus Mesopithecus, Wagn.—In tertiary formations of Greece, by the peculiar flattening from before backwards of its lower half, at the base of Pentelicon, remains of a Quadrumane have been and especially at the condyles, above which it is expanded trans- found, which Professor Wagner2 regards as transitional between versely by both external and internal supra-condyloid ridges. It Hylobates and Semnopithecus: the third lobe of the last molar is is not perforated above the inner condyle, as the same bone is in however, as well developed as in the latter genus. both the Manis and Orycteropus. In the degree to which it deIn the pliocene deposits of Montpellier remains of a monkey parts from the type of the ant-eaters it approaches that of the occur, referred by Christol to a Cercopithecus ; and in pliocene Megatheroids and sloths—viz., in its relative length, flattening at brick-earth in Essex the writer has determined part of the fossil the distal end, and the imperforate character of that end. The jaw and teeth of a Macacus. radius also presents a sloth-like character in its greater proporGenus Dinotherium, Cuv. and Kp.—This name was given by tionate length, which exceeds that of the humerus; and in the Kaup to the huge bilophodont Mammal, first made known by compression of its lower slightly-expanded end. In both the Cuvier under the name of “ Tapir gigantesque,” after the discovery Pangolin and Orycterope the radius is shorter than the humerus. of the singular shape and armature of the lower jaw. The length The ulna differs likewise from both that of the Pangolin and of the skull, from / to d, in fig. 99, is 3 feet 8 inches. The teeth Orycterope, and still more from that in the Armadillos by the much smaller development of the olecranon, whereby, again, it more resembles that of the sloths. The femur is relatively longer and more slender than that of the terrestrial and fossorial Edentata; it has not the third trochanter which characterizes it in the Orycterope, nor so marked a development of the great and small trochanters as in the Pangolin. In the flattened form of the shaft of the femur, and the position of the rotular surface near one side of the distal end, it resembles the femur of the Megatherium and Mylodon. It is shorter than the humerus; whereas, in both the Pangolin and Orycterope the femur is longer: in this respect the femur of the Macrothere resembles that of the sloths. The great width of the popliteal space dividing the condyles is an endentate and more especially a megatheroid character. The internal condyle is much broader than the external one, as it likewise is in the Megatheroids; it is certainly with the femur of the latter family of the Edentata, rather than with that of the Proboscidians or Pachyderms, that one should compare the femur of the Macrothere : it is not so long or so slender relatively as in the sloths. The tibia is much shorter than the femur, and in the expansion of its proximal end and its relative length to the femur it resembles that of the Megatheroids more than that in the Pangolin or Orycterope; it was not anchylosed to the tibia as in the Armadillos, Glyptodons, and Megatherium, but a distinct bone, as in the Mylodon and sloths. Genus Pliopithecits, Gerv.—In the same miocene deposits of the south of France as those which contained the Macrotherium, fossil remains of two kinds of Quadrumana, resembling a small and large species of Hylobates, have been discovered. The smaller of these extinct apes, called Pliopithecus antiquus by Gervais, is based upon the lower jaw and dentition. The teeth occupy an extent of 1J inch; the two incisors are narrower, the canine less, and the last molar is larger than in the siamang (H. syndactyla). As in this Fig. 99. species the first premolar is uni-cuspid, and the hind talon of the Skull of Dinotherium giganteum (Miocene, Eppelsheim). second is more produced than in the chimpanzee and gorilla, and to the degree in which the fore-and-aft diameter of the tooth ex- in this skull, in addition to the two large deflected tusks of the ceeds the transverse one, it departs farther from the human type ; lower jaw, are five in number on each side of both jaws. A study in the degree of the development of the talon or third lobe of the of the changes of dentition in fossils of young Dinotheria show that last lower molar, the Pliopithecus resembles the tailed monkeys the first two teeth answer to the third and fourth premolars, as (Semnopithecus and Innus). signified by the symbols p, 3 and 4; and that the rest are true Genus Dryopithecus, Lart.—In the larger miocene ape (TDryo- molars (m, 1, 2, 3). Of these, the first tooth (p, 3), is rather trenchant pithecus Fontani, Lart.) the canine is relatively larger than in the than triturant; the third tooth (1) has three transverse ridges; Hylobates, and the incisors, to judge by their alveoli, are relatively the other grinders have two transverse ridges. This “ bilophonarrower than in the chimpanzee and human subject. The first dont” or two-ridged type is shown by the molars of the Tapir, premolar has the outer cusp pointed, and raised to double the Lophiodon, Megatherium, Diprotodon, Nototherium, Kangaroo, and height of that of the second premolar, and its inner lobe is more Manatee. In the general shape of the skull and aspect of the rudimental than in the chimpanzee,1 and departs proportionally nostrils Dinotherium most resembles Manatus. Bones of limbs from the human type. The posterior lobe or talon of the second have not yet been found so associated with teeth as to determine premolar is more developed, and the fore-and-aft extent of the tooth the ordinal affinities of Dinotherium. Yet cranial and dental evigreater, than in the chimpanzee, thereby more resembling the second dences of the genus have been discovered in miocene deposits of premolar of the siamang, and less resembling that of the human sub- Germany, France, Switzerland, and Perim Island, Gulf of Cambay. ject. The last (third) molar is undeveloped in the fossil jaw of the Genus Mastodon, Cuv.—The earliest appearance of this genus Dryopithecus, and its amount of departure from the human type, and of proboscidian or elephantoid Mammal is in tertiary strata of approach to that of Innus, cannot be determined. The canine is miocene age, and by a species in which the fore part of the lower 1 Compare Comptes Rendus de VAcad, des Sciences, tom. xliii. (July 28, 1856, plate, fig. 7), with Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. iv., plate 32, fig. 3, p. 3. 2 Abhanglungen der k. buyer Akademie, bd. ii., 1854, Munchen.

PALAEONTOLOGY. 168 Mammalia, jaw was produced into a pair of deep sockets containing tusks; but For the Mastodons with penultimate and antepenultimate grinders Mammalia, .r -n ; these are only slightly deflected from the line of the grinding with three ridges, Dr Falconer proposes the name Trilophodon. i M < .> teeth (fig. 100, C). This species of Mastodon, discovered in the In the Mastodon Ohioticus the lower jaw has two tusks in the miocene of Eppelsheim, was called longirostris by Kaup; but he young of both sexes; these are soon shed in the female, but are upper tusks are afterwards recognised it as the same with a species which had1 long retained by the male (fig. 100, B). The 4 been previously called Mastodon arvernensis (Croizet and Jobert). long and retained in both sexes (fig. 100, M). An almost entire skeleton of a Mastodon (M. turicencis) has been Both belong to that section of Mastodon in which the 2first and and has been second true molars have each four transverse ridges, and for discovered in the pliocene deposits of Aste, Piedmont, 5 which Dr Falconer proposes the name Tetralophodon. In the described and figured by Professor. Sismonda, from whose beautiful newer tertiary deposits of North America remains of a Mastodon Memoir fig. 100 is taken. The total length, from the tail to the (M. Ohioticus) have been discovered, in which the transverse ridges end of the tusks, is 17 feet. The teeth have the same narrow shape of the grinders are in shape more like those of the Dinothere than and multi-mammillate structure as in M. arvernensis, but in the in any other Mastodon; the first and second, moreover, are bilo- numerical character of transverse divisions of the crown this phodont, the third trilophodont; but this is followed by two three-3 species agrees with M. Ohioticus. The Mastodons were elephants ridged molars and a last larger molar with four or five ridges. with the grinding teeth less complex in structure, and adapted for

Fig. 100. Mastodon turicencis (Pliocene) : A, B.—M. Ohioticus ; C.—M. longirostris. bruising coarser vegetable substances. The genus was represented by species ranging, in time, from the miocene to the upper pliocene deposits, and in space, cosmopolitan with tropical and temperate latitudes. The transition from the mastodontal to the elephantine type of dentition is very gradual. Genus Elephas, L.—The latest form of true elephant which obtained its sustenance in temperate latitudes is that which Blumenbach called primiyenius, the “ Mammoth ” of the Siberian collectors of its tusks (fig. 101). Its remains occur chiefly, if not exclusively, in pleistocene deposits, and have even been found in turbary near Holyhead. Its grinders are broader, and have narrower and more numerous6 and close-set transverse plates and ridges, than in other elephants. The mammoth is more completely known than most other extinct animals by reason of the discovery of an entire specimen preserved in the frozen soil of a cliff at the mouth of the river Lena in Siberia. The skin was clothed with a reddish wool, and with long black hairs. It is now preserved at St Petersburg, together with the skeleton (fig. 101). This measures, from the fore part of the skull to the end of the mutilated tail, 16 feet 4 inches; the height, to the top of the dorsal spines, is 9 feet 4 inches ; the length of the tusks, along the curve, is 9 feet 6 inches. Parts of the skin of the head, the eye-ball, and of the strong ligament of the nape which helped to sustain the heavy head and teeth, together with the hoofs, remain attached to the skeleton. These huge elephants, adapted by their clothing to endure a cold climate, subsisted on the branches and foliage of the northern pines, birches, willows, &c.; and during the short summer they probably migrated northward, like their contemporary the

musk-buffalo, which still lingers on, to the 70th degree of N. latitude, retreating during the winter to more temperate quarters. The mammoth was preceded in Europe by other species of elephant,—e.^r., Elephas meridionalis (Nesti), which, during the pliocene period, seem not to have gone northward beyond temperate latitudes. An elephant, hardly distinguishable from the African, also roamed at that period in Europe.7 Genus Hippopotamus, L.—The discovery, in lacustrine and fluviatile deposits of Europe, of the remains of an amphibious genus of Mammal now restricted to African rivers, gives scope for speculating on the nature of the land which, uniting England with the Continent, was excavated by lakes and intersected by rivers, with a somewhat warmer temperature than at present, to judge by a few S. European shells which occur in the fresh-water formations,—e.g., at Grays, Essex, where remains of the large extinct Hippopotamus major have been found. The specimen of lower jaw (fig. 102) was discovered in similar deposits on the Norfolk coasts. Other localities are specified in the writer’s History of British Fossil Mammals. The hippopotamus is first met with in pliocene strata. The remains of II. major have hitherto been found only in Europe; they are common along the Mediterranean shore, and do not occur north of the temperate zone. In Asia this form of Pachyderm was represented, perhaps at an earlier period, by the genus Hexaprotodon,—essentially a hippopotamus, with six incisor teeth, instead of four, in each jaw. Genus Rhinoceros, L.—The rhinoceros, like the elephant, was represented in pliocene and pleistocene times, in temperate and northern latitudes of Asia and Europe, by extinct species. One

1 Beitrage zur Naeheren Kenntniss der Urweltlichen Saeugethiere, 4to, 1857, p. 19. The name angustidens was first applied by Cuvier to 2teeth of this type or species. 3 First demonstrated by Kaup, Ossemens Fossiles de Darmstadt, 4to, 1835. 6 Odontography, p. 617, pi. 144. 4 Ibid., p. 618. , Osteografia di un Mastodonte augustidente, 4to, 1851. 6 See art. Odontology, p. 475, fig. 142. 7 Falconer “ On the Species of Elephant and Mastodon occurring in a fossil state in England,” Proc. Geol. Soc., June 1857.

PALAEONTOLOGY. 169 case of the tichorrine rhinoceros in frozen soil, recorded by Pallas Mammalia, Mammalia. (Rhinoceros leptorhinus) associated with the Hippopotamus major in 1 ' i K j fresh-water pliocene deposits; another (R. tichorrhinus) with the in his Voyages dans VAsie Septentrionale, showed the same adaptamammoth in pleistocene beds and drift. The discovery of the car- tion of this, at present tropical, form of quadruped to a cold cli-

Fig. 101. Elephas primigenius (Pleistocene). mate, by a twofold covering of wool and hair, as was subsequently double crescents, with the 3convexity turned inwards in the upper demonstrated to be the case with the mammoth. Both the above- set, outwards in the lower. The four legs are terminated by two toes and two hoofs, flattened at the contiguous sides, so as to look like a single hoof cloven ; whence the name “ cloven-footed,” also given to these animals. The perfect circumscription and definition of this order, so desirable by the systematic zoologist, is indeed invaded, in the actual Ruminantia, by certain peculiarities of the camel tribe. In entering upon the evidences of the first appearance in this planet of the order of animals, which now are the most valuable to man, it may be well to call to mind the characters of the Anoplotherium. The upper true molars have two double crescents, convex inwards, one of the inner ones being encroached on by a large tubercle, the reduced homologue of which may be seen in the internal interspace of the crescents in the ox and some other Ruminants. The lower true molars also, at one stage of attrition, form crescentic islands of enamel, with the convexity turned outwards, Fig. 102. as in Ruminants, the last molar having the accessory crescent beLower Jaw of Hippopotamus major (fresh-water Pliocene, hind. The functional hoofs were two in number on each foot, but Cromer, Norfolk). must have resembled those of the camel tribe in shape; the scaphoid named fossil rhinoceroses were two-horned; but they were pre- and cuboid of the tarsus were distinct also, as in the Camelidce ; and ceded, in the pliocene and miocene periods, by species devoid of the metacarpal and metatarsal bones were divided, as in the water horns, yet a rhinoceros in all other essentials (Acerotherium, Kaup). musk-deer (Moschus aquaticus), and in the embryos of all RumiNot fewer than twenty species of extinct rhinoceroses are entered nants. The dentition of the extinct Dichodon4 made a still nearer in Palaeontological catalogues. approach to that of the Ruminants. The chief distinction of this and other extinct Herbivores with double crescentic molars is the completion of the upper series of teeth by well-developed incisors. Order RUMINANTIA. But the premaxillaries in the new-born camel contain each three Of other forms of beasts subsisting on the vegetable productions incisors, one of which becomes fully developed. The Camelidce are of the earth, and more akin to actual European Herbivora, there hornless, like the Anoplotherioids and Dichodonts; and with one co-existed with the foregoing now exotic genera a vast assemblage exception—the giraffe—all Ruminants are born without horns. of species, nearly all of which have passed away. The quadrupeds Thus the Anoplotherium, in several important characters, recalled “ Ruminants,” from the characteristic second mastication of sembled the embryo Ruminant, retaining throughout life those the partly-digested food by the act called “ rumination” or “ chew- marks of adhesion to a more generalized mammalian type. The ing the cud,” constitute at the present period a circumscribed group more modified or specialized form of hoofed animal, with cloven of Mammalia, which Cuvier believed to be “ the most natural and foot and ruminating stomach, appears at a later period. best-defined order of the class.”2 He characterized it as having incisive teeth only in the lower jaw (fig. 107, c), which were reFamily I.—Bovid^. placed in the upper jaw by a callous gum. Between the incisors and molars is a diastema, in which, in certain genera only, may be Fossil molars of the ruminant type and bovine character have found one or two canines. The molars (fig. 107, h), almost always hitherto been found, with unequivocal evidence, to the writer’s six on each side of both jaws, have their crown marked by two knowledge, only in beds or breccias of pliocene and pleistocene age. 1 4

2 4to, 1793, pp. 130—132. R^gne Animal, tom. i., p. 254. See art. Odontology, p. 466, fig. 118. YOL. XVII.

3

See art. Odontology, p. 466, figs. 120, 121. Y

PALAEONTOLOGY. 170 Mammalia. At those periods in Britain there existed a very large species of more or less mutilated antlers, which had been shed, to a species he Mammalia, kr J bison [Bisonprisons), and a larger species of ox (Bos antiquus), from calls C. dicranocerus. The beam rises from 1 to 2 inches without i , -, ■> pliocene fresh-water beds; whilst a somewhat smaller but still sending off any branch or brow-antler ; it then sends off a branch stupendous wild ox [B. primigenius) has left its remains in pleis- so large and so oblique that the beam seems here to bifurcate ; the tocene marls of England and Scotland. With this was associated anterior prong is, however, the smallest and shortest. The writer an aboriginal British ox of much smaller stature and with short has received similar shed and mutilated antlers from the red crag horns [B. longifrons), which continued to exist until the historical of Sussex, which seems to contain 2a melange of broken-up beds of period, and was probably the source of the domesticated cattle of eocene, miocene, and pliocene age. The cervine Ruminants have been divided into groups accordthe Celtic races before the Roman invasion. A buffalo, not distinguishable from the musk kind [Bubalus moschatus), now con- ing to the forms of the antlers. Of the group with antlers exfined to the northern latitudes of North America, roamed over simi- panded and flattened at top, of which the fallow-deer (Bama) is lar latitudes of Europe and Asia in company with the hair-clad the type, no fossil examples have been found in Britain. Cuvier has described and figured antlers of great size from the pliocene elephants and rhinoceroses. deposits of the valley of the Somme, near Abbeville, which, from Family II.—Cervid^e. the relative position and direction of the brow-snag and mid-snag, 1 Cuvier first made known the fact of teeth with the character of and from the terminal palm, he regards as a large extinct species ruminant molars, and of portions of antlers, being associated with of fallow-deer ; the name Cervus Somonensis has since been attached to this species. But there once existed a group [Megaceros, fig. 103) characterized by a form of antler at present unknown amongst existing species of deer. With a beam (b) expanding and flattening towards the summit, and a brow-snag (p), as in the Bama tribe, this antler shows a back-snag (bz). Moreover, in antlers which, from their size and form, seem to have been developed by the deer at its prime, the brow-snag expands and sometimes bifurcates,—a variety never seen in the fallow-deer, but which becomes exaggerated in the reindeer group. The representative of the present Megaceros is one extinct species \M. Hibernicus, fig. 103), remarkable for its great size, and especially for the great relative magnitude and noble form of its antlers : it is the species commonly but erroneously called the “ Irish elkbecause it is a true deer, intermediate between the fallow- and rein-deer; and because, though most abundant in, it is not peculiar to, Ireland. In that country it occurs in the shell-marl underlying the extensive turbaries. In England its remains have been found in lacustrine beds, brick-earth, red clay, and ossiferous caves.3 The reindeer [Cervus Tarandus) has peculiar antlers , (fig. 104), and proportionably the largest of any of existing species. The beam is somewhat flattened throughout, but expands only and suddenly at its extremity, a similar expansion characterizing the brow-snag (6r) and mid-snag [bz), two, three, or more points being developed from all these expansions in fully-developed antlers. The brow-snag is remarkable for its length. There is also frequently a short back-snag. It is plain, therefore, from the presence of this snag, from the great relative size of the antlers, from the complex brow-snag, and the terminal expansion of the beam, that we have in the reindeer the nearest of kin to the extinct Megaceros, The existing species [Tarandus) is restricted to northern latitudes, ranging to extreme ones in Europe, and in America from the Arctic Circle southward to the latitude of Newfoundland, where the large variety called “ Carabou” still exists. Reindeer of similar size ranged over continental Europe, appear to have been seen by Caesar in Germany, and have left good evidence of their existence in many parts of England. The specimen emains of Lophiodon and Mastodon in the fresh-water miocene figured (fig. 104) was found in pleistocene “till” at Bilney Moor, beds of Montabusard, department of the Loiret. These early rumi- East Dereham. A large deer, with subcompressed ramified antlers, slightly exnant fossils agreed in size with the roebuck ; but there were characters showing that they differed almost generically from all known panding at the base of the terminal divisions, but differing from deer. In 1834 Professor Kaup received from the miocene strata the reindeer in the absence of the brow-snag, has left its remains near Eppelsheim, Darmstadt, the entire cranium of a small Rumi- in the pleistocene sands of Riege, near Pezenas, France. It is the nant, the teeth of which were identical with those described and Cervus martialis of Gervais ; and seems to have been an intermefigured by Cuvier; but, the series being complete, showed that the diate form between the reindeer [Tarandus) and the elk [Alces). animal had long procumbent canines, as in the Moschus moschiferus ,• There is no existing representative of this interesting annectant in some secondary characters of the teeth, however, as in the pro- form of deer. In formations of corresponding age in France, called “ alluvions portions of the premolars, and especially the presence of the first of 4 that series, at least in the lower jaw, it was generically distinct volcaniques” by Gervais, fossil antlers of two other extinct species from Moschus or Tragulus. Moreover, the animal had possessed, of deer have been discovered, in which, as in Alces, the browlike the males of the small deer of India called “ Muntjac,” antlers antler is absent, but in which the beam does not expand into a as well as long canine teeth. Both in the miocene beds of Ingre and palm. In North America remains of a large deer [Cervus americanus Eppelsheim, antlers have been found which were supported on long pedicles, as in the muntjac, and simply bifurcate near their end. fossilis, Harlan), much resembling the Wapiti [Cervus canadensis) It is probable that these horns, which have been referred to the have been found in pleistocene deposits on the banks of the Ohio. nominal species Cervus anocerus, may belong to the Dorcatherium In South America Dr Lund discovered fossil antlers of two species in bone-caves in Brazil: they were associated with remains of Kaup. Other species of CervidcB were, however, associated with that re- of an antelope [Antilope maquinensis, Lund) of which genus no markable form in the miocene period. Dr Kaup ascribes some living representative is now known in South America. 1 3

Ossemens Fossiles, 4to, tom. iv., p. 104, pi. viii., figs. 5 and 6. Owen, Hist, of Brit. Fossil Mammals, p. 444.

2 4

Quarterly Jour, of the Qeol. Soc., vol. xii., 1856, p. 217, figs. 14-16. Zoologie et Palceontologie Frangaise, 4to, p. 82.

i

PALAEONTOLOGY. 171 Of deer with antlers of the type of the existing red-deer (C. ela- nivore, of the size of a fox, was discovered by Sir Roderick I. Mur- Mammalia, phus), a species is indicated in pleistocene beds and bone caves chison in the pliocene schist of CEningen. On a close comparison of this specimen, the writer finds that the first premolar is smaller, and the third and fourth larger than in the fox, and all the teeth are more close-set and occupy a smaller space than in the genus Ganis; the bones of the feet are more robust; and these, with other characters, indicate an extinct genus intermediate between Canis and Viverra.1 The unique specimen is now in the British Museum. Genus Felis, L.—As it is by this form of perfect Carnivore that Cuvier chiefly illustrated his principle of the correlation of animal structures, it will be exemplified more particularly in this place, and by the aid of the subjoined cut (fig. 106). The founder of palaeontology thus enunciates the law which he believed to be so operative in his labours of re-constructing extinct species : — “ Every organized being forms a whole, a single circumscribed system, the parts of which mutually correspond and concur to the same definitive action by a reciprocal re-action. None of these parts can change without the others also changing, and consequently each part, taken separately, indicates and gives all the others.”2 Cuvier did not predicate that law by an d priori method, by any of those supposed short cuts to knowledge, the fallacy of which Bacon so well exposes ; he arrived at the law inductively, and after many dissections had revealed to him the facts—of the jaw of the Carnivore being strong by virtue of certain proportions; of its having a peculiarly shaped and articulated condyle, with a plate of bone of breadth and height adequate for the implantation of muscles, with power to inflict a deadly bite—a process grasped by muscles of such magnitude as necessitated a certain extent of surface for their origin from the cranium, with concomitant strength and curvature of the zygomatic arch; the facts of the modified occiput and dorsal spines in relation to vigorous uplifting and retraction of the head when the prey had been griped; the size and shape of the piercing, lacerating, and trenchant teeth ; the meFig. 104. chanism of the retractile claws, and of the joints of the limb that wielded them :— it was not Skull and Antlers of Cervus Tarandus. until after Cuvier had rewhich rivalled the Megaceros in bulk (Strongyloceros spelceus); and cognised these facts, and with this are found, in similar places of deposit, remains of a red- studied them and their deer with antlers equalcorrelations in a certain ling or surpassing the number of typical Carnifinest that have been vora, that he felt justified observed within the hisin asserting that “ the torical period. form of the tooth gives Fig. 105 represents that of the condyle, of the one of a pair of antlers blade-bone (s), and of the from the bed of the claws, just as the equation Boyne at Drogheda,now of a curve evolves all its in the museum of Sir properties; and exactly Philip Egerton, Bart., as, in taking each prowhich measures 30 perty by itself as the base inches in length, and of a particular equation, sends off not fewer than one discovers both the orfifteen branches or dinary equation and all “ snags. ” a is the its properties, so the claw, “ brow - snag,” which the blade-bone, the conrises immediately above dyle, the femur, and all the “burr;” b the sethe other bones individucond, c the third, and d ally, give the teeth, or are the “ crown ” or termigiven thereby reciprocalnal cluster of snags, ly; and in commencing by which gave to the deer any of these, whoever posdeveloping them at the sesses rationally the laws period of his full perof the organic economy fection the title of will be able to re-con“ crowned hart.” struct the entire animal.” The little roebuck, The principle is so evilike the red-deer, ap^'1S* IDO. dent that the non-anatopears from its fossil re- Antler of Red-deer, from alluvium, Ireland. mical reader will have mains to have continued to exist from the prehistorical pleistocene little difficulty in satistimes to the present period. factorily comprehending it by the aid of the subjoined diagram. Order CARNIVORA. In the jaws of the The quadrupeds which subsist by preying upon others co-existed lion (fig. 106), there are under corresponding varieties of form, and in adequate numbers, large pointed teeth (lawith the numerous and various Herbivora of the newer tertiary niaries or canines, c) Fig. 106. periods. A brief description has already been made of some of the which pierce,lacerate, and singular forms, the genera of which are extinct, that lived in eocene retain its prey. There Palaeontological characters of a and miocene times. Feline Carnivore. are also compressed trenGenus Galecynus, Ow.—In 1829 the fossil skeleton of a Car- chant teeth (A), which play upon each other like scissor-blades in

Mammalia.

1

See Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. iii., 1647, p. 55.

2

Ossemens Fossiles, 4to, tom. i. (1812), p. 58.

172 Mammalia,

PALAEONTOLOGY. movement of the lower upon the upper jaw. The lower jaw (m) into which they are inserted, are of great extent. The ox masticates Mammalia, is short and strong; it articulates to the skull by a transversely grass with great efficiency ; extended convexity or condyle (d), received into a corresponding it inflicts no injury to other concavity (e), forming a close-fitting joint, which gives a firm at- animals with its teeth. The tachment to the jaw, but almost restricts its movements to one horns are its weapons, and plane, as in opening and closing the mouth. The plate of bone, they are chiefly defensive. The fore foot of the ox is called coronoid process (r), which gives the surface of attachment to to two principal the chief biting muscle (crotaphyte or temporal) is broad and reduced high ; the surface on the side of the skull (temporal fossa, t) from toes, with two rudimentary which that muscle arises is correspondingly large and deep, and is ones dangling behind. Each augmented by the extension of ridges of bone from its upper and of these has its extremity enveloped by a thick horny hinder periphery. or hoof; this modifiThe bar or bridge of bone (zygomatic arch) which spans case, cation is accompanied by a across the muscle, bends strongly outwards to augment the junction coalescence of space for its passage; and as it gives origin to another the radiusor(w)and ulna (u), powerful biting muscle (masseter), the arch is also bent uppreventing reciprocal rotawards to form the stronger point of resistance during the gripe tion of those of that muscle. From almost all the periphery of the back bonesoronmovement each other,—by a surface of the skull there is a strong pitted ridge, affording exten- joint restricting the movesive attachment to powerful muscles which raise the head, together ment of the fore arm with the animal’s body, which the lion may have seized with his brachium) upon the (antijaws; this beast of prey being able to drag along the carcase of a (brachium or humerus,arm A) buffalo, and with ease to raise and bear off the body of a man. If to one plane,— by a long we next examine the framework of the fore limb, which is associ- and narrow blade-bone (»), ated with the above-defined structure of the skull, we find that the with a stunted coracoid and fore paw consists of five digits(i-s); the innermost and shortest (i) no clavicle; in short, by answering to our thumb, and having two bones; the other four digits having each three bones or “phalanges.” All those digits modifications adapting the to perform the moveenjoy a certain freedom of motion and power of reciprocal ap- limb proximation for grasping; but their chief feature is the modifi- ments required for locomocation of the terminal phalanx, which js enlarged, compressed, tion, and almost restricting subtriangular and more or less bent; with a plate of bone as it it to such. This type of limb is always assowere, reflected forwards from that base, from which the pointed fore with broad grinding termination of the phalanx projects like a peg from a sheath. A ciated and with the modifipowerful, compressed, incurved, sharp-pointed, hard, horny claw is teeth, cations of jaw and skull fixed upon that peg, its base being firmly wedged into the inter- above The due space between the peg and the sheath. The toe-joint so armed is amountdefined. of observation asretractile. This complex, prehensile, and destructive paw is arti- sured Cuvier that these seculated to the two bones of the fore leg (radius, w,and ulna, u); they veral modifications, like the are both strong, are both distinct, are firmly articulated to the contrasted ones in the arm-bone (h) by a joint, which, although well built, allows great nivora, were correlated,Carand extent and freedom of motion in bending and extension; and, be- he enumerates the physiosides this, the two bones are reciprocally joined so as to rotate on logical grounds of that coreach other, or rather the radius upon the ulna, carrying with it, by the greater expansion of its lower end, the whole paw, which relation. Those grounds may be can thus be turned “prone” or “ supine ;” whereby its application traced Palaeontological characters of a to a certain degree in as an instrument for seizing and tearing is greatly advantaged. the secondary Ruminant (Bos). modifications The humerus or arm-hone (h) is remarkable for the extension of strong ridges from the outer and inner sides, just above the elbowof the ferine order. If the relractibility of the claw be suppressed; ioint& These ridges indicate the size and force of the supinator, the carnassiality of the teeth is reciprocally modified. If the unpronator flexor, and extensor muscles of the paw. To defend the guiculate foot is reduced from the digitigrade to the plantigrade main artery of the fore leg from compression during the action of type, the dentition is still more altered, and made more subservient these muscles, a bridge of bone (a) spans across it as it passes near to a mixed diet. their ori 182

PALESTINE.

Palestine, eminences in the midst of gardens and orchards, the seats of the more inland cities. Gath has entirely disappeared ; but Ekron, Ashdod, Gaza, and Ascalon retain their names, and the three last have sites sufficiently commanding to justify their ancient fame.” “ The most striking and characteristic feature of Philistia is its immense plain of corn-fields, stretching from the edge of the sandy tract right up to the very wall of the hills of Judah, which look down its whole length from N. to S. These rich fields must have been^ the great source at once of the power and the value of Philistia, the cause of its frequent aggressions on Israel, and of the increasing efforts of Israel to master the territory.” The towns here are remarkable for the beauty of their situations and the profusion of gardens that surround them. They rise above the plain on their respective hills, Ascalon and Jaffa on the sea-coast, and Gaza, Ashdod, and Ekron, at some distance from it. ribaron. “ The corn-fields of Philistia, as we advance farther N., melt into a plain less level and less fertile, though still strongly marked off from the mountain wall of Ephraim as that of Philistia was from that of Judah and Dan.” (Stanley.) This is “ Sharon ;” and, like Philistia, it is divided into the ramkh or sandy tract along the sea-shore, and the cultivated tract farther inland, here called khassab (“ the reedy”), apparently from the high reeds which grow along the banks of some of the streams. It is interspersed with corn-fields, and thinly studded with trees, the remnants apparently of a great forest which existed here down to the second century. Sharon, however, is chiefly noted for its rich pasture lands, and is, says Mr Monro, “ clothed with fresh verdure as far as the eye can reach.” The “ rose of Sharon” he thinks to be the Cistus roseus of Linnaeus, which is very abundant here. No historical name or event is attached to this district in the Old Testament; but then, as now, it was noted for the richness of its pastures. Under the Homan empire, however, it became of great note, and contained Caesarea the Roman capital of Palestine. No human being now lives within many miles of this once rich and busy city, and the waves of the Mediterranean dash over its prostrate columns and huge masses of masonry. Beyond Caesarea the plain becomes more contracted and irregular in its character, until the long ridge of Mount Carmel closes Acre up its northern frontier. Immediately N. of Mount Carmel, and between it and the ridge which forms the promontory of Ras Nakhora, is the plain of Acre, about 15 miles in length from N. to S., and about 5 in general breadth from the sea-shore to the hills which bound it on the E. It forms, so to speak, the embouchure of the great plain of Esdraelon, and, like the other plains, presents a sandy tract along the coast and a fertile tract inland. The soil of this last, though naturally rich, is now almost entirely uncultivated, but in the season presents a most exuberant natural vegetation. The town of Acre, or Accho, though of great antiquity, being one of the places from which the Israelites were unable to expel the ancient Canaanites, only became of importance in modern times. It is noted for the number of sieges it has sustained, and was called by Napoleon the “ key of Palestine.” laoenida. The plain of Phoenicia lay N. of that of Acre, or more properly, included it, extending S. to Mount Carmel. It is separated both geographically and historically from Palestine, though forming a natural continuation of the coast plain. Here were the great towns of Tyre and Sidon, at one time the great centres of commerce in the ancient world. Carmel. Carmel is a mountain ridge 6 or 8 miles long, stretching N. by W. from the plain of Esdraelon into the sea, where it forms a high promontory, which incloses on the S. the Bay of Acre. It is about 1500 feet in height, and consists rather of several connected hills than of one ridge. No mountain in or around Palestine is said to retain its ancient

beauty so much as Carmel;—its “ excellency” is still to be Palestine, seen. It is covered with rich verdure, and plentifully v'— watered by numerous crystal streams. On its summits are pines and oaks, and farther down olives and laurel trees ; while everywhere are to be seen fruits and flowers growing wild in great profusion. During the middle ages, the grottos of Carmel were the abodes of numerous monks, who thence took the name of Carmelites. The Lebanon Mountains consist of two ranges, which Lebanon come down parallel to each other from the N., and extend their southern branches into Palestine. '1 he outer or western ridge, fronting the sea, into which it projects several promontories, was called Libanus by ancient writers ; while to the inner or eastern range, fronting the plains of Damascus, they gave the ndime of Anti-Libanus. In the Bible the name Lebanon is applied to both ridges. On the loftiest summits, rising to the height of about 9300 feet, and in the fissures facing the north, snow may be seen all the year round. Inclosed between the two ridges ofl Lebanon is an extensive valley, called in Scripture ' the valley of Lebanon,” and by the ancients Ccelesjjria (“ the inclosed or hollow Syria”). Though it can scarcely be said to form any part of Palestine proper, yet its geographical and historical connection with that country renders some notice of it necessary. It is about 90 miles in length from N. to S., and about 11 in breadth throughout, except at the two ends, being somewhat wider at the northern, and narrower at the southern extremity. This plain is one of the most beautiful and fertile districts of Syria. It is abundantly watered by numerous mountain springs ; but owing to the concentration of the sun’s rays, the heat in summer is excessive. Only a small portion of it is cultivated, being chiefly used for pasture. Immediately S. of Lebanon is the high table-land ofGalilee. Galilee, extending to the plain of Esdraelon on the S., and sloping on the E. to the Jordan and its upper lakes, and on the W. to the plain of Acre. This table-land, which is estimated to have a general elevation above the level of the sea of from 900 to 1000 feet, is not without its eminences. The chief of these is Jebel Safet, 2770 feet above the level of the Mediterranean. The summit of this steep and lofty mountain is crowned by a castle; and a little below the summit is a city supposed by some to be that w hich our Saviour had in view in his Sermon on the Mount, as “ a city set on a hill.” The mountains of Galilee are as distinct in form as they are separate in fact from those of Samaria and Judea. “ Those hills are the western roots which Hermon thrusts out towards the sea, as it thrusts out the mountains of Bashan towards the desert; and as such they partake of the jagged outline ol the varied vegetation, and of the high upland hollows which characterize in a greater or less degree the whole mass of the Lebanon range, in contrast to the monotonous aspect of the more southern scenery.” “ It is one peculiarity of the Galilean hills, as distinct from those of Ephraim and Judah, that they contain or sustain green basins of table-land just below their topmost ridges.” (Stanley.) In such a position stands Nazareth, inclosed by an amphitheatre of rounded hills. The high lands of Galilee are separated from the rest of Esdraelon. Palestine on the S. by the plain of Esdraelon, extending from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea on the W. to the valley of the Jordan on the E. Its central and widest portion reaches straight across, without interruption, from the hills of Samaria to those of Galilee, and may be said to be in the form of a triangle, measuring about 14 nailes on the N. side, 18 on the E., and 20 on the SAY. On the W. it is narrowed into a pass, through which flows its only stream, the Kishon; and beyond this the plain opens out again round the Bay of Acre. In the E. the surface is somewhat undulated by offshoots from the mountains ; and here three great valleys go off to the

PALE STINE. 183 Palestine, valley of the Jordan. These valleys are separated from wards the south, until, in the vicinity of Hebron, it attains Palestine, each other by the ridges of Gilboa and Little Hermon, the an elevation of nearly 3000 feet above the level of the ^ central one being that which is properly known as the Val- Mediterranean. It comprises the districts of Judah and ley of Jezreel; a name, however, which is sometimes given Samaria, between which, however, there is no distinct natuto the whole plain. It is a deep plain, about three miles ral boundary, although they differ considerably in their geneacross, and has a rapid descent to the Jordan. The north- ral characteristics. ernmost branch, between Little Hermon and Tabor, in its The hills of Samaria are often beautifully wooded, and Samaria, descent to the Jordan, opens to the N.E. into a side plain, this region is more populous and better cultivated than any as it were, distinguished by the mountain called the “ Horns other part of Palestine. Towns and villages are scattered of Hattin,” inclosed between the hills of Galilee, and those here and there in every direction among olive wroods and which immediately skirt the sea of Tiberias. The Khurun vineyards. The principal mountains are those of Ebal Hattin, or “ Horns of Hattin,” is a ridge about a quarter of and Gerizim, from which the solemn blessings and curses a mile in length, and 30 or 40 feet high, terminated at each of the lawr were declared to the assembled hosts of Israel. end by an elevated peak 20 or 30 feet higher. It is known They are separated from each other by a narrow valley, on to pilgrims as the Mount of the Beatitudes, the supposed each side of which they rise in rocky precipices to the scene of the Sermon on the Mount, though this is at least height of about 800 feet, but from the general elevation of doubtful. The plain of Esdraelon is often mentioned in the country, they are 2500 feet above the level of the sacred history as the great battlefield of Jewish and other Mediterranean. In this narrow valley, in some parts only nations, under its various names of Megiddo, Jezreel, &c. a few hundred feet in width, stood Shechem, whose site is Its adaptation for military contests has caused its surface to now occupied by the modern Nablous—“ a valley green be frequently moistened with blood from the earliest periods with grass; gray with olives, gardens sloping down in all of history down to our own time. It is noted for its great directions ; at the end a white town embosomed in all this fertility, and is covered with the richest pasture, having verdure, lodged between the two mountains which extend here and there patches of cultivated land. It is sparsely on either side of the valley—that on the south Gerizim, inhabited, being almost without villages, which, however, that on the north Ebal;—this is the aspect of Nablous, the occur on the slopes of the surrounding hills. most beautiful, perhaps it might, be said the only very T&bor. Mount Tabor, in many respects the most remarkable beautiful, spot in Central Palestine.” (Stanley.) Shechem mountain in Palestine, stands apart and alone on the N.E. was the capital of the northern kingdom of Palestine after border of the plain of Esdraelon. It is only about 1800 the separation, and Gerizim is the mountain to which the feet in height, but it commands an extensive and beautiful woman of Samaria referred when she said—“ Our fathers view of the surrounding country. As seen from the N.W., worshipped in this mountain.” The well here is almost it towers like a dome; while from the E. it has the appear- the only special spot absolutely undisputed of all the loance of a long arched mound. The sides are mostly calities associated with our Lord’s life in Palestine. It is covered with bushes and oak and other trees ; but the remarkable, that in the evangelic narratives we find so very latter stand too far apart from each other for it to be what little that serves to indicate the precise spots hallowod by could properly be called a wooded hill. The top is an the life of our Saviour. It seems as if an angelic tongue oval plain about a quarter of a mile in extent, containing were still saying, “ He is not here, but is risen ”—“ Why ruins of ancient buildings. From the names of Tabor and seek ye the living among the dead ?” armon. Hermon occurring together, it was taken for granted that The mountains of Judea, although of greater historical Judes they must lie near each other; and hence the latter name celebrit}', are less attractive in appearance than those of was identified with the hilly ridge about six miles south of Samaria. They are rugged and generally uninteresting in Mount labor. There is no reason to suppose, however, their character, but eminently fitted for the abode of that that this mountain is ever referred to in Scripture as Her- tribe which was aptly described as a lion couching, and mon ; and all the passages where that name occurs are ap- not to be roused up. “ The tribes of the east and of the plicable with greater strength and beauty to Hermon, the north w’ere swept aw'ay by the Assyrian kings; Galilee and loftiest peak of the Lebanon Mountains. This one is Samaria fell before the Roman conquerors; whilst Judah therefore now commonly called the Little Hermon {Buhy still remained erect, the last because the most impregnable by the Arabs), and is a desert shapeless mass, with neither of the tribes of Israel.” (Stanley.) The hills of Judea beauty nor fertility to excite the attention of the traveller. are generally separated from one another by valleys and It is about 1860 feet in height, and sinks gradually down torrents, and are for the most part of moderate height, unon the E. to a low ridge of table-land along the eastern even, and seldom of any regular figure. The rock of which part of the valley of Jezreel. Farther S. are the moun- they are composed is easily converted into mould, which, Gilboa. tains of Gilboa, constituting an elevated tract, with several being arrested by terraces, when washed down by the rains, ridges; in all about a league in breadth, and rising to the renders the hills cultivable in a series of long narrow garheight of about 1300 feet. “The mountains of Gilboa dens formed by these terraces from the base upwards. seem yet to lie under the curse uttered by David in his Thus the hills were in former times clad most luxuriantly ; lamentations, for the north side, the side on which ‘ the but when the inhabitants wTere dispersed, and cultivation shield of the mighty was vilely cast away,’ and where ‘ the was abandoned, the terraces fell to decay, and the soil which beauty of Israel was slain,’ presents a more barren appear- had been collected on them was washed down into the ance than is almost to be found in the land.” (Van de valleys, leaving only the arid rock bare and desolate. This Velde.) is the general character of the hills of Judea; but in some South of the plain of Esdraelon, throughout to the bor- parts they are still wooded, and in others the ancient mode ders of the southern desert, is an almost unbroken ridge of culture is still retained, by which the traveller may now of mountains or mountain tract, stretching from north to judge how productive the country must have once been. south, and nowhere less than from 25 to 30 miles in The features of desolation which have just been noticed breadth. Towards the east it forms the precipitous western are especially true of the northern part of Judea, forminwall of the great valley of the Jordan and the Dead Sea ; the ancient territory of Benjamin. Its most favourably” while towards the west it sinks down by an offset into a situated mountains are wholly uncultivated, and perhaps in ridge of lower hills, which lie between it and the great plain no other country is such a mass of rock exhibited without along the coast of the Mediterranean. This mountainous an atom of soil. In the east, towards the plain of Jericho, country rises gradually from the plain of Esdraelon to- it takes a naturally stern and grand character, such as

184 Palestine.

PALESTINE. other part of Palestine offers. It is through this wild of the hill country of Eastern Judea. This second ascent Palestine n0 ^ and melancholy region that the roads from Jerusalem to is similar to the first, but not more than half as high, Jericho, and (by way of Wady Saba) to the Dead Sea, lie. This statement will convey some idea of that difficulty of It has hence by the former route often been traversed by military access to the country in this direction which eventravellers in their pilgrimages to the Jordan ; and they unite tually induced the invading Hebrews to take another and in depicting it in the most gloomy hues. “ The road,” says more circuitous route. In the direct south of Judah the Dr Olin, “runs along the edge of steep precipices and approach is marked by an ascent more gradual, over a sucyawning gulfs, and in a few places is overhung with the cession of less elevated plateaus, from the desert regions of crags of the mountain. The aspect of the whole region is sand and rock to the hills of Judah. Recent discoveries in peculiarly savage and dreary, vieing in these respects, that quarter have shown that much of the south border though not in overpowering grandeur, with the wilds of country, which was formerly regarded as desert, is in fact a Sinai. The mountains seem to have been loosened from variegated region, affording good pastures, into which the their foundations, and rent in pieces by some terrible con- sheep-masters of Judah doubtless sent their flocks of old. To the east of this mountain tract lies the valley of the jor)jan> vulsion, and there left to be scathed by the burning rays of the sun, which scorches the land wdth consuming heat.” Jordan, the most remarkable of all the known depressions These characteristics become more manifest on approaching of the earth, as well on account of its great length as of its the Jordan ; and the wild region extending north of the almost incredible depth. It is around and along this deep road is believed, with sufficient probability, to form the fissure that the hills of Western and Eastern Palestine spring “ wilderness” where, after his baptism, Jesus “ was led up” up, presenting on the one side a mass of green pastures of the Spirit to be tempted of the devil, and where “ he and forests melting away on the east into the red plains of fasted forty days and forty nights.” The lofty ridge which Hauran, and on the other a mass of gray rock rising above extends north of the road, and fronts the plain of Jericho, the yellow desert on the south, and bounded on the west is called Quarantana, with reference to this event; and the by the long green strip of the maritime plain. The source of the Jordan has given rise to so much unparticular summit from which Satan is supposed to have displayed to the Saviour “ the kingdoms of the world and certainty and doubt that we consider it necessary to go the glory of them,” is crowned by a chapel still occasionally into the subject at some length. It is usual to refer the resorted to by the devouter pilgrims ; while the eastern face origin of a river to the remotest of its sources; but we ocwhich overhangs the plain is much occupied with cells and casionally find, particularly with respect to ancient rivers, grottos, once the favourite abodes of pious anchorites. The that this is not the case—various accidental circumstances Quarantana forms apparently the highest summit of the operating to give this distinction to some one of the less rew hole immense pile, and is distinguished for its sere and mote springs. This was doubtless the case here, for we can desolate aspect even in this gloomy region of savage and easily suppose that the Jews would be unwilling to seek for dreary sights. It is estimated to have an almost perpen- or to acknowledge that the sources of the Jordan lay beyond their own territory. Accordingly we find that Josedicular height of 1200 or 1500 feet. In the southern region, usually called in Scripture “the phus and others place the source of this river at or in the hill country of Judah,” there are few mountains of a vicinity of Banias (the ancient Paneas). It there issues marked character, the peaks of the general ridge being of from a spacious cavern under a wall of rock at the base of little apparent elevation, although actually much elevated the Heish Mountain. Directly over the cavern, and in above the sea-level. The most desolate part of the whole other parts in the face of the perpendicular rock, niches of this wild region seems to have been distinguished as “ the have been cut, apparently to receive statues. Here Herod wilderness of Judah,” while “the mountains of Judah,” or built a temple in honour of Augustus ; and somewhat be“ the hill country of Judea,” applies to the mountainous low there was a town, traces of which still remain. In region south of Jerusalem, towards Hebron. To this dis- one place Josephus carries its source still higher, stating trict belongs the wilderness of Tekoa, and beyond it, east- that the waters which came out at the Paneas cavern isward, “the wilderness of Engedi,” Maon, and Ziph,—names sued from Lake Phiala, which lay 15 miles eastward, and made familiar to us by the history of David. To obtain a which was the true source of the river. He relates that clear notion of this tract, we should view it from the great the tetrarch Philip cast some chaff into this lake, and that Arabah, beyond the southern extremity of the Dead Sea, it came out at the Paneas cavern. Irby and Mangles, in whence it was surveyed by the Israelites when they con- travelling by a direct route from Damascus to Banias in templated entering the Promised Land from the south-east. February 1818, came upon “a very picturesque lake, apThe two terraces which, towards the south end of the parently perfectly circular, of little more than a mile in cirDead Sea on the east side, form the descent to its deep cumference.” According to Dr Robinson’s account, which basin from the high lands of Judea, stretch off to the south- differs in several respects from that of Irby and Mangles, west ; and the ascents from the plain to the fist, and fiom it lies at the bottom of a deep bowl, apparently an ancient the plateau of the first to the top of the second, which crater, about 150 or 200 feet below the level of the surforms the general level of Judea, present to him who ap- rounding country. The water is stagnant and impure, proaches from the lower region of the Arabah high moun- with a slimy look. The singularity of this lake is, that it tain barriers, which he has to ascend by gorges or passes has no apparent supply or discharge, and its waters appeared of more or less difficult ascent. After ascending from the perfectly still. The locality and appearance of this lake great valley, the traveller passes over a wild district cov ered leave little doubt that it is the Phiala of Josephus—a deep with rocky hills, till he comes to the frontier-wall of the round lake, like a bowd or cup, whence its name; but it first terrace or step, which was probably pre-eminently is impossible to suppose that it can have any subterranean “ the mountain of the Amorites.” There are in this three communication with the stream at Panias, for in order principal passes, the southernmost being that of Nubeh-es- to that it must pass under a rivulet which lies apparently Sufah, the Zephath of Scripture, called also Hormah, which lower than the lake itself. The bright, limpid, sparkling we know to have been the pass by which the Israelites at- waters of the former can have no connection with the dark, tempted to enter Palestine from Kadesh when they were stagnant, slimy matter of the latter ; and, indeed, to supply driven back. The top of this pass is said to be 1434 feet such a fountain would exhaust the lake in one day. A second source of the Jordan, also described by ancient above the level of the sea. On reaching the top, a journey of three hours among hills of chalky limestone brings writers, is at a place called Tell el-Kady, about 2J miles the traveller to the second great ascent to the general level W. by N. from Banias. The Tell, or hill, is a small oblong

PALESTINE. 185 turned off by a large stone dam, and part of it is carried Palestine, Palestine, eminence on the plain, extending from E. to W. The K western end appears as if built up with large trap boulders, away in a small stream, which works a mill lower down. and through these the water gushes out several feet above A few yards above is the basin or source where the water the base. It forms a little lake at the bottom, and then comes bubbling up from under steep projecting rocks. It rushes down a steep channel to the next lower plateau. In is of a transparent dark colour, and appears to be of imthe surface of the hill directly above is a cavity of some mense depth. But there was still something I did not extent, into which the water also rises, and runs off as a understand: it appeared to me that the main stream of considerable stream through a break in the edge of the water came down from a point farther up; this made me Tell, tumbling down its south-western side, and afterwards doubt whether I really had before me the right source, joining the other stream. These streams form together the until it was explained to me that this stream which I saw middle and largest arm of the Jordan, called Leddan; coming down from the N.E., above the source, was only a equal, indeed, in the volume of its water to both the other winter torrent, which, rising at Rasheiya, swells into a branches. The fountain at Tell el-Kady exactly corre- brook of no inconsiderable appearance, containing even sponds to the source which Josephus speaks of as “ the more water than the Hasbany source itself, but which, other source” of the Jordan, called also Dan, where stood nevertheless, dries up entirely in summer, and then leaves the city of Dan, anciently Laish, belonging originally to the true source visible.” The question as to the source of the territory of Sidon, but captured by the Danites, and the Jordan is, whether we are to adopt that which has now named after the founder of their tribe. The same city been found to have the most remote origin, or to keep to Dan is placed by Eusebius and Jerome at four Roman that which the usage of all antiquity has sanctioned? Dr miles from Paneas. towards Tyre, corresponding well with Robinson seems to be almost the only supporter of the the present distance of the sources. The river issuing from latter view. “ The attempt,” he says, “ to introduce a this source, Josephus says, was called “the Lesser Jordan,” change at this late hour would be alike presumptuous and obviously in distinction to the somewhat longer stream from futile. As well might we require the majestic floods of the Paneas, into which it flows. Mississippi and Missouri to exchange these names above We find, however, that there is a source more remote their junction, inasmuch as the latter is, of the two, by far than either of these, and one of which the ancients make the longer and the mightier stream.” It seems to us, howno mention whatever. This is the stream coming from ever, that the sanction of ancient usage is not in this case Wady et-Teim, called Nahr Hasbany, which flows about so strong, nor has it been in modern times in so general use, a mile to the W. of Tell el-Kady. It rises 6 or 8 miles as to lead us to depart from what is an all but universal rule. farther N., near the large village of Hasbeiya, and is It was the general opinion till very recently, that the different afterwards joined in its course by a stream from Mount sources did not commingle their waters until they met in Hermon. The first who minutely described this source of the small lake now called Bahr el-Huleh, the Merom of the Jordan was Mr Thomson the missionary, whose account Scripture; but it has been found that they unite at some is to be found in the number of the Bibliotheca Sacra for distance from the lake, and enter it in one stream. February 1846. He says:—“Sept. 20th, 1843.—We left The first of the three great lakes of the Jordan is the Merom the palace of the emirs of Hasbeiya about sunrise, and in Bahr el-Huleh, the Waters of Merom of the Old Testahalf an hour reached the fountain of Hasbany. Our path ment, and the Lake Samochonitis of Josephus. Its dimenled us across the bed of a winter torrent, which comes sions are very variously stated, and they doubtless vary down from the mountains on the E. of Hasbeiya, and over much at different times of the year. Dr Robinson estia rocky hill covered with lava boulders. The fountain lies mates it to be about 4 or 5 miles in length, and not less nearly N.W. from the town, and boils up from the bottom than 4 in breadth at the northern end. Besides this, howof a shallow pool some eight or ten rods in circumference. ever, the lake was skirted on the N. by a marshy tract of equal The water is immediately turned by a strong stone dam or greater extent, covered with tall reeds and flags, but which into a wide mill-race. This is undoubtedly the most dis- in the rainy season is doubtless covered with water, and tant fountain, and therefore the true source of the Jordan. may therefore be properly regarded as forming part of the It meanders for the first 3 miles through a narrow area of the lake. The basin of the lake is bounded on the but very lovely and highly-cultivated valley. Its margin is W. by a high ridge of hills, and on the E. by a much lower protected and adorned with the green fringe and dense ridge. The lake does not occupy the centre of the valley, shade of the sycamore, button, and willow trees; while but is much nearer to the eastern than to the western side. innumerable fish sport in its cool and crystal bosom. It There is a space of about 5 miles between its shore and the then sinks rapidly down a constantly deepening gorge of western hills, but on the opposite side its border extends black basalt for about 6 miles, when it reaches the level of almost to the hills. The length of the basin is about 15 miles. the great volcanic plain, extending to the marsh above the The lake abounds in fish, and is the resort of numerous wild Lake Huleh. Thus far the direction is nearly S., but it now fowl. On quitting this lake the Jordan passes rapidly along bears a little westward, and in 8 or 10 miles it enters the the narrow valley, and between well-shaded banks, to the Huleh not far from its N.W. corner, having been im- Lake of Gennesareth, called also the Lake of Tiberias or the mensely enlargcd by the waters from the great fountains of Sea of Galilee, a distance of about 10 miles. In this part of Banias, 1 ell el-Kady, el-Mellahah, Derakit or Belat, and its course it has a fall of nearly 400 feet, and is described as a innumerable other springs. The distance from the fountain continuous torrent rushing down in a narrow rocky channel of Hasbany to the lake cannot be less than 25 miles, and between almost precipitous mountains. About 2 miles nearly in a straight direction Although the channel below Lake Huleh is a bridge called Jacob’s Bridge, and immediately above the fountain of the Hasbany is during here the river is about 80 feet wide and 4 feet deep. most of the year dry and dusty, yet during the rainy season The Sea of Galilee, called in the Old Testament the Sea gea 0f a great volume of water rushes down from the heights of of Chinnereth, is the second of the three great lakes of the Galilee. Jebel esh-Sheikh, above Rasheiya, a distance of 20 miles, Jordan. It is situated in a deep basin, more than 1000 and unites with the water of this fountain. The stream is feet below the level of the surrounding country, and 328 there so formidable as to require a good stone bridge, which feet below the level of the Mediterranean. It is about is thrown across it a few rods below the fountain.” A 13 miles in length by 6 in breadth, and is surrounded by similar account of this source is given by Van de Velde lofty and precipitous hills. Though thus sheltered, it is and others who have since visited it. The former, who yet liable to sudden and dangerous storms ; the wind, when was there in 1852, says—“A little higher up the water is violent, coming down almost perpendicularly upon its surVOL. xvix. 2A

186

PALESTINE. Palestine, face, and ploughing it up into huge waves. It was in one which inclose an oval-shaped island about 5 or 6 miles in Palestine, of these storms that the disciples were overtaken, and in circumference. Here its winding course is marked by danger of perishing, when Jesus came to them walking on luxuriant vegetation, and the ghor or valley now begins to the sea. The barrenness of the surrounding mountains, assume a much better and more fertile aspect. It appears and the total absence of wood, give an aspect of dulness to to be composed of two different platforms; the upper one the scenery ; and this impression is heightened by the dead on either side projects from the foot of the hills which form calm and the silence which reigns over the wide expanse the great valley, and is tolerably level, but barren and unof its surface. Its waters are very clear and sweet, and cultivated. It then falls away in the form of rounded sandcontain various species of excellent fish in great abundance. hills or whitish perpendicular cliffs, varying from 150 to 200 The borders of the lake were in the time of Christ well feet in height, to the lower plain, which is properly the peopled, being covered with numerous towns and villages, valley of the Jordan. The river here and there washes the but now they are almost desolate, and the fish and water- foot of the cliffs which inclose this smaller valley, but fowl are but little disturbed. When visited by the American generally it winds in the most tortuous manner between expedition in 1848, there was only one small frame-boat on them. In many places these cliffs are like walls. About the lake, used merely to bring wood across from the oppo- this part the lower plain is about a mile and a half or two site side. On the shore of this lake stood Capernaum, where miles broad, and full of the most rank and luxuriant vegeJesus dwelt; Bethsaida and Chorazin, where many of his tation, like a jungle. At Attah the lower valley breaks out mighty works were done; Magdala, the residence of Mary into a magnificent plain, extending from the foot of the Magdalene; and Tiberias, which had only just then been hills on either side across the ghor, but with a steep western built by Herod Antipas, and was beginning to rise into side, where the large Arab village of Beisan stands. On importance. Along its banks the depth ol its situation reaching the top of this high western ridge, the country produces a tropical vegetation unknown in the hills above. southward, as far as the eye could see, was fertile, well Fertility is everywhere more or less apparent in the thin watered, and thickly inhabited. Hundreds of small sheds strip of land which intervenes between the mountains and might be seen studded on the plain, with men watching the the lake. On its western side the mountains recede sud- crops (chiefly Indian corn), and slinging stones to keep off denly inland, leaving an open level plain, now called el- the birds. “I think,” says Lieutenant Molyneux, “the Ghuweir, and anciently “the land of Gennesareth.” Jose- view from this point over the valley of the Jordan was one phus speaks of this plain as a place of wonderful fertility, of the finest things I had seen ; an abundant vegetation abounding with fig-trees, walnuts, olives, and palms, and extending up the slopes of the eastern hills, which are producing the principal fruits all the year round, and grapes crowned with trees up to the summit, and everything growand figs during ten months of the year. Though this de- ing in the wildest luxuriance; while on the western side scription is evidently exaggerated, Dr Wilson says that the higher steppe breaks down into steep sand-hills or “ the valley has every appearance of the greatest fertility; whitish perpendicular cliffs, with only here and there the and when kept in order and properly laid out, would be means of ascent. The river as usual winds very much, truly beautiful and delightful. At present it has some rich with banks about 20 feet in height, of brown clayey pasturage and cultivated fields, bearing luxuriant crops of soil, somewhat resembling those of the 4 hames, and for corn, rice, and vegetables. Wild figs and quantities some distance on either side a thick and almost impeneof the nakb tree are still found growing in it in several trable jungle.” Such is the general character of the Jorplaces. Various lines of oleanders, particularly along the dan valley to the Dead Sea,—sometimes lofty perpendicular streams which run through it, add to its beauty. The soil cliffs or sand-hills inclose the river on each side, at other is of a dark alluvial loam, and contains the debris of the times they recede to a considerable distance, and leave an basaltic rock in the neighbourhood.” This tract is de- extent of jungle or fertile plain. The valley seemed to finitely bounded by the hills which run down to the lake contain a considerable population. Next year (1848) an on the S. and N. of it, at Mejdel and at Khan Minyeh. It American expedition, under the command of Lieutenant is about 3 English geographical miles in length, by 2 in Lynch, U.S.N., likewise explored this portion of the valley breadth. “No less than four springs pour forth their of the Jordan. The account given by this expedition does not differ materially from that furnished by Lieutenant almost full-grown rivers through the plain.” (Stanley.) From the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea the direct dis- Molyneux, except that the river in the former case was tance is only about 60 miles, but by reason of its many wind- greater, being in April, whereas in the latter case it was in ings the Jordan has here a length of more than 200 miles. August. “ The great secret,” says Lieutenant Lynch, “of In’this distance it has a fall of nearly 1000 feet. This por- the depression between Lake Tiberias and the Dead Sea tion of the river was explored by Lieut. Molyneux, of H.M.S. is solved by the tortuous course of the Jordan. In a space Spartan, in 1847, and an account of the expedition is given of 60 miles of latitude, and 4 or 5 miles of longitude, the in the Royal Geographical Society's Journal for 1848. On Jordan traverses at least 200 miles. The river is in the leaving the Sea of Tiberias they found the river to be up- latter stage of a freshet; a few weeks earlier or later, and wards of 100 feet in breadth, and 4 or 5 feet deep. In many the passage would have been impracticable. As it is, we parts it was split up into a number of small streams, with have plunged down twenty-seven threatening rapids, belittle water in any of them, and occasionally the boat had to be sides a great many of lesser magnitude.” The valley of the Jordan is generally not more than about Plain of carried upwards of 100 yards over rocks and through thoi'ny bushes. In other places it had to be carried on the backs of 8 miles in width, but immediately above the Dead Sea the Jericho, the camels for some distance, the stream being quite imprac- hills on either side recede, leaving a plain about 12 miles ticable. At its upper end the ghor, or great valley of the Jor- in breadth. This is the plain of Jericho, now partly desert, dan, is about 8 or 9 miles broad, and this space is anything but, from the abundance of water and the heat of the clibut flat—nothing but a continuation of bare hills, with yellow mate, susceptible for the most part of being rendered in the dried-up weeds, which look at a distance like corn-stubbles. highest degree productive. Indeed, its fertility has been These hills, however, sink into insignificance when compared celebrated in every age. Josephus, whenever he has octo the ranges of mountains which inclose the ghor, and it is casion to mention Jericho, rarely fails to break forth into therefore only by comparison that this part of it is entitled praises of the richness and productiveness of its environs. to be called a valley. Within this broader valley is a He calls it the most fertile tract of Judea; pronounces it a smaller one on a lower level, through which the river flows. divine region ; and, in speaking of the fountain, says it After passing el-Buk’ah, the Jordan forms two branches, watered a tract 70 stadia long by 20 broad, covered with

PALESTINE. 187 Palestine, beautiful gardens and groves of palms of various species. British Royal Engineers are the most reliable that we yet Palestine, The Scriptures call Jericho the “ city of palm treesand possess, and they give its depression at 1312-2 feet below Josephus describes these graceful trees as here abundant the level of the Mediterranean, which corresponds very and very large, and growing even along the banks of the closely with that obtained by Mr Henry Poole in 1855 Jordan. This region also produced honey, opobalsam, the with the aneroid metallique,—namely, ] 313-5 feet. cypress tree (or el-henna), the sycamore, and myrobalanum, It was long believed that this lake did not exist before as well as the common fruits of the earth, in great abund- the destruction of Sodom and the other “ cities of the ance. Of all these productions few are now to be seen. plain,” and that before that time the Jordan continued its The groves of palm trees have disappeared ; even the one course through the great valley of Arabah, which extends solitary remnant noticed by recent travellers has, within from the Dead to the Red Sea. The fact, however, of the the last few years, taken its departure. The sycamore, too, former being above 1300 feet lower than the latter, and has retired from the plain, and the opobalsam is no longer the discovery of a ridge of high land, about 400 feet above known in the country. Honey, if found at all, is now com- the level of the sea, stretching directly across this valley, paratively rare, and the cypress tree has entirely disap- render this hypothesis extremely improbable. Even suppeared. The myrobalanum alone appears to thrive, being posing that this ridge may be of recent formation, and that probably the thorny shrub growing wild in the plain to the depression of the Jordan valley has taken place since which the name of zukkum is given by the Arabs. It pro- that time, we have yet, from Lake Huleh where the depresduces a green nut, from the kernel of which is extracted the sion commences, to the Red Sea, a direct distance of nearly oil known in the present day as the “balsam of Jericho.” 300 miles, with a fall of only about 50 feet. It seems Dead Sea. The Dead Sea (called in Scripture the Salt Sea, the more likely that the fertile and well-watered district in which Sea of the Plain or the Arabah, and the Eastern Sea; by stood the “ cities of the plain,” was that southern portion Josephus, the Asphaltic Lake, Ai/avt; ’Ao-^aArm/s; and by ot the lake which is at present submerged under some 13 the Arabs, Birket Lut, “ Sea of Lot”), is the largest as well feet of water. It seems, too, to be the salt rocks around as the most remarkable of the lakes of Palestine. It is this portion that give to the waters their present deadly about 39 or 40 geographical miles in length from north to qualities. south, and 9 or 10 wide from east to west. It lies deeply Though there is every reason to believe that the Dead embedded between, on the western side, lofty cliffs rising Sea has existed here from the earliest times that we have to the height of about 1500 feet, and on the eastern, high any account of the country, it is impossible to suppose that mountains, the loftiest ridges of which are estimated to be it was in its present depressed state at the time when from 2000 to 2500 feet above the sea. The northern “ Lot lifted up his eyes, and beheld all the plain of Jordan, shore of the lake, as described by Lynch, is an extensive that it was well watered everywhere, before the Lord demud flat, with a sandy plain beyond ; and the north-western stroyed Sodom and Gomorrah, even as the garden of the an unmixed bed of gravel coming in a gradual slope from Lord.” The appearance of the district itself, with its the mountains to the sea. The eastern coast is a rugged numerous evidences of active volcanic agency,—its bituline of mountains, bare of all vegetation,—a continuation of men, sulphur, nitre, lava, &c.,—render this view extremely the Hauran range coming from the north, and extending likely. “The bituminous and sulphureous sources of south beyond the scope of vision, throwing out three the Dead Sea,” says Volney, “ the lava, the pumicemarked and seemingly equidistant promontories from its stones thrown upon its banks, demonstrate that south-eastern extremity. At the south-western extremity the seat of a subterraneous fire is not yet extinguished. of the lake is the isolated ridge called the Mountain of Us- Clouds of smoke are often discovered to rise from the lake, dom, containing fossil salt. The bottom consists of two and new crevices to be formed on its shore.” Lieutenant submerged plains, an elevated and a depressed one,—the Lynch unexpectedly found between the Jabbok and the southern averaging about thirteen, and the northern about Dead Sea a sudden break-down in the bed of the Jordan. thirteen hundred feet below the surface. The well-defined He says, that “ if there be a similar break in the waterpromontory on its eastern side marks the extent of each courses to the south of the sea, accompanied with like of these plains. The old stories about the pestiferous quali- volcanic characters, there can scarce be a doubt that ties of the Dead Sea are mere fables. Birds are observed the whole ghor has sunk from some extraordinary convulflying over the sea, and even resting upon its waters, with- sion, preceded most probably by an eruption of fire and a out being injured ; and Dr Robinson was five days in the general conflagration of the bitumen which abounded in vicinity without perceiving any noisome smell or noxious the plain. Whether this great depression took place at vapour arising from the lake. The uncommon saltness of once on the destruction of the cities of the plain, or has been the water, however, renders it speedily destructive to any fish going on gradually since that time, is very doubtful. The latthat may be brought down by the streams; but it is asserted ter hypothesis, however, seems the more probable. The that there is one small species of fish peculiar to it. The accounts given by modern travellers of the River Jordan quantity of salt, too, that is constantly given off in small differ in many respects from the character that we form of it particles is equally destructive to vegetation on its shores. from the notices that occur in Scripture. In the latter case, Everything along the shore is covered with a white in- we figure to ourselves a considerable river moving majesticrustation of salt. “ Strewn along its desolate margin lie cally along its course, having few fords, and periodically the most striking memorials of this last conflict of life and overflowing its banks. On the other hand, we have an imdeath; trunks and branches of trees, torn down from the petuous torrent, with no proof of its overflowing its banks, thickets of the river-jungle by the violence of the Jordan, and in many places without sufficient water to float a boat thrust out into the sea, and thrown up again by its waves, of light draught. Molyneux, in speaking of the upper part dead and barren as itself.” (Stanley.) (See Asphaltites.) of its course, says,—“ I am within the mark when I say that The deep depression of the Dead Sea below the level there are many hundreds of places where we might have t:erranean walked across without wetting our feet, on the large rocks mi the u ^f^* appears never toin have suspected iml time of its actual discovery 1837,been when Messrs and stones.” These accounts can easily be reconciled Moore and Beek, then engaged in surveying it, were led if we suppose that formerly the depression of the Dead Sea U) examine the question of its comparative elevation. and the lower course of the Jordan was much less than at Since that time various barometrical observations have been present, and that consequently it had a slower course, and made, but they differ considerably from each other. The a considerably larger volume of water. trigonometrical observations of Lieutenant Svmonds of the It is now generally believed to be most probable that.

PALES TINE. 188 Palestine. anterior to the historical period, the whole valley, from the appears to be the Sorek of Scripture, and between Askelon Palestine, base of Hermon to the Red Sea, was once an arm of the and Gaza, two small streams, w'hose names are unknown ; Indian Ocean, which has gradually subsided, leaving the the Wady Gaza, 2 or 3 miles S. of the town of that name, three lakes in its bed, with their connecting river. Ac- which seems to be the Bezor of Scripture; and the brook cording to Captain Newbold, in the Journal of the el-Arish, which is supposed to be the river of Egypt which Roy at Asiatic Society, vol. xvi., “ The valley of the ghor, formed the southern boundary of the coast of Palestine. which is a vast longitudinal crevasse in calcareous and vol- The most important tributaries of the Jordan and the Dead canic rocks, extending from the southern roots of Libanus Sea are the Jarmuk, the Jabbok, and the Arnon. The and Anti-Libanus, to the Gulf of Akaba, from 1000 to 2000 first of these, called also Mandhur (the Hieromax of ancient feet deep, and from 1 to 8 miles broad (this is understated), geography), joins the Jordan about 5 miles below the Lake appears to have been caused by the forcible rending and of Gennesareth. Its source is ascribed to a small lake, falling in of the aqueous strata resulting from the eruption about a mile in circumference, lying 30 miles E. of the of the basalt, which bases it almost from its commencement Jordan. It is a beautiful stream, and brings down a conto the Dead Sea Watery corrosion or abrasion can siderable body of water. The Jabbok, now called the have had little influence in its formation. The great alter- Zerka, is a narrow, but deep and rapid stream, which joins ations in its surface commenced prior to the historic period, the Jordan about half-way between Gennesareth and the and terminated probably in the catastrophe of Sodom. Dead Sea. The Arnon, now the Wady Modjeb, is an See also an article on this subject in the Royal Geographi- affluent of the Dead Sea, and often mentioned in Scripture. cal Society’s Journal, vol. xxiii. (1853), by Captain W. The brook Kedron flows through the valley of Jehoshaphat, Allen, R.N., who, from indications of alluvial deposit on the on the E. side of Jerusalem, to the Dead Sea. It is at sides of the mountains around the Dead Sea and lower present nothing more than the dry bed of a winter torrent, portion of the Jordan, apparently marking the gradual sub- and even in that season there is no constant flow of water. sidence of the waters in this district, came to the same con- The resident missionaries assured Dr Robinson that they had clusion. As, however, these indications seem to be entirely not during several years seen a stream running through the confined, as regards the Dead Sea, to its northern portion, valley. It, however, bears marks of being occasionally and as their appearance would seem to indicate a time more swept over by a considerable volume of water. Of the region beyond the Jordan we know very little, as Eastern recent than that claimed for that state of the country, we are inclined to consider it rather as an indication ot the it has been seldom visited by travellers, partly on account Palestine, gradual sinking of the basin of the Dead Sea subse- of the insecure nature of the country, and partly also from the slight historical interest that attaches to it in compariquently to the destruction of the cities of the plain. Besides the Jordan, Palestine possesses scarcely another son with Western Palestine. “ The mountains rise from Minor streams. river of any size. Most of those that are laid down in the the valley of the Jordan to the height, it is believed, of 2000 maps, or whose names figure in history, are merely tor- or 3000 feet, and this gives them, when seen from the westrents or water-courses, which carry off the waters in the ern side, the appearance of a much greater actual elevarainy season, or, if they have their origin in springs, are tion than they really possess, as though they rose high spent in the season of drought soon after they quit their above the mountains of Judea on which the spectator stands. sources. There are, however, numerous springs, which in As they are approached from the ghor, the horizontal outa country like this are of the greatest importance to culti- line which they always wear when seen from a distance is vation. The Kishon, the river on whose banks the army broken ; and it is described, that when their summits are of Sisera was overthrown, is in winter and spring a large attained, a wholly new scene bursts upon the view, unlike and rapid river, flowing from Mount Tabor, and collecting anything which could be expected from below—unlike the waters of a large"part of the plain of Esdraelon and anything in Western Palestine. A wide table-land appears, its bordering hills ; but in summer all the part which tossed about in wild confusion of undulating downs, clothed passes over the plain is quite dried up, and only water from with rich grass throughout, and in the northern parts with perennial springs in Carmel is then found in the last seven magnificent forests of sycamore, beech, terebinth, ilex, and The vast herds of wild cattle, miles of its bed. It enters the Bay of Acre near the foot enormous fig trees of Mount Carmel. The Kishon, says Van de Velde, “ is now seemingly extinct, but which then wandered through considered, on account of its quicksands, the most dangerous those woods,—as those of Scotland through its ancient river in the land and hence Deborah and Barak, in their forests,—were in like manner at once the terror and pride of Bashan.’ Flocks, too, song of victory, sang—“ The River Kishon swept them of the Israelite—‘ the fat bulls £ away ; that ancient river, the River Kishon.” I hey that there were of every kind— rams, and lambs, and goats, fled had to cross the bed of the torrent; but the Lord sent and bullocks, all of them fallings of Bashan.’” (Stanley.) a heavy rain ; the waters rose ; the warriors stumbled, and Mr Buckingham describes with equal delight and admirafell into the quicksands, and the waves which came rushing tion the varied beauties of this romantic region, the Decaon w ashed them away into the sea. The Belus, now called polis of the Romans, the seat of ten renowned cities, famed Nahr Kardanus, falls into the Bay of Acre higher up than for wealth and refinement, but now a scene of desolation, the Kishon. It is a small stream, fordable even at its over which the wild Arab ranges with his flocks in quest ot mouth in summer. It is not mentioned in the Bible, and pasture or of prey. The country, according to the account is chiefly celebrated for the tradition, that the accidental of this traveller, is of extraordinary richness, abounding in vitrefaction of its sands taught men the art of making glass. the most beautiful prospects of thick forests, verdant slopes, The chief of the other streams that fall into^ the Mediter- and extensive plains. The landscape alone varied at every^ ranean are,—the Zerka, about 3 miles N. of the ruins of turn, and gave new beauties from every different point of Caesarea, and supposed to be identical with the Crocodile view. “ The general face of this region,” he adds, “ imRiver of Pliny ; the Nahr el-Kasab, about 12 miles S. ot proved as we advanced farther into it; and every new Caesarea, supposed to be the River Kanah ot Scripture ; the direction of our path opened upon us views which surNahr el-Arsouf, about 10 miles S. of this last, and about prised and charmed us by their grandeur and their beauty. the same distance N. of Joppa, chiefly noted for a celebrated Lofty mountains gave an outline of the most magnificent castle of the same name which stood near its mouth in the character; flowing beds of secondary hills softened the time of the Crusades; the Nahr-Abi-Petros, a little to the romantic wildness of the picture ; gentle slopes, clothed N. of Joppa, and the Nahr el-Rubin, 12 miles S. of that with wood, gave a rich variety of tints hardly to be imitown ; a brook about a mile and a half S. of Ashdod, which tated by the pencil; deep valleys, filled with murmuring

PALESTINE. 189 Palestine, streams and verdant meadows, offered all the luxuriance of miles there is no appearance of present life or habitation, Palestine, cultivation ; and herds and flocks gave life and animation to except the occasional goat-herd on the hill-side, or gatherscenes as grand, as beautiful, and as highly picturesque, as ing of women at the wells, there is hardly a hill-top of the the genius or taste of a Claude could either invent or de- many within sight which is not covered by the vestiges of sire.” To the south, on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea, some fortress or city of former ages.” “ The ruins we is found the bleak, barren, and mountainous district of now see are of the most diverse ages; Saracenic, crusadCarac, where are the ruins of Rabboth-Moab, the ancient ing Roman, Grecian, Jewish, extending perhaps even to capital, and formerly a populous and an important place. the old Canaanitish remains before the arrival of Joshua.” Farther to the north is a vast plain of table-land, stretching “ In the rich local vocabulary of the Hebrew language, the southward from Damascus, not watered by any great river, words lor sites of ruined cities occupy a remarkable place. yet rendered fertile by the industry of the inhabitants, who Four separate designations are used for the several stages collect the rain-water into ponds for the purpose of irriga- of decay or of destruction which were to be seen even tion, and thus contrive to raise large crops of grain. Of during the first vigour of the Israelite conquest and these countries, Hauran is the most celebrated for its luxu- monarchy.” (Stanley. ) On this subject we cannot reriant harvests of wheat; and the undulations of the ripened frain from adducing the testimony of the Rev. J. L. grain on its extensive fields have been compared to the Porter regarding the existing ruins in Eastern Palestine. rolling waves of the ocean. Many hummocks are seen “ I had often read,” he says, “ how God had delivered scattered over the plain, the sites generally of deserted vil- into the hands of the children of Manasseh, Og, King of lages. All these hummocks, and every stone found in the Bashan, and all his people; and I had observed the statefield,—all the building stones, and the whole mountains of ment, that a portion of his territory, even the region of Hauran,—consist of basalt; and the houses being entirely Argob, contained threescore cities fenced with high walls, built of this stone, even to the door-posts, present rather a gates, and bars, besides unwalled towns a great many. I sombre appearance. The beauty and fertility of this re- had sometimes turned to my atlas, where I found the gion is said to far exceed that of Western Palestine. It ivhole of Bashan delineated, and not larger than an ordiThat sixty ivalled was pre-eminently “ a place for cattle and on this account nary English county it was coveted by Reuben and Gad and the half tribe of cities, besides unwalled towns a great many, should be Manasseh. found at such a remote age, far from the sea, with no Scenery. The high terms of admiration in which most travellers rivers and little commerce, appeared quite inexplicable. speak of the scenery of Palestine are evidently beyond the Inexplicable and mysterious though it appeared, it was truth. “ As a general rule,” says Mr Stanley, “ not only strictly true. On the spot, with my own eyes, I had now is it without the two main elements of beauty—variety of verified it. Lists of more than ahundred ruined cities and outline, and variety of colour—but the features rarely so villages in these mountains alone I had tested and found group together as to form any distinct or impressive com- correct, though not complete. More than thirty of these I bination. The tangled and featureless hills of the lowlands had myself either visited or observed so as to fix their posiof Scotland and North Wales, are perhaps the nearest like- tions on the map.” {Five Years in Damascus, 1855.) ness accessible to Englishmen of the general landscape of The mountains of Palestine are chiefly composed of an Geology, Palestine south of the plain of Esdraelon. Rounded hills, oolitic limestone, of a whitish or light gray colour, and chiefly of a gray colour,—gray partly from the limestone of abounding in caverns, to which frequent allusion is made in which they are all formed, partly from the tufts of gray Scripture. In many places the limestone is covered with shrub with which their sides are thinly clothed, and from chalk rocks, containing layers and detached masses of flint, the prevalence of the olive,—their sides formed into con- as well as corals, shells, &c. Masses of black basalt occacentric rings of rock, which must have served in ancient sionally occur in the N. of Galilee, but are more common times as supports to the terraces, of which there are still on the eastern side of the Jordan, and about the Dead Sea. traces, to their very summits ; valleys, or rather the meet- In the valley of the Jordan, and especially about the ings of these gray slopes, with the beds of dry water- Dead Sea, we have unmistakeable indications of volcanic courses at their feet—long sheets of bare rock laid, like action ; and even in the northern portion of the valley, and flagstones, side by side along the soil; these are the chief about the sources of the river, these are much more numefeatures of the greater part of the scenery of the historical rous than was formerly supposed. Such indications, howparts of Palestine. In such a landscape the contrast of ever, do not seem to have been discovered in other parts every exception is doubly felt The eye rests of the country, but earthquakes are not unfrequent. At with peculiar eagerness on the few instances in which the Tiberias, the Dead Sea, and other parts of the valley, gentle depressions become deep ravines, as in those about hot springs occur, many of which have a sulphureous taste Jerusalem, or those leading down to the valley of the Jor- or odour. Lava is found about the Dead Sea, the Sea of dan ; or in which the mountains assume a bold and pecu- Tiberias, and other parts of the Jordan valley. At Beisan, liar form, as Lebanon and Hermon, at the head of the Dr Robertson writes, “the whole region here is volcanic, whole country, or Tabor, ‘ Nebi-Samuel/ and the ‘ Frank like that around and above the Lake of Tiberias and Mr Mountain,’ in the centre of the hills themselves.” On enter- Buckingham, while crossing the River Hieromax, in his jouring Palestine, he was struck with “ the western, almost the ney to Nazareth, observed that the dark masses of rock over English, character of the scenery. Those wild uplands of which it took its course resembled a stream of cooled lava. Carmel and Ziph are hardly distinguishable (except by Of the mineral resources of the country little is known. Minerals. their ruined cities and red anemones) from the lowlands Iron is abundant in several parts, but it is almost the only of Scotland or of Wales ; the cultivated valleys of Hebron metal that is known to exist. Some traces of silver have (except by their olives) from the general features of a rich been found. Near the sources of the Jordan there are valley in Yorkshire or Derbyshire.” rich mines of asphaltum, and large portions of this mineral Ruins. ‘‘ Above all other countries in the world, it is a land of are occasionally washed up by the Dead Sea. Salt is very ruins. It is not that the particular ruins are on a scale abundant in the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea; and equal to those of Greece or Italy, stiC less to those of sulphur, nitre, and pumice are found there. Egypt. But there is no country in which they are so The climate of Palestine is temperate, and much less ciimate numerous, none in which they bear so large a proportion to changeable than ours. The variations of sunshine and rain, the villages and towns still in existence. In Judea it is which with us extend throughout the year, are there unhardly an exaggeration to say that, whilst for miles and known, the year being divided into a rainy season, com-

190 PALESTINE. Palestine, prising the latter part of autumn and the winter, and a dry diversified nature of the surface and climate, are consider- Palestine, 's'—V"*'' season, comprising the rest of the year, when the sky is ably varied in their character. The trees, however, are almost uninterruptedly cloudless, and rain very rarely falls. almost all of small size, and extensive forests are unknown. producThe rainy season usually commences about the end of Octo- The stately cedars of Lebanon, so often mentioned in Scrip- tions. ber or beginning of November, not suddenly, but by de- ture, were not, properly speaking, trees of Palestine. They grees, and with occasional intervals of two or three days were always confined to the Lebanon range, and at present of fine weather. During the months of November and they are only to be found in one small hollow on its northDecember the rains continue to fall heavily, and afterwards western slope. They are from 60 to 80 feet in height, less so, and at longer intervals, till the end of March or with wide - spreading branches, and a trunk sometimes beginning of April, when they entirely cease. The early nearly 40 feet in circumference. The olive, the fig, and and the latter rains mentioned in Scripture seem to have the pomegranate are the common trees of the country; been the first showers of autumn and the later showers of but they are all so small as scarcely to attract the eye of spring. In summer the absence of rain soon destroys the the spectator till he is in the midst of them. The olive, verdure of the fields, and gives to the general landscape which was, and still continues to be, the principal tree of the aspect of drought and barrenness. In autumn the Palestine, rarely rises to the height of more than 20 or 30 whole land becomes dry and parched, the cisterns are feet, but its branches are numerous and widely extended. nearly empty, and all nature, animate and inanimate, looks It was an object of special culture by the Jews, on account forward with longing for the return of the rainy season. of the valuable oil obtained from it. The fig tree was also Snow falls more or less in winter, but the cold is not extensively cultivated, and plantations of it still sometimes severe, and the ground is never frozen. In the higher cover large tracts of country. The pomegranate was largely parts, as at Jerusalem, it often falls to the depth of a foot cultivated in the gardens and orchards of Palestine, and is or more, but it never lies long upon the ground. Thunder frequently referred to in Scripture. It is a thick bushy and lightning are frequent in winter. In the plains and tree, with thorny twigs, and rises to the height of about 20 valleys the heat of summer is very oppressive, but not in feet. The palm tree, which in Scripture times was so comthe more elevated tracts, as at Jerusalem, except when mon in Palestine, is now rarely to be seen. “ Two or three in the garden of Jerusalem, some few perhaps at the south wind (sirocco) blows. Fertility. The question as to the fertility of Palestine, so long agi- Nablous, one or two in the plain of Esdraelon, comprise tated, has been satisfactorily set at rest by the investigations nearly all the instances of the palm in Central Palestine.” of recent travellers. In the scarped rocks and ruined ter- (Stanley.) It is still, however, not uncommon on the marirace-walls that are everywhere seen in the hilly parts of the time plains. The terebinth, or turpentine tree, is one of the country, and in the remains of aqueducts and other means of most common of the forest trees, though the name does artificial irrigation, we have ample evidence that the country not occur in our English Bibles. It is supposed to be that was formerly in the highest state of cultivation ; and wre find indicated by the Hebrew word which is variously that even now, with the present rude appliances of husbandry, the land, where cultivated, produces abundant crops. All rendered in our version, oak, plain, teil tree, &c. The oak, travellers testify to the magnificence of the crops that are indeed, is found in Palestine, but the name occurs more raised in the country. In Dr Robinson’s works frequent frequently in our version than in the original, and suggests notice is taken of this subject. In one place he speaks of the the idea, that it was much more common and conspicuous heavy crops of wheat and barley reminding him of the rich in Palestine than it really was. There are several species harvest he had seen a year before in Lincolnshire ; and in of this tree to be found, but they are all of small size. another place he says that he passed through, in the north It is still abundant in Bashan, remarkable for its size among of Galilee, “ fields of wheat of the most luxuriant growth, the trees of Palestine. Among the other trees of Palestine finer than which I had not before seen in this or any other may be mentioned the sycamore, mulberry, pine, pistachio, country.” (Later Researches.) “ No soil,” says Schubert, laurel, cypress, myrtle, almond, apricot, walnut, apple, pear, “ could be naturally more fruitful and fit for cultivation orange, lemon, &c. The vine appears to have been cultivated in all parts of than that of Palestine, if man had not destroyed the source of fertility by annihilating the former gteen covering of the Palestine, probably with the exception of the low and hot hills and slopes, and thereby destroying the regular circula- valley of the Jordan. The hilly country of the north, and tion of sweet water, which ascends as vapour from the sea the elevated region of Judea, were, however, its chief seats. to be cooled in the higher regions, and then descends to Hebron, according to the Jewish tradition, w as the primeval form the springs and rivers; for it is well known that the seat of the vine ; and at present the grapes of Hebron are vegetable kingdom performs in this circulation the func- the finest in Palestine. The region around this town tion of capillary tubes. But although the natives, from abounds with vineyards, which frequently rise in succesexasperation against their foreign conquerors and rulers sive terraces on the hill-sides. Each has still its round or (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xii. 54), and the invaders who have so square watch-tower of stone, from 10 to 15 or 20 feet high, often over-ruled this scene of ancient blessings, have greatly in which keepers are stationed to protect the fruit from reduced its prosperity, still I cannot comprehend how, not injury or pillage during the season of the vine. Grapes only scoffers like Voltaire, but early travellers, who doubtless may always be had after June, but the regular vintage does intended to declare the truth, represent Palestine as a natural not begin until the middle of September, and is not over desert, whose soil never could have been fit for profitable everywhere until the middle of November. Though deficient in trees, Palestine abounds with shrubs cultivation. Whoever has seen the exhaustless abundance of plants on Carmel and the border of the desert, the grassy and wild flowers; indeed, the number of aromatic shrubs carpet of Esdraelon, the lawns adjoining the Jordan, and and fragrant flowers that are everywhere to be met with has the rich foliage of the forests of Mount Tabor—whoever been a subject of general remark among travellers. “ My has seen the borders of the lakes of Merom and Gennesa- report,” says Schubert, “ would become a volume were reth, wanting only the cultivator to entrust to the soil his I to enumerate the plants and flowers which the season seed and plants,—may state what other country on earth, exhibited to our view, for whoever follows the comparadevastated by two thousand years of warfare and spolia- tively short course of the Jordan from the Dead Sea northtion, could be more fit for being again taken into culti- ward along the borders of Gennesareth and Merom, and onward to the utmost springs in Anti-Libanus, traverses in vation.” The vegetable productions of Palestine, owing to the a few days climates, zones, and observes varieties of plants,

PALESTINE. 191 Palestine, which are in other countries separated by hundreds of Jordan, especially to the east of that river, and in the vi- Palestine, miles Whoever desires views, really extensive cinity of Tabor and Nazareth, it thrives better and is more i and beautiful, of lilies, tulips, hyacinths, and narcissuses, common. The bulls of Bashan are frequently alluded to must, in the spring season, visit the districts through which in Scripture as being particularly strong and ferocious. we passed, where even the garlic assumes a size and beauty The buffalo is met with in various parts,—on the coast it which might render it worthy of becoming an ornamental is equal in size and strength to those of Egypt. Sheep and plant in our gardens.” Among this profusion of wild goats are still to be seen in great numbers in all parts of flowers there is a peculiar blaze of scarlet imparted to the the country. Their flesh and milk serve for daily food, landscape by the prevalence of red flowers, chiefly ane- and their wool and hair for clothing. Mutton is, and almones, wild tulips, and poppies. “ Of all the ordinary ways has been, the principal animal food used in the East; aspects of the country, this blaze of scarlet colour is per- beef or veal is now but rarely eaten, though it seems to haps the most peculiar; and to those who first enter the have been made use of by the ancient Israelites to a conHoly Land it is no wonder that it has suggested the siderable extent. The sheep of Palestine are all of that touching and significant name of ‘ the Saviour’s blood- species which is characterized by an enormously large tail, drops.’” (Stanley.) chiefly composed of fat. They are horned, and commonly In the time of the patriarchs, and when first occupied by white,—black ones are very rare. There are two species or the children of Israel, Palestine was a pastoral country. As varieties of the goat; one differing little from the common the people became settled and increased in numbers, agri- species, the other considerably larger in size, with long, culture came in for a share of attention, and the flocks and hanging ears, and in the head and horns very much reherds were sent to the wildernesses and other places not sembling a ram. The latter is furnished with hair of consuited for cultivation ; but throughout at least Old Testa- siderable fineness, but seemingly not so fine as that of the ment times we have abundant evidence that pasturage same species in Asia Minor. The “ wild goats” mentioned continued to be a favourite and a principal pursuit with the in Scripture were probably the ibex and the kebsch, both Jew'ish people. Hence the frequent allusions that occur of which are still found in the mountains of Palestine. The in Scripture to pastoral life. The plains and valleys every- latter is also called the wild sheep, though it bears little where abound with the most luxuriant pastures, and even resemblance to that animal, and is chiefly distinguished by the hilly portions, where vegetation is more scant, are w'ell a long pendant mane about its throat and the upper part adapted for the numerous flocks of sheep and goats which of its fore-legs. The milk of goats was by the Jews more still constitute the chief wealth of the people. Most of the esteemed than that of any other animal, and the flesh was present inhabitants, like the early settlers, are nomadic, in high favour, especially that of kids. Camels are still, as wandering about from place to place with their flocks as they were in Scripture times, the principal beasts of burden the season or the state of the herbage demand. In sum- in Palestine, the roads being few and not suited for carts mer, when the plains are parched with drought and every or carriages.1 It is an animal that is invaluable to the green herb is dried up, they proceed to the mountains or wandering Arab tribes, and is used both for carrying burbanks of the rivers; and in winter and spring, when the dens and for riding. The flesh was forbidden to the ancient rains have re-clothed the plains with verdure and filled the Jews, but is eaten by the Arabs, and the milk is muoh water-courses, they return. used. The horse was not much made use of by the anThe chief of the agricultural productions are wheat and cient Israelites, and the rearing of it was discouraged by barley, of which the country, as already mentioned, yields law. It was chiefly employed in warlike enterprises and most abundant crops. Maize and rye are also common, for state purposes. The horses of Egypt are the earliest and rice is produced on the marshy borders of Lake mentioned, and that country was always famous for them. Huleh and upper parts of the Jordan. Pease and beans The horse at present is not a common animal in Palestine, of several species are grown, and in some parts the potato although some fine animals of the high Arabian breed are has been introduced. Hemp is more commonly grown not unfrequently seen. The ass was more commonly used than flax; and in favourable localities cotton is largely cul- by the Jews than the horse, and frequently persons of the tivated. Among the other productions are madder, indigo, first consequence rode on it. It was also employed to carry and tobacco ; and in some places the sugar-cane is culti- burdens and in labours of the field, but was prohibited from vated to a small extent. In the hill country the season of ploughing in the same field with the ox. The ass in the harvest is later than in the plains of the Jordan and of the East, when properly trained and cared for, is an active and sea-coast. In the plain of the Jordan, the wheat harvest is docile animal; and hence the term is used in Scripture in early in May; in the plains of the coast and of Esdraelon, a laudatory sense. Wild asses are often named in Scripit is towards the latter end of that month; and in the hills, ture, but they are not now to be found in Palestine, though not until June. The barley harvest is about a fortnight they are still to be seen in Mesopotamia and farther east. earlier than that of wheat. They are of an elegant figure, and of great swiftness, roaminimals. Palestine in ancient times was distinguished for the ing in herds in desert places far from the abodes of men. abundance of its cattle, including sheep, goats, camels, and Mules are first mentioned in the time of David, but were asses; and these, though now much diminished in numbers, probably known much earlier. They do not seem to have still constitute a principal part of the wealth of the inhabi- become very common. Asses and mules are at present tants. Herds of black cattle are now rarely to be seen, much used for riding, as they afford a means of locomotion though they would seem to have been common in ancient well suited to the difficult mountain paths of the country. times. This no doubt arises from the heavy and unscruAmong the wild animals, the lion, though not uncommon pulous exactions of the government, from whose notice in ancient times, seems to be now extinct in the country. wealth, in the shape of animals so large, could not easily be Bears, however, are still to be met w ith among the mounconcealed or withdrawn. The ox in the neighbourhood tains. Boars are often observed upon Mount Tabor and of Jerusalem is small and unsightly, but on the Upper the woody slopes of Mount Carmel, and from thence they 1 “ Roads for wheeled vehicles are now unknown in any part of Palestine; and in the earlier history they are very rarely mentioned. As a general means of communication, the ‘chariots’ of Jehu and of Ahab are only described as driven along the plain of Esdraelon. Under the Romans, indeed, the same astonishing genius for road -making which carried the Via Flaminia through the Apennines, and has left traces of itself in the narrow passes of the Scironian rocks, may have increased the facilities of communication in Palestine ; and hence, perhaps, the mention of the chariot road through the pass from Jerusalem to Gaza, where the Ethiopian met Philip. But under ordinary circumstances, they must have always been more or less impracticable in the mountain ranges.” (Stanley.)

192

PALESTINE. Palestine, frequently descend into the plains of Acre and Esdraelon. various portions were subsequently known,—Judah, Ben- Palestine, v< —‘v—^ Jackals are common, and are very destructive to the flocks. jamin, Simeon, and Dan inhabiting the southern portion ; The hyaena is found chiefly in the valley of the Jordan, Ephraim, the half tribe of Manasseh, and Issachar, the cenand in the mountains around the Lake of Tiberias, but it is tral ; Zebulon, Naphtali, and Asher, the northern ; and Reualso occasionally seen in other districts of Palestine. The ben, Gad, and the remaining half of Manasseh, the country panther is found among the mountains of Central Pales- E. of the Jordan. Palestine was afterwards divided into the tine. Wolves and foxes are common. The gazelle or two kingdoms of Israel and Judah ; the latter including the antelope is often seen in flocks bounding over the grassy tribes of Judah and Benjamin, and the former the other ten. plains, and is hunted by the Arabs. Among the rest may In the time of our Saviour, Palestine was divided into the be mentioned porcupines, hedgehogs, hares, conies, jerboas following provinces:—Galilee, in the N., consisting of Upper hares, rats, mice, and moles. The conies, “ a feeble folk” or Northern, and Lower or Southern Galilee ; Samaria in the who “ make their houses in the rocks,” have been identified centre; and Judea in the S. of Palestine proper; while, with the wubar, an animal characterized by the liveliness on the E. of the Jordan, Persea was subdivided into eight of its motions and the quickness of its retreat within the smaller districts. rocks when danger is apprehended. Except in the head, The earliest event in connection with Palestine recorded in History, it very much resembles a rabbit, but is of a stronger build sacred history is the arrival in the country of Abraham, who, along and of duskier colour, being of a dark brown. “ It is en- with Lot, his nephew, migrated hither at the Divine command from in the year 1921 B.C. The following year a famine tirely destitute of a tail, and has some bristles at its mouth, Mesopotamia in Canaan compelled Abraham to remove into Egypt, but he soon after over its head, and down its back, along the course of which returned; and finding the pastures insufficient for the large flocks there are traces of light and dark shade. In its short ears, and herds of himself and Lot, he separated from his nephew, w'ho small, black, and naked feet, and pointed snout, it resembles settled in Sodom, while Abraham himself took up his abode in the valley of Mamre, near Hebron. Previous to the arrival of Abrathe hedgehog.” (Wilson.) in Canaan, Chedorlaomer, who is called in the Bible, King of The birds of Palestine are not numerous. “ In no ham Elam or Elymais, a part of Persia, and who is said by Josephus to region,” says Dr Wilson, “ in which we had before travelled have been a vassal of the Assyrian empire, extended his conquests had we seen so few of the feathered race as in the Holy beyond the Euphrates, and reduced into subjection five of the petty Land.” The number of distinct species, however, is con- kings or chiefs who lived in the valley S. of the Dead Sea. After siderable. Among the more important or better known twelve years of submission, and about eight years after the coming of may be noticed,—the vulture, eagle, osprey, roller, ostrich, Abraham, these five chieftains rebelled against Chedorlaomer, who the next year (1912 B.C.) invaded the country with three other kite, hawk, crow, owl, golden oriole, cuckoo, bee-eater, in monarchs, and after defeating the rebels in a pitched battle, retired, kingfisher, woodpecker, woodcock, partridge, spoonbill, carrying with him from Sodom and Gomorrah large quantities of stork, heron, pelican, swan, goose, duck, and quail. The booty and many captives, among whom was Lot. Abraham, hearing katta, a bird much more common than this last, and about of this disaster, armed all his followers, to the number of 318, and the size of a partridge, is supposed to be the quail of Scrip- pursued the retreating army. He overtook them near the source ture. There are no serpents of large size, and it seems to of the Jordan, fell upon them by night, and totally defeated them, his nephew and the rest of the captives along with their be doubtful if there be any of a venomous nature found in rescuing goods. Palestine. Scorpions hold a principal place among the The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah took place in the year noxious animals ; and mosquitoes are common. Bees are 1897 B.C., when, on account of the wickedness of these cities, God extremely common in this “ land of honey,” and deposit rained brimstone and fire from heaven upon them, by which they their honey in trees and crevices of the rocks. Occa- were entirely destroyed. The only persons who escaped from this were Lot and his two daughters. After Abraham’s sionally the country is visited by immense swarms of locusts, catastrophe Isaac became the head of the patriarchal family, and he seems which consume grass, foliage, and every species of vegeta- death, to have resided all his life in the Promised Land. The only event tion. Beetles are abundant, and of various species; and of historical importance that is recorded in his days is the covenant mosquitoes are rather common. he made with Abimelech, King of the Philistines, a successor of the monarch of the same name with whom his father had entered into The principal towns of Palestine will be found noticed a similar alliance. In 1759 B.C., Jacob, Isaac’s younger son, obliged leave the country on account of the resentment of his brother under their respective names in other parts of this work; to Esau, took refuge in Mesopotamia with his uncle Laban. There he and an account of the present inhabitants will be given remained for twenty years in the capacity of servant, receiving in under Syria, of which country Palestine is now only a marriage Laban’s two daughters, Leah and Rachel, as the price of the first fourteen years, and large flocks of sheep and goats, which condivision. the principal riches of those days, for the remaining period Divisions. The earliest inhabitants of Palestine were known by the stituted his service. At last, in the year 1739 B.C., Jacob returned to general name of Canaanites, being descended from Canaan, of Canaan with his wives, the eleven sons that had been born to him the youngest son of Ham. By them the country was thinly in his exile, and his flocks. On his way to that country, Jacob was peopled in the time of Abraham; and they were divided reconciled to his brother Esau, who had established himself as a into several distinct nations. These nations were,—the powerful prince in the mountains of Seir, the country afterwards Kenites, the Kenizzites, the Kadmonites, and the Gergash- occupied by the Edomites, his descendants. In 1728 B.C., Joseph, favourite son of Jacob, was by his brethren sold to a company ites, who dwelt to the E. of the Jordan and the Lake of the Ishmaelites and Midianites, and carried down to Egypt, where Gennesareth; the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Jebusites, of he was re-sold to Potiphar, one of the chief officers of the king. On and the Amorites, who occupied the hilly region in the S.; account of a false accusation by his mistress, he was thrown into the Canaanites, properly so called, who dwelt in the middle prison, where he remained for some time. Having, however, inof the country ; and the Hivites, who inhabited the extreme terpreted two dreams of the king, and thereby foretold seven years N., among the southern branches of Lebanon; while the of plenty and seven years of famine, he was raised by the king to highest authority. During the seven plentiful years he stored Phoenicians occupied the northern, and the Philistines the the up the corn in granaries, so that when the famine came there was southern part of the coast. In the time of Moses the still corn in Egypt. Jacob sent down his sons to Egypt for corn, nations W. of the Jordan seem to have occupied the same but they knew not their brother Joseph. On their second visit, he positions as before ; but the eastern region was divided into made himself known to them, and invited Jacob his father, and all three large territories,—Bashan in the N., Gilead in the his household, to come into Egypt. This invitation was complied centre, and in the S. the land called the Plains of Moab, with ; and in 1706 B.C. the whole patriarchal family, to the number 76, removed to Egypt, and settled in the land of Goshen. The a part of the territory of the Moabites which had been of people while in Egypt rapidly increased in numbers, and continued conquered from them by the Amorites. After the conquest unmolested until the rise of a new dynasty in that country. The of Palestine by the Israelites under Joshua, the country monarch, alarmed at the rapid growth of an alien people in his was divided among the twelve tribes, by whose names the dominions, took measures to prevent, if possible, their increase, by

PALESTINE. 193 the revolt of the ten tribes, who chose Jeroboam for their king; Palestine. Palestine, reducing them to the condition of slaves, and destroying all their . v / male children. A deliverer was, however, at length raised up for and thus began that division of the empire which paved the way ^ the people in the person of Moses, who, when he could be no longer for its dowmfall under the successive attacks of its enemies. The concealed by his mother, was committed to the river in a basket kingdoms of Israel and Judah were hereafter ruled by different of bulrushes, and being discovered by the king’s daughter, was monarchs, who no longer joined against their common enemies, adopted by her, and brought up at the Egyptian court. But in the but waged war against each other; and, in place of the union that year 1531 B.C. Moses, then forty years old, espoused the cause of might have been expected in the descendants from a common stock, his oppressed countrymen, and was compelled to leave Egypt. He they regarded each other with all the aversion of aliens. In the took refuge among the Midianites, near the eastern arm of the Red meantime, the powerful empires of Assyria and Babylon in the E., Sea, and remained there as a shepherd for 40 years. At the end and of Egypt in the S., were contending with each other for the of that time, he, along with his brother Aaron, was divinely com- dominion of the world ; their vast armies frequently threatened missioned to deliver the Israelites out of Egypt. This deliverance the destruction of the comparatively petty states of Judea; and was effected in the year 1491 B.C. by means of the ten plagues with at length, in the reign of Hoshea, 721 years before the Christian which the Egyptians were afflicted, and which compelled them at era, Samaria, the capital of the kingdom of Israel, was taken by the King of Assyria, the land conquered, and the whole nation last to let the Israelites go. When they took their departure from Egypt, Moses was their carried into captivity. We subjoin a list of the kings who reigned in Samaria, with the ruler and their guide. He led them through the wilderness, where they were fed by the miraculous interposition of heaven; and length of their several reigns, and the period when they reigned :— B.C. through him their Divine Legislator gave them laws and statutes. B.C. 21 yrs. 975 13. Jeroboam II 41 yrs. 823 But the burden of his office being too great for him, the judicial 1. Jeroboam 1 14 „ 954 1st Interregnum 11 ,, 782 duties were divided; all lesser causes being, by the advice of his 2. Nabab 23 ,, 953 14. Zachariah 6mos. 771 father-in-law, referred to the rulers of thousands, of hundreds, of 3. Baasha 1 „ 930 15. Shallum 1 „ 771 fifties, and of tens, while those only of greater moment were sub- 4. Elah 7days929 16. Menahem 10 yrs. 770 mitted to the chief judge. Moses was succeeded in his office by 5. Zimri 11 yrs. 929 17. Pekahiah 2 „ 760 Joshua, under whom the Israelites obtained possession of the land of 6. Omri 21 „ 918 18. Pekah 20 „ 758 Canaan, which was partitioned by lot among the different tribes, and 7. Ahab 1 „ 897 2d Interregnum 10 „ 738 again subdivided among the families of the same tribe. The land was 8. Ahaziah 12 „ 896 19. Hoshea 7 „ 728 declared inalienable, and the perpetual inheritance of the families 9. Jehoram 10. Jehu 28 „ 884 to whom it was originally assigned ; and accordingly, every fiftieth 11. Jehoahaz 17 „ 856 year, which was proclaimed to be a year of jubilee, all debts and Samaria taken 254 „ 721 16 „ 839 mortgages on land were declared to be cancelled, and every man 12. Jehoash was to return into his own land. Other laws were passed for enkingdom of Judah, weakened by the loss of the ten tribes, forcing the purity of divine worship and of moral conduct; for wasThe afterwards assailed by the King of Babylon ; and was at length equity in the transactions between man and man ; and also for the brought an end by Nebuchadnezzar in 588 B.C. Jerusalem was punishment of idolatry and other iniquities; for it was the peculiar taken andtodestroyed along with the temple, and the king, the princes, distinction of this community, that the law took cognisance not and most of the people of Judah were carried away to Babylon. only of offences against society, but of every breach of the Divine following is the line of kings who reigned in Jerusalem from commands. The order of the priesthood was also instituted in the theThe death of Solomon to the destruction of the first temple :— family of Levi, gifts and sacrifices were offered by them in exB.C. B.C. piation of sin, and various acts were enumerated by which the 17 yrs. 975 13. Hezekiah .27 yrs. 725 children of Israel became unclean, and which, though innocent in 1. Rehoboam 3 „ 958 14. Manasseh .55 „ 698 themselves, were yet employed to point out the great defilement of 2. Abijah 41 „ 955 15. Amon . 2 „ 643 sin, and for which, therefore, certain modes of purification were 3. Asa 25 „ 914 16. Josiah .31 „ 641 appointed. The distinction was also laid down between clean and 4. Jehoshaphat . 3 mos. unclean animals, from the latter of which the people were command- 5. Jehoram or Joram 4 ,, 889 17. Jehoahaz 1 „ 885 18. Jehoiakim .11 yrs. 610 ed to abstain. An enumeration was made in the plains of Moab of 6. Ahaziah all the males of the children of Israel above twenty years of age, 7. Queen Athaliah... 6 ,, 884 19. Coniah or Je- 1 3 mos. hoiachin... J and the sum of them is given at 601,730 ; the Levites, who were 8. Joash or Jehoash..40 „ 878 29 „ 838 20. Zedekiah ,11 yrs. 598 not mentioned among the rest, amounted to 23,000 ; which makes 9. Amaziah the sum of 624,700 males above twenty years of age. The total 10. UzziahorAzariah52 ,, 809 16 „ 757 Jerusalem taken 387 „ 588 population must therefore at that time have been about 2,500,000. 11. Jotham 16 „ 741 The Israelites, after their settlement in the land of Canaan, were 12. Ahaz involved in wars with the surrounding states, and were often Seventy years were appointed as the term of the Jewish captivity, given into their hands on account of disobedience. The land was in the course of which the empire of Babylon was overthrown by in this manner frequently wasted, and the happiness of the people Cyrus the king of Persia, in whose reign the Jews were encouraged interrupted, by the inroads of their neighbours. From these ene- to rebuild their city, and to return to their own land. Zerubbabel, mies they were saved by deliverers called judges, raised up to them, Ezra, and Nehemiah, were the successive leaders that presided over under whose peaceful sway the land enjoyed long intervals of rest. the restoration of the Jewish kingdom. After many interruptions But during the old age of Samuel, the last of the judges, in from the jealousy of their powerful enemies, the second temple consequence of the misconduct of his sons and the unsettled state was at length reared. But it was so inferior in magnificence and of the country, the people were dissatisfied, and entreated, against splendour to that of Solomon, that the aged men wept when they the solemn protest of this aged prophet, that they might have a contrasted this modern structure with the glory of the first house. king, like the nations around them; and Samuel was desired to The Jews were now ruled by the Persian king and his lieutenants hearken to their request. Saul was accordingly (1095) chosen king; in civil though not in sacred things, which were regulated by the but, on account of his disobedience, the kingdom was rent from him, law of Moses as administered by their own high priests ; and they and given to David; and he terminated his fatal course in a dis- enjoyed for a period of nearly two centuries the blessings of a astrous defeat on the mountains of Gilboa, in which he and his son settled government. After the conquest of Persia by Alexander, Jonathan were slain. David ascended the throne of Judah in and the division of his kingdom among his successors, Asia was dis1055, but Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, reigned for seven years over tracted by new wars among those rivals for the supreme dominion, the other tribes. The latter being murdered in 1048, David became and the Jews often embarrassed by these contentions, owed their king of the whole country without dispute, and commenced a pro- independence rather to the forbearance of their enemies than to sperous reign, in the course of which he subdued all his enemies. their own strength. At length, however, Antiochus Epiphanes, Although the peace of the country was disturbed by the domestic who ascended the throne of Syria in 175 B.C., having heard of treason of Absalom, yet David left a flourishing kingdom to his insurrections among them, invaded their territory with a powerful successor Solomon, under whose reign (1015-975) the kingdom was army, and besieged and took Jerusalem while it was yet unpreenlarged on every side, and became one of the most flourishing pared for defence. He wreaked his vengeance on the unhappy empires of Asia, extending on the east as far as the Euphrates, and Jews, 4000 of whom were put to death, and an equal number repossessing ports both on the Mediterranean and on the Red Sea. duced to slavery. The temple was plundered of all its treasures David was a man of war, but Solomon was devoted to peace ; and and sacred utensils, and an unclean animal, a sow, was offered by accordingly, during his reign was constructed that magnificent his orders on the altar of burnt-offerings. The Jewish nation was temple at Jerusalem which was the wonder of future ages. at the same time cruelly persecuted; an edict was issued for the After the death of Solomon, the kingdom was divided into two extermination of the whole race; and in furtherance of this barsovereignties.. The tyrannical conduct of Rehoboam, in which he barous policy, Apollonius, the commander of the troops, when the persisted, against the advice of his aged councillors, gave rise to people had assembled in Jerusalem on the Sabbath, made a furious VOL. XVII. 2B

PALESTINE. Palestine, attack with his troops on the peaceful multitude, whom he slaugh- and Judea; to Antipas that of Peraea and Galilee; and to Philip Palestine, tered without mercy, or carried into a hopeless captivity. The that of Trachonitis, Gaulanitis, Batanea, and Paneas, lying partly v | _t t v v city was plundered, and set on fire in many places ; the walls were beyond the limits of Palestine. Archelaus was soon after deprived broken down, and a strong fortress built on Mount Zion, which of his great office, on account of maladministration, and bancommanded the temple and the adjacent parts. Having made ished into Gaul. Judea was now reduced to the condition of a these preparations, he proceeded to farther persecutions against Roman province, under a governor who resided at Caesarea, but the religion of the Jews. They were watched in their visits to the who was subordinate to the prefect of Syria. One of these goverholy sanctuary, and harassed by the troops ; the rite of circum- nors was Pontius Pilate, under whose authority the Saviour was cision was prohibited; and a compliance with the heathen idola- crucified. The Jews were far from being a contented or happy tries was enforced at the point of the sword. They were compelled people under the Roman yoke. They were exposed to the severe to profane the Sabbath and to eat swine’s flesh. The holy temple exactions of their delegated rulers, and to outrages and plunder by was violated by the worship of Jupiter, whose statue was erected the Roman soldiers stationed in the province to overawe the on the altar of burnt-otferings, and the licentious revels of the people. Disturbances, provoked by these oppressions, and quelled Bacchanalia were substituted for the pure festivals of the Jewish by the legionary troops, became the pretext for fresh cruelties; church. The rage of persecution spared neither age nor sex; and and misery, disorder, and violence thus reigned throughout the all over the country torture and death were inflicted on the unhappy once happy land. The only portion of the country that enjoyed persons who, remaining stedfast in their faith, refused to partici- comparative quiet was Galilee and the country beyond Jordan, which was ruled by Antipas and Philip. In 38 A.D. Herod Agrippa pate in these heathenish rites. Such unheard-of cruelties excited the deepest indignation, and was appointed, by Caligula, king of Galilee and the country at length roused the nation to resistance. The heroic family of beyond Jordan ; and in 41 B.C. he obtained from Claudius the rest the Maccabees, consisting of five brethren, the sons of Mattathias, a of the dominions of his grandfather, Herod the Great. His policy priest of the race of Asmoneus, were the champions of the pa- was conciliatory towards the Jews; he respected their worship, triotic cause. They were all of renowned valour; and Judas repaired and adorned the temple, and joined with them in their having headed the insurgents, a determined band only 6000 in persecution of the new sect of Christians, having put to death the number, defeated the oppressors of his country in many great apostle James. His miserable end, being eaten of worms, is rebattles, and restored its independence (165 B.C.) But he had to lated in the Acts of the Apostles. His son Agrippa succeeded contend against domestic treason as well as foreign war. Alcimus, him, hut after his death Judea was again governed by Roman prowho was in the interest of the Syrians, assuming the title of high curators. The discontent of the Jews, their impatience of the Ropriest, claimed the allegiance of the Jews, and Judas was compelled man yoke, their proneness to insurrection under the vain predicin self-defence to seek the alliance of the Romans, who eagerly tions of their soothsayers, that a conquering Messiah was to arise, sought a pretence for interference in the affairs of their neigh- who should restore the independence and glory of their country, bours. In the meantime, the Maccabee chief was slain in the field afforded too fair a pretence for the severities of their rulers. The of battle (161 B.C.), and was succeeded by his brother Jonathan, country abounded in scenes of rapine and anarchy ; the national who, employing his power in aiding Alexander Balas to obtain the faith and the holiest rites were despised and trampled upon ; and crown of Syria, was allowed by him in return to unite the spiritual at length, under the administration of Florus, the people flew to authority of the high priest with the temporal sway (153 B.C.) ; arms, and entered on their last and desperate conflict with the and under this dynasty of the Asmonean princes Palestine was Roman power. The insurrection broke out (in the year 65 A.D.) • governed for more than a hundred years. Jonathan was succeeded at Caesarea, the inhabitants of which, galled by cruel insults, deby his son Simon (143 B.C.), who secured the tranquillity of the clared their determination to resist to the last extremity. The country by cultivating the friendship of Rome. He was cut off, Jews in Jerusalem shared in this heroic determination, and made the victim of domestic treason ; and John Hyrcanus, his younger preparations for defence. Cestus, the prefect of Syria, advanced son, ascended the throne (136 B.C.) His reign was prosperous and to the gates and demanded an entrance for the Roman troops. The successful. He not only threw off the Syrian yoke, but extended Romans were, however, on this occasion defeated with great his territories eastward and northward. He besieged and utterly slaughter, and lost all their artillery. The intelligence of these disasters excited the indignation of destroyed Samaria ; and thus gratified the vindictive spirit of the Jews against the Samaritans. The short reign of Aristobulus, his Nero, who sent Vespasian, a man of tried valour and experience, son, followed in 106 B.C. ; in the next year that of Alexander Jan- to assume the government of Syria, and to calm the troubles of naeus, whose oppressions excited a civil war in the country. The in- that distracted province. He entered Judea about the year 67, surgents, calling in the aid of the Syrians, became unpopular; and along with his son, the renowned Titus, to whom was committed Alexander, after many reverses, at last succeeded in collecting a the conduct of the war. Many sanguinary battles were now fought powerful army, with which he completely re-established his power, between the contending armies, in which the tumultuary levies of and took vengeance on his enemies. He was succeeded in 78 the Jews were broken and dispersed by the veteran legions of B.C. by his son Hyrcanus the Second. His brother Aristobulus, Rome; towns and fortresses were successively taken; and the after secretly opposing him for some time, at length threw off the Jews, no longer able to face the enemy in the field, were driven mask, and openly aspired to the supreme power. The two com- within the walls of their capital, to which Titus at length laid petitors were preparing to appeal to arms, when the Romans under siege. The defence was obstinate, and the besiegers were brave Pompey, having subdued the greater part of Syria, were now called and numerous, employing all the resources of the military art in into Palestine as peaceful arbiters in this dispute. Aristobulus, their attack on the devoted city. In the course of this protracted however, being impatient, had recourse to arms, and shut himself siege partial successes were obtained by the Jews, who fought up in Jerusalem, which was invested in the year 63 B.c. by the bravely, and harassed the besiegers by frequent and successful Roman general Gabinius, the lieutenant of Pompey, and carried by sallies. But the defences of the city, strong both by nature and assault with great slaughter. The authority of Hyrcanus was re- art, gradually gave way before the perseverance and skill of the established, and Aristobulus was carried prisoner to Rome, whence Roman troops; and as Titus proceeded partly by blockade, he shut afterwards making his escape, he raised the standard of revolt in in the whole city with a wall, and the horrors of famine were Judea. But he had no force that could oppose the Roman armies added to all the other miseries which the inhabitants suffered. It under Mark Antony, who speedily re-established the authority of would be endless to detail all the horrors of this protracted siege; Rome in every part of the country. The rule of Judea was in famine raged within the walls; every inch of ground was fiercely 47 B.c. delegated to Antipater, the minister of Hyrcanus, who ap- disputed ; and prodigious numbers of men fell on both sides. But pointed his two sons, Phasael and Herod, to be governors, the one the Romans made a steady progress. The city was not completely of Jerusalem, and the other of Galilee. But a new competitor ap- in their hands till four months after the beginning of the siege; peared for the supreme authority in Judea, namely, a son of Aris- and notwithstanding the wishes of Titus to save it, the temple was tobulus, who, having taken refuge among the Parthians, invaded consumed by fire. The inhabitants were everywhere put to the the country with a powerful army, and succeeded in obtaining the sword, or made captives and sold for slaves. The number of Jews kingdom. Phasael committed suicide, and Hyrcanus was deprived who perished in the siege is estimated at 1,100,000, a far greater of his ears and sent to Babylonia ; but Herod, the younger son of population than the city usually contained; but the annual feast Anti pater, escaped to Rome, where, through the influence of Antony, of unleavened bread, which took place at this time, had crowded he was made king of Judea (b.c. 40). Two years afterwards he it with a vast concourse of strangers from all quarters, who, by established himself on the throne, and thus put an end to the the sudden approach of the hostile army, were shut up within the Asmonean dynasty. He employed himself in works of architecture, walls. The destruction of the city took place in the year 70 A.D. After the Roman armies were withdrawn from Jerusalem, many particularly in the repair of the temple, by which he hoped to obtain favour among the Jews. It was in his reign that the Mes- of the Jews returned to dwell in the ruined city, though the Roman siah was born, and it was from his cruelty that he fled into Egypt. emperor, indignant at the late rebellion, had placed a garrison of On his death, in the year 4 A.D., he bequeathed his dominions to 800 troops on Mount Zion, in order to prevent any attempt to rehis three sons: to Archelaus the government of Idumea, Samaria, build the sacred capital. The Jews, however, were still discon-

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PALESTINE. 195 Palestine, tented and rebellious; they still fondly believed that an earthly prayer marked every spot said to be memorable for any of the Palestine, Messiah was shortly to arise, to free them from bondage, and to sayings or doings of the Saviour. The Jews beheld with indignagive them the dominion of the whole earth. They accordingly tion the rise of these Christian monuments within the precincts of listened to the tales of every impostor, and were easily seduced into the holy city, since they were as much opposed to the Christian rebellion by vain hopes of national glory that were never realized. worship as to the heathen idolatry. But their influence was now In the course of these commotions great cruelties were committed; at an end. Scattered in distant parts, they could no longer act but in the end the Jews were everywhere borne down by the disci- with consistency or vigour; yet so attached were they to their pline of the Roman legions, and paid the penalty of their rebellion own ancient rites, that, however faint the chance of success, they with their lives. By acts of mutual cruelty the animosity of both were ready in crowds to rally round the standard of their ancient parties was inflamed; the sword of persecution was let loose against faith wherever it wms displayed, and to follow any daring leader the Jewish religion by their conquerors; the rite of circumcision, into the field. But the time was past. Jerusalem was now filled the reading of the law, and the observance of the Jewish Sabbath, with the emblems of a new faith, and crowds of pilgrims were atand all the other memorials of the national faith, were forbidden. tracted from the most distant countries by the eager desire of conIn the city of Jerusalem, which was to a certain extent repaired, a templating the place of the Redeemer’s passion, and of the previous colony of Greeks and Latins was established, in order to preclude incidents of his life. These visits were encouraged from various the return of the Jews, and all further hopes of the restoration of motives. They evinced, no doubt, the zeal of the new converts; their kingdom. But the policy of the Romans was of no avail and being at once a proof of piety and a source of profit, they were against the deep-rooted prejudices of this infatuated people ; and encouraged by the clergy of Jerusalem. The reign of Julian (361-363) was a new era in the history of no sooner had a new impostor arisen in 131, of the name of Barcochab, “ the son of a star,” than the deluded Israelites hailed him Palestine ; and the Jews anticipated, from his declared enmity to as the light that was to dawn in the latter days, and usher in the Christianity, his favour for their own faith. The policy of this day of their long-expected rest. They accordingly crowded to his heathen emperor countenanced them in this belief, when he enstandard ; and in a short time he had mustered a powerful army of deavoured, by rebuilding the temple of Jerusalem in its former 200,000 devoted followers. Owing to the absence of the Roman splendour, to discredit the truth of those prophecies which delegions, engaged at that time in distant service, important advan- nounced perpetual desolation on the devoted city. He chose the tages were gained, and Jerusalem was again occupied by the insur- commanding eminence of Mount Moriah for the site of a new strucgent Jews, besides about fifty castles, and numbers of open towns. ture, which was to eclipse the splendour of the Christian church But this career of success was speedily terminated by the arrival on the adjacent hill of Calvary; and he resolved to establish a of Severus, afterwards emperor, with a large and well-appointed J ewish order of priests, who might revive the observance of the Mobody of legionary troops; the Jews were overwhelmed by numbers, saic rites, together with as numerous a colony of Jews as could be discipline, and military skill; their cities were taken and destroyed ; collected, in the holy city. Such was still the ardour of the naand Either, where the leader of the rebellion, Barcochab, had made tional faith that the Jews crowded from all parts, and exasperated his last stand, was stormed with great slaughter, and himself slain. by their insolent triumph the hostility of the Christian inhabitants. Of the Jews it is estimated that 580,000 died on the field ; and the All now joined with unwearied zeal in the sacred work of rebuildremnant who escaped mostly perished by famine and disease, or ing the temple. Liberal contributions poured in from all quarters ; amid the flames of their ruined cities. Under these ruthless de- men and women joined in the labour; and the authority of the vastations the country was at last converted into a desert; the in- monarch was seconded by the enthusiasm of the people. But this habitants were either slain or driven into exile • and the Divine last effort of expiring zeal was unsuccessful; no temple ever arose denunciations were now literally fulfilled against this misguided on the ruins of the heathen edifices ; and the progress of the work, people, that they should be scattered among all the nations of the according to a story generally believed at the time, was stopped by earth. the interposition of heaven, by flames of fire bursting out from the The victors having thus satiated their vengeance, began in due foundations with loud explosions, by which the workmen were so time to relax their stern and intolerant policy. Under the mild terrified that they refused to continue their labour. The attempt, rule of Antoninus Pius, the Jews were restored to their ancient from whatever cause, was abandoned; and as it was only underprivileges, to the freedom of worship, and to all their other na- taken during the last six months of Julian’s reign, the fact seems tional rites. They were now mingled with the nations, and were sufficiently explained, without the aid of a miracle, by the absence found dwelling in all parts of the Roman empire; and their and death of the emperor, and by the new maxims that were adopted general condition at this time, as described by Gibbon, was not during the Christian reign that succeeded. unfavourable. “ The numerous remains,” says this eloquent hisAfter the death of Julian it was the policy of the Christian emtorian, “ of that people, though they were excluded from the perors to depress the Jews in Palestine, though they were not ill precincts of Jerusalem, were permitted to form and to maintain treated throughout the provinces, and were even granted conconsiderable establishments both in Italy and in the provinces, to siderable privileges and immunities. But it is astonishing how acquire the freedom of Rome, to enjoy municipal honours, and to carefully the fathers instilled into the minds of their children, obtain at the same time an exemption from the burdensome and along with their ancient faith, the fondly-cherished delusion, that expensive offices of society. The moderation or contempt of the some new and happier era of freedom and independence was yet to Romans gave a legal sanction to the form of ecclesiastical police dawn on Judea; and how eagerly the children, imbibing this idea, which was instituted by the vanquished sect. The patriarch, who became the prey of every impostor, and, under the blind impulse of had fixed his residence at Tiberias, was empowered to appoint his enthusiasm, rashly entered into new conflicts with their enemies in subordinate ministers and apostles to exercise a domestic jurisdic- the field, where they perished, the willing victims of a hopeless tion, and to receive from his dispersed brethren an annual contri- cause. About the beginning of the seventh century the peace of bution. New synagogues were frequently erected in the principal Judea was seriously disturbed by the Persian invasion of Chosroes. cities of the empire ; and the sabbaths, the fasts, and the festivals, The Greeks and the Persians were for a long period rivals for the which were either commanded by the Mosaic law, or enjoined by dominion of the East; and Chosroes, the grandson of Nushirvan, now the traditions of the rabbis, were celebrated in the most solemn and invading the Roman empire, successively stormed and sacked the public manner. Such gentle treatment insensibly assuaged the cities of Antioch and Caesarea in Cappadocia. From Syria the flood stern temper of the Jews. Awakened from their dream of pro- of invasion rolled southward on Palestine, and the Persian army phecy and conquest, they assumed the behaviour of peaceable and was joined by the Jews to the number of 26,000, still burning with industrious subjects. Their irreconciled hatred of mankind, instead the love of independence. Jerusalem was stormed by the combined of flowing out in acts of blood and violence, evaporated in less armies in 614, the city was sacked, and the magnificent monuments dangerous gratifications. They embraced every opportunity of of the Christian faith were mostly consumed by fire. But this, like overreaching the idolaters in trade; and they pronounced secret all the other triumphs of the Jews, was short-lived. Heraclius, and ambiguous imprecations against the haughty kingdom of roused from inglorious sloth by the triumphs of the Persian arms, Edom.”. {Decline and Fall, vol. ii., chap, xvi.) This statement, and by the approach of the victorious force to the walls of his own though it has received a colouring from the deep-rooted preju- capital, quickly assembled his veteran armies, by whose aid he dedices of the author against the Jewish religion, is nevertheless feated the troops of Chosroes in 622; and in the course of a few substantially true, and contains a just view of the condition of successful campaigns he recovered all the provinces that had been the Jews throughout the Roman empire. No great change ap- overrun. He visited Jerusalem after his victories, in the lowly pears to have taken place in the condition of Palestine until guise of a pilgrim, and prepared new triumphs for the Christians Constantine ascended the imperial throne in the year 306. He in the restoration of the magnificent churches which had been dewas, as is well known, the first Christian emperor; and under his stroyed, in the persecution of the Jews, and in their banishment, powerful patronage, and that of his mother the Empress Helena, as before, from the Holy City, which they were now forbidden to splendid structures were everywhere erected in the Holy Land in approach within a distance of 3 miles. honour of the Christian faith. The land was gradually overspread Palestine continued to own the sway of the Greek emperor till with memorials of Christianity ; and chapels, altars, and houses of the rise of the Saracen power in the East. The followers of Mo-

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PALESTINE. 196 Godfrey was succeeded in 1100 by his brother Baldwin, who Palestine, Palestine, hammed, extending their doctrines and their dominion hy fire and sword, rapidly subdued Arabia, Syria, and Egypt, and in the year ruled with vigour and success. In 1118 his cousin, Baldwin II., I , 637 turned their arms against Jerusalem. After a siege of four ascended the throne, and still maintained the interests of the kingmonths, during which the Arabs suffered extremely from the in- dom. Melisandra, his daughter, married Foulques of Anjou, who in clemency of the winter, a capitulation was proposed and agreed to, right of his wife acquired the kingdom of Jerusalem. He lost his when the Caliph Omar entered the city seated on a red camel, life by a fall from his horse, after having reigned ten or twelve without guards, or any other precaution, and began to discourse in years. His son, Baldwin III., ruled in Jerusalem twenty years ; the most courteous manner with the patriarch on its religious an- and his reign was remarkable as the era of the Second Crusade, and tiquities. Omar was assassinated in Jerusalem in the year 643, of the rise of the various orders of knighthood,—the Hospitallers, after which the East was for 200 years distracted by the bloody Templars, and Cavaliers. The military force of the first Crusaders, wasted by fatigue and wars that ensued among the Ommiade, the Abbasside, and the Eatimite caliphs; and Palestine having become an object of con- by losses in the field, was no longer able to oppose the hosts of Turks test between them, was for a like period a scene of devastation and and Saracens by which it was surrounded. The first victories of trouble. After the division of the Saracen dominions among these the Europeans, and their rapid success, extended far and wide the three factions in the middle of the eighth century, Palestine re- terror of their arms. But this alarm having subsided, the Mohammained under the power of the Abbasside caliphs of Bagdad until medan chiefs collected their armies, and commenced a vigorous on the European posts scattered over a wide extent of 969 A.D., when it was transferred to the Fatimite line in Egypt. attack In 1076 Jerusalem was taken by the Turks, and held by them for country, and gained some important advantages. The accounts of disasters that were circulated in Europe excited the liveliest twenty years; but in 1096 the Egyptian caliphs regained their these sympathy of all Christians for their suffering brethren in the Holy power. Jerusalem, though it was in the possession of infidel chiefs, was Land, for the defence of which the European princes now entered a new coalition. A second crusade was the consequence. It still revered as a holy city both by Christian and Jew, and was into r visited by pilgrims from every quarter; among others, by Peter the w as undertaken in the year 1147, by the Emperor of Germany, Conrad III., and Louis VII., King of France, and was even more unHermit, a native of Amiens. The pathetic tale which he brought fortunate than the first expedition. In the course of a tedious to Europe of the injuries and insults which the Christian pilgrims march through an unhealthy and hostile country, more than half suffered from the infidels who possessed and profaned the Holy City, excited the deepest sympathy among the people and princes of the army of Conrad was wasted by famine and the sword, and not Christendom. Councils were summoned, and were attended by above a tenth part ever reached the Syrian shore. The subsequent ecclesiastics and laity. The mixed multitude were harangued by battles with the Saracens reduced them to a miserable remnant; the emperor, on his return with his shattered forces from this the zealous enthusiasts of this sacred cause; their pity and indig- and nation were alternately roused by the sufferings of their brethren in unfortunate campaign, was met by Louis and the French troops, arrived in better condition at the scene of action. The French the Holy Land; the flame of enthusiasm was propagated by sym- who pathy and example; and the eager champions of the Cross, the army, rashly advancing into the heart of the country, was assaulted overwhelmed by an innumerable host of Turks; and the king, flower of the European chivalry, assembled in martial array to and his escape with great difficulty, finally took shipping march against the enemies of their common faith. To defray the effecting necessary expenses of the expedition, princes alienated their pro- with his knights and nobles, leaving his plebeian infantry to the of the victorious enemy. The two princes afterwards provinces, the nobles their lands and castles, peasants their cattle and sword to Jerusalem, united the poor remains of their once mighty the instruments of husbandry; and vast armies were transported ceeded to the Latin troops in Syria, and laid a fruitless siege to to Palestine, in order to accomplish the deliverance of the Holy armies Sepulchre. These rude and undisciplined bands died in great num- Damascus, which was the termination of the Second Crusade. The defeat and dispersion of these armies tended greatly to bers on reaching the shores of Asia, from disease, famine, and weaken the Christian cause in the Holy Land, and shake the founfatigue ; and of the first Crusaders it is estimated that 300,000 had dations of the Latin throne at Jerusalem. Disputes also arose about perished before a single city was rescued from the infidels. Of the leaders in the Christian host, the first rank is due to Godfrey, Duke the succession to the throne, which exposed the kingdom still more the assaults of its enemies, with whom some of the discontented of Brabant and Bouillon, who was accompanied by his two brothers, to entered into traitorous correspondence. In the midst of Eustace the elder, who had succeeded to the county of Boulogne, barons internal dissensions the kingdom of the Latins was assailed by and Baldwin the younger. The other chiefs were Robert of France, these new enemy, namely, the Sultan Saladin, who, to valour, policy, the brother of King Philip, and Robert, Duke of Normandy, the aand military skill, joined all the refined humanity of a Christian son of William the Conqueror; Bohemond, the son of Robert Guis- knight. He had risen from a private station to the sovereignty of card, distinguished by his cool policy and ambition, with a small Egypt, and been for years extending his influence and his addition of religious zeal; Tancred, his cousin, who had imbibed the dominions. had Reginald of Chatillon, a soldier of fortune, had seized true spirit of chivalry, and all the virtues of a perfect knight; and a fortress, from which he issued with his followers to pillage the Raymond of Toulouse, the Duke of Narbonne and Marquis of Proand to insult the Mohammedans, and he even threatened vence, a veteran warrior of mature age and experience. The vast caravans holy cities of Medina and Mecca. Saladin complained of armies that were collected under the guidance of these leaders ar- the injuries ; and being refused any satisfaction, invaded the rived by various routes at Constantinople; and after some time spent these Land in 1187 with an array of 80,000 horse and foot. He in the capital of the East, they crossed to the opposite shore of Asia. Holy advanced against Tiberias, to which he laid siege; and a deHaving taken the towns of Nice and Antioch in the year 1097, they cisive was hazarded by the King of Jerusalem in defence laid siege to Jerusalem about two years after, and took it by assault, of this battle important place. In the contest which ensued the Christians with a prodigious slaughter of the garrison and inhabitants, that were totally defeated, their king and many of the nobles taken was continued for three days, without respect to age or sex. and 30,000 soldiers slain or captured. This great vicEight days after the capture of Jerusalem, the Latin chiefs pro- prisoners, placed the whole country at the mercy of the conqueror. The ceeded to the election of a king, who should preside over their con- tory of the kingdom had been set on a single cast, and its whole quests in Palestine, and Godfrey of Bouillon was unanimously raised fate force concentrated on this fatal field. The towns and to this high position. But if it was an honourable office, it was also military deprived of their governors, fell successively before Salaone of danger : he was not chosen to sway a peaceful sceptre ; and castles, victorious force ; and scarcely had three months elapsed when he was summoned to the field in the first fortnight of his reign to din’s appeared in arms before the gates of Jerusalem. defend his capital against the Sultan of Egypt, who approached he This was in no condition to sustain a protracted siege, being with a powerful army. His signal victory in the battle of Ascalon crowdedcity with fugitives from every quarter, who here sought an confirmed the stability of his throne, and enabled him to extend on asylum from destroying sword. A disorderly throng of 100,000 every side his kingdom, which consisted then only of Jerusalem persons were the confined within the walls, with but few soldiers. . A and Jaffa, with about twenty villages and towns of the adjacent dis- defence was, however, for fourteen days, after which tricts. The fortified castles into which the Mohammedans had taken the capture of the citymaintained was averted by a capitulation, by which it refuge, and from which they made incursions into the open country, was agreed that all the Franks and Latins should quit Jerusalem, were reduced ; the maritime cities of Laodicea, Tripoli, Tyre, and receiving a safe conduct to the ports Syria and Egypt; that the Ascalon, were besieged and taken, and the Christian kingdom thus inhabitants should be ransomed for aofsum of money; and that those included a range of sea-coast from Scanderoon to the borders of who were unable to pay it should remain slaves. The whole Egypt. The feudal institutions of Europe were introduced into country now submitted to the sultan, whose victorious progress was this kingdom in all their purity; and a code of laws, called the arrested by the resistance of Tyre, which was gallantly deAssize of Jerusalem, was drawn up, which was attested by the seals first by Conrad. The sultan, being foiled in all his attempts to of the king, the patriarch, and the viscount of Jerusalem, and de- fended posited in the sepulchre of the Saviour, as an unerring guide in all take this place, was finally compelled to raise the siege, and to redoubtful questions that might be brought before the tribunals of treat to Damascus. The capture of Jerusalem by the infidels, and the decline of the Palestine.

PALESTINE. 197 Christian cause in Palestine, excited the deepest sorrow; the de- each to offer up their devotions, the first at the Holy Sepulchre, and Palestine Palestine. caying zeal of the European powers was awakened, and new expe- the last in the mosque of Omar. The stipulations of this treaty were ditions were fitted out for the recovery of the Holy City. In the not faithfully observed by the Saracens, and the Christians in Palesyear 1189, Philip, King of France, the Emperor Frederick Barba- tine still suffered under the oppression of the infidels. New levies rossa of Germany, and Richard I. of England, assembled a large were raised in Europe for the Holy War; and a large force of French force; and, with the aid of Flanders, Frise, and Denmark, filled and English, led by the chief nobility of both nations, landed in about 200 vessels with their troops. The first armaments landed Syria in 1239. Numerous battles were fought, which terminated at Tyre, the only remaining inlet of the Christians into the Holy in favour of the Saracens; and the French Crusaders, accordingly, Land, and no time was lost in commencing the celebrated siege of after severe losses, were glad to purchase peace by the cession of Acre, which was maintained with an enthusiasm that mocked at almost all their conquests in Palestine. Next year, when the Engdanger, and by feats of valour that were the theme of wonder, even lish levy under the Earl of Cornwall arrived at the scene of action, in that romantic age. This memorable siege lasted for nearly two he found, to his surprise, that all the territories and privileges that years, and was attended with a prodigious loss of men on both had been ceded to the Emperor of Germany were lost, and that a sides. At length, in the spring of the second year, the royal fleets few fortresses, and a small strip of territory on the coast, comprised of France and England cast anchor in the bay, with powerful all that the Latins possessed in Palestine. He immediately prereinforcements, and the brave defenders of Acre were forced to pared for the vigorous prosecution of hostilities; but the sultan, capitulate. The place was taken possession of by the Christians being involved in war with his brother in Damascus, readily granted on the 12th of July 1191. favourable terms as the price of peace—namely, the cession to the The capture of Acre was the prelude to farther operations against Christian armies of Jerusalem, Beritus, Nazareth, Bethlehem, Mount the enemy. Richard determined to commence the siege of Ascalon, Tabor, and a large tract of the adjoining country. But the kingabout 100 miles distant, and his march to this place was a continual dom of Jerusalem, thus so happily established, was subverted by a battle of eleven days. He was opposed by Saladin with an army calamity from a new and unexpected quarter. In the interior of of 300,000 combatants; and on this occasion was fought one of the Asia the conquests of Ghenghis Khan had brought about the most most memorable battles of this or any other age. Saladin was stupendous revolutions, and the barbarous hordes of the desert, defeated with the loss of 40,000 men, and the victorious Richard flying before his conquering sword, rushed like a torrent on other obtained possession of Ascalon and the other towns of Judea. In nations. The Kharismians, unable to withstand this powerful inthe next year Richard made an unsuccessful attempt against Je- vader, were driven upon Syria, and the coalesced powers of Saracen rusalem; and a vigorous assault by Saladin on Jaffa was repulsed and Christian were unable to resist their powerful assault. The by Richard. A truce was at length concluded for three years, by Christian host was overthrown in a great battle, which lasted two which it was stipulated that the Latin Christians should have days, and in which the grand masters of two orders, and most of liberty to visit the Holy City without being liable to tribute; that the knights, were slain. The Holy City was then taken and plunthe fort of Ascalon should be dismantled; and that Jaffa and Tyre, dered by the invaders. with the intervening territory, should be surrendered to the EuroEach new disaster of the Christian arms served to rekindle the peans. Soon after the conclusion of this treaty Richard embarked for languishing zeal of the Europeans ; and Louis IX. of France fitted Europe ; and Saladin, his great rival, did not survive many months out, in 1248, an immense armament for the Holy Land, consisting the conclusion of peace. He died at Damascus in the year 1193. of 1800 sail of vessels, in which he embarked an army of 50,000 In the meantime, in Palestine, though partial successes were men. He landed in Egypt, and after storming the town of Damigained by the armies of the Crusaders, their power was on the etta, he advanced along the sea-coast towards Cairo, when his troops decline. The Latin kingdom, now reduced to two or three towns, were so wasted by sickness and famine, that they fell an easy prey was preserved only in a precarious existence by the divisions and to the enemy. The king, with most of his nobles and the remnant civil wars that prevailed among its enemies. of his army, were made prisoners; and it was owing to the clemency This intelligence rekindled the dying zeal of the Christian world. of the sultan, who accepted a ransom for their lives, that Louis, A new crusade was commenced ; and in 1216 a large force, chiefly with his few followers who remained alive, was permitted to emof Hungarians and Germans, landed at Acre. The sons of Sapha- bark for Palestine. dim, who now ruled in Syria, collected their armies to oppose this The power of the Christians in Palestine, weakened, among other formidable attack. But the Crusaders, rashly conducted, and causes, by internal dissensions, was now vigorously assailed by weakened by divisions, advanced into the country without concert Bondocdar or Bibars, the Mameluke sovereign of Egypt and Syria. or prudence ; provisions failed them ; they were wasted, as usual, He invaded Palestine with a formidable army, advanced to the gates by famine and disease ; and at length their leader, the sovereign of of Acre, and reduced the important city of Antioch, when 17,000 Hungary, resolved to quit a country where he had been exposed to of the inhabitants were put to the sword, and 100,000 carried into hardship and danger, without glory. The crusading armies, thus captivity. The report of these cruelties in Europe gave rise to weakened and discouraged, had laid aside all further idea of offen- the eighth and last Crusade against the infidels, which was undersive operations, when, in the spring of the following year, a fleet of by Louis, the French king, sixteen years after his return 300 vessels that had sailed from the Rhine appeared on the coast, taken from captivity. But in place of directing his arms immediately and brought to their aid powerful reinforcements that recruited against Palestine, he landed in Africa, and laid siege to Tunis, their strength, and restored their ascendancy in the field. For which he reduced. But he perished miserably on the burning reasons that do not clearly appear, they now retired from Pales- sands of Africa, of a pestilential disease, which proved fatal also to tine, and carried the war into Egypt, where they obtained importof his troops; and thus ingloriously terminated this expediant successes. They Hook Damietta by storm, and spread such many tion, which was the last undertaken by the Europeans for the consternation among the infidels that the most favourable terms of recovery of the Holy Land. peace were offered, and rejected by them; but having at length The Europeans in Palestine, a feeble remnant, were now confined wasted their strength on the banks of the Nile, they were reduced within the walls of Acre, which was besieged by a Mameluke host to the necessity of bargaining for permission to retire to Palestine, of 200,000 troops that issued from Egypt, and encamped on the by the cession of all their conquests in Egypt. adjacent plain. In this, their last conflict with the infidels of the The next crusade was undertaken by Frederick II., the grandson Holy the Europeans fully maintained the glory of their high of Barbarossa, according to a vow which had been long made, and name.Land, They displayed all the devotion of martyrs in a holy cause, the performance of which had been so long delayed that he was and performed prodigies of valour. But, equalled as they were in excommunicated by Gregory IX. By his marriage with Violante, discipline, and fearfully overmatched in numbers, by their enemies, the daughter of John de Brienne, King of Jerusalem, he was the they were overborne by the weight and violence of their attacks, more especially bound to vindicate his right to the kingdom, which and in the storm and sack of the city all either perished or were he had received as a dowry with his wife. After many delays, he carried into captivity. Thus terminated for ever, in 1291, all set sail with a fleet of 200 sail and an army of 40,000 men, and in those of glory and conquest by which so many adventurers t e year 1228 he arrived at Acre. This was the most successful were visions seduced from Europe to the Holy Land, there to perish under perils of disease and the sword. The other smaller \v-it out mos W0r be decided) • while the style is for the most part diffuse to tediousness. We have no hesitation in saying, whether the doubt can ever that if, out of these three ill-compacted ’volumes, Paley had evoked such a work as his Natural Theology by selections, by rejections by condensation, by re-arrangement, and by diffusing over the whole the vivid lights of his vigorous mind and style, his claims to ongi^ nality would have suffered as little abatement as that of Shakspeare (on whom a similar charge was once fastened) because in a few ot his plays he has condescended to make use of materials of inferior dramatists, and turned by his magic touch their lead into gold _ The truth is, as just said, that the merit of Paley’s work is that of having wrought mater.als, open to everybody, into a beautiful fabric and to blame him that his materials were got from other quarters is much as if it were charged upon a great architect that his stone was not of his own quarrying, nor his bricks of his own burning. , , ., , . . i„aa The impress of Paley’s very peculiar mind is on this work as on all the rest, and would alone show that it was no p agians , f

P A L E Y. 205 Paley. of a chicken”) ; these, and many similar felicitous passages, mited, but illimitable; and though he could not prove it Paley. will immediately occur to every reader. Painting by words (else he would be infinite himself), he would never doubt it. v has rarely been carried further than by Paley in many of And even if any one, conceding a self-subsistent intellithe graphic passages of this masterly treatise.1 gent Cause of all things, possessed of power and wisdom The argument, as he says, and as we all know, is cumu- adequate to account for their existence and conservation, lative; and every new instance of adaptation augments our were silly enough to deny His infinitude (of which, since his conceptions oi the Divine power and wisdom; but the whole faculties would be lost long before he could embrace 'principle of the argument is as well established by fifty the dimensions of the attributes he did acknowledge, he could examples as by five thousand, and to an ordinary under- never judge), there would still be a God to him—a being standing is more likely to appear conclusive; for multi- known as such by the only proofs by which we can ever plicity and complexity of “ adaptations ” will add nothing practically know that there is a God at all; known as the to the clearness of the reasoning,' while they may easily Creator, the Governor, the Disposer of all things. To us bewilder and confound. Particular examples must always that is infinite which is without limit; to demonstrate the be taken ; and it may be doubted whether advancing sci- illimitable is beyond us ; and if to demonstrate that God ence will ever find any, for ordinary readers, at once so is infinite be necessary to a knowledge of Him, only God comprehensible and so much to the purpose as those Paley can know that God exists at all. has selected. Some will say there is no better way in this controversy Equally just and cautious are the observations of Paley than that of appealing at once to a direct intuitive consciouson the mode in which the argument bears on the “ Divine ness of an infinite God ? But what if atheists deny that they benevolence,” the transition to which, from the indications have any such ? What if they affirm that if there be any of power and wisdom, is confessedly of some difficulty in the such voice within, it is, by itself, a whisper, or inarticulate? theistic argument. Contending that the indications of the What if the majority even of theists say that such whispers former attributes are unlimited (whether illimitable or not) are confirmations when made distinct, but are not firstin extent and variety, he contents himself with showing hand grounds of conviction ? What if they say that their that the immensely preponderant evidence, the direct and convictions are so far dependent, at the very outset, on this obvious purpose of almost all the “adaptations” in nature, question of the “Order” of the universe, that supposing indicates the Divine beneficence also. But he does not confusion reigned in the natural world while the mind deny or evade the difficulties of the subject. The widely- retained all its present powers (were that possible), they extended phenomena of evil, for the permission of which doubt whether any “ intuitions ” they have, would have we must believe, but cannot see, that there are sufficient satisfied them of the existence of a Deity, or even induced reasons, will always limit the argument in this direction, till the faintest suspicion of one ? we come to higher illumination than Reason alone affords us. However, if any think some other way, d priori or Various objections have been taken in these latter days otherwise, more effectual, Paley leaves people to take it. against Paley’s book, to which we must make a reference, For ourselves, we do not believe there is any mode of arguthough it must be brief. ment so likely to meet the case of those who profess to be Some theists complain that he does not take other atheists, nor one which gives them so much trouble to reply methods—that he does not do this, that he does not do to or evade. If any one choose to make the experiment with that; that he does not appeal to man’s moral instincts, to other methods, he will find, we suspect, that considerations his intuitive convictions of a Deity, sense of the infinite, which will well serve to enlarge, exalt, or intensify our belief, and so on ; that he is busy rather about the “ means and when once Paley’s conclusions are admitted, are easily machinery ” by which the Deity works, than the “ ends for evaded if insisted on alone. The argument from design is which He works that he is more busy about the “ reasons the one which, in all ages and nations, has been the most of belief,” than the “object of faith;”—with much more to efficient for conviction,—the argument which, as the philosothe same purpose, or rather to no purpose; for surely the pher and the vulgar, the heathen and Christian feel, leaves question ought to be, not what a theist can accept as a man “ without excuse,”—which gives point to the question, sufficient dissertation on the Divine Existence and Perfec- equally understood by science and ignorance, “ He that tions, but what an atheist will find it most difficult to evade ; formed the eye, shall He not see ? He that planted the nor, again, whether a theist may not prefer another line ear, shall He not hear ?” “ The invisible things of God of argument for himself, but whether he can suggest any from the creation of the world, are clearly seen, being unwhich an atheist will find it less difficult to understand and derstood by the things that are made, even His eternal embrace ;—in other words, whether Paley does what he in- power and godhead.” tends to do, and whether what he intends to do, be, with The argument from the moral constitution of man is inreference to those whom he addresses, the best adapted to deed equally strong, and more direct. But all one can do produce a conviction of the existence of a personal Intel- is, to appeal to the atheist’s conscience ; and if he denies ligence that has constructed and presides over the universe. that it is like ours, argument is at an end. And certainly If man can be brought to admit his argument, that one ad- he is as able here as anywhere else to take refuge in chance mission will pave the way for every other involved in the or- as accounting for moral as well as other phenomena; and dinary theory of theism. Nor, probably, was there ever a man it must be added, that it is too often the part of his nature who, admitting that of all the stupendous and complicated with which man is most inclined to sophisticate. phenomena of the universe there has been an adequate Another objection recently taken up with much logical personal intelligent Cause, hesitated long to admit all the formality by some theists, is, that not “ marks of design,” corollaries to which his moral instincts, and the intimations as Paley urges, but “order” in the universe, is the great of the Infinite within him would train him on ; which then point to be insisted on ; that it is this which renders the and then alone, cease to be whispers, and become arti- argument valid. We cannot say we see much in the disculate. He would feel little difficulty in inferring that tinction. That which gives force to the consideration of this supreme Power and Intelligence were not only unli- “order” in the world is that also which gives force to all of them be so. We have said nothing about the moral improbability of Paley’s being consciously a plagiarist; but, considering the entire character of the man’s intellect, it is about the last meanness of which we should suspect him. Paley s homely science, in these and other passages of his great work, is beautifully illustrated in an article on the “ Works and Character of Paley,” inserted in the Quarterly Review, vol. xxxviii., pp. 305-335.

P A L E Y. 206 Paley. “marks of designit is because what we call order indi- men, and to any works of theirs, but pretends that we can—cates “ design ” that we so call it. A system which discloses not reason similarly in relation to a work (if it be a work) “order” must disclose adaptations of part to part, and of so unique as the universe; to effects so immeasurably beyond our adequate comprehension. “ We have never seen,” subordinate parts to the whole, and therefore “ design.” Another and more subtle objection is, that whether we he says, “ the great Artificer at work.” The answer is call that which justifies Paley’s conclusion the evidences of (as Chalmers and many more have justly said), that it is “ order ” or “ marks of design,” “ Paley does not sufficiently not necessary that we should see “ the Artificer at work,” or investigate the metaphysical principles of belief which impel even comprehend his work as a whole. Men, in general, the human mind to infer intelligence from such indications. reason just in the same way of that which exhibits indicaIt may perhaps be said that he considered this both be- tions of purpose and design, whether they have ever “ seen yond his province, and not at all necessary. But it may the artificer at work or not;” and would do so even if, in a be affirmed, that man, in so inferring, acts upon the strictest millionth case, such indications did not originate in design. principles of induction, and, unless the very constitution of It will not be denied that they thus reason when they see his mind be altered, must, whether his conclusion be right a machine or an instrument evidently so constructed as to or ivrong, so infer. Man sees that in all the products of subserve a given purpose, though they may never have seen intelligence he can examine, these marks of design are one like it before, and though they may never have seen found ; where intelligence, he is sure, does not act, he any artist at work on any part of it. The atheist may say sees the marks of design wanting. It is inevitable with they have seen analogous things done ; the answer is—Just him, therefore, to think it infinitely probable, when he so: and men reason in the same way to the intelligent meets with “ marks of design” in any object, that they origin of the works of creation. He will perhaps rejoin, are due to intelligence, and not unconscious chance or “But they have seen very similar things done.” We necessity, or unconscious anything else. If, to-morrow, answer, It may be, and sometimes is, the case, that there men met with any works as evidently designed for a pur- is less similarity between certain iiiStruments of art and cerpose. as a watch or a steam-engine, but so completely be- tain other instruments of art,—lor example, an air-pump and yond any present development of human power as to cause a microscope,—than between certain instruments of art and doubts of their human origin, and so unlike those of nature certain instruments of nature, say an eye and a telescope ; as to cause doubt whether they had the same origin with but the indications of design in the former case would be these, there is not one in a million who would not at quite sufficient to settle the question of an originating Inonce infer that intelligence produced them, though what telligence ; why not in the latter ? Another favourite argument of many modern atheists is, sort of being it was in whom that intelligence resided,— whether he had two heads or one, seven senses or ten, six that if any thing at all be inferred as to the attributes of an pairs of eyes or twenty,—we could not tell from the “ marks unknown Cause of all things, from any analogies in ourof design” alone. Familiar with multitudinous products, selves, we must infer that God not only has power and wispossessing certain similar characteristics, which are the fruit dom, but an organization also like ours; that he acts as we of intelligence; and failing to see, where we know that do ; and that his power and wisdom must be manifested in intelligence does not act, any such products; men would similar ways; so that between Hume’s argument and this, at once infer, as the infinitely greater probability (and it is impossible atheism should fail. “You can infer nothis, on subjects where demonstration is impossible, is thing,” says Hume, “ respecting the author of a work so to them certainty), that such newly-found specimens of unique.” “ If you infer anything analogous to man in Him,” opponents, “ you must infer everything “adaptations” as w^e have above imagined, were due to intelli- say these astute 1 gence; just as confidently as Robinson Crusoe inferred, analogous.” To this ridiculous argument it might be suffiwhen he saw the solitary imprint of a footstep on the sand cient to ask whether, if a man saw an exact imitation of a (though he had seen no traces of anybody having been bird’s nest, without positively knowing it to be an imitation, on his island till that moment but himself), that it was a and so did not know w hether it was the work of a man or a print of a loot; and did not begin to speculate as to whether bird, he must infer that, because whoever made it must it was not possible, though infinitely improbable, that some have had some properties analogous to those of the bird chance motions of the winds and waves might have pro- (otherwise there would not have been the same work), he duced the ominous impression. It is much the same with must necessarily have wings and feathers also ! The editions of Paley’s works, separately and collectively, the phenomena of nature. From what we know ol analogous phenomena, we cannot but ascribe them to intelligence, if are numerous. The edition of the Natural Theology by Lord we act on the principles of the inductive philosophy at all. Brougham and Sir Charles Bell is too well knowm to require Hence, as before said,—whether the inference be right or commendation. The fullest account of his life is that by (h. r.) wrong,—thus men have always inferred, and thus they al- Meadley; but it is not worthy of its subject. PALIANO, a town of the Papal States, in the province ways will; and so the atheistical hypothesis, even if true, is certain of rejection. The evidence, though not demon- ofFrosinone, 7 miles N.W. of Anagni, and 32 E.S.E. strative, is just as sure as that which leads us to believe of Rome. It is surrounded with walls of considerable that if a man throws sixes fifty times running, the dice are strength; and contains a large baronial castle, which was loaded. This, too, suggests the answer to another objec- for a long time occupied as a residence by the powerful tion, to which a passing allusion may be made. It is that Colonna family. This family was descended from Pierre urged by Hume, and, with all his customary plausible Colonna, a vassal of the pope in the eleventh century, and subtlety, before Paley wrote. He admits the validity ot counted among its members Pope Martin V., as well as the ordinary mode of reasoning as applied to our fellow- numerous prelates and generals. Pop. about 4000. 1 Indeed, it is a favourite misrepresentation of theirs, that the language of writers on natural theology, in consistency with some supposed logical necessity, degrades the Deity into a laborious “ mechanic.” The answer, of course, is, that it is a mere misinterpretation of the obvious meaning of these writers. All they mean to assert is, that there must be power and intelligence in the supreme Cause of all, proportioned to the production of the phenomena ascribed to him; just as there must be in man, proportioned to the phenomena of his power and intelligence; but though, in expressing this, they necessarily use figurative language derived from the analogy of man’s nature, they plainly do not intend to imply that the modes in which wisdom and intelligence on the part of God and man are respectively exerted or manifested are the same ; or that what is long-sought, laborious, and successive in man’s mind is at all so in God s. And as this is the meaning of these writers, and their sole meaning, so it may be doubted whether there ever was an atheist who really misunderstood it.

Paley.

207

PALIMPSESTS. Palimp- Palimpsest (in Greek iraAt/^oTos, a word formed from 8eststtoXlv, again, and i/'aou, I wipe, cleanse, or rub), is a term applied to a manuscript, from its having been twice cleaned or twice prepared for writing. The name has been supposed by some etymologists to be derived from the obliteration or erasure of the original writing; but it is ratherfounded upon the re-polishing (i/'aw), or re-preparation for writing, of the parchment or other material on which the original had been written. It is easy to remove the traces of writing from parchment by rubbing it with pumice-stone or some similar substance, especially if the writing be of some antiquity; and if the surface be afterwards smoothed and polished, no one, by merely looking at it, would suppose that it had ever been written on. The practice of thus preparing parchment and other writing materials a second time for use existed among the ancients; and the material so re-prepared was known by them under the same name of palimpsest; but they also applied that term to leaves or books which were so prepared that one writing could easily be expunged to make room for another, and which were used by authors for correcting their works or submitting them to revision. In this sense palimpsests are mentioned by Cicero, Plutarch, and Catullus. Cicero {Ad Familiares, vii. 18) praises the frugality of his friend Trebatius in writing upon a palimpsest, but at the same time playfully expresses his wonder as to what may have been the original writimg, which could have been of less importance than the letter for which it had been displaced; and Catullus (xxii. 5) ridicules a bad author for not writing his works at first on palimpsests, but entering them at once, crude and uncorrected, in fine and costly books. In a word, the palimpsest alluded to in these and similar ancient authorities was one of the devices to supply the place of the modern slate or scribbling-book, and served the same purpose as the wax tablet {tabula cerata). There seems little doubt, however, that, besides this temporary expedient, the practice of preparing parchment or papyrus a second time for permanent use, and of writing short pieces, and even entire books, upon such material, was well known in classic times, not only among the Greeks and Romans, but also among the Egyptians. (Wilkinson’s Egyptians, iii. 151.) But when it is remembered that, except the charred papyri of Herculaneum, and the funereal rolls of the Egyptians, no actual remains of the writing of the ancients have reached our time, it need hardly be said that no palimpsest re-written in the classic period has yet been discovered.1 The palimpsest manuscripts which have proved so valuable a mine for the research of modern scholars are of more recent date, and had their origin in the dearness and scarcity of wiiting materials from the seventh century downwards. During the early Roman empire, the comparatively abundant supply of papyrus from the Egyptian market precluded the necessity of having recourse to what was, at best, the tedious and clumsy process of re-preparing the material already used ; and from the time when Theodoric the Great, in the beginning of the sixth century, abolished the duty on the importation of papyrus, the scribes and copyists of the West confined themselves in great measure to its use, except

for more solemn and important documents. But at a later Palimpperiod, when the complete division of the empire rendered Bests, the intercourse with the East at once difficult and irregular, ■ the old expedient was revived ; and as, in the anarchy consequent on the successive occupations of Italy by its barbarous conquerors, the ancient arts and manufactures fell into decay, and the home production of parchment became exceedingly limited, it came to pass at last, when the Saracen conquest of Syria and of Egypt deprived Europe entirely of the papyrus, that the art of cleaning and re-preparing parchment already written upon furnished almost the only writing material sufficiently cheap for the uses of the less opulent copyists of the West. And hence it is that the practice of copying upon re-prepared parchment, if we are to judge from the specimens which have reached our time, came into use at a somewhat earlier period in the western division of the empire, where the want of the papyrus was earlier felt. Re-written Latin manuscripts are met with which appear to have been re-transcribed so early as the eighth, and even the seventh century ; but in the Greek palimpsests the second writing commonly dates no earlier than the eleventh, and even the twelfth or thirteenth century. It has commonly been supposed that this practice of the mediaeval scribes was the occasion of a vast and reckless sacrifice of ancient manuscript; and many writers have ascribed to the demand which it occasioned, coupled with the imputed indifference, and even hostility of the period towards ancient learning, that wholesale disappearance of so many Greek and Roman classics which modern scholars have to deplore. But the palimpsest manuscripts hitherto discovered furnish little evidence of any intentional destruction of perfect ancient writings. All the remains of Greek and Roman literature contained in the very largest palimpsests which have been deciphered, or which are known to exist, are in so miserably mutilated and fragmentary a condition, as to suggest, in most instances, the belief that, when broken up for the purpose of being re-used", the originals were already imperfect, and perhaps cast aside as useless. Bruns’ palimpsest of Livy contained only a fragment of the ninety-first book ; the re-written manuscript of Pliny’s Natural History, discovered by Mone, has but a small portion of a few of the early books ; Pertz’s Granus Licinianus is but a scrap ; and apalimpsest of St Jerome’s Commentary, mentioned by Mone {Lateinische und GriechischeMessen, 162), contains parts of no fewer than seven different works. Even the larger and more important palimpsests deciphered by Mai,—the Cicero De Republica, the Plautus, and the great palimpsest of the historians,—are all unhappily in such a state of imperfection, as to make it impossible to suppose that the copies of the original authors on which the transcriber laid his hand were other than fragments, already of little value from their defective condition. Some palimpsests, indeed, are made up of miscellaneous fragments from isolated leaves of different writers, seemingly little better than the refuse of some book-shop or library. But, whatever may have been the condition of the originals which were selected for re-transcription by the mediaeval copyists, even the fragments of ancient writing which they have thus been unconsciously instrumental in preserv-

a re ic l °fa.d. that169) time,were of equally, or even material, has beeninpreserved. In in thethe yearvillage 1840 two ancient waxen a e s (dating from discovered in amore stateperishable of high preservation—one a gold mine of Abrudbanya in r S ot er ln t le ^h H ^ assnlann a* iromediate vicinity, with the wax and the characters inscribed upon it almost perfect. They are de' ^form dissertation published in 1841.of The tablets ceratce are of given the triptych of fir, of eec h . Thheir and construction exactly answer at to Leipsic the description the tabulce by our form—one antiquarians, butthe the other writing U n tn UI r0ln J5 ^ right to left, beginning upon what weAcademic should call last page, andvol. ending the601 bottom of the third. See also an arP°ic . e ^by ,f Dr Detlessen in the Sitzungs-lerichte der Kaiserl. dertheWUsenschafcen, xxiii.,atpp. and following.

208 PALIMPSESTS. Palimp- ing are unquestionably of deep interest, and in many cases exactly preserved the form of the ancient sheet, and has Palimpsests. of great value, for the modern cultivators of ancient learn- divided his pages in the same manner; but, more com- v sests. w ing. With the profound and far-seeing critical sagacity monly, the new writing exhibits an entire disregard of the —' which distinguished him, Montfau^on {Palreographia Gr&ca, order of the original. Sometimes, where the original page p. 223) early called attention to the fruits which might be was divided into two or three columns, the modern matter expected from a careful examination of these buried trea- is written over them all in one unbroken line ; sometimes sures ; nor has the exploration (although it has not resulted the original sheet is folded double, or even cut in half; in the recovery of any complete work of antiquity) disap- sometimes the page is turned upside down ; sometimes the pointed his expectations. The labours of the learned in new writing runs diagonally across it; sometimes (most this department have already resulted in many great dis- perplexing of all) it follows closely line for line, and even coveries, and have given promise of. many more. Some letter for letter, the tracks of the original, so that the chainvaluable fragments of ancient works, believed to be entirely racters blend and run into each other, and the distinction lost, have already been recovered; and the hopes which between new and old is only discernible from the uncertain may fairly be entertained of future acquisitions from the same test of the different colour of the inks, or of the diversity of source will best be estimated by a short account of what the form of the characters. These difficulties are tenfold exaggerated where the characters of the original were has actually been effected within the present century. The value of ancient manuscripts has long been rightly minute, and where the modern writing is of the same size appreciated; and hence in every part ot Europe they have and in the same language. We shall see examples herebeen collected at great expense, and preserved with the after in which the original has been twice written upon ; utmost care. For some time after the invention of print- and others in which, if we reckon corrections, no fewer ing it was indeed thought that, when the contents of a than four different writings are found in the same palimpsest. In the ages which immediately succeeded the invention manuscript had been copied, and multiplied by means of that invaluable art, the original was rendered useless. But, of printing, the attention of scholars was so engrossed by the as different manuscripts of the same work often vary in par- numberless manuscripts of ancient authors which abounded ticular readings, it was soon found necessary to examine in all the great centres of learning, that the hidden stores and collate a number of them, in order to ascertain the pre- of palimpsest literature were unobserved or disregarded. ferable readings ; and without this previous care, conjoined But so soon as the first harvest, so to speak, had been with critical discrimination, a new edition of an ancient gathered in, and men began to prize even the gleanings work would not now be well received by the learned. Such, which had escaped the early labourers, the value of these then, is the most direct and obvious use of ancient manu- buried treasures did not long remain unnoticed. It is true scripts ; which, when duly collated, furnish the means of that, as has been already observed, all the palimpsests hitherto restoring texts that had been corrupted or mutilated in the discovered have been but fragments, and that a large proportion of them consist of works previously known in a course of frequent transcription. But, on a more minute examination of a certain class of much more complete form. But it will be seen, neverthemanuscripts, it appeared that some of them might have a less, that, even already, several of those which have been value hitherto unsuspected, by supplying more ancient deciphered have contributed to fill up a very considerable copies than were previously known, and even furnishing gap in the lost literature of the ancient world ; and even portions of important works which were supposed to be those which contain works already known and published entirely lost. These were manuscripts in which the at- have this important advantage for the purpose of criticism, tempt to obliterate some more ancient writing, in order that they supply copies of these works earlier by several centhat the parchment might be again used to receive another turies than the very earliest of the original manuscripts of the work, had been so far ineffectual that traces of the ancient same works already in existence. The immense importance writing still remained discernible, and capable of being of this circumstance, especially for the uses of the biblical partially or entirely deciphered by the patience and in- critic, it is impossible to overrate. The fruits which may yet be anticipated from the full degenuity of literary explorers. Certain manuscripts of respectable antiquity were thus found to conceal others several velopment of these curious and interesting researches will be centuries older, and frequently of much superior interest best understood from a short history of the successes which and value. The number of such manuscripts, or portions have been already obtained. For the sake of clearness, we of manuscripts, which existed in the several great libraries shall consider—Sacred palimpsests ; and, secondly. of Europe must have been very considerable. One^of the Palimpsests in profane literature. I. By far the most important relics of the first class are BiWionl earliest editions of the Clementine Constitutions (1476) was palimpsestt actually printed on palimpsest parchment. Many have been the Biblical Palimpsests. The first rescribed biblical manuscript of which any impreserved in our own time; and a fresh impulse has been recently given to the zeal of the learned by the interesting portant use was made appears to have been Codex Ephremi, discovery, that many of the long-neglected manuscripts of or Codex Regius of Paris. The more modern writing in this the churches and monasteries of the Levant are of the same manuscript contains certain works of St Ephrem the Syrian, in palimpsest class. The character and appearance of different Greek ; the more ancient seems to have contained the whole palimpsests differ very considerably. In some the ancient of the Old and New Testament, in a character and style of writing has been so imperfectly effaced, whether by wash- Greek writing which Dr Tischendorf of Leipsic assigns to the ing, or by rubbing with pumice-stone or some similar sub- fifth century. Of this manuscript there are 209 leaves restance, that the more modern writing interferes but little maining, 145 of which belong to the New Testament, and with the distinctness of the original; so that it may be de- comprehend nearly two-thirds of the entire text; but the ciphered by a practised eye, or at least can be so far re- leaves appeared to the first explorers so miserably confused vived by certain simple applications, and by exposure to the and misplaced, and with so many chasms of various kinds, that light, as to he read with little difficulty. In others, how- sometimes scarcely a word could be deciphered in a whole ever, in which, besides the sponge and the pumice-stone, leaf. Nevertheless, the difficulties occasioned by these dethe scraping-knife had been freely used, it is only by the fects and mutilations have not deterred critics from endeause of very powerful chemical agents, which shall be de- vouring to make the most of the Codex Ephremi. It was scribed hereafter, and by the aid of strong lightfand lenses first observed and examined by Jean Boivin, from whom of considerable magnifying power, that the contents can be Kiister obtained several important readings, which he indiscovered. In some palimpsests the modern scribe has serted in his reprint of Mill’s Greek Testament in 1710;

PALIMPSESTS. 209 Palimp- and Wetstein afterwards, at the instance of Bentley, col- covered fragments both of the two Greek manuscripts and Palimpsests. lated with great diligence all that it contains of the text of the Gothic version. The latter, in particular, he care- Bestsof the New Testament. Griesbach considers this as the most fully compared with the Codex Argenteus at Upsal, and ancient manuscript collated by Wetstein ; and there can be ascertained that the Wolfenbiittel palimpsest did not form no doubt that the readings thus obtained confer a particular part of the same, but only of a similar manuscript. From value on his edition. For a long time, however, nothing of the different fragments he extracted all the various readings. real importance was done in the work of deciphering it; but These fragments were reprinted by Busching in 1773, and at last, in 1834-5, M. Hase, by the use of a chemical prepara- by Zahn in 1805. But by far the most important contribution tion known by the name tinctura Giobertina, succeeded in to our knowledge of the version was made in 1817 and the reviving the ancient writing to a degree far beyond the following years, by the celebrated Angelo Mai (of whom expectation of the first explorers; and in 1840-1 Dr we shall have occasion to speak more at large under the Tischendorf devoted himself to the task of preparing for head of “ Classical Palimpsests”), and his friend and fellowpublication the New Testament fragments, which he finally labourer, Count Carlo Castiglione, from five different palimpaccomplished in 1843. In 1845 he completed the work sests discovered by Mai in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, by the addition of those fragments of the Old Testament and containing, under modern transcripts of various auwhich are contained in the palimpsest. An additional source thors,— St Gregory the Great, St Jerome, Plautus, Seneca, of the interest and the value which attach to this curious and the Acts of the Council of Chalcedon,—nearly four hunpalimpsest is the circumstance that, previously to its being dred pages of fragments of the Gothic version of the Episturned to its modern use by the transcriber of St Ephrem in tles of St Paul, of the Gospel of St Matthew, and some of the thirteenth century, the original had undergone three dis- the books of the Old Testament. All the fragments of this tinct corrections, by different hands and at remote intervals, version, from whatever source, were collected into the in the sixth, ninth, and eleventh or twelfth centuries ; most of edition of Gabelentz and Lobe, which appeared in succeswhich corrections are still distinctly traceable, and supply an sive parts at Leipsic, from 1836 to 1845 ; and a complete interesting practical commentary on the history of the text. critical edition has still more recently been published by The next discovery amongst manuscripts of this description Dr Massmann (Stuttgart, 1855). The next in the order was one of a very interesting kind. Ulphilas, bishop of the of time among the biblical palimpsests is that of Dr BarGoths in the fourth century, is known to have translated the rett of Trinity College, Dublin ; an elegant volume (Dubwhole Scriptures into the language of that people, who had lin, 1801), containing a great part of the Gospel of St lapsed into Arianism. For this purpose he invented for them Matthew, copied from a rescribed manuscript in the library a new character, consisting of letters borrowed chiefly from of that college. This palimpsest appears to have been rethe Greek. This work, however, had long been lost, with written in the twelfth or thirteenth century upon portions the exception only of the part containing the four Gospels, of much more ancient books. The most important of these, which is preserved in the University Library at Upsal, in a ma- however, was the portion which contained the copy of St nuscript called Codex Argenteus, from being written chiefly Matthew’s Gospel, whereof this fragment remained, written in letters of silver. But in the year 1755, F. A. Kriittel, in uncial letters; and, judging by the usual marks of anhaving been appointed archdeacon of Wolfenbiittel, began tiquity, it seems to belong at least to the sixth century. A to explore the treasures contained in the Augustan Library part of Isaiah in Greek, and some of the Orations of Grein that city ; and in the courseof his researches a palimpsest gory Nazianzen, were likewise found in it, but were conmanuscript1 of the Origines of Isidorus of Seville was pointed sidered as of less moment. What remains of St Matthew’s out to him as containing, under that writing, the translation Gospel is printed on sixty-four engraved fac-simile plates, of the Epistle to the Romans by Ulphilas, together with two each representing a page of the manuscript, and containing other Greek fragments of the Gospels. The first of these from twenty-one to twenty-three lines, disposed in a single (known to biblical critics as the Codex Guelpherbytanus A) column, with the text in the ordinary Greek character upon consisted of forty-three leaves containing parts of each of the opposite page. This valuable fragment commences the four Gospels. It is believed to be of the sixth century, with part of the genealogy, at verse 17, chapter i., and exand its readings have been highly valued. The second (called tends, with occasional chasms, to chapter xxvi., verse 71 ; Codex Guelpherbytanus B) consisted of thirteen leaves and it is also represented in an equal number of pages containing parts of St Luke and of St John. It seems to printed in the ordinary Greek character. Copious prolebe of the same period with the last. Knittel’s interest, gomena are prefixed, giving an exact account of the state however, was principally fixed on the fragment of Ulphilas. and characters of the manuscript; and subjoined is a careOn examination, it proved that the manuscript did not con- ful collation of the Codex Montfortianus, in the same tain the whole Epistle to the Romans, but only a portion of library, wdth Wetstein’s edition. Unfortunately, however, the latter part, viz., the eleventh and following chapters, as the text, as printed in the ordinary Greek characters, is far as the thirteenth verse of the fifteenth, accompanied by by no means a perfectly accurate transcript of the ena Latin version written in parallel columns, which is in graved plates ; and this circumstance, as well as the deitself of no slight interest, as it is earlier than the revision of fective condition of many of the pages, having created a the Vulgate by St Jerome. Knittel immediately set himself general desire for the re-examination of the Dublin pato work on this curious fragment; and although, from the limpsest, Dr Tregelles, in 1853, by the aid of active chestate of the leaves to be deciphered, the difficulty of the task mical agents devised by more modern manipulators, sucwas great, yet his zeal carried him through ; and towards the ceeded in bringing to light “ all the older writing, hardly end of the year 1758 he announced the intended publication even a letter excepted.” It is to be regretted, however, by subscription. Various obstacles, however, retarded its that, in the re-binding of the manuscript since its pubappearance till the year 1762, when the laborious decipherer lication by Dr Barrett, some portions of the ancient writwas enabled to publish the whole in quarto, with twelve ings have been lost, through the efforts of the ignorant large plates, accompanied by an account of the manuscript, workman to give an air of neatness to the volume, by and copious illustrations of its contents. The diligence of squaring the leaves and paring them to an even edge. Knittel omitted nothing that could render useful the reBy far the most important discovery in modern biblical This manuscript is the celebrated Codex Carolinus. Its acquisition by the Wolfenbiittel Library is comparatively recent. But Cardinal Mai (Classici Auctores, i. 43) claims it, on the authority of Niebuhr and on intrinsic evidence, as once the property of the monastery of Bobbio, one of the many colonies of the early Irish monks in Italy, Switzerland, Southern Germany, and Prance. VOL. XVII. 2 TO

210 PALIMPSESTS. Palimp- palimpsest literature, is that of the palimpsests comprised already referred to as discovered by Dr Cureton in the Palimp. sests - in the collection of manuscripts recently collected from Codex Nitriensis. They extend to ninety-five pages. The sesta. the monastic libraries of the Levant, and deposited in the volume also contains fragments of the Gospel of St John, from a palimpsest, re-written, with some hymns of Severus British Museum and the Bibliotheque Imperiale at Paris. In one of these (known as the Codex Nitriensis, from the Monophysite, in Syriac; a few pages of Ezekiel, also the monastery of St Mary Deipara, in the desert of Nitria, from a Syriac palimpsest; and two pages of the third book of whence it was obtained) Dr Cureton discovered (besides a Kings, from a palimpsest partly Coptic and partly Syriac. Such are the most remarkable contributions to the orimost valuable fragment of the Iliad, of w'hich we shall speak later) forty-five leaves containing fragments of the ginal text of sacred Scripture from palimpsest sources. Gospel of St Luke, over which had been written a Syriac These contributions are in all likelihood but an earnest of translation of the Monophysite treatise of Severus of An- what may yet be anticipated ; but even these are of a tioch against Grammaticus. The later writing was so heavy value which only scholars who are acquainted with the and so black, and the erasure of the original had been so limited extent of the ancient sources of biblical criticism successful, that it was exceedingly difficult to decipher it; now available can fully appreciate. Perhaps, out of all the but it was successfully collated in 1854 by Dr Tregelles, existing manuscripts of the original texts, the Codex Vatiand was prepared by him for publication, had he not been canus and the Codex Alexandrinus are the only ones anticipated by Dr Tischendorf in the collection to be de- which exceed in antiquity some of the precious fragments scribed hereafter. These fragments are believed to be of the thus unexpectedly recovered. We need hardly add that, unlike most other originals, every scrap of the sacred text, sixth century, and even of the early part of that century. Another Syriac manuscript, in the British Museum, ex- however minute, possesses a value of its own, entirely inamined by him, containsa fewpalimpsest leaves, which are of dependent of the context or connection ; and, therefore, extreme antiquity, and the under writing of which consists that no fragment, however minute or however mutilated, of fragments of St John’s Gospel. The Greek characters can be overlooked by a biblical critic who is animated by resemble very closely those of the well-known Codex Va- the true spirit of his craft. Of the other sacred palimpsests which have been as yet ticanus ; and the Greek original of the palimpsest is especially curious, as having been at least twice written over in made public, the most important are a series of fragments Syriac ; so that it belongs to the class (of which we shall of the early liturgies, both of the Greek and of the Latin churches, discovered in the library at Karlsruhe, in a masee two other examples) of thrice-written manuscripts. No modern biblical editor, indeed, has laboured in the nuscript re-written with St Jerome’s Commentary on the field of palimpsest literature with such perseverance and Gospel of St Matthew. These interesting remains were with such success as Dr Tischendorf. In addition to his published (with a fac-simile) by Francis Joseph Mone at re-collations and reprints of almost all the most valuable Frankfort in 1850 (Lateinische und Griechische Messen, early editions of the sacred texts, he has, with infinite in- aus dem zweiten bis sechsten Jahrhundert). Many other dustry and research, given to the public many most curious fragments of the same character—liturgies, sacramentaries, and valuable fragments of the Old and New Testaments, rituals, canons, homilies, &c.—are known to exist. A few of collected by himself from palimpsest sources. A few of them have been published by the same editor and by Cardinal these are of western origin ; but the greater and much Mai ; and much information on the obscure but important more important portion is from the Syriac and Armenian subject of the early liturgies may be expected from a compalimpsests of the collection already described. They are plete and careful examination and comparison of them all. II. In ancient profane literature the additions from pa- classical for the most part contained in his magnificent publication, Monumenta Sacra Inedita, vol. i., 1855, vol. ii., 1857. The limpsest sources have been much more numerous and con- palimpsests first, volume is entitled Fragmenta Sacra Palimpsesta ; sive siderable, consisting of large fragments of lost Greek and&c. Fragmenta cum Novi turn Veteris Testamenti ex quinque Roman classics, and of the text, and commentaries on the Codicihus Greeds Palimpsestis antiquissimis nuperrime text, of ancient Roman law. The first editor of a palimpsest relic of classical literature Bruns, in Orienle repertis. Addita sunt Fragmenta Psalmorum Papyracea, et Fragmenta Evangelistariorum Palimpsesta ; was Paul James Bruns, the coadjutor of Dr Kennicott in item Fragrnentum Codicis Frederico-Augustani, nunc pri- his great work of Hebrew collation. In 1773 Bruns dismum emit atque edidit GEnoth. Frid. Const. Tischendorf, covered at Rome a fragment of the ninety-first book of Lipsiae, 1855. This most beautiful volume consists of frag- Livy, in a rescribed manuscript of the Vatican collection ; ments deciphered from seven palimpsests, of which five were and in the same year it was published by the discoverer brought from the East: one is preserved in the Barberini Li- himself at Hamburg, and by Signor Giovenazzi at Rome. brary at Rome, and one in the Library of St Mark’s at Venice. The fragment in question, which has been admitted as unThe first, the modern writing of which is Armenian, contains doubtedly genuine into the later editions of Livy, contains forty-eight pages of fragments of the New Testament—of part of the war with Sertorius in Spain ; and the only subthe Gospels, of the Acts, and of the Epistles of St Paul to the ject of regret is, that this part is so small. Bruns first Corinthians and to Titus. The second, under some Greek visited the Vatican on a mission from Dr Kennicott in relives of saints and a homily of John of Damascus, contains ference to Hebrew collation ; but having been thus forlarge fragments of the book of Numbers and some portions tunate in the investigation of a palimpsest, he renewed the of Isaiah. The third, in which the modern writing consists inquiry in this country, and endeavoured to ascertain the of the lives of four saints—Euthymius, Sabas, Abram, and number of such manuscripts in the Bodleian Library at Theodosius—in Arabic, contains fragments of Numbers, Oxford. An account of his researches will be found in the Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Kings, and Isaiah ; and the Literary Annals of Helmstadt, which appear to have been fourth and fifth, which were both re-written in Armenian, conducted by Bruns during the years 1782, 1783, and contain other fragments of the books of Kings. Dr Tisch- 1784. A small portion ot the ninety-first book of Livy, endorf’s second volume is entitled Fragmenta Evangeln which Bruns failed in reading from the manuscript, was afterLucce et Libri Genesis, ex tribus Codd. Greeds, quinti, wards successfully deciphered by Niebuhr, who alsosupplied sexti, octavi sceculi; uno Palimpsesto ex Libya in Museeum some other deficiencies, and published the entire book, toBritannicum advecto; altero celeberrimo Cottoniano ex gether with another Ciceronian fragment, at Berlin in 1820. It remained, however, for another distinguished labourer Ma._ Flammis erepto ; tertioex Oriente nuperrime Oxonium perlato, Lipsiae, 1857. The most important among the con- in the new and interesting field of inquiry which had thusx tents of this volume are the fragments of St Luke’s Gospel, been indicated rather than explored, to surpass all his pre-

PALIMPSESTS. 211 Palimp- decessors and contemporaries, not only in discovering re- three other orations of Cicero, with some ancient annota- Palimpsests. scribed manuscripts, but also in extracting from them works tions and commentaries never before published. The por- sests. or parts of works which were long considered as irrecover- tions thus recovered belonged to the orations against Cloably lost. We allude, of course, to the Abate Angelo Mai, dius and Curio ; to that De JEre alieno Milonis / and to the doctor of the Ambrosian Library at Milan, afterwards first oration De Rege Ptolemceo. Of the oration De JEre alieno keeper of the Vatican, and finally (1838) cardinal librarian Milonis no other fragment was known until this discovery. of the Roman Church, whose researches in this department These treasures had lain concealed under a Latin translawere so extensive and important that he may truly be called tion of the Acts of the Council of Chalcedon, and were the hero of palimpsests, and the discoverer of a new world adjudged by the discoverer to belong to the fourth cenof letters. (See Mai.) It was not till the year 1814 that tury. The palimpsest from which they were discovered Monsignore Mai made himself known by the partial disco- had formed part of the collection obtained from Bobbio. very of lost works. A year earlier, indeed, he had em- The older writing was in very large and handsome charac• ployed himself in translating a large portion of the oration ters, but less beautiful than that which contained the fragof Isocrates De Permutatione, which Mystoxides, a learned ments of the three orations mentioned in the preceding Greek, had published from a manuscript in the Ambrosian paragraph ; and there were only two columns in each page, Library more perfect than any of the codices which had a circumstance which seems to indicate that the writing is been followed by the editors of Isocrates. The quantity somewhat less ancient. The contents of these two volumes thus inserted in the oration increased it by at least one- the learned editor afterwards united into one, which he pubhalf; and the same additional matter has since been found lished in 1817, with corrections of the fragments that had in some of the Vatican manuscripts. In publishing this first appeared, and some additional notes and illustrations. translation, however, Mai modestly continued anonymous. The great antiquity of the practice of rescription is suffiBut his name was destined soon to be illustrated by far ciently attested by these various fragments of Cicero’s oramore important labours. tions ; indeed it is supposed that the speech for Scaurus L His researches amongst palimpsest manuscripts com- was obliterated in the eighth century. But Latin manumenced with certain hitherto unpublished fragments of scripts appear to have been more frequently subjected to three orations of Cicero, namely, those for Scaurus, Tullius, this treatment than Greek manuscripts, or those in any and Flaccus. These orations had been written in a quarto other language. It is true, that in the “ Collection of form, but had been partly erased and folded into an octavo Greek Papyri from the British Museum,” there is an ansize to give place to the sacred poetry of Sedulius. The cient palimpsest papyrus, in which the original was the ennewer writing was judged to be as old as the eighth cen- chorial Egyptian, and the second writing is Greek. But tury, and the original to be not later than the second or this is a very rare instance ; and even of this papyrus, it third. The manuscript had belonged to a very ancient would be difficult to show that the date of the second monastery at Bobium, or Bobbio, in the Milanese, founded writing is earlier than that assigned to the earliest Latin by St Columban, who had also formed its library; and in palimpsests. the collection obtained from the same venerable institution 3. The year 1815 proved very rich in discovery, and the greatest part of the rescribed manuscripts has been dis- gave birth to no fewer than three volumes of unpublished covered. “ In examining carefully some manuscripts in works. One of these is peculiarly valuable and curious, as the Ambrosian Library at Milan,” says Mai in his preface, containing large portions of several orations of Symmachus, “ I observed that one of great antiquity was a palimpsest. in whom, as Mai expresses it, breathed the last inspiration This manuscript had belonged to the convent of Bobbio, a of Roman eloquence. The epistles of this famous orator monastery in Liguria, situated in the midst of the Apen- were the only productions of his pen previously extant; nines, which was founded by St Columban in the year 612, but in these recovered fragments we have a copious speciand the monks of which obtained considerable reputation men of his eloquence in two panegyrics on Valentinian, for learning as well as sanctity. Gerbert, a Frenchman by one on Gratian, a gratulation addressed to the father of the birth, who became pope under the name of Silvester IL, orator on his being appointed consul, and parts of several and attained so much celebrity for learning that he is one other works of the same kind, making eight in all. Mai of those who, in the rude popular tale, are reported to have likewise deciphered a portion of a panegyric of the younger sold their souls to the devil, was head of this monastery in Pliny which was contained in the same palimpsest, but of the tenth century, and added greatly to the reputation of which only the various readings are here given. The orithe place, as well as to the contents of the library. The ginal manuscript is supposed to have belonged to the seventh Cardinal Frederigo Borromeo, who founded the Ambrosian or eighth century. These interesting fragments were reLibrary at the beginning of the seventeenth century, pur- printed at Frankfort in 1816 in one vol. 8vo. chased the principal part of the collection at Bobbio and 4. The same year another very ancient palimpsest was brought it to Milan. Whilst I was examining these manu- found in the Ambrosian Library, containing all the comescripts,” he adds, “ I remarked that one, which contained dies of Plautus which have reached us, except four ; and a some of the writings of Sedulius, a Christian poet, was a fragment of the Vidularia, a lost comedy, of which all that palimpsest; and on looking very closely and attentively I previously remained consisted of about twenty lines, prediscovered traces of the former writing under the latter.” served by Priscian and Nonius. The ancient writing in He then read the titles, pro Scauro, pro Tullio, and pro this manuscript is exceedingly beautiful, and is supposed to rlucco, and was able, with some trouble, to decipher the be of the time of the Antonines; the more modern, conw 10 e of the fragments of these three lost orations, written sisting of part of the Old Testament in Latin, is conjectured anc to be of the seventh century. Mai deciphered a number T .^rSe into i three very columns. beautiful characters, page being divided The orationeach for Scaurus was of various readings, together with about sixty inedited lines accompanied by scholia, elegantly written in small letters belonging to the different comedies ; and restored the folo a squaie form ; and there were others in characters of a lowing spirited lines of the Stichus (act i., sc. 5), which inc ei orm, but still ancie nt. These three fragments, to- had previously existed in an imperfect state :— ge erwiti the scholia (which Mai considers the produc“ Famem fuisse suspicor matrem mihi, tion ot Asconius Pedianus), were published at Milan, 1814, Nam postquam natus sum, satur nunquam fui; in one volume 8vo. Neque quisquam melius referet matri gratiam' 2. In the course of the same year Monsignore Mai proQuam ego matri mem retuli invitissimus.” uce a second volume, containing various fragments of T. his, therefore, is an important discovery, not so much on

212 P A L I M P Palimp- account of what has actually been recovered, as by reason sests. Gf the expectations which it is calculated to encourage. For if Monsignore Mai found a Latin Bible containing almost an entire copy of Plautus, it cannot be affirmed that any classical author is irrecoverably lost until every Bible in manuscript, and every other writing upon ancient parchment, has been diligently examined. There is no moment at which some important discovery may not be made, provided the labour of scrutinizing parchments be persevered in. That there are many palimpsests in the public libraries of Great Britain, particularly in the Bodleian at Oxford, which is singularly rich in manuscripts, can scarcely admit of a doubt. The number of manuscripts in Spain, and her vast mass of archives, have long been equally famous; nor is it impossible that several lost works, or portions of works, by Latin authors, may yet be found in that country. Although the search for manuscripts that are directly and obviously valuable may have proved fruitless, yet a very different result may follow when parchments are examined with a view to asceftain whether a lower stratum of writing exists beneath the sterile surface, and whether some of the most precious remains of ancient genius and eloquence may not be covered or concealed by the rubbish of chroniclers and ecclesiastical writers. It is true that much has perished irrecoverably. In the Protestant parts of Europe the most frightful havoc was committed at the Reformation. Huge volumes containing the ancient services abounded in all the churches and monasteries. Most of these had been brought directly from Rome ; and in the days when books of this kind were transcribed, it may, by some, have been considered an act of piety to erase profane writings, especially if imperfect, in order to make way for the sacred offices. From the very nature of these books, indeed, there can be little doubt that much ancient parchment entered into their formation; and as they were carefully preserved, exempt from accident or injury, there can be little doubt that in many, perhaps in most of them, there existed under the rescription the remains of more ancient writings. Wherever they could be found they were consigned to the flames without mercy, in virtue of enactments which enjoined the destruction of all popish books; and inestimable chances of discovery were thus for ever lost to the world. But great as was the destruction which took place at the Reformation, enough still remains to warrant the conviction, that were there more Mais to examine and decipher palimpsest manuscripts, there would be numerous additional and most important discoveries. Who knows but that, in the most paltry and unpromising volume, may be found the works of the most eloquent of historians ?—that Pellibus exiguis arctatur Livius ingens ? 5. The next discovery effected by Mai, from a manuscript of the same class, was that of the remains of the orator Fronto, who had flourished in the reign of Hadrian. This writer, though by birth an African, was in his day esteemed almost a second Cicero; yet of his writings little more remained than a few scattered sentences, preserved in the works of other authors. Mai, however, by his acuteness and perseverance, was enabled to recover a very considerable portion of Fronto’s works, which he published at Milan in 1815, in 2 vols. 8vo, under the title of M. Cornelii Frontonis Opera inedita, cum Fpistolis item ineditis Antonii Pii, M. Aurelii, L. Veri et Appiani, necnon aliorum Veterum Fragmentis. The contents of the first volume consist of one book of epistles addressed to Antoninus Pius, two books to Marcus Aurelius, and two to Lucius Verus; two books of letters to friends; several letters addressed to Marcus Aurelius, on the subject of the Ferice at Alsium, a town in Etruria; and one to Lucius Verus, in which the orator laments the death of his grandson, one of the child-

SESTS. ren of his son-in-law Victorinus. The second volume Palimpexhibits a considerable portion of two books, De Orationi- sests. bus, addressed by Fronto to Marcus Aurelius; parts of various orations and epistles; and also a portion of an address to Antoninus, entitled De Bello Parthico, consoling him for the reverses experienced in the Parthian war. Then follow some important fragments under the title of Principia Historice; a few playful prolusions on lighter subjects; and a book of epistles written in Greek. The work is concluded with a collection of all the fragments of Fronto’s works which have elsewhere been preserved, and with copious illustrations of those which were then for the first time published. In the palimpsest from which these . curious remains were deciphered the more recent writing formed part of the Council of Chalcedon ; but the manuscript was unhappily much damaged, and altogether in a very imperfect state. Fronto was a voluminous writer, and composed works upon various subjects, amongst which was an Invective against the Christians. He had a great reputation as an orator, and was accounted the Cicero of his time, although his style, which is said to have united the siccum and the grave, does not very well accord with such a distinction. The writings of so remarkable a person would, in any circumstances, be an object of interest; but they become doubly curious from having been thus mar- , vellously brought to light. 6. In the meanwhile, Mai was preparing another publication of similar origin, which, in 1816, he gave to the world under the following title, viz., Interpretes Veteres \irgilii Maronis; Asper, Cornutus, Haterianus, Longus, Nisus, Probus, Scaurus, Sulpicius, et anonymus; e Veronensi Palimpsesto ; and about the same time he discovered the palimpsest of the Gothic Bible of Ulphilas, his edition of which has been already described among the biblical palimpsests. 7. Mai now entered upon a more enlarged and important scene of action. His distinguished merit in this new field of discovery having obtained for him the notice of Pius VIL, he was by that pontiff appointed keeper of the Vatican Library, and speedily justified this preferment by a discovery more interesting and valuable than any which he had hitherto made. In a palimpsest volume, which had formed part of the manuscript collection originally brought from Bobbio, and which contained, in the exterior writing, part of the commentary of St Augustin on the Psalms, he found that the interior or more ancient writing had consisted of the long-lost books of Cicero De Republica, the most celebrated of all his works, and of which nothing had been known, in modern times, beyond the fragments preserved in the writings of Macrobius, Lactantius, Augustin, Nonius, and others. This precious volume had been purchased by Paul V. more than two centuries before, with the knowledge that it was a palimpsest, and that it contained part of Cicero’s treatise De Republica, though, by some strange neglect, it was reserved for Mai to bring its contents to light. It was still in excellent order; the characters were large and plain ; and in the leaves which remained there was scarcely a page that could not be deciphered; but many of the pages were wanting; and there seemed reason to apprehend that the same deficiency would often occur in future discoveries, because the work last inscribed might not have been co-extensive with the original writing obliterated, and because, when the volume had been taken to pieces for the purpose of rescription, the whole of the leaves that contained the original writing might not have been put together again, but some of them applied to other purposes, and leaves taken from other works, or of new parchment, inserted in their place. But however this may be, in these invaluable pages a very considerable part of the first and second books of the celebrated treatise in question was found so perfect as to be completely recovered by the labour and sagacity

PALIMPSESTS. 213 fifty-three heads, however, only two were known before Palimpof Monsignore Mai. The portions of the work thus rescued from oblivion were published at Rome in 1821, with copious Mai’s discovery. Every trace of the rest, with the exception Bests, notes and illustrations, particularly an accurate account of of the names of twenty-two, had been lost; and the variety the various chasms occasioned by the loss of original leaves, and the value of the selections from the ancient writers and accompanied with such a restoration of the four re- which they must have contained are best estimated from maining books as could be effected from the less perfect the portions which have been recovered. The palimpsest portions of the manuscript, and the various fragments pre- thus brought to light by Mai contained the title Ilepi served by Sigonius and other critics. A finer specimen VvMfjLwv, I)e Sententiis; and although, like every other of editorial skill, learning, and sagacity is nowhere to be palimpsest as yet discovered, very far from perfect, it comprised a large number of extracts from the lost books of the found. The part of this important treatise which has thus been historians enumerated above. Of the thirty-five lost books unexpectedly brought to light, is amply sufficient to give a of Polybius, for instance (out of forty of which his History clear insight into the plan and style of the dialogues, as originally consisted), the palimpsest supplies copious extracts well as into the characters of the various interlocutors from all but the last,—from the sixth to the thirtyunder whose names the illustrious author chose to develop ninth inclusively,—amounting, in the whole, to 100 quarto his own opinions. These were, the second Scipio Afri- pages. The gaps in the Historical Library of Diodorus canus, and his friend Laelius; L. Furius Philus; M. Mani- Siculus, of which twenty-six books out of forty have perlius, whom Cicero elsewhere praises for his knowledge of ished, are no less happily supplied. The extracts in the the law; Sp. Mummius, the brother of Mummius Achaicus ; palimpsest commence with the sixth, and extend to the Q. Elius Tubero; P. Rutilius Rufus; Q. Mucius Scaevola; fortieth; making, in the whole, above 130 pages. Nine and C. Fannius, son-in-law of Laelius. The introduction of the twenty books of the Roman Antiquities of Dionysius to the first book is nearly complete ; but that which stamps of Halicarnassus have perished. The Vatican palimpsest the highest value on the work is the luminous philosophy contained extracts from them all, to the extent of 64 of the author on the subject of government and policy, as quarto pages. The fragments of Dion Cassius recovered expounded by Scipio, the principal interlocutor, with un- from the palimpsest are far from filling up the lamentrivalled eloquence and felicity of expression. We now able hiatus in his vast but sadly-mutilated History ; but understand the grounds upon which the ancients preferred they are by much the most important and most considerable this to all Cicero’s philosophical works; and on the whole, that had hitherto come to light; and they fill no fewer notwithstanding its still imperfect state, it is unquestionably than 100 pages. The recoveries from the other historians one of the most interesting acquisitions that have been are less considerable ; but, even in themselves, they are of made in the department of classical literature since the great value, although, in contrast with the superior extent original publication of the ancient authors soon after the and importance of the fragments named above, they will be revival of letters. May we not indulge the hope that even- comparatively overlooked. In one word, the appearance of tually other important additions will be made to the invalu- this “ Historical Palimpsest” of Mai, as it has been styled, able fragment which Mai so laboriously and skilfully brought may be regarded as an epoch in the search for the lost literato light? ture of Greece and Rome. It appeared, not as an inde8. The zeal and the industry of Mai did not relax from pendent work, but as one of the volumes of a vast collection success. On the contrary, soon after the appearance of of works in every department of ancient literature, sacred the fragment of Cicero’s treatise De Republica, he gave to and profane, collected from the unpublished manuscripts of the learned wwld another elaborate publication, containing, the vast store-house of the Vatican, filling ten immense —1. Juris Civilis Antejustinianei Reliquia inedita; 2. quarto volumes, and entitled Scriptorum veterum Nova ColSymmachi Orationum partes; 3. C. Julii Victoris Ars lection 1831-8. The “ Historical Palimpsest” was Mai’s last Rhetorica ; and, 4. L. Caecilii Minutiani Apulei Fragmenta great work in that line. Each of the three great collecde Orthographia. These remains w’ere also recovered tions which he subsequently published,—the Classici Aucfrom a rescribed manuscript in the Vatican Library, and tores ex Codicibus Vaticanis editi, 10 vols. 8vo, 1828-38; were, as usual, accompanied by notes, appendices, and il- the Spicilegium Romanum, 10 vols. 8vo, 1839-44; and lustrative plates. the Nova Patrum Bibliotheca, vols. i.-vi.;—contains some 9. But a much more valuable and generally interesting dis- interesting fruits of his old spirit of research,—fragments of covery awaited him. Students of Roman history have long Lucan, of Juvenal, of Persius, of Gargilius Martialis, and of deplored the miserably imperfect condition in which almost Aristotle ; but their materials are almost exclusively drawn all its writers, native and foreign, have come down to our from the unpublished manuscripts of the Vatican. time. Of the works of the Greek writers upon Roman Long, however, before Mai had withdrawn from the work Niebuhr, affairs,—Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius of Halicar- of palimpsest exploration, another labourer of high qualifinassus, Appian, Dion Cassius, lamblichus, and the writers cations, who has been incidentally named already, Niebuhr, of the later empire, Dexippus, Eunapius, Menander of By- had entered the same field of inquiry. The library of the zantium, &c.,—but a very small portion has been saved, and Chapter of Verona had long been famous for the number of even that in far from a satisfactory condition, whether as to the manuscripts contained in it; and it was also known to completeness or as to correctness of text. Now, by a rare be remarkably rich in those which related to jurisprudence. literary favour of fortune, Mai was enabled, in one single In the Verona Rlustrata of Maffei, published in 1732, the publication, to restore to the world large extracts of each author had given an index to all the manuscripts, and partiand all these historians, which, both in extent and in histo- cularly mentioned several leaves of parchment, some of rical importance, far exceed all the contributions to their which treated of prescriptions and interdicts, whilst others respective texts which, up to this day, had been made since contained fragments of the Pandects and part of the work then first publication in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- of an ancient jurisconsult; “ quai codici, se si fossero conturies. The original of the palimpsest in which these servati, niente si ha in tal genere, che lor si potesse paragoprecious fragments lay buried was a sort of commonplace- nare.” The leaves in question were afterwards bound up in book, which had been compiled by the order of the learned a small volume, composed of fragments of different manuEmperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, and in part, indeed, scripts ; and extracts from both were published by Maffei, esigned and executed by himself. It consisted of extracts with a fac-simile of the characters, in his Istoria Teologica. rom the most eminent authors, arranged under different But these curious relics attracted little attention, or rather tltXol, or heads, originally fifty-three in number. Of these were altogether forgotten, until the successful researches of

214 P A L I M Pahmp- Mai had awakened and animated the curiosity of the est8, learned. In the year 1816, Haubold revived the recollecv ^ tion of them by printing at Leipzig a treatise entitled Notitia Fragmenti Veronensis de Interdictis, which appears to have attracted considerable notice. In the same year Niebuhr, passing through Verona on his way to Rome, as Prussian envoy to the court of the Vatican, visited the Library of the Chapter, and, during two dayswhich he passed at Verona, took an accurate copy of the fragment De Prcescriptionibus et Interdictis, and also transcribed another, De Jure Fisci. But if this had been all, the labours of these two days, however meritorious, would perhaps have soon been forgotten. Fortunately for letters, however, he examined another manuscript, then numbered xiii., and found that the exterior writing contained some epistles of St Jerome, whilst a more ancient writing appeared underneath. On further examination, Niebuhr perceived that the latter contained the work of some ancient jurisconsult; and having applied the infusion of galls to folio 97, he so far restored the characters as to be able to transcribe the portion of the original text therein contained. He then communicated his discovery to Savigny, and with the assistance of the latter, published in a periodical work the specimen transcribed, accompanied with an ingenious commentary, in which he maintained that the manuscript referred to contained the Institutions of Gaius, the great Roman jurist, probably, under Marcus Aurelius, whose person and history have furnished such a theme for speculation to writers upon Roman law; and that the fragment De Prcescriptionibus et Interdictis formed part of that work. The result fully established the soundness of this conclusion. Two other labourers were therefore sent by the Berlin Academy of Sciences to work the mine which Niebuhr had thus happily opened; and, having obtained the permission of the Chapter, they transcribed the manuscript almost entirely, only about one-ninth part of the whole, or rather less, being found illegible. The transcript was immediately submitted to the Academy, and the Institutions of Gaius first appeared at Berlin in the year 1820. The manuscript from which this invaluable relic of ancient jurisprudence was recovered consists of 127 leaves, which have been thrice written upon. The more recent writing, which is in uncial characters and of considerable antiquity, contains some of the works of St Jerome, chiefly his epistles, of which there are twenty-six. The more ancient is of two kinds; the one remarkable for its antiquity and elegance, and the other intermediate,—that is, written over the first and under the third or last writing. The former of these is that in which the Institutions of Gaius were written ; so that the intermediate kind had superseded the work of the Roman jurisconsult, but had, in its turn, yielded to the third and last writing. As to the age of the original manuscript, Niebuhr very early expressed an opinion that it was older than the time of Justinian; and Kopp, judging from the forms of the letters, the contractions, and various other indications, arrived at the same conclusion. It is creditable to the literary curiosity of Germany that the first edition of this work was almost immediately sold off. Blume, who had been concerned in the first transcription, paid another visit to Verona, where he re-examined the manuscript with great care; and the fruits of his labour appeared in the second edition, which was published in 1824. In the following year a third edition appeared at Leipzig, without the notes of Gdschen, and with the modern instead of the ancient orthography, which had been religiously retained in the two Berlin editions. Gaius was somewhat late in attracting attention in France, w here learned lawyers were once so abundant; but the

? S E S T S. translation of M. Boulet had the effect of partially awaken- Palimping the curiosity of his countrymen, by rendering this in- sests. valuable relic of Roman jurisprudence more easily and generally accessible. Niebuhr’s contribution to Roman Law was followed up by Peyron, who, from a palimpsest of the Turin Library, published in 1824, CodicisTheodosiani Fragmenta Inedita, 4to, by Drs Pertz and Gaupp, who printed a portion of the Digest of Justinian, from a Neapolitan palimpsest, at Breslau in 1823. The reader will be more interested, however, in the his- paijmp_ tory of the classical palimpsests. Dr Fridegar Mone, son sests reof the well-known scholar of that name already alluded to,cently disdiscovered, during the year 1854, in a Benedictine monas-coveredtery in Carinthia, a manuscript of St Jerome’s Commentary on Ecclesiasticus, the under writing of which consisted of portions of the first, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, and fifteenth books of Pliny. The original is exceedingly ancient. Dr Mone even ascribes it to the second century, and it was not without the utmost difficulty that he was enabled to decipher it. As Pliny’s Natural History has come down to us entire, the recovery of these fragments is less important than would be a similar discovery of a lost classic, but their value nevertheless will be fully acknowledged by every critical scholar w'ho is aware of the very obscure and seemingly corrupt condition of Pliny’s text; and who recollects the light which has been thrown upon the last six books by the new readings from the Bamberg manuscript which Sillig gave in the last volume of his edition of 1831-6. Dr Mone has printed his Carinthian palimpsest in a type nearly fac-simile. ((7. Plinii Secundi Naturce Historiarum Lib. /., XI., XII., XIII., XV., Fragmenta, edidit Fridegarius Mone, D.Ph., 1855.) The oriental collection, to the palimpsests of which biblical criticism has been, as we said, so largely indebted, has also afforded some important contributions to classical literature. In the Codex Nitriensis already described, in addition to the fragments of St Luke deciphered and published by Dr Tischendorf, there was also discovered, under the same Syriac treatise of Severus of Antioch, a second palimpsest, containing large fragments of the Iliad of Homer. The original Codex Nitriensis was one of a collection of Syriac and other oriental manuscripts purchased for the British Museum from M. Pacho. When first examined, it was found to be defective; but fortunately the missing leaves were discovered in a second collection brought from the east by Dr Tattam; and the Codex now contains twentythree quires (of five leaves each), twelve of which are occupied with the Homeric palimpsest. The whole has been carefully deciphered by Dr Cureton, and published in fac-simile, at the expense of the trustees of the British Museum, in a beautiful volume, entitled Fragments of the Iliad of Homer, from a Syriac Palimpsest, edited by W. C. Cureton, M.A., London, 1857. These fragments comprise in all 3873 lines; and although all their contents were previously known, yet their high critical value will be best understood from the circumstance, that the original from which they are printed is more ancient by several centuries than the oldest known manuscripts of the Iliad— than the celebrated “ Townley Homer,” than the “ Bankes Papyrus,” than the papyrus now in the possession of Mr Harris at Alexandria, and the Ambrosian palimpsest discovered by Mai. As a specimen of palimpsest typography, the book is one of the most beautiful hitherto produced. Another, and still more curious fruit of the Syriac palimpsests, and the last1 which we have to record, was published a few months since at Berlin, from a codex in the

1 Some slight fragments of Lucan, Seneca, Aulus Gellius, and Hyginus the fabulist, deciphered by Niebuhr; of the Phaeton of Euripides, published by Hermann (Leipsic, 1821); of Sallust, Pliny, and Lucan, discovered by Pertz; and a few minor scraps, might also be mentioned ; but they do not require any detailed notice.

PAL j limpsests same collection of the British Museum—Gar Gram Liciniani Annalium quce super sunt, ex codice ter seripto Muscci Britannici Londinensis, nunc primum edidit Karolus Augustus Fridericus Pertz, Ph.Dr., Berolini, 1857. The palimpsest was first observed, and in part transcribed, by the father of Dr Pertz, the well-known historian and antiquary of that name; but it was not till the year 1856 that the younger Pertz completed the transcript, which appears to have been a task of exceeding difficulty. The codex, as will be collected from Dr Pertz’s title, is a thrice-written manuscript; and it differs from the similar palimpsest of the Institutions of Gaius in having its outermost or most recent writing in the Syriac language, and in the most difficult and complex form of the Syriac characters—the cursive letters. The second writing is in Latin, and contains portions of the work of some unknown grammarian (the chapters De Verho and Be Adverhio), of whom we only learn that he flourished between the second and fifth centuries of our era. The lowest and earliest writing is in large uncial characters, and contains portions of five books of the Roman history of an annalist called Gaius Granus Licinianus, who is named by Macrobius and by the commentator on Virgil Servius, but of whom nothing else is known. The recovered fragments present intrinsic evidence of having been written after the History of Sallust and before that of Livy : they are from the twenty-sixth, twenty-eighth, thirty-third, thirty-fifth, and thirty-sixth books; and they regard a period of great interest, A.u.C. 509-676. The least incomplete chapters are those which regard theCimbrian war, the civil war, and the Mithridatic war ; but it must be owned that the recovered fragments throw little new light even upon these events. This recovery, nevertheless, is very interesting, both for itself and for the hope which it seems to hold out, that in other quarters which yet remain to be explored, and which at present seem to promise as little for ancient western literature as the long-forgotten monasteries of the Levant, w^e may yet disinter, from some thrice, or even more frequently re-written codex, the most precious of the long-lost treasures of antiquity. The general appearance and characteristics of palimpsests will best be understood from inspection. There are few of the great libraries which do not possess at least a specimen or two ; and even from the fac-similes which accompany most of the palimpsest publications, a very good idea of the original may be formed, especially from those of the Cureton palimpsest of the Iliad, those of Tischendorf, and the small plate of Pertz. In most cases, however, the palimpsest is represented, not in its original form, but in that which it presents after it has been chemically treated for the purpose of being deciphered. Cardinal Mai, in some of his plates, represents both appearances. The method of manipulating palimpsests, for the purpose of deciphering the ancient writing, depends partly on the condition of the manuscript, partly on the ink in which the original was written. In some, indeed, the ancient writing is quite readily deciphered without any preparatory process whatever; in others, on the contrary, the original is found to have been so carefully and so successfully effaced, that no amount of skill or perseverance will avail to the complete decipherment of their contents. To comprehend the process of restoration, it must be understood that, there were two methods employed by the ancients in effacing the original writing—the wet and the diy. 1 he first consisted in moistening the surface of the parchment, washing it with a sponge, and rubbing it down with pumice-stone. Of the second there were two different forms; either the entire line was scraped away with a broad scraping tool or blade, or the operator followed the course of each separate letter, and obliterated each in succession with the point of the tool. The ink, again, was of

PAL 215 three kinds—metallic (which was that commonly used), Palindrovegetable, and animal; and as the action of the ink, what- musever may have been its composition, was not confined to the surface, it is found that, even after the superficial trace of colour has been partially or entirely removed, its unobserved presence may still be detected by careful scientific treatment. The first method, and one frequently adopted by Mai, is simply to wash the page with an infusion of galls, and expose it for a time to the action of light and air, This application, in Mai’s hands, was in many cases sufficient to restore the buried writing so far that, in good clear light, it could be deciphered by any practised palaeographer. In other cases, however, the effect of this treatment is to blacken the parchment, and to render both the old writing and the later entirely illegible. M. Peyron of Turin, the editor of the fragments of the Theodosian Code described above, having experienced this effect, adopted a prescription suggested by his colleague Giobert, professor of chemistry in the same university. The parchment is first carefully washed in common water ; it is then dipped in diluted muriatic acid, and finally in prussiate of potash. This treatment, which had already been suggested by Blagden in the Philosophical Transactions for 1787, proved entirely successful; and a preparation founded on it is now known by the name tinctura Giohertina. Dr Pertz, in the effort to decipher his palimpsest of Granus Licinianus, was struck by the singular circumstance, that the same mode of treatment did not succeed equally with both sides of the parchment. The chemical agent employed by him was a preparation of sulphuretted ammonia—(his formula is, N2H',S, aqua x - ), which he found perfectly successful in reviving the characters upon the outer surface of the skin, as this surface, from its hardness and the closeness of its grain, had been but little defaced by the process of rubbing. But the inside of the skin, being softer and looser in texture, and therefore having been impressed to a greater depth by the process, remained almost entirely unaffected by this application. For the inside of the parchment, therefore, Dr Pertz found it necessary to have recourse to the agent already referred to,—the tinctura Giobertina,—for which he gives two different formulas,—c/y + 2K, and CyK + CyFe. In deciphering the fragment of Livy, which he published from a Berlin palimpsest (Berlin, 1848), Dr Pertz used a mixture of the ordinary preparation of sulphuretted ammonia and the tinctura Giobertina in equal parts. Where the ink of the original is a vegetable product (as in the case of a palimpsest of the Gallican Psaltery described by Mone, p. 40), the palaeographers have failed to restore the original writing sufficiently for the purpose of being deciphered. For inks which contain animal substances (as milk or the blood of the cuttle-fish, the pi\av of the ancients), Dr Mone directs that the manuscripts be placed in a close vessel filled with oil, and heated to 400° R. Much, however, it need hardly be added, will depend on the experience and judgment of the manipulator. Many useful suggestions will be found in the prefaces of Mai and other editors, and especially in F. J. Mone’s Lateinische und Griechische Messen; Pertz’s Gai Grani Liciniani Annalium quce supersunt; and Fridegar Mone’s De Libris Palimpsestis, tam Latinis quam Grcecis, Karlsruhe, 1855. (c. w. R.) PALINDROMUS, or Palindrome (yaXiv, again, and Spopos, a course), a verse or sentence which runs the same when read either backwards or forwards. Such is the verse, Roma tibi subito motibus ibit amor. Some people have refined upon the palindrome, and com-

216 PAL Palinode posed verses, each word of which is the same read backII wards as forwards ; for instance, that of Camden :— Palissy. Odo tenet mulum, madidam mappam tenet Anna. Anna tenet mappam madidam, mulum tenet Odo. PALINODE (7rdA.1v, back, and 080's, a ivay\ a discourse contrary to principles formerly avowed ; and hence the phrase palinodiam canere means a recantation. (Macr. Saturnalia, vii. 5.) The term is properly applied to a piece in which a poet retracts the invective of a former satire. PALTNURUS, or Palinuri Promontorium {Capo Palinuro), wras a mountainous headland on the coast of Lucania, between Velia and Buxentum. It derived its celebrity, as well as its name, from Palinurus, the pilot of vEneas, who, according to Virgil and other Latin authors, was cast ashore and buried near the promontory. It was also well known for its well-sheltered haven, which still bears the name of Porto di Palinuro. PALISSY, Bernard, commonly called “ The Potter,” was born about 1509, in the diocese of A gen in France, or, according to some, at Chapelle Biron, a poor hamlet near the small town of Biron in Perigord. His father is said to have been a glass-worker, who exercised his craft, like the rest of his fraternity in those days, in the recesses of a forest. Young Bernard’s education was accordingly sadly neglected ; but, “ as a child, he rolled upon the moss, and ripened with the chestnuts,” which, in the long run, proved not quite so bad a school for the youth as might have been supposed. With some skill as a worker in painted glass, he, at the age of eighteen, set out to study nature, to see the world, and to earn his bread. The succeeding nine or ten years of his life were spent in wandering over France in all directions ; painting a window now and then ; constantly prying into the secrets of nature in woods and fields, by rivers and roads ; talking with a wise man when he found one ; studying his Bible as he went, and eagerly reading what scraps of philosophy came in his way. It was during these journeyings that he first became acquainted with the Reformed doctrines, which he subsequently espoused, and for which he had ultimately to suffer. In 1538 Palissy took up his abode in the little town of Saintes, married, and gave up wandering. During these years his eye chanced to light upon a beautiful enamelled cup of Italian manufacture, when, without the slightest knowledge of the art, he too resolved to make enamels as well as any Italian. He set about his experiments with uncommon ardour; but nothing came of it meanwhile, he says, but “ great cost, loss of time, confusion and sorrow.” His attention was diverted for a time by the duties of surveyor of the saltmarshes of Saintonge, to which he had been appointed ; but the discovery of white enamel again became his care. Failure upon failure mocked his enthusiasm: his neighbours jeered him, his wife became petulant, and his children clamoured for bread. Then, with genuine childish simplicity, he comported himself, he says, “ as if I were not zealous to dive any more into the secret of enamels,” and took duly to glass-painting, and eschewed folly. But no sooner had his domestic affairs begun to assume a more prosperous aspect, than the little pet at the coy enamels was got over, and ,he took to his furnaces again. The furnaces soon burnt , up all the fuel, and consumed all the Potter’s money. In his extreme need, he flung the flooring of his house to the flames, and when that was done, the furniture followed it. No wonder that his poor wife became now positively sulky. The Potter was clearly mad now, in the eyes of all sensible people. But mad or not, he discovered his enamel, and became the greatest potter in France. Sixteen years had been spent on this discovery, and Palissy was now bordering on fifty ; yet he had accomplished his purpose, and he met with the patronage which

PAL success generally secures. In 1557 or 1558 he published Palladio, a book without his name, which is either now lost or cannot 1 be authentically identified. In the first collected edition of the Potter’s works, by MM. De Saint Fond and Gobet, the Declaration des Abus des Medecins is supposed to be the missing treatise, and is printed accordingly among Palissy’s works. High and mighty patrons now sought the humble shed of the artisan ; and among the foremost was the Constable Montmorenci, who employed him to decorate his Chateau d’Ecouen, near Paris. It has already been noted that the Potter was a stanch Reformer. Reform was unfortunately not a commodity in equal demand with enamelled clay among the great and luxurious of France in those days. On the contrary, old men and simple maidens had more than once met death on the martyr’s scaffold, even in remote Saintes, and under the eyes of the devout Palissy. This had not the effect of silencing the outspoken, courageous Potter; it rather made him more vehement in his denunciation of the oppressors. But for his skill in clay, his head would doubtless have fallen with the rest; but to imprison or behead old Bernard was equivalent to depriving many wealthy people of the luxury of his decorative art—a thing not to he thought of. This it was that delivered him from the Bordeaux dungeon and from the massacre of St Bartholomew’s. In 1563 he published his second book, containing treatises on four subjects,—viz., agriculture, natural history, gardening, and fortification, with an appended history of the troubles in Saintonge. Here, as elsewhere, the strong original genius of the man comes out, sometimes in quite startling anticipations of scientific theories, which centuries were needed to develop and verify. Under royal patronage, the Potter removed to Paris; and at the age of sixty-five became “ Master Bernard of the Tuileries.” His sons aided him in his art; and he not. only continued to prosecute his study of natural history, but commenced a course of lectures in the capital on scientific subjects, which were published in 1580. The doctrines of this, his last book, were a century or two in advance of his time ; and it is this work which has obtained for him the admiration of men like Buffon, Haller, and Jussieu. The sturdy old Huguenot had religious enemies in abundance, who had long been anxious for his head ; and when the Potter was in his seventy-sixth year, Henry III. gave way to their importunities. He was thrown into the Bastile, where he lay for the next four years. The king visited him in his dungeon one day about the end of that period, and held out to him the alternatives of recantation or death. “ Sire,” said the old man of eighty, “ the Guiscarts, all your people, and yourself, cannot compel a potter to bow down to images of clay.” Next year both king and potter had gone to their account: the former fell by the hand of the assassin, and the latter died in calm hope in the Bastile. (See Life of Bernard Palissy of Saintes, by Henry Morley, 2 vols., Lond. 1852.) The last and best edition of Palissy’s works is entitled CEuvres Completes de Bernard Palissy, avec des Notes et une Notice Historique, par P. A. Cap, 8vo, Paris 1844. PALLADIO, Andrea, a celebrated Italian architect, was born at Vicenza in 1518. He began life as a sculptor, but was afterwards induced by his friend Trissino the poet to direct his attention to architecture. His generous patron took Palladio with him to Rome on three several occasions, where the young artist made a diligent study of the best specimens of ancient architecture of which that city could boast. Returning to his native town in 1547, he set zealously to work both as a practical architect and as an illustrator and expounder of his favourite art. He attained an unbounded popularity as a master of architectural design. Noble and commoner vied with each other to overwhelm the rising artist with commissions ; and Pope Paul III. summoned him to Rome to obtain his professional

PAL advice regarding St Peter’s. An estimate of Palladio’s character as an architect will be found in the article Architecture. He gave the world the benefit of his artistic studies at Rome in his Antichita di Roma, published at Rome in 1554, and frequently reprinted. His greatest work, however, was his Architettura, in four books, published at Venice in 1570, and frequently reprinted, reedited, and translated. It appeared in London in 1715, in two folio volumes, under the title, Architecture, in English, Italian, and French, with Notes and Observations by Inigo Jones; revised, designed, and published by Leoni. This edition was often reprinted and re-edited, and appeared both in French and Italian. The best edition of the Architettura is that of Vicenza, in Italian and French, in four large folio volumes, 1776-85. A new edition of his works was published in Paris, 1825-42, in folio. Palladio died in August 1580, while engaged on his greatest work, the Teatro Olimpico at Vicenza. PALLADIUM (IlaAAdSiov), an image or statue of the goddess Pallas Athene or Minerva, kept carefully hidden, and revered as the safeguard of the place where it lay. Among the ancient images of the goddess, by far the most celebrated was the Palladium of Troy, said to have been thrown from the top of Olympus by the hand of Zeus, and to have been picked up and preserved by Hus on the building of the city. This statue was about 3 cubits high, and represented the goddess sitting with a spear in her right hand, and in her left a distaff and spindle. The safety of Iroy was universally regarded as depending upon the preservation of the Palladium. Ulysses and Diomede were accordingly commissioned during the Trojan war to steal it. They effected their object despite the wrath of Pallas, who is said to have infused temporary life and motion into her image to intimidate the impious Greeks. (Virgil, JEneid, ii. 164, &c.) According to other accounts, the genuine Trojan Palladium was conveyed by Alneas to Italy, and was subsequently preserved with the utmost secrecy and veneration in the temple of Vesta. To account for the discrepancy in these traditions, some have alleged that the image stolen by the Greeks was simply an imitation of the real one ; while others affirm that Troy contained two Palladia equally genuine. In Greece, Argos and Athens both claimed the honour of possessing the ancient 1 rojan Palladium ; and in Italy, the cities of Rome, Lavinium, Luceria, and Siris put forward similar 1pretensions. On passing into European languages, the "word palladiur came to signify any peculiar law or privilege regarded a the safeguai d of the liberties of the people, or, in general whatever affords effectual protection and safety. The tern palladium has also been applied to a metal discovered b’ Dr Wollaston in 1803, associated with platinum, from whici it is obtained, and which it resembles in colour and lustre. PALLADIUS,surnamed “Sophista,”or “Iatrosophista,: a Greek medical writer, flourished during some period be tween the third and ninth centuries. The only record of hi i e is, that he was the author of three Greek treatises, whici are still extant. The first treatise, entitled Scholia h Ljiorum Hippocratis “Be Fracturis;, was published in th< twelfth volume of Chartier’s Hippocrates and Galen, fol. ^ans, 16/9. The second treatise, entitled In Sextun ylippocratis) “ Epidemiorum ” Librum Commentarius iias been inserted in the original Greek in Dietz’s Scholu in Hippocratem et Galenum, in 2 vols. 8vo, 1834. Tin t nr treatise, entitled Be Febnbus Concisa Synopsis, ha: been published by Ideler in his Physici et Medici Grcec Minores, 8vo, Berlin, 1841. Pallaihus of Helenopolis, one of the early Christiar a ers, is generally supposed to have been born it Galatia about 367. An intense admiration for the prac ice o asceticism seems to have early become his distin VOL. xvn.

Palladium 3 '!i• .a '

PAL guishing characteristic. Assuming the monkish garb at the age of twenty, he set out on foot to visit the cells of the most famous solitaries in the different parts of the Roman empire. The devout pilgrim trudged through Upper Egypt, Lybia, Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, and Italy, dropping in upon the ghostly fathers in the midst of their solitary devotions, marking their austerities and mortifications of the flesh, and drinking in greedily the strange stories about visions and miracles which fell from their reverend lips. All these observations and fables he began faithfully to record, after he had ultimately settled down in the see of Helenopolis in Bithynia. The book was finished about 420 ; and from being addressed to Lausus, a chamberlain at the imperial court, came to be known by the name of the Lausiac History. Palladius spent the latter part of his life in the discharge of the duties of the bishopric of Aspona. The date of his death is uncertain. The Lausiac History, both in the original Greek and in an old Latin version, is contained in the Bibliotheca Patrum, fob, Paris, 1644 and 1654. There is a Greek work, entitled A Bialogue about the Life of St Chrysostom, which has been ascribed to the Bishop of Helenopolis, but which is now generally attributed to another writer of the same name and the same period. (See Smith’s Bictionary of Greek and Roman Biography.) Palladius, Rutilius Taurus JEmilianus, a Roman writer on agriculture, probably flourished in the fourth century. The only record of his life and labours is a treatise, Be Re Rustica, in fourteen books. The first book introduces the subject, the twelve next treat of the agricultural operations of the twelve months of the year, and the last describes in elegiac verse the art of grafting. The work rose to high repute in the middle ages. It appears to have been often transcribed; and it was nearly completely incorporated in the Speculum of Vincent of Beauvais. In modern times editions have appeared bv Ernesti, in 1773 ; and by Schneider, in his Scriptores Rei Rusticee, 4 vols. 8vo, Leipsic, 1794. Among the various translations into different languages is the English version of T. Owen, 8vo, London, 1807. PALLAS. See Minerva. PALLAS, Peter Simon, a distinguished naturalist and geographer, born on the 22d of September 1741, was the son of Simon Pallas, a surgeon in the Prussian army, and professor of surgery at Berlin. Fie received the early part of his education in his father’s house, and his instructors bore ample testimony to the rapidity of his progress. At the age of fifteen he began to attend medical lectures ; and he applied himself so closely to practical anatomy, that in 1758 he was found qualified to deliver a course of public lectures on that science. In the same year he went to Halle, and became the pupil of Segner, continuing also his studies of zoology, and, in particular, of entomology, with great assiduity. In 1759 he removed to Gottingen, where he made a variety of experiments on poisons, and on other active medical substances, and commenced his observations on parasitical animals. In July 1760 he went on to Leyden, in order to attend the lectures of Albinus, Gaubius, and Muschenbroek; and at the end of the same year he took his d/tgfee of Doctor of Physic. Thfe following summer he proceeded to England, principally with the view of completing his medical education, although he devoted the greater part of his time to the active pursuit of natural history, being assisted and encouraged by the friendship of Peter Colinson and of some other British naturalists, which procured for him, a few years afterwards, the distinction of having his name inserted in the list of the foreign members of the Royal Society, at the early age of twentythree. He visited several parts of the coast of England, in order to examine its marine productions; and his love ol natural history enabled him to profit in a similar manner 2E

218 Pallas,

PAL LAS. Linne the younger has given him a genus, Pallasia, in Pallas, by an accident which detained him for some time at Harv wich, on his return to the Continent, in the spring on.762. his Supplementum Plantarum ; a compliment to which his '— unremitting labours in every department of natural hisHaving paid a visit to his native city, he went again to the Hague, and established himself as a resident there tory had amply entitled him. His collection of dried under the patronage of Gaubius. On occasion of the pub- plants was purchased by Dr Clarke’s fellow-traveller, Mr lication of a miscellaneous work on zoology, which he de- Cripps, and passed into the possession of Aylmer Bourke dicated to the Prince of Orange, he proposed a plan for Lambert. The general character of Professor Pallas’s acan expedition to the Cape of Good Hope, and to the quirements appear to have been that of extent and variety, Dutch East Indies, which he offered to conduct in person; together with fidelity. He was not the author of any new but although the project was encouraged by Gaubius, and theories or improved systems: and it has sometimes been approved by the prince, his father’s interference prevented observed, as by Murray in his System of Vegetables, that its execution, and obliged him to return to Berlin. His his descriptions were somewhat defective, from the omission filial affection, however, was not strong enough to induce of correct specific distinctions; but this omission is of him to refuse the invitation of the Empress Catharine to such a nature as to affect a compiler or a book-maker St Petersburg, where he accepted, in the year 1767, the much more than an actual student of natural history, who appointment of professor of natural history in the Imperial is studying for his own improvement only, and who is capable of entering into a detailed examination of the obAcademy of Sciences. The first few months of his residence at St Petersburg jects concerned. To such a detail the principal part of were employed in preparing his Zoological Gleanings for Professor Pallas’s works have relation ; and it is impossible publication, and in making catalogues of some collections to enumerate the whole of his memoirs without making a of natural history. It was now that the more active career pretty extensive catalogue of the productions of the variof his public life was about to commence ; and in 1/68 he ous kingdoms of nature. undertook, in common with Falk, Lepechin, and Gulden1. His Dissertatio Inauguralis de Insectis viventibus intra Vivenstadt, the conduct of an expedition sent out by the em- tia, 4to, Leyden, 1760, containing a systematic account of intestipress, for the joint purposes of observing the transit of nal worms, is said to have been previously published in another Venus, and of investigating the natural history and geogra- form at Gottingen a short time before he went to Leyden. 2. We phy of Siberia and the neighbouring countries. The ob- find in the Philosophical Transactions for 1763, p. 62, a short note the Cold observed at Berlin the preceding winter. 3. In ject of their researches for the first summer was the pro- on the volume for 1776, p. 186, a Description of the Jaculator Fish, or vince of Kasan, and the winter was passed at Simbirsk; Sciawa jaculatrix of the Indian Ocean, which catches insects by the next year they examined the shores of the Caspian darting drops of water at them. This description is repeated in the and the borders of Calmuck Tartary ; after which they re- Spicilegia Zoologica, fasc. 8. 4. Elenchus Zoophytorum, 8vo, turned through Orenburg, and passed the winter at Ufa. Hague, 1766 ; containing nearly 300 species ; Dutch by Boddaert, figures, 8vo, Utrecht, 1768. 5. Miscellanea Zoologica, 4to, In 1770 Pallas crossed the Uralian Mountains to Catharin- with 1766 ; consisting of descriptions and dissections. 6. Spicienburg, and, after examining the mines in that neighbour- Hague, legia Zoologica, 4to, Berl. 1767-1780. Of this valuable collection hood, proceeded to Tobolsk. The next year he went to of memoirs, intended for the description and illustration of new or the Altaic Mountains, traced the course of the Irtysch to little-known species of animals, there appeared in the whole fourKolyvan, went on to Tomsk, and observed the natural freez- teen fasiculi; some of them were published by Professor Martin ing of quicksilver at Krasnoyarsk, on the Yenisei, in Lat. during the author’s absence in Siberia. W e find, amongst other articles, an interesting account of the musk-deer, of various species 56. 30. N. He proceeded in March 1772 by Irkutsk of antelope, and on the different varieties of sheep, both wild across the Lake Baikal, as far as Kiatka, and returned to andthetame ; the latter has been published in English, On Russian Krasnoyarsk. In 1773 he visited Tara, Astracan, and and Tartar Sheep, 8vo, Edinburgh, 1794. 7. In the N. A.ct. Acad. Tzaritzin, on the Volga, and returned to St Petersburg in Nat. Cur., vol. iii., p. 430, Phalcenarum biga ; an account of two 1774, after an absence of six years. About ten years later species of moth, of which the females are without wings, and sponhe was made a member of the Board of Mines, with an taneously fertile. 8. A variety of miscellaneous papers, by Pallas, in the Stralsund Magazine, which began to be published additional salary of L.200 a year; and he was compli- appeared at Berlin in 1767. They chiefly relate to the Winter Residence of mented with the title of a Knight of St Vladimir. The Swallows, vol. i., p. 20 ; to Hydatids found in the abdomen of ruempress purchased his collection of natural history for a minant animals, and supposed to be a species of Taenia, p. 64 ; to price one-third greater than his demand, and allowed him, the Birds of Passage of Siberia, p. 145, from Heller s Notes; to Firat the same time, to keep it in his possession for the re- man’s supposed discovery of the Origin of the Belemnite, p. 192; to Some Peculiarities of Insects, p. 225 ; to a Poison supposed to be mainder of his life. prepared in Siberia from the Sitta or nut-hatch, p. 311; to the In 1794 he took a journey into the Crimea, and was Elk or Moose-Deer, p. 382, from Heller’s papers ; and to the use of captivated with the beauty of the country and its produc- the Sphondylium in Kamtschatka, p. 411. 9. Collections relating tions ; the climate also appearing to be such as his health to the Mongol Tribes, published in 1776, and showing that they are was supposed to require, he obtained from his munificent distinct from the Tartars. 10. Professor Pallas’s contributions to Memoirs of the Imperial Academy of St Petersburg are also very patroness not only permission to establish himself there, the numerous, and on miscellaneous subjects. In the Novi Commentarii but a grant of a large and fertile estate, and a sum of we find an account of the Tubularia Fungosa, vol. ii., observed near 10,000 rubles to assist him in his outfit. He was thus en- Wolodimer; Lepus pusillus, and Fossil Bones of Siberia, vol. xiii.; abled to build a little palace rather than a country house, Quadrupeds and Birds observed in 1769, vol. xiv. 1; Remains of in which a traveller from the north of Europe was sure to Exotic Animals in Northern Asia, vol. xviii., especially the skulls the rhinoceros and the buffalo; Tetrao arenaria, Equus hemireceive the most obliging hospitality, as Dr Clarke has of onus, and Lacerta apoda, vol. xix.; the last also in Oeneesk. Jaermade well known to the English reader. It appears, how- boek, ii. In the Acta for 1777, ii., An Account of the Teeth of an ever, that the air was not altogether exempt from the Unknown Animal, like those which have been found in Canada; miasmata, which are the causes of paludal fevers ; and Observations from Camper’s Letters, on a Myrmecophaga and a some other circumstances, besides the distance from all Didelphis, and Equus asinus in the wild state. In the volume for civilized society, seem to have made the old age of Pallas 1779, ii., a Description of Plants peculiar to Siberia ; Capra Canalso in Lichtenberg’s Magazine, ii. For 1780, part i., more cheerless than he had anticipated to find it, in the casica, Galeopithecus vitans, part ii., On the Variations of Animals, and independence and tranquillity of his patriarchal establish- JKdelphis brachyura. For 1781, part i., Felis manul, a new Asiatic ment at Akmetshet (Simpheropol.) About ten years after species of Felis; ii., on some species of Sorex. In the volume for the period of Dr Clarke’s travels, he undertook a journey 1783, New Species of Fishes; and 1784, On some New Marine to Berlin to pay a visit to his brother, and died there in Productions. 11. The Observations sur la Formation des Montagues, et les Changemens arrives au Globe, particulierement d regard September 1811.

PAL Paiiavi- dz VEmpire Russe, published separately, 4to, Petersburg, 1777, cino. were also inserted in the Acta of the Academy for 1777, having j been read at a public sitting before the King of Sweden. A translation of this discourse is inserted in Tooke’s Russian Empire, and some remarks on it are found in the Journal de Physique, vol. xiii. 12. The most considerable of the separate publications of Pallas was the account of his travels, entitled Reisse durch verschiedene provinzen des Russischen Reichs, 3 vols. 4to, Petersburg, 1771-3-6; French, 8vo, Paris, 1803 ; English, 2 vols. 4to, London, 1812; a work of the highest authority in geography and natural history. 13. It was in the course of these travels that Pallas observed in Siberia an insulated mass of native iron which he described in a paper addressed to the Royal Society of London, and printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1776, p. 523 ; a substance which has become the subject of many discussions, from its resemblance to some of the specimens of well-ascertained aerolites ; the author mentions also the remains of an unmineralized rhinoceros, which had been found in the same country. 14. In the Beschdftigungen Naturforschenden Freunden, published at Berlin about 1777, we find a letter on the Acipenser ruthenus, or sturgeon, vol. ii., p. 532 ; and An Account of a Monstrous Horse, vol. iii., p. 226. 15. Some Mineralogical Observations, addressed to Born, are published in the Bohmische Ahhandlungen, vol. iii., p. 191. 16. In the Swedish Handlingar for 1778, we have the Alauda Mongolica, and the Sturnus Daauricus ; the Anas glocitans, in 1779. 17. Nbvce species Olirium, 4to, Erlangen, 1778. 18. leones Insectorum, preesertim Rossice Sibiriceque, 4to, Erlangen, 1781. 19. Enumeratio Plantarum Procopii a Demidoff, 8vo, Petersburg, 1781. 20. Another channel in which a number of Pallas's most valuable essays appeared is the work entitled Neue Nordische Beytrdge, which he published at St Petersburg and Leipsic in 1781 and the following years. The most remarkable of the subjects of these are A Great Exotic Animal found in Kasan in the year 1776 ; on the Migration of the Water-Rat on the Volga, and Observations on Taeniae, vol. i.; further Remarks on Taeniae; on American Monkeys bred at St Petersburg; on the Ardea helias •, on the Culex lanio, sometimes fatal to cattle; on the Phalangium, or Scorpion Spider; and on Copper Island, in the Sea of Kamtschatka, vol. ii.; on Two Birds | and on the Labrador Stone, vol. iii.; on a Cross of the Black Wolf with the Dog; on a Mine; on the Oriental Turquois; and Mineralogical Novelties from Siberia, vol. v. 21. In the Physische Arbeiten of Vienna, we have a geological Essay on the Orography of Siberia, vol. i. 1. 22. Flora Rossica, f. vol. i., Petersburg, 1784; ii., 1788, published at the expense of the empress. 23. Tableau Physique et Topographique de la Tauride, 4to, Petersburg, 1795; German, in N. N. Beytrdge, vii.; a work derived chiefly from the observations made by the author in his travels of 1792. 24. A Monography of the Astragali is mentioned by some of his biographers. 25. He edited also Guldenstadt’s Reisen durch Russland und in den Caucasischen gebirgen, ii., v., 4to, Petersburg, 1787— 1791. 26. He also compiled and arranged the two first and most valuable of the four volumes of the Vocabularia Comparativa, 4to, Petersburg, 1787, in which he attempted to make some improvements in the Russian orthography. (Coxe’s Travels; Clarke’s Travels; Tooke’s Russian Empire ; Halleri Bibliotheca Anatomica ; Aikin’s General Biography, vol. x., 4to, London, 1815 ; Chalmers’ Biographical Dictionary, vol. xxiii., 8vo, London, 1815; Dryander, Catalogus Bibliothecce Historico-Naturalis Josephi Banks, Bart.) (t. y.) PALLAVICINO, Ferrante, an Italian litterateur, who owes his celebrity as much to his misfortunes as to his genius, was descended from a noble family, and was born at Piacenza about 1618. He received an excellent education, and gave early proof of very great abilities. In compliance with the desire of his parents, he entered the church, took the habit at the monastery of the Augustine friars at Milan, and joined the house of his order at Venice. For a time he bore a high character for piety and learning, but a love intrigue with a fair Venetian led to his deserting the monastery, and was the beginning of a course of debauchery and general misfortune which ended only with his life. Need drove him to authorship; and among other minor efforts, he wrote a collection of satirical letters, called The Courier Robbed of his Mail. It was bitter against the Spaniards, whom the author disliked, but the Inquisitors licensed its publication. The secretary of the republic, however, declined giving it his imprimatur, which caused Pallavicino to vow vengeance upon that functionary. On

P A L 219 returning from a residence in Germany, where he at once Pallee acted as chaplain to the Duke of Amalfi, and played the || libertine, he resolved to wreak his anger upon all who had Pallium, endeavoured to prohibit his manuscripts. He re-cast and enlarged his Courier, and got a bookseller to pass it secretly through the press. When on the eve of completion, however, a pretended friend, who played the spy, disclosed the matter to the Pope’s nuncio, and the unfortunate author was thrown into prison. Having obtained his liberty, mainly by the aid of one of his mistresses, he wrote a piece called La Buccinata overo Butarella per le api Barberini, consisting of a bitter satire on his enemies the Barberini, with a dedication, expressive of the most exquisite contempt, to the Nuncio Vitelli. The ecclesiastic adopted the foulest means of revenge. He bribed a base Frenchman to decoy the unsuspecting poet into the hands of a gang of sbirri. Pallavicino was conveyed to Avignon, and, on pretence of carrying contraband goods, was thrown into prison. A mock trial was got up, at which he made a skilful defence; but it was all to no purpose. He was sentenced to death, and lost his head upon the scaffold on the 5th of March 1644, at the age of twenty-six. In addition to the productions already alluded to, Pallavicino wrote a number of smaller pieces, all characterized by that happy grace and fine genius which his larger works display. His Opere Permesse, edited by Brusoni, with a Life of the author, were published at Venice in 4 vols. 12mo, 1655 ; but his Opere Scelte, Geneva, 1660, is the edition most prized by the curious. PALLEE, a town of India, in the Rajpoot state of Joudpore, 108 miles S.W. of Nusseerabad, and 351 S.W. of Delhi; N. Lat. 25. 48., E. Long. 73. 24. It is an ancient town, and was formerly surrounded by walls; but these were destroyed at the request of the inhabitants; as they made the place an object of contest in the civil wars of Joudpore. Pallee belongs immediately to the sovereign of Joudpore, and is not subject to any inferior feudal lords. He obtained from it an annual revenue estimated at L.7500. It is a place of considerable trade, as it stands at the intersection of the commercial routes from Cutch to the northern provinces, and from Malwah to Sinde. Pop. estimated at 50,000. PALLIUM and Paela were generic terms applied, like IgaTLov and whether the number of partners be great that would otherwise be wholly unattainable. aie It happens, indeed, that, like most other things, partneririncipie 0r1 lch founded on that principle of association to >n which 7 most great results may be ascribed. There are but ships are sometimes productive of mischievous results. ounded. cw industiial undertakings that can be advantageously But these are occasioned either by their perversion or carried on without the co-operation of different persons. abuse. The public interest requires that the whole partMany of them require a greater amount of capital than ners in a firm should be bound by the acts of any one of is usually at the disposal of individuals ; and they almost all their number; so that the folly or fraud of a single partner require a combination of various capacities and talents. And may entail very serious consequences upon those associated hence the advantage of uniting together to effect a common with him. Generally, however, this is not an evil of frepurpose. By the union of funds a sufficient capital is ob- quent occurrence; and there can be no question that, both tained. And when it happens, as is often the case, that in a private and public point of view, partnerships are those who contribute funds are without the peculiar skill highly beneficial. And hence their multiplication. They or now edge required to carry on the business, there are have grown with the growth of commerce and industry, Socutas est contractus juris gentium, bonce fidei, consensu constans, super re honestd, de lucri et damni communione ; quam inire possunt omnes liber am habentes rerum suarum administrationem. (Voet. Comm., lib. xvii., tit. ii., § 1.) ta posse coiri societatem non dubitatur, ut alter pecuniam conferat, alter non conferat; et tamen lucrum inter eos commune sit, quia scepe opera alicujus pro pecunid valet. (Instit., lib. Hi., tit. xxvi., § 2.) VOL. XVH. 2R

PARTNERSHIP. 314 Partner- and have been at once a cause and a consequence of the The general duty of a partner is to keep in view, at all times Partnership. extraordinary extension of the businesses carried on by and in all transactions, the interest and welfare of the part- shiPnership, by acting honestly and as a prudent man would their agency. conduct his own affairs. He ought to have no secrets Leading To enter into anything like a full discussion of the law apart from his copartners in matters connected with their principles of partnership would very far exceed our limits. We shall common concern ; and he ought carefully to abstain from in the law therefore merely state a few of those leading principles engaging in any business or speculation, whether on his of partnerwith respect to it with which it is of importance that mer- own account or with others, that would divert his attention ship. cantile men, and the public generally, should be acquainted. from the affairs of the partnership, or would clash with, or The mere consent of the partners, fixed and certified by be inimical to, its interests. Partners may be avowed, ostensible, or dormant. In acts or contracts, is quite sufficient to constitute a private copartnership; so that if two or more merchants, or other regard to the first two there is no difficulty; for whether a persons, join together in trade, or in any sort of business, man be really a partner, or holds himself out to the public with a mutual, though it may be unequal, participation in and passes as such, is immaterial in so far as his liability to the profit and loss of the concern, they are in every respect the latter is concerned. And in the case of dormant partto be considered as partners. If there be no provision to ners—that is, of partners who participate in the profits of the contrary, each partner would share in the profits ac- concerns without disclosing their names—they are as liable cording to the value of his contribution to the stock of the as the others the moment it is ascertained that they are partnership, whether it consist of money, goods, skill, or partners ; and they may be pursued for debts contracted labour ; and, under the circumstances supposed, each would when it was not known that they belonged to the partnershare in the loss in the same proportion in which he would ship. Partners may distribute their profits and regulate their have shared in the profit, had there been any. But the proportion of gain or loss to be borne by the various part- affairs in any way they please among themselves ; but they ners may be varied in every possible way. No particular cannot by so doing limit, defeat, or elude their responsibility form of words or proceeding is necessary to constitute a to others. Each partner, however small his share in the partnership. It may be entered into either by an express concern, is liable, in all ordinary partnerships, for the entire written agreement, or by a merely verbal one. The former, debts of the association. And it is for the advantage of however, ought in almost all cases to be preferred. The the partners, as well as of the public, that such should be the contract of copartnery should state the parties to it; the case. It makes the former peculiarly sensitive in regard to business to be carried on ; the space of time the partnership each other’s character and conduct, and cautious as to the is to continue ; the capital, time, or skill which each is to nature of the transactions into which they enter ; and it gives bring into the common stock, or give to the business ; the the latter that security to which they are entitled, and on proportions in which the profit and loss are to be divided; which only they can place any reliance in dealing with the the manner in which the business is to be conducted ; great majority of firms. The act of one partner is not sufficient to bind the others, the mode agreed upon for settling accounts at the dissolution of the partnership ; together with the special covenants unless it relate to, and be connected with, the peculiar business carried on by the partnership : For it is only when adapted to the circumstances of each particular case. To constitute a partnership, there must be a participation they act with reference to the business of their respective in uncertain profits and losses;1 and the true criterion to firms that partners are to be considered as their accredited determine whether a party be a partner or not is, to ascertain agents or delegates ; and it is in such cases only that those whether the premium or profit he receives is certain and who deal with them are entitled to rely on the security of defined, or casual, indefinite, and depending upon the acci- the partnerships which they represent. It may sometimes, dents of trade. In the former case he is not, and in the perhaps, be difficult to say whether a transaction into which latter he is, a partner. A participation in the profits of any a partner is willing to enter be so connected with the busibusiness or adventure, without a participation in the losses, ness of the partnership as to bind the latter. And in such constitutes a partnership so far as to render the individual cases third parties had better be cautious, and decline enso participating liable to third parties for the engagements gaging in a doubtful transaction, unless they have special of the concern, though, as between the parties themselves, grounds for placing entire confidence in the partner with it may be no partnership. Persons acting merely in the whom they are dealing, or have learned that his proceedcharacter of servants in any undertaking, such as seamen ings are known to, and will be sanctioned by, the firm. In in the whale or seal fishery, and receiving as wages a sum matters which are clearly unconnected with the business of proportioned to the profits made by their employers, are the partnership it is not in the power of one partner, unless under very peculiar circumstances, to bind the others. not partners. If an individual, by his own act or inadvertence, allow (Smith On Mercantile Laiv, 5th ed., cap. ii., § 5 ; Kent On himself to appear to the world as a partner, he is precluded the Law of Partnership, p. 37, &c.) The powers of partners are very extensive. They may from disputing the fact, even though he have no interest in the profits. A partner who withdraws from a firm is liable pledge or sell the effects of the partnership, or compound for its debts should the remaining partners continue his for its debts. And they may purchase such goods as they name in the firm, though without his consent, unless he please, having relation to the business of their firms, protake the necessary precautions to show that he has ceased vided there be no collusion between them and the sellers, and that no intimation has been made to the latter by the to belong to it. (See post.) If there be no express stipulation as to the management other partners that they will not be bound by the transacof partnership business, the majority decide as to the dis- tion. Partners are not bound by a contract entered into position and conduct of the joint affairs of the firm ; or if by one of their number as an individual only, and on his there be but two parties in a firm, one may manage the own account. But if it have exclusive reference to the concern as he thinks fit, provided it be within the rules of business of the firm, the presumption is, that it has been good faith, and warranted by the circumstances of the case. entered into upon its account; and this presumption is not 1 A partnership in which all the profit is to go to one set of partners, and all the loss to the others, was called by the Roman lawyers a Uonim society (societas leonina), from the lion, who, though assisted by other animals in his hunting expeditions, took all the prey to himself. (Phaedrus, lib. i., Fab. 5.)

PARTNERSHIP. 315 Partner- to be disputed except by distinct and conclusive evidenceWhen one of the partners has been made liable for the ship. One partner cannot, as such, bind another by deed, except debts of the firm, he must seek his remedy in a rateable Partnership. in bankruptcy. contribution against the others. Should one party enter Partners, though they should act in a fraudulent manner into a smuggling or other illegal transaction on the partneras respects their copartners, bind the firm in all matters ship account, the other partners are liable for the duties connected with its peculiar dealings. But this rule will and the penalty ; and it is optional with the Crown to pronot hold unless the strangers or third parties with whom ceed against the real delinquent only, or against his parta fraudulent transaction has been concluded, have acted ners. A bookseller or newspaper proprietor is answerable bona fide. Any knowledge of, or participation in, the fraud for the acts of his agent or copartner, not only civilly, but on their part will vitiate and upset the transaction, and re- also criminally. lieve the partnership from its responsibility. And though the fraud were not really known to the third party, yet, if the A partnership may be dissolved by the effluxion or ex-Dissolution circumstances were such as ought to have led a man of piration of the time during1 which it was originally agreed of partnerordinary discernment to suspect there was something wrong that it should continue. When it is formed for a single shiP9—that the partner with whom he was dealing had no au- ti ansaction, it is at an end as soon as it is completed. thority to act for the others, or that the transaction had a 1 artneiships may’’ also be dissolved by death, agreement, suspicious character—it would be set aside. In such cases, bankruptcy, outlawry, &c. A court of equity will interexcess of negligence or stupidity has the same conse- fere to dissolve a partnership if a partner evince such gross quences as connivance or guilty knowledge. “ There is carelessness or misconduct as would be ruinous to the firm, no doubt, said Lord Mansfield, “but that the act of every or would defeat the object for which the partnership single partner, in a transaction relating to the partnership, was formed ; or when a partner becomes insane, or is in binds all the others. But there is no general rule which such a state of mind as to render him permanently incamay not be infected by ‘ covin,’ or by such gross negli- pable of transacting the peculiar business of the firm ; or gence as may amount or be equivalent to covin ; for covin where a partnership is formed for an impracticable purpose. is defined to be a contrivance between two to defraud or Indeed, in all cases where even a partnership may be discheat a third.” (Smith, ubi supra, p. 44.) solved without the interference of a court of equity, it may Parties have frequently been not a little surprised to find be most prudent, if the dissolution be opposed by one or that they were, unknown to themselves, partners in bank- more of the partners, to file a bill praying a dissolution and rupt firms, and, as such, responsible for their debts. No- account, and an injunction against using the partnership thing is more common than for books to be printed and pub- name. lished, the publisher taking the risk of the publication and When a partnership is dissolved by agreement, or one of defraying its cost, the author getting for his remuneration the partners withdraws from it, public notice of the dissoluhalf the profits, should there be any, which is not often the tion should be given in the London Gazette, and a specific case. This, however, is clearly a partnership transaction. intimation of the circumstances should be sent to all indiAnd in the event of the failure of a publisher who has pub- viduals accustomed to deal with the firm. Where such lished a work in the way now stated, the printers, paper- intimation has not been sent, an individual withdrawing makers, binders, and others engaged in bringing it out, from a firm may be made liable to third parties after he has supposing their bills have not been paid, fall back upon ceased to have anything to do with it. He should also take the author, who, being a partner in the speculation, is care that his name is struck out of the firm; for if it be bound to discharge their claims ! Cases of this sort are not allowed to remain in it, strangers may suppose that he is imaginary merely, but have occurred over and over again. still one of the partners, and he may thus be rendered responI his, indeed, is a matter in regard to which the writer of sible to them. A dormant partner, however, whose name this article may truly say, “ Hand inexpertus loquor” And has never been announced as belonging to a firm, may such being the risks which authors who enter into en- withdraw from it at pleasure without taking any step to gagements of this sort have to encounter, they will do well, disclose the dissolution of partnership. before embarking in them, carefully to inquire into the character and position of the publishers with whom their It would, however, be expedient, in the view of getting ^Tner3f interests are to be associated. rid of the serious inconveniences to which partners with- should tie The authority of a partner is revocable; and it is fully drawing from firms are sometimes subjected, and still more, publblu J. established that a disclaimer of the authority of the partners of giving to the public that authentic information to which in any particular transaction precludes the individual by they are entitled, that the names of all partners in all partwhom it is made from binding his copartners. Even during nerships, whether great or small, should be periodically the subsistence of the partnership one partner may to a published, and hung up in their places of business. Those certain degree limit his responsibility; and if there be any who have to transact with firms, being in this way made particular speculation or bargain proposed of which he aware of the individuals with whom they are really dealing, disapproves, he may, by giving distinct notice to those with would act accordingly. But at present nothing may be whom his partners are about to contract that he will not be known of these matters, or, if known, it may be by a concerned in it, relieve himself from the consequences, few only; and there is no security whether, if inquiries buch notice would rebut his primd facie liability. The were made regarding the matter, they would be truly partnership would be suspended quoad this transaction. answered. It is not by any means uncommon for firms to 1 bus, if a partner draw, accept, or indorse a bill or note, be continued under certain names long after the parties Re will, in all ordinary cases, thereby render the firm liable. who bore them have ceased to exist, and without their ut, to use the words of Lord Ellenborough, “ it is not es- having left either descendants or representatives of any sort sential to a partnership that every partner should have such in the business. And the designations A. B. & Co., A. B. power; they may stipulate among themselves that it shall not C. & Co., and such like, are often assumed when in truth e one, and if a third party, having notice of this, will take the Co. is a mere fiction. In these and similar cases the sue i security from one of the partners, he shall not sue the public is apt to be deceived, and to suppose that it is dealot icr upon it, in breach of such stipulation, nor in defiance ing with certain parties, when, in fact, it is dealing with o notice previously given to him by one of them that he totally different parties. But as such deceptions and amwu not be liable for any bill or note signed by the others.” biguities are uniformly mischievous, they ought to be put a way v. Matthew, 10 East, 264.) And so in other cases. an end to, and firms proclaimed to be what they really are.

PARTNERSHIP. 316 PartnerWe therefore are disposed entirely to approve of the numerous, living at considerable distances from each other Partnership. principle of the bill introduced into Parliament during the and being commonly engaged in other pursuits, it is im- shiPsession of 1858 (by Lord Goderich) for the compulsory practicable for them personally to conduct the company’s registration of the partners in partnerships. The clamour affairs. These are, in consequence, entrusted to the that was raised against it was most unreasonable. It could management of a board of directors, elected by, and make no improper disclosures; for if a man be ashamed of responsible to, the shareholders. The latter, in fact, can being in a partnership, the sooner he leaves it the better it do nothing individually. All their resolutions are taken in will be for himself and all concerned. Neither did it inter- common, and are carried into effect by the directors they fere in any manner of way with the freedom of industry or have chosen, and their officers. “In a private copartnery,” of association, or lay any restriction on one thing or another. says Adam Smith, “ no partner, without the consent of the Its sole object was to let in light on a few dark places ; to company, can transfer his share to another person, or introshow who Messrs A. B. & Co. really were. It eliminated duce a new member into the company. Each member, fictitious names, and disclosed real and sleeping partners ; however, may, upon proper warning, withdraw from the but it did nothing more. It made no suggestions and gave copartnery, and demand payment from them of his share of no directions. And we have yet to learn that any wrong the common stock. In a joint-stock company, on the concould be done to any honest man by its disclosures, while trary, no member can demand payment of his share from the benefits of which they would be productive are many the company; but each member may, without their conand obvious. We have no doubt that some measure sent, transfer his share to another person, and thereby inhaving the same objects in view will be eventually carried. troduce a new member. The value of a share in a jointIt is difficult to suppose that it should be objected to, ex- stock is always the price which it will bring in the market; cept by those who desire to be in the dark because it affords and this may be either greater or less, in any proportion, than the sum which its owner stands credited for in the greater facilities for the carrying out of sinister projects. When the joint debts of a firm are paid, and the property stock of the company.” {Wealth of Nations, p. 333.) duly distributed among the partners, the dissolution may be According to the common law of England, all the part- Unlimited said, in a general sense, to be accomplished. If any one of the firm be guilty of a breach of duty in misapplying the ners in joint-stock companies, without regard to the magni- liability of I at effects before the concern is finally wound up, the proper tude of the shares held by them, are jointly and individu- partners mon course is, to apply to the Court of Chancery to appoint a ally liable, to the whole extent of their fortunes, for the j°™ debts of the companies. They may make arrangements manager. Within a reasonable time after the death of a partner, the among themselves limiting their liabilities with respect to survivor or survivors must account to the representatives of each other; but unless established by authority competent the deceased ; and if not willing to do so, a court of equity to set aside the general rule, the partners are all indewill compel him or them. In taking partnership accounts finitely liable to the public. In some instances, however, at the death of a partner, they must commence with the Parliament interfered to limit the responsibility of the sharelast-stated account, or, if there be none such, with the holders in joint-stock companies to the amount of their commencement of the partnership ; and they must end shares. And the act 6th Geo. IV., c. 96 empowered the with the state of the stock at the time of the partner’s Crown to grant charters of association to companies, the partners of which might be made liable to such an extent, death, and the proceeds thereof until it be got in. No notice is necessary to third parties of the death of a and subjected to such regulations, as might be deemed expartner; the partnership is dissolved, and all liabilities for pedient. And hence charters were sometimes granted for subsequent acts cease. The surviving parties are to be sued the purpose merely of enabling companies to sue and be alone for the partnership liabilities and obligations, for which sued in the courts of law, in the names of their officethey are liable to the full extent. But they are not liable bearers, without in anywise limiting or affecting the liability for the separate debts of the deceased partner, unless, after of the shareholders to the public. Such limitation was not payment of the joint debts, they have a surplus of partner- to be implied by the grant of a charter, and was not held to exist unless it were distinctly set forth. ship effects in their hands. Upon a dissolution by death, if the joint effects be inIt is much to be regretted that the liability of the share- Limited sufficient to pay the partnership debts, the separate estate of the deceased partner, if he have any, is liable for the holders has been still farther interfered with, and that, in this respect, a very serious inroad has been made on the deficiency. The statements now made may probably be sufficient to old law of the country. The act of 1855 (the 18th and raljy intr0. give our readers a tolerably distinct notion ol the formation 19th Viet., c. 133) authorizes the establishment of com- ducedin of partnerships, and of the more important rights, duties, panics for the carrying on of most descriptions of businesses 1855. liabilities, &c., arising out of such institutions. Those who (banking and insurance were excepted), the liability of the wish to go deeper into the subject may consult Collyer’s partners in which may be limited to the amount of their Practical Treatise on the Taw of Partnership; Chitty s shares. And hence it results, that in all cases in which these Commercial Law, vol. hi., pp. 22-269 ; Woolrych On Com- have been fully paid up, the partners are relieved of mercial Law, pp. 298-317; Smyth On Mercantile Lav), all responsibility, and are no longer liable for anything. Though the bankruptcy of the companies to which they 5th ed., pp. 19-56; &c. belong may occasion the ruin of thousands, they cannot be Formation II. Companies.—By a company, in commerce and. the called upon to contribute a single farthing to the relief of and consti- arts, is meant a copartnery or association of sundry (in Great distresses that have most probably been caused by their tution of joint-stock Britain, at least seven) persons united together for the pro- misconduct! Well might the highest authority who can be appealed companies. secution or carrying on of some lawful business or pursuit. The capital or joint stock of a company is greater or less to on such subjects charge this system with injustice ; for, according to circumstances; but whatever may be its as he observes, “ in the case of the insolvency of a conamount, it is uniformly raised by the issue of such a num- cern, it removes a portion of the loss, which must be ber of shares of such magnitude as those interested may borne by some party, from those who have voluntarily enthink expedient; the individuals enrolled in the books of gaged in the concern, who have had the means of watchthe company as the holders of these shares being its partners. ing and controlling its progress, and who would have been Owing, however, to the latter being in most instances very the sole participators in the benefits of its success, for

PARTNERSHIP. 317 Partner- the purpose of throwing it upon those who have had no more mischievous will they be found to be. It is not going Partnership, means of insight into the state of the concern, no power too far to say, that the present state of the law in regard ship, over its management, and no share in its advantages. The to the constitution, winding-up, and bankruptcy of jointcommandite partners may have embarked a very small share stock companies is more than discreditable, that it is disgraceof their property in the concern, and must, therefore, be ful to the country. Had its object been to introduce fraud very slightly injured by its failure; whilst those to whom and recklessness into their constitution and management, it is indebted may be very seriously injured, even to the and delay and expense into the legal proceedings to which they may give rise, it is doubtful whether it could have been extent of ruin.”1 materially improved. Defective Besides being vicious in principle, the law under which But supposing that joint-stock companies are properly Undertakstate of the joint-stock companies are established is not a little conlaw in re- fuse(j an(i contradictory. Speaking generally, it may be organized, that the liability of the partners is unlimited, lngs which and that creditors have every facility given them for getting may1)6 su ir sa id to be embodied in the act of 1856, the 19th and companies. 201,1 Viet., c. 47, as amended by the act of the following payment of their debts, still there are only certain varieties carried year, the 20th and 21st Viet., c. 14. In the event, how- of undertakings to which they can be advantageously ap- by jointever, of a company being formed which requires peculiar plied. To insure a reasonable prospect of success to a com- stock comor extraordinary powers,—such as the right to make roads pany, the undertaking should admit of its being carried on panics, or canals, to take up streets that gas or w'ater pipes may be according to a regular systematic plan. The reason of this laid, and such like proceedings,—recourse must still be is sufficiently obvious. The business of a great association had to Parliament. But except in cases of this sort, must be conducted by factors or agents ; and unless it be of the acts referred to are sufficient. And all partnerships such a nature as to admit of their duties being clearly pointed or companies for ordinary industrial purposes, if they out and defined, the association would cease to have any consist of more than twenty partners, must be estab- effectual control over them, and would be in great measure lished or registered under these acts, and made con- at their mercy; and, however conscientious and anxious formable to them; while, if they consist of seven and to do their duty, they want the powerful motives to act under twenty partners, they may be so established or re- vigorously, prudently, and economically, by which private gistered; and in either case the liability of the partners may individuals engaged in business are actuated. “ Like,” be limited to the amount of their shares, or be made or says Adam Smith, “ the stewards of a rich man, they are apt kept indefinite, as they may judge best. In like manner, to consider attention to small matters as not for their masbanking companies with more than ten partners must, and ter’s honour, and very easily give themselves a dispensathose with seven and under ten may, be established, and tion from having it. Negligence and profusion, therefore, must be registered under the act 20th and 21st Viet., c. 49 ; must always prevail more or less in the management of the but, as already stated, the liability of the partners in such affairs of such companies.” It also not unfrequently hapcompanies was not limited by the acts referred to. In pens that they suffer from the bad faith, as well as the addition to the clauses in the acts now mentioned as re- carelessness and extravagance, of their servants; the latter gulating the constitution of new and modifying that of old having in many instances endeavoured to advance their companies, there are others which relate to their volun- own interests at the expense of their employers. Hence tary and compulsory winding-up, their bankruptcy, &c. the different success of companies whose business may be And, whether it were intended by Parliament or not, the conducted according to a nearly uniform system, and those effect of these statutes has been materially to modify the whose business does not admit of being reduced to any reformer indefinite liability of the partners in ordinary joint- gular plan, and where much must always be left to the stock companies. These associations have been, by a sort sagacity and enterprise of those employed. All purely of legislative hocus-pocus, metamorphosed into incorpora- commercial companies trading upon a joint stock belong tions ; so that their funds only are liable to be taken in to the latter class. Not one of them has ever been able execution by their creditors. The rights of the latter to withstand the competition of private adventurers; they have, in truth, been sacrificed without compensation or cannot subject the agents they employ to buy and sell equivalent of any sort. * A creditor cannot now, as he commodities to any effectual responsibility ; and from t is could have done three years ago, pounce upon any share- circumstance, and the abuses that usually insinuate t emholder he pleased, and pursue him tor payment of his debt, selves into every department of their management, no leaving to the shareholder to seek an indemnity from his such company has ever succeeded, unless when it has copartners. When the funds of a company, supposing obtained some exclusive privilege or been protected trom , . , the liability of the partners to be unlimited, are insufficient competition. v And even with these advantages, such is the negligence, to make good its engagements, a petition is presented to the Court of Chancery praying to have the company wound profusion, and peculation inseparable from the management up. On this being done, the creditors can take no farther of great commercial companies, that those that have had steps in the matter, but must wait the result. The court the monopoly of the most advantageous branches of commay order calls to be made sufficient to pay the debts due merce have rarely been able to keep out of debt, l o buy by the company. But this is always a very slow process; in one market; to sell with profit in another; to watch over and if the creditors get paid in the end, which may be the perpetually occurring variations in the prices, and m doubtful, it can only be after they have been kept out of the supply and demand of commodities; to suit with dextheir money for lengthened periods, most probably for a terity and judgment the quantity and quality of goods to the wants of each market; and to conduct each operation considerable number of years.2 We do not suppose that regulations having such conse- in the best and cheapest manner, requires a degree of quences are likely to be permanent. Their nature and in- unremitting vigilance and attention which it would be fluence were not declared, and were indeed very imperfectly visionary to expect from the directors or servants of a jointknown, and that only to a few members, when they were stock association. Hence it has happened, over and over before Parliament; but the longer they are maintained, the acrain that branches of commerce which proved ruinous 1 From a paper drawn up by Lord Overstone when the subject of limited liability was first mooted in 1837. Subsequent experience has2 confirmed the accuracy of his lordship’s views. \\ ordsworth’s New Joint-Stock Company Law of 1856 and 1857, passim.

PARTNERSHIP. 318 Partner- to companies have become exceedingly profitable when sort, partnerships en commandite. They consist of partners, Partner ship. carried on by individuals. or commanditaires, who are responsible only for the amount shiP“ The spirit of monopolists,” to borrow the just and of their shares, and of zgerant, whose liability is unlimited, forcible language of Gibbon, “ is narrow, lazy, and oppres- and who, at the same time that he is independent of the partsive. Their work is more costly and less productive than ners, has the entire management of the concern.2 These that of independent artists; and the new improvements so institutions have existed in France for a lengthened period, eagerly grasped by the competition of freedom are ad- but it is only of late years that they have been widely difmitted with slow and sullen reluctance in those proud cor- fused. Latterly, however, their increase has been such porations, above1 the fear of a rival, and below the confes- that it was stated in a speech made in the Corps Legislatif sion of an error.” {Memoirs of his own Life, Miscellaneous in 1856, that more societies en commandite are now estaWorks, i., p. 49, ed. 1814.) blished in a single year than had formerly been established But though in all respects unsuited for the prosecution in half a century or in ten years of the reign of Louis of ordinary industrial pursuits, whether belonging to agri- Philippe. And this extraordinary increase of these soculture, manufactures, or commerce, there are, as stated cieties, and the abuses of all sorts with which vast numabove, various undertakings for which joint-stock com- bers of them have been infected, have attracted a large panies are peculiarly well fitted, and for which, indeed, they share of the public attention to their constitution, and occaappear to be indispensable. The railways and canals which sioned various efforts for its improvement. But it was intersect most parts of the country; the docks and ware- admitted on all hands that, down at least to 1856, the efforts houses in our great seaports; the gas-works and water- referred to had been wholly ineffectual for any good purworks with which almost all our towns, whether great or pose, and that the public was very often defrauded by the falsmall, are provided; and the greater portion of the public lacious representations that were put forth in regard to the buildings and institutions by which they are embellished and state of partnerships, by the declaration of dividends when, the citizens amused and instructed, owe their existence to in fact, there was nothing to divide, and all those fraudulent joint-stock companies. They are works that could not have devices of which we have recently had such extensive exbeen undertaken or completed except by the united capi- perience. And such has been the influence of this state of tal and energies of great numbers of individuals ; and being things, that, despite the many prejudices in favour of the for the most part conducted on fixed principles, and ac- system, it is believed by some high authorities that its cording to a uniform system, their management, though entire suppression would be desirable. not generally productive of much advantage to the shareIn the meantime, however, a new law, which was the holders, has, on the whole, been creditable to those con- subject of a great deal of discussion, was passed in 1856 cerned. It is not easy, indeed, to overrate the advantages (promulgated 23d July) for the regulation of partnerships which this country has derived from joint-stock Associations, en commandite. But though it be in various respects an when applied to proper objects, and conducted by men of improvement on the law which it superseded, there are no probity, skill, and caution. good grounds for supposing that either this act, or that any The question in regard to the suitableness of joint-stock other possible act, will be able to prevent abuse. It limits companies to conduct the business of banking has been the amount of the shares according as the capital of the frequently agitated, and is one of some difficulty. But as society is above or below 200,000 francs; it directs that we have already treated this question at considerable length one-fourth part of the capital shall be paid up. before the in the article Money, it is needless to resume the dis- business for which it has been formed can be undertaken ; cussion in this place. Here it will be sufficient to observe, and it vests the entire conduct of the business, whatever it that much depends on the regulations under which joint- may be, in the gerant, or manager chosen by the partners. stock banks may be placed. And supposing that the un- Inasmuch, however, as it has been found that MM. les limited liability of the partners is maintained and easily gerants have very frequently issued the most deceptive enforced, and that the bad faith or gross mismanagement statements in regard to the companies to which they are of the directors is visited with suitable penalties, it is pro- attached, a committee of surveillance, consisting of five bable that the principal objections to joint-stock banks members, is to be chosen in each partnership, who are to would be either removed or greatly diminished. verify les limes, la caisse, le portefeuille, et les valeurs de la sociele ; and the gerant and the committee of surveillance Limited Partnerships with limited liability have been established are to be subjected to very severe penalties if they knowliability in in France, in the United States, and in other countries. ingly emit any false representations of the state of the 1< ranee, &c. jn j^si- cases they are subjected to peculiar provisions, society. They must be sanguine indeed who suppose but otherwise they may be instituted in a great variety that a clumsy contrivance of this sort can have any effect, of ways. Thus the responsibility of the partners may be unless it be to multiply all sorts of abuses, to increase “/e limited to the amount of the sums which they have respec- grand nomhre de mauvaises societes en commandite ” that And such, we tively contributed to the common stock, or to some mul- existed in France when it was established. tiple of these sums ; and the power of the partners to in- are assured, is the case. What 3 wras bad in these societies terfere in the management of the company may be very in 1856 is much worse in 1858. The French seem to suppose that by making the gerant variously regulated. The French call associations of this 1 The Abbe Morellet has given, in a tract published in 1769, Examen de la Riponse de M. N., pp. 35-38), a list of 55 joint-stock companies for the prosecution of various branches of foreign trade, established in different parts of Europe since 1600, every one of which had failed, though most of them had exclusive privileges. Most of those that have been established since the publication of the Abbd Morellet’s tract have had a similar fate. 2 Exclusive of the societies or partnerships referred to above, there are in France Societes Anonymes, which are nearly identical with our incorporated companies, and Societes en Nom Collectif. The latter are ordinary partnerships, in which the partners are jointly and severally liable to the utmost extent for the debts of the partnership. 3 We borrow the following statements from a paper of the 20th March 1858 :—“ Companies en commandite are giving a good deal of occupation to the courts of law here, just as directors of banks are doing in London, and the revelations that are made respecting them are well worth the consideration of that very numerous portion of the English commercial world which is interested in French speculations. Within the last few days the Tribunal of Correctional Police has condemned one honest gentleman {gerant) of the name of Damonien to imprisonment and fine, for having swindled the unfortunate shareholders of the ( Compagnie Parisienne des Equipages de Grande Remise ’ out of L.20,000 in cash and shares, having plunged them into debt to the amount of L.80,000, and having squandered all their capital, amounting to L.320,000. To be sure, he had what he called an ‘ idea,’ which was to get up the company in shares; but

PARTNERSHIP. 319 Partner- indefinitely responsible to the public, and independent of holders being endowed with the privilege of limited liabi- Partnership, the company, they will obtain at one and the same time the lity. Such companies are not easily perverted to improper advantages of individual enterprise and economy with the purposes; and though the capital of the shareholders may limited liability of the partners. But while these results be unprofitably expended, yet, as it is most commonly laid are all but incompatible, the attempt to combine them out on visible, permanent, and sometimes valuable works, seldom fails to have others that are highly pernicious. A there is a fund on which the creditors, in the event of the manager who is really independent, and may conduct a concern failing, may fall back. But modifying circumcompany as he pleases without let or hindrance on the part stances of this sort have very rarely any place in companies of its members, is extremely apt to conduct it with a view formed for conducting ordinary industrial or commercial mainly to his own interests, how much soever they may be businesses. In their case the entire capital of the associaat variance with those of his noniinal constituents. To tion may be lost or embezzled, without a farthing being left obviate this risk, the partners most commonly endeavour to to the creditors. And it is, moreover, if anything can be, select a manager on whose concurrence with, or subser- a contradiction and an absurdity to suppose that ordinary vience to, their views they think they may depend. And industrial pursuits can be so well managed by great assosupposing them to succeed in this object, all the advan- ciations of any sort, whether the partners be indefinitely tages said to be derived from the independence of the responsible or not, as they will be by individuals or small manager are at an end, and he becomes a mere instrument associations. The latter act on their own account, and reap for carrying out the views of a clique of irresponsible all the advantages of superior skill, attention, and economy, partners. Hence in very many ca,ses the gerants are in at the same time that they are indefinitely responsible for reality mere men of straw, directed by the disguised but all the losses they may incur, and for all the mistakes into well-understood hints or commands of the leaders of the which they may fall, whether in the contrivance or the association, who, secure in their non-liability, are enabled execution of their projects. to gamble on a large scale, and to engage in any sort of But though great public companies be unsuitable for the adventure. conduct of all save routine businesses, the fair presumption, or rather we should say, the certainty is, that those in Limited The limited liability companies established in this country which the responsibility of the partners is limited, will be in are re evec ^ ^ fi'om the foppery of legislation now adverted much more unsuitable, and more productive of mischievous unneces- to' Except in the license given them to contract an un- results, than those in which there is no such limitation. iary an l limited amount of debt, without being liable for more than It must, indeed, be conceded, that despite the heavy renischiev- a limited and, it may be, an inconsiderable amount of sponsibility under which the partners in ordinary associams. shares, they do not in other respects differ from ordinary tions or partnerships now act, they too often display an incompanies. They are managed by boards of directors, excusable degree of foolhardiness. But it is probable that whose duties are the same in their case as in that of others. the recent experience of the ruin that may result from In countries like France, where the people are mostly in placing too much confidence in directors will lead to an narrow circumstances, and unaccustomed to, and afraid of, improvement in this respect, and that the character and speculative enterprises, there may perhaps be some ground conduct of these functionaries will be more carefully infor permitting the formation of partnerships en commandite. quired into. Independently, however, of this circumstance, And if they were confined to undertakings that admitted of those who compare the number of associations which have being carried on according to a system of routine, such as been ruined by the bad faith, incapacity, or mismanagement railways, canals, fire and life [insurances, gas-works, and so of certain sets of directors, and the carelessness and misforth, we do not know that they would be open to much placed confidence of others, will, after all, find that they objection. But in a country like this, where capital is bear but a small proportion to the total number of such abundant, and where all enterprises, however hazardous, associations. Bankruptcy and insolvency, though treated that promise anything like a reasonable return are eagerly with infinitely too much indulgence, are still, speaking undertaken, all extraordinary inducements to make capital- generally, very serious calamities; and, except when the ists come forward are unnecessary, and therefore objection- partners have associated for sinister purposes, or when they able. We admit, indeed, that in the case of companies of have an overweening confidence in their managers, they the special class now alluded to, though nothing be gained, seldom fail to inquire into the condition of the association, there is no great hazard of much being lost by the share- and to adopt such measures as may be judged needful to he made the shareholders recompense him for the ‘ idea ’ by a grant of paid-up shares to the amount of L.60,000. Part of the operations of the company was to buy up small livery stables; and the gerant made purchases in his own name, and sold them to the company for considerably more than he paid for them: in one case he made the company give him L.60,000 for what cost him L.36,000. The same tribunal has also had to condemn the gerants of another company, called the ‘ Ligneenne,’ which professed to make paper from wood : its nominal capital was L.160,000, and of that sum the gcrants took L.40,000 for a patent they brought into the concern, while theys sold for their own advantage, and for whatever they would fetch, L.40,000 worth of shares, and coolly embezzled all the money the "^re* holders paid in, and all that could be borrowed. In another case before a tribunal, it appeared that a brace of knowing gent emen a entered into an arrangement with some'bankers to palm off on the public, for L.280,000 or L.320,000, some forests and mmes^in some outlandish region on the banks of the Danube which they had purchased for L.40,000. In another case, it appeared t at t & gerants o a mining company near Aix-la-Chapelle deliberately sold to their shareholders mines for L.100,000 which they were afterwards obliged to admit were worth only L.60,000. It would be easy to cite other cases of recent occurrence in which revelations not less startling have an been made ; but these few will suffice to enlighten the public. It must not, however, be forgotten that a case more scan ^ous y of them has yet to be brought before the courts—that of M. Frost, of Discount Bank notoriety, who has defrauded his shareholders of many millions (of francs), and who has taken to flight. By the way, these shareholders had a general meetingfi a ew ays ago, an a er a good deal of most vehement abuse of Prost and his ‘ Gonseil de Surveillance,^ they nominated a committee of ve of their body to make a searching investigation into their affairs, in order to ascertain precisely to what extent they have een ro e . ,. . . “ Other companies en commandite there are which, though not falling or likely to fall into the an so jus ice, a^e su Jec e_ e shareholders to grievous loss. I refer to those of which the shares during the speculating mania roug i enormous y ig premiums, but which have now fallen to their true value. Thus the shares of the Messageries Imperiales once obtained 1510 francs ; they are now at about 550 francs. The shares of the company ‘ des Petites Voitures ’ were, shortly after being is®ae_ > a “ ^ ° ^ had for 40 francs. The shares of the Union Company once sprung up almost at a bound from 395 francs to 500 francs; and 65 francs is about the present quotation. People at one time were very glad to give 750 francs for shares in the Franco-Amertcatne Navigation Company; now they can have as many as they like for 30 francs. The Amalgamated Gas Company shares at one time were done at 1120 francs ; yesterday they were at 720 francs. And the difference between the past and the present value of the shares of the famous Credit Mobilier is known to everybody.”

320

PARTNERSHIP. Partner- improve its situation and prospects. This cautious sur- out every temptation to set on foot projects with the inten- Partnershl slli ^ j ^illance is, of course, less manifested in great associations, tion of deceiving and victimizing the public. Pv where ordinary individuals feel that their efforts are apt to be of little avail; but even in their case it is always forcing The contrivers of the new system tell us that, whatever Number of itself into notice, while in smaller associations, or those it may really be, it is at all events popular with the public; non-liabilcomprising comparatively few partners, each being fully and in proof of this, they refer to the great number of com- % compaalive to his responsibility, exerts himself to obviate extra- panies that have been already formed with limited liability.mes no vagance or mismanagement in the conduct of the business, But no such reference was needed to enable any one to their be in and to make it a source of profit. foresee that if a plan were set on foot to enable parties to required. ° W ithout, however, insisting farther on these considera- contract debts without being bound to pay them, it would tions, if parties will every now and then be careless of their be eagerly grasped at. Gambling-houses are at present interests, and forget or decline to adopt the necessary pre- prohibited ; but if they were to be licensed, does any one cautions to guard against abuse and loss when everything doubt that numbers of them would be opened in most conthey have is staked on the result, their carelessness, it is siderable towns ? And we should be told that this was a conobvious, will be immeasurably increased when they may clusive proof that the prohibition of gambling was disaplimit their liability at pleasure, and speculate without any proved by the public, and that it required the healthy exfear of the consequences. Can any one doubt that, under citement furnished by the newly-opened places of entersuch circumstances, wild projects of all sorts will be very tainment ! But whatever may be the case with this or that greatly increased; and that the number of those extensive institution, one should think that the former facilities for bankruptcies which are productive of so much misery will swindling might have sufficed, without giving them further be largely augmented? To suppose the contrary is to encouragement. suppose what is plainly contradictory. It is equivalent to supposing that a man cares as much for L.1000 as for But however powerful the deleterious influence of the Limited L.5000 or L.10,000, or any greater sum ; or is as anxious non-liability system (for such it is when the shares are paid liability about a small part as about the whole of his fortune, how up) on the formation and conduct of companies, we are as- wil1 not inlarge soever it may be. sured that it will be more than countervailed by the greater creatloI ®e the « caution it will infuse into those who may deal with them. ^ |,of Facilities It is obvious too, on the slightest consideration, that the The names and the number of shares held by the partners P 1 ’ which facilities for organizing fraudulent and bubble companies in such associations, and the magnitude of their capital, or of biUty giveshaVe been SreatIy extended by the new system. A few the “ fund” to which their creditors have to look, are all to be for organ- half-employed attornies, half-pay officers, and men upon made known ; so that those who transact business with them izing town, with abundance of time on their hands and little will be really aware of what they have to depend upon. But swindling money in their pockets, have no difficulty in establishing we take leave to say that they will have no such knowassocia- non-liability companies. They meet together and project ledge. Suppose that a non-liability company had a capital tions. an association for some purpose or other—it matters little of L.50,000 or L. 100,000, and that it was wholly paid up whether it be practicable or not—which they affirm will when it was established: it may have been greatly reduced, yield a profit of some 10, 20, or 30 per cent, after all ex- or wholly lost, in the next or in any subsequent year; and penses are deducted. And having hatched their scheme yet, as the public can know nothing, or nothing certain, of and issued their prospectus, they sally forth to canvass for its losses, and may, on the contrary, suppose it has been subscribers. They assure those to whom they address successful, its credit may not be impaired, and it may go themselves that the project is sure to succeed; that their on extending its business and adding to its obligations after liability being limited, they run no risk; and as the shares it is really insolvent. Ordinary partnerships, unless they are only some L.20 or L.50, of which not more than a half consist of parties of very questionable solvency or character, is required, they advise them as “ friends” not to miss an op- have seldom any considerable difficulty in obtaining large portunity, which is not likely to recur, of providing for their amounts of credit; and companies, it matters not of whom families, making themselves independent, or adding to their composed, which are reported to have some L. 10,000, fortunes ! And, what with this sort of blarney, the puffs L.20,000, or LAO,000 of paid-up capital, will be sure to and paragraphs of newspapers, and, above all, the legislative obtain loans to a much greater extent and with still greater guarantee against risk, they seldom fail of accomplishing readiness, In their case we have a kind of authorized their object; that is, of becoming directors, secretaries, ma- guarantee for the possession of wealth. And this, it will nagers, and such like dignitaries. The reader must not sup- be said, precludes all room for distrust; so that, unless we pose that this is an imaginary picture. It has been over had access to very peculiar sources of information, it might and over again realized to the very letter in the getting-up be not a little dangerous to question the solidity of such an of not a few of the non-liability companies that have been association ; though the whole thing may be a snare and set on foot in England during the last two or three years. a delusion. I he assurance, whether official or otherwise, The affairs of some of them have already come before the that a certain amount of capital has been paid up, is really courts of law; and if we took these for samples of the not worth a farthing. But the chances are, that it will, others, we should have to regard them as little better than notwithstanding, serve its purpose with the million. It will mere swindling engines. But it would not be fair to con- make that appear to them to be gold which may not even clude from the instances referred to that such was their be copper, and enable parties without a shilling to borrow uniform character. A good many have no doubt been large sums, and to trade or speculate on the means of honestly got up ; and the greater number of these being others. In such cases the public is helpless. There is nofor routine purposes, such as the supply of towns with thing on which it can rely ; and when the imposture is diswater and gas, it may be assumed that they will be fairly covered by the bursting of the bubble, no one is to be reconducted, and will succeed. But there are very many sponsible for anything. of a totally different character. And it would be childish However it may be accounted for, there is nothing that to suppose that in any case the same consideration will be is so lavishly and inconsiderately bestowed as credit. Fregiven either to their formation in the first instance, or to quently, indeed, it is rather thrust upon than given to intheir future management, that wmuld be given were the dividuals and firms. And it would be ludicrous to suppose partners indefinitely liable. Hence, while the system ope- that this is a case in which we can place any dependence rates to the prejudice even of the best schemes, it holds on the caution of the public. The only real security is in

PARTNERSHIP. 321 kept in the right path by the threat now referred to. The dePartnerclaration of dividends when there is nothing to divide is not ship. the way in which dishonest directors would be most likely 1 to defraud their constituents and the public. They would make loans to each other, or if that be prohibited or apt to excite suspicions, they may do the same thing indirectly by the intervention of third parties. The capital and credit of the institution may be perverted, abused, and dissipated in a thousand ways before the circumstance becomes known to the public. And when the courts of law begin to inquire into the matter, they may probably find that the directors, like those of the Eastern Bank of London, have gone to enjoy themselves and repair their exhausted energies on the classic shores of the Mediterranean. It is the merest delusion to suppose that anything, save the unlimited liability of the shareholders, can be made to afford even the semblance of an efficient check over the conduct of directors. And they no doubt may, and frequently do, fail to exercise that degree of surveillance over them which is as necessary for their own security as for that of the public. But if so, the fault is theirs, and there is no ground or reason why they should be permitted to escape from its consequences. The public have neither right nor power to interfere in the matter. Directors are the servants of shareholders, and they must answer, and, if needful, suffer, for their proceedings.

Partner- the discretion, good sense, and, more than all, in the unship. limited liability of the partners. They know, or may know, what they are w’orth, and what they are about, which no one else can know. And in the vast majority of cases they farther know that they will be bankrupts and beggars unless they act prudently and circumspectly. Hence our late legislation is precisely the reverse of what it ought to have been. Instead of diminishing, we should have increased the responsibility of partners, by abstaining from all interference with their indefinite liability, and giving additional stringency to the bankruptcy laws. That increased caution on the part of the public which it is said will be a result of the new system is really, therefore, no better than moonshine. It can have no practical influence. The only security which in such matters is worth a pinch of snuff consists in the responsibility of partners. It is not to those who deal with this or that house, but to the houses themselves—to the guarantees under which they have been placed—that we must look for protection against foolhardiness and fraud. It may therefore be reasonably concluded, that in ordinary businesses,—that is, in all businesses for carrying on branches of agriculture, manufacture, or trade,—partnerships with limited liabilities can be neither more nor less than unmixed nuisances. If honestly conducted, they must fail in their competition with private parties; and if otherwise, they will only add to the means, which were already sufficiently extensive, of wasting capital and fleecing the public. In the scheme laid down by Providence for the government of the world there is no shifting or narrowing of responsibilities, every man being personally answerable for all his actions. But the advocates of limited liability proclaim in their superior wisdom that the scheme of Providence may be advantageously modified, and that debts and obligations may be contracted which the debtors, though they have the means, shall not be bound to discharge. Borrow, say they, as much as you please, and pay as little as you like,—the less, it would seem, the better ! And can it be doubted that the adventurous, the needy, the unprincipled, and the desperate, will be eager to avail themselves of such extraordinary privileges? The reckless speculation, and the consequent bankruptcy and ruin, that have on former occasions overspread the kingdom have been trifling compared with the revulsions which may be anticipated, should the new system be allowed to spread its roots and scatter its seeds on all sides. Even the soberest individuals may be tempted to embark in hazardous projects; for, by limiting the risk, they in great measure secure themselve against loss by failure, at the same time that they reap all the advantages of success. Were Parliament to set about devising means for the encouragement of speculation, over-trading, and swindling, what better could it do than to carry out the non-liability system ? enalties

But we shall perhaps be told that these results, though a

arentl nd loth^ PP y probable, cannot happen, inasmuch as Parliament ict., cap. ^as Prov'^edj by the Joint-stock Companies Act, the 19th 7, no secu- and 20th Viet., chap. 47, sect. 14, that in the event of the ityagainst directors of a company declaring and paying a dividend raud. when the company is known by them to be insolvent, they are to repay the same out of their own pockets.1 Perhaps the reader may be inclined to think that those who are disposed to trust to a security of this sort are rather easily satisfied. A body of directors who would, under any circumstances, declare a dividend when they knew that the concern over which they presided was bankrupt, will not be

Some who are friendly to the principle of limited Increase of liability, but who are at the same time aware of the liability abuses to which it cannot fail to lead if the liability be Wlt^_0ut, limited to the mere amount of the shares, say that they would not object to its increase. It has, in consequence, been proposed to fix the liability at double or treble the amount of the shares ; so that when a limited company failed, the subscribed capital of which had been fully paid up, the partners would not, as is now the case, be relieved of all responsibility, but would be obliged to make a further payment, if that were required, equal to the amount of their shares, or to double that amount, as might be decided upon. And this would undoubtedly be a very great improvement upon the existing system ; for, while it would raise the character of the partners in limited associations, and make them more careful in regard to those they might choose for directors, and more disposed to watch their proceedings, it would make them contribute to the entire or partial relief of those whom they might otherwise have involved in total ruin. If, therefore, the system is to be continued, we should strongly recommend that the liability of the partners should be raised to at least double the amount of their shares. This would add to its solidity, and divest it of some of its worst features. But, after all, this is only paltering with or mitigating an evil which should be cut up by the roots. Eveiy sound principle is outraged when a man who has the means or pay in o- his just debts does not pay them. Whether they are contracted by himself directly, or in company with others, is of no importance. He is in either case bound to pay them ; and to pass laws to protect him m declining to pay them is to give a legislative sanction to dishonesty and villany.

It is alleged, however, that these representations are The prohifallacious ; that it is a manifest encroachment on the great hition of principle of the freedom of industry to hinder individuals from engaging in partnerships under such conditions as they impromay choose to lay down £ that in the event of these con- pgj. interditions being publicly declared, and everybody made aware ference —— with the 1 This is the statement in the body of the act; but in the “ Regulations for the Management of Companies” attached to it we are told freedom of that “ no dividend shall be payable, except out of the profits arising from the business of the company.” We of course do not presume industry, to decide whether this or the other statement be the more correct; but their contradictory nature affords a curious illustration of the slovenly, slipshod style in which the most important statutes are often compiled. VOL. XVII. 2S

322

PARTNERSHIP. Partner- of what they are, they cannot be justly objected to; for as ing on the matter. If A lend B a sum at 5, 10, or 15 per ship. it is optional to deal or not deal with the association, those cent., it is the affair of the parties, and of none else. They s —who dislike the conditions upon which it is established may enter into the transaction with a full knowledge of the cirkeep aloof from it. But sophistry of this sort is too trans- cumstances, and believe it will be for their mutual advanparent to deceive any one, and might, in truth, be employed tage. There is, however, no limitation of risk either on to excuse almost any sort of jugglery or delusion. The the one side or the other. The business in which the loan question is not whether limited liability be consistent with is to be employed may not succeed, and the borrower may this or that abstract principle, but what are its practical re- become bankrupt; but if so, his entire effects will be sults—what its probable influence over that public well- liable to the uttermost farthing for this and his other debts. being, to promote which either is or should be the object of He therefore has every motive to manage his business so all legislation ? It is with its operation in this respect, that he may avert a catastrophe that would bring with it his and with it only, that we have to deal. Publicans and car- inevitable ruin. But such would not be the case were B’s riers have made frequent attempts to limit or reduce their liability limited ; and it would be foolish to expect to have heavy responsibilities to those who make use of their ser- the conduct suited to one set of circumstances under a vices. But the great principle of public utility stood in the totally different set. way of their claims ; and they have not yet succeeded, and it is to be hoped never will succeed, in effecting their object; It would be the easiest thing imaginable, were it at all Influence though ten times more may be said in favour of their ex- necessary, to corroborate the previous statements by illus- ^f.!10ri?lia' emption from indefinite liability than can be said in favour trations drawn from the United States, where the principle tlie United of the exemption of those engaged in ordinary businesses. of limited liability has been long established. But these states, If, indeed, there be one principle which more than another must be familiar to almost all our readers. Everybody conduces to the public advantage, and may be said to con- knows that, notwithstanding the peculiarly favourable cirstitute the foundation of all dealings between man and cumstances under which the Americans are placed, from man, it is the obligation to discharge one’s debts and obliga- their free institutions, their enterprising character, the lowtions. And when such is the case, it is the bounden duty ness of their public burdens, and the boundless extent of of government strictly to enforce the rule of unlimited lia- their fertile and unoccupied lands, bankruptcy is ten times bility, unless in cases, if such there be, when it can be clearly more prevalent among them than in England. The revulmade out that the public interests will be better promoted sions by which we are sometimes visited, though suffiby its relaxation or suspension. If a case of this sort be ciently severe, are gentle in the extreme compared with satisfactorily established, then undoubtedly the rule referred those that periodically devastate the United States. In to should be waived in as far as it is concerned. But we en- various instances, one of which is of very recent occurrence, tirely deny that, when tried by this test, it either has been or every banking company in the Union has stopped payment, can be shown that partnerships en commandite are publicly while great numbers have been totally destroyed. And it advantageous. On the contrary, we have seen that they is the same with associations of all sorts. A spirit of overare in the last degree injurious, and that it is not possible trading, or a determination, at all hazards, to “ go a-head,” they should be extensively introduced without giving an is universally prevalent, and bears there, as here, its legitiimmense stimulus to fraud and reckless speculation. mate harvest of bankruptcy and disaster. So much so, In dealing with ordinary firms or associations, people indeed, is this the case, and such and so violent are the trust, or believe they may trust, to the reputation for skill convulsions referred to, that it is no exaggeration to affirm and integrity, and to the presumed wealth, of one or more that monied fortunes and personal property are more secure of the partners. Such presumptions are not, indeed, always in Austria and Russia than in the United States. The to be depended upon. In these, as in other matters, people national character has suffered through this miserable sysmay be misled by appearances, and may place an unmerited tem. Those repudiations which have so justly damaged degree of confidence in earnest though insincere profes- the credit of the Americans originated in their attempting sions and promises. But howr deceptive soever, the pre- to limit their responsibilities in their public as well as in sumptions or indications referred to afford not merely the their private capacity. And it could hardly, indeed, be best, but the only guarantees that can really be had for expected that people who may contract debts to their upright conduct. Most people engaged in business, as neighbours which they are not bound to pay should be dishitherto carried on, are impressed with the well-founded posed to make an exception in the case of their foreign conviction that their interests will be best promoted by creditors. their preserving an unblemished reputation ; and when We sometimes hear the rather unwarrantable assertion, Limited they act under the heaviest responsibility, the chances are ten to one that they will behave discreetly and honourably. that, unless their liability be limited, neither the poorer nor Lability ^ But we have no such guarantees for the conduct of the the richer classes are generally disposed to engage in exF partners of a society en commandite. Character is in their tensive partnerships ! But if it really had the effect of as w eii as case of little, or rather of no consequence. Instead of tempting the poorer classes to engage in them, that alone to the richbeing responsible, they are all, or may be all, but irrespon- would be a very sufficient reason why all associations with er classes, sible. A, who is worth L.50,000 or L.100,000, has not limited liability should be suppressed. The condition of more, perhaps, than some L.1000 or L.2000 vested in the these classes will never be improved by withdrawing their society. Whether he lose or gain by such investment is a attention from the businesses to which they have been bred, matter about which he probably cares very little. Most and in which they are engaged, to fix it on joint-stock likely he has joined the association that he might engage, adventures. The spirit of gambling and speculation is without fear or apprehension, in the boldest speculations. already quite enough diffused, without seeking to spread But whether this be or be not his object, it is an insult to its baneful influence among the lower classes. Nothing common sense to suppose that associations of this description should be done which it is possible to avoid to divert their will be as carefully and skilfully conducted as those in which attention from the pursuits of sober persevei'ing industry. the partners are indefinitely liable for their proceedings. Their surplus earnings may be far more beneficially invested It has been attempted to apologize for the non-liability in savings-banks, in loans, and in contributions to friendly system by referring to the usury laws, which permit loans societies, than in joint-stock adventures. to be made at any rate of interest and under a great variety And while, on the one hand, it would be very wrong to of conditions. That, however, has evidently no real bear- tempt by immunities of any sort the labouring classes to

PAS

\pplicaWe have already seen that the limited liability system ion of was not applied in the outset to the business of banking, imited lia- But this exemption has been of short continuance, a law nhty to having been passed in the course of the present year * n inS- (1858) authorizing banking companies, not issuing notes, to be established with limited liability. It was successfully alleged in defence of this measure that there should be no exception to the general rule; and that Parliament having introduced the system of limited liability into other businesses, was bound, in consistency, to extend it to banking. But if this sort of reasoning is to have any influence in such matters, it would not justify merely, but require, that the system should be extended to all companies, however small the number of partners, and even to all individuals.

PAS Why is a privilege to be conceded to ten or twelve persons, and denied to six, to four, or to one ? Where, may we ask, is the justice of such a proceeding ? Why should not Mr A. be permitted to limit his liability; to declare, d priori, that whatever debts he may contract, he shall be liable only to the extent of some L.500 or L.1000; and that it is to this “fund,” and not to his estates, his factories, or his consols, that his creditors have exclusively to look ? But everybody knows, or ought to know, that there is something more than mere logical etiquette to be attended to in public affairs. When a law has been enacted which affects certain businesses or certain individuals, the question, whether it should be extended to others, depends in no degree on hypothetical notions about the symmetry of legislation, but on the fact whether it is a beneficial law, and on its being fitted to promote the interests of those to whom it is proposed to extend its operation. When the cook has ascertained that a particular sauce is good for the goose, she may then, but not till then, think of applying it to the gander. But limited liability is not a sauce which is suitable for anything. It has not a single good quality to recommend it; and instead of being extended, the sphere of its operation should be contracted as much as possible. In so far, however, as banks are concerned, we incline to think that its extension to them will not have much influence either one way or other; for we cannot believe it possible, were an ordinary bank to limit its liability, that half-a-dozen individuals would be found to entrust their money to its keeping. If they did, they would well deserve to meet the fate which would be all but certain to await them—that is, to lose their entire deposits. If it attempted, as it would probably do, to allure loans by the offer of a comparatively high rate of interest, that would make its ruin more certain and immediate; and is a bait that would be swallowed by those only whose ignorance was even greater than their voracity. We therefore have little doubt that the device of limited liability will be rejected by all banking companies that have any pretensions to character, or that have any wish to possess any portion of the public confidence. It is not by vicious and inapplicable measures of this sort that joint-stock banking will be improved. What is wanted in it is a return to the old law, which enabled the creditors of insolvent banks to seek redress by execution against such stockholders as they pleased to prosecute; to evince a determination to make all directors who act either dishonestly or with gross carelessness liable for the consequences; and to facilitate the proceedings in bankruptcy. This is all that is required to be done in respect of these matters in as far as banks are concerned. And a return to the old system of unlimited liability, except in special routine cases, which may be left to the decision of the Board of I rade, with the hke eave to proceed against individuals, and the publication of t leir names, would obviate the principal objections to the present law in as far as it affects joint-stock companies. (J. R. m.)

PASCAL, Blaise,1 one of the brightest names in the annals, not only of France, but of the human race, was born at Clermont in Auvergne, in the year 1623. He was not forty when he died. But the achievements which he crowded into his brief span of life, and which have made his name famous to all generations, may well make the world say with Corneille, “ A peine a-F il vecu; quel nom il a laisse?” From the earliest childhood Pascal exhibited most precocious proofs of inventive genius, especially in the

department of mathematics. If we may believe a universally-received tradition, he had been purposely kept in ignorance of geometry, lest his propensity in that direction should interfere with the prosecution of other branches of knowledge. But in vain : his self-prompted genius, so it is said, discovered for itself the elementary truths of the forbidden science; and at twelve years of age he was surprised by his father in the act of demonstrating on the pavement of an old hall where he used to play, and with the

v

Pascal, engage in such schemes, it is, on the other, quite superfluous ^ > in the case of their richer brethren. They are already much too prone to embark in them. Even in those businesses, the hazard of which is extreme, there is no good reason for exempting those by whom they are carried on from the fullest responsibility. If the demand for gunpowder were doubled, the supply would very shortly be increased in an equal degree. Wherever there is extra risk it is compensated by extra profits; and, practically, it is not found that the cost of gunpowder, or of any like article, is in any degree increased from capitalists being disinclined to face the hazard of its production. Cautious men are content with moderate profits, and encounter only moderate risks; while those who are sanguine and adventurous, whether they be rich or poor, eagerly grasp at the highest profits, and to realize them do not hesitate to run the greatest hazards. Now, there is nothing surely to object to or amend in this. And yet the whole doctrine of limited responsibility proceeds on the contrary assumption—on the principle, if we may so call it, that profit and risk shall be divorced from each other ; that speculators may undertake adventures, having, on the one hand, the chance of making unlimited profits if they turn out well, and on the other, of escaping, though they may ruin others, with a comparatively trifling loss if they turn out ill. In that peculiar class of cases in which it vrould seem at the first blush of the matter that limited responsibility would be least objectionable, it will be found to be most pernicious; for it will give an unnatural stimulus to what certainly does not require it, that is, to hazardous enterprises and desperate adventures. On the whole, nothing but mischief can be legitimately anticipated from the establishment of partnerships with limited liability, or en commandite. It was not by the aid of the principles which they involve, by shirking responsibility, and evading the risks inseparable from all undertakings, that we have attained to our pre-eminence in character, in wealth, and in manufacturing and commercial industry. But are we well assured that the adoption of a contrary system will not mark the sera of our decline ?

i This biographical sketch is chiefly taken from the essay on the Life, Genius, and Writings of Pascal, inserted in the for January 1847. Some few additional paragraphs have been inserted, and the matter in general has been distributed d ffere y, ■well as abridged. For a fuller discussion of several important questions than would be possible in the limits of an article like the p sent, the reader is referred to the essay above mentioned.

323 ‘v'--''

Pascal

324 • PASCAL. Pascal, help of a rude diagram, traced by a piece of charcoal, a when he was thirty-six years of age. With this brief ex- Pascal, proposition which corresponded to the thirty-second of the ception, then, and which occurs quite as a parenthesis first book of Euclid. At the age of sixteen he composed in his history, Pascal practically abandoned science from a little tractate on the conic sections, which provoked the the age of twenty-six; yet he did not at once become incredulity and admiration of Descartes. At nineteen, he a religious recluse. For some years he lived a cheerful, invented his celebrated arithmetical machine ; at the age of sometimes even a gay, though never a dissipated life, in six-and-twenty, he had composed the greater part of his Paris, in the centre of literary and polite society, loved and mathematical works, and made those brilliant experiments admired by a wide circle of friends, and especially by the in hydrostatics and pneumatics which have associated his Due de Roannes. At length, however, under the inname with those of Torricelli and Boyle, and stamped him fluence of the causes before specified, his indifference to the world—perhaps we might say his disgust for it—so far inas one of the first philosophers of his age. Strange to say, he then suddenly renounced the splendid creased that he sighed for solitude. This he sought and career to which his genius so unequivocally invited him, found at Port-Royal, already endeared to him as the home and abandoned himself to totally different studies. In part of his sister Jacqueline. this was attributable .to the strong religious impulse given Here he produced his immortal Provincial Letters; and, to his character at this period, — rendered deeper no when death cut short his brief career, was meditating an doubt by early experience in the school of affliction; for extensive work on the fundamental principles of religion, from the age of eighteen he was a perpetual sufferer, and especially on the existence of God and the evidences of in 1647, when only in his twenty-fourth year, was visited by Christianity. For its completion he asked ten years of a slight attack of paralysis. His ill health seems mainly health and leisure ! An outline of the work had been someto have been occasioned by his devotion to study ; his mind, times (and on one occasion somewhat fully) given to his in fact, consumed his body. The impulse, however, which friends in conversation, but no part of it was ever comfinally drove him from the world, and turned him into a re- pleted. Nothing was found after his death but detached ligious recluse, seems to have been aided by incidents which Thoughts (interspersed with some on other subjects) on tbe occurred a few years later. It is said that a hopeless at- principal topics appropriate to such a work. They were tachment (so M. Faugere plausibly conjectures) to the sister the stones of which the building was to have consisted, of his accomplished friend and patron the Due de Roannes, many of them unhewn, and some few such as the builder, but which Pascal, from timidity, never avowed to the object had he lived, would no doubt have laid aside. The form in of it, increased his constitutional melancholy ; but however which the Thoughts were put together comported but too this may be, a far deeper effect was produced by an escape well with their fragmentary character. It appears that from a frightful death in the year 1654. He was in a Pascal did not even use a common-place book ; but when, coach and four with some friends, and, in crossing the Seine after profound meditation, any thought struck him as worth over abridge, part of the parapet of which was thrown down, recording, he hastily noted it on any scrap of paper that the leaders took fright and leaped into the water; their came to hand, often on the backs of old letters; these he weight as they fell happily broke the traces, and left the strung together on a file, or tied up in bundles, and left carriage free. But Pascal’s nervous system received a them till better health and untroubled leisure should permit shock which it seems never to have recovered ; and he was him to evoke a new creation out of this chaos. It is a often haunted with the thought that on the left side of wonder, therefore, that the Pensees of Pascal -have come him—that on which the danger threatened on this occa- down to us at all. Never, surely, was so precious a freight sion—there yawned a deep chasm; nor could he, it is said, committed to so crazy a bark. But we shall return to this sit at ease unless fortified on that side by the sensation of subject when we come to criticize the writings of Pascal, for some solid obstacle, though, strange to say, an empty chair the literary history of the Pensees is not a little curious. The would answer the purpose. latter years of his life were spent in almost incessant suffering, So complete was his abandonment of science that he not a little increased by the maceration and ascetic rigour never returned to it but on one memorable occasion, and to which he subjected a body but little adapted originally to then only for a short time,—namely, when he solved the sustain such severe discipline. After lingering in a long remarkable problems relating to the Cycloid. The accounts decay, through the clouds of which, however, his genius which have been transmitted to us by his sister of the shone with undiminished radiance, even to its setting, he manner in which these investigations were suggested and died at Port-Royal in 1662, at the early age of thirty-nine. completed—accounts which are authenticated by a letter We now proceed to make a few observations on the of his own to Fermat—strongly impress us with the vigour and brilliancy of his genius. We are assured that after genius and character of this great man. His was one of long abandonment of the mathematics, his attention was the rare minds, apparently adapted almost in equal measure directed to the curve in question by a casual train of to the successful pursuit of the most diverse departments thought suggested in one of the many nights which pain of philosophy and science, of mathematics and physics, of made sleepless. His inventive mind rapidly pursued the metaphysics and criticism. Many have transcended him in subject till he reached the brilliant results recorded in knowledge; for Pascal followed the predominant law of all his own writings ; and in the brief space of eight days these very inventive minds,—he was fonder of thought than of difficult investigations were completed. Partly in com- books, of meditation than of acquisition. Perhaps, also, the pliance with the fashion of the age, and partly from the character of Pascal’s genius was less excursive than that of solicitation of his friend the Due de Roannes, he con- some other men. But in inventiveness few have been his cealed for a time the results at which he had arrived, and equals; few even in mathematics, while in moral science, the offered the problems for solution to all the mathematicians science of man, we know of nothing out of Bacon and of Europe, with a first and second prize to successful can- Shakspeare that will bear comparison in depth, subtlety, didates. If no solution were offered in three months, Pascal and comprehensiveness with some of the Thoughts of Paspromised to publish his own. Several were forwarded, but cal. But, in another characteristic of true genius, and as none, in the estimation of the judges, completely ful- which, for want of another name, we must call felicity, filled the conditions of the challenge, Pascal redeemed his scarcely any one can, in the full import of the term, be pledge, under the name of Amos Dettonville, an anagram compared with him. Endowed with originality the most of Louis de Montalte, the famous pseudonym under which active and various, all that he did was with grace. Full of the Provincial Letters had appeared. This was in 1658-9, depth, subtlety, brilliancy, both his thoughts, and the man-

PASCAL. 325 than the manner in which he proposes it in his letter to Pascal. Pascal, ner in which he expresses them, are also full of beauty. sy-*. His just image is that of the youthful athlete of Greece, in M. Perier. “ You doubtless see,” says he, “ that this exwhom was seen the perfection of physical beauty and phy- periment is decisive of the question ; and that if it happen sical strength,—in whom every muscle was developed with- that the mercury shall stand lower at the top than at the in the just limits calculated to secure a symmetrical de- bottom of the mountain (as I have many reasons for thinkvelopment of all, the largest possible amount of power and ing, although all those who have meditated on this subject are of a contrary opinion), it will necessarily follow that the flexibility in union. In all the manifestations of Pascal’s mind this rare felicity weight and pressure of the air are the sole cause of this is exuberantly displayed: in the happy methods by which suspension of the mercury, and not the horror of a vacuum ; he lighted on truth and pursued scientific discovery ; in the since it is very certain that there is much more air to press selection and arrangement of topics in all his compositions; at the base than on the summit of the mountain; while, in the peculiar delicacy of his wit, so strongly contrasted on the other hand, we surely cannot say that nature abhors with all the ordinary exhibitions of that quality with which a vacuum 1more at the bottom of a mountain than on the his age was familiar; and, above all, in that indescribable top of it.” The usual felicity of his style is seen throughout his elegance of expression which uniformly characterizes his finished efforts, and often his most negligent utterances, philosophical as well as his other works. They possess the highest merit which can belong to scientific composition. and which even time can do nothing to impair. In his scientific writings, the traces of this felicity may be It is true that, in his purely mathematical writings, partly discerned almost equally in the matter and the form. In from the defective notation of his age, itself a result of the relation to the first, there is probably a little illusion want of that higher calculus, the invention of which was practised upon us. In reading his uniformly elegant and reserved for Newton and Leibnitz, he is often compelled perspicuous exposition of his own scientific discoveries, we to adopt a more prolix style of demonstration than would are apt to underrate the toil and intellectual struggles by have been subsequently necessary; but even here, and which he achieved them. We know that they were, and still more in all the fragments which relate to natural must have been, attended with much of both,—nay, that his philosophy, his style is in striking contrast with the clumsy shattered health was the penalty of the intensity of his expression of the generality of contemporary writers. His studies. Still, it is hardly possible to read his expositions Fragments abound in that perspicuous elegance which the without having the impression that his discoveries re- French denominate by the expressive word nettete. The sembled a species of inspiration, and that his mind fol- arrangement of thought and turn of expression are alike lowed out the first germinant thought to its ultimate con- beautiful. Probably no one ever knew so well when to sequences with more ease and rapidity than is usually the stay his hand. But it is, of course, in his writings on moral and critical case. One can scarcely imagine it necessary for him to have undergone the frightful toils of Kepler, had he been subjects that this felicity may be chiefly expected to apled into the same track of discoveries; and, in fact, what- pear ; and here we may well say, in the eloquent language of ever illusion his ease and elegance of manner may produce, M. Faugere, it is a “ style grand sans exageration, partout we know that, comparatively speaking, his achievements were rempli d’emotion et contenu; vif sans turbulence, perrapidly completed. It was so with the problems on the sonnel sans pedanterie et sans amour propre, superbe et cycloid; it was so with his discoveries in pneumatics and modeste, tout ensembleor, as he elsewhere expresses it, hydrostatics. In fact, though his Traite de VEquilibre des “ tellement identifie avee Tame de 1’ecrivain qu’il n’est que Liqueurs, and the one De la Pesanteur de VAir, were not la pensee elle meme, paree de sa chaste nudite comme composed till 1653, they seem to have been only another une statue antique.” By the confession of the first trench form of the treatise he promised in his Nouvelles Expe- critics, the Lettres Provinciales did more than any other riences Touchant le Vide, published in 1647, and of which composition to fix the French language. On this point that tract was avowedly an abridgment. Indeed, as already the suffrages of all the most competent judges of Voltaire said, Pascal had nearly quitted these investigations before and Bossuet, D’Alembert and Condorcet are unanimous. “ Not a single word occurs,” says the first, “ partaking of the completion of his twenty-sixth year. There was no scientific subject which Pascal touched in that vicissitude to which living languages are souasubject. e ma y which the felicity of his genius, the promptitude and bril- Here, then, we may fix the epoch when our Jang g Ihe French liancy of his mind, did not shine forth. We see these quali- be said to have assumed a settled form.’ ties eminently displayed in his Traite du Triangle Arith- language,” says D’Alembert, “ was very far from being metique, in the invention and construction of his arith- formed, as we may judge by the greater part of the works metical machine, in the mode of solving the problems respect- published at that time, and of which it is impossible to ing the cycloid,—in which, while employing Cavalieri’s endure the reading. In the Provincial Letters there is Method of Indivisibles, he proposes to remove the principal not a single word that has become obsolete ; and that book, objection which had been made to it, by conceptions which though written above a century ago, seems as if it had bring him within a step of the Fluxions of Newton and been written but yesterday.” And as these Letters weie the Calculus of Leibnitz. The same qualities of mind are the first models of French prose, so they still remam the eminently displayed in the manner in which he establishes objects of unqualified admiration. The writings of Pascal the hydrostatic paradox, and generally in the experiments have indeed a paradoxical destiny, flourishing in immordetailed in the Nouvelles Experiences, and the other con- tal youth, all that time can do is to superadd to the charms nected pieces,—most of all in the celebrated crucial experi- of perpetual beauty the veneration which belongs to age. . , , ment on the Puy-de-D6me, by which he decided the cause His style cannot grow old. When we reflect on the condition of the language of the suspension of the mercury in the barometrical tube. As there are few things recorded in the history of science when he appeared, this is truly wonderful. It was but more happily ingenious than the conception of this experi- partially reclaimed from barbarism ; it was still an imperfect ment, so never was there anything more pleasantly naive instrument of genius. He had no adequate models,—he 1, ■ f nut certain that Pascal, who wasand theonly verywaited soul ofthe honour, reDescartes claimed the suggestion of this brilliant experiment, o it is ^ ^ verified Torricelli’s, opportupeatedly declares that he had determined to make it from the very_ ies of other8 and as Leibnitz truly observes, slow to nity of performing it. On the other hand, Descartes was jealous oi give them all the praise and admiration which were their due.

326 Pascal.

PAS Was to create them for others. Now, to seize a language in its rude state, and compel it, in spite of its hardness and intractability, to become a malleable material of thought, is the exclusive prerogative of the highest species of minds; nothing but the intense fire of genius can fuse these heterogeneous elements, and mould them into forms of beauty. As a proof, we have the fact that none but the highest genius has ever been equal to this task. Genius of less than the first order will often make improvements in the existing state of a language, and give it a perceptible impulse ; but only the most creative and plastic power can at once mould a rude language into forms which cannot become obsolete,—forms which remain in perpetuity a part of the current literature, amidst all the changes of time and the caprices of fashion. Thus it required a Luther to mould the harsh German into the language of his still unrivalled translation of the Scriptures, in which, and in his vernacular compositions, he first fairly reclaimed his native language from its wild state, brought it under the yoke, and subjected it to the purposes of literature. Pascal was in a similar manner the creator of the French. The severely pure and simple taste which reigns in Pascal’s style seems, when we reflect on those faults which more or less infected universal letters, little less than a miraculous felicity. One wonders by what privilege it was that he freed himself from the contagion of universal example, and rose so superior to his age. Taste was yet almost unfelt: each writer affected extravagance of some kind or other; strained metaphor, quaint conceits, farfetched turns of thought, unnatural constructions,—these were the vices of the day; not so much perhaps in France as in England, but to a great extent in both. From all these blemishes Pascal’s style is perfectly free; he anticipated all criticism, and became a law to himself. Some of his observations, however, show that his taste was no mere instinct; they indicate how deeply he had revolved the true principles of composition. His thoughts Sur VEloquence et le Style are well worth the perusal of every writer and speaker. In one of them he profoundly says, “ The very same sense is materially affected by the words that convey it. The sense receives its dignity from the words, rather than imparts it to them.” In another he says, “ All the false beauties that we condemn in Cicero have their admirers in crowds.” And in a third he admirably depicts the prevailing vice of strained antitheses ; “ Those,” says he, “ who frame antitheses by forcing the sense are like men who make false windows for the sake of symmetry, Their rule is not to speak justly, but to make just figures.” The time spent on his own compositions shows that even such felicity as his could not dispense with that toil which is an essential condition of all perfect writing,— indeed of all human excellence,-—and affords one other proof of the extreme shallowness of that theory which would have us believe that, to attain success, genius alone is all-sufficient. He is said, when engaged on his Lettres Provinciates, to have sometimes employed twenty days upon a single letter. Another circumstance which, as already intimated, indicates Pascal’s felicity of genius, is the peculiar delicacy and refinement of his wit. We say its delicacy and refinement ; for the mere conjunction of great wit w ith great aptitudes for either philosophy or poetry cannot be considered as a felicity peculiar to Pascal, It is the character ot that wit. The conjunction of distinguished wit, in one or other of its many forms, with elevated genius, is far too common to be regarded as a peculiarity of Pascal’s mind. Paradoxical as the statement may at first sight appear to those who have been accustomed to consider wisdom and wit as dwelling apart, it may be doubted whether there is any one attribute so common to the highest order of mind, whether scientific or imaginative, as wit of

CAL. some kind, Plato, Bacon, and Shakspeare may be cited as Pascal, examples. i The wit of Pascal appears even now exquisitely chaste and natural-—attired in a truly Attic simplicity of form and expression. In one quality—that of irony—nothing appears to us to approach it, except what we find in the pages of Plato, between whom and Pascal (different and even opposite as they were) it is easy to trace a resemblance in other points besides the character of their wit. Both possessed surpassing acuteness and subtlety of genius in the department of abstract science ; both delighted in exploring the depths of man’s moral nature ; both gazed enamoured on the ideal forms of moral sublimity and loveliness ; both were characterized by eminent beauty of intellect; and both were absolute masters of the art of representing thought, each with exquisite refinement of taste, and all the graces of language. The Greek, indeed, possessed a far more opulent imagination, and often indulged in a more gorgeous style than the Frenchman; or rather Plato may be said to have been a master of all kinds of style. But his dramatic powers, in none of his dialogues, can be greater than those which Pascal has displayed in his Provincial Letters. The moral aspects of Pascal’s character are as inviting as those of his intellect: here, too, he was truly great. Some infirmities indeed he had, for he was no more than man. He is nevertheless one of the very few who as passionately pursue the acquisition of moral excellence as the quest after speculative truth ; who practically, as well as theoretically, believe that the highest form of humanity is not intellect, but goodness. Usually it is far otherwise ; there is no sort of proportion between the diligence and assiduity which men are ordinarily willing to expend on their intellectual and their moral culture. Nor is it less than an indication of something wrong about human nature, a symptom of spiritual disease, that of those three distinct orders of greatness which Pascal has so exquisitely discrimminated in his Pensees—Power, Intellect, and Goodness—the admiration inspired by the two first should be so much greater than that inspired by the last. Few men have ever dwelt on the ideal of moral perfection, or sought to realize its image in themselves, with more ardour than Pascal; not always, indeed (as regards the mode), with as much wisdom as ardour. Yet upon all the great features of his moral character one dwells with the serenest delight. Much as he is to be admired, he is yet more to be loved. His humility and simplicity, conspicuous as his genius and acquisitions, were those of a very child. The favourite of science, often crowned, as an old Greek might have said of some distinguished young hero at Olympia, with the fairest laurels of the successful mathematician and the unrivalled polemic,—making discoveries even in his youth which would have intoxicated many men to madness,—neither pride nor vanity found admission to his heart.. Philosophy and science produced on him only their proper effect; and taught him, not how much he knew, but how little,—not merely what he had attained, but of how much more he was ignorant. His perfect love of truth was beautifully blended with the gentlest charity, and his contempt of fraud and sophistry never made him forget, while indignantly exposing them, the courtesies of the gentleman and the moderation of the Christian ; and thus the severest raillery that probably ever fell from human lips flows on in a stream undiscoloured by one particle of malevolence, and unruffled by one expression of coarseness and bitterness. The transparency and integrity of his character not only shone conspicuous in all the transactions of his life, but seem even now to beam upon us as from an open, ingenuous countenance, in the inimitable frankness and clearness of his style. It is impossible to read the passages in his philosophical writings, in which he notices or refutes the calumnies to which he had

PAS CAL. 327 Pascal, been exposed, and by which it was sometimes sought to see that the experiment was attended in his case with very Pascal, v. , ^ -,L\» defraud him of the honour of the discoveries he had made, pernicious effects. It is indeed pitiable to read that, during his last days, in one instance even to cover him with the infamy of appropriating discoveries which had been made by others, with- his perverted notions induced him to refrain from the out being convinced of the perfect candour and upright- natural expressions of fondness and gratitude towards his ness of his nature.1 His generosity and benevolence were sisters and attendants, lest the affection with which they unbounded; so much so, indeed, as to become almost regarded him should become inordinate,—lest they should vices by excess, passing far beyond that mean in which transfer to an earthly creature the affection due only to the the Stagyrite fixes the limits of all virtue. He absolutely Supreme. Something, indeed, like an attempted justificabeggared himself by his prodigal benefactions: he did tion of such conduct occurs in his Pemees—“ II est injuste what few do, mortgaged even his expectancies to charity. qu’on s’attache a moi, quoiqu’on le fasse avec plaisir et To all which we may add, that he bore the prolonged and volontairement. Je tromperais ceux ii qui j’en ferais naitre excruciating sufterings of his latter years with a patience le desir; car je ne suis la fin de personne, et n’ai pas de quoi les satisfaire. Ne suis-je pas pret it mourir? Et and fortitude which astonished all who witnessed them. The failings of Pascal (for to these we must advert) were ainsi 1’objet de leur attachment mourra done. Comme je partly the result of that system of faith in which he had serais coupable de faire croire une faussete, quoique je been educated ; and which, though he did so much to ex- la persuadasse doucement et qu’on la crut avec plaisir, et pose many of the worst enormities which had attached qu’en cela on me fit plaisir ; de meme je suis coupable de themselves to it, still exercised considerable influence over me faire aimer.” Madame Perier has cited this passage as accounting for his apparent him. It is lamentable to see such a mind as his surrender- in the life of her brother 2 ing itself to some of the most grievous extravagances of coldness to herself. It is wonderful that a mind so powerful should have been asceticism. Yet the fact cannot be denied ; nor is it improbable thathislife—brief, perhaps,at the longest,consider- misled by a pernicious asceticism to adopt such maxims ; ing his intense study and his feeble constitution—was made it is still more wonderful that a heart so fond should have more brief by these pernicious practices. We are told not been able to act upon them. To restrain, even in his only that he lived on the plainest fare, and performed the dying hours, expressions of tenderness towards those whom most menial offices for himself,—not only that he practised he so loved, and who so loved him ; to simulate a coldness the severest abstinence and the most rigid devotions,—but which his feelings belied ; to repress the sensibilities of a that he w'ore beneath his clothes a girdle of iron, with sharp grateful and confiding nature ; to inflict a pang, by affected points affixed to it; and that whenever he found his mind indifference, on hearts as fond as his own ; here was indeed disposed to wander from religious subjects, or take delight a proof of the truth upon which he so passionately mediin things around him, he struck the girdle with his elbow, tated, the greatness and the misery of man,—of his strength and forced the sharp points of iron into his side. We even and his weakness : weakness, in supposing that such persee but too clearly that his views of life to a considerable version of all nature could ever be a dictate of duty; extent became perverted. He cherished mistrust even strength, in performing, without wincing, a task so hard. of its blessings, and acted, though he meant it not, as if The American Indian, bearing unmoved the torture of his the very gifts of God were to be received with suspicion as enemies, exhibits not, we may rest assured, greater fortithe smiling tempters to ruin—the secret enemies of our tude than Pascal, when, with such a heart as his, he rewell-being. He often expresses himself as though he ceived in silence the last ministrations of his devoted friends, thought, not only that suffering is necessary to the moral and even declined, with cold and averted eye, the assiduidiscipline of man, but that nothing but suffering is at pre- ties of their zealous love. That same melancholy temperasent safe for him. “ I can approve,” he says in one place, ment which, united wdth a pernicious asceticism, made “ only of those who seek in tears for happiness.” “ Dis- him turn his gaze even from innocent pleasure, and susease,” he declares in another place, “ is the natural state of pect a serpent lurking in every form of it, also gave to Christians.” It is evident that the gracious Master in his representations of the depravity of our nature an whose school we all are, and whose various dispensations undue intensity and Rembrandt-like depth of colouring. of goodness and severity are dictated by a wisdom greater His mode of expression is often such that, were it not than our own, does not think so : if he did, health would for what we otherwise know of his character, it might be the exception, and disease the rule. be mistaken for an indication of misanthropy. With Pascal was obviously misled, by these sentiments, into the this vice, accordingly, Voltaire does not hesitate to tax him. self-imposed ascetic severities which aggravated all the suf- “ Ce fameux ecrivain, misanthrope sublime.” Nothing ferings of his later years. But it is at our peril that we can be more unjust. As to the substance of what 1 ascal interfere with the discipline which is provided for us. He has said of human frailty and infirmity, most of it is at once who acts as if God had mistaken the proportions in which joy verified by the appeal to individual consciousness; and as to and sorrow, prosperity and adversity, should be allotted to the manner, we are not to forget that he everywhere dwells us,—who seeks, by hair shirts, prolonged abstinence, and as much upon the greatness as upon the misery of man. self-imposed penance, to render more perfect the discipline “ It is the ruined archangel,” says Hallam, with equal justof suffering,—only enfeebles instead of invigorating his piety, ness and beauty, “ that Pascal delights to paint.” It is and resembles one of those hypochondriacal patients—the equally evident that he is habitually inspired by a desire to plague and torment of physicians—who, having sought lead man to truth and happiness; nor is there anything advice, and being supposed to follow it, are found not only more affecting than the passage with which he closes one of taking their physician’s well-judged prescriptions, but his expostulations with Infidelity, and which M. Cousin secretly dosing themselves in the intervals with some quack- finely characterizes as “ une citation gloneuse a Pascal. ish nostrum. Thus did Pascal; and it is impossible not to “ This argument,” you say, “ delights me. If this argument 1 2

See more particularly his letters to Father Noel, M. Le Pailleur, and M. De Ribeyre. e J The t~i . * . . ■ «... ,,nr i.:i„ as qo rI was whollv — passage of Mad^e P^is'de;^^^' "‘Meanwhile, wholly a stranger to his sentiments on this point I was quite surprised and discouraged at the rebuffs he would give me upon certain occasions. I told my sisteraino , moment plaining that my brother was unkind, and did not love me ; and that it looked to nae as if I put him ^ P » Ppripr’fi Memoirt I was studying to please him, and striving to perform the most affectionate offices for him in his illness. (Ma of Pascal.)

328 PASCAL. Pascal, pleases you, and appears strong, know that it proceeds some paroxysm of pain, to which the great author in his Pascal —from one who, both before and after it, fell on his knees latter years was incessantly subject—broke the thread of before that infinite and invisible Being to whom he has sub- thought, and left the web imperfect for ever. On the imperfect sentences and half-written words, jected his whole soul, to pray that He would also subject you to Himself, for your good and for His glory ; and that which are now given in the volumes of M. Faugere, we look with something like the feelings with which we pore thus omnipotence might give efficacy to his feebleness.” In addition to this, it must be said that, in his most bitter on some half-defaced inscription on an ancient monument, reflections, this truly humble man is thinking as much of —with a strange commixture of curiosity and veneration ; himself as of others, and regards Blaise Pascal as but a and, whilst we wonder what the unfinished sentences type of the race whose degeneracy he mourns. His most may mean, mourn over the malicious accident which has bitter sarcasms often terminate with a special application to perhaps converted what might have been aphorisms of prothe writer. Thus he says, “ Vanity is so rooted in the foundest importance into a series of incoherent ciphers. heart of man, that a common soldier or scullion will boast One of the last things, assuredly, which we should think of himself, and will have his admirers. It is the same with of doing with such fragments would be to attempt to alter the philosophers. Those who write would fain have the them in any way ; least of all, to supplement them, and to fame of writing well; and those who read it, would have the divine and publish Pascal’s meaning. There have been glory of having read it; and /, who am writing, probably learned men who have given us supplements to the lost pieces of some ancient historians ; erudite Freinsheimiuses feel the same desire, and not less those ivho shall read it.” It is true, indeed, that some of his reflections are as caus- who hand us a huge bale of indifferent Latin, and beg us tic and bitter as those of Rochefoucauld himself. For only to think it Livy’s lost Decades. But what man would example:—“ Curiosity is but vanity. Often we wish to venture to supplement Pascal ? Only such, it may be know more, only that we may talk of it. People would supposed, as would feel no scruple in scouring an annever traverse the sea if they were never to speak of it, tique medal; or a successor to those monks who obliterated for the mere pleasure of seeing, without the hope of ever manuscript pieces of Cicero that they might inscribe them telling what they have seen.” And again :—“ Man is so with some edifying legend. But more noted people were constituted that, by merely telling him he is a fool, he will scarcely more scrupulous in the case of Pascal. His friends at length believe it; and if he tells himself so, he will con- decided that the fragments which he had left behind him, strain himself to believe it. For man holds an internal in- imperfect as they were, were far too valuable to be contercourse with himself which ought to be well regulated, signed to oblivion ; and, so far, all the world will agree with since even here ‘ evil communications corrupt good man- them. If, further, they had selected whatever appeared in ners.’”—“ I lay it down as a fact, that if all men knew what any degree coherent, and printed these, verbatim et literathey say of one another, there would not be four friends tim, in the best order they could devise, none would have in the world. This appears by the quarrels which are some- censured, and all would have thanked them. But they did much more than this, or rather they did both much more times caused by indiscreet reports.” Still, as it is the motive which gives complexion to all our and much less. They deemed it not sufficient to give moral actions, so Pascal’s bitter wisdom, or even his unjust Pascal’s remains with the statement that they were but satire, is something very different from misanthropy. With fragments; that many of the thoughts were very imperwhat noble eloquence—with what deep sympathy with hu- fectly developed ; that none of them had the advantag of manity—does he rebuke the levity of those infidels who tell the author’s revision,—apologies with which the world us, as if it were matter of triumph, that we are the inhabitants would have been satisfied ; but they ventured upon mutilaof “ a fatherless and forsaken world,” and who talk as if their tions and alterations of a most unwarrantable description. vaunted demonstration of the vanity of our immortal hopes In innumerable instances they changed words and phrases ; gave them a peculiar title to our gratitude and admiration ! in many others they left out whole paragraphs, and put a “ What advantage is it to us to hear a man saying that he sentence or two of their own in the place of them; they has thrown off the yoke; that he does not think there is supplemented what they deemed imperfect by an exordium any God who watches over his actions ; that he considers or conclusion, without any indication as to what were the himself as the sole judge of his conduct, and that he is ac- respective ventures in this rare species of literary cocountable to none but himself ? Does he imagine that we partnery. It must have been odd to see this committee of shall hereafter repose special confidence in him, and expect critics sitting in judgment on Pascal’s style, and deliberatfrom him consolation, advice, succour, in the exigencies of ing with what alterations, additions, and expurgations it life ? Do such men imagine it is any matter of delight would be safe to permit the author of the Provincial Letto us to hear that they hold that our soul is but a little ters to appear in public. Arnauld, Nicole, and the Due vapour or smoke, and that they can tell us this in an assured de Roannes were certainly no ordinary men ; but they were and self-sufficient tone of voice? Is this, then, a thing to no more capable of divining the thoughts which Pascal say with gaiety ? Is it not rather a thing to be said with had not expressed, or of improving the style where he had expressed them, than of completing a sketch of Raphael. tears, as the saddest thing in the world ?” It appears that, large as was the editorial discretion asWe now proceed to make a few observations on the sumed, they had contemplated an enterprise still more principal writings of Pascal. The one on which his fame, as audacious,—nothing less than that of completing the work a great thinker, chiefly rests, fragmentary as it is, is the which Pascal had projected, partly out of the materials which Pensees. We have alluded to the literary history of this he had left, and partly from what their own ingenuity might work as highly curious. The thoughts were written, as supply. It even appears that they had actually commenced already said, on any scraps of paper that came to hand; this heterogeneous structure; and an amusing account has these were strung on a file, and left till health and leisure been left by M. Perier of the progress the builders of this Babel had made, and the reasons for abandoning the design. should enable the author to develop and arrange them. Health and leisure never came. But it was not this “At last,” says he, “it was resolved to reject the plan, because only which has rendered the work so fragmentary. Many it was felt to be almost impossible thoroughly to enter into of the thoughts are themselves only half developed ; others, the thoughts and plan of the author, and, above all, of an as given us in the literal copy of M. Faugere’s admirable author who was no more ; and because it would not have edition, break off in the middle of a sentence, even of a been the work of M. Pascal, but a work altogether differword. Some casual interruption—frequently, no doubt, ent—un ouvrage tout different.” Very different indeed!

.1

FAS Pascal. If this naive expression had been intended for irony, it would have been almost worthy of Pascal himself. Subsequent editors took similar liberties, if not so flagrant, While the original editors left out many passages from fear of the Jesuits, Condorcet, in his edition, omitted many of the most devout sentiments and expressions, under the influence of a very different feeling. Infidelity, as well as superstition, has its bigots, who would be well pleased to have their index expurgatorius also. It had been long felt that no trustworthy edition of Pascal’s Thoughts had been published—that nobody knew precisely what was his, and what was not. M. Cousin, in his valuable Rapport, demonstrated the necessity of an entirely new edition, founded upon a diligent collation of the original manuscripts; and this task M. Faugere performed with incredible industry. We must refer the reader to his interesting Introduction for proof of this statement. There the editor has given the details of his labours. Suffice it here to say, that every accessible source of information was carefully ransacked; every fragment of manuscript, whether in Pascal’s own hand, or in that of members of his family, was diligently examined ; and every page offers indications of minute attention, even to the most trivial verbal differences. Speaking of the autograph manuscript preserved in the Royal Library at Paris,— a folio into which the original loose leaves are pasted, or, when written on both sides, carefully let into the page (“ encadres”),—he says, “ We have read, or rather studied, this manuscript page by page, line by line, syllable by syllable, from the beginning to the end, and, with the exception of some words which are illegible, it has passed entire into the present edition.” As the public, in the former editions, did not exactly know what w’as Pascal’s and what was not, M. Faugere has been compelled to do what, under other circumstances, would have been undesirable, and, indeed, hardly just; what, indeed, any author of reputation would vehemently protest against in his own case. He has been obliged to give every fragment, however imperfect, verbatim ; and the extracts, as we have already said, often terminate in the middle of a sentence, sometimes even of a word. M. Vinet justly observes in relation to this feature of M, Faugere’s labours, that Pascal himself would hardly have been satisfied with “either his old editors or the new.” At the same time, it must be confessed that, apart from this circumstance, it is deeply interesting to contemplate the first rude forms of profound or brilliant thoughts as they presented themselves to the ardent mind of Pascal. As M. Vinet says, “ we are taken into the great sculptor’s studio, and behold him at work chisel in hand.” It is impossible to determine, from the undeveloped character of these Thoughts, the precise form of the work Pascal contemplated; all we are told is, that it was to have treated of the primary truths of all religion, and of the evidences of Christianity. It is clear that about half the Thoughts which relate to theology at all have reference to the former, and form by far the profoundest portion. In Pascal’s day, however, both classes of subjects might have been naturally included in one work. The great deistical controversies of Europe had not yet commenced, and there had been little reason to discriminate very nicely the limits of the two investigations. Pascal himself could hardly have anticipated the diversified forms which the subject of the evidences of Christianity alone would assume ; so diversified, indeed, that they are probably insusceptible, from their variety, of being fully exhibited by one mind, or consequently in one volume. The evidences of Christianity almost form a science of themselves. Fragmentary as the Pensees are, it is easy to see, both from their general tenor and from the character of the 1

VOL. XVII.

I

CAL. author’s mind, where the strength of such a work would be. His proofs of the truths of natural religion would have been drawn from within rather than from without • and his proofs of the truth of Christianity from its internal rather than external evidences — including in this tei m inteinal not only the adaptation of the doctrines revealed, to man’s moral nature, but whatsoever indications the fabric of Scripture itself may afford of the divinity of its origin.—It is evident that he had revolved all these topics profoundly. None had explored more diligently the abyss of man’s moral nature, or mused more deeply upon the “ greatness and misery of man,” or on the “ contrarieties” which characterize him, or on the remedies for his infirmities and corruptions. And there are few, even since his time, who seem to have appreciated more fully the evidences of Christianity arising from indications of truth in the genius structure, and style of the Scriptures; or from the difficulties, not to say impossibilities, of supposing a fiction as Christianity the probable product of any human artifice, much less of such an age, country, and (above all) such men as the problem limits us to. In one passage he gives expression to a thought very similar to that which suggested the Horm Paulince.. He says, “ The style of the gospel is admirable in many respects, and, amongst others, in this, that there is not a single invective against the murderers and enemies of Jesus Christ If the modesty of the evangelical historians had been affected, and, in common with so many other traits of so beautiful a character, had been affected only that it might be observed; then, if they had not ventured to advert to it themselves, they would not have failed to get their friends to remark it to their advantage. But as they acted in this way without affectation, and from a principle altogether disinterested, they never provided any one to make such a criticism. And, in my judgment, there are many points of this kind which have never been noticed hitherto; and this1 testifies to the simplicity with which the thing was done.” He has also, with characteristic comprehensiveness, condensed into a single paragraph the substance of the celebrated volume of Bampton Lectures on the contrasts between Mohammedanism and Christianity. “ Mahomet founded his system on slaughter; Jesus Christ by exposing his disciples to death : Mahomet by forbidding to read; the apostles by commanding it. In a word, so opposite is the plan of one from that of the other, that if Mahomet took the way to succeed according to human calculation, Jesus Christ certainly took the way to fail; and instead of arguing that, since Mahomet succeeded, Jesus Christ might also succeed, we ought rather to say, that since Mahomet succeeded, it is impossible but that Jesus Christ should fail On the subject of the external evidences we doubt whether he would have been equally successful, partly because the spirit of accurate historic investigation had not yet been developed, and partly from the character of his own mind. On the subject ot miracles, too, he scaicely seems to have worked his conceptions clear; and in relation to that of prophecy, he was evidently often inclined to lay undue stress on analogies between events recorded in the Old Testament and others recorded in the New, where Scripture itself is silent as to any connection between them ; analogies in some cases as fanciful as any of those in which the fathers saw so many types and prefigurations of undeveloped truths. From certain passages in the Pensees, a vehement charge of scepticism has been preferred by M. Cousin, from which, says that writer, Pascal spught refuge in a voluntarily blind credulity. “ Le fond meme de 1’ame de Pascal est un scepticisme universel, contre lequel il ne trouve d’asile que dans une foi volontairement aveugle.”

Tom. ii., p- 370.

2T

329 Pascal.

330 Pascal.

PASCAL. These are certainly charges which, without the gravest et elles s’accordent et se temperent en doutant ou il faut, Pascal and most decisive proof, ought not to be preferred against en assurant ou il faut, en se soummettant ou il faut.’ These any man, much less against one possessing so clear and bold words comprise the entire history of Pascal, and expowerful an intellect as Pascal. It is, in fact, the most press in brief the state of his mind.” But it is impossible degrading picture which can be presented of any mind; in the limits of this article to enter with the requisite fullfor what weakness can be more pitiable, or what inconsis- ness into the question of Pascal’s imputed scepticism. tency more gross, than that of a man who, by a mere act The subject will be found fully treated in the essay of of will—if indeed such a condition of mind be conceivable which this article is an abridgment; in M. Faugere’s ad—surrenders himself to the belief of the most stupendous mirable Introduction to his edition of the Pensees; and doctrines, while he at the same time acknowledges that in some very acute papers of M. Vinet, first collected and published in 1848, under the title Etudes de Blaise Pashe has no proof whatever of their certainty ? It appears to us that M. Cousin has forgotten that Pas- cal; especially in those Sur le Pyrrhonisme de Pascal, cal by no means denies that there is sufficient evidence of and Du Livre de M. Cousin sur les Pensees. If the Pensees are the most profound, the Lettres the many great principles to which scepticism objects; he only maintains that we do not arrive at them by demon- Provinciates are the most brilliant of Pascal’s works, and stration. He has powerfully vindicated the certainty of among the very few which, though turning on local and those intuitive principles which are not ascertained by rea- transient controversy, are so instinct with genius, so beausoning, but are presupposed in every exercise of reasoning. tiful in thought and style, as to command the attention of Let us hear him: “ The only strong point,” says he, “of the all time. Nothing could be apter for the purpose—that of throwdogmatists is, that we cannot, consistently with honesty and sincerity, doubt our own intuitive principles ing into strong light the monstrous errors of the system he We know the truth, not only by reasoning, but by feeling, opposed—than the machinery the author has selected. The and by a vivid and luminous power of direct comprehen- affected ignorance and naivete of M. Montalte, seeking sion ; and it is by this last faculty that we discern first information respecting the theological disputes of the age, principles. It is vain for reasoning, which has no share in and especially the doctrines of the Jesuits ; the frankness of discovering these principles, to attempt subverting them. the worthy Jesuit father, of whom he asks instruction, and The Pyrrhonists who attempt this must try in who, in the boundless admiration of his order, and the hope vain The knowledge of first principles—as the of making a convert, details without hesitation, or rather ideas of space, time, motion, number, matter—is as unequi- with triumph, the admirable contrivances by which their casuists had inverted every principle of morals and eluded vocally certain as any that reasoning imparts.” But let us hear him still more expressly on the subject all the obligations of Christianity; the ironical compliments of Pyrrhonism: “Here, then, is open war proclaimed among of the supposed novice, intermingled with objections and men. Each must take a side; must necessarily range slightly-expressed doubts,—all delivered with an air of himself with the Pyrrhonists or the dogmatists—for he modest ingenuousness which humbly covets further light; who would think to remain neuter is a Pyrrhonist 'par the acute simplicity with which he involves the worthy excellence. He who is not against them is for them. father in the most perplexing dilemmas; the expressions What, then, must a person do in this alternative ? Shall of unsophisticated astonishment, which but prompt his he doubt of everything ? Shall he doubt that he is awake, stolid guide eagerly to make good every assertion by a or that he is pinched or burned ? Shall he doubt that he proper array of authorities,—a device which, as Pascal has doubts? Shall he doubt that he is? We cannot get so used it, converts what would have been in other hands only far as this; and I hold it to be a fact, that there never has a dull catalogue of citations into a source of perpetual been an absolute and perfect Pyrrhonist.” M. Cousin must amusement; the droll consequences which, with infinite suppose Pascal to have made an exception in favour of affectation of simplicity, he draws from the Jesuit’s dochimself, if it be indeed true that he was an universal scep- trines ; the logical exigencies into which the latter is tic. It appears to us that M. Cousin has not sufficiently thrown in the attempt to obviate them ;—all these things, reflected that, in those cases in which conclusions truly managed as only Pascal could have managed them, render involve processes of reasoning, Pascal does not deny the book as amusing as any novel. The form of letters that the preponderance of proof rests with the truths he enables him at the same time to intersperse, amidst the conbelieves, though he denies the demonstrative nature of versations they record, the most eloquent and glowing inthat proof; and he applies this with perfect fairness to the vectives against the doctrines he exposes. Voltaire’s wellevidences of Christianity as well as to the truths of natural known panegyric does not exceed the truth, that Molitheology. “ There is light enough,” says he, “ for those ere’s best comedies do not excel them in wit, nor the comwhose sincere wish is to see, and darkness enough to con- positions of Bossuet in sublimity. “ This work,” says found those of an opposite disposition.” Of Christianity D’Alembert, “ is so much the more admirable, as Pascal, in he says, “ It is impossible to see all the proofs of this reli- composing it, seems to have theologized two things which gion combined in one view without feeling that they have seem not made for the theology of that time—language and pleasantry.” a force which no reasonable man can withstand.” The success of the work is well known. By his inimiIt is not without reason that M. Faugere says, in reference to the charge of scepticism urged against Pascal, table pleasantry Pascal succeeded in making even the “ Faith and reason may equally claim him. If they some- dullest matters of scholastic theology and Jesuitical catimes appear to clash in his mind, it is because he wanted suistry as attractive to the people as a comedy; and by his time, not only to finish the work on which he was engaged, little volume did more to render the formidable society the but even to complete that internal revision (son oeuvre in- contempt of Europe than was ever done by all its other terieure) which is a kind of second creation of genius ; and enemies put together. The Jesuits had nothing for it but to unite into one harmonious whole the diverse elements to inveigh against the letters as “ the immortal liars” {les of his thoughts. Amongst the inedited e fragments of menteurs immortelles')} Of the scientific writings of Pascal we have already Pascal we find these remarkable lines:— II faut avoir (h. r.) ces trois qualites ; Pyrrhonien, geometre, Chretien soumis ; spoken. 1 To the charge of having garbled citations and tampered with evidence, in order to produce an unfair impression against the society (practices utterly abhorrentt to all Pascal’s habits of mind and dispositions of heart), he replies, with the characteristic boldness and

PAS Pascal I. (Pope) succeeded Stephen IV. in the pontifical chair in 817, and died in 824. Pas-dePascal II. (Pope), whose real name was Ranieri, was Calais. a monk of the order of Cluni, and succeeded Urban II. in 1099. An inveterate struggle with the occupants of the imperial throne, regarding investitures, extended over the whole of his pontificate. He began the contest in 1102 by renewing the decrees of his predecessors on that subject, and by excommunicating the Emperor Henry IV. He then encouraged the son of that monarch to raise the standard of revolt, and to supplant his father in the throne. Under the new emperor, Henry V., the controversy only assumed a more serious aspect. The emperor refused to give up his right of investiture to the Pope. The Pope threatened to withhold the ceremony of coronation from the emperor, In 1110 the emperor advanced into Italy at the head of a large army, seized upon the person of the Pope, and consigned him to bondage. For more than two months the Pope continued obstinate, and was only induced by the entreaties of his friends to crown the emperor, and yield the point of dispute. Yet the controversy thus settled was soon started again by the synods and councils of the church. They recalled the concession that had been forcibly extracted by the emperor, and renewed their claim to the right of investiture. In this manner they brought the two great potentates once more into the field against each other. Henry V. led an army towards Rome in 1116, and Pascal retreated to Benevento, The former in course of time retired from the city; and the latter, returning during the absence of his adversary, was actively engaged in preparing war when he was cut off by disease in 1118. PASCO, or Cerro di Pasco, a town of Peru, capital of the department of Junin, stands in an irregular hollow in the elevated plain of Bonbon, 140 miles N.E. of Lima. It is meanly and irregularly built on uneven ground, the houses being for the most part low and wretched, and generally thatched. The ground on which it is built abounds in silver ore, and is almost honeycombed by the mines, many of which open in the interior of the houses. These silver mines occupy a space about 15 miles broad, from E. to W.; but it is only the most valuable of them that are now worked. Coal is also found in the vicinity. As the surrounding country is very barren, most of the provisions have to be brought to Pasco from a distance. This town is the highest permanently-inhabited spot in America, and probably also in the whole world. Its elevation is stated at 14,280 feet above the level of the sea. The population varies at different periods from 7000 to 18,000, according to the season of the year and the state of the mines. PASCUARO, or Patzcuaro, a town of Mexico, state of Mechoacan, stands on the S.E. shore of the Lake of Pascuaro, 30 miles S.W. of Valladolid. In the neighbourhood are copper mines; and at some distance the best sugar plantations in the state. Pop. 6000. PAS-DE-CALAIS, a department of France, lying between 50. and 51. N. Lat., 1. 35. and 3. 10. E. Long. It is bounded on the N. by the Strait of Dover, N.E. and E. by the department of Nord, S. by that of Somme, and W. by the English Channel ; length, from N.W. to S.E., about 86 miles; average breadth, 33 miles; area, 2561

Pascal I.

PAS 33i square miles. The country is traversed from N.W. to S.E. Pas-deby a low chain of hills, from which the ground slopes era- Calais, dually down on either side. The highest elevation of these hills does not exceed 327 feet; and the two slopes are scarcely to be distinguished from each other. These heights form the watershed of the rivers of the department —the Lys, the Scarpe, the Sensee, and the Aa, flowing down the N.E. slope, the first three into the Escaut, and the last into the sea; while the Authie, the Canche, the Liane, and the Slack traverse the S.W. slope, and fall into the English Channel. Ihe valleys of these rivers are separated by small spurs diverging from the main ridge of hills. Most of the streams are navigable for some distance, either naturally or by means of canals. Those on the north flow sluggishly through an almost flat region; and during the whole of the winter they form extensive marshes, which deposit a large quantity of alluvial soil, and increase the fertility of the country. The only promontory on the coast is Cape Grinez, between Calais and Boulogne, where the range of hills terminates in a series of chalk cliffs similar to those of Dover, on the opposite side of the Channel, and extending several miles on each side of the cape. The rest of the coast is in general low, and bordered by sandy and barren downs, having an average breadth of about two miles, and an entire area of 44,000 acres, and presenting a very bleak aspect. Along the coast-line, which is about 80 miles in length, the only good harbours are those of Calais and Boulogne.^ These are formed by artificial piers, and are capable of receiving large vessels; while the others can only be approached by fishing-boats. The constant accumulation of sand has destroyed several harbours that formerly existed here; and even those that still exist are in some danger of being likewise filled up. In geological structure, the country for the most part belongs to the chalk formation. Iron and coal are found in small quantities, and several mines are wrought. Marble, limestone, quartz, rock-crystal, and other minerals, are also obtained. There are several Artesian wells in the department. These were first sunk here upwards of a century ago, and derived their name from the old province of Artois, to which this country then belonged. Richness, rather than picturesque beauty, is the prevailing aspect of the country; tracts of well-cultivated ground alternate with extensive meadows and pasturages. The country is marshy in many places; and towards the north, the low and flat ground near the coast has, as in Holland, to be defended by dykes from the incursions of the sea. The soil is very fertile, especially for corn ; the farms are large, and agriculture is in an advanced state. In its variable climate, Pas-deCalais resembles the south-western parts of England. The winters are long and rainy, and the climate in general cold, damp, and in some places not very healthy. Corn, pulse, potatoes, beet-root, hops, flax, and hemp are the principal crops raised; and a small part of the country is occupied by woods and orchards. The live stock reared here are generally of inferior breeds ; but there are estimated to be in the department 80,000 horses, 180,000 horned cattle, 300,000 sheep, 7000 goats, 140,000 pigs, &c. The sea near the coast abounds in fish ; and hence affords employment to a large number of the inhabitants. Manufacturing industry is actively and extensively carried on. It is cal-

frankness of his nature,—“ I was asked if I repented of having written Les Provinciates ? I reply that, far from having repented, if I had to write them now, I would write yet more strongly. ... I was asked why I had employed a pleasant, jocose, and diverting style. I reply that, if I had written in a dogmatical style, it would have been only the learned who would have read, and they would have had no necessity to do it, being at least as well acquainted with the subject as myself y thus I thought it a duty to write so as to he comprebended by women and men of the world, that they might know the danger of those maxims and propositions which were then universally propagated, and of which they permitted themselves to be so easily persuaded. I wms asked, lastly, if I had myself read all the books I have cited. I answer, No ; for in that case it would have been necessary to have passed my life in reading very bad booksbut I had read through the whole of Escobar twice, and, for the others, I caused them to be read by my friends. But I have never used a single passage without having myself read it in the book cited, or without having examined the subject on which it is adduced, or without having read both what precedes and what follows it, in order that I might not run the risk of quoting what was, in fact, an objection, for a reply to it, which would have been censurable and unjust.”

332 PAS Pasewalk culated that there are 700 manufactories, employing 25,000 hands, and producing annually goods to the value of witch" L.1,920,000. The most important of the articles manu/ factored are,—beet-root sugar, soap, oils, cotton and woollen fabrics, linen, hosiery, and lace. Paper-mills, foundries, glass-works, potteries, tanneries, distilleries, and breweries are also in operation. The chief articles of export are,— corn, flour, sugar, oils, marble, building-stone, timber, and manufactured articles. There is a considerable coasting trade in corn and other rural produce; and the foreign commerce is chiefly carried on with England. Communication is kept up by steamers between the ports of this department and London, Dover, and Folkestone; and there is a submarine telegraph cable between Dover and Calais. The means of internal communication are furnished by three railways, extending over 88 miles, besides numerous roads, rivers, and canals. Pas-de-Calais contains a school of medicine at Arras, an academy, four colleges, a normal school, and 1220 elementary schools. It forms the diocese of Arras ; and contains 6 primary courts and 4 courts of commerce. The capital is Arras ; and the department is divided into arrondissements as follows :— Cantons. Communes. Pop. (1856). Arras 10 211 169,123 Bethune 8 142 139,844 Saint-Omer 7 118 109,624 Saint-Pol 6 193 79,928 Boulogne 6 100 138,557 Montreuil 6 139 75,770 Total 43 903 712,846 PASEWALK, a town of Prussia, in the government of Stettin, on the Ucker, 27 miles W. by N. of Stettin. It is surrounded by walls; and has a court of law, churches, hospitals, and several breweries. The town is ancient, and once belonged to the Hanseatic League. Some trade is still carried on. Pop. 7217. PASIGRAPHY (from ttSs, all, and ypac/>w, I write), the imaginary art of writing so as to be universally understood by all nations of the earth. The idea of establishing such a language is deemed by many extremely fanciful, whilst the practicability of it is as strenuously contended for by others. Llints respecting such an universal language are to be met with in the writings of many eminent philosophers; but the attempt has signally failed, even in the hands of Leibnitz, Kircher, Becher, and Wilkins. Kant is of opinion, however, that such a pasigraphy falls within the limits of possibility ; nay, he even prognosticates that it will certainly be established at some future period. PASIPHAE. See Minos. PASKIEWITCH, Ivan F eedoroyitch, F ield-Marshal, Prince of Warsaw, Viceroy of Poland, and General-inChief of the Russian army, was born at Pultowa on the 12th May 1782, and was appointed at an early age aidede-camp to the Emperor Paul. The first part of his career was one continued series of arduous campaigns and hot engagements. He began service in the terrible field of Austerlitz in 1805. Then he served from 1807 to 1812 in the army which acted against Turkey. No sooner was that expedition ended than the war with France involved him in the very thick of the most desperate of modern struggles. Lie fought at the battles of Dachkofka, Soultanofka, Smolensk, and Moskwa, in 1812; at the battles of Kulm, Dresden, and Leipsic, in 1813; and at the battle of Arcis-sur-Aube, in 1814. Out of that long course of deadly strife fortune brought Paskiewitch with safety and honour. She was reserving him for more successful achievements. Appointed to the command of the army of the Caucasus, he won a diamond-mounted sword by his victory at Elizavetopol in 1826, the surname of Erivansky by his storming of Erivan in 1827, and the dignity of field-marshal by his capture of Erzeroum in 1829. Entrusted in

PAS 1831 with the suppression of the revolt in Poland, he dis- Pasquin persed the Poles, carried their capital, and was rewarded I! with the titles of Prince of Warsaw and Viceroy of Poland. . Passau' Sent also in 1849 to assist Austria in crushing the Hungarians, he was soon able to write home to the emperor in these words : “ Hungary is at your feet.” Success, however, deserted Paskiewitch at last. He was repulsed by the Turks at Silistria in 1854, and received a contusion at the same time which compelled him to retire from service, and eventually caused his death on the 29th January 1856. PASQUIN, a mutilated statue at Rome, in a corner of the palace of the Ursini. It took its name from a cobbler of that city called Pasquino, famous for his sneers and gibes, and who diverted himself by telling facetious and satirical stories to those who frequented his stall, as well as by cracking his jokes upon all passers-by. The witty sayings of the cobbler came to be called pasquinate (hence pasquinade), a term subsequently applied by the Romans to all kinds of humorous epigrams and satirical lampoons. These lampoons, which attacked persons in high station, were frequently fixed by night at or near the mutilated statue alluded to, which, from that circumstance, came to be called Pasquino, after the defunct cobbler. PASS, or Passade. See Fencing. PASSAGE, a town of Ireland, county of Cork, on the W. side of Cork harbour, about 5 miles S.S.E. of the town of Cork. It has an Established, a Methodist, and a Roman Catholic church, and several schools. The place is much frequented as a watering-place; and has many handsome villas in the neighbourhood. There is a good harbour; and vessels that are too large to ascend to Cork unload their cargoes here. Passage has also dockyards, and is connected with Cork by a railway. Pop. 2857. PASSAMAQUODDY BAY, an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, on the borders of New Brunswick and the state of Maine. It extends into the land for the distance of 12 miles, and is about 6 miles broad at its mouth. It affords an excellent harbour for the largest vessels, and is never obstructed by ice. It contains several islands; and the waters abound in fish of various kinds. PASSANT. See Heraldry. PASSAU, a town of Bavaria, circle of Lower Bavaria, stands at the confluence of the Danube and the Inn, 91 miles E.N.E. of Munich. Its position at the junction of these broad streams, and shut in by lofty and steep mountains, is extremely grand and picturesque, although the buildings are for the most part not good. Passau proper stands between the right bank of the Danube and the left of the Inn, but it has several suburbs beyond: Innstadt, on the right bank of the Inn ; Anger and Ilzstadt, on the left of the Danube,—the former above and the latter below the Ilz, which here joins that river from the north, opposite to the Inn. The Inn and the Danube are crossed here by wooden bridges; that over the latter resting on seven granite piers. The town and its suburbs are defended by citadels and fortifications, the strongest of which is the castle of Oberhause, on the left bank of the Ilz. Passau is in fact one of the most important strongholds on the Danube. Among the public buildings in the town, one of the most remarkable is the cathedral of St Stephen, an edifice originally built in the Gothic style, but which having been, with the exception of the choir, entirely destroyed by fire, was rebuilt in the Italian style. It contains many interesting monuments. In the Cathedral Square (Domplatz), which is the finest in Passau, stands a large bronze statue of King Maximilian Joseph. Besides the cathedral, there are in the town seven churches, some of which are fine buildings. The royal palace, formerly the residence of the bishops, and the post-office, in which the treaty of Passau was signed in 1552, are also worthy of notice. The town contains a public library, theatre, town-

PAS Passeri hall, several schools and hospitals, an infirmary, and a | lunatic asylum. The principal manufactures of the place Passion- are iron> copper, porcelain, pottery, tobacco, beer, leather, Week. ancj paper> An active trade is carried on, both up and down the Danube. Passau is the capital of a bishopric which was formerly an independent state, but was secularized in 1803, and incorporated with Bavaria in 1809. The most important historical event that took place here was the treaty of 1552 between Maurice of Saxony and Ferdinand, King of the Romans, on behalf of Charles V., by which the religious freedom of the Protestants was secured. Pop. 12,000. PASSERI, Giovanni Battista, one of the greatest authorities on Italian art, was born at Rome about 1610. The circumstances of his career were peculiarly fitted to qualify him for writing on the fine arts. He practised composition both in prose and verse, and acquired the ease and skill of a professional litterateur. He cultivated, at Frescati, the friendship of Domenichino, and caught from the lips of that great artist a knowledge and appreciation of the great principles of art. He was also himself a painter of no mean standing, as his picture of the “ Crucifixion between two Saints,” in the church of San Giovanni della Malva at Rome still testifies. Accordingly, at his death in 1679, Passeri left behind him in manuscript a collection of lives of painters, sculptors, and architects, which has been considered one of the most authentic of art histories. In general its facts are accurate, its criticisms just, and its theories profound. It was first published by an anonymous editor, supposed to be Bottari, in 1772, and presented a biographical account of Italian art from 1641 to 1673 inclusive. PASSERONI, Gian Carlo, an Italian satirical poet, was born in the county of Nizza in 1713, and entered into holy orders. His career presents a rare instance of a goodnatured contempt for the gifts of fortune. He was still young when he resigned the office of chaplain to the papal nuncio at Cologne, and retired to a humble cellar in Milan to enjoy solitude and practise austerity. A cock was his only companion, and a thread-bare suit and a few mean articles of furniture were his only riches. His door was closed against all donations, and all offers of place and position. He sat down at his humble table to write his II Cicerone, a satirical poem which railed at fortune and society in easy and unaffected language, and in a strain of pleasant and decorous banter. The fame which this work gained for him did not affect his humility. A pension which the Cisalpine Republic bestowed on him did not alter his abstemious habits. He continued to cultivate frugality in his lonely cellar till he died in 1802, at the age of eighty-nine. Besides his II Cicerone, which was published in 6 vols., Milan, 1768, Passeroni wrote Translations of Several Greek Epigrams, Milan, 1786-94 ; and JEsopian Fables, in 6 vols., Milan, 1786. PASSIGNANO, the surname which Domenico Cresti, an eminent Italian painter, derived from his native place. He was born, according to some, in 1560, and according to others, about 1557. His studies were prosecuted at Venice under Naldini and Frederigo Zuccaro. He became a thorough-going admirer of the Venetian school, and learned to imitate Paul Veronese in the richness of his architecture and drapery. The brightest part of his professional career was spent at Rome. He painted the “ Crucifixion of St Peter” for the church of St Peter’s, and the “Entombing of Christ” for the Borghese palace. The closing years of his life were spent at Florence. He died there in 1638. The most distinguished of Passignano’s pupils was Pietro Sorri of Siena. PASSION-WEEK, the week immediately preceding Easter, and so called because in that week, according to some, happened our Saviour’s passion and death. The Thurs-

PAS 333 day of this week is called Maunday Thursday; the Friday, Passover Good Friday ; and the Saturday, the Great Sabbath. PASSOVER (PlDp ; Trdcr^a, a passing over, sparing, or protection), a solemn Jewish festival having both a historical and a typical reference. As a commemorative institution, it was designed to preserve amongst the Hebrews a grateful sense of their redemption from Egyptian bondage, and of the protection granted to their first-born on the night when the destroying angel passed over the houses of the Hebrews, but slew all the first-born of the Egyptians (Exod. xii. 27); as a typical institute, its object was to shadow forth the great facts and consequences of the Christian Sacrifice (1 Cor. v. 7). The word passover has three general acceptations in Scripture :—Is*, It denotes the yearly solemnity celebrated on the 14th day of Nisan or Abib, which was strictly the Passover of the Lamb, for on that day the Israelites were commanded to roast the paschal lamb, and eat it in their own houses; 2d, It signifies that yearly festivity, celebrated on the 15th of Nisan, which may be called the Feast of the Passover (Deut. xvi. 2 ; Num. xxviii. 16, 17); 3d, It denotes the whole solemnity, commencing on the 14th, and ending on the 21st day of Nisan (Luke xxii. 1), though in strictness of speech, the Passover and the Feast of Unfermented Things are distinct institutions. The Passover was to be kept on the eve of the 14th of the first month (Abib), in which, although unfermented things were enjoined to be eaten with the lamb, yet the feast of unleavened bread did not commence until the following morning. It continued seven days, of which the first and last only were sabbaths (Lev. xxiii. 5-8) ; the first probably in commemoration of the commencement of their march out of Egypt; the last of their passage through the Red Sea. On the 10th of the month Abib, the master of a family separated a ram or a goat of a year old, without blemish (Exod. xii. 1-6 ; 1 Pet. i. 19), which was slain on the 14th day “ between the two evenings,” before the altar (Deut. xvi. 2, 5, 6). Originally the blood was sprinkled on the posts of the door (Exod. xii. 7), but afterwards the priests sprinkled the blood upon the bottom of the altar (comp. Deut. vi. 9; 1 Pet. i. 2; Heb. viii. 10; ix. 13, 14). The ram or kid was roasted in an oven, whole, with two spits forming a cross. It was next served up with a bitter salad, indicative of the bitterness of their bondage in Egypt, and eaten with unleavened or unfermented bread. Wine also to the quantity of four or five cups was drunk by each person. Considerable dispute has been raised as to whether the wine used on this occasion was fermented or unfermented,—was the ordinary wine, in short, or the pure juice of the grape. Those who hold it was unfermented appeal mainly to the expression “ unfermented things,” which is the true rendering of the word translated “ unleavened bread. The rabbins would seem to have interpreted the command respecting ferment as extending to the wine as well as to the bread of the passover. The modern Jews, accordingly, generally use raisin wine, after the injunction of the rabbins. What of the flesh remained uneaten was to be consumed with fire, lest it should see corruption (comp. Exod. xii. 10 ; Ps. xvi. 10 ; Acts ii. 27). Not fewer than ten, nor more than twenty persons, were admitted to this sacred solemnity. At its first observance, the Hebiews ate the Passover with loins girt about, sandals on their feet, staves in their hands, and in haste, like travellers equipped and prepared for immediate departure (Exod. xii. 11); but subsequently the usual mode of reclining was adopted, in token of rest and security (John xiii. 23). The rabbins enumerate the following particulars as peculiar to its original observance, but which were afterwards modified :—I. The eating of it in their houses dispersed in Egypt; 2. The taking up of the paschal lamb from the tenth day; 3. The charge to

334 PAS Passport strike the blood on the door-posts; 4. The eating of it in II . haste (Bab. Talmud, Pesachim, c. 9; Maim. Carbon aagoma. C- jq, § 15). But the command not to break a bone of the offering was always observed (John xix. 36). The ceremonies practised at the eating of the paschal supper will be found fully detailed in the Mishna. (See Kitto’s Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature^) PASSPORT, a letter, license, or document of one sort or other, issued by competent authority, permitting the bearer to enter into and remain in a particular country, or portion thereof, for an indefinite or a specified time, and sometimes also for a specified purpose. Every independent state has the right to exclude such individuals as it pleases from its territory ; and it consequently has the right to require all strangers entering, or desiring to enter, its territories to bring with them properly authenticated documents showing what they are, and (if required) for what purpose they desire to visit the country. (See Marten, lib. iii., cap. 3 ; and a host of other authorities.) Passports have been introduced principally with the view of preventing persons hostile to the government or institutions of a country from crossing its frontier. And this obviously is a power which all governments would wish, were it in their power, to exercise and make effectual. But the widest experience has sufficiently proved that the facilities for travelling and for getting into extensive countries are now so great, that the regulations with respect to passports merely obstruct that free intercourse between the well-behaved and peaceable inhabitants of different nations that is so advantageous, without throwing any serious obstacle in the way of the transit of dangerous or suspicious characters. The latter have either little difficulty in obtaining passports under false pretences, or in making their way without them; and it is found that the com> tries in which the regulations as to passports are enforced with the greatest strictness are those in which suspicious characters are most common. On the whole, there can be little doubt that their abolition would be of great public advantage, and that it would not he productive, either in France or elsewhere, of any injurious consequences. PASTO, a town of New Granada, in the province of Cauca, stands among the Andes, at an elevation of 8576 feet above the sea, 148 miles N.N.E. of Quito. In the vicinity is an active volcano. The town contains a fine church; and has some trade in wooden articles. Pop. 7000, PASTORAL (Latin, pastor, a shepherd) is the name given to a species of poetry which is devoted to descriptions and delineations of country life, or to dramatic compositions in which the principal characters are shepherds or other rustics. (See Eclogue, Bucolic, and Idyll.) Pastoral Theology is that department of theology which has to do with the practical duties of a clergyman as the teacher, counsellor, comforter, and guide of his spiritual flock. Pastoral Letters are those circulars addressed by a bishop (the pastor of his people) to his diocesans, for their religious instruction or guidance in matters of ecclesiastical discipline, PATAGONIA, a large country of South America, occupying the southern extremity of that continent from the Rio Negro to the Strait of Magellan. It lies between S. Lat. 38. 50. and 53, 55., W, Long. 63. and 76., and is bounded on the N. by the Argentine Republic, E. by the Atlantic, S. by the Strait of Magellan, W, by the Pacific, and N.W. by Chili. Its length from N. to S. is 970 miles, its breadth varies from 200 to 420, and its area is about 300,000 square miles. The country is divided into two regions differing widely from each other in their general character. The one of these lies along the west coast, and is entirely

PAT mountainous; while the other, to the east, is in general low Patagonia, and flat. In the western region, the mountains all belong to the chain of the Andes, which is here much lower than in the more northerly parts of South America, for the average height of the range in Patagonia does not exceed 3000 feet; but even here there are some mountains upwards of 7000 feet above the sea. Southwards from the Gulf of Ancud, where the Chilian and Patagonian territories meet, the country along the shore of the Pacific presents an aspect quite different from that which is met with farther north. Instead of having a narrow strip of low land, with an almost unbroken coast extending between the mountains and the Pacific, as is generally the case on this coast, the Patagonian Andes rise abruptly out of the sea, which, frequently flowing into the deep defiles of the mountains, extends long and winding arms far into the land. Numerous high and rocky islands, rising abruptly out of the sea, line the coast. The chief of these are,—Chiloe, the Chonos Archipelago, M ellington Island, the Archipelago of Madre de Dios, Hanover Island, and Queen Adelaide’s Archipelago. There is also a large peninsula, called Tres Montes, lying between the Chonos Archipelago and Wellington Island, joined to the mainland by a narrow isthmus. Near the southern extremity of Patagonia two remarkable inlets break the continuity of the Andes chain. The first of these divides itself into two branches,—Last Hope Inlet, extending to the X., and Ancon Sin Salida, or Obstruction Sound, to the S.; while the second, which is much larger, spreads itself out in two sheets of water—Otway Water and Skyring M ater—connected by a narrow strait. Farther to the S., not only the mountain chain, but the entire mass of the land is divided by the Strait of Magellan, extending from the Pacific to the Atlantic, and separating Tierra del Fuego and the adjacent islands from Patagonia. All the mountains of M estern Patagonia, as w ell as those on the islands, are thickly wooded on their western declivities, but entirely bare on the side that is exp>osed to the ocean. The whole of the region is subject to incessant winds and rains, the breezes being generally from the W., and bringing from the Pacitic an immense quantity of moisture, which is condensed on the mountains, and deluges the country with almost incessant showers. The ground is thus kept constantly wet; and there are few days in the year when rain does not fall in summer, or snow and sleet in w inter. The largest river in \i\ estern Patagonia is the San Tadio, a small stream which falls into the Pacific S. of the peninsula of Tres Montes. It is formed by two mountain torrents, and is navigable for about 11 miles. On the mainland opposite the island ot Chiloe there are two volcanoes, the farthest S. of any that are known to have been active in modern times. These are Minchinmadiva, 8010 feet, and Corcovado, . 500 feet above the sea. The eastern part of Patagonia is in its surtace and climate the very reverse in many respects of the western. The land is low and flat, rising gradually in terraces from the Atlantic to the Andes. The unitormity of the surface is, how ever, broken by the high lands of Espinosa, which occupy a large promontory between S. Lat- 47. and 48., and rise to the height of 4000 feet above the sea. In the southern portion of the country the soil consists of tertiary strata, covered over w ith shingle, and destitute of all vegetation, except here and there scattered tufts of grass and low bushes. Although numerous salt pools occur in this region, there is a great scarcity of rresh water. North of 45. S. Lat., the country is more undulating, and not so entirely destitute of vegetation as the southern portion; for in some places the valleys and low hills are covered with grass and stunted trees, and there are even parts where good pasturage and timber may be obtained. Eastern Patagonia is traversed by several rivers, which are much larger than those that water the western region. The Rio Negro, which forms the northern

PATAGONI A. 335 The aboriginal natives of Patagonia are a tall and exPatagonia, Patagonia, boundary of Patagonia, rises in the Andes, flows first N.E., v— then E., and finally S.E., falling into the Atlantic. Its tremely robust race of men. Their bodies are bulky, and whole length is about 700 miles; and at a long distance their head and features large, but their hands and feet are from its mouth it has a breadth of 500 yards. Of the other small. Their limbs are neither so muscular nor so largerivers little is known except their mouths; the Chupat, boned as their height and apparent bulk would lead one the Camerones, the Desire River, the Santa Cruz, and the to suppose ; they are rounder and smoother than those of Gallegos, are the most important,—all falling into the Atlan- white men. Their colour is a rich reddish brown, rather tic. The Santa Cruz is a river of considerable size, and is darker than the hue of copper. The only attractive feabelieved to flow through several lakes, one of which. Lake ture about their persons is their teeth, which are sound and Capar, is 30 miles long and 10 or 12 broad. This river white. Their cheek-bones are prominent, and so is their flows for a great part of its course in a deep valley, through brow, which is broad but low. Their heads are furnished an elevated plain which rises in some parts 1800, and in with a profusion of rough, lank, and coarse black hair, others between 2000 and 3000 feet above the sea. Along which is tied above the temples by a fillet of plaited or the banks there are in some places deep and extensive layers twisted sinews ; and they wear no other covering upon of lava. The eastern coast of Patagonia, from the entrance this part of their body. The size of the Patagonians has of Magellan’s Strait as far northwards as 49. S. Lat-, con- been represented by some writers as quite gigantic; and, sists of cliffs of marly clay rising 200 or 300 feet perpen- although the earlier voyagers have given somewhat exdicularly from the sea, and somewhat resembling, when seen aggerated accounts of them, which have been improved by from a distance, the coast of Kent. North of this, as far as some subsequent authors, it seems to be the universal tes45. S. Lat., the cliffs are somewhat higher, and their pre- timony of those who have visited the country in modern vailing structure is porphyritic. Beyond this point the times, that they do considerably exceed the average stature coast presents a different aspect, consisting of a shingly of Europeans. Captain Byron, in the middle of last cenbeach skirted by a reef of rocks. The largest gulfs of tury, saw a number of men above 8 feet, and some as much the eastern coast are those of San Matias, S. of the Rio as 9 feet in height. Captain Fitzroy thus speaks of the naNegro ; and St George, N. of Cape Blanco. There are also tives that he saw :—“ Among two hundred or three hunseveral harbours along this coast, such as Port San Antonio, dred natives of Patagonia scarcely half a dozen men in 41. S. Lat.; Nuevo Golfo, in 43.; Port Desire, in 47. are seen whose height is under 5 feet 9 or 10 inches; 5.; Port San Julian, in 49. 12.; Santa Cruz, in 50. 7.; and the women are proportionably tall. I have nowhere Gallegos, in 51. 38. The climate of Eastern Patagonia seen an assemblage of men and women whose average is as remarkable for dryness as that of the western region height and apparent bulk equalled that of the Patagois for its constant showers. Captain Fitzroy, who explored nians. Tall and athletic as are many of the South Sea the Patagonian coasts between the years 1826u and 1836, islanders, there are also many among their number who are thus speaks of the climate of this country:— One natu- slight and of lower stature. The Patagonians seem to be rally asks why Eastern Patagonia should be condemned to high-shouldered, owing perhaps to their habit of folding perpetual sterility, while the western side of the same coun- their arms across the chest, in their mantles, and thus intry, in the same parallel of latitude, is injured by too much creasing their apparent height and bulk, because the manrain ? The prevailing westerly winds and the Andes are tles hang loosely, and almost touch the ground. Until acthe causes. The winds bring much moisture from the tually measured, it is difficult to believe that they are not Pacific, but they leave it all, condensed, on the west side much taller than is the case.” of the mountains. After passing the cordillera, those same Mr Boume, an American seaman, who was for some time winds are very dry. Easterly winds are very rare upon the a captive in Patagonia in 1849-50, says that their average east coast; they are the only ones which carry rain to the height L 6^ feet, while some nearly reach 7 feet. These almost deserts of Patagonia. Westward of the Andes, an accounts are so precise and satisfactory that the question as to east wind is dry and free from clouds. AD this country the actual size of the Patagonians may be regarded as comis exposed to severe cold weather in winter, and to ex- pletely set at rest. Is it more improbable that there should cessive heat in summer. Great and sudden changes of be races of men above the European standard, than it is temperature take place, when, after very hot weather, that there should be races whose height is below it ? Yet cold winds rush northwards with the fury of a hurricane.” we know beyond a doubt that the Esquimaux are so. The temperature of the country S. of the 45th parallel With the exception of the head, little hair grows upon of latitude is in general extremely cold, although during their bodies ; and from the face it is carefully removed by the short summer great heat is experienced. The vege- shells or pincers. They do not disfigure their naturally table products of Patagonia are very scanty, the onlv coarse features by piercing either nose or lip, but they beportion where there is a luxuriant vegetation being the daub their bodv with white, black, or red paint, forming country near the Rio Negro, in which the same plants grotesque figures, such as circles around their eyes or great are found as in the adjacent parts of the Argentine Re- marks across their faces. This ornamental body-painting public. Among the forests of the west several species is practised bv all the different races ot Patagonians from of beech and many large and beautiful ferns occur. Ani- Cape Horn to' Buenos Ayres. On their feet and legs they mals are found in greater abundance than vegetables in wear boots made of the skins of horses’ hind legs. Spurs most parts of Patagonia. Herds of guanacoes, amounting made of wood, but of iron if they can get it, balls (bolas), to several hundreds in number, roam about the country; qi. if ones, attached to a long leather thong, for the purpose and the puma, the wolf, the fox, the opossum, the cavia, of catching the guanaco or the ostrich by throwing the the armadillo, the otter, and the seal, are also met with. balls so as~to wind round their legs, whilst a long tapering There are an immense number of animals of the class lance, and a knife, if it can be procured, complete their Rodentia,—more, perhaps, than in any other part of the equipment. w Mounted upon horses of a middle size,” world. The horse is found in all parts of the country, savs Captain Fitzroy, “under fifteen hands high, and being the invariable companion of the natives of East- rather well bred, the Patagonians seem to be carried no ern Patagonia. The condor and the cassowary are the better than dragoons who ride eighteen stone upon horses principal terrestrial birds; but the sea-fowl are very nu- able to carry ten; yet they go at full speed in chase of merous, including several species of swans, ducks, and ostriches or guanacoes. When hunting or making long geese. Fish and other sea-animal, are plentiful along the journeys they often change horses. The women are coasts. dressed and booted like the men, with the addition of a half

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336 PAT Patagonia, petticoat. They clean their hair, and plait it into two tails. Ornaments of brass, beads, bits of coloured glass, or such trifles, are prized by them. The huts of these wanderers are somewhat like gipsy tents. Poles are stuck in the ground, to which others are fixed. Over them are thrown the skins of animals, an irregular tilt-like hut being thus formed.” It is to be observed that the inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego, and of the islands to the S. and S.W., wear little or no clothing. The Patagonians appear to possess nothing like towns, but lead a wandering and unsettled life, somewhat resembling that of the Tartars. The different parts of the country are inhabited by several distinct nations, the chief of which are the following:—The Moluche, or Warrior Indians, who inhabit the Andes and neighbouring regions immediately S. of the Rio Negro; the Puelche, or Eastern People, who wander about the N.E. of Patagonia ; the Chulian Indians, who occupy the mountainous regions S. of 42. S. Lat.; the Te-huel-het, or Southern People, who inhabit the south-eastern extremity of the country ; and the Fuegians, who people not only the island of Tierra del Fuego, but the western coast of the mainland, as far N. as the peninsula of Tres Montes. The last of these differs from the others in being of much lower stature. The various tribes into which they are divided are generally under the command of chiefs ; and they subsist chiefly on the flesh of mares, guanacoes, emus, &c. Very few traces of any religious ceremonies have been observed among them. We are informed by Falconer, the Jesuit missionary, that after the dead have been interred twelve months, the graves are visited by the tribe for the purpose of collecting the bones, and conveying them to their family sepulchres, where they are set up, and adorned with all the beads and ornaments which the friends and family of the deceased are able to collect for the occasion. The ceremony is performed by certain women of the tribe, whose peculiar office it is to attend to these rites. In corroboration of the Jesuit’s testimony, Captain King informs us, that near Port Desire he had seen the graves of the Indians upon the summits of hills, but without the bodies, which he supposes to have in all probability been removed by the Indians. It seems highly probable that Magalhaens was the original discoverer of the southern coast of Patagonia and the northern coast of Tierra del Fuego, as well as of the strait which bears his name. Sir Francis Drake passed the strait in the year 1578; and being driven by storms to the S., discovered the western and south-western coast of Tierra del Fuego, and also Cape Horn; although the honour of the discovery of the latter has generally been ascribed to Jacob Le Maire, a Dutchman in the service of the states of Holland. In the year 1616 this navigator was the first who doubled that terminus of South America, and called it Cape Horn, after a village in Holland. Proceeding in a north-easterly direction, he crossed the strait which bears his name, and discovered Staten Island, which he so designated after the states of Holland. It is supposed that Davies, one of the companions of Cavendish in his voyage to the South Seas in 1592, was the first person who saw the Falkland Islands; but they were not, properly speaking, discovered till the year 1594, when Sir Richard Hawkins examined them, and called them in honour of his queen and himself, Hawkins’ Maiden Land. The name, however, was subsequently changed to Falkland Islands by Strong, another English navigator. During the early part of the eighteenth century they were re-discovered by some trench navigators; and hence the origin of the French name, Malouine Islands. To Captain Cook we are indebted for the first accurate account of the south-eastern coast of lierra del Fuego, which he explored in 1774 ; and so little was known concerning it before this period that, when actually in sight of Cape Horn, he was unable to

PAT decide whether it was a detached island or a part of Tierra del Fuego. Amongst the other distinguished names connected with the discovery or investigation of this part of the South American continent, are those of Sarmiento (whose account of a voyage down the western coast, and through the Strait of Magalhaens, has never been surpassed), Sir John Narborough, Cordova, Byron, Willis, Carteret, Bougainville, Weddel, King, Stokes, and Fitzroy. It only remains to be noticed that, although repeated attempts had been made to form permanent settlements in Patagonia, or upon the neighbouring islands, particularly by the Spaniards, until recently none of these has been successful. In 1843, however, the government of Chili founded a settlement at Port Famine, on the Strait of Magellan, which was in 1850 transferred to Sandy Point, some distance to the N. This colony contained in 1853 about 20 houses, with a chapel and sacristy. The population was 150; and they had 10 horses, 18 goats, and a number of swine. Another settlement on the strait has recently been projected; and in 1854 an exploring expedition was sent thither with a view to that undertaking. The western part of Patagonia is claimed by Chili, and the eastern by the Argentine Republic. With regard to population, it must be quite obvious that no accurate idea can be formed. It has, however, been estimated at 120,000. By far the greater part of the country—that which stretches along the eastern side of the Andes, from their base to the Atlantic Ocean— is almost entirely unknown, with the exception of a very few places upon the coast. It is quite possible, therefore, that the inhabitants may be far more numerous in this region than is supposed ; but the general sterility of the country holds out little prospect of any great commercial advantages to be gained by intercourse with them, except in the precious metals, which are doubtless to be found in the Patagonian Andes. PATAK, Saros, a market-town of Hungary, county of Zemplin, on the right bank of the Bodrog, here crossed by a bridge, 14 miles S.W. of Zemplin. It contains a once famous but now ruined castle, a celebrated Protestant college, a Roman Catholic upper school, See. Cloth is manufactured here; and wine is produced in the vicinity. Pop. 5480. PATANI, a small kingdom on the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula, subject to Siam. It is the most fertile portion of Malacca; rice and salt are obtained in large quantities; and these articles, as well as tin, are exported. The chief town, Patani, stands on the coast, N. Lat. 7., E. Long. 105. 35.; and was formerly much resorted to by vessels trading between India and China, though at present it is rarely visited. There is, however, some communication kept up between this place and Singapore. Patani is also the name of a cape on this coast, at the entrance of the Gulf of Siam. PATAVINITY (patavinitas), properly the mode of speaking peculiar to the people of Patavium, is a term employed by literary critics, to denote generally any provincial idiom. The word takes its origin from the alleged provincialisms to be found in the writings of Livy, who was a native of Patavium, a provincial town belonging to the Roman empire. According to Quintilian (i. 5, § 56; viii. 1, § 3), Pallio censured the historian for this alleged defect, but it does not appear that any critic has ever pointed out precisely in what the patavinity of Livy really consists. It was perhaps of so subtle and delicate a nature that we are no longer in a position to detect it. Niebuhr simplifies the matter by altogether disbelieving Quintilian’s storv. PATAVIUM. See Padua. PATENTS: Letters Patent for Inventions. These are documents bearing the great seal of the United Kingdom, by which inventors obtain a monopoly in their inventions for a certain number of years ; which monopoly is similar in principle to that conceded to authors and artists

Patak II nts-

Pate

PATENTS. 337 Patents, under the name of copyright. There are persons who these is the Patent Law Amendment Act of 1852. These v Patents. argue that no such privilege should be permitted; there statutes, however, do not materially alter the law; it is ■ v-»y are others who think that the most trifling exertions of the chiefly the practice of obtaining letters patent, and their inventive faculties should be protected. The right course form, that are affected. The positive law has to be gathered lies between these extremes. All civilized nations have from the numerous decisions of the courts, for patent law considered it desirable to give inventors an exclusive right is for the most part “judge-made law.” Of that law, as it to their inventions for a limited period, not only as a mat- now stands, we proceed to give an outline. ter of justice to individuals, but as a piece of sound policy The inventions for which patents are obtained are chiefly tending to the advantage of the whole community. The either vendible articles formed by chemical or mechanical monopoly is granted in the expectation that the inventor operations, such as cloth, alloys, vulcanized india-rubber, will derive some profit from it; and the hope of profit is &c.; or machinery and apparatus, or processes. It may known to be a great stimulus to invention. When an au- be remarked here, that a scientific principle cannot form thor writes a book, or an artist designs a picture, the law the subject of a valid patent unless its application to a allows a right of property to those persons in their produc- practical and useful end and object is shown. An abstract tions, and accompanies the recognition of this right with notion, a philosophical idea, may be extremely valuable in the power to repress infringements. If this were not so, the realm of science, but before it is allowed to form a sound very few persons would employ their time in writing books basis for a patent, the world must be shown how to apply or creating works of art; and hardly any one will be bold it so as to gain therefrom some immediate material advanenough to assert that the extinction of the race of authors tage. With regard to processes, the language of the statute and artists is to be desired. The same principle applies to of James has been strained to bring them within the words inventors, who ought to have the works of their brain pro- “ any manner of new manufactures,” and judges on the tected from piracy fully as much as the other classes of bench have admitted that the exposition of the act has gone mental producers. By holding out to them the prospect of much beyond the letter. However, it is undoubted law gain, they are induced, at a present loss of time and money, that a process is patentable; and patents are accordingly to attempt to discover improvements in the useful arts, in obtained for processes every day. machinery, in manufacturing processes, &c.; and thus the The principal classes of patentable inventions seem to be interests of the community are advanced more rapidly than these :— if such exertions had not been brought into play. Just as 1. New contrivances applied to new ends. the rule of rewarding inventors is in theory, the practi2. New contrivances applied to old ends. cal application of it is attended with difficulty. To grant 3. New combinations of old parts, whether relating to a very long term of exclusive possession would be detri- material objects or processes. mental to the public, since it would tend to stop the progress 4. New methods of applying a well-known object. of improvement. A limited property must therefore We have not space to enlarge upon these rough divisions, be allowed; large enough to give the inventor an oppor- and will only remark, with regard to a patent for the new tunity of reaping a fair reward, but not barring the way application of a well-known object, that there must be some for an unreasonable period. And when this compromise display of ingenuity in making the application, otherwise the has been decided on, it will be seen how difficult it may be patent will be invalid on the ground that the subject-matter to determine beforehand what is the real merit of an in- is destitute of novelty. For example, a machine already vention, and apportion the time to that merit. Hence in use as an excavator on land cannot be separately patented it has been found necessary to allot one fixed period as an excavator under water ; nor can a machine employed in for all kinds of inventions falling within the purview of the finishing of cotton goods be afterwards patented as apthe patent laws. This regulation appears to be open to plied to the finishing of woollen fabrics. A small amount the complaint, that the most worthless and the most meri- of invention is indeed sufficient to support a patent where torious inventions are placed on the same footing. But the utility to be derived from the result is great. A small it may be replied, that in the result this is of little conse- step in advance, a slight deviation from known processes, quence, since meritorious inventions alone obtain the pa- may have been apparently brought about by the exercise tronage of the public, those which are destitute of value being of little ingenuity ; but if the improvement be manifest, neglected. Besides, if the complaint were well founded, either as saving time or labour, a patent in respect of it will there is here no sound argument against the policy of privi- stand. The mere omission of a step from some commonly leges of this nature, seeing that it is impossible to weigh practised process has been held sufficient to support a pabeforehand one invention against another in the scale of tent for a new method of manufacture; and how often do merit, or to obtain a true standard of comparison. we see what appears to be a very trifling degree of novelty, Leaving the discussion of general considerations, we will attended with very advantageous consequences, sometimes now give an outline of the law affecting patent privileges in resulting in the entire revolution of a manufacture, or in a the United Kingdom. In the old times, the reigning prince lowering of price appreciable in every pound of an article considered himself entitled, as part of his prerogative, to extensively used by the public. grant privileges, in the nature of monopolies, to any one who Whatever be the nature of the invention, it must possess had acquired his favour. These grants became so numerous the incidents of utility and novelty, else any patent obtained that they were oppressive and unjust to various classes of the in respect of it will be invalid. The degree of utility need commonwealth; and hence, in the reign of James L, a sta- not, however, be great; it is sufficient if a jury can find some tute was wrung from that king which declared all monopolies utility in it. As to novelty, this is the rock upon which that were grievous and inconvenient to the subjects of the most patents split; for if it can be shown that other persons realm to be void. There was, however, a special exception have used the invention before the date of the patent, it will from this enactment of all letters patent and grants of privilege fall to the ground, although the patentee was an independent of the “ sole working or making of any manner of new inventor deriving his ideas from no one else. The difficulty manufactures which others at the time of making such of steering clear of this rock will be apparent at once. • Supletters patent and grants should not use, so they be not pose A. in London patents an invention the result of his contrary to law, nor mischievous to the state.” Upon these own ingenuity and patient study, and it afterwards appears words hangs the whole law of letters patent for inventions. that B., in some distant part of the kingdom, had been preVarious statutes were afterwards passed (which it would viously openly using the same thing in his workshop, A.’s be well to consolidate into one act), and the principal of patent is good for nothing. Thus, in one of the cases which VOL. XVII.

arose out of Heath’s carburet of manganese patent, a patent celebrated in the law courts, it appeared that three firms had used a process in the manufacture of steel which was substantially the same as that forming the subject of the patent. They had used the process openly in the way of their trade previous to the date of the patent, although it had not become generally known. This prior use ot the invention was held to deprive the patent of validity. It is therefore a very frequent subject of inquiry, whether an invention has been previously used to such an extent as to have been publicly used in the sense attached by the courts to this phrase; the more especially as, if the prior use of the invention by some other person has not been public and general, an act of Parliament (5 and 6 Will. IV., cap. 83) has given the patentee a remedy against the strict rule of law by means of a petition to the Privy Council. The inventor himself is not allowed to use his invention either in public or secretly, with a view to profit, before the date of the patent. Thus, if he manufactures an article by some new process, keeping the process an entire secret, but selling the produce, he cannot afterwards obtain a patent in respect of it. If he were allowed to do this, he might in many cases easily obtain a monopoly in his invention for a much longer period than that allowed by law. The rule, that an inventor’s use of the invention invalidates a subsequent patent, does not, however, apply to cases where the use was only by way of experiment with a view to improve or test the invention. And it has been repeatedly decided that the previous experiments of other persons, if incomplete, or abandoned before the realization of the discovery, will not have the effect of vitiating a patent. Nor will such an effect be produced by the previous discovery of the subject-matter of a patent, if the discoverer keeps the secret to himself, the law holding that he is the “ true and first inventor” referred to in the statute of James, who first obtains a patent. When an invention is the joint production of more persons than one, they must all apply for and obtain a joint patent, for a patent is rendered invalid on showing that a material part of the invention was due to some one not named therein. The mere suggestion of a workman employed by an inventor to carry out his ideas will not, however, require that he should be joined, provided that the former adds nothing substantial to the invention, but merely works out in detail the principle discovered by his employer. In certain cases in which patents taken out by the celebrated Sir Richard Arkwright came to be inquired into, it was proved that the inventions were really made by persons in Arkwright’s employment. Their value being perceived by him, he adopted them, and obtained the patents in question, but under these circumstances they were adjudged invalid. If it can be shown that the invention in respect of which a patent has been obtained was previously described in a printed book in circulation in Great Britain, whether such book be in the English or a foreign language, the patent is also invalid; because a man has no right to obtain a monopoly in that which is already a part of the stock of public information; and it is not necessary to prove that the patentee was acquainted with the book, and derived his ideas from that source. But persons are allowed to obtain patents for inventions imported from abroad, if such inventions are new within the realm, and if they acknowledge, on the face of their petitions, that the inventions are imported, not original. Such patents are now common. If the invention has been patented abroad, the law directs that the British patent shall expire at the same time as the foreign patent. Ihe attributes of novelty and utility being possessed in due degree by an invention, the chief remaining difficulty with which a patent has to contend resides in

the specification, the instrument by which the inventor Patents, describes the nature of the invention, and the means by which it may be carried into effect. An inventor is bound, in return for the monopoly conceded to him, to instruct the public how to work the invention when the monopoly shall have expired, and to inform them in the meantime what it is they are shut out from using. The patentee may either file this instrument along with his petition for a patent, or he may reserve it until the end of six months from the date of the patent. In either case, he must make a full disclosure of his secret; he must not keep anything back either wilfully or accidentally; he must render everything plain and clear, showing no attempt to mislead, and leaving nothing ambiguous ; he must distinguish what is old from what is new, and take care that he claims no more than he is entitled to ; in short, the invention must be accurately and intelligibly described, properly limited, and communicated to the public in such a way that they may have a complete knowledge of that in which they are granting to him a temporary monopoly. Very many patents have been invalidated by inattention to these rules in framing the specification, — the most common fault being, that it claims too much ; in other words, it claims something that is already public property, or another man’s patented invention. And here we are brought back again to the question of novelty. If a patentee discovers that his specification claims more than he is entitled to, he may put the matter right by filing a disclaimer, and excising the superfluous parts; but he will not be allowed to extend his claims in any degree. He may cut out anything, but he can insert nothing. The term for which a patent is originally granted is fourteen years, but the Crown has power, under an act of Parliament (5 and 6 Will. IV., c. 83), and on the report of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, before which the proceedings to this end take place, to extend the time of a patent from its expiration for any additional time not longer than fourteen years. But an extension will only be granted on the patentee showing that he has not been adequately rewarded; and what is adequate reward depends on the special circumstances of each case. Patent privileges, like most other rights, can be made the subject of sale. Partial interests can also be carved out of them by means of licenses, instruments which empower other persons to exercise the invention, either universally and for the full time of the {latent (when they are tantamount to an assignment of the patentee’s entire rights), or for a limited time, and within a limited district. By an exclusive license is meant one that restrains the patentee from granting other licenses to any one else. By means of a license a patentee may derive benefit from his patent without entering into trade, and without running the risks of a partnership. A patentee’s remedy for an infringement of his rights is by civil suit, there being no criminal proceeding in such a case. In prosecuting such suit, he subjects those rights to a searching examination, for the alleged infringer is at liberty to show that the invention is not new, that the patentee is not the true and first inventor, &c., as well as to prove that the alleged infringement is not really an infringement. But it may here be remarked, that a patentee is not bound down (unless he chooses so to be) to the precise mode of carrying the invention into effect described in the specification. If the principle is new, it is not to be expected that he can describe every mode of working it; he will sufficiently secure the principle by giving some illustrations of it; and no person will be permitted to adopt some mode of carrying the same principle into effect, on the ground that such mode has not been described by the patentee. On the other hand, when the principle is not new, a patentee can only secure the particular method which he

PAT Patera has invented, and other persons may safely use other me| thods of effecting the same object. Instances of this occur Paterculus. every Jay . and it is well known that scores of patents have been taken out for screw-propellers, steam-hammers, watermeters, &c., each of which is limited to the particular construction described, and cannot be extended farther. Again, where the invention patented consists of a combination of parts, some old and some new, the whole constituting a new machine or a new process, it is not open to the world to copy the new part and reject the rest. A man is not suffered to allege that the patent is for a combination, and that the combination not having been used, there has been no infringement. The Crown has power to repeal any letters patent on good grounds being shown by means of a writ of scire facias; and this is issuable at the request of any subject. Want of novelty in the invention, the fact of the patentee not being the inventor, and the insufficiency of the specification, form good grounds for repealing a patent. Patents are not now extended to the colonies, and such of our colonies as possess a legislature are gradually acquiring patent laws for themselves. The patent business of the United Kingdom is carried on under the direction of commissioners appointed by the act of 1852, the chief of whom is the lord chancellor; and the whole of it is transacted at one office in London, instead of at many offices, as formerly. Previous to that act, a separate patent was issued for each of the three kingdoms, but now one patent is valid throughout the realm. The proceedings taken with a view to obtain a patent commence with the presentation of a petition, accompanied by a sketch of the invention and a declaration of its originality. Various steps are interposed before the patent is issued, in order to afford those who have grounds for opposing the grant an opportunity of doing so. Most patents are obtained through persons styled 'patent agents, who devote themselves to this branch of business. The act just referred to introduced various useful reforms in the proceedings for obtaining patents, but greater simplicity and a lessening of the expense are still desirable. (For further information on the subject of this article, the reader is referred to Johnson’s Patentee's Manual, second edition, 1858, as comprising an exposition of the law and practice within a moderate compass.) (j. y. j.) PATERA, a broad flat dish, or libation-saucer, among the Romans, deriving its name, according to Macrobius {Sat. v. 21), from its open, shallow form (“ planum ac patens est”). The ordinary paterae were made of common red earthenware, slightly ornamented; but the more valuable vessels of this class were composed for the most part of bronze, and every family of easy circumstances possessed one of silver. The original use of the patera seems to have been domestic, which gave origin, in all likelihood, to its employment at sacrifices. Numerous specimens of paterae are to be seen in almost all collections of ancient fictile vases, and especially in the British Museum.. PATERCULUS, Caius Velleius, a Roman historian, was the son of a praefect of cavalry, and is conjectured to have been born in 19b.c. He was descended from a Campanian family which had been distinguished during several generations for its devoted attachment to the Romans. One of his ancestors, Decius Magius, was the leader of the Roman party in Capua when the majority of the citizens were revolting to Hannibal. Another of his ancestors, Minatius Magius, fought zealously and bravely on the side of Rome in the Social War. His grandfather also, a retired captain of the artificers, was so chagrined when the infirmities of age would not permit him to follow his general, Claudius Nero, into banishment, that he run himself through with his own sword. From these old heroes Paterculus inherited a warlike zeal and energy. Succeeding his father in 4 a.d.

PAT 339 as a praefect of cavalry in the army of Tiberius Caesar in Paterno Germany, he soon gained preferment and honour. He obII tained the quaestorship in 7 a.d., a share in the triumphal vPatersonhonours of his general in 12 a.d., and the praetorship in 14 a.d. His services and abilities seem also to have secured for him the friendship of the Emperor Tiberius, and of the emperor’s rising favourite, Sejanus. It was, however, in the character of a historian that Paterculus won his brightest laurels. In 30 a.d. he sat down to write a historical compendium which should embrace not only the annals of his own country down to his own time, but also those of the rest of the civilized world. The cursory nature of such a work would not permit him to dwell long upon any particular scene, and whirled him along, as he said himself, “ with the rapidity of a wheel or torrent.” Yet, by omitting all incidents that were not absolutely essential, and by describing at length those events that formed the characteristics of the several ages, he succeeded in making his narrative at once comprehensive and interesting. The shortness of the time allotted for the task often hurried him into confused and slovenly sentences. Yet he narrated facts with great point and vigour, and made reflections that were strikingly original and appropriate. The work was finished the same year in which it had been begun ; and was dedicated to M. Vinicius, the ruling consul. When and how Paterculus died have not been ascertained. It has been conjectured that he was involved in the ruin of Sejanus in 31 a.d., along with that minion’s other friends. The work of Paterculus has come down to modern times under the title of a Roman History, and with some of its parts wanting. Beatus Rhenanus discovered the manuscript in the monastery of Murbach in Alsace, and printed it at Basle in 1520. The most valuable edition is that of Ruhnken, Leyden, 1779, reprinted by Frotscher, Leipsic, 1830-39. The edition of Orelli, Leipsic, 1835, contains some textual improvements. An English translation of Paterculus forms, in conjunction with translations of Sallust and Florus, a volume of Bohn’s “ Classical Library.” PATERNO, a town of Sicily, province of Catania, stands at the foot of Mount AStna, 10 miles N.W. of Catania. It is a very ancient place ; and contains numerous convents and churches. The surrounding country is fertile, producing corn, oil, wine, flax, hemp, and timber ; in which articles an active trade is carried on. In the vicinity of the town are mineral springs and a salt mine. Paterno gives the title of Prince to one of the principal families of Sicily. Numerous vestiges of antiquity have been discovered here ; among others, the remains of baths, a tomb, an aqueduct, and a ruined bridge. The town is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Hybla Major. Pop. 10,700. PATERSON, a town of the United States of North America, in the state of New Jersey, stands on the right bank of the Passaic River, 13 miles N. of Newark, and 17 N.W. of New York. The streets are straight and well paved, and the houses substantially built. 1 here are about^ eighteen churches, belonging to various sects, and some of them are edifices of much elegance. There are also a court-house, jail, two banks, several schools, a philosophical society with a library, and a mechanics institution. The manufactories of the place are extensive. There are about twenty cotton factories, several dyeing and printing establishments, two large manufactories of locomotives, besides paper-mills, fulling-mills, foundries, &c. Paterson is thus one of the principal manufacturing towns in the States ; and in New Jersey it is second only to Newark. Immediately above the town the Passaic falls over a precipice 50 feet high. This forms, during the time of flood, a magnificent spectacle. A great part of the water is carried off by a canal into a basin, from which, by different channels, it is conveyed to the various mills of the town. Paterson is connected by railway with New York, and by canal with

340 PAT Paterson, the Atlantic. On the opposite side of the river, which is crossed by two bridges, stands the village of Manchester. Paterson was originally founded in 1791 by a company for the manufacture of cotton ; and although it had to be abandoned soon afterwards, the original design was subsequently carried out. Pop. (1850) 11,338 ; (1853) about 13,000. PATERSON, William, founder of the Bank of England, was born, according to tradition, at Skipmyre in Tinwald, Dumfriesshire, and, as his will testifies, in the spring of 1665. Little is definitely known respecting the early part of his career. He is said to have been originally destined for the Scottish Church, and received accordingly a suitable elementary education. While yet a lad, however, he was compelled, it is said, to flee to England for safety from the persecutions then raging in his native country against the outlawed Presbyterians, with whom he at that early age seems to have associated. He found refuge in the house of a maternal relative in Bristol, who, dying soon alter, left young Paterson some trifling property. Having succeeded as a pedlar, as some would have it, he took up his residence in London in the capacity of a merchant. Traces of him are to be found about this time in the West Indies, some say in the character of a bucaneer, but more probably in the capacity of a merchant. Whether or not this occurred previous to his taking up his residence in the metropolis, does not definitely appear. At all events, during his residence abroad he acquired extensive information respecting Spanish America, which he found frequent occasion to turn to account, and especially in connection with the Darien expedition. Much of this information he could only have obtained through the bucaneers; yet there is sufficient reason to believe that he was in no way associated with the exploits of these naval marauders. On his return to England, Paterson seems to have projected schemes of trade more bold and original than any yet known among the trading companies of Britain. He is believed to have contributed largely to the pages of a pamphlet published ostensibly by his friend Sir Dalby Thomas in 1690, and entitled An Historical Account of the Rise and Growth of the West India Colonies, and of the great advantage they are to England in respect of Trade. The great ability and strict integrity of Paterson had by this time gained for him an eminent standing in society; and his monetary schemes seem to have been listened to by the wisest heads in the country. Among his attached friends he counted Fletcher of Saltoun and Baillie of Jerviswood, countrymen of his own ; and he was in close alliance with such eminent men of business as Godfrey and Sir Theodore Jansen. His financial proposals in connection with the founding of the Bank of England met with strenuous opposition, however, from Lowndes, secretary to the Treasury. A tract entitled A Brief Account of the Intended Bank of England, London, 1694 (the year of its foundation), is supposed to have come from Paterson’s pen. (For an account of the establishment of this bank, see Money, § iii.) Despite his eminent services in projecting the bank, a difference of opinion seems to have soon arisen between him and the directors, which induced him to resign his connection with it. It seems certain that, so far from participating in the foundation of the Bank of Scotland in 1695, he was decidedly opposed to it. The project of “a free commonwealth in Darien ” had long occupied the thoughts of this enterprising trader. Even so far back as 1687 we find him advocating the scheme in the coffee-houses of Amsterdam. For at least ten years he had been pressing his plan upon the English minister and upon foreign states; when about 1695, at the request of certain of his countrymen, he visited Scotland, and in all probability drew up the Scottish act of that year constituting the Darien company. Accordingly “ twelve hundred men sailed in five stout ships” on that ill-fated expedition from the harbour of Leith, on

PAT the 26th July 1698; but Paterson had no share in the Pathology management of it, and embarked with the fleet in the capa|| city of a private adventurer. What with the gross mis- Patmos. management of the council of seven, the opposition of the English government, and other unfavourable circumstances, this unfortunate colony came to utter ruin. (See Dakien.) Paterson’s conduct on his return to Scotland was admirable. He set vigorously to work to frame a new plan for the colony; and wrote in 1701 an interesting work, hitherto attributed to the notorious John Law, entitled Proposals and Reasons for constituting a Council of Trade. On his return to London in 1701, he met with a friendly reception from King William ; but the death of that monarch, shortly afterwards, cast a temporary cloud over Paterson’s future prospects. He had an important share in the union of the English and Scottish Parliaments, as able tracts from his pen still attest; he was unremitting in his endeavours to relieve the distress of his native country ; he had a sharp controversy with John Law on paper-money; and was elected member of Parliament for Dumfries in 1 708. At the treaty of Union, an indemnity in favour of Paterson was recommended to Queen Anne by the Scottish Parliament, in consideration of his losses in connection with the Darien company, and of his “ carrying on other matters of a public nature, much to his country’s service.” George I. had ascended the throne, however, before this indemnity was gained. The remainder of his years were spent at Westminster, in the metropolis, in unavailing hostility to the ruinous schemes of his relative and old financial foe John Law. Paterson died in January 1719. (See William Paterson, the Merchant Statesman, and Founder of the Bank of England, his Life and Trials, by S. Bannister, Edinburgh, 1858. Paterson’s biographer, who has industriously collected all available information regarding him, also advertises The Writings of William Paterson, with a Biographical Introduction, 2 vols. 8vo, 1858.) PATHOLOGY (Trdtfov, suffering or disease, and /Yoyos, a discourse) is properly, and in its widest sense, the science of disease. It is usually divided by scientific men into general and special pathology. The former includes, first, the more general principles relative to the primary elements of disease, including the various phenomena and causes of those derangements to which the animal economy is subject ; and, second, the general facts or principles relative to the more obvious analogies of disease, derived from a comparative view of particular diseases. The latter or special division of pathology comprehends the consideration of particular diseases as they occur in nature. The French divide pathology into external and internal, employing those terms in a sense synonymous with what English writers usually call the principles and practice of surgery and physic. From whatever point of view, however, we regard the derangements of the animal frame, the objects of investigation are precisely the same. There are, first, the morbid phenomena symptomatic of derangement; second, the morbific agents by which derangements of the economy are liable to be produced; third, the more immediate seats, and the peculiar nature of each, of those derangements to which the system is liable; send, fourth, the morhid changes discoverable after death, whether as cause or as effect of certain derangements of functions known to exist during life. In short, pathology has for its bases the observation of the circumstances that precede a disease, of its symptoms when present, and especially the examination of the body after death. (See Medicine, and Physiology.) PATIBULUM. See Fukca. PATMOS, one of the group of islands in the ASgean Sea which were called the Sporades, was situated to the south of Samos. Ancient writers represent it to have been about 30 Roman miles in circumference, and to have had a sea-port town of the same name as itself. It is celebrated

PAT Patna, as the place where the apostle John endured banishment, and where he wrote the Apocalypse. The credulous point out a cave in which he is said to have sat while the heavenly visions passed before the eye of his imagination. PATNA, a town of British India, capital of a district of the same name, in the presidency of Bengal, stands on the right bank of the Ganges, 10 miles E. of Dinapore, 157 E. of Benares, and 377 N.W. of Calcutta. The city and suburbs extend along the river to the length of 9 miles, and inland for about 2 miles; but the city itself, which is of a rectangular form and surrounded with walls, is only about a mile and a half in length, by three-quarters of a mile in breadth. When viewed from the water, the appearance of Patna is very beautiful, as there are then seen many large and handsome houses with flat roofs and carved balustrades, numerous temples and mosques, Saracenic arches and ancient towers; while many ghats, or flights of stairs, lead down to the Ganges -, and in the background a range of heights closes in the view. There is one principal thoroughfare extending parallel to the river, between two gates in the eastern and western walls. This street is wide, though neither straight nor regular; but the other streets and lanes are very narrow and crooked. The better class of houses are built of brick, and have flat roofs and balconies; but a great number consist of little better than mud, and are covered with tiles or thatch. There are numerous mosques in the city, but the majority of them are treated with so little reverence or care, that they are used as warehouses,—a fate from which even the principal mosque, though a handsome building, is not exempt. The chief place of Mohammedan worship is in the west suburb, where vast multitudes of Mussulmans frequently congregate. In the same suburb are the residences of the Europeans, for the most part along the river’s bank, but they are neither many in number nor splendid in appearance. A penitentiary and house of correction have recently been erected within the city; and there is also a school where the English language and literature, history and mathematics, are taught. The eastern suburb contains the principal marketplace and several granaries. The manufactures of Patna are neither extensive nor important; but the bazaars are well supplied with domestic and foreign goods; and some trade is carried on in rice, opium, wheat, indigo, saltpetre, sugar, &c. During the summer the heat is very great, as the sun’s rays are reflected from a bare and sandy island opposite the town. Patna is a place of great antiquity. Its old Sanscrit name was Pataliputra, and it is supposed to be the place mentioned by Greek and Roman writers under the name of Palimbothra. It was visited by Megasthenes, who went as an ambassador from Seleucus Nicator to Sandracottus, and who afterwards wrote an account of India. It is said to have been then 80 stadia in length and 15 in breadth, and surrounded with a stockade and ditch. It seems to have been at this time the capital of an independent state, but subsequently it formed part of the kingdom of Kunnouj, which was in early times one of the most powerful nations of India. In 1194 a.d. this kingdom was conquered and annexed to the empire of Delhi, of which Patna, along with the rest of Bengal and Behar, thenceforward formed a part. Factories were established here at an early period by the British, and a trade was carried on in rice and opium. In 1763 disputes began to arise between Meer Cossim, the nawaub of Bengal and Behar, and the servants of the East India Company, about the transitdues levied on native traders, from which the English claimed exemption. The nawaub for some time refused to accede to these demands ; but finally he entirely abolished all the imposts both on British and native goods, a step which was not desired by the Company, and which must have greatly diminished his revenues. In revenge for this injury, he proceeded in various ways to annoy the British ;

PAT 341 and at length went so far as to seize some of their boats on Patna the Ganges. On this, Mr Ellis, the chief of the factory at Patras || Patna, made an attack on the city, and took possession of it, although Meer Cossim soon afterwards recovered it, and forced the British to take refuge in the factory. For four months hostilities continued between the two parties, in the course of which the nawaub was several times defeated, until he became so exasperated at the loss of the city of Monghyr, that he ordered the murder in cold blood of 200 prisoners. The grave of these prisoners is marked by a column in the city. On the 6th of November in the same year Patna was taken by the British; and in May 1764 Meer Cossim’s troops were totally defeated under the walls. Since that time the place has remained undisturbed in the hands of the British. Pop. stated at 284,132. Patna, a district of British India, deriving its name from the above town, is bounded on the N. by the districts of Sarun, Tirhoot, and Monghyr; E. by that of Monghyr ; S. by those of Monghyr and Behar; and W. by that of Shahabad; and extends from N. Lat. 25. 3. to 25. 38., E. Long. 84. 45. to 86. 10. Length, from E. to W., 85 miles; breadth, 45; area, 1828 square miles. The Ganges flows along its northern frontier ; and the Son, a tributary of that river, forms the western boundary for a considerable distance. The chief of the other rivers are the Poonpoon and the Lesser Poonpoon ; but during the rainy seasons the whole country is intersected with streams. The soil is very fertile and well cultivated : rice, wheat, and barley are grown in abundance; and many groves and orchards diversify the aspect of the country. The climate is very hot in summer, but the winters are mild. The district is traversed by the East India Railway, and by several roads. Pop. 1,200,000. PATRAS (anciently Patrce), a fortified town of Greece, capital of the monarchy of Achaia and Elis, stands on the E. side of the gulf of the same name, near the entrance of that of Corinth, 10 miles S.S.W. of Lepanto. It is built partly on a plain and partly on the slope of a hill, on the summit of which stands a castle. The principal streets are broad, straight, and regular; and many of the houses are large, well-built, and surrounded with gardens, but they are generally but of one storey high, on account of the frequency of earthquakes. The only important buildings besides the castle, which is very strong, are the barracks, military hospital, and churches. An active trade is carried on with the Ionian Islands, Italy, Marseilles, &c.; the chief . exports being corn, wine, oil, currants, and other fruits; silk, cotton, wool, &c. The number of vessels that cleared from the port in 1854 was 439; tonnage, 34,616; value of cargoes, L.100,570: in 1855,—vessels, 609; tonnage, 53,684 ; value of cargoes, L.251,994. The number of vessels that entered in 1854 was 443; tonnage, 52,573; value of cargoes, L.64,002: in 1855,—vessels, 571; tonnage, 42,914; value of cargoes, L.123,828. The harbour is not safe, being exposed to a heavy sea; but there is a mole at some distance from the town, where vessels can lie close to the wharf. The ancient Patrae was founded by the lonians ; and on their expulsion from the Peloponnese, was occupied by the Achaeans, from one of whom, called Patreus, it is said to have derived its name. In the Peloponnesian war Patrae embraced the side of the Athenians; and, on the advice of Alcibiades, the city and port were connected by walls. It afterwards was one of the cities of the Achaean League, but remained comparatively insignificant till the time&of Augustus. That monarch, after the battle of Actium, made Patrae a Roman colony, and gave it the dominion over the neighbouring towns. In the time of Pausanias the town contained a theatre, music-hall, numerous temples, and other buildings. Patrae was a dukedom under the Byzantine empire, but was sold to the Venetians in 1408, and taken by the Turks in 1446, who, though the

342 PAT Patriarch Venetians recovered it for a short time in 1533, continued Patricians.to ^ ^ t^e ^reek revolution. The war wliich then to v °^ P^ace considerably injured the prosperity of the town. The citadel was held for a long time by the Turks, who, after repeated assaults of the Greeks, at length capitulated in 1828. Since that period it has recovered much of its former prosperity, and is now the most important town in the Morea. Pop, 10,000. PA1 RIARCH (-ircLTrjp, a father, and ap^w, I govern) is a title applied to the heads of families in early history, and especially to the ancestors of the Israelites from Adam to Jacob, and to his twelve sons in particular. The name was kept up among the Jews after the dispersion ; and Hillel the Babylonian is said to have been the first of the Jeivish patriarchs. The principal business of this class seems to have been the instruction of the people, 1 he title of Patriarch was also assumed in the Christian church about the fourth century by the bishops of the principal cities of the Roman empire, such as Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antioch. The patriarchate of Constantinople swallowed up those of Antioch and Alexandria ; and the Bishop of Constantinople assumed the title of “ Universal Patriarch.” The Bishop of Rome in turn bore the name of “ Prince of the Patriarchs and the struggle which ensued between the two rival ecclesiastics led to the separation of the Eastern and Western Churches. PATRICIANS {patricii, from pater, a father) was the name given among the Romans to the original gentes, of which the populus Romanus was composed, or to their descendants by blood or adoption. Patricii and patres were originally convertible terms, and have essentially the same meaning. During the period of Roman history extending from the building of the city to the formation of the plehs as a distinct order of citizenship, Niebuhr has satisfactorily shown that the patricians and \\\q populus Romanus were in point of fact identical. The earlier inhabitants of the places occupied by the sovereign people were reduced to a state of servitude, and are known by the names cliens and plehs ; but the conquering race were all regarded as patricians or burghers, from whom a select body of senators was chosen as their representatives. The amalgamation of the Latin, Sabine, and Etruscan tribes gradually gave rise to the distinction oipatres majarum gentium and patres minorum gentium, the latter epithet being employed to designate those recently elevated to a rank of equality with the old privileged patrician class forming the populus Romanus. The one class was created by Romulus, the other by Tarquinius Priscus, During this period every Roman citizen was a patrician, and, in contrast with the client beneath him, an aristocrat. The aristocracy was not certainly exclusive in those days, when every citizen could claim the honour; but in the succeeding period, dating from the creation of the plebeian order to the reign of Constantine, the patricians became a genuine aristocracy of birth. The sovereign people no longer consisted exclusively of the patricians, but of the populus (or patricians) and the plebs. In course of time, however, this distinction well nigh ceased; and the term populus came to denote the entire body of Roman citizens, including both patricians and plebeians. During the reign, again, of the Antonines, the patricians were not included under the populus, but formed an exclusive aristocratic class, which no power could degrade to the plebeian level, except the free-will of the patrician himself. The first centuries of this period witnessed a constant struggle for ascendancy between the patricians and plebeians. The former class strove to monopolize all the great offices, both civil and religious, of the nation. In this they generally succeeded ; but the upshot of the contest was the establishment of the political equality of the two rival orders, and

PAT the consequent partition of the political and religious honours Patrick st of the state. || ’ From the reign of Constantine downwards, the patrician Patricl > il may be inferred, that as the chief captain knew 6 to be a native nff^ Tars us ^ and was ? T nra a r e °er b . ’ yet ignorant of his Koman citizenship, these two were not necessarily conjoined. 6 a, . . f ’ . y ’ ritzsche (who says, “ explicatio populares meos absurda est”), De Wette, &c. 7 8 lo YfinVio^Uo r X.1V-jC’, V* Ibid. Greswell’s Dissertations, vol. i., p. 554. 0 Acts xxii 12 11 Hae nlein Einleit 11 “ Persons travemn^-^r ^ . ’ t0 She^g, ch. iii., s, 301. Eichhorn, Einleit. iii. 9; Hug. Einleit. ii. 213! lter themselves from the rain and noxious blasts small tents made of leafheVn^wl , the night, carryart. with them ther or cloth;’ ^and the manufacture of these is a profitable occupation.” (Winer,during Bib. liealworterbuch, Paulut,

PAUL. 34 5 St Paul, the time he was engaged in the prosecution of his studies, go to Damascus, in which city the Jews were very numeSt Paul. V*-' as we know he was in the habit of doing at an after period rous, and where also the new religion had obtained a footwhilst engaged as an apostle. How long he abode in Jeru- ing, for the purpose apparently of arresting such of the salem at this time, or whether he returned to Tarsus at all Christians as had fled to that city, and bringing them back before his conversion, are points on which no certain infor- bound to Jerusalem, he was himself arrested by a higher mation can now be obtained. In the history of the early power, and made to feel his utter impotency when attemptchurch, he is introduced to us for the first time1 as “a ing to oppose the cause of Christ. Whilst crossing the 2 young man,” whose zeal for the religion of his fathers had plain to the south of Damascus, about noon-day, and at a prompted him to assume the character of an active perse- short distance from that city, he was suddenly surrounded cutor of those who had forsaken that religion for the faith by a miraculous light from heaven, which had the effect of of Christ. On the occasion of the martyrdom of Stephen, so paralyzing him, that he fell to the ground, whilst a voice he appears in the capacity of an abettor, and in some re- addressed to him the thrilling question, “ Saul, Saul, why spects a sort of superintendent, of the act; and immediately persecutes! thou me ? ’ In answer to the inquiry which he after this he, as if rendered more ferocious by the blood he made in return, the speaker said, “ I am Jesus of Nazareth, had assisted in shedding, kindled the flames of a relentless w'hom thou persecutest; but arise and go into the city, and and unsparing persecution, in which all, without respect of it shall be told thee what to do.” Confounded, humbled, age or of sex, who had professed the hated religion, were and agitated, he obeyed the heavenly vision ; and as the compelled to blaspheme the name of Jesus, or obliged to brilliancy of the light had obscured his eye-sight, he was endure the utmost indignities and the most condign punish- led by his astonished attendants into the city, where he rements.3 It was whilst engaged in these cruel efforts of a mained in a state of deep dejection for three days and dark and bigoted zeal that he was made to experience that nights, during which he tasted neither meat nor drink. extraordinary change of opinion and feeling which gave a From this painful condition he was relieved by the visit of new direction to all his energies, and led him to devote his a man named Ananias, who, at the command of Christ, life to the advancement of that cause which he at first sought him out, welcomed him as a brother, and baptized deemed it serviceable to God to oppose and destroy. Hav- him into the profession of Christianity.4 ing obtained from the rulers of his nation a commission to By the majority of Christians this narrative is accepted 1

Acts vii. 58. 2 Nothing decisive, however, can be drawn from this as to Paul’s age at this period, for the word is applied with much indefiniteness to persons of from twenty-four to upwards of thirty years of age. Perhaps his age was about thirty. He would hardlyJ have been in the confidence of the Sanhedrim had he been younger. 3 Acts viii. 1-3; xxvi. 10, 11. 4 Acts ix. 1-18. The conversion of such a man, at such a time, and by such means, furnishes one of the most complete proofs that have ever been given of the divine origin of our holy religion. That Saul, from being a zealous persecutor of the disciples of Christ, became all at once a disciple himself, is a fact which cannot be controverted without overturning the credit of all history. He must therefore have been converted in the miraculous manner in which he himself said he was, and of course the Christian religion be a Divine revelation ; or he must have been either an impostor, an enthusiast, or a dupe to the fraud of others. There is not another alternative possible.^ The following is the substance of Lord Lyttleton’s argument on this subject. If he was an impostor, who declared what he knew to be false, he must have been induced to act that part by some motive. But the on y conceiva e motives for religious imposture are, the hopes of advancing one’s temporal interest, credit, or power ; or the prospect of gratifying some passion or appetite under the authority of the new religion. That none of these could be St Paul’s motive for proessing e ait o C rist ci ucified, is plain from the state of Judaism and Christianity at the period of his forsaking the former and em racing t e after aith. those whom he left were the disposers of wealth, of dignity, of power, in Judea ; those to whom he went were in igen men, oppressed, destitute of all means of improving their fortunes. The certain consequence, therefore, of his taking the no onl Par ° . ,ris iaiil 1 ^ y of all he possessed, but of all hopes of acquiring more; whereas, by continuing to persecute 18 lans e a e d hopes,could rising almostrecommend to a certainty, fortune by the favour of those who were at head oforthe Jewis• u s f a J ; to w’ om nothing so much him pf as making the zealhis which he had shown in that persecution. Asthe to credit reputation, could the scholar of Gamaliel hope to gain either by becoming a teacher in a college of fisherman ? Could he flatter himself that e octiines which he taught would, either in or out of Judea, do him honour, when he knew that “ they were to the Jews a stumblingoc , and to the Greeks foolishness ? ” \Y as it, then, the love of power that induced him to make this great change ? Power ! over w om . over a flock of sheep whom he himself had assisted to destroy, and whose very Shepherd had lately been murdered ? Perhaps i was with the view of gratifying some licentious passion, under the authority of the new religion, that he commenced a teacher of t at religion. This cannot be alleged; for his writings breathe nothing but the strictest morality, obedience to magistrates, order, and government, with the utmost abhorrence of all licentiousness, idleness, or loose behaviour, under the cloak of religion. We nowhere read in his works that saints are above moral ordinances; that dominion is founded in grace; that monarchy is despotism which ought o be abolished; that the fortunes of the rich ought to be divided amongst the poor; that there is no difference in moral actions; that any impulses of the mind are to direct us against the light of our reason and the laws of nature; or any of those wicked tenets by which the peace of society has been often disturbed, and the rules of morality often broken, by men pretending to act under the sanction of divine revelation. He makes no distinctions, like the impostor of Arabia, in favour of himself; nor does any part of his life, either before or after his conversion to Christianity, bear any mark of a libertine disposition. As amongst the Jews, so amongst the Christians, his conversation and manners were blameless. It has been sometimes objected to the other apostles, by those who were resolved not to credit their testimony, that naving been deeply engaged with Jesus during his life, they were obliged, for the support of their own credit, and from having gone too far to return, to continue the same professions after his death: but this can by no means be said of St 1 aul. On the contrary, whatever force there may be in that way of reasoning, it all tends to convince us that St Paul must naturally have continued a Jew, and an enemy to Christ Jesus. If they were engaged on one side, he was as strongly engaged on the other. If shame withheld them from changing sides, much more ought it to have stopped him, who, from his superior education, must have been vastly more sensible to that kind of shame than the mean and illiterate fishermen of Galilee. The only other difference was, that they, the ir ^al.ttlngcertainly . Master after might have preserved themselves; whereas he, by quitting the Jews, and taking up the cross ot Christ brought on his his death, own destruction. As St Paul was not an imposter, so it is plain he was not an enthusiast. Heat of temper, melancholy, ignorance, and vanity, are the ingredients of which enthusiasm is composed; but from all these, except the first, the apostle appears to have been wholly free. That he had. great fervour of zeal, both when a Jew and when a Christian, in maintaining what he thought to be right, cannot be denied ; but he was at all times so much master of his temper as, in matters of indifference, to “become all things to all men,” with the most pliant comlescension bending his notions and manners to theirs as far as his duty to God would permit; a conduct compatible neither with the s illness ofvera bigot nor with the violent impulses of fanatical delusion. That he was not melancholy is plain from his conduct in emracing ® y method which prudence could suggest to escape danger and shun persecution, when he could do it without betraying the hls office or the his God. melancholy courts persecution, and life, whenand he in cannot obtain it, performance afflicts himself wi a°^ surd penances; honour but the of holiness of StAPaul consistedenthusiast only in the simplicity of a godly the unwearied of is apostolical duties. That he was ignorant no man will allege who is not grossly ignorant himself; for he appears to have been master VOL. XVII. a j a trr ^^

ki/i

346 P A St Paul, as literally true, the scene being regarded as one of a miraculous kind, in which, by supernatural means, a manifestation of Jesus Christ was made to Paul. Opposed to this is the view of those who think that the whole passed in the mind of the apostle, and was the result either of a Divine operation exerted on him, or of the mere working of his own mind under deeply-excited feeling. Of those who take the latter view, some contend that the sudden light which shone around the apostle and his companions, and the sound which they heard and took to be a voice from heaven, are to be resolved into a sudden flash of lightning accompanied by thunder, which, by some pre-established harmony, conveniently took place just as the apostle’s own reflections had reached the point of overwhelming him with shame and regret for his past conduct; whilst others regard all this as the mere drapery in which the story came to be dressed in the superstitious imaginations of the Christians. If the historical truth of the narrative is to be denied, the latter is undoubtedly the preferable hypothesis; for it seems very absurd to resort to the supposition of a natural phenomenon of which there is no mention, for the purpose of saving the historical character of the narrative in a minor point, whilst, as regards its principal matter, it is to be rejected as false. But if this story is a mere myth, how came Paul to tell it as a fact ? Or how came so simple a matter as the conversion of a bigoted Jew to Christianity, an event of which the instances were of almost daily occurrence, to be invested in the minds of the Christians in this particular case with so much of supernatural “drapery?” It is evident that Paul himself believed the whole transaction to have happened as it is related by Luke ; for, many years afterwards, we find him not only repeating the story, but affirming that his companions were witnesses of the outward phenomena of the scene (Acts xxii. 6-10). In this case there is evidently no alternative but to admit the whole as historical, or to reject the whole as a vain hallucination or an impudent falsehood. The first three years after his conversion were spent by Paul in Arabia,1 where he received, “ by revelation from Christ,” that doctrine in all its fulness which he afterwards preached, and where, in solitude and quiet, he was doubtless engaged in training himself for the work in which he was about to engage. On his return to Damascus, he openly appeared as a preacher of Christianity, a circumstance which the Jews felt to be so injurious to their cause, that they sought, by the aid of the governor, who was in all probability himself a Jew, to put him to death. Having, by the aid of his Christian brethren, escaped their malice, he betook himself to Jerusalem, where, after the fears of the brethren, who remembered his former enmity, but had

U L. not heard of his subsequent conversion to Christianity, had St Paul, been removed by the testimony of his friend and companion ''x->v-»Barnabas, he was gladly welcomed amongst them, and per-2 mitted to occupy that rank to which Christ had called him. Whilst at Jerusalem on this occasion, he fell into a trance in the temple, and had a vision of Christ, who commanded him to go forth as the apostle of the Gentiles (Acts xxii. 17-21). It is probably to this that he alludes in 2 Cor. xii. 1-9,3 though there are difficulties in the way of this conclusion. The enmity of the Jews again compelled him to change his residence. After being fifteen days in Jerusalem, he went to Caesarea, and thence to his native city Tarsus, where he abode for several years.4 In the meantime, Christianity, which had hitherto been preached only to the Jews, had received some adherents from amongst the Gentiles at Antioch ; and this led to the mission of Barnabas from Jerusalem, for the purpose of instructing and regulating the church that had been formed there. Barnabas, after some time, finding the need of assistance and counsel, went to Tarsus, and returned with Paul to Antioch, where they abode for a year occupied in united efforts for the promulgation of Christianity. At the close of that period, they were sent to Jerusalem by the Christians at Antioch with the contributions which had been made by them on behalf of their brethren in Judea, who were suffering from the effects of a dearth.5 This was Paul’s second visit to Jerusalem since his conversion. After some months, they again returned to Antioch, accompanied by John Mark, the nephew of Barnabas. The cause of Christianity by this time had begun to flourish in that city, and several persons had been received into the church who were qualified to act as teachers to the rest. This rendered it the less necessary that Paul and Barnabas should remain any longer with them ; and accordingly, shortly after their return, the church received a special command from heaven to set them apart to general missionary work. In obedience to this command, they were sent forth ; and, accompanied by John Mark, who, however, soon deserted them and returned to Jerusalem, they visited Seleucia, Cyprus, Perga in Pamphylia, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe, cities of Lycaonia. At Lystra, in consequence of Paul’s curing a cripple, the people were on the point of offering him and his companion divine honours, under the impression that the gods had come down in the likeness of men, but were restrained by the vehement expostulations of those for whom these impious honours were designed ; and in a few days after, they had so completely changed their minds, that, at the instigation of the Jews, they stoned Paul, send left him for dead. Retracing their steps, they returned by way of Attalia, a

not only of the Jewish learning, but also of the Greek philosophy, and to have been very conversant even with the Greek poets. That he was not credulous is plain from his having resisted the evidence of all the miracles performed on earth by Christ, as well as those that were afterwards worked by the apostles; to the fame of which, as he lived in Jerusalem, he could not possibly have been a stranger. And that he was as free from vanity as any man that ever lived may be gathered from all that we see in his writings or know of his life. He represents himself as the least of the apostles, and not meet to be called an apostle. He says that he is the chief of sinners ; and he prefers, in the strongest terms, universal benevolence to faith, and prophecy, and miracles, and all the gifts and graces with which he could be endowed. Is this the language of vanity or enthusiasm ? Did ever fanatic prefer virtue to his own religious opinions, to illuminations of the Spirit, and even to the merit of martyrdom. Having thus shown that St Paul was neither an impostor nor an enthusiast, it remains only to be inquired whether he was deceived by the fraud of others ; but this inquiry needs not be long, for who was to deceive him ? A few illiterate fishermen of Galilee ? It was morally impossible for such men to conceive the thought of turning the most enlightened of their opponents and the most cruel of their persecutors into an apostle, and to do this by a fraud in the very instant of his greatest fury against them and their Lord. But could they have been so extravagant as to conceive such a thought, it was physically impossible for them to execute it in the manner in which we find his conversion to have been effected. Could they produce a light in the air which at mid-day was brighter than the sun ? Could they make Saul hear words from out of that light which were not heard by the rest of the company ? Could they make him blind for three days after that vision, and then make scales fall off from his eyes, and restore him to sight by a word ? Or could they make him, and those who travelled with him, believe that all these things had happened, if they had not happened ? Most unquestionably no fraud was equal to all this. Since, then, St Paul was neither an impostor, an enthusiast, nor deceived by the fraud of others, it follows that his conversion was miraculous, and that the Christian religion is a divine revelation. 1 2 Galatians i. 11-17. ‘ Acts ix. 20-28. 3 See Meyer on the passage; and Davidson’s Introduction to the New Testament, vol. ii., p. 82. 4 Acts ix. 30. 6 xbid., xi. 22-30.

PAUL. 347 St Paul. city of Paraphylia, by sea to Antioch, where they rehearsed noxious to the Jews, remained at Berea. It does not ap- St Paul. to the church all that God had done by them. This pear to have been the apostle’s intention in the first instance in visiting Athens to preach the gospel there, at formed the apostle Paul's first great missionary tour.1 After some time spent at Antioch, he and Barnabas again least until Timothy and Silas, to whom he had sent a meswent up to Jerusalem, for the purpose of consulting the sage on his arrival, requiring them to join him, should have apostles and elders in regard to some dissensions which had arrived; but as he waited for them, the sight of a city like occurred in the church at Antioch as to the obligation on that of Athens, entirely given to idolatry, so stirred and exGentile converts of the Mosaic ceremonial. This gave oc- cited his spirit that he could no longer refrain ; and accordcasion to the holding of a council at Jerusalem, at which, ingly, in the synagogues he disputed with the Jews, and after much disputing, it was at length agreed unanimously, in the market-place with such as he met. This led to his on the suggestion of the apostle James, that they should coming into contact with certain Stoic and Epicurean philay no stumbling-block in the way of their Gentile brethren, losophers, by whom he was contemptuously invited to unby requiring of them more than simply that they should fold his new doctrines, and describe the strange deities of abstain from meats offered to idols, from uncleanness, from which they supposed him to be the votary; and for this things strangled, and from blood, whether pure or mixed purpose he was taken to the Areopagus, where, with admirwith anything else. A letter to this effect was written to able tact, he exposed the follies of their idolatry, and comthe church at Antioch in the name of the church at Jeru- mended to them the worship of the one living and true God, salem ; and with this two of the members of this church, in the midst of a large assemblage of people, on some of5 Judas and Silas or Silvanus, were appointed to accompany whom a favourable impression was produced by his address. Paul and Barnabas to Antioch.2 By these means the differ- Having been7 joined by Timothy,6 and in all probability ence of opinion amongst the brethren was removed, and the by Silas also, he sent the former again to Macedonia, and church restored to peace. This led Paul to propose to Bar- either retaining the latter in his company, or despatching nabas another missionary tour, to which that faithful fellow- him to some other quarter, he himself passed over to Colabourer having consented, they were on the verge of de- rinth.8 On the occasion of this his first visit to that city, parture, when an unhappy contention, arising out of a de- he supported himself by his labours as a tent-maker, in termination on the part of Barnabas to take with them his company with a pious couple named Aquila and Priscilla, nephew John Mark, a step which Paul firmly resisted on who had taken refuge in Corinth after having been expelled the ground of Mark’s former conduct in deserting them, from Rome by an edict of Claudius Csesar against the Jews ; produced a rupture between these two eminent individuals, and at the same time he availed himself of every opporand led to their prosecuting a separate course.3 Whilst tunity of urging the gospel of Christ upon the acceptance Barnabas, in company with his nephew, went to Cyprus, both of Jews and Greeks. Here he was rejoined by Silas Paul, attended by Silas, went towards the east, and, passing and Timothy, with whom he continued a year and a half in through Syria and Cilicia, revisited the scenes of his for- active exertion for the advancement of Christianity. By mer labours and sufferings in Lycaonia. At Lystra he the persevering enmity of his former opponents the Jews, found Timothy, a young man, a native of Derbe (Acts xx. he was again compelled to leave Corinth, and betake him4), who had been probably converted to Christianity on the self, along with Aquila and Priscilla, to Ephesus. Here he occasion of the apostle’s former visit, and who was so highly abode at this time only a few days, having been commiscommended by the Christians in that district that Paul sioned by a divine revelation to go up to Jerusalem in time selected him as the companion of his travels, having pre- for the approaching feast of the passover. By some this, viously ordained him by the imposition of hands.4 Ac- the apostle’s fourth visit to Jerusalem after his conversion, companied by him and Silas, the apostle next passed through is made to synchronize with that mentioned by himself in the region of Phrygia and Galatia, and avoiding Asia strictly Gal. ii. 1. In this case we must suppose that his former so called, which he was forbidden by the Holy Spirit to friendship with Barnabas had been re-established, as he enter, as well as Bithynia, they came by way of Mysia to mentions him and Titus as his companions on this journey. Troas, a city and port on the borders of the Hellespont. This opinion, however, is opposed by many, who think that Here he was directed by an apparition in a vision to go into the visit mentioned in the Epistle to the Galatians happened Macedonia; and accordingly, with his companions, having at an earlier period, and was the apostle’s third visit. After crossed to Samothracia, and thence to Neapolis, a seaport a brief residence in Jerusalem on this occasion, he returned of Thrace, he arrived in due course at Philippi. Here they to Antioch; and so finished his second great apostolic tour. remained for some time, and made many converts ; amongst At Antioch he abode for some time, and then commenced others, the jailor of the prison into which Paul and Silas another extensive tour, accompanied, as is supposed, by had been thrust after having been scourged, in consequence Titus. Passing through Phrygia and Galatia, where he reof a charge which had been brought against them as dis- visited the churches he had formerly planted, he arrived at turbers of the peace of the city, by a set of imposters whose Ephesus. This city stood in the same relation to the region trade they had destroyed by expelling an evil spirit from a of Hither Asia in which Jerusalem stood to Palestine, Anfemale slave who brought them much gain by her skill in tioch to Syria, Corinth to Achaia, and Rome to the West; soothsaying. From Philippi they passed through Amphi- and accordingly the apostle made it his head-quarters for polis and Apollonia, cities of Macedonia, to Thessalonica, three years, during which time he was occupied in making where, though they abode only a short time, they preached converts in the city, and in paying short visits to the surthe gospel with great success. A tumult having arisen at rounding places, and to Crete and other islands of the adthe instigation of the Jews, the Christian converts, fearing ioining archipelago. With so much success were his labours for their safety, sent them by night to Berea, another city attended in Ephesus, that the revenues of those who were of Macedonia, about 40 miles west of Thessalonica, where interested in the support of the idolatrous worship of the they were favourably received by their Jewish brethren, tutelar goddess of the city, Diana, began to be affected; and until a party which had followed them from Thessalonica at the instigation of one of these, by name Demetrius, a stirred up a persecution against them. This determined silversmith, who carried on an extensive manufacture of Paul to go to Athens, whilst Timothy and Silas, as less ob- miniature representations of the famous temple of Diana at 1

Acts xiii., xiv. 2 Ibid., xv. 1-31. 6 Acts xvi. 17. « ! Thess. Hi. !. 1 Thess. iii. 1, 2, 6, compared with Acts xviii. 5.

i,

37 Ibid., xv. 36-41. Greswell, vol. ii., pp. 31, 32. s Acts xviii. 1-22.

* 2 Tim. i. 6.

Paul. Ephesus, a popular tumult was excited against the apostle, which was with difficulty appeased by the calm and sagacious conduct of the ypa/xyuaTcus, town-clerk or chamberlain, who, along with others of the chief men in the place, seems to have been friendly towards Paul. It was not on this occasion only that the safety of the apostle was endangered by popular turbulence at Ephesus; he seems to have been frequently in peril of his life in that city from the fury of the mob ; and it is to this, in all probability, he alludes when he says, that “ after the manner of men he had fought with wild beasts at Ephesus” (1 Cor. xv. 32); a statement which some have taken literally, but which the majority of interpreters agree to regard as figurative : “ depugnavit ad bestias Ephesi, illos scilicet bestias Asiaticae pressurae de qua in secunda ad eosdem (sc. Corinthios, ch. i. 8.),” &c. (Tertullian, De Resurrect. Carnis, 48.) Whether therefore this tumult had any effect in quickening the apostle’s determination to leave Ephesus may be doubted, especially as it is clear that he had come to that determination before it happened.1 By divine direction, he had resolved to go to Macedonia; and accordingly, shortly after the tumult, he departed from Ephesus, and went by way of Troas to Philippi. There he seems to have remained a considerable while; for, during his residence at Philippi as his headquarters, he preached the gospel in all the surrounding districts, even as far as to Illyricum, on the eastern shore of the Adriatic.2 Leaving Philippi he paid a second visit to Corinth, where he abode three months, and then returned to Philippi, having been frustrated in his intention of proceeding through Syria to Jerusalem by the malice of the Jews. From Philippi he sailed for Troas, where he abode seven days; thence he journeyed on foot to Assos; and thence he proceeded by sea to Miletus, having visited several of the intermediate places. At Miletus he had an affecting interview with the elders of the church at Ephesus, to whom, in the prospect of seeing them no more, he gave a solemn and impressive charge, and bade them farewell. From Miletus he sailed for Syria, and, after visiting several intermediate ports, landed at Tyre, where he remained seven days. Thence he journeyed, by way of Ptolemais and Caesarea, to Jerusalem, which he visited on this occasion for the fifth time since his conversion.3 At Jerusalem he recounted to the whole church the events connected with the progress of Christianity of which he had been witness, and, apparently to quiet the scruples of some Jewish converts, who thought he had too lax and incorrect a view of the obligation of the Mosaic ritual, he united himself, at the suggestion of the apostle James, to four persons who had taken upon them the vows of Nazarites, and, entering with them into the temple, signified to the priest that he would pay the cost of the sacrifices which were necessary to absolve them and him from the vow. Whatever effect this compliance had on the minds of his scrupulous brethren, it procured for him no mitigation of the hatred with which he was regarded by the unconverted Jews. On the contrary, so eager was their zeal against him, that, before his vow was accomplished, they seized him in the temple, and would have put him to death had not Lysias, commander of the Roman cohort in the citadel adjoining the temple, brought soldiers to his rescue. By his permission, and under his protection, Paul addressed to the infuriated mob an apology for himself, in which he set forth the main circumstances of his life from the beginning up to the period when he opened his commission to the Gentiles. At first he was listened to with attention, but as soon as he spoke of placing the Gentiles on a par with the Jews, they interrupted him with execrations, and shouted “ away with

such a fellow from the earth, for it is not fit that he should live. The Roman commander, seeing these demonstrations of popular resentment, and being ignorant of what Paul had been saying, from the address having been uttered in the Hebrew tongue, imagined that he must be some execrable criminal, and gave orders that he should be brought into the fort, in order that he might by scourging compel him to confess his crime. From this indignity Paul saved himself by asserting his privileges as a Roman citizen, to bind or scourge whom was strictly forbidden by law. Next day the chief captain brought him before the Sanhedrim, for the purpose of hearing what it was that was urged against him; and here Paul again entered into a defence of his conduct, in the course of which he professed his attachment to the doctrine of a corporal resurrection, and thereby stirred up a fierce controversy between the two parties composing the Sanhedrim, the Pharisees and the Sadducees, the former of whom maintained, whilst the latter denied, this doctrine. So angry and vehement did this discussion become, that the chief captain, fearing for the safety of his prisoner, whom, as a Roman citizen, he was bound to protect, commanded his soldiers to go down and remove him from amongst the combatants into the fort. Upon the day following about forty of the Jews entered into a solemn engagement neither to eat nor drink until they had killed Paul, and for this purpose proposed to the chief priests to invite him to a conference, in the hope that they might have an opportunity of assaulting him on his way from the fort. This scheme was rendered abortive by intelligence of it having been conveyed to Lysias by Paul’s sister’s son, who, along with his mother, seems to have been an early convert to Christianity.5 Matters assuming this desperate aspect, Lysias determined to bring the whole under the consideration of the procurator; and accordingly, placing Paul under the protection of a sufficient escort, he sent him to Caesarea, with a letter to Felix, explaining the reasons of this step. After five days, Felix held a court, at which Paul and his accusers were brought together, and both parties heard at full length. The defence of the apostle was triumphant; but Felix, unwilling to offend the Jews, remanded him, under the pretence of obtaining farther information from Lysias. Some days afterwards, he summoned him again to his tribunal, in order that he and his wife Drusilla, who was a daughter of Herod Agrippa, might hear him “ concerning the faith in Christ;” on which occasion, the apostle, with all that fearless zeal and faithfulness by which he was distinguished, expostulated so forcibly with the procurator in regard to those vices for which he was notorious, that Felix trembled, and hastily dismissed him from his presence. Shortly after this, Felix was removed from his office, and was succeeded by Porcius Festus, before whom the Jews again brought their charges against Paid. When both parties came to be heard, Paul perceived so evident a disposition in the new governor to favour the Jews, that he felt constrained to avail himself of the privilege which, as a Roman citizen, he possessed, of removing his cause from the province to the metropolis, by appealing to the emperor. This led to his being sent to Rome, but not before he had been again heard by Festus, attended by King Agrippa and his wife Bernice, by whom he was adjudged to have done nothing worthy of death or of bonds, so that he might have been set at liberty had he not appealed unto Caesar. His voyage to Rome was long and disastrous.0 After coasting along Syria as far as Sidon, they struck across to Myra, a port of Lysia, having passed under Cyprus; thence they sailed slowly towards Cnidus, and thence, in consequence of the wind being contrary,

Acts xix. 21. 2 Rom. xv< 3 Acts xx. xxi. 15. 4 Acts xxii. 22. Acts xxiii. 16-22, compared with Rom. xvi. 7, 11, 21. See the scientific and instructive work of Mr Smith entitled The Voyage and Shipwreck of St Paul, 8vo, 1848.

PAUL. 349 to Crete, where they with difficulty put into a port on the of whom contends for it with all the zeal of an advocate, st Paul St Paul. southern side of that island, called the “ The Fair Haven,” whilst the latter admits it with all the deliberation of a i ^ 3 near the city of Lasea. The season being now far ad- cautious and impartial judge. In the above sketch of the principal events of the aposvanced, Paul advised the centurion to proceed no farther; but the place not being suitable for wintering in, and the tle’s life no attempt has been made to assign to each its weather promising favourably, his advice was disregarded, proper date. This has resulted from the great perplexity and they again set sail, intending to reach Phcenice, a port in which this part of the subject is involved, and the conin the same island, and there to winter. Scarcely, however, sequent inexpediency of adopting any particular chronology had they ventured to sea when the apostle’s prediction was without assigning the reasons on which it is founded; a verified; for a boisterous wind arose and drove them at its course which would have extended this article greatly bemercy across the Mediterranean. In this state they con- yond its proper bounds. We have deemed it preferable, tinued for fourteen days, at the close of which they were therefore, to present, in the first instance, the leading facts shipwrecked on the coast of Malta, but without any loss of in the history of Paul in the order of their occurrence ; and life. Here the apostle and his company remained for three shall now furnish a table of the dates assigned to the more months, during which time he was actively employed in important of these in those systems of chronology which instructing the inhabitants, and performing many miracles are most deserving of notice, leaving it with our readers to for their benefit. On the approach of spring, they availed consult the works in which they are unfolded for the arguthemselves of a ship of Alexandria that had wintered in the ments by which they are respectively supported. island, and set sail for Syracuse, where they remained three days ; thence they crossed to Rhegium ; and thence along the coast to Puteoli, from which place he journeyed by land to the imperial city. Here he was delivered by the centurion, in whose charge he had come from Caesarea, to the captain of the guard, who, with great lenity, permitted 36 37 or 38 38(?) Paul’s Conversion... him to dwell in his own hired house, under the charge of „ 1st visit to a soldier.1 39 41 Jerusalem 40 or 41 The sacred historian closes his narrative by informing us (Acts ix. 26) that Paul continued in this state of easy imprisonment for „ 2d do. do. ) 45 44 46 “ two years, receiving all that came to him, preaching the (Acts xi.30) j „ 3d do. do. 1 kingdom of God, and teaching those things which concern 51 50 47(?) (Acts xv. 4) J the Lord Jesus Christ, with all confidence, no man forbid„ 4th do. do. ding him.” Of the subsequent events of the apostle’s life, 54 54 56 (Acts xviii. consequently, we have much less direct and certain infor22) mation ; and from this has arisen much diversity of opinion „ 5th do. do. 58 58 60 on the subject. By many it is supposed that this his first and apprehension imprisonment at Rome was his last, and that he perished 60 61 63 „ arrival at Rome in the persecution which Nero excited against the Chris62 or 63 63 „ liberation. tians by representing them as the agents in the burning of 66(?) 65 or 68 „ martyrdom the city; whilst others contend that he was set at liberty before that event, and that he set out on another great misDuring the brief intervals of comparative ease which the sionary tour to the West, in the course of which he preached apostle enjoyed amid his arduous and almost incessant exerthe gospel throughout Spain, and, according to some, in Britain also ;2 revisited Ephesus and other places in Lesser tions as a preacher of Christianity, he wrote several treaAsia, passed over to Crete, returned to Ephesus, passed tises, more or less elaborate, both of a doctrinal and a practhrough Troas into Macedonia, thence to Nicopolis in tical nature, in the shape of epistles to different churches. Epirus, Dalmatia in Illyricum, and back again to Asia, Of these, thirteen, avowedly of his composition, and one when he was apprehended and conveyed to Rome the second that is with great 10probability ascribed to him (the Epistle time, where he suffered martyrdom. By some who hold to the Hebrews), have come down to us; and there is this latter opinion the order of places visited is completely reason to believe that in these we have the whole of those reversed, and Paul is supposed to have commenced his tour compositions which, as an apostle of Jesus Christ, he gave in Asia, and ended it in Spain, whilst others omit Spain to the church. It is supposed, indeed, by many distinfrom the itinerary altogether. It would require a much guished biblical critics, that there is evidence in the first larger space than this article can be permitted to occupy of his extant epistles to the Corinthians, of his haying writto enter into any examination of the arguments and evi- ten one to that church antecedently to either of these; but dence on both sides of this question. Suffice it to remark, the basis of evidence on which this rests is at best very that, whilst the whole subject is involved in much uncer- slender, and the 11support which it lends to what is raised on tainty, and whilst little more than probable conjecture can it very doubtful. In what order these epistles were writbe furnished for the details of either hypothesis, the pre- ten, and what date is to be assigned to each are points on ponderance seems to be in favour of the latter. Our readers which much discussion has been expended. 1 he following will probably be satisfied of this by a reference to what has lists present the results of the investigations of Greswell, been written on it by Greswell and Neander; the former Neander, and Alford: 1 3

2 Acts xxi. 16 ; xxviii. 31. See Bishop Stillingfleet, Antiquity of the British Churches, vol. Hi., PP- 25-2^ ed. 17 - 0; and others. Greswell’s Dissertations, vol. ii., pp. 78-100 ; Meander’s Geschichte d. Pfianzung und Leitung d. Christhche Kirche, u. s. w., &c., pp. 410-419, 2d ed.; Eng. trans., vol. i., pp. 331-337, Bohn’s edit. 6 6 4 Einleitung ins, If. T., 3 bde. Annales Vet. et Nov. Test., &c., Genev. 1722, p. 568. Dissertations, &c., 5 vols^ 1837. 7 Biblischen Eealwdrterhuch, art. “ Paulus.” Geschichte d. Pflanzung, u. s. w. * Chronologic des Apostol. Zeitalters, &c.,G'6ti.l8A8. , , ™ . .j. u r™ • tt.wtV Tn 1° See Stuart’s Commentary on the Hebrews, vol. i.; Forster’s Apostolical Authority of the Epistle to the Hebrews London, 1838 , Hug Introduction, § 145. „ . , ii See Blomfield, Recensio Synoptica, and Greek Testament, on 1st Cor. v. 9 ; and a note by the translator of Billroth s Commentary on the Corinthians (Edinburgh Biblical Cabinet, No. xxi., vol. i., p. 4). On the other side, see De Wette, Meyer, and Alford, on the place.

350 St Paul. ^

P

A U Greswell.

1st Thessalonians 1 2d Thessalonians J 1st Corinthians 2d Corinthians Galatians Romans Ephesians Colossians..,.,,, Philemon Philippians Hebrews Titus 1st Timothy 2d Timothy 1st Thessalonians 1 2d Thessalonians J Galatians 1st Corinthians 2d Corinthians Romans Colossians Ephesians Philemon Philippians 1st Timothy Titus 2d Timothy,

.from . „ . „ . „ . ,, . „ . „ . „ . ,, „ „ „ „

Corinth a.d. 50 Ephesus 55 Macedonia...55 Ditto 55 Cenchrea 56 Rome 60 Ditto. 60 Ditto 60 Ditto 60 Puteoli 63 Macedonia....64 Nicopolis 65 Rome 66

Neander. .from Corinth. . „ Ephesus, . „ Ditto. . „ Macedonia. . „ Cenchrea. . ,, Rome. . „ Ditto. . „ Ditto. . „ Ditto. . „ Macedonia. . j, Crete. . „ Rome, Alford}

1st Thessalonians 2d Thessalonians. Galatians 1st Corinthians. 2d Corinthians.. Romans Ephesians Philemon Colossians Philippians 1st Timothy Titus 2d Timothy

from Corinth a.d. 52 Ditto 53 Ephesus ..54-57 Ditto 57 Macedonia ...57 Corinth 58 Rome 61-62 Ditto 61-62 Ditto 61-62 Ditto 63 ? 66-67 Asia 66-67 Rome 67-68

Neander regards the Epistle to the Hebrews as of uncertain authorship, but deems it probable that it was written about the period of the apostle’s martyrdom, by “ some apostolic man of the Pauline school.”2 In perusing the history and the writings of St Paul, it is impossible not to be struck with the amazing energy of thought and action by which he was characterized. The conception olpower is impressed upon the mind by every view of his history, and the study of every page of his writings, The ease with which he threw off the prejudices of Judaism, notwithstanding the deep hold which these had taken of his mind; the rapidity with which he expanded his thoughts to embrace the vast conceptions unfolded by the free offers and unbounded claims of Christianity, so different from the narrow sectarianism of his former religion ; the accuracy with which he received into his mind, almost instantaneously, and in all their multiplicity, the mutual bearings and relations of the old economy and the new; the dauntless intrepidity w’ith which, from the verv commencement of his Christian profession, he entered into discussion with the advocates of Judaism, and vanquished them with their own weapons; the unflinching perseverance with which, in spite of danger, suffering, contumely, persecution from enemies, ingratitude and desertion from friends, he prosecuted his arduous and exhausting labours; the unwearying assiduity with which he watched over the churches of which he had the care, and the promptitude

P A U and accuracy wnth which he adopted and executed measures for their advantage, widely scattered and variously circumstanced though they were; the resistless force of his arguments, the persuasiveness of his appeals, the keenness of his irony; all conspire to show that he possessed in a high degree those capacities for command by which men are fitted to be the leaders and directors of their fellows in enterprises of importance to the interests of the race. But it was not by attributes of strength and power alone that the mind of Paul was characterized. The sternness of these was relieved and softened by others of a more amiable and gentle cast. A vein of tenderness and sensibility flowed through his soul, which, whilst it made him the more susceptible of suffering from ingratitude or persecution, rendered him at the same time gentle and compassionate to the feelings of others. With all his freedom from Jewish prejudices, he never lost his reverence for the country and institutions of his fathers; and with all his zeal for rectitude, and all his firmness in rebuking error, he never forgot what was due to the imperfections of his brethren, or deemed that truth could be made attractive if divorced from charity. Removed alike from the extremes of fanaticism on the one hand and apathy on the other, his whole life was a noble instance of the consecration, on sound and elevated principles, of the highest powers and the most indefatigable energies to a work in which he had no personal interest apart from that of his fellow-Christians, and from the honour which was to accrue from his exertions to that Master whom it was his high ambition to serve in life, and his animating expectation to join at death. Apart altogether from his character as an apostle of Christ, his labours in the cause of human amelioration entitle him to veneration as one of the greatest benefactors of the species ; whilst in his peculiar capacity as one of the founders of the Christian church, and an inspired expositor of divine truth, he stands without a rival in his claims upon our gratitude and reverence. His history is a standing evidence of the truth of our religion ; to his labours we are indebted mainly for the rapid extension of Christianity both in the East and in the West; and in his writings are contained those treasures of heavenly doctrine which it has been the chosen occupation of some of the greatest minds of subsequent ages to explore and to unfold. With these irresistible claims, the more his life, character, and writings are studied, the deeper will be the veneration in which he will be held, and the more sincere will be the gratitude of every pious mind to the Author of all good for having in so remarkable a manner supplied the church with a teacher so eminently qualified to advance its best interests, and establish, to the end of time, the faith, efficiency, and blessedness of its members. (See, besides the works referred to in this article, the splendid work of Conybeare and Howson, Z,ife and Epistles of St Paul, with maps, plates, &c., 2 vols. 4to, London, 1850-52, third edition, 2 vols. 8vo, 1858; Lewin’s Life and Epistles of St Paul, 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1851 ; Schrader, Der Apostel Paulus, 5 vols., Leipz., 182936; Hemsen, Per Ap. Paulus, &c., Gott. 1850; Baur, Paulus der Ap. Jesu Christi, Stuttg. 1845.) (w. L. A.) Paul of Samosata, a celebrated heresiarch of the third century, was raised to the see of Antioch in 260 a.d. His conduct in this high position was marked by an unblushing attempt to secularize the duties and doctrines of religion. No sooner had he put on the episcopal robe than he started on an eager race for the pleasures and honours of this world. His pastoral authority was exercised to supply food for his avarice. His sacerdotal character was employed to screen his sensual indulgence. He trampled on the laws of the

^ Greek New Testament, vols. ii. and iii. Gesckichte, p. 433, Eng. trans., vol. i., p. 347 ; see also Delitzsch, Commentar turn Br. an die Hehrder, p. 701.

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church by accepting the secular appointment of ducenarius procurator. He desecrated his holy office by cringing for the favour of Zenobia, the unprincipled queen of Palmyra. In his council-chamber he sat upon a lofty throne, and assumed the airs of a civil dignitary. In public he rode with all the pomp and retinue of a prince, and pretended to be constantly reading petitions and dictating mandates. In the pulpit he ranted like an actor, and paused at intervals to invite the plaudits of his congregation. Nor did the worldlyminded bishop hesitate to extend his sacrilegious innovations to the most sacred doctrines of the Christian creed. The Divine Being, he taught, was not a Trinity but a Unity. The Logos and the Holy Ghost were not persons of the Godhead, but were parts of the Deity, in the same manner as reason and spirit are parts of man. The Logos did not become incarnate in the person of Christ. It descended to earth, communicated its influence to the man Jesus, and then re-ascended to heaven. Jesus accordingly was not God. He only attained to an extraordinary degree of wisdom and virtue, which might entitle him, in a certain sense, to be called Divine. The flagrant practices, and especially the erroneous doctrines, of Paul of Samosata, at length awoke the opposition of the church. An inveterate conflict took place. His opponents held a council in 264 or 265, condemned his opinions, and allowed him to hold his see only on the faith of a promise that he would retract his heresy. But no sooner had the assembly dispersed than he broke his promise, and began to teach his old dogmas. His opponents returned to the charge, convoked another council in 269, and deposed him from his bishopric. But backed by the influence of Zenobia, he set this sentence at defiance, and retained his benefice in the face of the whole church for no less than three years. At length, however, in 272, the overthrow of his royal patroness by the Emperor Aurelian brought about his downfall. The settlement of the controversy was referred by the conqueror to the bishops of Italy; they sustained the decision of the council of 269; and Paul of Samosata, expelled from his see, disappeared into obscurity. There were a few sectaries, who called themselves, after the name of this heresiarch, Paulianists. They never became numerous, and in the fifth century they had fallen out of notice. (NeandePs Church History^ and Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.) Paul the Deacon (also surnamed, after his father, Warnefridus), an eminent historian of the middle ages, was born about 740 at Cividale {Forum Julii), and completed his education at the court of Rachis, King of the Lombards. Although he commenced life as a humble deacon of the church at Aquileia, his learning and accomplishments soon set him upon a career of distinction. He became notary or secretary to Desiderius, the last Lombard monarch. His withdrawal into a cloister, on the overthrow of that prince in 774 by Charlemagne, did not consign his merits to oblivion. In no long time the victorious sovereign had summoned him to take up his abode at the court of France. He was there employed to teach Greek to the clergymen who had been selected to conduct the emperor’s daughter Rotrude to Constantinople to be wedded by the son of the Empress Irene. Yet, in spite of these high honours, his last days were spent in obscurity in his native country. He died in the monastery of Monte Casino about 799. Paul the Deacon left behind him several works. His great work, since it is the only authority on its subject, is the De Gestis Longobardorum. It has often been printed, and it is contained in Muratori’s Rerum Ralicarum Scriptores. His other works are Gesta Episcoporum Metensium, a Life of St Gregory the Great, several Latin Hymns and Poems, and a collection of Homilies for all the Sundays and holidays in the year. He also appended to the History of Eutropius a continuation of the narrative down to the reign of Jus-

P A U 351 tinian, which has been continued in turn by another writer. Paul I. and which is now known under the name of Historia 11 Miscella. Paul, St. Paul I., Pope, succeeded Stephen II. in 757, and died in 767. Paul II., Pope, whose original name was Pietro Barbo, succeeded Pius II. in 1464. An attempt to raise a crusade against the Turks, a persecution of the Hussites, the excommunication of Podiebrad, King of Bohemia, and the dispersion of an academy which had been instituted for the study of classical antiquities, were the most notable acts of his pontificate. He died in 1471. Paul III., Pope, whose real name was Alessandro Farnese, succeeded Clement VII. in 1534. His rule was characterized by zeal and vigour. He excommunicated Henry VIII. of England, established the Inquisition at Naples, sanctioned the new order of the Jesuits, and condemned the system of doctrine called the “ Interim,” which the Emperor Charles V. had ordered to be drawn up. By him also was the general council convoked which had for its object the healing of the schisms in the church, and which continued to sit long after his death in 1549. Paul IV., Pope, who was originally called Gian Pietro Caraffa, was raised to the pontificate after Marcellus II. in 1555, at the age of eighty. He had became notable while archbishop of Theate or Chieti for his attempt to revive the sinking strength of Popery by introducing among the clergy the discipline and simplicity of primitive times. It now became his object to carry out the same plan on a much larger scale. Bent upon reforming not only the ecclesiastics but the Roman Catholic community at large, he obliged bishops to reside within their own dioceses, proscribed unprincipled publications, punished blasphemers, and even expelled his own nephews from Rome on account of their debaucheries. After a reign of four years, spent in this reformation, he died in 1559. Paul V., Pope, whose previous title was Camillo Borghese of Siena, succeeded Leo XI. in 1605, at the age of fifty-three. The most notable event in his pontificate was his dispute with the Venetian Senate. The occasion was the arraignment of two priests at Venice before the magistrate; and the subject was, whether in the Venetian territory religious edifices could be erected, property could be bequeathed to the church, and ecclesiastics could be accused of any civil crime, without being liable to the interference of the government. The pope asserted the affirmative : the Senate persisted in maintaining the negative. The Pope laid the territory under an interdict: the Senate expelled from their dominions all those who showed any respect to the interdict. Baronius and Bellarmine entered the field of literary controversy to support the see of Rome . the famous Father Paul appeared to defend the lights of Venice. His holiness at length employed the mediation of the Kins of France; but the senators did not give up the contest until they had triumphantly carried their point. Paul was more successful in his attempts to embellish Rome. He erected several spacious edifices, enlarged the Vatican and Quirinal palaces, constructed some of the most beautiful fountains, collected some of the finest specimens of painting and sculpture, and restored some of the richest pieces of the ancient architecture of the city. The death of Paul V. happened in 1621. Paol I., Czar of Russia, was the son of Peter III. and Catherine II., and was born in 1754. He succeeded to the throne in 1776, and was strangled in 1801. (See Russia..) Paul, Father. See Sarpi. PAUL, St, a town in the island of Reunion or Bourbon, stands on the W. coast, 19 miles S.W. of St Denis. It is shaded by acacias, and has a better harbour than that of St Denis. This was the earliest settlement made by the

352 P A U Paul, St French on the island. Pop. about 10,000; of the arrondissement, 16,262. Paulicians. Paul, St, an island in the Indian Ocean, S. Lat. 38.44., E. Long. 77. 38., about 9 miles long, by 5 broad. It seems to be of volcanic origin; for it contains hot springs, and an old crater, now filled with water and abounding in fish. The island is covered with a stunted vegetation, and has good anchorage at the E. side. Paul de Luanda. See Luanda. PAULICIANS, The, were an ancient religious sect which sprung up in Armenia in the seventh century. Their founder was one Constantine, an inhabitant of the village of Mananalis, in the neighbourhood of Samosata. This individual happening to receive a copy of the New Testament as a present, began to search the gospel record, and to extract from it a set of opinions peculiar to himself. He then preached his new doctrines with success in his native district, in Pontus, and in Galatia. A numerous band of followers gathered round him, who, forming themselves into a distinct sect, adopted a systematic creed. A certain part of their creed was merely a revival of some of the most flagrant errors of the early Christians. Thus they held, with the Gnostics, that the Old Testament was not canonical, and that the Creator of the world and the God of heaven were two distinct beings. They also held, with the Valentinians, that Christ’s body was not a material body formed in the womb of the Virgin Mary, but an ethereal body brought along with him from heaven. Yet the greater part of their doctrine was a direct protest and a thorough-going polemic against the growing superstitions of the church. According to them, the holy cross was a piece of common or perhaps rotten wood ; the wonder-working relics were a heap of offensive dust; the consecrated priesthood was a Jewish institution ; the efficacious sacraments were mere symbols, the one denoting the baptism of the Spirit, and the other denoting the feeding upon the word of Christ; Mary, the mother of God, and the immaculate Virgin, was a frail mortal woman, and the parent of several mortal children; and even the great St Peter, the first bishop of Rome, was an unworthy apostle, whose two epistles ought to be expunged from the pages of the New Testament. This severely simple code of doctrine was accompanied by a severely simple rule of practice. It became the aim of the new sect to realize, even in the minutest accessories, the condition of the primitive church under St Paul. They listened to the precepts of the great apostle of the Gentiles as if he were speaking to them with a living voice, and they called themselves Paulicians, as if he were their founder and sole teacher. Their pastors were surnamed after the apostle’s fellow-labourers, and their pastorates were named after the apostle’s congregations. The sharp reproof which the Paulicians thus gave to both the creed and government of the church soon roused a vindictive persecution. For one hundred and fifty years each successive emperor, whether an image-worshipper or an iconoclast, deemed it either his duty or his interest to endeavour to suppress the harmless Armenian sect. Their teachers were martyred, their faith was assailed both by argument and force, and they were proscribed in all the provinces of the empire. The Empress Theodora brought the persecution to a climax, and provoked the persecuted to retaliate. Aiming at the total extirpation of the Paulicians, she beheaded, hung, drowned, and burned no less than one hundred thousand. The remnant, finding a refuge and a home in that part of Armenia which belonged to the Saracens, formed a league with the khalif for the purpose of inflicting retribution upon their common enemy. One of their number, Carbeas, a valiant soldier, was appointed to organize an expedition. At the head of an army composed of his fellow-sectaries and of Moslems, he invaded the provinces of the empire, and defeated the Emperor Paul under the walls of Samosata.

P A u Still more victorious was his successor Chrysocheir. Sweep- Paulinus ing before him all opposition, he overran the whole of Asia, || and pillaged Nice and Nicomedia, Ancyra and Ephesus. Paulas In vain did the Emperor Basil, the Macedonian, try both arms and negotiation. It was not until Chrysocheir had been surprised and slain that the invaders were driven back into their own district, and forced to defend their independence among the mountains. The Paulicians, however, were destined to be placed in a scene of more prosperous activity. About the middle of the eighth century, the Emperor Constantine Copronymus transplanted a large body of them from Armenia to Thrace ; in the tenth century the Emperor John Zimisces increased the colony by a fresh number of emigrants; and in a short time they had obtained a firm footing in Philippopolis, and other cities in that part of the empire. As they grew in power and importance, they grew also in proselytizing zeal. Travelling westward as far as Germany and France, their missionaries made many converts, and fostered that spirit of opposition to the corruptions of the church which ultimately issued in the Reformation. (Gibbon’s Decline and Fall, Mosheim’s Ecclesiastical History, and Neander’s History of the Church.) PAULINUS, Merupius Puntius Anicius, Bishop of Nola, was born in Bourdeaux, or its neighbourhood, about 353. The career of the future ecclesiastic began amid bright prospects of worldly preferment. His parents left him a munificent fortune ; his opening taste for letters was fostered by the tuition of the poet Ausonius ; he was raised to the rank of consul suffectus ; and he won the hand of a wealthy and accomplished lady named Therasia. Yet the latter part of his life was characterized by an abandonment of all earthly cares and honours. In the course of a few years, his conversion to the truth of the gospel led him to distribute part of his possessions among the poor. Then a domestic affliction which he suffered while residing in Spain tended to increase this spirit of religious devotion. Becoming a presbyter in 393, he removed immediately to Campania to devote his remaining days to the duties of piety. He first spent nearly fifteen years in monk-like seclusion, practising acts of charity and self-mortification, and writing sacred poetry and theological treatises. At length, in 409, he entered upon the duties of the see of Nola, a post which he held till his death in 431. The works of Paulinus which have come down to us are fifty epistles, thirty-two poems, and a brief tract entitled Passio S. Genesii Arelatensis. They were first printed in an imperfect state by Badius, 8vo, Paris, 1516. The standard edition is that of Le Brun Desmarettes, 4to, Paris, 1685. PAULUS vEGINETA. See ^Egineta. Paulus JEmilius. See TImilius, Paulus. Paulus, Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob, a learned German divine, was born at Leonberg in Wiirtemberg in 1761. The chief part of his attention during his educational course was directed to theology. He studied the oriental languages and the other branches of a divinity course at Tubingen and Gottingen, and then proceeding to England, completed his education at London and Oxford. On his return to his native country, Paulus entered upon a distinguished professorial and literary career. In 1789 he was appointed to the chair of oriental languages at Jena; in 1804 he became professor of theology at Wurzburg, and in 1811 he began to teach exegesis and philosophy at the university of Heidelberg. At the same time, his pen was busily employed in theological literature. Among other works, he published Philologisch-kritischer Commentar iiber das Neue Testament, in 2 vols., Liibeck, 1800-5 ; Das Leben Jesu, in 2 vols., Heidelberg, 1828; and Exegetisches Handbuch uber die drei ersten Evangelien, in 3 vols., Heidelberg, 1830-33. The death of Dr Paulus took place at Heidelberg in 1851. Paulus, Julius, one of the most eminent of the Roman

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P A U 353 part of these provinces; and it is observed by Sir John Pausias itusanias. jurists, flourished in the third century. The only facts of II his biography that are known with any degree of certainty Hobhouse, in his Journey through Albania, “ that the are, that Elagabalus banished him ; that Alexander Severus exact conformity of present appearances with the minute Pauw. recalled him, and made him prcefectusprcetorio ; that he was descriptions of the Itinerary is no less surprising than satisa contemporary of Ulpian and Papinian ; and that he was a factory.” Nothing escaped his observation. Mountains, most voluminous writer on laws. All that we know regard- rivers, fountains, temples, statues, and pictures are all ing his qualities as an author is derived from 2083 excerpts described. He evidently took every means in his power to in the Digest of Justinian. He was concise in style, subtle be accurate in his descriptions, as he constantly refers, as a corroboration of his statements, to inscriptions on ancient in thought, and comprehensive in judgment. PAUSANIAS, a celebrated Greek general, was the monuments and works of art, and to gifts dedicated in the son of Cleombrotus, and nephew of Leonidas. The first temples of the gods. Poets and historians also furnished important event in his life was the distinguished part which him with materials to illustrate the antiquities of the places he played in repelling the second Persian invasion in 479 he visited. He is accused, however, like the Latin historian b.C. In that year the task of leading the Spartan contin- Livy, of credulity, and of narrating many stories which have gent northward to the scene of war in Bceotia was entrusted no pretension to credibility. But, aware that such an accuto him. The other Peloponnesian allies joined him at the sation might be brought against him, he states (vi. 3, 4) Isthmus of Corinth ; the Athenian troops fell in at Eleusis; that he thought himself bound to give these traditions of and the command of the assembled forces was then con- the Greeks, though there was no reason why he should beferred upon him. Crossing Mount Cithseron at the head lieve them. In his style he is thought to have imitated of 110,000 men, he confronted an army of 330,000 Per- Herodotus, but by no means successfully. The Greek text of Pausanias was first published at Vesians on the banks of the River Asopus. After delaying several days, and changing his position twice, he came to a nice in 1516 by Aldus ; but this edition, which is in folio, general engagement with the enemy at Platcea. Of all his is very incorrect, having been printed from a bad manuforces, the Spartans fought most bravely ; and of all the script. That of Leipsic, 1696, in folio, published by Spartans, he himself achieved the greatest feats of valour. Kuhn, is accompanied by the Latin translation of Amaseo, The Persians were completely routed ; their camp was which had appeared separately at Rome in 4to, 1547. The stormed; and all their remaining troops, with the excep- edition of Clavier, Paris, 1814-1821, in 6 vols. 8vo, is action of a few thousands that escaped, were remorselessly companied by a new French translation. The latest edibutchered. This brilliant exploit secured for Pausanias tion is that of Schubart and Walz, in 3 vols. 8vo, Leipanother high post of honour. Not long afterwards, by the sic, 1838-40. It is only necessary further to indicate the unanimous voice of the Greeks, he was placed in command Italian translation of Bonaccinoli, Mantua, 1597, in 4to; and of a fleet, and charged with the task of following up his that which appeared at Rome, 1792-1793, in 5 vols. 4to; former successes, and driving the Persians completely out the English translation of Taylor, London, 1793-1794, in of Europe. Sailing first to Cyprus, he liberated the cities 3 vols. 8vo ; and the German translation of E. Wiedasch, in that island. Then steering his course to the Propontis, in 4 vols. 8vo, Munich, 1826-29. PAUSIAS, a distinguished Greek painter, was a native he finished his enterprise by capturing Byzantium. Here ended the distinguished career of Pausanias : the rest of his of Sicyon, and flourished in the fourth century b.c. His life was nothing else than a course of the most infatuated training was received under very favourable circumstances. lolly. Intoxicated with military success, his brain began He learned his first lessons in art from his father Brietes; to be filled with the most extravagant ideas. The Spartan he was then subjected to the thorough educational system mode of life, he thought, would no longer suit him: it was of Pamphilus; and at the same time he was the fellow-disnecessary to surround himself with the luxury and splendour ciple of such artists as Melanthius and Apelles. Accordof a Persian satrap. These foolish aspirations soon residted ingly his professional career was marked by surpassing in a deliberate attempt to sell his country to the Persians excellence. He brought the art of painting in encaustic for a fortune and the hand of the daughter of Darius. His with the oestrum to an unprecedented pitch of perfection. recall to Sparta to answer for his conduct did not make him By him was introduced the custom of decorating the walls abandon this treacherous design. He continued to cor- and ceilings of private apartments with historical represenrespond with the King of Persia until the interception of tations. He was also remarkable for his successful imitations one of his letters brought his guilt to light and himself to of nature, and for his skill in foreshortening, as the portrait punishment. Having taken refuge in the temple of Minerva, of “ Glycera the Flower-Girl,” and the picture of the Ox the ephori unroofed that edifice, built up the door, and al- about to be Sacrificed,” sufficiently testified. PAUW, Cornelius de, sometimes called JMicoias, a lowed him to die of cold and hunger. His demise took place at some date between 471 and 466 b.c. The Life of moral philosopher and historian, born at Amsterdam in Pan sanias has been written by Cornelius Nepos. 1739. He is better known as the uncle of the revolutionist Pausanias, a celebrated Greek antiquary, has been sup- Anacharsis Clootz than by the ancestors from whom he posed, from a passage in his own work, to have been a was descended ; they are, however, reported by his nephew native of Lydia. The exact period of his birth and death to have distinguished themselves in the revolutions of Holis unknown, but he was employed on a part of his book in land in the sixteenth century. It appears, from the same the reign of Hadrian, who died a.d. 139, and was writing authority, that his name was Cornelius, and not Nicolas, but the Antiquities of Elis, a.d. 174, in the fourteenth year of that he was not related to Cornelius de Pauw, the critic and the reign of M. Aurelius (v. 1, 1). He must thus have the rival of Dorville; and that it was upon the marriage been contemporary with Aulus Gellius, Ptolemy the geo- of his sister to Clootz’s father that he obtained, through grapher, bronto the philosopher, Apuleius, and Lucian, the interest of his brother-in-law, a Catholic canonicate at though his pursuits were not likely to bring him in contact Xanten, in the territory of Cleves. ^ He was afterwards apwith any of them. The work which he has left is entitled pointed reader to Frederic, King of Prussia, perhaps as an EAAaSos lleptrjy^cns {The Itinerary of Greece). It is advocate of the new doctrines and principles which that divided into ten books, containing an account of the anti- sovereign was disposed to patronize; but he is said to have quities in each of the provinces of Greece, in the following declined the offer of the place of an academician of Berlin, order : Attica, Megaris, Corinthia, Sicyonia, Phliasia, and a bishopric at Breslau. His attacks on the Jesuits, Argolis, Laconica, Messenia, Elis, Achaea, Arcadia, Boeotia, whom he accused of gross misrepresentation and exaggeraand Phocis. He must have examined minutely every tion in their historical and geographical memoirs, rendered 2Y vob. xvu. P

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354 Pavia,

PAY him unpopular with the Catholic clergy, though his learnan d talents commanded a certain portion of their respect. He was simple in his manners, and somewhat negligent of his appearance. The close of his life was embittered by a tedious and painful disease; and he died on the 7th of July 1799. His principal publications are—1. RechercJies sur les Americains, Berlin, 1770 and 1772, in 8vo; a work intended to show the “ degraded state of the savage Americans,” and forming a contrast to the speculations of some contemporary writers of celebrity : 2. Defense des Recherches, Berlin, 1771, 8vo. 3. Recherches sur les Egyptiens et les Chinois, Berlin, 1774, in two vols. 8vo; Philosophical Dissertations on the Egyptians and Chinese, translated by Captain J. Thomson, London, 1795, in two vols. 8vo. The investigation was undertaken, he observes, to show “that no two nations ever resembled each other less than the Egyptians and the Chinese and it must be admitted that he has sufficiently established his proposition. There is, indeed, one argument that he has employed which appears to be founded on a mistake of the Greek historians of who have asserted that the Egyptians had long been in the use of alphabetical characters; and the want of any alphabet amongst the Chinese is stated by M. de Pauw as affording a marked distinction from the Egyptians. There is, however, scarcely a shadow of resemblance in the particular hieroglyphical characters employed by the two nations, although the general system of beginning with a representation of a visible object, and departing more and more, by degrees, from the fidelity of the delineation, must necessarily have been common to both. But it so happens that, out of about seventy Egyptian characters, which are compared by the Jesuits and Dr Morton with the Chinese in the Philosophical Transactions for 1769, there are about twenty of which the sense has been ascertained with tolerable accuracy by Dr Young; and of these there is only one that happens to have been rightly determined by the comparison with the Chinese, excepting two or three which are obviously mere pictures, as the moon and a bow. . There is also amongst the old Chinese characters a figure of a chain, which agrees remarkably in its form with the Egyptian hieroglyphic employed as a copulative conjunction ; but there is a still more striking coincidence which M. Jomard has noticed between the Egyptian and Chinese characters for a thousand, both of which he derives from the seed-vessel of the lotus, as containing a multitude of seeds; and if the older Chinese characters be found to preserve this resemblance as perfectly as they ought to do, it must be confessed that the suspicion of a common origin will be much strengthened by the argument. Both the Egyptians and the Chinese were condemned, M. de Pauw observes, “ to an eternal mediocrityand the weight of this observation is certainly not diminished by anything that has been inferred from the study of the hieroglyphics of the Rosetta stone and other monuments. There are several papers of M. de Pauw on antiquarian subjects in the Memoirs of the Society of Cassel, and in particular one on the Temple of Juno Lacinia, vol. i., 1780. Recherches sur les Grecs ■frere published at Berlin, 1787, in two vols. 8vo; Philosophical Dissertations on the Greeks, translated by Thomson, London, 1793, in two vols. 8vo. This work is principally devoted to the Athenians, amongst whom their boasted liberty is shown to have been confined to a very small number of citizens, who tyrannized over the rest of the inhabitants of their country. The Lacedaemonians, the iEtolians, the Thessalians, and the Arcadians, are separately discussed, but considered as comparatively contemptible; the Lacedaemonians in particular, and their successors, the Mainotes, are treated with great severity, as a worthless race of dishonourable vagabonds. The athletic education of the Athenians is, however, highly applauded, from a visionary theory of the importance of the physical perfection of the body to the operations of the mind. An edition of the author’s three principal works appeared at Paris, in 7 volumes octavo, 1795. (See Dorsch, Chardon-Larochette, and Clootz, Magaz. Encycl. 1799; An. V., vol. ii., Widdigen, Westph. Nationalk. 1801, p. 215; N. Ally. T. Bibl. Ixxiv., p. 77; Denina, Prusse Litteraire, iii., A. Diet. Hist, ix., 8vo, Par. 1804 ; Chalmers’s Biographical Dictionary, xxiii., 8vo, Lond. 1815.) (t. Y.) PAVIA, a frontier city of Austrian Italy, capital of a province of the same name, stands on the left bank of the Ticino, about 2 miles above its confluence with the Po, and 19 S.S.W. of Milan. On the opposite side of the river stands the suburb of Borgo Ticino, connected with Pavia by a handsome covered bridge of eight arches. The ancient walls which surround the city, being about 3 miles m circuit, inclose a much larger area than is required for the pi esent. population ; and thus the numerous unoccupied spaces and uninhabited or ruinous dwellings give to the

PAY town a somewhat desolate look. It is, however, in general Pavia, well built, and contains many venerable and splendid edi- i ‘ flees. The chief thoroughfare is the Strada Nuova or Corso, extending from the bridge over the Ticino through the middle of the town, and terminating at the other end in a^ handsome gate. Along this street are erected the chief buildings, consisting of palaces, colleges, and churches, intermingled with theatres, shops, and coffee-houses. The smaller streets branch off from this at right angles; some leading to squares lined with stately but often neglected palaces. Among the churches the chief place is occupied by the cathedral, a large but unfinished building, begun in 1488. It is surmounted by a dome, and contains some good pictures, though these cannot be well seen, from the darkness of the interior. In a side chapel is the tomb of St Augustine, adorned with 290 figures in all, and remarkable both for the beauty of the design and the delicacy of the workmanship. The church of San Michele is the oldest in Pavia, and perhaps in all Italy, having been built probably in the beginning of the seventh century, though the precise date is unknown. It is in the style adopted by the Lombards, and is richly ornamented both in the interior and exterior. A specimen of architecture more approaching the English-Gothic than that of most Italian churches is to be found in Santa Maria del Carmine, which is beautifully built of brick, and has several fine windows and doors in the west front. Another church built of brick is that of San Francesco, a fine specimen of the ItalianGothic style. The celebrated San Pietro in Cielo d’Oro, which is alluded to by Dante, is now partly in ruins and partly used as a storehouse. It contains the tomb of the famous Boethius. Several of the churches which formerly existed at Pavia have been demolished ; and although before the reign of Joseph II. there were numerous large and wealthy convents, few of these now remain. The citadel of Pavia, which was completed in 1469, consisted, when entire, of a square court with towers at the corners, and surrounded by a double cloister; but one side of it was destroyed in 1527, and it was still further injured by the French in 1796; although it still presents a fine appearance. The treasures of art and literature that it formerly contained were carried to France by Louis XII. in 1499; and the place is now used for barracks. The university of Pavia gives to the town no small portion of its celebrity. It is of great antiquity, having been founded, it is said, by Charlemagne in 774, and restored in 1361 bv Galeazzo Visconti, to whom it owes many of its privileges. It contains 13 colleges, 3 of which support gratuitously about 120 students; and there are faculties of law, medicine, philosophy, and mathematics. There were in the session 1853-4, 35 professors and 21 assistants; and the number of students was 1423. This university has long been celebrated for its medical and surgical teaching; and among the distinguished men who have been connected with it are Spallanzani and Volta, who were both professors of natural history here. Attached to the university are a library of 50,000 volumes, a museum, and a botanic garden. The buildings are extensive and regular, composing five quadrangles ; and there are four square towers from 200 to 250 feet high. Similar towers once adorned Pavia in such numbers that the town was called Civitas Turrigera. Besides the university, there is an ecclesiastical seminary, several superior and elementary schools, an institute of fine arts, &c. The charitable establishments include an hospital for foundlings, two for orphans, a reformatory institution, and others. About 5 miles from Pavia, on the road to Milan, stands the Certosa, a splendid Carthusian convent, with a fine Gothic church. No manufactures of any consequence are carried on at Pavia; but the trade, though confined to the produce of the adjacent country, is in these articles considerable. Ticinum, the ancient city which

PAY Pavilion occupied the site of Pavia, was never of much consequence under the Romans; but the Lombard kings, who gave it the name of Papia, made it their capital. It is chiefly notable in history for the battle fought in its vicinity in 1525 between Francis I. of France and the army of Charles V., under the viceroy Lannoy, when the former was defeated and taken captive. Pop. 25,750. The province of Pavia, which has an area of 400 square miles, is one of the most fertile parts of Lombardy, lying entirely in the plain of the Po, containing good pasture-land, and producing corn, wine, fruit, arid hemp. Pop. (1853) 173,879. PAVILION. See Glossary to Architecture. PAVLOGRAD, a town of Russia, capital of a circle of the same name, in the government of Yekaterinoslav, on the Voltscha, an affluent of the Dnieper, 30 miles E.N.E. of Yekaterinoslav. It contains two churches, a school, a benevolent institution, and several manufactories. Pop. (1851) 6929. PAWNBROKER. See Broker. PAWTUCKET, a town of the United States of North America, partly in Rhode Island and partly in Massachusetts, stands on both sides of the River Pawtucket, 4 miles N.N.E. of Providence. It contains eight or nine churches, a masonic temple, and a public hall; the last two being very fine buildings. The town is chiefly remarkable for its manufactories; and these are supplied fwith abundant water-power by the river, which, within a short distance, falls about 50feet. The first cloth factory moved by water in America was established here in 1790. Machinery and cotton fabrics are now the goods principally produced, though boots and shoes, carriages, and cabinet-ware are also made. The trade is considerable ; and during the year 1852, 141 vessels arrived here, with a tonnage of 12,798. Pawtucket is connected by railway with Boston and Providence. Pop. (1853) about 10,000. PAXO. See Ionian Islands. PAZ DE AYACUCHO, La, a town of Bolivia, capital of a department of the same name, stands on both sides of the deep ravine Quebrada-de-Choquehapu, 12,195 feet above the level of the sea, but 620 below that of Lake Titicaca, from which it is not far distant ; S. Lat. 16. 30., W. Long. 68. 30. The streets are irregular, and some of them very steep; but there is a very handsome public square. Nine elegant bridges cross the stream, which flows through the ravine, and which forms one of the sources of the Amazon. Of the 15 churches, the chief is the cathedral, a large and noble edifice. There is also a university, a school of law, college of sciences, school of mechanical arts, and other seminaries.' A large proportion of the inhabitants are Indians, who live in mud huts, and retain their primitive language and mode of life. La Paz is the principal commercial town in Bolivia, European goods being brought hither from Peru, and exchanged for gold, bark, and other commodities of the country. It was founded in 1548, under the name of Nuestra Senora de la Paz, and soon became a place of much importance. Since 1605 it has been the seat of a bishopric. In 1825 the name was changed to that which it now bears, in honour of the victory of Ayacucho, which secured the freedom of the country. Pop. 42,000. Paz, La, a department of Bolivia, bounded on the N. and E. by that of Beni, S. by those of Cochobamba and Oruro, and W. by Peru, has an extent of 36,418 square miles. It comprises those valleys of the Cordilleras through which the head streams of the Rio Beni flow. Pop. 346,000. PEA, the English name applied to the seed of several leguminous plants, but chiefly to those of the cultivated pea (Pisum sativum, Linn.), an annual plant, and a native of the south of Europe. It has been cultivated as a culinary vegetable from a very early period; but from the slight mention made of it by Pliny, it does not appear

PEA 355 to have been valued so much by the Romans as by the Peace Greeks, who prized it very highly, and cultivated it exten- River. sively. It is not known when the pea was first cultivated v in Britain; but long after its introduction it was rare, and in the time of Elizabeth it was imported from Holland, probably in a ripe state. Dr Fuller, writing of peas at that time, said they w^ere “ fit dainties for ladies, they came so far and cost so dear.” Either as a horticultural or as an agricultural product, the pea is a vegetable of great importance. The seeds in a green state are regarded as one of our most esteemed vegetables when boiled ; and when ripe, are much used in forming a favourite and nutritious soup, acceptable to all classes. Those produced in fields are allowed to ripen, and are of great value in feeding swine; the haulm is also cut up with other kinds of fodder, and is much relished by cattle. The garden pea is often cultivated in fields near large towns, where the demand for it, as a green vegetable, is considerable; it is, however, a very distinct variety from the field pea. Few vegetables have rewarded the care of the cultivator more than the garden pea, of which there are now at least fifty varieties, which have been produced by a careful hybridization of the following well-marked botanical varieties of the plant:—1. Var. a. saccharatum, having round distant seeds, with coriaceous pods, called Sugar Pea, and in France petits-pois and pois-sucres.—2. Var. /3. macrocarpum, a strong-growing large kind, with flattened falcateformed pods containing large and distant seeds. The most remarkable peculiarity of this variety is, that the legumes are destitute of the hard membrane with which others are lined, in consequence of which this sort is cooked and eaten in the pod. The French call it pois-goulons, poissans-parchemin, and pois-mange-tout.—3. Var. y. umbellatum. The stipules in varieties a. and /3. are entire and rounded, but in the present one they are quadrifid and acute. The peduncles are surmounted with a rather compact cluster of flowers; hence it is called in English Crown-Pea, and in French pois-d-bouquet. It has been suggested that this is a true species.—4. Var. S. quadratum. The seeds are of moderate size, and so closely packed in the legume that they become square when full growm. The French call it pois-carre.—5. Var. e. humile. A dwarf, weak-growing kind, with round seeds closely placed in the legume. I he varieties raised from these are valued according to their hardiness and early bearing, the size and sweetness of the seeds, their abundant bearing, &c. They may be arranged in four groups: those which have yellow seeds lound when ripe, and those which have square wrinkled seeds; those which have green seeds round when ripe, and those which have square and wrinkled ones. All the varieties of the true garden pea have white flowers ; but the field pea has red and purple flowers, and the seed when ripe is of a yellowish-brown mottled colour. 1 he pea, as an agricultural crop, is in favourable situations a very useful one, and is so soon off the ground that a crop of turnips can usually be realized after it. In England this crop is usually found most abundant in the midland counties. Large quantities of peas are also imported in a ripe state. These are of the round and yellow kind, and are used chiefly for making soup. Ihe quantity imported in 18o7 was in quarters,—from Denmark, 21,763; Prussia, 8265 ; Hanse Towns, 4870; Holland, 2630; Morocco, 9000; United States, 6200; British North America, 36,000; other parts, 2000;—the total value of which was nearly L.200,000. (t.c.a.) PEACE RIVER, in British North America, rises to the west of the eastern chain of the Rocky Mountains, within 300 yards of Frazer River, which takes an opposite course, and flows through the mountains and the plains beyond, first eastward, and then N.E. Near the foot of Lake Athabasca it joins the Slave River, which issues from this lake,

and flows northward to the Great Slave Lake. Its whole length is estimated at 800 miles; and it is navigable for boats even above the Rocky Mountains. The Peace River gives its name to an extensive division of the Pludson’s Bay Company’s territory. PEARCE, Zachary, D.D., Bishop of Rochester, was the son of a distiller in High Holborn, and was born in 1690. He received his education at Westminster school, where he was elected a king’s scholar. At the age of twenty he entered Trinity College, Cambridge; and during the first years of his residence there, he occasionally amused himself with lighter compositions, some of which are inserted in the Guardian and Spectator. In 1716 he published his edition of Cicero JDe Orators, and dedicated it to Lord Chief-Justice Parker, afterwards Earl of Macclesfield, a prudent step, which laid the foundation of his future fortune. In 1717 Pearce was ordained, and during the following year became chaplain to Lord Parker. In 1719 he was installed in the rectory of Stappleford Abbots in Essex; in 1720, in that of St Bartholomew; and in 1723, in that of St Martin’s-in-the-Fields, London. Besides Lord Parker, Pearce could now reckon amongst his patrons or friends Mr Pulteney (afterwards Earl of Bath), Archbishop Potter, Lord Hardwicke, Sir Isaac Newton, and many other eminent personages. In 1724 the degree of Doctor of Divinity was conferred on him by Archbishop Wake. The same year he dedicated to his patron the Earl of Macclesfield his edition of Longinus On the Sublime, with a new Latin version and notes. The deanery of Winchester having become vacant, Dr Pearce was appointed to it in 1739; in the year 1744 he was elected prolocutor of the Lower House of Convocation for the province of Canterbury; and on the 12th of February 1748 he was made bishop of Bangor. Upon the death of Bishop Wilcocks, he was promoted to the see of Rochester and deanery of Westminster in 1756. In the year 1763 his lordship, being then in the seventy-third year of his age, and finding himself less fit for the business of his station as bishop and dean, expressed a desire to resign. His Majesty was inclined to favour his wishes, but the bishops disliked the proposal. He obtained leave, however, to resign the deanery in 1768, and in 1774 he died. In addition to the works already alluded to, this learned prelate wrote numerous sermons and tracts, published on various occasions. Four volumes of his posthumous sermons were given to the world by his chaplain, John Derby, in 1778. He likewise wrote Miracles of Jesus Vindicated, 1727 and 1728; A Review of the Text of Milton, 1733, containing an able refutation of Bentley’s chimerical emendations; Tico Letters against Dr Middleton, occasioned by the doctor’s letter to Waterland, on the publication of his treatise, entitled Scripture Vindicated, 1752. But the work which above all others displays the solid learning and ripe judgment of the author is A Commentary, with Notes, on the Four Evangelists and the Acts of the Apostles, &c., 2 vols. 4to, Lond. 1777. This work contains also an autobiography of the author, together with additions from the pen of Dr Samuel Johnson. PEARL is produced by a secretion peculiar to the Mollusca, and chiefly employed in the formation of their shells. (See Mollusc A.) In a few species pearl attains an economic importance, and gives rise to considerable branches of industry. Its normal development is as a slimy excretion from the exterior surface of the mantle, which being applied to the inner surface of the shell increases its thickness by the deposition of successive layers. It is abnormally developed for the purpose of covering grains of sand or other foreign bodies, which, by getting accidentally between the delicate mantle and the shell, would, but for this protection, cause u i itation and disease to the former. Man takes advantage of hot t circumstances. By the former process he is supplied

with mother-of-pearl, and by the latter with the precious pearls used in jewellery. These are generally spherical in form, and unconnected with the shell of the animal. Linnaeus showed that by perforating a living pearl ovster, and introducing a grain of sand, a nucleus is formed for the development of a pearl. Precious pearls have been ranked as gems from a verv early period ; and then, as well as now, the finest both in size and colour were obtained from the Indian Ocean, and are produced by the bivalve Meleagrina, margaritifera, Lam. The famous wager between Cleopatra and Marc Antony gives us an insight into the value of pearls. At that time the two pearl ear-drops which the luxurious queen proposed to dissolve in vinegar, and serve up at the promised costly repast, were valued at 10,000,000 of sesterces, or about L.76,000. The pearl belonging to A. J. B. Hope, Esq., M.P., the largest known in modern times, and far too large to be used as an ear-drop, is not worth a fourth of that sum. It weighs 1800 grains, or 3 ounces, and has a circumference of 4£ inches, and a length of 2 inches. The most usual dimensions of good oriental pearls is from the size of a pea to about three times that size. When much below the size ofa pea they are called seedpearls. These seed pearls, as well as the larger kinds, were in great request in the time of Pliny; for he says, “ And now at the present day the poorer classes are even affecting them, as people are in the habit of saying that a pearl worn by a woman in public is as good as a lictor walking before her ” (the size bespeaking the importance of the person). “ Nay, even more than this, they put them on their feet, and that not merely on the laces of their sandals, but all over the shoes ; it is not enough to w'ear pearls, but they must tread upon them, and wralk with them under foot as well.” (Bohn’s edit.) Small pearls are also yielded by other bivalves, as the common oyster, mussel, and more particularly by the pearl-mussel (Unio margaritiferns'), which was also known to the Romans; for Pliny says, “It is a well-ascertained fact that in Britannia pearls are found, though small and of a bad colour; for the deified Julius Caesar wished it to be distinctly understood that the breast-plate which he presented to Venus Genetrix, in her temple, w7as made of British pearls.” (Bohn’s edit.) They are also mentioned by Tacitus in his Life of Agricola as indigenous products of Britain ; he describes them “ as not very orient, but pale and wan.” (See Mollusca.) Strangely enough, these seed pearls, the collection of which was eagerly pursued as a branch of profitable industry by the ancient Britons, is still followed by their descendants in the principality. The traveller who sojourns in the neighbourhood of Conway is sure to be solicited to purchase British pearls, which may be obtained from 5s. to 10s. per ounce. They are of little value except as curiosities. The finest oriental pearls are obtained from Ceylon and the Persian Gulf, the seed pearls chiefly from Kurrachee, on the Bombay coast, where they are washed ashore, and aie collected by coolies, under contractors, who pay 40,000 rupees (L.4000) to the Julpore government for the privilege. The seed pearls are chiefly used by the natives of India and Persia, who attribute important medicinal virtues to them. Pearls of good size and colour are sometimes collected in the West Indies and on the coast of South America. Imports were received from the following places in 1856:—Egypt, value L.32,570; St Thomas, L.20,744; New Granada, L.1000; British West India Islands, L.500; other parts, L.348. The same animal {Meleagrina margaritferd) which yields the precious pearl produces also the mother-of-pearl shells of commerce. They are often very large, nearly circular in form, and very slightly convex externally. Specimens are occasionally seen 12 inches in diameter. Generally the nacre, or pearly material, constitutes the chief

PEA Pearl part of the shell, only a thin, worn, dark-coloured crust Fisheries, forming the outside coating or epidermis. They are principally collected on the shores of Madagascar, Ceylon, Manilla, Panama, &c. There are three principal kinds :— \st. The silver-lipped. These have a yellowish pearly lustre, generally very clear and bright. The largest shells also occur amongst them. Their value ranges from L.80 to L.130 per ton. They are imported chiefly from Manilla and China. 2d. Blue-edged or black-lipped, from South America or other places, worth from L.30 to LAO per ton. ?jd. The Panama or bullock-shell, a small kind from Panama, worth from L.18 to L.21 per ton. The quantity imported in 1856, of all sorts, was 2102 tons, of the value of L.76,544. They are used for a variety of purposes—for the manufacture of buttons, for knife-handles, for inlaying, &c. Great numbers are sent to the Holy Land, where the monks carve upon them religiqus pictures, often of great artistic merit, which are sold to visitors as souvenirs of their visits to the holy places. Many tons are annually consumed in this way, and in making rosary beads and other small articles. The beautiful opalescence of these shells appears to depend upon “ minute undulations of the layers, which has been successfully imitated upon steel buttons.” {VIoo^wsccd, Manual of Mollusca.) Other shells are occasionally imported and used by the buttonmaker and inlayer in consequence of the brilliancy of their nacreous layers, as Turbo marmoratus, Linn., from China, and the beautiful Haliotis gigas from the Indian Seas. (t. c. a.) Pearl Fisheries. Owing to the circumstance of the pearl-oyster being found congregated, like the common oyster, in great abundance in certain localities, regular fisheries are established, some of which have furnished pearls for many centuries. Ceylon, still the most famous of the pearl fisheries, was celebrated for the same valuable product in the time of Pliny, when that island was called Tabrobane. The same writer also mentions the island of Stoidis as one of the places in the Persian Gulf especially celebrated for its pearl fishery. The same method of procuring pearls was practised in the time of the Romans as in modern times,—viz., by diving and dredging, but especially by the former. As the exertion demanded from divers is exceedingly violent, they are generally said to be unhealthy and short-lived. The best fishery ground is at a depth of 6 or 8 fathoms water, where the divers remain under water from 50 to 80 seconds, but rarely longer. Percival, in his Ceylon, tells of a diver who came from Anjango in 1797, and who could absolutely remain under water for full six minutes. They seldom use any precaution to prevent the water from injuring them, and make forty or fifty descents daily, bringing 100 oysters in their bag on each occasion. The fishing season seldom lasts above a month, beginning about the 5th of March. The pearl fisheries of the present day are situated on the west coast of Ceylon, especially in the Bay of Condatchy, the coast of Coromandel, the Bahrein Islands in the Persian Gulf, the coast of Algiers, the Sooloo Islands, the Gulf of Panama, and the island of Margarita. The finest oriental pearls are obtained from Ceylon and the Coromandel coast. These fisheries are in the hands of the government, by whom they are regulated and farmed out. The beds are annually surveyed, and their condition reported to the government. They are divided into four equal portions, one only of which is allowed to be worked in each year. By this means a three years’ rest is insured after each fishing, thus affording the growing meleagrinas, which are free and active in their young state, an opportunity of settling down on the bed, from which the weight of their full-grown shell prevents them from moving in the adult state. As perhaps no fishery of any kind produces such a vast amount of wealth, and gives so much scope for speculation in so short

PEA 357 a space of time, the shores of the Bay of Condatchy in the Pearl months of February, March, and April present a very ani- Islands mated spectacle. Here are found Indians and Jews— II merchants, boatmen, divers ; conjurors to chain the sharks, 1 earson• so dreaded by the divers ; Brahmins and Roman Catholic priests, many of the Malealie divers being Roman Catholics. The merchants and jewellers are busy and excited with their trade, often speculating upon the contents of their favourite boats before their arrival. The fleet of boats leaves the shore at ten o’clock at night upon the firing of a signal-gun, and returns at noon the following day. As soon as they appear, the gun is again fired, and the flags are hoisted; the shore is quickly crowded with anxious faces, and a perfect Babel is witnessed when the boats touch the strand, inquiries in twenty or more languages being shouted out by the eager crowd as to the result of the cruise. The cargo of each boat is quickly landed and taken possession of by its owners, who immediately commence opening the shells and searching for the pearls. These pass into other hands as soon as found ; and the excitement is greater than ever, caused by the hawkers and others engaged in the purchase and preparation of the gems for other markets, as they are all drilled and cleaned on the spot. (See Percival’s Ceylon.) It is almost impossible to tell the exact value of the produce of pearls, as there is no arrangement for the purpose, and the contracts taken by the government (about L.45,000 per annum) afford no criterion, as they barely pay the working expenses. The pearl fisheries of the Bahrein Islands, belonging to Persia, are said to yield annually from L.200,000 to L.240,000 sterling. A considerable fishery exists at Kurrachee, on the Bombay coast, which is let by the Indian government to contractors for about 40,000 rupees (L.4000) annually. The pearls are, however, of little value, being very small. They are called seed pearls, and are chiefly used in medicine bv vytians and hakims (Hindu and Mohammedan doctors). According to Dr Ainslie, the powder of pearls is supposed to have the virtue of strengthening weak eyes, and to have considerable efficacy in palpitations, nervous tremors, hemorrhage, and other affections. Hence the fishery for seed pearls is kept up with vigour; but they are obtained from the shells thrown on the coast by the surf, and not by diving. The South American pearl fisheries are carried on with great activity ; but the quality of the pearls is not equal to those of the East. In 1587, 697 lb. weight of pearls were imported from Colombo and Margarita into Spain. 1 hilip II. obtained a pearl from Margarita in 15/4 which weighed 250 carats, and was worth 150,000 dollars (L.31,875). In 1824 Messrs Rundell, Bridge, and Rundell obtained the exclusive right of using these fisheries for ten year*. Notwithstanding the great value of the pearls yielded by the various fisheries, it is probable that the shells of the animals now yield a far more profitable return than the jewels. In 1856 the total value of pearls imported into the United Kingdom was L.56,162; whereas the imports of 2102 tons of the shells were valued at L.76,544. (t. c. a.) Pearl Islands, a small group of islands belonging to New Granada, in the Bay of Panama, 60 miles S.E. of the town of Panama. They consist of S. Miguel, _ S. Jose, Pedro Gonzales, and other smaller ones ; and deiive then name from the pearls that are obtained there. PEARSON, Edward, D.D., a learned divine of the English Church, was descended from the famous Dr John Pearson, Bishop of Chester, and was born at Norwich on the 7th November, 1756. He was educated at Sidney Colleo-e, Cambridge, of which he afterwards became fellow and tutor. No sooner had he been appointed rector of Rempstone in Nottinghamshire in 1796, than he began a career of great professional activity. Llis zeal was manifested with marked effect in the inculcation of practical re-

858 PEA Pearson, ligion. He preached numerous sermons on special occasions, edited prayer-books and catechisms, and wrote tracts and discourses for the special enlightenment' of the lower classes. Nor were his faculties less willingly exerted against schismatics. He published Three Plain Reasons against Separating from the Established Church, Three Plain Reasons for Infant Baptism, and An Admonition against Lay-Preaching. But it was for his bold attack on supposed heresies among the Anglican hierarchy that Dr Pearson was chiefly famous. In 1800 and 1801 successively he attacked the theoretical and the practical part of Paley’s Moral and Political Philosophy; and in 1802 he published Remarks on the Controversy between the Arminian and the Calvinistic Ministers of the Church of England. He assailed the Calvinism of the evangelical party in the person of Overton of York in 1802, and of Simeon of Cambridge in 1810. His death happened in 1811, three years after he had been elected master of Sidney College, Cambridge. (See A brief Memoir of the Life, Writings, and, Correspondence of the Rev. Ed. Pearson, D. D., by W. P. Hunt, 1845, to which is appended a complete list of the author s writings.) Pearson, John, D.D., a learned English bishop, was born at Great Snoring in the county of Norfolk, on the 28th of February 1613. After his education at Eton and Cambridge, he entered into holy orders in 1639, and was the same year collated to the prebendary of Netherhaven, in the church of Sarum. In 1640 he was appointed chaplain to the Lord-Keeper Finch ; and was presented to the living of Thorington in Suffolk during the same year. In 1650 he was made preacher of St Clement’s, Eastcheap, in London. In 1657 he and Peter Gunning had a dispute with two Roman Catholics upon the subject of schism, a very unfair account of which was printed at Paris by one of the disputants, named Tyrwhitt, in 1658. In 1659 he published at London his celebrated Exposition of the Creed, dedicated to his parishioners of St Clement’s, Eastcheap, to whom the substance of that excellent work had been preached several years before, and by whom he had been desired to make it public. The same year he likewise published the Golden Remains of the ever-memorable Mr John Hales of Eton, to which he prefixed a preface containing a character of that eminent man, with whom he had been acquainted for many years, drawn up with great elegance and force. Pearson had also a principal share in the editing of the Critici Sacri, first published in 1660. Soon after the Restoration he was presented by Juxon, then bishop of London, to the rectory of St Christopher’s in that city ; created doctor of divinity at Cambridge, in pursuance of the king’s letters mandatory; installed prebendary of Ely, archdeacon of Surrey, and made master of Jesus College in Cambridge, all before the end of the year 1668. In 1661 he was appointed Margaret professor of divinity in that university; and on the first day of the ensuing year he was nominated one of the commissioners for the review of the Liturgy in the conference held at the Savoy. On the 14th of April 1662 he was admitted master of Trinity College in Cambridge ; and in August resigned his rectory of St Christopher’s and his prebend of Sarum. In 1667 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1672 he published at Cambridge Vindicice Epistolarum S. Ignatii, in 4to, in answer to Daille; to which is subjoined Isaaci Vossii Epistolce I)uce adversus Davidem Blondellum. Upon the death of the celebrated Dr Wilkins, Pearson was appointed his successor in the see of Chester, to which he was consecrated on the 9th of February 167216/3. In 1682 his Annales Cyprianici were published at Oxford, with Fell’s edition of that father’s works. Pearson was disabled from all public service by ill health a consi1

PEA derable time before his death, which happened at Chester on the 16th of July 1686. Pearson’s last work, the Two Dissertations on the Succession and Times of the First Bishops of Rome, formed the principal part of his Opera Posthuma, edited by Henry Dodwell in 1688. (See a Memoir of Bishop Pearson, prefixed to the edition of his Minor Theological Works, by Edward Churton, 2 vols., Oxford, 1844.) PEx4lT is formed by the partial decay of vegetable matter, especially of various species of mosses. It exists in most parts of Northern Europe. The vast peat-bogs of Ireland, amounting probably to not less than three million English acres, of an average depth of 19^ feet, represent an amount of raw material which is now being looked to by economists as a source of wealth, instead of being the exponent of sterility. Peat may be made valuable in various ways; first, as a source of fuel. At present, however, while coal is abundant and cheap, peat will probably be unable to compete with it. The time may come when the country will look with eagerness to Ireland for the supply of fuel, which is a necessary element in our greatness and prosperity; and that time may not be so far distant as is generally supposed, when we consider the fact that our present annual consumption of coal is about seventy million tons. In the year 1856 the quantity of coal raised in the United Kingdom amounted to 66,645,450 tons. In the article Fuel, some details are given respecting peat as a source of heat, and we may here give a few additional particulars. The heating power depending on the per-centage of pure carbon found in the peat, the source of the supply becomes a matter of importance, seeing how very variable is the value of the peat in different localities. Dr Sullivan states that “the variation in the quality of peat is so great, that no statements as to its economical value can be relied on which do not give the per-centage of ash, the per-centage of water, and the specific gravity. The variation in the latter amounts to 03 to IT for airdried turf from the great centre bogs.”1 Mr W. Longmaid states that “ the best samples of peat contained, when dried, about 70 to 75 per cent, of carbon ; but other samples were contaminated with earthy matters to the extent of from 5 to 10 per cent.; the average impurities may be taken at from 4 to 5 per cent., and we have found some samples of peat charcoal yielding 94 per cent, of fuel.”2 Messrs Gwynne & Co. have taken out several patents for the preparation of peat fuel. In one of their patent processes, the peat, as dug from the bog, is deprived of much of its moisture by being placed in a large centrifugal machine, after which it is ground to powder, and passed through a series of cylinders revolving in a heated chamber, where the remaining moisture is got rid of, and the powder raised to the proper temperature for compression ; it is carried from the last cylinder by two pockets to the compressing tables, and having passed through them, the solidified peat is ready for use. In another process the moisture is got rid of by passing the peat between cylinders containing, at equal distances along their outer surfaces, proj ections equal to the thickness of the slabs of peat. The drying of these is completed in the hot chamber, or they are at once converted into charcoal. It is found that when the peat powder has been dried at a temperature of about 180°, and in that state allowed to enter the hopper of the compressing engine, the tarry properties of the turf are just sufficiently developed to form a good cementing compound, and the brick of compressed turf, when cold, forms a dense and very pure fuel. Dr Letheby, who has examined this patent solidified peat fuel, reports that its specific gravity is as high as 1T40, its structure hard and dense, and the stowage weight of one cubic foot of the fuel is 71'24 lb., that of

Private communication to Professor Miller of King’s College, London.

2

Lecture before the Society of Arts, January 1855.

PEA Peat.

Newcastle coal being about 49'69 lb. 100 parts of the peat contain 9 of hygroscopic moisture ; they yield 55 parts of volatile matter, much of which is condensable, and 36 of charcoal. The charcoal contains 3'8 of ash. 7000 grains of the peat were distilled in an iron retort, and the volatile products were conducted through a red-hot iron tube, under the impression that the paraffine, &c., of the tar would be converted into a gaseous hydrocarbon of high illuminating power. The results were 2520 grains of peat coke, or charcoal; 1320 of ammoniacal liquor ; 360 of thick tar; and 2800 of combustible gas : the'gas occupied 625 cubic feet, and when burnt at the rate of 5 cubic feet an hour, from an Argand burner, with 15 holes, and a 7-inch chimney, it yielded a light equal to that of 7 sperm candles, each burning at the rate of 120 grains per hour. According to this analysis, 100 parts of the peat furnish Porous charcoal SG'OO Ammoniacal liquor IS'SG Thick tar, containing paraffine 5T4 Gas having the illuminating power of 7 candles 100-00 Although the illuminating power of the gas is not very high, the quantity is considerable (a ton of the material furnishing as much as 14,000 cubic feet), and as much of the gas and paraffine had been rendered gaseous by their passage through a red-hot tube, they might probably be further decomposed and converted into gases of high illuminating power. When the gas had been purified, by passing it through an alkaline mixture, it was found to be free from sulphur, in which respect it has an advantage over coalgas. In using the solidified peat as fuel, no opaque smoke is evolved, no sulphurous acid is set free, the heat is quickly raised and quickly diffused, the ashes do not form clinkers, and the peat does not contain any metallic sulphuret, or other substance that is likely to produce spontaneous combustion. Messrs Gwynne propose to apply their prepared peat to the reduction of ores by combining it with the proper fluxes; and having formed the furnace charge of fuel, flux, and ore, by powerful compression into globular masses, these are piled up in the furnace, the spaces between them admitting a sufficient quantity of air for maintaining the combustion. Peat charcoal is of great value in the manufacture of iron, on account of its being almost free from sulphur. Its deodorizing and purifying qualities are also high. According to Mallet (whose experiments on Irish peat have been generally confirmed by those of Brix on Prussian peat), the heating power of good dry turf, as compared with that of the coke of bituminous coal of good quality, is as 1: 7'61, and air-dried peat will convert about its own weight of water, at 60°, into steam at 212°. In Bavaria peat is dried artificially to a large extent as fuel, for the use of locomotive engines ; and at Koenigsbrunn it has for many years been employed in the puddling furnaces for the conversion of cast into wrought iron. Peat has thus been shown to be valuable,as a fuel; secondly, as a source of illuminating gas; and we have now •to refer to it in the third place, as a source of various products obtained from its destructive distillation. The ultimate elements of peat are essentially the same as those of wood and of coal, namely,—carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen. If, therefore, peat be distilled in close vessels, the resulting products will resemble those of a similar operation on wood or coal. In the Great Exhibition of 1851, Mr Oxland exhibited the products obtained by the destructive distillation of Dartmoor peat in cast iron retorts ; but as the expense of the process was too great for its adoption in Ireland, it occurred to Mr Reece to make use ot a blast-furnace similar to that employed in the smelting

PEC 359 of iron ore, with an additional contrivance for collecting Peck, the products of combustion. By this means peat has been made to yield ammonia, acetic acid, pyroxylic spirit, tar, naphtha, oils, and paraffine, all useful products in the arts. The ammonia which is fixed and separated by the addition of sulphuric acid, forming sulphate of ammonia, is employed in the preparation of carbonate and hydrochlorate of ammonia, of caustic ammonia, and in the production of manures and composts. The acetic acid, which is fixed and separated by the addition of lime, forming acetate of lime, is a useful source of acetic acid, and of various acetates consumed by the calico-printer. Pyroxylic spirit, or wood alcohol, may be separated by distillation, and is used in vapourlamps, and in the preparation of varnishes. Naphtha is also used in making varnishes, and for dissolving caoutchouc. The heavy and more fixed oils may be used as cheap lamp oils, and for making lamp-black, or, mixed with other unctuous substances, they are well fitted for the lubrication of machinery. Paraffine, either alone or mixed with sperm or stearine, forms excellent candles. Paraffine is a crystalline substance of the specific gravity 0870. It is destitute of taste, colour, and odour; at 112° it is a transparent oily liquid, and at a higher temperature it boils and distils without change ; its vapour burns with a white sootless flame. It resists the action of acids, alkalies, chlorine, and potassium, and cannot be united by fusion with camphor, naphthaline, benzole, or pitch. It is on account of this inertness as a chemical agent, or want of affinity, that it derives its name from parum affinis. It unites, however, with stearine, cetine, bees’-wax, and colophony, and dissolves in oil of turpentine and in naphtha. Mr Bagot states, that 100 tons . of peat yield 10,000 gallons of liquor containing ammonia, carbonic acid, acetic, and pyroligneous acids, pyroxylic spirit, and 1000 gallons of tar, containing paraffine, heavy oil and light oil. The inflammable gas is economically used by being passed under the steam-boiler. The 1000 gallons of liquor yield one ton of sulphate of ammonia, sufficient acetic acid to produce 13 cwt. of grey acetate of lime, and 52 gallons of pyroxylic spirit. The tar yields 300 lb. of paraffine, 200 gallons of naphtha, or light hydrocarbonaceous oil, and 100 gallons of heavy oils. The above results are, however, much too favourable for constant practice. Dr Sullivan has ascertained that none of the paraffines of commerce are definite bodies; but mixtures of different isomeric hydrocarbons. In relation to the distillation of peat, he says :—“ Now that a ready market exists, I have no doubt that 3 lb. ot paraffine per ton of good dry peat could be separated, especially by keeping over the summer oils until winter ; in cold winters, perhaps even more. Gas enough can be produced to work the factory (heating stills, &c.), but it has now been satisfactorily determined that the larger the supply of gas, the less will be the yield of tar, and vice versd. I he yield of tar when the temperature has been carefully attended to, has fully reached the anticipated quantity ; but neither the ammonia nor the wood spirit has. I he real source of piofit, therefore, is the tar. lar about 3 o per cent., paiaffine 0 13 per cent.” {Private co/iimuniccition.') Thus it will be seen that whether we regard peat as a fuel, as a source of charcoal, of gas, or of the various other products named, it cannot, except for the sake of the tar, be worked at a profit, until the manufactures connected with it can compete in price with similar products already in the market. It must, however, be remembered, with respect to peat as a source of fuel, that while coal would cost the Irish labourer three times as much as it costs the Northumbrian cottager ; the peat is at hand, andean be had almost for nothing. (c. T.) PECK, Francis, a laborious and learned antiquary, was born at Stamford, in Lincolnshire, on the 4th of May 1692, and educated at Cambridge, where he took the degrees of

i

360 PEC PEE reckham Bachelor and Master of Arts. After several unsuccessful teen parishes, twelve of which form the presbytery of PeeblesPeebles, and four belong to that of Biggar; but all are shire, Peebles *n poetical composition, he, in 1727, published in shire folio his Academia tertia Anglicana, or the Antiquarian under the synod of Lothian and Tweeddale. The surface of this county is hilly, and towards the S. ^ i Annals of Stamford, in Lincoln, Rutland, and Northampton Shires, inscribed to John, Duke of Rutland. Peck had mountainous, the principal high grounds in that quarter before this time obtained the rectory of Godeby, near Mel- being Hartfell, 2635, Broadlaw, 2740, and Dollarlaw, 2790 ton, in Leicestershire, the only preferment he ever enjoyed. feet above the level of the sea. None of the southern In 1732 he published the first volume of Desiderata Cu- counties of Scotland have so great a general elevation as riosa, or a collection of various scarce and curious pieces Peeblesshire; yet, with few exceptions, the hills are covered relating chiefly to matters of English history. This volume with green herbage, and afford good sheep pasture. On was dedicated to Lord William Manners, and was followed, the banks of its streams are many pleasant and fertile spots, has added greatly in 1735, by a second volume, dedicated to Dr Reynolds, and the large extent of young plantation r • Bishop of Lincoln. In the year 1735 Peck printed a com- to the amenity of the district, which w as formerly very bare plete catalogue of all the discourses written ibr and against of timber. The soil of the cultivated land, lying chiefly Popery in the time of King James II., containing in the on the sides of the lower hills and the banks of the streams, whole an account of 457 books and pamphlets, with re- is for the most part a light loam, with clay, moss, and moor ferences after each title, and an alphabetical list of the on the high grounds. Graywacke, both massive and writers on each side. After editing Dr Hammond’s Litters slaty, is the prevailing rock in the S. and middle of the in 1739, he next year produced Jlemoirs of the Life and county, and there are many good quarries in the neighActions of Oliver Cromwell, as delivered in Three Pane- bourhood of Peebles, though in other places it is too gyrics of Noll, written in Latin, and supposed to have laminated in its structure to be good for building. In been composed by John Milton, I^atin Secretary to Crom- the northern parts old red sandstone is the principal well; also, New Memoirs of the Life and Poetical Worhs formation. Coal, limestone, and freestone abound in of Mr John Milton, with an Examination cf Milton,s Style, the parishes of Linton and Newlands, on the N. side of and Explanatory and Critical A otes on different passages the county, and are profitably ivorked in the former of in Milton and Shakspeare, together with sundry poetical these parishes; in the latter ironstone is also found. At effusions, “in imitation of Milton.” At his death in 1743, Stobo, slate of a good quality is quarried, and sold with adthis singularly industrious author is said to have had no vantage to the proprietor. In the parish of Traquair there is also a slate quarry, but the increased use of Welsh slates fewer than nine different works in contemplation. PECKHAM, a large suburban hamlet of London, in the has affected the demand. The river Tweed, from which county of Surrey, 4 miles S.S.E. of the metropolis, consists this district is often called Tweeddale, rises from a well ot of a long line of handsome edifices. Among its numerous the same name, in the parish of Tweedsmuir, in the south1500 feet above the churches belonging to different sects there are some hand- western extremity of the county, about T some buildings. It has several schools, a lunatic asylum, level of the sea, and, flowing first N .E. and then E., dividing the county into two nearly equal parts, it passes into and a large silk factory. Pop. (1851) 19,444. PEDAL {pedale in Italian) is a musical term of various Selkirkshire at Gatehope Burn, after a winding course meanings. For example, pedal means one of the largest of about 36 miles. The Annan and the Clyde have pipes, or one of the foot-keys, of an organ ; or the foot-piece their source in the same hill. Of the other streams, here attached to a piano-forte, a harp, or the like, and by which, called waters, the most considerable are Biggar, Lyne, in the former, the intensity of the sound is modified, and, Peebles or Eddlestone, Leithen, Manner, and Quair, which in the latter, the chromatic changes of intonation are pro- fall into the Tweed ; and the North and South Esks, which duced. It also signifies a particular sort of passage in the pursue their course into Mid-Lothian. The lakes or lochs course of a piece of music, where the harmony moves upon are St Mary’s, Waterloch, and Slipperfield. These, as well a sustained sound, which is either the dominant or the as the rivulets, abound in the common fresh-water fish, and roost of the streams are occasionally visited by a few salmon ; tonic of the key. (See Music.) (g. f. g.) but these are not found in such numbers during the fishPEDESTAL. See Glossary to Architecture. ing season, even in the Tweed, within the bounds of this PEDIMENT. See Glossary to Architecture. PEDOMETER (ttovs, a foot, and ffrpov, a measure), county, as to afford a fishery that will pay rent. The climate of Peeblesshire, owing to its elevation, is an ingenious instrument in the form of a watch, designed to ascertain the space of ground over which one has tra- sharp and bracing, but as regards its other characteristics velled. Of the various contrivances of this sort, that of is similar to the rest of the south of Scotland. As this is almost exclusively a pastoral country, the Payne, watchmaker in Bond Street, London, is decidedly the most convenient. The instrument is so arranged that farms are in general targe, most of them being from 1000 when the body of the traveller is raised by the spring of to 4000 acres. On the arable land they are small, the his foot in walking, or by the motion of Ins horse, a small greater number being below 100 acres. These are in gelever is jerked downwards which communicates its motion neral held on leases for nineteen years, as in other parts of to the wheel-work of the machine. The distance passed Scotland. The average rental in 1843 was above 6s. an over is pointed out in miles on a dial-plate, by means of an acre. This is chiefly derived from live stock, especially index. In adapting the pedometer to carriage travelling, sheep, of which there may be about 120,000. These were the ordinary horizontal position of the lever becomes per- formerly of the black-faced heath variety, sometimes called pendicular, and the instrument is allowed to oscillate like a Tweeddale sheep, from the name of the county, or Linton sheep, from the name of a village on the northern side of pendulum. PEEBLESSHIRE, or Tiveeddale. a county in Scot- the district, where great fairs are held for the sale of them ; land, situated between 55. 24. and 55. 50. X. Lat., and be- but for a number of years the Cheviot breed, which bears tween 2. 45. and 3. 23. W. Long. It is bounded on the a much more valuable fleece, has been established on many N. by Mid-Lothian or Edinburghshire, E. by Selkirkshire, of the lower hills, and the majority of those now fed in the S. by Dumfriesshire, and W. by Lanarkshire. Its great- county are of this variety. The crops are the same as in est extent from X. to S. is about 30 miles, and its greatest other parts of Scotland, excepting that wheat is cultivated breadth from E. to W. about 22; the area being 354 only upon a very small scale. A variety of oats, called the square miles, or 226,488 English acres, of which only about red oat, and sometimes the Magbiehill oat, from its being an eighth part is fit for cultivation. It is divided into six- first cultivated here on that estate, is very well adapted to

PEE Peebles, hish and exposed situations, both because it ripens earlier than the common kind, and is less liable to be beaten out by r wind, whilst on good land it is found to be highly productive. Peeblesshire contains numerous noblemen’s and gentlemen’s seats, some of which are remarkable for antiquity or beauty. The principal of these are :—Nidpath Castle, belonging to the Earl of Wemyss; Traquair House, to the Earl of Traquair ; Darnhall, to Lord Elibank ; King’s-Meadows, to Sir Adam Hay,‘Bart.; Stobo Castle, to Sir Graham-Graham Montgomery, Bart., and others. The old valued rental was L.4328; the new valuation for 1858-9 was L.78,361. The number of proprietors is 193. The principal remains of antiquity are rude monumental stones at Stobo and Gatehope ; Roman camps at Lyne, Linton, and Manner; and British chesters, or hill forts, in various places. Drochil Castle in the parish of Newlands, which, however, was never finished, and Nidpath Castle in the parish of Peebles, are the only two which are in tolerable preservation ; but vestiges of ancient castles or towers abound in the whole valley of the Tweed. The remains of the Castle of Tinnes or Thanes are 6 feet in thickness, and the mortar is as hard as the stone. The county is traversed by numerous roads, which are kept in good repair. The principal are those which lead from Peebles to Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dumfries, and Melrose. The town of Peebles is also connected by railway with Edinburgh. The principal towns or villages in Peeblesshire are, Peebles, Linton, Eddlestone, Skirling, Broughton, and Innerleithen. At this last place there is a mineral well, which annually attracts numerous visitors to the village ; and both Peebles and Innerleithen have become favourite resorts for summer visitors. Several woollen manufactories are in operation in Innerleithen. According to the census of 1851, Peeblesshire contained in all 31 places of worship, of which 13 belonged to the Established Church, 8 to the Free Church, 5 to the United Presbyterians, 2 to the Episcopalians, and 1 to the Independents. There were at the same time 28 day-schools, with 1526 scholars; and 19 Sunday schools, with 879 scholars. The county, including the town of Peebles, returns one member to the House of Commons. The parliamentary constituency in 1857 wTas 389. Pop. (1811) 9935; (1821) 10.046; (1831) 10,578; (1841) 10,499; (1851) 10,738. Peebles, the county town of Peeblesshire, stands on the left bank of the river Tweed, here crossed by a bridge of five arches, 22 miles S. of Edinburgh, with which it is connected by railway. The Eddleston Water, which here joins the Tweed, flows through the town, divicVng it into an old and a new portion. The latter contains many substantial buildings; and since the completion of the railway numerous elegant villas have been built for summer residences. Peebles possesses a parish church, a Free church, and places of worship for United Presbyterians, Episcopalians, and Roman Catholics ; also a town-house, jail, grammar-school, and scientific institute. The Chambers’ Institution, the gilt of \\ illiam Chambers, Esq., to his native place, is a picturesque suite of buildings, containing reading-room, gallery of art, library, museum, and public hall. Peebles is not noted for any particular trade or manufacture. It was longahunting residence of the Scottish kings, and Alexander III. founded here in 1260 a monastery for Red Friars, some remains of which still exist. In 1357 it sent two members to Parliament. It was destroyed by the English in 1545, but was afterwards rebuilt and surrounded by walls, which continued standing till 1707. The burgh is governed by a provost, 2 bailies, a treasurer, dean of guild, and 7 councillors : municipal constituency, 97. The annual revenue of the burgh property is about L.300. The annual value of real property in the burgh in 1858-9 was L.4592. Pop. (1851) 1982; inhabited houses, 310. vol. xvn.

PEE PEEL, The Right Honourable Sir Robert, Bart., twice prime minister, and for many years the leading statesman of England, was born on the 5th of February 1788 in a cottage near Chamber Hall, the seat of his family, in the neighbourhood of Bury—Chamber Hall itself being at the time under repair. He was a scion of that new aristocracy of wealth which sprang from the rapid progress of mechanical discovery and manufactures in the latter part of the eighteenth century. His ancestors were Yorkshire yeomen in the district of Craven, whence they migrated to Blackburn in Lancashire. His grandfather, Robert Peel, first of Peelfold, and afterwards of Brookside, near Blackburn, was a calico-printer, who, appreciating the discovery of his townsman Flargreaves, took to cottonspinning with the spinning-jenny, and grew a wealthy man. His father Robert Peel, third son of the last named, carried on the same business at Bury, with still greater success, in partnership with Mr Yates, whose daughter Ellen he married; made aprincelyfortune ; became the owner of Drayton Manor, and member of Parliament for the neighbouring borough of Tamworth ; was a trusted and honoured, as well as ardent, supporter of Mr Pitt; contributed magnificently towards the support of that leader’s war policy; was rewarded with a baronetcy; and founded a rich and powerful house, on whose arms he emblazoned, and in whose motto he commemorated, the prosperous industry from which it sprang. The great minister was always proud of the selfwon honours of his family ; and as a public man his heart strongly felt the bias of his birth. He was sent, however, to be educated with the sons of the old nobility and gentry at Harrow, one of the most aristocratic of English schools, and at Christ Church, then the most aristocratic of English colleges. At Harrow, according to the accounts of his contemporaries, he was a steady, industrious boy; the best scholar in the school; fonder of solitary walks than of the games of his companions, but ready to help those who were duller than himself; and not unpopular among his fellows. At Christ Church, where he entered as a gentleman commoner, he studied hard, and was the first who, under the new examination statutes, took a first class both in classics and in mathematics. His examination in the Schools for his B.A. degree in Michaelmas term 1808 was an academical ovation in presence of a numerous audience, who came to hear the first man of the day; and a relation who Avas at Oxford at the time has recorded that the triumph, like both the triumphs and reverses of after-life, was calmly borne. From his classical studies Sir Robert derived not only the classical, though somewhat pompous character of his speeches, and the Latin quotations with which thev were often happily interspersed, but something of his lofty meal of political ambition. Nor did he ever cease to love these pursuits of his youth ; and in 1837, when elected lord rector of Glasgow university, he, in his inaugural speech, passed a glowing eulogy on classical education, lo his mathematical training, which was then not common among public men, he no doubt owed in part his method, his clearness, his great power of grasping steadily and worxino- out difficult and complicated questions. His speeches show that, in addition to his academical knowledge, he was well versed in English literature, in history, and in the principles of law. In after-life he had a taste for art, though none for music, and took an interest in science, though he had no scientific education. While reading hard, he did not neglect to develop his tall and vigorous frame, and fortify his strong constitution, by manly and gentlemanlike exercises ; and though he lost his life partly through his bad riding, he was always a good shot and an untiring walker after came. Sprung from the most religious class of English society, he grew up and remained through life a religious man; and from that source drew deep conscientiousness and tranquillity under all difficulties and in all fortunes.

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PEEL. His Oxford education confirmed him in the principles of gave great satisfaction to merchants and others with whom the Protestant Church of England. His practical mind he had to deal. But his greatest service to Ireland as remained satisfied with the doctrines of his youth ; and he secretary was the institution of the regular Irish constabunever showed that he had studied the great religious con- lary, nicknamed after him “ Peelers,” for the protection of troversies, or that he understood the great religious move- life and property in a country where neither life nor property were secure. His moderation of tone did not save ments of his day. In 1809, being then in his twenty-second year, he was him from the violent abuse of O’Connell, whom he, young, brought into Parliament for the close borough of Cashel, hot-tempered (though his temper was generally under perwhich he afterwards exchanged for Chippenham ; and com- fect control), and sensitive on the point of honour, was illmenced his parliamentary career under the eye of his advised enough to challenge,—an affair which covered them father, then member for Tamworth, who fondly saw in him both with ridicule at the time, and left O’Connell his bitter the future leader of the Tory party. Pitt, Fox, and Burke enemy for life. In 1817 he obtained the highest parliawere gone. Sheridan shone with an expiring ray. But in mentary distinction of the Tory party, by being elected that House of Commons sat Wilberforce, ^ indham, Tier- member for the university of Oxford—an honour for which ney, Grattan, Perceval, Castlereagh, Plunkett, Romilly, he was chosen in preference to Canning on account of his Mackintosh, Burdett, Whitbread, Horner, Brougham, Par- hostility to Catholic emancipation, Lord Eldon lending him nell, Huskisson, and above all, George Canning. Lord Pal- his best support. In the following year he resigned the merston entered the House at the same time, and Lord Irish secretanship, of the odious work of which he had John Russell a few years afterw’ards. Among these men long been very weary, and remained out of office till 1822. young Peel had to rise. And he rose, not by splendid But he still supported government with official zeal, even in eloquence, by profound political philosophy, or by great the question of the “ Peterloo massacre.” In the affair of originality of thought, but by the closest attention to all his Queen Caroline, however, he stood somewhat aloof, not apparliamentary duties, by a study of all the business ot Par- proving the cause of government, and sensitive to popular liament, which made him at length perfect master of all opinion ; and when Canning retired on account of this affair, public questions and of all public interests, and by a style he declined Lord Liverpool’s invitation to take the vacant of speaking which, owing its force not to high flights ot place in the cabinet. During this break in his tenure of oratory, but to knowledge of the subject in hand, clearness office he had some time for reflection, which there was enough of exposition, close reasoning, and tact in dealing with a in the aspect of the political world to move. But early office parliamentary audience, backed by the character and posi- had done its work. It had given him excellent business tion of the speaker, improved with his information, practice, habits, great knowledge, and a high position ; but it had station, and experience, till it gave him an unrivalled com- made him somewhat stiff, somewhat punctilious, somemand over the House of Commons. The Tory party was what too cold and reserved to win the hearts of those then all-powerful at home ; while abroad Europe was at the whose confidence he might command, and somewhat over feet of Napoleon. But Napoleon’s fortune was about to anxious for formal justifications when he had better have turn ; and with the close of the struggle against revolu- left the essential patriotism and probity of his conduct to tionary France, political progress in England was soon to the judgment of men of honour and the heart of the people. resume the march which that struggle had arrested. Young At the same time he was no pedant in business; in corPeel’s lot, however, was cast, through his father, with the responding on political subjects he loved to throw off offiTory party. In his maiden speech, seconding the Address, cial forms, and communicate his views with the freedom of he defended the Walcheren expedition, which he again private correspondence; and where his confidence was defended soon afterwards against the report of Lord Por- given, it was given without reserve. At this period he was made chairman of the Bullion chester’s committee. It is said that even then Lord Liverpool discerned in him a dangerous tendency to think for Committee, on the death of Mr Horner. He was chosen himself, and told his father that he must be put at once into for this important office by Mr Huskisson, Mr Ricardo, and the harness of office. Into the harness of office, at all their fellow Economists, who saw in him a mind open to events, he was put, being made Under-Secretary for the conviction, though he owed hereditary allegiance to Pitt’s Colonies by Mr Perceval in 1811. In 1812, being then financial policy, and had actually voted with his Pittite only in his twenty-fifth year, he w’as transferred by Lord father for a resolution of Lord Liverpool’s government Liverpool to the more important but unhappy post of Se- denying the existence of any depreciation in the paper cretary for Ireland. There he was engaged till 1817 in currency. The choice proved judicious. Mr Peel was conmaintaining, by insurrection acts and other repressive mea- verted to the currency doctrines of the Economists, and prosures, English and Protestant ascendancy over a country claimed his conversion in a great speech on the 24th of heaving with discontent, teeming with conspiracy, and ever May 1819, in which he moved and carried four resolutions ready to burst into rebellion. A middle course between embodying the recommendations of the Bullion Committee Irish parties was impossible. Mr Peel became by the ne- in favour of a return to cash payments. His T financial cessity of his situation “ Orange Peel,” and plied the esta- reputation was made, and his currency doctrines w ere fixed, blished engines of coercion and patronage with a vigorous from that hour; and his co-operation with the Economists hand. At the same time, it wras his regular task to combat on this occasion gave a liberal turn to his commercial prinGrattan, Plunkett, Canning, and the other movers and ad- ciples. At the same time, he somewhat diverged from his vocates of Catholic emancipation in the House of Commons. party, and particularly from his father, who remained faithHe,however,always spoke on thisquestion with a coolness ot ful to Mr Pitt’s depreciated paper, and between whom and temper wonderful in hot youth, with the utmost courtesy his schismatic son a solemn and touching passage occurred towards his opponents, and with wTarm expressions ot sym- in the debate. The author of the Cash Payments Act had pathy and even of admiration for the Irish people. Nor was often to defend his policy; and he generally defended it the ground he took against the Catholics that of religious firmlv, though he may be said to have given way in being principle never to be abandoned, but. that of political ex- a party to the Small Notes Respite Act of 1822. The pediency, which political necessity might overcome. He also, act has been often said to have been hard on the debtor thus early, did his best to advocate and promote secular interest, including the nation as debtor, because it required education in Ireland as a means of reconciling sects and debts to be paid in cash which had been contracted in deraising the character of the people. He materially im- preciated paper; and Mr Peel, as heir to a great fundholder, proved the conduct of ordinary business in his office, and was even charged with being biassed by his personal inter-

PEEL. ests. But it is answered that the Bank Restriction Acts, ground for saying that Mr Peel “hunted Canning to death.” under which the depreciated paper had circulated, them- Canning himself said to a friend, who reported it to Sir selves contained a provision for a return to cash payments Robert Peel, that “ Peel was the only man who had behaved decently towards him.” Their private intimacy resix months after peace. In 1820 Mr Peel married Julia, daughter of General mained uninterrupted to the end; and Canning’s son afterSir John Floyd, who bore him five sons and two daughters. w-ards entered public life under the auspices of Peel. The One of his sons, Frederick, he lived to see a rising man in charge of having urged Catholic emancipation on Lord the House of Commons; while another, William, the Liverpool in 1825, and opposed Mr Canning for being a sailor, has run a bright course in another sphere, and found friend to it in 1827, made against Sir Robert Peel in the a glorious grave. The writers who have most severely fierce corn-law debates of 1846, has been withdrawn by censured Sir Robert Peel as a public man, have suspended those who made it. In January 1828, after Canning’s death, the Duke of their censures to dwell on the virtues of his private and domestic life. It was virtuous and it was happy, drawing Wellington formed a Tory government, destined to be the happiness from the purest source. He was *not only a last, in which Mr Peel was Home Secretary, leader of the most loving husband and father, but a true and warm- House of Commons, and probably virtual prime minister. hearted friend. In Whitehall Gardens or at Drayton Of this cabinet, Tory as it was, the impracticable Lord Manor he gladly opened his mind, wearied with the cares Eldon was not a member, and Mr Huskisson and four more of state, to the enjoyments of a circle in which it was of Canning’s friends were. Its policy was to endeavour to his pleasure and his pride to gather some of the most dis- stave off the growing demand for organic change by admitinguished intellects of the day. He loved free and cheer- nistrative reform, and by lightening the burdens of the ful talk, in which he showed a keen sense of the ridiculous, people. The civil list was retrenched with an unsparing and a dry, sarcastic humour; which often broke out also hand, and the public expenditure w-as reduced low-er than in his speeches in the House of Commons. He loved the it had been since the Revolutionary war, or has been since. conversation of men of science; he loved art, and was a Mr Peel also introduced into London the improved system great collector of pictures; he loved farming and agricul- of police which he had previously introduced with so much tural improvements ; he loved promoting useful works, and success into Ireland. But the tide ran too strong to be the advancement of knowledge; he loved making his thus headed. First the government were compelled, after a friends, dependents, tenants, and neighbours happy. And, defeat in the House of Commons, to acquiesce in the repeal cold as he was in public, even to those whom he desired to of the Test and Corporation Acts, Mr Peel bringing over win, yet in his gay and social hour, few men whose minds their High Church supporters, as far as he could, through were so laden could be gayer or more social than Sir Dr Lloyd, Bishop of Oxford, his tutor at Christ Church, and now his beloved friend and the partner of his counsels Robert Peel. In 1822 Mr Peel consented to strengthen the enfeebled in political matters affecting the interests of the Church. ministry of Lord Liverpool by becoming Home Secretary; Immediately afterwards, the question of Catholic emanciand in that capacity he had again to undertake the office of pation was brought to a crisis by the menacing power of coercing the growing discontent of Ireland, of which he the Catholic Association and the election of O’Connell for remained the real administrator, and had again to lead in the county of Clare. Mr Peel expressed to the Duke of the House of Commons the opposition to the rising cause of Wellington his conviction that the Catholic question must Catholic emancipation. In 1825, being beaten on the Catho- be settled. The Duke consented. The consent of the lic question in the House of Commons, he wished to resign king, which could scarcely have been obtained except by office; but Lord Liverpool pleaded that his resignation would the Duke and Mr Peel, was extorted, withdrawn (the break up the government. He found a happier and more con- ministers being out for a few hours), and again extorted; genial task in reforming and humanizing the criminal law, and on the 5th of March 1829, Mr Peel proposed Catholic especially those parts of it which relate to offences against pro- emancipation in a speech of five hours and a half, which perty and offences punishable by death. The five acts in which was listened to with unflagging attention, and concluded Mr Peel accomplished this great work, the first step towards amidst cheers which were heard in Westminster Hall. The a complete and civilized code, as well as the great speech of apostate was overwhelmed with obloquy. Having been March 9, 1826, in which he opened the subject to the elected for the University of Oxford as a leading oppoHouse, will form one of the most solid and enduring monu- nent of the Catholics, he had thought it right to resign his ments of his fame. Criminal law reform was the reform of seat on being converted to emancipation. His friends put Romilly and Mackintosh, from the hands of the latter of him again in nomination, but he was defeated by Sir R. whom Peel received it. But the masterly bills in which it H. Inglis, though the great majority of distinction and was embodied were the bills of Peel,—not himself a crea- intellect was on his side. He took refuge in the close tive genius, but, like the founder of his house, a profound borough of Westbury, whence he afterwards removed to appreciator of other men’s ere Jons, and unrivalled in the Tam worth, for which he sat till his death preferring that power of giving them practical and complete effect. This secure and friendly connection to the offers of larger congreat measure, beyond the sphere of party, was probably stituencies. Catholic emancipation was forced on Mr Peel also another step in the emancipation of Mr Peel’s mind. by circumstances ; but it was mainly owing to him that the In 1827 the Liverpool Ministry was broken up by the measure was thorough, and unclogged by invidious condifatal illness of its chief; and under the new premier, tions. This great concession, however, did not save the Tory George Canning, Mr Peel, like the Duke of Wellington government. The French Revolution of July 1830 gave fresh and other high Ton,- members of Lord Liverpool’s cabinet, strength to the movement against them, though, schooled refused to serve. Mr Canning and Mr Peel were rivals; by the past, they promptly recognised King Louis Philippe. but we need not interpret as mere personal rivalry, that The parliamentary reform movement was joined by some which was certainly in part at least a real difference of con- of their offended Protestant supporters. The Duke of nection and opinion. Canning took a Liberal line, and Wellington committed them fatally against all reform, first was supported by many of the Whigs; the seceders were by cashiering Mr Huskisson for voting in favour of giving Tories, and it is difficult to see how their position in Can- the forfeited franchise of East Retford to Birmingham, and ning s cabinet could have been otherwise than a false one. then by a violent anti-reform declaration in the House of Separation led to public coolness and occasional approaches Lords. The elections went against them on the demise of to bitterness on both sides in debate. But there seems no the Crown; they were compelled, by popular feeling, to

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PEE L. put off the king’s visit to the city ; they were beaten on of 1835, and, after struggling on for six weeks longer, was v Peel, Sir H. Parnell’s motion for a committee on the civil list, finally beaten, and resigned on the question of appropriat- ing the surplus revenues of the Church in Ireland to naand resigned. While in office, Mr Peel succeeded to the baronetcy, Dray- tional education. His time had not yet come; but the ton Manor, and a great estate, by the death of his father, capacity, energy, and resource he displayed in this short May 3, 1830. The old man had lived to see his fondest tenure of office raised him immensely in the estimation hopes fulfilled in the greatness of his son; but he had also of the House, his party, and the country. Of the great lived to see that a father must not expect to fix his son’s budget of practical reforms which he brought forward, the opinions,—above all, the opinions of such a son as Sir Robert plan for the commutation of tithes, the ecclesiastical comPeel, and in such an age as that which followed the French mission, and the plan for settling the question of dissenters’ marriages, bore fruit, then or afterwards. His scheme for Revolution. The ability and obstinacy of Sir Robert Peel’s opposition settling the question of dissenters’ marriages, framed in the to the Reform Bill won back for him the allegiance of his amplest spirit of liberality, was a striking instance of his party. His opposition was able and obstinate; but it was habit of doing thoroughly and without reserve that which temperate, and not such as to inflame the fierce passions of he had once made up his mind to do. From 1835 to 1840 he pursued the same course of the time, delay the return of civil peace, or put an insurmountable barrier between his friends and the more mo- patient and far-sighted opposition, the end of which, sure, derate among their opponents. Once only he betrayed the though distant, was not only office, but power. In 1837 suppressed fire of his temper. It was in the famous debate the Conservative members of the House of Commons, with of the 22d April 1831, when his speech w'as broken off by victory now in sight, gave their leader a grand banquet at the arrival of the king to dissolve the Parliament which had Merchant Taylors’ Hall, where he proclaimed, in a great thrown out reform. He refused to join the Duke of Well- speech, the creed and objects of his party. In 1839, the ington in the desperate enterprize of forming a Tory govern- Whigs being beaten on the Jamaica question, he was called ment at the height of the storm, when the Grey ministry on to form a government, but failed, through the refusal of had gone out on the refusal of the king to promise them an the Queen, by advice of Lords John Russell and Palmerunlimited creation of peers. By this conduct he secured ston, to part with the ladies of her bedchamber, whom he for his party the full benefit of the reaction which was sure, believed, or professed to believe it essential to replace by and which he no doubt knew was sure, to ensue. The ladies not connected with his political opponents. His time general election of 1832, after the passing of the Reform was not even yet fully come. In 1840 he was hurried, it is Bill, left him with barely a hundred followers in the House believed, by the ardour of his followers, into a premature moof Commons ; but this handful rapidly swelled under his tion of want of confidence, which was brought forward by management into the great Conservative party. He frankly Sir John Yarde Buller, and failed. But in the following accepted the Reform Act, stamped it as final, taught his year a similar motion was carried by a majority of one, and party to register instead of despairing, appealed to the in- the Whigs were compelled to appeal to the country. The telligence of the middle classes, whose new-born power he result was a majority of ninety-one against them, on a motion appreciated, steadily supported the Whig ministers against of want of confidence in the autumn of 1841 ; upon which the Radicals and O’Connell, and gained every moral ad- they resigned; and Sir Robert Peel becoming First Lord vantage which the most dignified and constitutional tactics of the Treasury, with a commanding majority in both Houses could afford. The changes which the Reform Bill neces- of Parliament, the country in his favour, and a staff of colsarily drew with it, such as municipal reform, he rather leagues and subordinates unrivalled perhaps in the annals watched in the Conservative interest than strongly op- of English administrations, grasped with no doubtful grasp posed. To this policy, and to the great Parliamentary the reins of power. powers of its author, it was mainly due that, in the course The crisis called for a master-hand. The finances were of a few years, the Conservatives were as strong in the in disorder. For some years there had been a growing dereformed Parliament as the Tories had been in the unre- ficit, which for 1841 was upwards of two millions, and atformed. It is vain to deny the praise of genius to such tempts to supply this deficit by additions to assessed taxes a leader, though his genius may have been of a practical, and customs duties had failed. Distress and discontent not of a speculative or imaginative kind. Nor is it wonder- reigned in the country, especially among the trading and ful if the skill of such a pilot, and a pilot who had steered manufacturing classes. The great financier took till the for many years over such waters, sometimes resembled spring of 1842 to mature his plans. He then boldly supcraft. His skill sometimes resembled craft.; but the Duke plied the deficit by imposing an income-tax on all incomes of Wellington’s emphatic eulogy on him was, “ Of all the above a certain amount. He accompanied this tax with a men I ever knew, he had the greatest regard for truth.” reform of the tariff by which prohibitory duties were reThe Duke might have added that his own question, “ How moved and other duties abated on a vast number of articles is the King’s government to be carried on in a reformed of import, especially the raw materials of manufactures and Parliament ?” was mainly solved by the temperate and prime articles of food. The increased consumption, as the constitutional policy of Sir Robert Peel, and by his personal reformer expected, countervailed the reduction of duty. influence on the debates and proceedings of the House of The income-tax was renewed, and the reform of the tariff Commons during the years which followed the Reform Act. carried still further on the same principle, in 1845. The In 1834, on the dismissal of the Melbourne ministry, result was, in place of a deficit of upwards of two millions, power came to Sir Robert Peel before he expected or a surplus of five millions in 1845, and the removal of seven desired it. He hurried from Rome at the call of the millions and a half of taxes up to 1847, not only without Duke of Wellington,—whose sagacious modesty knew his loss, but with gain to the ordinary revenue of the country. superior in politics, and yielded him the first place,— The prosperous state of the finances and of public affairs and became Prime Minister, holding the two offices of also permitted a reduction of the interest on a portion of the First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Ex- national debt, giving a yearly saving at once of L.650,000, chequer. He vainly sought to include in his cabinet the and ultimately of a million and a quarter to the public. In two recent seceders from the Whigs, Lord Stanley and Sir 1844 another great financial measure, the Bank Charter Act, James Graham. A dissolution gave him a great increase was passed, and, though severely controverted, and twice of strength in the House, but not enough. He was beaten suspended at a desperate crisis, has ever since regulated on the election of the Speaker at the opening of the session the currency of the country. In Ireland, O’Connell’s agi-

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PEEL. 365 tation for the repeal of the Union had now assumed threat- scale, and thereby caused the secession from the cabinet Peel. ...J ening proportions, and verged upon rebellion. The great of the Duke of Buckingham. He had alarmed the farmers ^ agitator was prosecuted, with his chief adherents, for con- by admitting foreign cattle and meat under his new tariff, spiracy and sedition ; and though the conviction was quashed and by admitting Canadian corn. He had done his best in for informality, Repeal was quelled in its chief. At the same his speeches to put the maintenance of the corn laws on time a healing hand was extended to Ireland. The Chari- low ground, and to wean the landed interest from their table Bequests Act gave Roman Catholics their fair share reliance on protection. But to protection the landed inin the administration of charities, and legal power to endow terest remained wedded ; and it is hard to say how far Sir their own religion. The allowances to Maynooth were Robert Peel himself dreaded the consequences of repeal to largely increased, notwithstanding violent Protestant op- the steadiness of prices and to mortgaged estates. The position. Three queen’s colleges, for the higher education approach of the Irish famine in 1845 decisively turned the of all the youth of Ireland, without distinction of religion, wavering balance. The ports must be opened, and being were founded, notwithstanding violent opposition, both Pro- opened, they could not again be closed. The Clare electestant and Roman Catholic. The principle of toleration, tion and Catholic Emancipation were {flayed over again. once accepted, w'as thoroughly carried out. The last rem- Sir Robert proposed to his cabinet the repeal of the corn nants of the penal laws were swept from the statute-book, laws. Lord Stanley and the Duke of Buccleuch dissented, and justice was extended to the Roman Catholic Church in and Sir Robert resigned. But Lord John Russell failed Canada and Malta. In the same spirit acts were passed to form a new government. Sir Robert again came into for clearing from doubt Irish Presbyterian marriages, for office; and now, with the consent of all the cabinet but quieting the titles of a large number of Dissenters’ chapels in Lord Stanley, who retired, he, in a great speech on the England, and removing the municipal disabilities of the Jews. 27th January 1846, brought the repeal of the Corn Laws The grant for national education was trebled, and an at- before the House of Commons. In the long and fierce tempt was made, though in vain, to introduce effective edu- debate that ensued he was overwhelmed, both by political cation clauses into the factory bills. To the alienation of any and personal enemies, with the most virulent invective, part of the revenues of the Established Church, Sir Robert which he bore with his wonted calmness, and to which he Peel, a Conservative to the last, never would consent; but made no retorts. His measure was carried; but immehe had issued the Ecclesiastical Commission, and he now diately afterwards the offended Protectionists, goaded by made better provision for a number of populous parishes Lord George Bentinck and Mr Disraeli, coalesced with the by a redistribution of part of the revenues of the church. Whigs, and threw him out on the Irish Coercion Bill. He The weakest part of the conduct of this great government, went home from his defeat, escorted by a great crowd, who perhaps, was its failure to control the railway mania by uncovered as he passed, and immediately resigned. So fell promptly laying down the lines on a government plan. It a Conservative government, which would otherwise have had prepared a palliative measure in 1846, but was com- probably ended only with the life of its chief. I hose who pelled to sacrifice this, like all other secondary measures, overthrew Sir Robert Peel have dwelt on what they naturto the repeal of the Corn Laws. It failed also, though ally believe to have been the bitterness of his fall. It is not without an effort, to avert the great schism in the certain that he was deeply pained by the rupture with his Church of Scotland. Abroad it was as prosperous as at party; but it is doubtful whether otherwise Ins fall was so^ home. It had found war in China and disaster and dis- bitter. For evening had begun to steal over his long day of grace in Affghanistan. It speedily ended the war in China toil ; he had the memory of immense labours gone through, with success, and that in Affghanistan with honour. By and of great things achieved in the service of the state ; he the hand of its Governor-General of India, the invading had a kingly position in the country, great wealth, fine tastes, Sikhs were destroyed upon the Sutlej. M. Guizot has and a happy home. Though out of office he was not out of power. He had said that the objects—not only the ostensible, but the real objects—of Sir Robert Peel’s foreign policy were peace and “lost a party, but won a nation.” The Whig ministiy justice among nations. The angry and dangerous ques- which succeeded him leant much on his support, with which tions with France touching the right of search, the war in he never taxed them. He joined them in carrying forward Morocco, and the Tahiti affair, and the angry and dangerous free trade principles by the repeal^ of the Navigation questions with the United States touching the Maine boun- Laws. He joined them in carrying forward the principle dary and the Oregon territory, were happily settled by of religious liberty by the bill for the emancipation of the frank and patient negotiation. In this, and in other parts of Jews. One great measure was his own. It was the Enhis administration, Sir Robert Peel was well seconded by cumbered Estates Bill for Ireland, which transferred the the ability of his colleagues; but the Premier himself was land of that country from ruined landlords to solvent owners capable of performing the duties of property towards the the soul of all. But there was a canker in all this greatness. There people. While in office he had probed, by the Devon Comwere malcontents in Sir Robert Peel’s party whose pre- mission of Inquiry, the mortal sore which the Encumbered sence often caused embarrassment, and twice collision Estates Act healed. On the 28th of June )8o0 he made a and scandal. The Young Englanders disliked him because great speech on the Greek question agamst Loid I almc.he had hoisted the flag of Conservatism instead of Tory- ston’s foreign policy of interference. This speech being ism on the morrow of the Reform Bill. The strong phi- against the government, was thought to show that he was lanthropists and Tory Chartists disliked him because he ready to return to office. It was his last. On the follow■was a strict economist and an upholder of the new poor in" dav he was thrown from his horse on Constitution law. But the fatal question was protection. That ques- Hill and mortally injured by the fall. Three days he lintion was being fast brought to a crisis by public opinion gered in all the pain which the quick nerves of genius can and the Anti-Corn Law League. Sir Robert Peel had endure. On the fourth (July 2, 1850) he took the sacrabeen long in principle a free trader. Since his accession ment, bade a calm farewell to his family and friends, and to power a new responsibility had fallen on him, which died ; and a great sorrow fell on the whole land. All the compelled him to think less of a class and more of the tributes which respect and gratitude could pay were pafo people. He had expressed to M. Guizot a deep, nay, a to him by the Sovereign, by parliament, by public men of passionate conviction that something must be done to re- all parties, bv the country, by the press, and, above all, by lieve the suffering and precarious condition of the labour- the great towns and the masses of the people to whom he ing classes. He had lowered the duties of the sliding had given “ bread unleavened with injustice.” He would

366 Peel

PEE been buried among the great men of England in

PEG tolerable share of the distinction ordinarily accorded to poets Peele. ^Yestnminster Abbey, but his will desired that he might be of his time,—viz., extreme poverty. He associated with ^ i Drayton church. It also renounced a peerage for Mai low e, Greene, Nash, Lodge, and Watson, and seems to his family, as he had before declined the garter for himself have mingled as eagerly in the dissipations of the metropolis when offered him by the Queen through Lord Aberdeen. as the most dissolute of those gifted men. Peele’s charThose who judge Sir Robert Peel will remember that acter has doubtless suffered, however, from the absurd and he was bred a Tory in days when party was a religion ; that obviously fictitious tract entitled The Merrie Conceited he entered parliament a youth, was in office at twenty-four, Tests of George Peele, which represents him as a low and and secretary for Ireland at twenty-five ; that his public vulgar sharper, rejoicing in rascality, and glorying in the life extended over a long period rife with change; and that meanest frauds. It is doubtless a counterpart to Ben his own changes were all forwards and with the advancing Johnson's Jests, or the yet more preposterous Merry and intellect of the time. They will enumerate the great Diverting Exploits of George Buchanan, commonly called practical improvements, and the great acts of legislative the King's Fool. Honest old Dekker introduces us to justice of those days,— Catholic emancipation, freedom for Peele and his set in the Elysian fields amid the “ Grove of Dissenters, free trade, the great reforms in police, criminal Bay Trees,” where, seated amid thick laurel, by a stream law, currency, finance, the Irish Encumbered Estates Act, “ that made music in the running,” “ from them came forth even the encouragement of agricultural improvement by such harmonious sounds that birdes build nests onely in the loans of public money,—and consider how large a share Sir trees there to teach tunes to their young ones prettily.” Robert Peel had, if not in originating, in giving thorough Peele was not the sweetest singer there, however, for young practical effect to all. They will consider, that of what he Kit Marlowe was among them. The date of Peele’s death did nothing has been undone. They will reflect that, as is unknown. He was dead in 1598, as appears from the a parliamentary statesman he could not govern without a Palladis Tamia of Francis Meres, who informs us, with party, and that it is difficult to govern at once for a party what truth it is difficult to say, that his end was hastened and for the whole people. They will compare his admin- by his vices. istration with those that preceded and those that followed, The earliest of Peele’s productions known to us is a copy and the state and fortunes of his party when he was at its of verses prefixed to Watson’s 'EKaro/^Tra^ta, published head, with its state and fortunes after his fall. They will about 1581. Besides a number of miscellaneous poems, think of the peace and good-will which his foreign policy some of them possessing very great merit, speeches for diffused over Europe. They will think of his ardent love of pageants, &c., we find in Mr Dyce’s collection of Peele’s his country; of his abstinence from intrigue, violence, and writings six dramas in all, but forming not more, in the faction ; of his boundless labour through a long life devoted estimation of that judicious critic, than one-half of his entire to the public service. Whether he was a model of states- dramatic works. In 1584 his pastoral drama of the Armanship may be doubted. Models of statesmanship are raignment of Paris was printed anonymously; but the rare, if by a model of statesmanship is meant a great ad- allusion to it by Peele’s friend Nash, in the Preface to ministrator and party leader, a great political philosopher, Greene’s Arcadia, 1587, leaves no doubt as to the authorand a great independent orator, all in one. But if the ship. The Famous Chronicle History of King Edward 1. question is, whether he was a ruler loved and trusted by appeared in 1593, and possesses much interest, as well from the English people, there is no arguing against the tears of its extravagance as from its occasional tragic energy. In a nation. 1594 was published the anonymous tragedy of The Battle Those who wish to know more of him will consult his of Alcazar, which Malone and Dyce, with some hesitancy, own posthumous Memoirs, edited by Lord Mahon and Mr agree in ascribing to Peele. The Old Wives Tale, a pleaCardwell, his literary executors ; the four volumes of his sant conceited Comedie, had been frequently performed Speeches; M. Guizot’s Sir Robert Peel; Kiinzel’s Leben before 1595, when it was first published; and possesses the und Reden Sir Robert Peel's ; Mr Disraeli’s Life of Lord interest of having partly furnished Milton with the plan and George Bentinck ; and The Right Honourable'Benjamin character of his Comus. It is highly imaginative, but disDisraeli, M.P., a Literary and Political Biography, by figured by buffoonery and extravagance. . Peele’s greatest an anonymous author; as well as the general histories of performance, The Love of David and Fair Bethsabe, with the time, particularly those of Sir Archibald Alison and the Tragedy of Absolon, was first printed in 1599, and is Miss Martineau. (g. g.) characterized by Thomas Campbell {Spec, of Brit. Poets, PEEL, a market-town and seaport on the west coast of vol. i.) as “ the earliest fount of pathos and harmony that the Isle of Man, 15 miles W.N.W. of Douglas, N. Lat. can be traced in our dramatic poetry.” Charles Lamb, 54. 14., W. Long. 4.42. The cathedral of St Germains in while not quite so enthusiastic about “ this canticle of the town is now only used as a burying-place ; but there is David,” has nevertheless rendered the “kingly bower, a modern parish church, a Methodist chapel, a grammar- seated in hearing of a hundred streams,” familiar to all readschool, and other educational establishments. On a small ers. (See Specimens of Eng. Dram. Poets.) The Hisrocky island, separated from the town by a narrow channel, torie of the Two Valiant Knights Sir Clyomon and Sir very shallow at low-water, stands an ancient castle, which Clamydes, printed anonymously in 1599, is attributed to occupies a large extent of ground, and contains within its Peele by Mr Dyce, partly on the faith of a manuscript area an old church of St Patrick. The harbour has a pier marking on the title-page of an old copy, and partly on and a lighthouse; but it is now much neglected. Pop. internal evidence. Such are the remains of what gained (1851) 2342. Peele his fame as a dramatist among his contemporaries. PEELE, George, an English dramatist of the Eliza- “ His comedies and tragedies,” says Wood, “ were often bethan age, is said to have been born in Devonshire in 1552 acted with great applause, and did endure reading with due or 1553. He was a member of Broadgates Llall (now commendation many years after their author’s death.” Pembroke College), Oxford, in 1564. He took his bache- {Athenee Oxonienses, vol. i., p. 688.) Peele’s close relation lor s degree in 1577; and was made Master of Arts in 1579. to Marlowe and Greene naturally provokes comparison Soon after this date, and with the reputation, according to with them. While not to be named beside Marlowe in Anthony Wood, of being “ a most noted poet in the uni- respect to the depth and power of his tragic genius, and versity, young Peele repaired to the metropolis, adopted while decidedly below Greene in comic power, he nevertie piofession of authorship, and occasionally tried his theless deserves a higher place than either as a felicitous hand at the histrionic art. He seems to have enjoyed a versifier. Thomas Campbell alleges,—“ There is no such ]mve

Peele. '

PEE • Peers sweetness of versification and imagery to be found in our | blank verse anterior to Shakspeare.” (See The Works of ''uou- George Peele, with some Account of his Life and Writings, by Rev. Alex. Dyce, 2 vols., 1828. Improvements and additions appeared with the reprint of 1829; and in 1839 a third volume was added by the same editor.) PEERS. See Nobility, and Parliament. PEGASUS. See Bellerophon. PEGAU, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Leipsic, on the left bank of the Elster, 14 miles S.S.W. of Leipsic. It is surrounded by walls ; and its chief public building is the handsome church of St Lawrence, containing several monuments. Pop. 3946. PEGO, a town of Spain, in the province of Alicante, 44 miles N.E. of the towm of that name. It is generally clean and well built, and has a court-house, church, schools, hospitals, &c. Woollen stuffs are manufactured here; and there are mills for rice, flour, and oil. Pop. 5565. PEGU, a British province of Eastern India, lying between N. Lat. 15. 49. and 19. 30., E. Long. 94. 11. and 96. 55., is bounded on the N. by the Burmese empire, E. by the Tenasserim provinces (from which it is separated by the River Sitang), S. by the Gulf of Martaban, and W. by the Bay of Bengal and the province of Arracan ; the latter divided from it by the Youmadoung Mountains; length, from N. to S., about 240 miles ; breadth, 170. The country is in general level, though it is traversed by several chains of hills. It is watered by the Irawaddy, which flows southwards from Burmah, and falls into the Gulf of Martaban, forming a large delta. The soil is fertile ; but agriculture has been much neglected since the conquest of Pegu by the Burmese. Rice is the principal crop raised ; and teak timber is also obtained. Tigers, elephants, buffaloes, and deer are the animals that mostly throng the forests and jungles of Pegu. Iron, tin, and lead, as well as rubies, sapphires, and other jewels, are obtained in this country. The government of Pegu is similar to that of the adjacent provinces of Tenasserim and Arracan. The province is divided into six districts, and contains 570,180 inhabitants. The early history of Pegu consists of little more than a narrative of barbarous and cruel contests between that country and the kingdom of Ava, in which the latter was finally successful, and reduced Pegu to a province of that kingdom, or, as it is generally called, the Burman Empire. The most important events in these wars, as well as those which led to the more recent contests of Burmah with Great Britain, and the addition of Pegu to the British empire, are narrated in the article Burmah. The principal towns in the province are Pegu, Prome, and Rangoon, all of which are fortified. Martaban stands on the E. bank of the Salw'een, 10 miles N.W. of Moulmein. It is built on the slope of a hill, and has several large temples. Though surrounded with a wooden stockade, and protected by a stone battery near the river, the place is not of great strength. It was taken by the British in the Burmese war in 1852, being the first town that fell in that war. Pop. about 6000. Pegu, the chief town of the above district, stands on the left bank of a river of the same name that flows into the Irawaddy, 58 miles N.E. of Rangoon. It is built in the shape of a quadrangle, and the streets are broad and regular, crossing each other at right angles. The streets are paved with bricks, and the houses, which are built of wood, are elevated on posts above the ground. Of the buildings in the town, the most important is the temple of Shoemadoe, a brick structure, octagonal at the base, and rising in the form of a pyramid or spire. Pegu was destroyed in 1757 by the Burmese, on their final triumph over the country, but it was subsequently rebuilt. In 1824 it was captured by the British, but restored on the conclusion of the first war with Burmah. In 1852 it was again taken, and has

PER since that time been retained. It is said to have contained at one time 150,000 inhabitants. 1 EILAU, a town of Prussian Silesia, government of Breslau, and 33 miles S.S.W. of that town. The inhabitants, amounting to 5235, are mostly Moravians, and are chiefly employed in the manufacture of linen and woollen goods. PEINE FOR IE Ef DURE (Lat. poena fortis et dura) signifies a species of torture inflicted by English law on those who, being arraigned of felony, refuse to put themselves on the ordinary trial, but stubbornly stand mute. FEINT, with Hursool, a small native state of India, in the presidency of Bombay, is bounded on the N. by the states of Dhurrumpore and Daung, E. by the British district of Ahmednuggur, S. by that of Tannah, and W. by those of Tannah and Surat; length, 46 miles ; breadth, 28 ; area, 750 square miles. As the last rajah died leaving only a daughter, the state is at present managed by the British in trust for her and her children. Pop. 55,000. PEIPUS. See Liyonia. PEIRESC, Nicolas-Claude-Fabri, Seigneur de, born in 1580 at Beaugensier in Provence, was descended from an ancient and noble family which had been originally established at Pisa in Italy. From Avignon, where he had spent five years at the Jesuits’ college, he was in 1595 removed to Aix, and entered upon the study of philosophy. It was here, while in the eager pursuit of literature, that his attention was first directed to antiquarian studies by accidentally meeting with a medal of the Emperor Arcadius. On removing to the Jesuits’ college at Tournon in 1596, for the study of cosmography, he enjoyed the valuable assistance of Petrus Rogerus, a skilful numismatist. Being recalled by his uncle in 1597, he returned to Aix, and there entered upon the study of the law, relieving the tedium by frequent visits to Bagarr, a most skilful antiquary, afterwards master of the jewels to Henri IV. He visited Italy in 1599, proceeded to Montpellier in 1602, and thence to Aix in 1603, to receive the senatorial dignity just vacated by his uncle. In the year 1605 he visited Paris, whence he, in 1606, proceeded to England in company with the king’s ambassador. He was very graciously received by King James I.; and having seen Oxford, and visited Camden, Sir Robert Cotton, Sir Henry Saville, and other learned men, he passed over to Holland. During his residence in that country he made the acquaintance of Joseph Scaliger at Leyden, and Hugo Grotius at the Hague. On his return to Aix, he was chosen a councillor of the Parliament of that city, where he remained till his death, which occuired in 1637. The death of the “ Procureur General de la Litterature,” as Bayle calls him, was lamented wherever letters were esteemed, and eloge upon eloge celebrated his merits in half the languages of Europe. A collection of these panegyrics has since been made, under the title of Panglossia. While no work at all proportioned to the learning and ability of the author remains to us he nevertheless left behind him a vast mass of incomplete manuscripts on all manner of subjects. A catalogue of these MSS. 700 in all, is preserved in the British Museum among the papers of Sir Hans Sloane. A considerable number of the inedited letters of Peiresc appeared in the Maqasin Encijclopedique, and were afterwards published separately, Paris, 1815. We have an elegant Vita Nic. Claudii Fabricii de Peiresc, by his warm friend Gassendi, 4to, Paris 1641 ; translated into English by W. Rand, 1657; and into French by Requier in 1770. The Eloge of Peiresc by Lemontey was crowned by the Academy of Marseilles in 1785. PEKALONGAN, a province of Java, bounded On the N. by the Java Sea, E. by the province of Samarang, S. by that of Banjoemas, and W. by that of Tegal; length,

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308 P E K Peking, fro in E. to W., 30 miles ; breadth, 18 miles. Though level near the coast, the interior of the province is hilly. The soil is well watered, and produces, among other things, coffee and rice. Manufactures of indigo and sugar are carried on. The province contains three seaports,—Pekalongan, Batang, and Pabean,—between which and Batavia a considerable trade is carried on. Pop. 224,000. The town of Pekalongan, which stands on the coast at the mouth of a river of the same name, contains many wellbuilt stone houses, and has an open roadstead. The Dutch have a government-house and a fort here. PEKING, or Pekin, the capital of the Chinese empire, and of the province of Chihli, stands in a sandy plain about 12 miles S. W. of tbe River Pei-ho, and about 100 W.N.W. of its mouth ; N. Lat. 39. 54., E. Long. 116. 27. It is, in the opinion of the Chinese, one of their most ancient cities, and is known under various names. Previous to the conquest of the country by the Mongols it was called Shuntien-fu, or “ The City obedient to Heaven but after that event, when it was made the capital, the name of Khan-palik, or “ The City of the Khan,” was given to it. The namejPefo'wysignifies “Northern Capital;” but it is generally designated on Chinese maps as King-oz, or “ Capital of the Court.” A tributary of the Pei-ho, called Tung-hwui-ho, flows through the city from the N.W., and supplies it with water. The circumference of the city and suburbs is estimated at 25 miles, and the area at 27 square miles ; though other accounts limit the area to 14 square miles. The latter estimate probably includes only the city itself, and not the suburbs. Peking consists of two parts: the northern or Tartar city, called Nui-ching; and the southern or outer city, called Wai-ching, in which the Chinese live. Both these divisions are surrounded by walls 30 feet high, and about 20 feet broad at the base ; but as the inner face is sloping, they are only 12 feet wide at the top. They consist for the most part of mounds of earth or rubbish faced with bricks. According to most of the plans, Peking is also surrounded with ditches ; but this, though perhaps partially true, is certainly not the case with the N.E. portion. At intervals of about 60 yards along the outside of the walls stand square towers, projecting about 30 feet from the wall; and similar erections stand at each side of all the gates, connected by a semicircular rampart in front. The gateways consist of strong arches surmounted by wooden buildings several storeys high. The appearance of Peking from the outside is dull and uniform, as there are no spires, minarets, or pillars rising above the mass of the houses, which are roofed with yellow, green, or red tiles; and the only prominent objects are clumps of trees and the flag-staffs that rise in front of the houses of the officials. The roofs of the houses, however, present an appearance by no means unpleasing, as their sides and ridges are gently curved, and are adorned with various fantastic figures; and the whole glitters like gold in the rays of a bright oriental sun. The northern city consists of three separate inclosures, one within the other. The innermost, in which the imperial palace is situated, is called Kin-Ching, or the “Prohibited City.” Within are the palaces and pleasure-grounds of the emperor and empress. The ground in this inclosure is not level, but is raised in artificial hills, on which the principal palaces are built. There are also large and deep artificial lakes, of irregular form, and interspersed with small islands. The buildings and grounds within the Prohibited City are said to be, in architecture and arrangement, far superior to anything else of the kind in China. To Sir George Staunton, who, when passing through Peking on an embassy to the imperial park of Yuen-ming-yuen, caught a glimpse of this portion of the city through the northern gates, the whole had the appearance of enchantment. Besides the imperial palaces and pleasure-grounds, the Prohibited City contains two halls and a fine marble gateway 110 feet high, ascended

P E K by five flights of stairs, where the emperor stands on certain v Peking, occasions to receive the homage of his courtiers. On the .r east side stand the offices of the cabinet, the treasury, and the imperial library, consisting of 12,000 works ; while towards the west is situated a variety of public and private buildings.. The government of the palace is in the hands of a special council, which is divided into seven sections, having different duties. Attached to the court of Peking are three great scientific establishments : the National College, for the sons of the great dignitaries ; the Imperial College of Astronomy, by which the annual almanacs are prepared ; and the College of Medicine. There is published daily at Peking an official gazette of 60 or 70 pages. It is entirely under the control of the emperor, to whom everything that is printed in it must be presented. The population of the Prohibited City is not very great, and it consists principally of Manchoos. Outside of this inclosure is another called Hivang-Ching, or the “ Imperial City,” not so sacred as the former, but entered only by authorized persons. It is about 2 square miles in extent, and is surrounded by a wall covered with yellow tiles, and known as the Imperial or Yellow Wall. From the southern gate a broad street leads up to the Prohibited City, on the right of which stands the Tai-Miau, or “ Temple of the Imperial Ancestors,” an extensive collection of buildings surrounded by a wall; and on the left an altar of a peculiar construction dedicated to the gods of land and grain, on which the emperor alone is allowed to sacrifice. The Imperial City also contains numerous temples to various subordinate Chinese deities ; and it has been calculated that there are in this and the interior inclosure upwards of 200 palaces, all of great size. The Tartar city, lying outside of the divisions already described, has several broad and straight streets crossing each other at right angles. Near the southern gate of the imperial wall are the principal tribunals and government offices in the city; and not far off is the college of the Russian mission, which consists often members sent periodically from St Petersburg. On the wall at the S.E. corner of this part of the city stands the observatory, provided with instruments by the Emperor Kanghi, under the direction of Roman Catholic missionaries, and now under the care of Chinese astronomers. Not far from this building is the hall for literary examinations, where the candidates for degrees assemble. In the north part of the town is a lofty tower, forming one of the most conspicuous objects in Peking, and containing a huge cylindrical bell and a large drum, both of which are used to mark the watches of the night. The town contains many places of worship belonging to different religions and sects, including a Greek and a Latin church, and a Mohammedan mosque, besides numerous temples of the various forms of Budhism. Among the last is one where the deceased kings and emperors are worshipped ; and another called the White Pagoda, a tastefully-ornamented building, having a fine obelisk in front of it. The outer or Chinese city, which is about the same size as the other, though more populous, is not in general so well built, and contains few large buildings. Two extensive portions of the area are occupied by the large inclosures surrounding the altars to Heaven and to Agriculture, which stand, the one to the right and the other on the left of the central street leading from the south gate to the Tartar city. The former, on the east side, consists of three circular terraces, each 10 feet high, and in succession 120, 90, and 60 feet in diameter, they are all paved with marble, and surrounded with balustrades. In connection with this altar is the Palace of Abstinence, where the emperor, who is the priest of the altar, fasts for three days before offering the annual sacrifice at the winter solstice. On the opposite side of the street from this altar is another inclosure containing four altars, dedicated respectively to the spirits of heaven, to those of the earth, to the planet

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Peking. Jupiter, and to ihe monarch Shinnung, who is regarded as the inventor of agriculture. To the west of these altars is an artificial pool, called the Black Dragon Pool, dedicated to the spirits of the waters, which also occupies a large space. Beyond the walls of the city stands, on the east side, an altar to the sun, and on the west, one to the moon ; while about eight miles to the N.W., in an undulating country, is the park of Yuen-ming-yuen, containing numerous imperial residences and a hall of audience. In one of the most beautiful situations near Peking is a French buryingground; but this has been much defaced by the Chinese. The principal streets of Peking, which are generally straight, leading from one gate across the city to another, are about 100 feet broad, and the lowness of the houses with which they are lined serves to increase their apparent width. They are unpaved, probably on account of the difficulty of obtaining stone in the vast plain in which the city stands. r During the summer they are kept well sprinkled with w ater, but in wet weather they are exceedingly muddy. The smaller thoroughfares, like those of most Chinese cities, are mere narrow lanes. The principal streets are lined with shops, which are entirely open in front during the day, and have on each side sign-boards fastened in stone bases, and reaching as high as the eaves, painted with large ornamental characters, and sometimes decorated with flags of various colours. The fronts of the houses are also frequently painted in brilliant colours, which gives the streets a very gay and lively appearance. At the intersections of the principal streets there are tablets and portals erected in honour of distinguished persons. The main thoroughfares are feebly lighted during the night by lanterns hung in front of the houses ; and those who go about in the dark carry lanterns or torches. People belonging to all the various tribes of Central Asia, in their various costumes, throng the streets of Peking; and the number of Manchoo women who are to be seen in the streets, on foot and on horseback, gives to the city an appearance different from that of those in the south of China. Horses and carriages are used as means of conveyance, and are to be had for hire ; but sedans, which are elsewhere in China the usual conveyances, are not permitted so near the emperor, except for privileged persons. The streets, though broad, are much blocked up by the moveable workshops of various mechanics, the tents and booths filled with all kinds of merchandise, and the various wares laid out in front of the shops; so that there is only a narrow road left in the middle, along which there are continually passing official, funeral, and bridal processions; strings of dromedaries, with coals from Tartary; carts and wheel-barrows laden with vegetables. The sides of the streets are also filled with crowds of people buying and selling, whose varied appearance and confused sounds give to the place a busy and animated appearance. Few manufactures and no trade is carried on at Peking: the city is supplied with provisions chiefly from the southern provinces, and from the flocks raised in the northern part of Chihli; and the adjacent country produces but a small quantity of the provisions required. The government of Peking is not subordinate to the provincial magistrate, but only to the emperor himself. There is a regular police, who patrol the streets by night beating together two hollow bamboos to mark the time. The climate is colder in winter than that of most other places in the same latitude ; and the houses are warmed by flues under the rooms ; but fuel is very scarce and dear. A large proportion of the inhabitants of Peking are poor, and they frequently rise in mobs, and pillage the granaries to supply themselves with food. I o keep the capital quiet is an object of much care to the government, as the state of the whole empire depends very much on that of Peking. The population of Peking is variously estimated from 1,300,000 to 3,000,000. It provol. xvn.

P E L 369 bably amounts to 2,000,000, or nearly that of London Pelagius. (Barrow’s Travels ; Gutzlaff’s China Opened; The Middle Kingdom, Williams; Davis’ China, new edition 1857.) PELAGIUS, the founder of the sect of the Pelagians, is supposed to have been a native of Britain, and first appears on the stage of history as a monk, residing at Rome, about the beginning of the fifth century. He was at that time a man of great moral earnestness. Flis adherence to the monkish rules was rigid, his efforts to reform both clergy and laity assiduous, and his sanctity well spoken of in all the churches. Yet it was this same deep regard for morality which was the occasion of Pelagius’s lapse into error. Looking down from the height of his own self-righteousness, he was scandalized to see the majority of professing Christians grovelling carelessly and contentedly in every kind of sensuality. With all the intensity of his reforming zeal, he set himself to discover the cause and remedy of this moral disease. The cause, it occurred to him, was the trust which was placed throughout the church in the efficacy of the sacraments, and the sufficiency of faith. The remedy, he thought, would be a creed which should hold man’s salvation to be dependent upon his own exertions. To develop such a creed into a regular and consistent form became his next endeavour. As the foundation of his system, he assumed that a just God could not visit the iniquities of one man upon the heads of others. On this was established the dogma, that the effects of Adam’s first sin were confined to himself, and did not descend to his posterity. Accordingly death, and the other evils of life, were not the signs of a blighted spirit, but the necessary incidents of a body made of dust. Men therefore came into the world pure and innocent. Baptism, though needful to admit them into the kingdom of heaven, was not needful to cleanse them from moral pollution, or to insure their eternal blessedness. Nor was inward grace necessary to predispose them to love and obey the commandments of God. All the grace that they required was the privilege of exercising their natural faculties, of using the advantages of the gospel and the church, and of receiving forgiveness for any sins they might commit. With these aids alone they could confidently address themselves to the observance of the law. Their own free-will was able to choose tlm good, and their own strength was able to accomplish it. It they should step aside from the right path through ignorance or forgetfulness, they would not be culpable. Even if they should really become corrupt, they could convert themselves by their own exertions. Thus was a man’s own,righteousness, and not his faith, declared to be the means of his salvation. . This flagrant heresy being propagated in Palestine by Pelagius himself, and in Africa by his friend and disciple Coelestius, soon provoked opposition. Coelestius was excluded from the fellowship of the church by a synod held at Carthage in 412. Pelagius was arraigned before two ecclesiastical councils, held respectively at Jerusalem and Diosnolis in 415. Although at both of these tribunals he succeeded in baffling his accusers, and deceiving hisjudges with sophistry and equivocation, yet he could not altogether u thL suspicions of the orthodox. The North African bishops, led on by Augustine, commenced a deadly attack with books, letters, and edicts. In 417 they induced I ope Innocent I. to anathematize the rising heresy ; in 418 they issued a formal edict against it from an assembly held at Carthage; and not long afterwards they prevailed upon the emperor to promulgate several decrees threatening the new sect with confiscation and banishment. The result was that Pope Zosimus was forced to condemn the obnoxious doctrine ; several ecclesiastical councils throughout Europe approved the sentence ; Pelagius retired into exile, and went off the arena of history ; and Pelagianism was nipt 3A

PEL 370 Pelagius in the bud, and was deprived of all existence as a formal II confession of faith. Pelasgi. Of the numerous works of Pelagius, the following alone have been authenticated:—Expositionum in Epistolas PauliLibri XIV. ; Epistola ad Demetriadem, and Libellus Fidei ad Innocentium Papam. They are all included in the best editions of Jerome. (For an account of Pelagius and Pelagianism, see Augustine’s De Gestis Pelagii; G. J. Vossius’ Historia Controversiarum Pelagianarum; the Church Histories of Neander, Milner, Gieseler, and Waddington ; Hagenbach’s History of Doctrines; Patouillet’s Vie de Pelage, 1751; N. N. Leutzen’s Dissertatio de Pelagianorum Doctrince Principiis, Colon. Agr., 1833; and Wiggers’ Pragmatische Darstellung des Augustinismus und Pelagianismus, 2 vols., Hamb. 1833. This last work has been translated into English by Professor Emerson, 8vo, New York, 1840.) PELAGIUS I., Pope, succeeded Virgilius in the Roman see in 555, and died in 560. Pelagius II., Pope, succeeded Benedict I. in 578, and died in 590. PELASGI (neAcuryoi), an ancient race, believed to have been widely spread over Greece and Italy in pre-historic times, but of whom scarcely anything definite is known. The name Pelasgi owes its derivation, according to tradition, to Pelasgus, father of Lycaon, King of Arcadia, and reputed ancestor of the race. (Strabo, vii., p. 321.) Some maintain, however, that the genuine form of the word was IleXapyot, which is variously derived (1.) from "Apyos, a plain, in old Greek, and TreAco; (2.) from *Aypds, a field, and TreXo); and, finally, from TreXapyot, storks, in allusion (3.) either to their wandering life, or (4.) to their rudeness of speech. Krase {Hellas) favours the first derivation, O. Muller {Die Etrusker) the second, Strabo and Myrsilus the third, and a writer in the Philological Museum, vol. i. (“On the names of the Antehellenic Inhabitants of Greece”), the fourth. Schwegler, the most recent writer who has ably taken up the entire question, is in considerable doubt whether the name Pelasgi is to be regarded as an ethnographic distinction, or as an epithet equivalent to autochthones, or aborigines {Rom. Gesch.) Nor is the origin of the Pelasgians better ascertained than their name. They are generally supposed to have immigrated from somewhere beyond sea, most probably from Asia Minor, by the Propontis and the Hellespont. The whole of Greece during the ante-Hellenic period was occupied by a number of barbarous tribes, of whom the most important were the Pelasgi, both as occupying a larger portion of the country than any other tribe, and from their wide diffusion into other territories. The whole of Hellas during this pre-historic age is said to have been more or less overrun by the Pelasgi. (Strabo, v., p. 220 ; Herodotus, ii. 56 ; viii. 44 ; Thucydides, i. 3.) The earliest notice of them, however (Homer, Iliad, ii. 681), represents them as having their chief abode in “ Pelasgian Argos ” in Thessaly. “ That part of Thessaly,” says Strabo, “ is called Pelasgian Argos which extends from the coast between the outlet of the Peneus and Thermopylae as far as the range of Pindus, because the Pelasgians were masters of that region.” Epirus also, and especially Dodona, is made a chief abode of the Pelasgi by Homer, Hesiod, and TEschylus; the former informing us that Zeus was worshipped as the “Pelasgian king.” Moving southward, we next find traces of the Pelasgi in Bceotia, and especially in Attica, where, according to Herodotus (vi. 137), Thucydides (ii. 17), and Strabo (ix., p. 401), they took up their abode at Athens, under Mount Hymettus, from which they were, however, afterwards expelled. Apart from the legend already referred to of the Arcadian origin of the Pelasgi, we find frequent mention, especially in Herodotus, TEschylus, and Strabo, of their presence in the Peloponnesus, and particularly of their intimate rela-

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tion to Argolis. Two conflicting centres of emanation are thus assigned to this race,—that of Thessaly and Epirus, and that of Arcadia; but there are no satisfactory means of determining whether the one account or the other be correct. Another curious contradiction with respect to this race is noticed by Wachsmuth {Hell. Alt., vol. i., part i.) Herodotus represents them as fixed and stationary (i. 56) ; while Strabo describes them as a moveable and migratory people (xiii. 3, § 3). Passing from the mainland of Greece we find marks of the presence of the Pelasgi in numerous islands of the flEgaean Sea. Homer alludes to them in Crete {Odys. xix. 175); Herodotus in Samothrace (ii. 51); Herodotus (v. 26), Strabo (v., p. 220), Thucydides (iv. 109), and Pausanias (vii. 2), in Lemnos and Imbros; Dionysius (i. 18) traces them to Lesbos; Herodotus (vii. 95) says that seventeen of the Ionian Islands were inhabited by Pelasgi; and Menecrates (Strabo, xiii., p. 621) assigned to them not only the islands of Ionia, but also the coast of Asia Minor. The latter portion of his statement is likewise confirmed by Homer, Herodotus, Strabo, and Dionysius. Herodotus (i. 57) found, in his own time, two Pelasgian cities, Scylace and Placia, on the Hellespont, and a place called Creston, probably in Macedonia, speaking similar dialects, differing from their neighbours around them, but not ordinary Greek {/Sap/Sapov yXwaaav uVres). 4 he historian quotes this fact in order to prove that the ancient language of the Pelasgi was a barbarous language, or distinct from that of the Hellenes. This passage in Herodotus has been the source of not a little controversy. Bishop Thirlwall is of opinion that the statement of Herodotus respecting the “ barbarous ” language of these Pelasgic communities simply means that they spoke a very bad Greek. “ Nothing more,” he says, “ can be safely inferred from it, than that the Pelasgian language which Herodotus heard on the Hellespont and elsewhere sounded to him a strange jargon, as did the dialect of Ephesus to a Milesian, and as the Bolognese does to a Florentine. {Hist, of Greece, vol i., c. ii., p. 60.) Mr Grote, on the other hand, asserts that the meaning of Herodotus is unmistakeable as to the substantial difference of the Pelasgic language and the ordinary Greek. “ The affirmation,” he says, “ of Herodotus is distinct and twice repeated, that the Pelasgians of these towns, and of his own time, spoke a barbaric language; and that word appears to me to admit but of one interpretation. To suppose that a man who, like Herodotus, had heard almost every variety of Greek in the course of his long travels, as well as Egyptian, Phoenician, Assyrian, Lydian, and other languages, did not know how to distinguish bad Hellenic from non-Hellenic, is in my judgment inadmissible.” “ I think it therefore certain,” he again remarks, “ that Herodotus pronounces the Pelasgians of his day to speak a substantive language different from Greek; but whether differing from it in a greater or less degree {e.g., in the degree of Latin or of Phoenician), we have no means of deciding.” {Hist, of Greece, vol. ii., pp. 351-353.) Mr Ellis, in an ingenious pamphlet {Contributions to the Ethnography of Italy and Greece, by Robert Ellis, B.D., London, 1858), adopts a similar interpretation of the Greek historian. He says at p. 5, “ In describing, then, the Pelasgian language as barbarous, Herodotus gives us to understand to what language—namely, the Greek—he considered the Pelasgian to be substantially foreign.” Grote simplifies the vexed Pelasgian question, by not presuming “to determine anything in regard to the legendary Pelasgians and Leleges, the supposed ante-Helenic inhabitants of Greece.” “ Whoever has examined,” he says again, “ the many conflicting systems respecting the Pelasgi, from the literal belief of Clavier, Larcher, and Raoul Rochette (which appears to me at least the most consistent way of proceeding), to the interpretative and half-incredulous processes applied by abler men, such as Niebuhr, or O. Muller, or Dr Thirlwall,

PEL Peiagtri. will not be displeased with my resolution to decline so inJLj soluble a problem.” (Vol. ii., pp. 347, 351.) In the opinion of the Rev. George Rawlinson {History of Herodotus, London, 1858, vol. i., p. 665), the statement of Mr Grote regarding the radical difference of the Greek and Pelasgic languages “ is one of undue and needless scepticism. . . Anglo-Saxon is a barbarian or foreign tongue to a modern Englishman, and so is Gothic to a modern German, Provencal to a Frenchman, Syriac to a Chaldee or Mosul. The diversity between the Hellenic and the Pelasgic. was probably of this nature, as Niebuhr, Thirwall, and C. O. Muller suppose. The nations were essentially of the same stock, the Hellenes having emerged from among the Pelasgi; and we may confidently pronounce on the Indo-European character of the latter from the fact, that the language of the former belongs to this family.” Traditions of the presence of the Pelasgi are not, however, limited to Greece; they are intimately connected likewise with the Italian peninsula. The fullest account of the primitive population of Central Italy is given by Dionysius. Ihis writer represents (i. 11) GEnotrus, son of Lycaon, leading a colony into Italy seventeen generations before the Trojan war. He further informs us that Pelasgians came from Thessaly by sea, and landed in Italy at the mouth of the Po. Thence they moved southwards, taking some cities from the Umbrians, and were only withheld from attacking the aborigines by a response given to the Pelasgi by the Dondonian oracle. Becoming conciliated to the aborigines, the Pelasgi had a territory assigned them near Velia, and they subsequently aided their benefactors in expelling the Siceli or Siculi into the island Sicily, to which they gave their name. After a time, the historian continues, the Pelasgians returned to Greece in separate bodies, and from the name Tyrrhenia by which the western coast of Italy was known to the Greeks this race acquired the appellation of Tyrrhenian, and were designated Tyrrhenian Pelasgians. “ These testimonies in Dionysius,” says Clinton {Fasti Hellenici, vol. i., p. 28), “ establish the fact that Pelasgi from Greece emigrated to Italy ; but the circumstances and the time of that earliest migration are lost in remote antiquity.” On this observation Sir G. C. Lewis comments by affirming, “ The fact itself seems as uncertain as the circumstances and the time. Mr Clinton does not advert to the statement of Dionysius respecting a migration of Pelasgians back to Italy, which is an essential part of his narrative.” ( On the Credibility of Early Roman History, vol. i., p. 282, note.) Lewis further remarks that “ this portion of the narrative of Dionysius is merely an ethnological legend. No authentic record of the migrations or acts of the Pelasgian people appears to have been accessible to the historians of antiquity.” (Vol. i., p. 282.) Other testimonies besides that of Dionysius go to confirm the tradition of the immigration of the Pelasgians into Latium, and even assert the name of Rome itself to be Pelasgian. (See Lewis, vol. i., p. 395.) Indeed the whole of Italy, according to legendary record, was inhabited in ancient times by the Pelasgi. Founding on these genealogical and mythical traditions, Niebuhr has come to the conclusion, “ not as an hypothesis, but with full historical conviction,” that the Pelasgians were the primitive population both of Greece and of Italy. He says, “ There was a time when the Pelasgians, perhaps the most extended people in all Europe, were spread from the Po and the Arno to the Bosphorus.” {Hist, of Rome, vol. i., p. 25.) This race, he maintains, gradually disappeared because they became Hellenized. The Greek element in the Latin language he holds to be Pelasgic. Schwegler, who agrees in the main with Grote respecting the unauthentic character of the Pelasgic traditions, condemns the hypothesis of Niebuhr as entirely untenable. Lewis likewise maintains that the alleged records of the Pelasgians rest on no historical basis, and he

PEL 371 rejects the conclusions both of Niebuhr and Otfried Mill- Pelestrina ler respecting “ this unknown and undiscoverable period.” II (Vol. i., p. 297.) Niebuhr’s hypothesis is likewise assailed by Clinton in his Fast. Hell., vol. i., p. 97. The grounds of Schwegler’s condemnation, which is the most thoroughgoing, is as follows :—“ 1. The absence of any indigenous name for the Pelasgians in Italy. 2. The evident traces of Roman writers on the subject having obtained their information from the Greek logographers. 3. The contradictory accounts given by different writers of the migrations of the Pelasgians, according as they follow Hellanicus and Pherecydes or Myrsilus. 4. The absence of any historical monument of the Pelasgi in Italy, whether literary or of another kind.” If unsound in his hypothesis, Niebuhr was not far wrong when he wrote the following sentence regarding this tangled question :—“ The name Pelasgi is odious to the historian who hates the spurious philology out of which the pretences to knowledge on the subject of such extinct people arise.” {Hist, of Rome, vol. i.) In addition to the works already cited, the reader may consult Kruse’s Hellas, vol. ii., for a copious collection of passages bearing on the Pelasgi; also the criticisms of that work by Thirl wall in the Philological Museum, vol. i., p. 305, and Clinton in the Fasti Hellenici, vol. i.; also Mommsen’s Rom. Geschichte. PELESTRINA, a town of Austrian Italy, in the government of Venice, stands on an island of the same name, 11 miles S. of Venice. The island is about 7 miles in length by 1 in breadth ; and the town contains several churches and a town-hall. Pop. 7000. PELEUS, the King of Phthia, and the father of Achilles, was the son of iEacus of ACgina. He w:as twice manied. His first wife, Antigone, the daughter of Eurytion, the sovereign of the Phthians, brought him as her dowry the third part of her father’s kingdom. His second wife, the Nereid Thetis, became by him the mother of the great Achilles. Peleus outlived his son. . PELEW ISLANDS, a group of small islands lying in the North Pacific Ocean, between 8. and 9. N. Lat., and 130. and 136. E. Long. They extend from S.S.W. to N.N.E., and are surrounded on all sides except the south by coral reefs. The group comprises in all about twenty islands, the largest of which, Baubelthoup, is neaily 6 miles in circumference. The islands, when seen from the a sea, present a rugged and mountainous aspect, re well covered with trees of various kinds, and the soil general rich. The bread-fruit tree, the cocoa-nut, banana orange, and lemon.abound, as also the sugai-cane. _ is nothing that deserves the name of over on and the inhabitants derive their supplies of fresh wate, small rivulets and ponds. They belong to the Malay race^ PFT IGNI The, a people of ancient Italy, inhaDitea tne

vvas determined ^ly^situation^oi^Thewmds^honi^the^snowthe vSgeof severity. At the same time, the melting wreaths thp hill-sides sent down gentle streams to water and fertilize the va’lleL Accordingly, grapes and corn abundant m miantitv though inferior in quality, were raised on the soil. The hiltory of the Peligni contains no events of any very special interest. Sprung as they were from the same Sabine stock as the Marsi and Marrucmi, they shared in all the .fnnh chancres which befell these tribes under the dominant power of the Romans. Like them, they were defeated by Fabius in 308 B.C.; they revolted at the outbreak of the Social War in 91 B.C.; and they were ultimately included in the Fourth Region of Augustus. The principal towns of the Peligni were Corfimum, Supersequum,

PEL 372 PEL Pelion and Sulmo. The last of these was the birthplace of education at Paris. His proficiency as a linguist procured Pellico. for him employment in connection with the navy. At II . Ovid. Pellenn. PELION, a mountain in Thessaly, extending along the first he was engaged in the navy office in making extracts / ^ ^ coast of Magnesia, and rising to the S. of Mount Ossa, and translations from English, Spanish, and Italian. Then with which it is joined by a low ridge. It attains to its his merits came to be better appreciated; and the succesgreatest height (nearly 5000 feet) above lolcos. Its east- sive offices in the navy of one of the commissioners, comern side rises precipitously from the sea, rendering the missioner-general, and first clerk were conferred upon him. coast exceedingly dangerous, as the destruction of Xerxes’ But it was not until he had retired from public service in fleet can testify. It is still covered with venerable forests 1745 that the great business of Pellerin’s life commenced. of oak, ash, beech, elm, and pine, as of old, when Homer He then set himself to read, interpret, and classify a great gave it the epithet of elvocri(fiv\\ov, “quivering with leaves” variety of coins which he had collected. In doing this, it (II. ii. 632, &c.) ; and when its ashen spear-shafts were so was his good fortune to light upon a plan which may be famous that Pelias was the usual name by which the cele- said to have given a definite form to the science of nubrated spear of Achilles was designated, and which no arm mismatics. Instead of following the arbitrary modes of but his own could wield. The timber of which the ship preceding numismatists, he arranged his coins according “ Argo” was built is likewise said to have been felled in to the geographical position of their countries. His system the forests of this mountain. In the wars of the giants and was explained and illustrated in his Recueils de Medailles the gods, the former are said to have piled Ossa upon de Rois, Peuples, et Villes, in 10 vols. 4to, Paris, 1762-78. Pelion in order to scale Olympus. The N.W. summit of A supplemental volume, entitled Additions, &c., was pubPelion is called Plessidhi; and the whole mountain frequently lished shortly before his death in 1782. PELLICO, Silvio, an eminent Italian, celebrated for his gets the name of the town Zagora, built on its eastern side. genius and his misfortunes, was born at Saluzzo in Pied(See Leake’s Northern Greece.) PELL, John, an erudite mathematician, wras the son of mont in 1789. His education, though irregular, was well a clergyman, and was born at Southwick in Sussex in 1610. adapted to develop his fine talents. In his father’s house, His youth was full of high mental promise. At the school of which was furnished with all the luxuries of an easy forSteyning he soon became a proficient in Latin, Greek, and tune, his love for poetry was kindled by the sight of priHebrew; by the age of thirteen he was ready to enter vate theatricals. In Turin, to which the family removed Trinity College, Cambridge ; during his university course about 1795, his studies w'ere prosecuted under a clergyman. he made himself an accomplished linguist; and in 1630, At Lyons, where he resided with a wealthy cousin for four the year in which he took the degree of M.A., he was years, he tasted all the refining pleasures which affection holding a learned correspondence with several eminent could suggest or money could supply. At Milan, where he mathematicians. This promise soon began to be fulfilled ; settled in 1810 as a teacher of French, he devoted himself to for Pell, from this time till his death, devoted all his atten- the study of the literature of his own and of other countries. tion to the promotion of mathematical science. He occu- Nor was the society in which he mingled in this last city pied the chair of mathematics at Amsterdam from 1643 to less propitious to his mental culture. Monti and Foscolo 1646, and the same chair at Breda from 1646 to 1652. It loved and cherished him. Count Porro also received him is true that after this he was employed by Cromwell in the into his house as tutor to his sons, and introduced him political office of agent to the Protestant cantons of Switzer- to the celebrated men, both native and foreign, who land. It is true, also, that after the Restoration he took gathered round his hospitable table. Inspired and stimuholy orders, and was presented by Sheldon, Bishop of Lon- lated by all these influences, Pellico set himself to endon, to several rich benefices. Yet all the while the sin- lighten and elevate his enslaved countrymen, as well as to gle-minded bookworm was immersed in his favourite study, gratify his own aspirations. In a short time his tragedy of publishing several works, and writing those almost innu- Francesca da Rimini delighted all Italy with its grace and merable letters and pamphlets which are now preserved tenderness. In 1819 he was the chief agent in establishin nearly forty folio volumes in the British Museum. He ing a national periodical called The Conciliator. About even carried his mathematical abstraction to the extent of the same time, also, he consecrated his life to the cause of altogether neglecting his personal affairs. His friends co- Italian freedom by enrolling himself in the revolutionary zened him out of the profits of his benefices, and then society of the Carbonari. It was this activity that brought left him a prey to merciless creditors. He lived in extreme Pellico under the relentless suspicions of Austrian despotindigence till his death in 1685. Dr Pell’s principal works ism, and entailed upon him a long and cruel persecution. arG)—A Controversy with Longomontanus concerning the Arrested in October 1820 for political offences, he was Quadrature of the Circle, 4to, Amsterdam, 1646; An Idea lodged in the cells of Santa Margherita at Milan. Removed of the Mathematics, 12mo, London, 1650; Branher's to Venice soon afterwards, he lay awaiting his trial in the Translation of Rhonnius' Introduction to Algebra, much dreary state prison called “ The Leads.” His trial came on altered and augmented, 4to, London, 1668 ; and A Table in February 1822, and resulted in a sentence of death which was commuted for a severe incarceration of fifteen years of Ten Thousand Square Numbers, fol., London, 1672. PELLA, the capital of Macedonia, was situated on a in the fortress of Spielberg, near the Moravian cityof Briinn. hill in the midst of an impassable marsh which was con- In that distant dungeon the weary term of durance passed nected with the River Lydias. Its strong and secure heavily along, inflicting pains and agonies unspeakable. At position, and its easy communication with the sea, did not length, when it had dragged the poor prisoner almost to fail, in course of time, to make it a place of import- death’s door, it was prematurely brought to a close, by the ance. Philip made it the metropolis of the kingdom and command of the emperor, on the 1st August 1830. Silvio the seat of the royal palace. It continued to retain this Pellico spent his remaining years in literary pursuits at dignity, and to be a prosperous city, until Macedonia was Turin. He produced the tragedy of Ester dEngaddi subjugated by the Romans, and ceased to be a kingdom. not long after his release; Le Mie Prigioni, Tre Nuove From that time Pella seems to have gradually declined. Tragedie, and the tragedy of Tommaso Moro in 1832; Its name, applied to a fountain which rises on the site of and his Opere Inedite in 1837. He also acted as librarian the ancient town, is almost the only record which remains to the Marchesa Barolo. His death took place on the 1st January 1854 at Moncaglieri, the villa of his patroness of the birthplace of Alexander the Great. PELLERIN, Joseph, an eminent numismatist, was born near Turin. Of Pellico’s account of his own imprisonment, in 1684 at Marli-le-Roi, near Versailles, and received his under the title of Le Mie Prigioni, there have been

P E M 373 condition that he should either conquer the father in a chaPelta Pellisson five German translations, one English, three Spanish, and riot-race or suffer death. The contest began. By the aid 11 | fourteen French. The narrative has charmed every reader Pembr +(4.J)>sir. & ^ sin B6 + &c.] 2 - cos y sin y [Q-) sin B2 + . f)2 sin B4 + Q-. f • f )2 sin B6+ &c.] 3 - f cos y sin y [ (l . |)2 sin B4 + (-J. . |-)2 sin B0 + See.'] - f . f cos y sin y5 [ Q-. f . f )2 sin B6 + &c.] + &c. (8.) This complex formula gives us the interval of time during which the pendulum describes the arc OG, corresponding to the angle OAG = 2/?. In order to find the entire time of describing the arc OQ, we must put y —90°, in which case (3 becomes equal to B; this gives cos y=0, and £T = a/ (^) i {1 + (i)2

sin R2

+ (£ * !)2 sin

Bl

+

};

Excess of Apparent Day.

Arc.

or, denoting by T the whole time of a beat, T = 7nv/ ^ |n-(i)2sinB2 + a.|)2sinB4 + &c.} (9.) for the time of passing from Q to Q'. From this the time of an oscillation can be very readily computed, since, in all practical cases, the angle B is very small. If we imagine the extent of an oscillation to be exceedingly minute, the terms containing the powers of sin B may be neglected, and we have the usual formula T^x/y, or ^T2=7t2L,

late through arcs of 2°, 4°, 6°...up to 20°, that of making an Pendulum, infinitely small oscillation being taken as the unit:— Half Time of Oscii/lation. Arc. 2d Diff. 1st Biff. 3 80819 0° 1 90389 1-00000 00000 80937 5 71208 1 1-00001 90389 81137 9 52145 2 1-00007 61597 81419 13 33282 3 1-00017 13742 81775 17 14701 4 1-00030 47024 82217 20 96476 5 1-00047 61725 82737 24 78693 6 1-00068 58201 83338 28 61430 7 1-00093 36894 84021 32 44768 8 1-00121 98324 84787 36 28789 9 1-00154 43092 85631 40 13576 10 1-00190 71881 86563 43 99207 11 1-00230 85457 87573 47 85770 12 1-00274 84664 88672 51 73343 1-00322 70434 13 89851 55 62015 14 1-00374 43777 91118 59 51866 15 1-00430 05792 92470 63 42984 16 1-00489 57658 93909 67 35454 17 1-00553 00642 95436 71 29363 1-00620 36096 18 75 24799 1 00691 65459 19 1-00766 90258 20

.

(10.)

which gives the time of oscillation of an ideal pendulum, consisting of a single heavy point supported by a thread having no weight, and making oscillations imperceptible in extent. From this equation it follows, that the lengths of simple pendulums are proportional to the squares of their times: for example, a pendulum swinging thirty times per minute must be four times as long as the common seconds pendulum, while a half-seconds pendulum must only have onefourth part of the length. According to observations made on moving bodies by means of Attwood’s machine, the value of g comes out to be about 32 English feet, or 384 inches; wherefore the length of a simple pendulum vibrating in seconds should be inches nearly. But neither observations made directly on falling bodies, nor those made by help of Attwood’s machine, are susceptible of precision, while, as we shall see, measurements of the pendulum can be made with very great nicety; and thus, instead of deducing the length of the pendulum from the value of g, we derive an accurate knowledge of the intensity of gravitation from experiments made with the pendulum. How minute soever the arc of vibration may be, the time of describing it must be longer than the result obtained from equation (10); and our first business, in attempting to deduce any accurate results from experiments made with the pendulum is, to determine the effect of the amplitude of the arc. By help of equation (9), the following table has been computed, showing the time in which a pendulum will oscil-

Sec. 0-00000 1-64496 6-58020 14-80673 26-32629 41-14130 59-25486 80-67076 105-39352 133-42831 164-78106 199-45835 237-46750 278-81655 323-51424 371-57004 422-99416 477-79754 535-99187 597-58956 662-60383

0° 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1st Dili'. 1-64496 4-93524 8-22653 11-51956 14-81501 18-11356 21-41590 24-72276 28-03479 31-35275 34-67729 38-00915 41-34905 44-69769 48-05580 51-42412 54-80338 58-19433 61-59769 65 01427

2d Diff. 3-29028 3-29129 3-29303 3-29545 3-29855 3-30234 3-30686 3-31203 3-31796 3-32454 3-33186 3-33990 3-34864 3-35811 3 36832 3-37926 3-39095 3-40336 3-41658

The first column in each of these tables contains the half arc of vibration, or the extreme angular distance from the vertical line. The second column of the first table contains the time of an oscillation, with the first and second differences for the purpose of interpolating; and that of the second, the excess of the apparent day (or twenty-four hours as shown by the clock) over the true day (or that which would be shown by a clock of which the oscillations are imperceptible). From these tables we see the importance of having a clock pendulum arranged to make small oscillations. If, to take an extreme example, we had a pendulum kept swinging to a distance of 20° on each side of the vertical line, and had it regulated to go to true time; and if, by the thickening of the oil, or some analogous change in the maintaining power, the oscillations were reduced to 19°, the clock would gain upon true time by 64s'567, since the number of beats per day would be increased in the ratio of 1-00691 65459: 1-00766 90258. But if, by augmenting the load on the pendulum, and, of course, properly modifying the escapement, the arc of vibration were reduced to only 1° on each side of the vertical line, and the clock again adjusted to go in true time ; and thereafter, if a change in the maintaining power were to take place, so as to reduce the arc by one-twentieth part as before, the beats

1

PENDULUM. 379 Pendulum, of the clock would be increased in the ratio of I’OOOOl 72491 has produced that motion, the work being estimated by Pendulum, v , /'to 1-00001 90389, and there would be a daily gain of combining each pressure with the distance through which 08'154636. Thus a variation in the intensity ot the main- it has acted, so that in any system whatever taining power would occasion four hundred times as great 2g . work = motion. an error on the pendulum with the long sweep as on that But the pressure in this case is W, and the distance through with the short one ; the unsteadiness arising from this source being proportional nearly to the square of the am- which it has acted is l (cos a-cos A) ; so that W/(cosTa - cos A) represents the quantity of work expended in proplitude. “ This may be confirmed by a very simple but beautiful ducing the motion F. Wherefore experiment. Having suspended a leaden ball by means ot 2g W/(cos a-cos A) = W^ —; (12.) a slender thread, let this simple pendulum be put in motion, so that the ball may describe a curve known to bear a con- or, putting for v its equivalent l 8a siderable resemblance to the ellipse. If the times of vibra8t tion along the two axes of this curve were exactly equal to / // each other, the ball w-ould repeatedly retrace the same 8t: V (Az) t cos a - cos A}-5 Sa. . (12.) orbit; but these times of vibration are different, and during '2g ' the passage from end to end of the long axis the ball has more than returned to its position in reference to the short If, then, we make GS a third proportional to AG and GR, one, so that the axes of the orbit are gradually displaced in and put AS = L, or R2 the direction of the movement of the ball.” {Edin. New (13.) Phil. Jour., vol. xv., p. 140.) Having now investigated the law of the motion of an we shall have imaginary simple pendulum, we have to examine the case {cos a - COS A} 4 Sa, of a real one, consisting of parts, each moving with its own 8t relative velocity. We shall first consider it as moving in a vacuum, and examine afterwards the effect of the air. which is an exact copy of equation (3); and therefore we The weights of the various parts of the compound pen- conclude that the compound pendulum, of which GR is the dulum produce a tendency to turn it upon its axis, exactly mean distance of gyration, will oscillate in exactly the same equal to that which would be produced by the whole weight time as a simple pendulum of which the length is AS. From this equation (12) it appears that the oscillations of the pendulum acting at its centre of gravity. But the quantity of motion existing in a moving body is greater of a compound are similar to those of a simple pendulum, than that which would have existed in it if all concentrated and that therefore the tables which we have given apply to at its centre of gravity, by the motion of rotation which it actual clocks. But the investigation also shows clearly that the oscillawould have had if turning simply with the same angular velocity on an axis passing through the centre of gravity; tions of a compound cycloidal pendulum cannot be isochrowherefore, in every possible case, the oscillations ot a pen- nous; for when the pendulum is at the middle, the quantity dulum must be slower than those of a simple pendulum of motion is augmented in the ratio of AO’ + R" : AO-, rP, the represented by the centre of gravity ot the compound one. whereas, when the pendulum is in2 the direction augmentation is in the ratio of 1P + R": IP2? which is a If A(fig. 4) be the axis higher ratio ; so that this circumstance ought to be taken of motion supposed into account when we investigate the isochronism ot a comperpendicular to the pound pendulum. . , plane of the paper, and The point S is called the centre of oscillation, or that G the centre of gravity of a compound pendupoint at which, if the whole mass of the pendulum were supposed to be concentrated, the time of osci lation won c lum, its motion may not be changed ; and we have this property, that the rectbe represented thus: angle under the distances of the point of suspension, and of From G, with the disthe centre of oscillation from the centre of gravity, is equitance GR equal to the valent to the square of the mean distance of gyration, and mean distance of gyis therefore constant for the same pendulum; that is ration of the mass, deAG GS = GR2 scribe a circle ; then Fig. 4. From this law Huygens concluded that the point of susif we suppose the whole w-eight of the pendulum to be disint rch tributed uniformly round the circumference of this circle, pension and the centre of oscillation are ^ “^able , the motions of this imaginary ring will represent those of in other words, if the pendulum were suspended °n an axis passing through the point S, its time of oscillation would be the compound pendulum. , When the point G is moving along the2 arc QGQ', with the same as when suspended fioro A. Captain Eater proposed to utilize this property by emthe velocity v, the force of translation is v W, W being the whole weight of the pendulum ; but the velocity of rotation ploying it to determine the exact length of a simple pendulum vibrating in the same time with a compound one of the ring R is or, symbolically, v-j-, putting For this purpose he placed two knife-edges exactly parallel to each other, one at A, the other at S, and carefully adGR = R, AG=T; wherefore the rotatory motion is justed the weights of the parts by repeated trials, until he found that the two times of oscillation were alike ; then, ”-pW; measuring the distance between the two knife-edges, he oband therefore the whole motion existing in the moving tained the length of the corresponding simple pendulum ; mass is from which the intensity of gravitation can be computed This beautiful process is the only one available for deW^i!±51=F. . . . (11.) termining with great nicety the length of the seconds penNow the total quantity of motion in any system, as mea- dulum since it avoids the difficult and unsatisfactory operasured by combining the weight of each part with the square tion of measuring with great precision the dimensions ot the of its velocity, is proportional to the quantity of tvork which various parts ; it'is, however, subject to several sources of

PENDULUM. 380 Pendulum, minute error, which have either to be guarded against 01 is minute in comparison with AG, and when the angle B Pendulum, also is very small,—the expression becomes allowed for. The first, of these sources of error is the wearing of the knife-edges, which gradually changes the points of suspen- T = nearly 7r\/ ^ l {1 + J sin B2 (1 + A)} sion, and renders a new adjustment necessary ; and it is a very important question, whether the distance between two and, if the oscillations be supposed to be infinitesimally blunted knife-edges on which the oscillations are performed minute, in equal times be truly the length of the coi responding simple pendulum. M. .Laplace demonstrated that the (T)=J{^} • • (>6-) blunting of the edges does not impair the accuracy of the convertible pendulum. For the purpose of examining thoroughly into this matter, which agrees with those of a simple pendulum of which the length is let the pendulum be suspended R2 + P2 on a cylinder, of which the axis (17.) L = £ + l -2P. is A (fig. 5), and the radius AM = p; this cylinder rolling If, then, it were proposed to place the cylinder A at such upon a horizontal plane KL. a distance from the centre of gravity as that the time of a In this arrangement the point minute oscillation may be equal to that of a simple penG must describe a convoluted dulum having the length L, we should have to solve the cycloid, while A moves in a quadratic equation— horizontal line. Z2-(L + 2p)Z+R2 + p2=0. The linear motion of the Now, according to the properties of such equations, if Zand point G is composed of two X be the2 two2 roots, their sum must be L + 2p, and their promotions, one perpendicular and duct R + p , or proportional to AG, represented Z + A=L + 2p; ZA=R2 + p2. • • (18*) Fig. 5. by l.8a, and the other horizontally, on account of the motion of the centre A, represented Now Z+A represents the distance between the centres of by p . 8a. The angle of these two motions being a, it follows two cylinders placed on opposite sides of the centre of that the 2square of the actual linear motion of G is (P-2lp gravity ; and thus, since Z + A-2p = L, cos a + p ) 8a2; wherefore the motion of translation is the distance between the surfaces of the cylindeis is equal Vir{i'2-2lp cos a + p2} to the length of the corresponding simple pendulum. © This investigation is free from all limitations as to the and the entire quantity of motion in the system magnitude of the cylinders ; so that if carefully-turned and / 3(X \ 2 2 2 2 polished cylinders were substituted for the knife-edges, and W{l -2lp cos a+ p + R } ; if the corrections for the amplitudes of the arcs of vibration while the descent of the centre of gravity is as before, were made according to the formula (15), the results would /(cos A-cos a), so that the equation of motion becomes, be rigorously exact. When the curvatures of the two edges are not alike, an putting, as before, A = 2B, a = 2/3, error is introduced, because the one distance is then the major root of the equation -j® Z2 - (L + 2p) Z + R2 + p2=0. or, making sin (3 = sin B . sin y, and putting, for shortness while the other is the minor root of anothei equation sake, 4/p _. Z2- (L + 2p') Z+R2 + p'2=0. 2 2 (/-p) +R The sum of these roots, when p and p are minute, approaches sensibly to l+p+p; St (’4-> so that in practical cases the fact of the edges being Expanding the variable part of this expression according blunted does not vitiate the results. , 2 to the powers of sin y , integrating each term, and taking The next source ot error which we shall consider is the the integral between the limits y= — tp y —2> we ^iave ^or buoyancy of the air in which the experiments are made. If the pendulum were composed entirely of one kind of the time of an oscillation— material, its centre of gravity would coincide with the centre of buoyancy, and the t=tt\/{i + a)2 sin B2 • *] co-efficient W in the first member of equation (12) would have to be replaced by 2 4 + (i .f) sin B [l + |xU/'-f.|xU.}/r] W - A, A being the weight of the displaced : 6 sin B [1 +fxL /^-Mxu.}/r + f .-M air. But when the pendulum is made of +(M various materials, the inquiry becomes a x i • 4-I £’] 2 8 2 little more difficult. It will be enough to .£) sinB [l + f x^/e-f .f x£.£& + £.f-f +(i-s consider those cases in which the centie 3 + i .J.f A -&c.] + &c.J- . . . (15.) of buoyancy, the centre of gravity, and the points of suspension, lie all in one straight the law of progression of which is obvious. This formula gives the time of oscillation of a pendulum line. Let then B (fig. 6) be the centre of suspended on a cylinder, without any restriction as to the buoyancy, its distance from G being repreI’adius of curvature. From it we see that the correction for sented by e; then the motion which the sysamplitude is not the same as for a pendulum hung by a tem has acquired being due to the descent perfect knife-edge, and that therefore the motions of no of the weight W through the distance / (cos a - cos A) less that of A through (/ - e) Fig. G. simple pendulum can strictly represent those of this one. When the value of k is small,—that is to say, when AM (cos a-cos A), we must have

PENDULUM. 381 sumption which has been arbitrarily made in order to bring Pendulum, %{(W -A) /+Ae} (cos a —cos A) Pendulum. the matter apparently within the power of the calculus. = W(£2 + R Although we cannot ascertain the precise effects of the air’s resistance, we may, by a general view of the subject, wherefore the length of a corresponding simple pendulum arrive at some useful conclusions. vibrating in vacuo is On comparing the motion of a pendulum describing a large arc QQ' (fig. 7), with rL W(Z2 + R2) (9) that of another of the ~(W-A)l + Ae' ' ' ' ^ dimensions osIf then we desire to place A so that the oscillations may same cillating through the agree with those of the simple pendulum L, we must solve smaller arc qq, we the quadratic equation perceive that, generally speaking, the velocities of the two are O'w) u+R2-wLe=0- • (2a) to the ^ The two roots of this equation will not represent the one proportional lengths of the arcs; GA on the one side and the other GA' on the other side the intenof the centre of gravity, but two distances on one side, wherefore either of which will satisfy the condition of oscillation. sities of the air’s remust be nearWhen the pendulum is inverted to be suspended from the sistance ly proportional to the point A', the equation becomes, putting X for GA', squares of those lengths. Now, the redressing tendencies are proportional to the sines of the arcs ; wherefore it folX1- (l-w) LX+R! + ^Le=0. . (21.) lows that the air’s resistance bears a less proportion to the The major root of the one and the minor root of the redressing tendency in the case of the small arc than in other being taken, we have the proper values of / and A, that of the large one, which forms another argument in favour of a small arc of vibration. viz.,— While the intensity of the resistance is proportional to 2 A W-A \ W-A the square of the length of the arc, the distance through L) -R^Le 2W 2W } which it acts is proportional to that length, wherefore the quantity of motion destroyed, or the loss of force, is proporW-A , W-A l) ‘ - R2 - ^-Le A= tional to the cube of the length. Now, if the pendulum, 2W ~2\r } after having been dropped from Q, rise only on the other the sum of which is no longer independent of the speciali- side to the distance OR, the loss of force is proportional to ties of construction of the pendulum. the distance SR, by which R is low7er than Q; and thereIf the centre of buoyancy coincide with the centre of fore, we have, approximately gravity, e becomes zero, and SR : sr : : QR3 : qr ’. W-A Again, if we assume that the arcs Q'R, qr, are so small as /+A=AL^L;. . . .(22.) to be undistinguishable from their tangents, the trigons from which the length of the simple pendulum can be Q'SR, q'sr are similar to Q'BA, qba; so that if the arcs easily deduced; but in no other case can the reversible OQ, oq themselves be small, pendulum vibrating in air give a result dependent only on Q'R :q'r:: OQ2 : oq2 the measurement of the distance between the knife-edges. approximately. While the air modifies the vibrations of a pendulum by If, then, the oscillations of a pendulum be slowly arrested its buoyancy, it also influences them by its resistance to by the air’s resistance alone, the successive amplitudes must motion. The law of this resistance, like all the laws con- form a progression in which the differences are pioportional nected with the motion of fluid bodies, is very imperfectly to the squares of the terms ; that is, they must form a harknown; no method of analysis has been discovered which monic series, and the number of beats occurring between can at all approach the difficulties of the subject; nor has the amplitudes OQ = A and oq=a, must be proportional any glimpse yet been obtained of the internal arrangement to the difference of the inverse powers of a and A, or to of the parts of fluids, so that we have not even a founda. _ I. It has been erroneously asserted that the arcs tion on which to build a train of reasoning. The resistance which the air presents to a moving body hould form a decreasing geometrical progression. In virtue is usually supposed to be proportional to the square of the lerely of the air’s resistance, then, the pendulum would velocity, and also, with similar solids, to the extent of surever be brought absolutely to rest. . .. , face ; but there is some reason to believe that both proporIn addition to this resistance there is the friction on the tions are only approximate. Even when assisted by this nife-edo-e, which is nearly constant. When the pendulum supposition, the powers of the higher calculus fail in dis- 5 inclined at the angle a, its pressure upon the support is covering what effect this resistance has on the going of a Y cos a, and therefore if/be the coefficient of friction clock. The equation of motion, when expressed in the no- m- the particular knife-edge, the redressing tendency is tation of Leibnitz, takes the form Y(sin a-/cos a); and if we put/=tan . s a PER

414 PER Period duration of its course till it return to the same part of its .11 orbit. (See Astronomy.) Perjury. Period, in numbers, is applied to the recurring part of a circulating decimal. PERIOECI (jrepLOLKOL) is an old geographical term used to denote those who dwelt under the same latitudes but under opposite longitudes, just as antceci (uvtoikoi) meant those under the same longitude but opposite latitudes, and antipodes (dvriVoSes) those under opposite latitudes and opposite longitudes. PERIPATETICS (TrepiTrareo), 1 walk about), a term applied to the disciples of Aristotle, because he taught them while ivalking in the TrepiVaros, or promenade of the Lyceum at Athens. Peripatetic accordingly came to be equivalent to Aristotelian. (See Aristotle, and Aristotelian Philosophy.) PERIPHERY (Trept^epo), I carry round) signifies, according to the Greek use of the term, the circumference of a circle. It is usually applied, however, by the moderns both to rectilinear and to curvilinear figures. PERIPHRASIS (Trept, about, cfipdlw, I speak) signifies properly circumlocution, and is applied to that figure ot rhetoric in which more words are used than are necessary to express the idea, with the design of avoiding common and trite modes of expression, and thus giving dignity and elevation to the discourse. The periphrasis is of great use on some occasions ; and it is often necessary, to make things be conceived which it is not proper to name. It is sometimes polite to suppress the names, and only to intimate or allude to them. These turns of expression are also particularly serviceable in oratory; for the sublime admitting of no direct citations, there must be a compass taken to insinuate the authors whose authority is borrowed. A periphrasis, by turning round a proper name in order to make it understood, amplifies and raises the discourse ; but care must be taken that it be not too much swelled nor extended mat d propos, in which case it becomes flat and languid. PERIPNEUMONY (vrepi, about, r-vevpwv, the lungs) signifies properly an inflammation, of the substance of the lungs, as distinguished from pleurisy, or the inflammation of the membrane which invests the lungs. PERISTALTIC (mpurTeXXw, I involve) is an epithet given to a vermicular spontaneous motion of the intestines, performed by the contraction of the circular and longitudinal fibres of which the fleshy coats of the intestines are composed; by means of which the food, chyme, chyle, faeces, &c., are kept moving towards the termination of the alimentary canal. PERISTYLE. See Glossary to Architecture. PERITONEUM {ntpiTovaiov, from -rrept, about, and rovow, I stretch) is the fine membrane which lines the inside of the abdominal cavity, and envelopes every portion of the intestines. Inflammation of the peritoneum is called peritonitis. PERJURY is defined by Sir Edward Coke to be a crime committed when a lawful oath is administered in some judicial proceeding, to a person who swears wilfully, absolutely, and falsely, in a matter which is material to the issue or point in question. In ancient times it was in some places punished with death; at other periods it made the false swearer liable to the punishment due to the crime which he had charged the innocent person withal; and at others, again, it subjected him to a pecuniary fine. But though it escaped human, yet it was thought, amongst the ancients in general, that the Divine vengeance would most certainly overtake it; and there are upon record many severe inflictions believed to be from the hand of God, as monuments of the abhorrence in which this atrocious crime is held by the Deity. (See Oaths.) Perjury is a misdemeanour at common law, and is punishable by fine and imprisonment. and by transportation for a period not exceeding

PER seven years. Owing to the painful increase of perjury, all Perizonius courts of justice, civil or criminal, down to petty sessions, II are now empowered by stat. 14 and 15 Viet., c. 100, § 19, Perm, forthwith to commit and direct to be prosecuted any one appearing to them to be guilty of perjury. PERIZONIUS, Jacob, a learned Dutchman, was born at Dam, in the province of Groningen, in 1651 ; studied at Deventer, and afterwards at Leyden. He applied himself with great ardour to philology and history ; and in 1674 was appointed rector of the gymnasium at Delft. In 1681 he removed to the academy of Franeker as professor of eloquence and history, and accepted the chair of history, eloquence, and the Greek language in the university of Leyden. During his whole life he plied his pen with great industry in connection with his favourite pursuits. But his assiduous and uninterrupted labours at length undermined his health, which was naturally delicate, and after languishing for some time in a hopeless condition, he died at Leyden on the 6th of April 1715. Perizonius, though a man of an amiable and obliging disposition, was nevertheless sensative, and fond of disputa* tion. He engaged in several keen controversies, particularly with Ulric Huber, professor of law at Franeker, on the sense of a passage in the Epistle of St Paul to the Philippians ; with Francius, professor of eloquence at Amsterdam ; with James Gronovius on the death of Judas Iscariot ; with John Leclerc, on the subject of Quintus Curtius ; and with Kuster on the ces grave of the ancients. The works of Perizonius all display erudition, but are deficient in order and method. Besides good editions of various authors, he wrote Animadversiones IJistoricce, Amsterdam, 1685, in 8vo 5 (}. Curtius Rufus in integrum restitutus, vindicatus, Leyden, 1703, in 8vo ; J)e Doctrinal Studiis, nuper post depulsam barbariem diligentissime denuo cultis et desideratis, nunc vero rursus neglectis fere et contemptis, Leyden, 1708, in 8vo; Rerum per Europam sceculo XVI. maxime gestarum Commentarii Historici, ibid. 1710, in8vo; Origines Babylonicce et ^n/pfi'acce, Leyden, 1711, 2 vols. 8vo,—a work full of curious and interesting remarks on the chronology of Egypt, in opposition to Marsham, Usher, Capell, Pezron, and some other chronologists; Opuscula Minora, Orationes atque Dissertationes varii et preestantioris argumenti, Leyden, 1740, 2 vols. 8vo, preceded by a Life of Perizonius, and a catalogue of the manuscripts which he bequeathed to the library of Leyden. Amongst the works edited by this able scholar may be mentioned the History of JElian, 1701, in 2 vols. 8vo; and the Minerva of Sanctius, 1714, in 8vo. PERLEBERG, a town of Prussia, in the government of Potsdam, on the Stepnitz, 73 miles N.W. of Berlin. It contains a Protestant church and chapel, courts of law, and public offices, as well as manufactories of cloth, chicory, and beer. A much-frequented market for flax is held here. Pop. 6438. PERM, a government of Russia, lying partly in Europe and partly in Asia, between N. Lat. 56. 30. and 61. 30., E. Long. 53. 20. and 64. 10., and bounded on the N. by the governments,of Vologda and Tobolsk, E. by that of Tobolsk, S. by that of Orenburg, and W. by that of Viatka; length from N.W. to S.E., 520 miles; breadth about 400; area, 129,100 square miles, being more than double that of England and Wales. It is divided into two parts by the Ural chain, which traverses it from N. to S., forming the boundary between Europe and Asia. Of these parts, the eastern or Asiatic is considerably the smaller. The mountains rise very gradually and almost imperceptibly ; the loftiest summit in this government being that called Pavdinskoi Kamen, which is more than 6000 feet above the level of the sea. The principal pass across the Urals is that which leads from Perm by Kungur and Yekaterinenburg to Tobolsk. A large portion of the surface is occupied with mountains, which are for the most part wooded, the woods containing in many places extensive marshes. The eastern portion of Perm is watered by the Sosva, the Tura, and the Sceth, tributaries of the Tobol, which itself discharges its waters by the Obi into

P E B 415 PERN AGO A, a town of Brazil, province of Piauhy, Pernagoa 11 Perm, the Arctic Ocean. The principal river W. of the Ural stands on the E. side of a large lake of the same name, 250 chain is the Kama, an affluent of the Volga, which nows Pernamin a winding course through the country from N. to S., and miles S.S.W. of Oeiras. It is the seat of a justice of the buco. receives many smaller streams. rI here are also numerous peace ; and contains a fine church. Some trade is carried lakes in the government, most of them lying in the eastern on in tobacco grown in the vicinity, and in horses and Pop. 4000. portion ; and mineral springs exist at various places. 1 he mules. PERNAMBUCO, a province of Brazil, lying between southern part of the government, on the European side, is generally fertile and well cultivated, but the other portions S. Lat. 7. and 11., W. Long. 34. 50. and 43., is bounded on N. by the provinces of Ceara and Parahiba, N.W. and are better fitted for pasture than for agriculture ; and a the W. by that of Piauhy, S. by those of Bahia and Alagoas, great part of the land is allowed to lie uncultivated. There E. by the Atlantic; area, 61,633 square miles. It were in 1849, 6,948,992 acres of arable land, 5,382,283 of and meadow land, 53,818,205 of wood, and 2,181,887 of consists of two distinct regions, one lying near the coast, the other on the table-land of the interior. The coast, waste land, in the government. The quantity of corn of and which is fringed with coral reefs, is low and uninteresting, all kinds raised in the same year was 34,086,933 bushe s, and the adjacent country level; but farther from the sea there and that of potatoes, 922,184 bushels. The corn produced is not, however, sufficient for the supply of the inhabitants. is a succession of hills and dales, and still farther to the W. ground becomes stony and sterile, as it rises into the Rye, barley, and oats are the chief kinds of grain; flax is the table-land which is known by the name of the Serrao de also grown. In the forests, of which nearly a half belong Pernambuco. This region forms a part of the table-land to the Crown, the pine, the larch, and the lime are the chief Brazil, and consists in a great part of salt steppes, though trees ; the oak, the elm, the cedar, and others abound in of the south-eastern parts. The climate in the northern and in some parts there are excellent pasture-lands and fields in the mountainous regions is cold and rigorous; on t|ie of cotton. The principal mountains in the province are higher summits snow lies for a great part of the yeai. The those of Borborema, which form its northern and western forests of the country abound in game, and the rivers in boundary ; and the most important river of the province, or fish. Fur-bearing animals are also numerous. Of domes- of any other in Brazil belonging wholly to the country, is tic animals the government contained in 1849, 731,693 the San Francisco, the largest stream that falls into the horses, 615,277 horned cattle, 889,437 sheep, 296,427 Atlantic between the Amazon and the Plata. It onlyfoim» of the southern boundary of Pernambuco; and the swine, and 40,164 goats. The chief riches of Perm are part affluents it receives here are so few and insignificant that its minerals, which are extensively worked, and affoid g™ the country is in general very dry and sterile. Some gol ployment to a vast number of the inhabitants. Gold, silver, platinum, iron, copper, lead, together with salt, marble, is found here, and excellent marble might be quarried. loadstone, diamonds, and precious stones, are the principal The forests yield abundant supplies of timber of various suitable for ship-building, for carpentry, and for produce of the mines. The timber of the forests is ex- kinds tensively used for fuel in working the mines. The follow- ornament. Dye-woods are also obtained. I he climate ing table exhibits the quantity of different metals obtained of Pernambuco is hot and moist in the interior, but agreeable in the maritime district. I he soil ot tne in 1855 from the principal mines belonging to the Crown in more latter is in many parts rich and fertile, producing cotton, this government:sugar, cocoa, maize, mandioc, and a variety of huits, met iLI), troy. Cwt. Owt. troy weight. cinal herbs, and vegetables. Manufactures can hardly be said Yekaterinenburg 1346 ... 59,311 ... to exist in Pernambuco; but there are sugar-works and distilBogossloosk 1760 6148 ... • ^ leries. The trade of the province is considerable, and is Perm 5352 chiefly carried on through the port of Pernambuco I e The manufactures in the government are inconsiderable, province appoints six senators and thirteen deputies to the except those immediately connected with the mines. legislature. Pop. (1856)950,000. . _ . • t]ie leather, soap, candles, glass, &c., are manufactured; and Pernambuco, the capital and prmapal seaport in the trade is actively -carried on, not only on account of the above province, stands on the Atlantic, a ie j facility of conveyance by the Kama and its tributaries, but Capibanbe r^niWihe 210miles Lat. 8. b., proper, vv. uonor ^ ™ e N.E. of Bahia; 0. g of pS. ernambuC0 on account of the numerous fairs that are held, many of them in the large towns. About three-fourths of the po- Reel' and OHoS which are about 3 miles d.tant front pulation are Russians, and the remainder are descended Stch olher (See OuNtra.) The from the ancient inhabitants of this country, and various andi is divided into parts,, occupying Recife, or into three tfflee pa Tatar tribes. The religion of the vast majority is that of a peninsula, an island, and peninSula the Greek Church ; there are, however, 78,204 Mohamme- Pernambuco proper y so calle , ^ 01in[,a> a This is the dans, and 9422 heathens, besides small numbers of 1 ro- which extends to the sou -,, Antonio testants, Roman Catholics, and Jews. The governments most mercantile part o tie formed bv the arms of of Perm and Kazan are under a single military governor. stands upon an isJ^^ °i with” Recffe by a long In regard to education, the country is in a low state ; it is the Capibanbe, being i .• e. The third under the superintendence of the University fvazan. bridge almost entire^ eons^^ ^ ston the Perm is divided into twelve circles, and contains l,(41,/-ia inhabitants. , westward0of theCother two,^and is joined m thetn by^a Perm, the capital of the above government, stan s on wooden b"d|®; “^dTis called Boa Vista, where the the right bank of the Kama, which here receives the sma rivers Danilicha and Jagoshicha, 220 miles W. of io o s^, nclterfnhabhants reside. and 322 N.E. of Kazan. It is environed on three sides when rernambuco..s ^ ’„ood, gradually with thick woods ; and is well and regularly built, c ne y charming. interior ; but none of them is ot any conof wood, having straight and broad streets. It is t ie sea of an archbishop ; and contains nine churches, a conven , ‘•SbR Recife though narrow siderable height g in height, ckcontains three or regular more storeys several schools of various kinds, and hospitals. T icie. aie streets, and house. , ctand here the customhere extensive foundries, and refining-works for coppei an iron, which are obtained in abundance from the mines i the vicinity. Trade and navigation are actively carried on. Pop. (1851) 13,262. P

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416 PER Pernau the streets are broad, and the houses large, the ground 11 floors being generally occupied with shops. Among the Peroration. pUijiic buildings here are the treasury, town-hall, prison, barracks, governor’s palace, See. There are several public squares, and the general appearance of this quarter is very lively. The principal street of Boa Vista is broad and handsome, and there are here many elegant buildings. A long embankment connects the sand-bank and town of S. Antonio with the mainland at Affogados, to the south and west of Boa Vista. The position of Pernambuco, on the most easterly point of South America, renders its harbour one of much importance ; and the nature of the harbour is no less favourable for commercial purposes. It is formed by a singular reef, probably of coralline structure, which extends for 1500 miles along the Brazilian coast, from the province of Bahia to that of Maranhao. This remarkable reef at the top is scarcely sixteen feet in breadth. To a great depth on the outside it slopes off more rapidly than the Plymouth breakwater, but it is perpendicular within ; thus forming a magnificent natural bulwark or breakwater, within which the ocean isas still as a mill-pond. Insomeparts it sinks under water, and there are numberless breaks, by which a communication with the sea is laid open. The harbour, which is well protected from the sea by the reef, has two deep and safe entrances; but there is a bar of sand within it, which, even at spring tides, does not admit vessels drawing more than 15 feet. This might, however, be removed by dredging. The anchorage is about half a mile in length, and of breadth sufficient to admit four rows of vessels. The harbour is defended by forts ; and there is a lighthouse 80 feet high, visible to a distance of 16 or 17 miles. The commerce of Pernambuco is very important, the exports consisting chiefly of cotton, sugar, rum, hides, and dye-woods; and the imports, of cotton and linen cloth, hardware, cutlery, silks, wine, flour, cod, &c. The trade has been on the increase for some years. Pernambuco was much improved by the Dutch, who were in possession of it from 1630 to 1654. The population of the town is 12,000; of the district, 38,000. PERNAU, a fortified seaport-town of European Russia, in the government of Livonia, stands on a flat sandy heath at the mouth of the Pernau, on the Gulf of Riga, 102 miles N.N.E. of Riga. It is well and regularly built; and contains two Lutheran and one Greek church, several schools, an orphan hospital and various other benevolent institutions. The harbour has a bar at its mouth, which obstructs the entrance of large vessels; but, notwithstanding, there is a considerable trade carried on in corn, flax, hemp, timber, leather, See. From its low situation, it is exposed to inundation. Many remains of antiquity have been discovered in the neighbourhood of Pernau. Pop. (1849) 5740. PfiRONNE, a town of France, in the department of Somme, on the slope of a hill in the midst of marshes, on the right bank of the Somme, 30 miles E. of Amiens. It is strongly fortified, and has a ruined castle, in one of whose towers Charles the Simple died in captivity, and Louis IX. was imprisoned by Charles the Bold of Burgundy. There are two suburbs ; and the houses are well built. The chief buildings are the church of St John (a fine Gothic edifice), an ancient belfry, a town-hall, convent, hospital, theatre, and college. Manufactures of woollen and cotton stuffs, lawn, cambric, leather, sugar, and other articles are carried on here ; and there is some trade in grain, wool, and brandy. Peronne was a place of much importance in the middle ages, and bore the name of La Pucelle (“ The Maiden City”), as it was never captured till Wellington took it eight days after the battle of Waterloo. Pop. (1856) 4102. PERORATION {peroro, I wind up a speech) is the concluding portion of an oration, in which all that the orator had insisted on throughout his discourse is urged afresh with greater vehemence and passion. The peroration con-

P E R sists of two parts ; the recapitulation, in which the substance Perouse of what was diffused throughout the speech is briefly col- Per 511 na lected, and summed up with new force and weight; and P g n. the appeal to the passions, which is so peculiar to the peroration that the masters of the art call this portion sedes affectuum. PlSROUSE, Jean-Franjois Galaup de la, a distinguished French navigator of the eighteenth century, was born in 1741 at Albi, in the department of Tarn. After passing through the marine school, he entered the navy; and in 1756 was made a midshipman. Three years later, he took part in the battle of Belleisle, was wounded, taken prisoner, and carried to England, where he was detained till the peace of I763sethimfree. Onreturning to France, herose through the various grades of promotion, served in the East Indies from 1773 to 1777, and when war again broke out with England in 1778, he signalized himself by several brilliant exploits. In 1782 he was sent to destroy the English settlements on the shores of Hudson’s Bay. He took and destroyed Fort York, which he found undefended. Hearing that some of the garrison had fled into the woods, and were in danger of perishing from cold and hunger, or at the hands of the savages, he humanely left a supply of arms and provisions for their use. The only things of value that La Perouse found in the fort were the papers of the governor, which, when claimed as private property, he promptly restored. When peace was restored in 1783, the French, taking up the idea of maritime discovery from their late rivals, fitted out an expedition to the Pacific. The chief command of the squadron (which consisted of two frigates, Boussole and Astrolabe) was given to La Perouse. Setting sail from Brest on the 1st of August 1785, he doubled Cape Horn, coasted along the shores of South America, turned aside to the Sandwich Islands, and setting sail thence, spent the autumn of 1786 in exploring the coasts of Upper California. He then steered across the ocean to China; discovering Necker Island on the way, and examined the almost unknown coasts of Eastern Asia as far as Avatcha in Kamschatka, where the orders of the Russian empress procured him a kindly welcome. From this point he despatched his comrade De Lesseps overland to France with his diaries, maps, plans, &c. Leaving Avatcha towards the end of 1787, La Perouse turned his prow to the Navigator Islands, where he lost an officer and twelve men in an encounter with the natives. To refit in peace, he next sailed to Botany Bay, where the English were then establishing their first Australian colony. Here he brought down the narrative of his travels to the latest date, and transmitted it to Europe, with a letter, in which he gave a short sketch of his plans for the future. FYom this time he was never again heard of. Various expeditions were sent out in quest of him, but without effect. His fate was involved in mystery till the year 1826, when an English seaman, Captain Dillon, came upon the wrecks of his squadron in the island of Wanikoro (or, as it is called by the French, He de la Recherche), one of the Queen Charlotte Islands. The relics, consisting of cannons, anchors, &c., were brought home, and deposited in the national galleries of the Louvre, where they are now preserved. La Perouse’s journals and letters were published at Paris in 1797, in 4 vols. 4to. PERPENDICULAR. See Geometry. PERPIGNAN, a town of France, capital of the department of Pyrenees-Orientales, stands, partly on the slope of a hill, and partly in a level plain, on the right banks of the Tet, at its confluence with the Basse, about 6 miles above its mouth, and 80 miles S.W. of Montpellier. It guards the passage between Spain and France by the Eastern Pyrenees, and is now one of the most strongly fortified places in France, the defences having been much improved since 1815. In form it is nearly oval, being

PER Perrault. about 2 miles in length by 1 in breadth. The defences v v—> consist of a strong citadel, standing on the hill to the S. of the town, and separated from it by a wide glacis; by ramparts, bastions, redoubts, covered ways, &c. The inner ramparts of the citadel were erected by the Emperor Charles V., and the outer ones by Vauban. As the province of Roussillon, of which Perpignan was the capital, belonged to Spain till its cession to France in 1659, it is not to be wondered that the town retains much of its Spanish character, and its inhabitants greatly resemble those of Catalonia, on the other side of the mountains. The streets, which are narrow and dirty, are in many parts covered over with awnings, and in others with the wooden balconies of the houses. These are almost all built in the Moorish style, and hwe patios, or inner courts. In the citadel are an old square tower, and the remains of a church with a curious portal. The cathedral, which was begun in 1324, consists of a wide and lofty nave ; and contains a beautifully-carved altar screen, and an ancient marble font. Near this" building are the ruins of the older church of St Jean le Vieux. The buildings of the ancient university contain the public library of 20,000 volumes ; and the Dominican church and convent are now used as an arsenal. Besides the buildings already mentioned, there are a town-hall, court-house, barracks, custom-house, theatre, college, diocesan school, botanic gardens, and two hospitals. Woollen stuffs, lace, playing-cards, soap, brandy, and leather are the principal articles manufactured ; and a considerable trade is carried on in wines, brandy, oil, silk, wool, iron, cork, &c. Perpignan is the seat of a bishop, and of courts of the first instance and of commerce. In the year 1349, when Roussillon belonged to the crown of Aragon, the university of Perpignan was founded by King Pedro. In 1474 the town was taken by Louis XL of France ; but having been restored to Spain, it was again taken by Louis XIII. in 1642; and, along with the province of Roussillon, finally ceded to France by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. Pop. (1856) 19,844. PERRAULT, Charles, was born at Paris on the 12th of January 1628, and studied at the college of Beauvais, where he distinguished himself in scholastic disputation, and in making verses. Having completed his studies, he was admitted as advocate; but Colbert soon deprived the law of his services, and, in the year 1664, appointed him first commissary for the superintendence of royal buildings. The Academy of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture, and that of Sciences, were founded on memoirs drawn up by Charles Perrault, who had now become comptroller-general of buildings; and he was admitted into the French Academy in 1671, in the room of the Bishop of Leon. But the impracticable character of Colbert having at length wearied out his patience, he retired from his public situation, and, devoting himself to literature, produced his poem entitled Siecle de Louis XIV., which appeared in 1687, and involved him in a war with the learned, by reason of his exalting the modern in comparison with the ancient authors. He defended himself, however, in the Par allele des Anciens et Modernes, which appeared at Paris in 1688, and excited the antagonism of Boileau in his Reflexions sur Longint In addition to the works just mentioned, Charles Perrault wrote a considerable number of poetical pieces now all but forgotten. 1 ei rault died at Paris on the 16th of May 1703. His son Perrault d’Armacourt was the author of the well-known Contes de Fees, which contain the nursery classics of “ Cinderella,” See. „ Perrault, Claude, a celebrated architect, the brother of Charles, was born at Paris in the year 1613. His father, an advocate of the Parliament, caused him to study medicine,anatomy, and the mathematics; and he even took the de gree of Doctor of Physic in the faculty of Paris. But Co VOL. XVII.

PER 417 bert having advised him to undertake a translation of Vitru- Perrot vius, the studies in which he found it necessary to engage in d’Ablanorder to understand that writer inspired him with a decided court 11 taste for architecture, and gave a new direction to his pur- Perry. suits. When the Academy of Sciences was established in ■ 1666, Perrault was admitted a member of this body, and was employed to furnish designs and building-plans for the Observatory. But this edifice, which, with all its merits, is in a heavy style, was far from giving any indication of the talents which Perrault afterwards displayed. His grand work is the palace of the Louvre, the facade of which was designed by him, and is certainly one of the noblest monuments of architecture in France. The building had been commenced, and even part of the facade raised, according to the designs of Lavau. But Colbert, dissatisfied with these, appealed to the genius of other architects; and Perrault produced a design so superior to those of his competitors that it obtained a decided preference. Perrault furnished designs for other works, particularly the triumphal arch erected at the extremity of the Rue Saint-Antoine, the foundation-stone of which was laid on the 6th of August 1670; and in all his works he displayed that superiority of genius which was first exhibited in his translation of Vitruvius, particularly in the plates with which it was enriched, and which have ever been considered as masterpieces of their kind. The first edition of this work appeared in 1673, and the second in 1684, in 1 vol. fol.; after which the translator published an abridgment in 1 vol. 12mo; and a supplement, entitled Ordonnances des Cinq Especes de Colonnes selon la Methode des Anciens, in 1 vol. fol. Of his other productions the principal are,—Essais de Physique, 1680-8, 2 vols. 4to, and 4 vols. 12mo ; Memoires pour servir d VHistoire Naturelle des Aniniaux, Paris, 1671-6, in folio; Recueil d’un grand Nombre des Machines de son Invention, Paris, 1700, in 1 vol. 4to. Claude Perrault assisted his brother Charles in preparing the memoirs relating to the establishment of the Academy of Sciences, and that of painting and sculpture, and took a warm interest in the success of that institution. He died at Paris on the 9th of October 1688, in consequence, it is believed, of having wounded himself whilst dissecting, in the Jardin du Roi, a camel which had died of some contagious disease. ^ . PERROT D’ABLANCOURT, Nicolas, a French translator, was born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1606, an was called to the French bar at the age of eighteen. His disposition seems to have been impulsive and changeable. He grew tired of law in a short time, and betoo imse to literature. He became fastidious about re igion, an passed from Protestantism to Popery, and from Popery back to Protestantism. Nor was he less undecided as to his place of abode. He retired from Pans to Holland, eft Holland to sojourn in England, returned from England to Paris, and ultimately fixed his residence at his family seat of Ablancourt. Yet; in the meantime, Perrot was steadily engaged in translating Tacitus, Thucydides, Caesar, Lucian Minutius Felix, the Anabasis of Xenophon, four Orations of Cicero, Arrian’s Wars of Alexander,JrontinuV Strategematica, and the Apophthegms of the ancients These translations were appreciated on their hist appearance for the elegance and happy freedom with which they gave the sense of the originals. They were, however, deficient in correctness, a fault which has long since led to their complete neglect. The death of Perrot happened in PERRY James, an eminent newspaper editor, was born in Aberdeen in 1756, and was educated at Marischal College in his native town. His settlement in life was attended with considerable difficulty. He had scarcely begun to study law when the pecuniary misfortunes of his father threw him loose upon the world. His application o Q- for a

PER 418 PER Perry clerkship in Edinburgh was unsuccessful. He indeed ob- classical fable for his wonderful adventures. No sooner Perseus II || tained a situation in the counting-house of a Manchester had he come into the world than he was doomed to face Pershore Perseus, merchant; but he left it at the end of two years to repair difficulty and danger. His nervous old grandfather, terrified by a prediction of the Pythian oracle, placed him and to London as a literary adventurer. Thither his ill-luck likewise followed him. It was not until many days had his mother into a chest, and sent them adrift down the passed that an accident made known his literary abilities, Argolic Gulf. The wind wafted them across the Myrtoan and procured for him the situation of a stipendiary writer Sea to the island of Seriphos, and they fell into the hands both to the General Advertiser and to the London Even- of Polydectes, the selfish king of the country. At the ing Post. Perry now entered upon a successful career in court of that prince Perseus lived until he had grown up newspaper literature. In 1 782 his skill in the profession to be a brave and godlike young man. Then his royal had become so great that he was able to start and conduct patron, overawed by his superior presence, and anxious to a periodical called The European Magazine. Appointed get rid of him, commanded him to set out and bring home editor of The Gazetteer in the following year, he conferred the head of the dreaded Gorgon Medusa. To this dangera great service upon the journalism of the country by in- ous enterprise the youth set himself with eager alacrity. troducing the custom of employing in the reporting of any His first measure was to repair to the house of the Graiae, public speech a series of reporters instead of one. His —three old prophetic crones, who had only one tooth and success at length attained its height when he became editor one eye for their common use. Coming upon them unand joint-proprietor of the Morning Chronicle. He con- awares, and snatching their eye and tooth, he compelled tinued in that position till his death on the 6th December them, on pain of never recovering their precious organs, to 1821. Perry was the author of several ephemeral pamph- mumble out where he would get the equipment necessary for his expedition. By their direction he found the dwelllets and poems. PERRY, a pleasant and wholesome liquor extracted ing of certain nymphs, and was there supplied with winged from pears in the same manner as cider is from apples. shoes to carry him through the air, and with the helmet of Hades to render him invisible. Minerva added a mirror ; (See Cider.) PERSdEUS, a philosopher who flourished about 260 and the youthful hero was now ready to dare the perilous B.C., is famous for his connection with the Stoic Zeno. Pie exploit. Speeding westward through the clouds, he alighted was born in the same Cretan town, Cittium; settled in the in the country of the Gorgons, a land situated on the shore same city, Athens; lived in the same house; and adopted of the solitary ocean, and near the abode of eternal Night. the same opinions. So highly indeed did the teacher of He stepped slowly forward, averting his head lest the sight the Porch favour him that, when unable through old age of the monsters should turn him into stone, and using the to accept an invitation to the court of Antigonus Gonatus, mirror to ascertain what was in front of him. Suddenly he sent him in his stead. This honour is said to have been there appeared in the glass the sleeping forms of the three the occasion of the death of Persaeus. Appointed by his dread Gorgons, with their snaky locks, golden wdngs, and royal patron to the command of Corinth, he was slain at brazen hands. He struck off the head of Medusa, seized it in his hand, and sped away through the air, pursued in the capture of that city in 243 B.C. PERSEPOLIS, an ancient city of Persia, stood near vain by the two remaining sisters. Another adventure the confluence of the Medus and the Araxes, on the spa- awaited Perseus on his flight homewards. After turning, cious plain now called Merdusht. It was one of the wonders by means of the wonder-working head, the inhospitable of the East. According to Arrian and other writers, it Atlas into a mountain, he was passing over Ethiopia wheiy was from the most ancient times the capital of the Persian looking down, he saw Andromeda, the lovely daughter of empire. At any rate, it is almost certain that in the reign King Cepheus chained to a rock, and ready to be devoured of Darius Hystaspes it began to assume an unparalleled by a sea-monster. He descended, slew the monster, and splendour, by becoming the site of a magnificent pile of won the heart and hand of the liberated maiden. The rearchitecture. To afford a foundation for this huge fabric, maining days of Perseus were not so eventful. After prethere was cut out from the side of a neighbouring hill, at a senting the Gorgon’s head to Minerva, he is said to have great distance from the ground, an immense platfoim in settled down for life as king of Tiryns, and to have occuthe shape of a series of terraces. 1 hese terraces wei e pied himself in founding the cities of Mideia and Mycenae. Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, succeeded his covered with sculptured porticoes, gigantic statues, and colossal temples and palaces. Each Persian king in succes- father Philip V. in 179 B.C., w'as dethroned by the Romans sion extended and enriched the magnificent structuie, in 167 b.c., and died in captivity at Alba not long afteruntil it became the crown and glory of the East. I he wards. (See Macedonia.) PERSHORE, a market-town of England, county of splendour of Persepolis, however, seems to have begun to decline at the time of the overthrow of the Persian empbe. Worcester, in a beautiful situation on the right bank of the Alexander the Great burned a considerable part of it, in- Avon, here crossed by a bridge, 10 miles S.E. of W orcester, cluding its royal palace. After the date at which, accoiding and 102 W.N.W. of London. It is well built, and conto the Second Book of Maccabees, Antiochus Epiphanes sists principally of one long street. The church of Holy attempted to plunder its temples, it disappears altogether Cross, a fine remnant of the ancient abbey church, has a from the page of history. Yet the tall white forms of transept and a high square tower of Norman architecture ; several columns, standing sentinel over the remains of many while the chancel, now used for worship, is in the early temples and palaces on the solitary plain of Merdusht, still English style. There is also a small old church of St preserve the memory of the long-perished glories of Per- Andrew, and places of worship belonging to Baptists, Wessepolis. (A full account of these magnificent ruins is given leyan Methodists, and Mormons. National and infant in Sir R. K. Porter’s Travels, Vaux’s Nineveh and Per- schools, and a mechanics’ institution, exist here. A county s'epolis, and Fergusson’s Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis court is held ; and there is an annual fair held on the 26th of June. Some of the people are employed in making Restored. See also Persia.) PERSEUS, the son of Jupiter and Danae, and the stockings; and a retail trade is carried on. Pop. (1851) grandson of Acrisius, King of Argos, was renowned in 2717.

419

P E E S I A. Persia. Of the countries which have been the ancient seats of mankind, not one is more famous than Persia; and late linguistic and ethnological discoveries have revived and strengthened the interest attaching to a region which, with Assyria, Armenia, Arabia, and Egypt, supplies the most ancient records of the human race. I he boundaries of Persia have fluctuated more than those of any other kingdom in the world, from the period when its monarchs rose from the government of a province to all but universal empire, down to the time when they again sank into insignificance as the rulers of a second-rate Asiatic state. In illustration of this remark, the limits of the country will be noticed under three epochs,—viz., previous to the accession of Cyrus, under Darius Hystaspes, and as they now exist. In the first-mentioned period Persia nearly coincided with the modern province of Ears.1 It was bounded on the W. by the Persian Gulf and Susiana, or by the Gulf, and a line drawn from a little to the northward of the point where the 30th degree of N. Eat. and 50th of E. Long, intersect each other, to the S. borders of Media; on the N. by Media, which came down to the 32d degree of N. Eat. ; on the E. by Carmania {Karmdri),—that is, by a crescent-shaped line from the 32d parallel and the 55th degree of E. Long., to the coast opposite the isle of Kishm in the 27tirparallel; and on the S. by the Persian Gulf. Ancient Persia, then, properly so called, did not exceed 300 miles in length from N. to S., and 230 in breadth from E. to W. In the reign of Darius Hystaspes the empire had been so vastly extended that it contained all the countries between the Indus and Sir rivers, the Aral, Caspian, Black, and Aegean seas, the Mediterranean, Red Sea, and Persian Gulf, and in addition, Thrace and Egypt, with part of Libya. It must be noted, however, that the original Persia, with probably somewhat increased dimensions, was still reckoned a distinct province; for it is specially mentioned as exempt from tribute, which the rest of the empire, divided into twenty satrapies or subordinate kingdoms, was compelled to pay to the amount of 14,560 talents, or about three and a half millions of our money.2 In the inscriptions at Behistun, Persepolis, and Naksh-i-Rustam, lists of the provinces are given, of which it will be sufficient to mention the Behistun list. It is as follows:—Persia, Susiana, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, Saparda, Ionia, Media, Armenia, Cappadocia, Parthia, Zarangia, Aria, Chorasmia, Bactria, Sogdiana, Gandaria, Sacia, Sattagydia, Arachosia, Media. The Persia of the present day is bounded on the S. by the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf; on the W. by a line drawn from the 30th parallel along the left bank of the ShatuT’Arab to Muhammarah, and thence along the Kabir KCih, or “ Great Mountain,’’apart of the Zagros range, which forms the western boundary of Luristan ; thence, by a curving line which passes about 15 miles to the N.N.W. of Kizil Robat; and then, running 20 miles to the W. of Lake Urumiyah, touches Mount Ararat a few miles to the E. of Baiyazid. The northern boundary is the River Aras, from Mount Ararat to within 60 miles of the Caspian Sea ; thence a waving line which touches the Caspian 5 miles to the N. of Astara, in Lat. 33. 40.; and finally the Caspian Sea and the desert of Khiva from Kasan Kuli to Sharakhs. On the E., Persia is bounded by a line drawn along the 61st degree of E. Long., from Sharakhs to the 33d parallel, when 1 4 6

Rawlinson’s Herodotus, vol i.. p. 575. Chesney’s Expedition, vol. i., p. 78. Chesney’s Expedition, vol. i., p. 79.

the frontier curves in to the W. to about 100 miles, and re- Persia. turns in an easterly direction along the mountains which — ^ — form the eastern boundary of Karman, finally curving back to the W. until it meets the Indian Ocean 10 miles to the E. of Cape Jask, in Long. 58. 5. With the exception of the provinces of Mazandarun and Aspect of Gilan, and other parts of less extent, the general aspect ofthe coun‘ Persia is that of poverty and barrenness. It has beentry* termed a country of mountains ; and a large portion of its surface is certainly mountainous, diversified with extensive tracts of desert plains, in which salt is the chief production, and, in small proportion, chiefly along the banks of the rivers, with beautiful valleys and rich pasture-lands. The valleys are not generally broad, but some are of great length, being often more than a hundred miles. The greater part of the country may be described as a tableland, supported on every side by high mountains. This table-land is shut in on the W. by the lofty mountain chain of Zagros3 ; on the N. by that of Alburj (Elburz), or “ The Tower,” which cuts off from it the provinces of Gilan, Mazandarun and Astarabad; and on the S. by a lower range of hills, which runs parallel to the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, at a distance of from 50 to 150 miles all the way from Abushahr (Bushire) to Karachi. On the E. alone there is no continuous chain of hills until the Sulaiman and Hiila mountains are reached, in the countries bordering on the Indus ; and the line of demarcation in that direction, between Persia, Afghanistan, and Biluchistan, is not well defined. The average elevation of this plateau is nearly that of Tehran, or 4000 feet, and seldom sinks to 3000 feet, which is the elevation conjecturally assigned to it by Fraser. Two-thirds of this table-land are said to be desert.4 There are no rivers of any magnitude ; and what streams there are, the majority of them at least, lose themselves in the sands. From Kashan, in Lat. 34., E. Long. 51. 20., the Great Salt Desert extends eastward 400 miles to Lake Zarah in Sistan, and 250 miles from Karman northwards to Mazandarun. The sandy desert of Sigistan is of about the same extent.0 _ tit. The aspect of the Persian mountains is peculiarly bare and forbidding, rising abruptly from the plain, and presenting nothing to the eve but huge masses of gray rock piled upon each other; and even when they are covered with a little mouldering rock, they are still without either wood or shrubs. If for about two months in spring a scanty verdure clothe their sides, it is scorched by the heat of summer, and the country soon resumes its former barren aspect, and dreary, monotonous, reddish-brown colour. JNor is the appearance of the plains more inviting consisting for the most part of gravel washed down from the mountains, or of other equally unproductive matter, in deep and extensive beds, or of a hard clay, which, where water is wanting a in most parts of Porsia is bare and barren. -The livery of the whole land,” says Fraser “ is constantly brown or gray, except during the two months of April and May.” Amongst other disadvantages, Persia labours under a general scarcity of water. The rivers are few and small, and rivulets by no means common, so that irrigation can Il only be applied to a small portion of the land. |f best districts,” says the above-mentioned traveller, the small proportion of cultivated land resembles an oasis in the desert, serving by contrast to make all around it more

3 i ••• v. Ferrier’s Caravan Journeys, p. 54. rmim Emr>rc pp 20 «*>*• ’ - “d 22-

420 PERSIA. and subject to extreme cold, as in other Persia, Persia, dreary. Plains and mountains are equally destitute of wood: of great elevation, 5 —v^''' the only trees to be seen are in the gardens of villages or parts of Persia. The mountain range which commences on the banks of streams, where they are planted for the near Shiraz, approaches close to the sea in Long. 55., and purpose of affording the little timber that is used in build- at Cape Jask has an elevation of 5000 feet. It decreases ing : they chiefly consist of fruit trees, the noble chinar or in height as it runs eastwards. The salt deserts which ocoriental plane, the tall poplar, and the cypress; and the cur in various parts of the country form one of the most effect which a garden of these trees produces, spotting writh striking objects in its scenery, and may be distinguished its dark green the gray and dusky plain, is rather melan- from the general dreariness of the country by a saline efflorescence, which is seen glistening in the rays of a choly than cheering.”1 As already mentioned, the provinces of Mazandarun and fierce sun. This appearance, extending over an immense Gilan, adjoining the Caspian Sea, with parts of Azarbijan, plain, varied by a black rock here and there protruding form exceptions to this general description. These pro- from its surface, its image contorted into a thousand wild vinces are divided from the high table-land of Persia by the and varying shapes by the effect of the mirage, which progreat range of the Alburj Mountains, which are connected duces the most curious optical illusions on those wide exwith the mountains of Armenia, and with the mighty Cau- tended level tracts, is a sure indication of the total desocasus chain, and eastward by a continuous chain, with lation which reigns around. The Great Salt Desert, the great ridge of the Hindu Kuh. They take an east- between Kashan and Tabbas, is the most remarkable erly course along the shore of the Caspian Sea, and send of these tracts, and occupies a vast space in the centre various ramifications southward; whilst other elevated of the country. It forms a long inlet between the disridges spring from the Caucasian Mountains, and penetrate trict of Tehran on the N., and Kum on the S., comthe country in a S.E. direction, dividing the provinces of mencing about E. Long. 50., and on the 33d parallel, and ’Irak and Khuzistan, and extending along the shores of the trenching on the districts of Kashan and Isfahan, expands Persian Gulf, and with other parallel chains farther in the after the 53d degree of E. Long, to a vast breadth, as far interior, into the province of Makran. The Caucasian E. as Tabbas, and on the S. insulating Yezd. On the chain forms the barrier between the empires of Turkey and N.E. it extends as far as Turshxz, but with somewhat Persia ; it occupies the space between the Black Sea and more frequent interruptions ; and on the E. it is encroached the Caspian ; and it is inhabited by barbarous tribes, who on by projections from the more cultivated districts of owned at any time but an imperfect allegiance to Persia, Farah, Sabzawar, and Hirat. The appearance of these and who have been now brought chiefly under the more deserts is not altogether uniform. In some places the rigorous sway of Russia. The Alburj Mountains, whose surface is dry, and produces plants which thrive in a salt average height is from 6000 to 8000 feet, present their soil; in others the saline efflorescence is seen on a crackloftiest face to the interior desert; yet they sweep down in ling crust of dry earth ; marshes occupy a considerable a manner so gradual, that the valleys and ravines which portion of this country; and there is accumulated in the they form are found to contain rich and fertile lands, well winter months water, which is evaporated during the heats watered by numerous rivulets, and well cultivated and of summer, leaving a quantity of salt in cakes upon a bed peopled. The loftiest peak of this range is Mount Dema- of mud. In some places the soil is a perfectly hard-baked wend, which rises to the height of 15,000 feet2, and is and barren clay ; and in others, again, sand abounds, which covered with perpetual snow; while the rest of the range is formed into hillocks in the shape of waves by the wind, is covered only from November until Midsummer. Fifty- and is so light and impalpable that it is blown aloft in five miles S. and by E. of the peak of Demawend, accord- clouds, as in the Arabian deserts, by the violent N.W. and proves dangerous, and ing to Ferrier,3 is that remarkable pass, forming a strong winds which prevail in summer, 6 barrier against the progress of an invader, which was de- frequently fatal to travellers. Persia has hardly a single river that can be termed na- Rivers, nominated by the ancients the Caspian Gates, now called the Pass of Sardari, which for 28 miles was said to be a vigable, for the Euphrates and Tigris cannot be considered narrow road between high rocks, through which a single as running within its territory. The Karun, which flows chariot could scarcely pass, and where a handful of men into the Euphrates through the province of Khuzistan, and might oppose the advance of an army. The districts at the Aras or Araxes in Azarbijan, which flows into the the southern base of the Alburj range are beautifully di- Black Sea, and the Safid Bud or White River, which falls versified with wood, water, and mountains, in their most into the Caspian, are its two largest rivers. The Karun is varied forms, and present a luxuriant verdure all the year the largest affluent received by the Tigris in Mesopotamia, round. In the slope of the mountains opposite to Tehran and is formed of two streams. Of these, the Dizful rises is the delightful tract of Shamirun4 (or Sham’a-i- Irun, ‘ 1 he in Lat. 33. 50., and after a course of upwards of 200 miles Light of Persia”), about 20 miles in length, “ containing joins the Karun in about Lat. 31. 40. The Karun rises in nearly forty villages, clustered together amid gardens ^and the Yellow Mountains, part of the Bakhtiyari7 range, in groves, with streams of water from the heights above, to Lat. 32., Long. 51., near the river of Isfahan ; and after which all the inhabitants of Tehran, who can afford it, re- emerging from the hills, flows to Shustar, wdiere it is made sort in summer. On the northern side of these mountains, by a canal to pass E. and W. of the town. From the the provinces of Mazandarun and Gilan, and the district point where these streams re-unite the Karun is a noble of Astarabad, are equally fruitful and productive. Mazan- river, exceeding in size the Tigris or Euphrates, and is darun is most celebrated for its culture of rice, which is of navigable for steamers. Its course hence, for upwards of very superior quality. In the central provinces of Fars, 150 miles, is very tortuous, and it then falls into the Sha’Irak, and Khurasan, the valleys are generally level; in tu’l-’Arab near Muhammarah. Its total course, reckoning Azarbijan, to the W. of the Caspian Sea, they lie between from the source of the Dizful branch, is 430 miles; or a succession of eminences; and Kurdistan, to the N., is from the source of the Karun about 8330. The Aras rises almost one immense cluster of small mountains, intersected in N. Lat. 40. 40., E. Long. 42. 40., and flows almost due occasionally by loftier ranges, on which extend table-lands S. to Long. 44., when it turns E., until near Erivan it again 1 2 3 6 7

Fraser’s Narrative of a Journey into Khorassan, p. 163. to Ainsworth, Geo. Jour., vol. viii., part i., p. 112. Binning’s Two Years' Travel in Persia, vol. ii., p. 227. 14 700 according 4 Binning, vol. ii., pp. 230, 231; and vol. i., p. 157, note. Caravan Journeys, p. 59. 6 Fraser’s Narrative, &c., chap. xi. Sir J. Malcolm’s History of Persia, vol., i., p. 5. 8 Chesney’s Euphrates Expedition, vol. i., p. 10. Geo. Jour., vol. xvl., p. 50.

Persia, ^ —)

.

Soil and products,

PERSIA. 421 is produced in great abundance in the northern provinces Persia. turns S., after receiving the waters of Lake Sivan. In Long. 46. it again turns E., until in Long. 48. 40. it unites with the of Mazandarun and Gilan, of which silk is one of the ^ Kur at Jasat. Its total course is about 750 miles. The Safid great staples, and also in other parts; and the rich and Hud rises in Ardelan, in N. Lat. 35. 45., E. Long. 46. 45., well-watered plains of Gilan and Mazandarun yield in and flows in a N.E. direction, but with a great sweep to abundance the sugar-cane, though the art of refining is N.W., between Long. 48. and 49. 15., into the Caspian. not understood in this rude and semi-barbarous country. Its total course is 490 miles. The Helmand cannot with any Amongst the other products of Persia which, being useful, propriety be termed a Persian river, as it flows eastward of are articles of trade, are,—gum tragacanth ; assafoetida, the grows in abundance on the plains and hills Persia, through the independent territory of Afghanistan. plant of which 1 The principal Persian lake is Lake Urumiyah. Ibis near Turshiz and all round the city of Hirat; yellow berries; lake is 80 miles in length from N. to S., and 20 miles in saffron ; henna, but not so fine as that of Egypt; madder breadth. Its chief feeders are the rivers Aji Su, or River roots, which grow wild upon the mountains, and are brought by the Hats and other wandering tribes. of Tabriz, and the Jagetu and Tatau. The Aji Su rises down for sale 2 in N. Lat. 38. 10., E. Long. 47. 45., and after leaving the Gazanjubin (“ manna”) abounds in the province of Karcity of Tabriz, 5 miles off on its left bank, enters the Urumi- manshah. It is a deposit by a green fly on the back of yah Lake in Lat. 37. 48., Long. 45. 40. Its total course is the leaf of the dwarf oak. The Persians mix it with about 180 miles. The Jagetu has a total course of 140 flour and sugar, and make it into cakes, which are exported miles. It rises in Lat. 35. 40., Long. 46. 30., and enters the to all parts of Asia. In the district of Turbat Ishak Khan, in Khurasan, opium and tobacco lake in Lat. 37. 13., Long. 45. 52 The course of the Tatau S.W. of Mahmudabad 3 is about 90 miles. The greatest depth of the Urumiyah Lake are produced. Indigo is cultivated in Laristan, but is is 24 feet, but the average is not more than 12. It stretches not so fine as the indigo of India, which is largely imported from N. Lat. 37. 5. to 38. 15., and lies 4300 feet above the into Persia. The leaf is used for dyeing the beard, a cusea-level. Ten miles to the W. of it is a town of the same rious fashion in Persia, as in other parts of the East. Cotname, the birth-place of Zartasht or Zoroaster. It con- ton is produced to supply the internal consumption; also tains 25,000 inhabitants, of whom 22,000 are Muhamma- hemp and hops. Fruits are produced in the garden-grounds dans, and the rest Jews and Nestorians. Several mounds in great abundance and perfection. The date is one of the of nearly 100 feet high, composed of ashes, show where the most important products, being used here, where the climate great altars were situated. The lake is now fast drying is extremely hot, as an article of food, in the same manner up, and around it for several miles are tracts of spark- as in other parts of the East. Those produced at Dalaki, ling salt. The waters of the lake are intensely salt, and so four stages N.E. of Abushahr, in the province of Ears, are heavy that the strongest wind has little effect upon them. celebrated over the country for richness and flavour. I he If stirred by a tempest, they subside almost immediately other fruits are,—pomegranates, a luscious fruit here, and when a lull takes place. Phe whole of Kurdistan is sup- much superior to those which are produced in 1 urkey, some that Morier saw being twelve inches in circumference ; plied with salt from this lake. and water melons; the shaddock; limes; oranges, for The nature of the soil in Persia may be inferred from sweet the description given by travellers of the aspect of the coun- which the climate of the high table-lands is too cold, altry. Yet it is extraordinary how vegetation thrives in the though they grow to perfection on the plains and on the country, even with the rudest cultivation, whenever there is banks of the Caspian Sea ; apples; pears; apricots; pistachioThe melons of Isfahan the smallest supply of moisture. Morier mentions that in the nuts ; walnuts ; and some others. 4 plain of Abushahr (i?Ms/«Ve), which stretches into the interior are the finest in the world. The species called Gurgab from the Persian Gulf, which all travellers agree in calling is so large that two melons are a load for a donkey. I ie a barren land, and which has no other moisture than the quinces also are very fine. Timber is scarce on the and dews, and occasionally winter showers, the seed produces plains, but in more favourable situations the soil seems trees one hundred to seven; and that a sprinkling of seed, with well adapted for the growth of wood, and indeed °f the most superficial furrows, returns everywhere in this dis- of every description. The mountains of Gilan, Mazantrict abundant produce. The same traveller observed, in darun, and Azarbijan are clothed with the finest woods, the alder his journey from Tehran to Tabriz, several spots where, by amongst which are the oak, the beech, the the aid of water, the country was one carpet of verdure. boxwood, with thickets of wild cherry and thorns an J,, Water in Persia is so essential to vegetation, that almost the luxuriant vines climbing up the trunks o e only species of improvement which is carried on is the con- hanging in wild festoons from the one to the other. 4 he e struction of subterranean canals, for the purpose of convey- form a striking contrast to the long ranges of naked and ing water to lands which are destitute of any natural supply. barren mountains in the central and southern provinces. In These canals, when they are finished, are often let at high several provinces grows the poppy, from which is made opium rents. Fraser mentions one small stream which brought of a very fine quality. The liquorice-piant covers the plains an annual rent of 4000 rupees, equal (the Persian rupee be- of Merdasht, and the neighbourhood of Shiraz. I he ta marind which flourished near the water-courses, and seveing valued at Is. 4^d.) to L.375 ; and another canal, opened ral 0f [he thorny plants that sprinkled the same districts, by the governor of Kazarun, and employed in irrigating had been superseded, when Fraser visited these par s by a fruit-garden, was rented at five or six times that sum. I he products of Persia are,—wheat of the finest quality, barley, various aromatic herbs, amongst which a species of fiaand other grains. Rice might easily be produced in the Tt Irrt whicli^elds1 ^gum—^c* Ifc re‘ southern provinces, were it not for the deficiency of water, smbL hemlock, and rises to,he verl of which this grain requires so large a supply. I he vine flourishes in several provinces ; and the wine of Shnaz dure -ra™it tlhen sofi.U rfjuicel that on the least scratch has often been highly celebrated, as well as the wines proin streams to the ground, and congeals on the stalk. duced from grapes raised upon the side of the Caucasian itIt flows is thus gathered for sale. Such vegetables as carrots, Mountains. The vines of Shiraz are trained as standard turnips cabbages, spinach, beet-root, and the like, are bushes, without any support, and are set, with some attention common. In the more fertile parts of Persia flowers grow to regularity, from eight to ten feet asunder. The mulberry 1

Fraser, Appendix B, p. 25.

2

3

Ferrier, p. 26.

Ferrier, p. 137.

4

Binning, vol. ii., p. 332.

PERSIA. 422 Persia. to great perfection and luxuriance; the rose, and every are a dead gray earth, heavy, hard, brown rock, soft yellow Persia, variety of the crocus species, primroses, violets, lilies, stone, and a rock which is pervaded with specular iron-ore. hyacinths, and others no less lovely than unknown.1 Aio- There are five principal mines or pits from which the gem matic and thorny plants, and beautiful mountain shrubs, is taken. The mode of management in these mines, which also abound, and clothe the ground in all the rich attiie from time immemorial have furnished these highly-valued gems, is the most wretched that can be conceived. of luxuriant vegetation. The climate of Persia, in which, according to its latitude, Climate, Mineral Notwithstanding the numerous ranges of mountains which produc- intersect the country of Persia, its mineral resources aie heat should predominate, is considerably modified by the tions. scantily developed, partly from ignorance of the art of height of the ground ; so that, according to Kinneir, the mining, and partly from the general indolence of the inha- traveller may pass in a few4 hours from the air of Montpelbitants, owing to the discouragement of tyrannical and ' lier to the cold of Siberia. It is intensely cold during the rapacious rulers. There are several mines in the vicinity winter ; indeed, the highest ranges of mountains are covered of Yezd.2 One of lead at Baft, on the road to Karman, is with snow during a part of the year, and some of the highremarkably rich, and supplies the greater part ol 1 ersia est peaks throughout the whole year. Demawend, in the with that metal. There are also some mines of fine rock- Alburj Mountains, was seen by Morier buried in deep snow salt, and one of green marble. According to Mr Binning,3 in May ; and in 1810, Kinneir mentions that the moun“ excellent coal is found in the Alburj Mountains, and tains were covered with snow in July. Severe storms also is commonly used in preference to charcoal by the black- prevail. To the N. of Shiraz, especially, cold predomismiths in Tehran and in the arsenal. There are also nates, insomuch that in the vicinity of Tehran and Tabriz copper, lead, and iron mines in the mountains; and copper all communication is frequently cut off for several weeks is extracted in such quantities as to render it an aiticle of between these cities and the adjoining villages. The cold exportation. There is little doubt that gold and silver commences in October, and the winter is ushered in with would be obtained if proper means were applied. In fact, severe storms of snow. Fraser, after leaving Shiraz, sufM. Ferrier (p. 117) expressly says that it is owing to the fered severely from cold in this month. The thermometer want of science, and of fuel and water-power, that the gold fell to 28°, and on the next morning, the 27th of October, and silver mines at Davind, close to Mashhad ( Sepulchre of to 20° ; and in the following month he arrived at Tehran, the Ghazfs”), are not worked to advantage. About twenty after encountering so severe a storm ot snow that a travelyears ago a party of Scotch miners brought by Sir A. Bethune ler was carried to a caravanserai frozen to death on his Lindsay, were employed by the Persian government ^work- horse. In January, when Fraser was at Naishapur, which ing mines in the Karadagh Mountains, which contain most is in the N. of Persia, in about Lat. 36. 25., the thermoextensive veins, but the short-sighted authorities put a meter fell during the night to 16°, 19°, and 20°, and rose stop to their operations when most promising. The mi- during the day to 40° in the shade ; and in many parts the neral production most common in Persia is salt, which, as temperature varies between the night and the day from has been already mentioned, covers vast tracts, and occurs 64° to 25° and 26°. The cold, especially to the N. of everywhere in great abundance. All the lakes are salt, Shiraz, continues, with short intervals of warmer weaand every considerable collection of water is impregnated ther, till March or April. At Tehran, which is in the N. with this mineral. Salt mines are also found in different of Persia, near the Alburj Mountains, Morier describes the parts. At Naishapur, in the north, there is a salt mine progress of the seasons and the vicissitudes of the temperaconsisting of three excavations, in each of which a vein of ture. On the 10th of March there was a fall of snow, folsalt is found from 6 to 18 inches in thickness. The salt lowed by an intense frost. On the 23d, the mildness of is beautifully white, and the crystals so clear that Mr Fraser spring was experienced. On the 19th of April the thercould see distinctly through a mass 2 inches in thickness, mometer rose to 82° in the shade. At Shiraz, Morier menas through a pane of glass. This mine pays a small rent; tions that after the middle of June the thermometer was and the salt is highly esteemed throughout the country. One scarcely ever under 100°. It then rose to 105°, 108°, and of the most remarkable productions of Persia is naphtha 110°. “When spring commences,” says Sir J. Malcolm, or bitumen, which is burned by the natives in lamps in- “ there is perhaps no spot in the world where nature assumes stead of oil, and also answers all the purposes of pitch, being a more lovely garb than at Isfahan; the clearness of its used in covering the bottoms of the vessels which navi- streams, the shade of its lofty avenues, the fragrant luxugate the Euphrates. It is found in pits 3 feet in diameter, and riance of gardens, and the verdant beauty of wide-spreadfrom 10 to 12 feet in depth, which are gradually filled ing fields,5 combine with the finest climate to render it defrom springs. There is also another species of white lightful.” The regularity of the seasons in this part of naphtha, different from the other, which is found floating Persia is extraordinary, and affords a remarkable contrast like a crust on the surface of the water, and affords a more to the sudden changes which take place in the northern agreeable light than the black naphtha. A black and liquid provinces. In Abushahr, to the S. of Shiraz, Fraser states petroleum of an agreeable odour flows in small quantity the range of the thermometer in July to be from 103° to from a mountain in Karman ; it is reserved for the use of 109° ; but during the night it remained at 90°. About the end of August the weather became cooler, and the therthe king, and is given away in presents. I he mines are mometer fell to 86° and 87°, and gradually during the day carefully sealed and guarded. The northern mountains of Persia contain considerable varieties of valuable marble ; to 75° and 70°. In these southern regions, which include and the turquoise stone, which is peculiar to the country, the provinces of Karman, Laristan, Pars, and Khuzistan, is found in the rocks near the village of Madan, 32 miles situated between the mountains and the shores of the PerW. of Naishapur in Khurasan. The mines which produce sian Gulf, the heat is increased by the barren and sandy this stone were visited by Fraser in January 1822, who plains with which this tract abounds. The hot winds known (pp. 409-420) gives a detailed account of their produce, as under the name of the simoom or sirocco prevail occasionwell as of the very rude manner in which they are woiked. ally, but are not attended with danger, owing to the narThe hills in which these stones are found consist of a very rowness of the space between the sea and the mountains. red and brown rock. The whole range is deeply tinged In winter and spring the climate is delightful. It is never with iron. The substances of which the rock is composed very cold; and snow seldom falls on the southern face of 1 4

2 Fraser, chap, xxiii. Fraser, Appendix B, p. 24. Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire, p. 21.

3 6

Two Years' Travel in Persia, vol. ii., p. 227. History of Persia, vol. ii., chap. xxiv.

PERSIA. 423 Persia. the mountains by1 which these provinces are divided from latter pay no attention to improve the breed. The dog, Persia. the N. of Persia. Upon the whole, however, the climate though esteemed an unclean animal by the Muhammadans, ^ of this country, notwithstanding the sudden transitions from is yet found so useful that every prejudice has given way ; heat to cold in some of the provinces, is very healthy ; the and a very fierce breed is maintained by the wandering air is dry, and the atmosphere always clear, so that the tribes, for guarding their flocks and tents, and aiding in brightest polished metal may be exposed to it without being their field sports. The desolate parts of Persia abound in rusted. Nor are the dews insalubrious ; whilst at night wild animals, amongst which may be numbered the lion the planets shine with a lustre unknown in the cloudy skies (which is seen along the woody banks of the rivers), the of the N. It seldom rains, and there are consequently tiger, the wolf, the jackal, the hyaena, the fox (found in great none of those damp and pestiferous exhalations so common numbers, of a white colour), the porcupine, the wild sheep, in the woody parts of Hindustan. ' The fertile provinces of the mountain goat, the wild ass, the wild boar, the antelope, Gilan and Mazandarun, and the district of Astarabad, which and deer in great variety. Tigers are seldom seen, but it are subjected to the periodical visitation of disease, form is certain that they are to be found, as it is mentioned that the only exceptions to this general character. The heavy the skin of a royal tiger, which was killed in the neighbourrains which fall in these mountainous regions, stagnating in hood of Tabriz, was exhibited, and was in possession of the deep forests, turn them into impassable marshes, which, Mr Campbell. A tiger was also seen by the shepherds at becoming putrid from the quantity of vegetable matter the time that he was at Tabriz; and one of the Persian that they receive, exhale during the heats of summer princes had gone out to hunt, with a large retinue, in the and autumn a most pestilential vapour; so that the wandering hope of meeting it. The wild ass is common in Persia, but tribes of these countries fly from its influence, and prefer is extremely shy, and not easily caught. Morier mentions living on the verge of the burning sand, and carrying their that one morning, in the desert, they gave chase to two wild water from the distant river, to the least exposure to these asses ; but these distanced the horses at such a rate that noxious effluvia. Those who are forced to remain suffer they stood still and looked behind at them, “ snorting with severely from fevers, putrid as well as intermittent, from their noses in the air, as if in contempt of our endeavours dropsies arising from cold, rheumatic affections, palsies, and to catch them.” The hunters sometimes succeed in killing other maladies. The appearance of the people, however, them, but it requires great dexterity and knowledge of their Fraser remarked, did not indicate either weakness or dis- haunts ; and then it is only by relays of horses and dogs upon the track which they are known to pursue. The ease, for they were remarkably stout and athletic. Animals. The domestic animals of Persia are the camel, the horse, same traveller also observed large herds of antelopes, to the mule, the ass, the goat, sheep, cow, &c. The Persians which he gave chase, but could never come up except with are expert and fearless horsemen ; and they have different one big with young ; so great is the speed of this beautiful breeds of horses peculiar to the country. The native horse animal. The wild hog abounds in Persia, and is exceedof Persia has been improved, both in strength and bottom, ingly fierce. Fraser, along with a party of well-mounted by an admixture of Arabian blood. But the original breed, Turkamans, joined in chasing a herd of them ; and one which is now restored, is a tall, lank, ill-formed, and gene- being singled out, was assailed with swords and spears, rally vicious animal, which often vents its rage upon its which made no impression on his tough hide ; and though neighbours or its riders by kicking or biting them. It is wounded by a pistol-shot, he continued his flight until an useful, indeed, for hard work; but is not to be compared, old man, mounted on a powerful 1 urkaman horse, rode up, for the purposes of riding, with the action and docility of the and wheeled rapidly round, when the steed, trained to toe Arab. There is another race of horses, reared by the lur- work, struck the hog on the head with its heels, and tumkaman hordes, not so much distinguished by grace or beauty bled it over dead on the spot. 1 he wild sheep is a very I as by its hardiness and patience of fatigue, for which it is fine animal, bold, portly, and very strong ; thick like a lion celebrated all over Asia. It is said to have been crossed about the neck and shoulders, and small in the loins ; cored with short reddish hair curled loosely about the neck with an Arabian breed imported by Nadir Shah. I he native horses are noted for size and bone, which appear to be and fore quarters, and bearin an immense pair of crooked indigenous; but figure and blood they owe to their Arab and twisted horns. The northern division of Persia, or the ancient divi!5iulls. progenitors. “ They have,” says Fraser, “ large and powerful quarters, resembling those of the English horse; the ma, comprehends three provinces,-—Gilan, Mazandarun, shoulders are often fine ; their legs clean and strong ; though and Astarabad, which are here named as situated from . generally spare of flesh, what they have is firm and good ; to E. On the W. are four provinces, which, naming them and not being burdened with a load of fat, they support the from N. to S., are,—Azarbijan (the ancient Atropatene), weight of the rider for an astonishing length of time. I heir Ardalan or Kurdistan, Lunstan and Khuzistan. Of these, powers of endurance are almost incredible. I hey will Luristan is divided into the Greater and Less. On the carry their riders for seven or eight days together at tlm S are Pars, Luristan, and Karman (the ancient Cararate of 80 or a 100 miles a day. There is also a breed of mania); on the E. is Khurasan, corresponding to the anponies, fully as remarkable, if not superior to the large cient Aria and Bactria, and including the provinces of horses in their powers of enduring fatigue. Such horses Yezd Tabbas, Kaen and Birjun, lurslnz, Mashhad, cost a sum of money equal in value to from L.150 to L.200 Damghan, and Semnun, and the Great Salt Desert. Censterling, and those of the best quality from L.350 to L.400. tral Persia is named Trak-i-’Aj on, and comprises on the These horses are used in plundering expeditions ; and they N., Khamsah, Kasvin, and Tehran; and S. of these, Ha... . , Cities and are chiefly prized on this account for their hardy qualities. madan, Kum, and Isfahan. . If the face of the country in Persia disappoint the EuioIn me m the parcnea parched ana and sanay sandy tracts or of reisia Persia expuscu exposed to uw great traveller his expectations will be still less gratineu gratified towns> heats, camels are preferred, for carrying burdens, to other pea ’f tlie towns, which present to him one mass animals, and they constitute the chief wealth of the mha- by T an(j ruins . for which, forming his ideas of bitants; but in almost all the other parts of the kingdom mules are more generally used for transport, on account the eastern towns from what he has read of Isfahan, Baghof their extraordinary strength and activity, and their power dad Shiraz, Basra, and other famous cities, he can be prepared. He looks in vain for the hum of a of enduring fatigue. Sheep are very abundant in Persia, scarcely crowded population and the bustle of business which amand constitute the wealth of the wandering tribes; but the 1

History of Persia, vcl. ii-, chap. xxiv.

PERSIA. 424 Persia, mate the cities of Europe. Instead of the road crowded are manufactured at Yezd; and those of Isfahan, Kashan, Persia, v-* with passengers, vehicles, and an active traffic, bordered and Tabriz are held in great estimation, as are the velvets these places and of Mashhad. Silk stuffs are also manuwith hedge-rows and green inclosures, and with gay habi- of factured in Resht, Lahajan, and other cities of Gilan, but, tations, he has to thread his way through narrow and dirty according to Sheil (p. 376), of interior quality.^ Satins also lanes, amidst ruins of mud walls and old buildings, amongst are manufactured, but, as Fraser thinks, of an inferior heights and hollows, and clay-pits that produce bricks, and quality ; and those which are imported from China are prehigh inclosures that conceal the only verdure the place can ferred. The city of Shiraz is celebrated for its gold emboast; till at last he reaches the dilapidated walls of the broideries, though these are now surpassed in other places. city, and, entering the gateway, watched by a few squalid Its damasked steel knives and daggers are still esteemed; guards, he finds himself in a mean bazar, or more probably and it manufactures a good deal of coarse glass-ware. T. he in a confusion of mere rubbish. There are no streets, and chintzes and prints which are manufactured in many places scarcely a house; for it is only the dwellings of the poor are coarse both in texture and pattern, and are only used which are seen, the houses of the rich being careful y for inferior purposes. They are nearly superseded by the shrouded from the view by high walls of mud or of raw printed cottons of India and Europe, particularly the latter. bricks ; and outside of these are clustered, with the utmost Calamkans are distinguished by a pattern of wreathed contempt of order, the houses of the poor. Ihere is flowers in gay colours, sparsely strewn upon a white, blue, scarcely room for a loaded ass to pass between the narrow red, or fawn-colour ground; they are used for inner waistpassages that give access to these dwellings; and as no attempt is made to level the paths, the passenger has to coats, linings of robes, &c., and are often of very high Wool is produced in great abundance all over make his way over all impediments, diving into hollows, price. Persia and the neighbouring countries in which pastoral scrambling amongst ruins, stumbling over grave-stones, 01 prevail. The best wool is that of the piovince or falling into holes, especially at night, as the only stieet habits lighted in Persia is that which leads past the piime minis- Karman, the mountains of which, hot and arid in summer, ter’s house to the palace at lehran.1 The bazars aie the and intensely cold in winter, sustain large flocks of sheep only thoroughfares which deserve the name of stieets ; and and goats, which yield the finest wool. The wool of the sheep is of an excellent quality; and the goats produce a these have received merited praise from many tiavelleis,^ namely, those of Shiraz ; the continuous bazars of Isfahan, down which grows in winter at the roots of the hair, in the which extend for miles; some of those at lehran, Tabriz, same manner as that of the Thibet or shawl goats, and &c., all of which are comparatively spacious, lofty, and built nearly of as good a quality. This is spun into various which" almost vie with the celebrated shawls of of materials more or less solid ; though the majority of Pei- fabrics, sian bazars are as wretched as the towns. I hese bazais are Kashmir in warmth and softness, as well as in fineness and generally arched over with well-constructed brick-work or. beauty of manufacture. This fine wool is found not only clay, or, as in the inferior constructions, with branches of in Karman, but more or less over all Khurasan and the countries to the eastward, the mountains of which are trees. Here, as in India, are collected all the different favourable to the animals which produce it. The other trades, the smiths, the braziers, the shoemakers, the saddlers, woollen goods of Persia consist chiefly of carpets, namads, the cloth and chintz sellers, in their own quarter; but confelted goods, and a variety of fabrics of smaller importance fectioners’, cooks’, apothecaries’, bakers, and fruitereis _ 1 A . shops are dispersed in various quarters. Few houses in a used by the inhabitants as clothing. Persia carries on a trade with Turkey, Baghdad, Arabia, Trade, Persian town exceed one storey; and the general coup dUccil presents a succession of flat roofs and long walls of and the countries situated on the Persian Gulf. Of the mud, diversified, however, by gardens, with which the raw silk of Gilan, amounting, as already stated, to 900,000 towns and villages are often surrounded and intermingled, lb., about one-fifth part is exported to Constantinople, and in which are seen the poplar, the cypress, and the Aleppo, and the other cities of Asia Minor ; about one-fifth Kashan, oriental plane. Almost all the towns of I ersia have some is manufactured in the cities of Isfahan, T and other towns of Persia celebrated for their silk manudefence, consisting generally of a high mud wall, which is flanked by turrets, and sometimes protected by a deep dry factures; and the remainder is partly purchased by the and partly sent to Baghdad. Persia expoits to ditch or a rude glacis. Caravanserais are built in evtiy Russians, India specie, dried fruits, dates, tobacco, wine, diugs, assatown for the accommodation of travellers, and are also sulphur, raw silk, carpets, Karman shawls, swords, found at every stage on the principal roads of the kingdom. fcetida, combs, copper, saffron, &c. Horses form a consideiable These edifices are generally constructed of stone or brick, article of export to India. They are sent by sea fiom of a square form, and divided in the interior into sepai ate Abushahr, where they are collected from the breeding disapartments. They are surrounded with high walls and tricts in the southern provinces of Persia, and from Khutowers, as a defence against the attacks of robbers. 1 ie rasan and the north-eastern districts by land through Afhouses are generally built of mud, with terraced roofs ; and ghanistan and the Panjab ; and they serve for mounting their inner apartments are usually better than might be Indian cavalry, and supplying the great private demand expected from their outward appearance. 1 ic vi ages the for riding horses by the British in India. I he impoits are in * general very rudely constructed. I he common from India are cotton goods, chintzes, and muslins ; though huts have often, instead of a terrace, a dome roof, in order these have now been in a great measure superseded by the to avoid the necessity of using wood, which is a very scarce English, French, and German stuffs, introduced from the article all over Persia, there being few trees on the and ports of the Levant, from India, and by way of Russia. plains. . Persia receives from India indigo, which comes chiefly by Trades and Persia, though it has made no great or general progress sea, by the way of Abushahr (Bushire), on the Persian manufac- in the mechanical arts, has nevertheless been distinguishe tures. for tilose fjner manufactures which minister to the luxury Gulf, or by land through the country of Afghanistan, or Balkh, to Bukharia, and thence by Hirat to Persia. Spices of an eastern court. Raw silk is one of the most important are also amongst the Indian imports, as well as sugar and staples of Persia, and it is produced more or less all over sugar-candy, the import of which forms one of the most the country, but chiefly in the provinces of Gilan and Ma- valuable branches of trade between the two countries. 1 he zandarun. In the former alone the annual produce amounts to about 900,000 lb. Silk goods of a very fine quality province of Mazandarun yields a coarse sugar; and there 1

Binning, vol. ii., p. 216.

PERSIA. Persia, are many parts of Persia fitted for the growth of this article; cottons, are imported into this place, and thence conveyed yet the country depends chiefly on India for its supply. to all the southern cities of Persia. The government of Persia is a pure despotism, which is GovernGold and silver stuffs from Banaras, precious stones, Kashment and mir shawls, iron, lead, and copper, make up the remaining subject to no control from the influence of laws or man- laws list of imports, Persia exports to Turkey grain, raw silk, ners, and under which every man’s life and liberty are at tobacco, paper, cotton, lamb and fox skins, carpets, silk tbe mercy of the sovereign. He may exalt the lowest and cotton manufactures, Karman shawls, and salt; and subject to the highest rank, or he may degrade, fine, imreceives in return specie and European manufactures, prison, maim, or put him to death, according to his will or brought from the ports on the Levant. From Europe, caprice. Lie is taught from his infancy to consider his subwoollen, cotton, and silk goods are imported; also imi- jects as created for his pleasure; he is initiated in the tation shawds, gold lace, metal buttons, cutlery, watches, grossest sensuality; and, as if to train him to habits of spectacles, spy-glasses, leather, earthenware, iron, copper, cruelty, his preceptors are in the practice of taking him to tin, quicksilver, and other articles. Iron is made in several witness executions, which in Persia are conducted with parts of Persia; but the foreign iron is preferred, and it is extreme cruelty, as if to steel his mind against humane imported from Russia, though it is but little used in these feelings, and to habituate him to scenes at which other men countries. Copper in sheets is much used, and is partly would shudder. In general, the kings of Persia profit by imported from Europe through Russia, and partly from these early lessons; few of them are considerate or merciIndia. There is a considerable demand for European silk ful ; whilst with many, according to Sir J. Malcolm, “ the goods, which are chiefly supplied by the French. Brocades habit of shedding blood becomes a passion, by a brutal inand embroidery are also supplied from France; and Fraser dulgence in which human beings appear to2 lose that rank mentions that of these he saw some magnificent samples at and character which belong to their species.” Throughout Teflis. In chintzes and printed cottons the French and the different provinces of the Persian empire chiefs and German manufacturers have been more successful than the governors are everywhere seen improving upon the example English in suiting the Persian taste. The European trade of the sovereign,—beating, maiming, and rending their prowith Persia, as it is conducted at present, lies under the perty from the unfortunate cultivators who are placed at great disadvantage of an expensive land carriage. There their mercy. There is no such thing as any protection for are various channels through which goods may reach the life and property in any part of this country ; and the officers Persian market. First, they may be sent through Russia, of government everywhere rob the people, and further inand thence be transported down the river Volga to Astra- sult and maltreat them if they dare to complain. A monarch can, and across the Caspian to the Persian towns of Resht of Persia acknowledges no obligations but the ritual obseror Astarabad. Accordingly, the countries around Astra- vances of his religion ; and a blind superstition is thus subcan are supplied with the produce and manufactures of stituted for the moral qualities of mercy, generosity, and Europe by means of this great stream ; and the manufac- justice. Every look being watched by parasites and flattures of Russia itself have greatly superseded ours.1 The terers, he becomes as impatient of the least opposition as he Russian trade across the Caspian Sea is carried on by a is insensible to the most devoted service. Distrust and number of small vessels, which bring to Astracan the terror reign amongst his courtiers, amongst whom falsesturgeon cured on the coasts of Gilan and Mazanda- hood, dissimulation, and specious show supply the place ot run, besides returns of other Persian produce; and con- truth and loyalty. They have no means of preserving the vey Russian or European goods to Resht, Lahajan, and royal favour but by flattery and fawning; and hence then Astarabad. Secondly, goods may be sent by the Mediter- whole object is to deceive and pillage, and, it they can with ranean to the ports of Trebizond and Redoubt Kaleh, safety and advantage to themselves, to betray their tyrant. situated at the western extremity of the Black Sea, or to The effects of this system may be traced through all ranks Constantinople ; and a considerable quantity of European about the court, even to the lowest menial. Such is tie goods reach Persia by this channel; but in the course of a character given of those who are attached to t le various long route of 1200 miles to Erivan, 200 more to labnz, courts, and live in service with great men, including the and other 360 to Tehran,—in all 1760 miles,—they are sub- military and other functionaries. The other classes into jected to an expensive land carriage, to arbitrary imposts which the population of Persia is divided are,—those who in their transit through the territories of rapacious chiefs, live in towns, namely, merchants, shopkeepers, mechanics, and to occasional attacks from banditti, and are conse- and others; those who are engaged in agncuUure; and quently brought to Tehran at an expense of sixty-five per lastly, the clans or ils. The inhabitants of towns aie less cent. The distance from Trebizond to Erivan is only exposed than others to the tyranny of their superiors and about 140 miles, the road lying across very rugged moun- they are more industrious; and, though far fiom strict in tains, though not worse than the roads over which much their morals, they are not so actively vicious. They aie, of the Persian traffic is carried on. I he route from Re- however, cunning deceitful, ^ -fr after gain a doubt Kaleh to Teflis, the capital of Georgia, is but 230 S“U‘‘dweETSusel-S: SS„a7 ; or dwellers miles, and is through a safe country, free from imposts. Teflis, under the government of Russia, has already, £ tents. According to race, they are divided njto Arab, like Odessa, risen to be a great mart of trade; and ca- Turk Lek, and Kurd. An enumeration of these will be ravans regularly travel to Tabriz in eighteen or twenty found in Shed’s Persia, p. 393. They are supposed to days. European goods are now sent to this place in con- form half the population ot the whole kingdom. There is no class in Persia subjected to such tyranny siderable quantities,—namely, woollen cloths, cotton,printed and oppression as the farmers and cultivators of the soil. and plain goods, some hardware articles, some refined sugar from Great Britain, silk and cotton manufactures from They are exposed to almost continual extortion and injusLyons, and embroideries, cloths, &c., from other parts of tice ^ there is no definite limit to the amount of the deFrance. There is another more direct channel through rnands made upon them. When the king demands money which a supply of European goods may be sent into Per- from his ministers, they have recourse to the heads of dissia, namely, by way of Abushahr; and, in point of fact, tricts, who in their turn apply to the heads of villages, an British manufactures to a considerable amount, especially these last wring it from the cultivators and farmers. Every 1

VOL. XVII.

Binning, vol. ii., p. 298.

- History of Persia, vol. ii., chap. xx\i.

3 ii

PER S I A. 426 and principal officers of state. This, however, is Persia, Persia. tax, present, fine, or bribe, from whomsoever demanded in ministers rather a sketch of what his employments ought to be, than the first instance, ultimately falls upon them; so that the what they are. The prime minister, exclusive of emoluonly measure of these demands is the ability to pay on t ic of ments, which treble the income, receives 42,000 tumans, or one hand, and the power to extort on the other. Yet there L.21 000 a year; and when the Shah is a weak and indolent are exceptions to this uniform system of oppression ; and prince, has paramount influence, and transacts the affairs of when travellers have been admitted to view the Persian state as he pleases. But he is ever exposed, like the meanest farmers in their houses and with their families, a degree of subject, to degrading punishments and a cruel death. Thus comfort and comparative plenty have been discovered, not Path AH Shah strangled his faithful minister Haji Ibrahim ; quite compatible with the general tale of misery that was and Muhammad Shah, the late king, destroyed Mirza Taki, told. Land1 belonging to the cultivator pays nominally one- his brother-in-law, as well as minister, causing his veins to fifth, but really one-third of the value of its produce. The be opened, and leaving him to perish by loss of blood. crown lands are rented at one-half their produce. Landed Besides the chief ministers, the secretaries of state preside property is hereditary ; but the tax must be paid whether over the different offices or chambers of accounts ; and tecultivation is carried on or not, and, in case of non-payment, gular accounts are kept of the receipts and disbuisements the land is liable to seizure and transference to other parties. of the whole kingdom. The tax is paid partly in cash and partly in kind. Though The law of Persia, as in all other Muhammadan coun-Laws, and the Persian peasantry are poor, their general condition tries, is founded upon religion as contained in the Kuian, tration of would contrast favourably with that of many of the same and also upon tradition. Its rules are accordingly ex-.^.^ class in Europe. Famine is unknown; and in so thinly tremely vague and imperfect, and are administeied by tlie peopled a country the small supply of food required for the priesthood, who often pronounce the most corrupt deciwants of the inhabitants is easily raised.2 The Persian pea- sions. Many cases are also decided by the law of custom sants are civil, obliging, and intelligent. The politeness d or tradition, which, having reference to local as well as to the Persians, for which they have been so much famed, common usages, varies in different parts of the empiie, and seems to consist more in the observance of a troublesome is, if possible, a still more vague and imperfect code than routine of ceremonies, and the use of complimentary lan- the written law of the Kuran. The ecclesiastical ordei in guage in all the forms of eastern hyperbole, than in any Persia, as in all other countries, eagerly grasping after real courtesy. A Persian will say to a stranger that he is power, insist that the law which they administer, being his slave ; that his house and all that it contains,—his hoises, divine, should take cognisance of all| cases. But the oi diequipage, &c.,—all are at his service ; but no one undercourts of common law, supported by the state,, have stands °this in any other sense than an unmeaning form, nary succeeded limiting their jurisdiction to cases of religious which encumbers the intercourse of society without refin- ceremonies,in cases of inheritance, marriage, divorce, coning it. In their persons the Persians are handsome, active, tracts, sales, and all civil matters ; reserving to the ordinary and robust; lively in their imaginations, and of quick apprehension ; but without any moral quality to attract esteem. courts the decision of criminal cases, such as murder, theft, The effects of the cruel despotism under which Persia fraud, breaches of the peace, and other offences. The groans, in thus degrading the character of the people, and order of priests have great influence in Persia. Before the Shah, the whole power centred in the chief also in checking the progress of science and of every use- reign of Nadir r ful art, are truly melancholy. The insecurity of life and pontiff, w ho was deemed the vicar of the Imam, and enproperty is the dead-weight which oppresses the country. grossed vast wealth and influence. At the death of tins It represses the efforts of industry ; it paralyses the powers high priest no successor was appointed by Nadir Shah, of invention, and every ingenious improvement; for no man who besides seized the treasures of the priesthood in ordei will sow where he is not sure of reaping, or will task his to pay his troops. His grandson and successor appointed ingenuity to produce what he may be deprived of the next two persons to this high dignity, with a view of diminishhour. It is a common practice to kidnap the best work- ing by dividing their power and influence. These priests men in all trades for the use of the court and great men of are called Mushtahids ; and there are now usually three or the provinces, who never pay the workmen they employ. four of this high dignity in Persia. They fill no office, reHence every one avoids the reputation of excellence, ex- ceive no appointment, and have no specific duties, but aie cept in the commonest trades; and thus, under the be- called by the voice of the public, from their superior learnnumbing influence of this frightful despotism, improvement ing, piety, and virtue, to be their guides in religion, and protectors against oppression ; and Sir John Malcolm is nipt in the bud, and every useful invention is discouraged. their observes, that they receive from the people a. degree of There is no outlay of labour or of capital in expectation of and reverence to which the proudest kings would any profitable return. TSo speculation is hazarded which respect vain lay claim. Their conduct generally agrees with the promises any future advantage. Before closing this sketch in sacred character to which they owe all their importance, as of Persian character, one marked feature must be especially they know that in deviating from the strictest purity they noticed. The Persians are the only Asiatics who are real would lose all their influence. This order of priests exersportsmen. They love the chase for itself; and will ride an important influence on the administration of the as hard,3 and with as much enjoyment, as an Enghsh fox- cise written law. Cases are constantly submitted to their supehunter. . ; and there is no appeal from their sentence The king of Persia has a great variety of personal duties rior knowledge to a priest acknowledged to be superior in sanctity to perform. He gives audience at an early hour of the except morning to his principal ministers and secretaries, who and in learning. The sacred character of these priests gives make reports of all state transactions, and receive his com- an authority to the decrees of the tribunals over which they mands. Lie holds a public levee, which is attended by the preside which the monarch is forced to respect. They are effectual intercessors for mercy to the guilty ; thenprinces, ministers, and officers of his court, at which rewards often are distributed and punishments awarded. He then gives habitations are considered as the sanctuaries of the opone or two hours to his personal favourites, or to his minis- pressed ; and “ the hand of despotic power,” says Sir John ters. After the morning is past, he retires to his inner Malcolm, “ is sometimes taken off a city because the apartments, where he is shrouded from observation. In the monarch will not offend a mushtahid, who has chosen it for evening he holds a levee, and transacts business with his his residence, but who refuses to dwell amidst violence and 1

Binning, vol. i., p. 345.

2

Ibid., vol. ii., p. 361.

3

Ibid., vol. ii., p. 367.

PERSIA. 427 Persia. injustice.” Next in rank to these high priests there is the be comprised under the following heads:—Is#, Crown Persia. Shaikhu’l-Islam, literally the “ elder or chief of the faith,” lands; 2d, Those of individuals; ’6d, Those belonging to ^ who acts as a supreme judge in the court of written law. charitable or religious foundations ; Ath, Those granted by One of this class resides in all the principal cities ; and the king for military service. The uncultivated tracts, under him is the kazi, who has a council of mulas or learned which form so large a portion of Persia, are not claimed as men as his assessors. In the lesser towns there is only a property ; but every individual who constructs one of the kazi, from whom there lies an appeal, in cases of intricacy, subterraneous canals called kandts, or who contrives to to the kazi of the larger towns, and finally to the supreme bring water to the surface, obtains a title to the land which judge of the provincial capital. But, as in all countries he cultivates. The other titles are, inheritance, purchase, such as Persia, where there is no enlightened morality, and or a gift from the crown ; and these rights are held sacred no control of public opinion, justice is venal and corrupt; under all circumstances. There is, however, this peculiarity the administration of the written law by the priests is ex- in the state of landed property in Persia, as in other eastern tremely imperfect and inadequate to its ends, insomuch that countries, that the cultivator shares with the proprietor in the suitor is deprived of every hope of justice; and it is only a common right to a certain portion of the soil, of which the administration of the customary law that offers any lie cannot be deprived as long as he pays the customary security, however imperfect, for justice between man and rent. The proprietor has a title to one-tenth of the proman. Even here, however, the administration of justice duce, ascertained by measurement, either of the surface varies with the character of the reigning despot; and the before sowing, or of the standing crop. When the projudges, in all their various gradations, are active and just, or prietor obtains an artificial supply of water, he has, besides, corrupt and cruel, as the monarch happens to be vigilant or a right to all that he can procure by its sale. In cases virtuous, avaricious or tyrannical. The European ideas of where the proprietor furnishes seed, labour, or cattle to the honour are scarcely known amongst any class. They are cultivator, he receives, in addition to his tenth share, a porall venal and corrupt; and the iniquities which they them- tion of the farmer’s profits. The government tax amounted selves practise they but feebly condemn in others. Justice at one time to one-tenth of the produce, but with the inis often interrupted by the clashing authorities of the dif- creasing expenses of the state other irregular taxes were ferent courts,—an evil which neither the sovereign nor his imposed, till they were at last converted into an additional ministers are anxious to remedy, seeing that it adds both to tenth; the less fertile lands being, however, subjected to their power and profit. A suit is very soon brought to a a smaller impost. But other irregular and arbitrary imtermination, and not at great cost; but considerable sums posts continued to be heaped upon the additional tenth by are often paid for a favourable decision. The most bar- the bad faith of the government, and now form one of the barous rules are still followed in the administration of the cultivator’s heaviest grievances. The other taxes are those criminal law. In cases of murder the heir-at-law demands on cattle, capitation taxes, transit and town duties, and vengeance for blood ; and when the guilt of the criminal is various irregular impositions. Lands held in fief, or in established, he is delivered into the hands of the injured lieu of military or other service, pay no tax to governperson or his relations, to deal with him as they think fit. ment ; the assignee being entitled to three-tenths, which The punishment of crimes in Persia is fixed by the written includes both the proprietor’s rights and the government law, or when the king interferes by his arbitrary will. Fines, dues. When the assignment is given on the estate of flogging, and the bastinado are the common punishments of another, the government dues alone are granted. Gardens lesser offences. The disclosure of hidden treasures is en- near villages pay one-fifth of their produce in kind, whilst forced by tortures ; and the inhuman punishment of putting melon-grounds, tobacco, cotton, and such like fields, pay in out the eyes has long been practised in Persia, as in other money according to a valuation of their produce. Horses,^ countries of the East, on the relations of the reigning family asses, cows, sheep, and goats, are all taxed, at the rate of who may aspire to the throne, or on the chiefs of tribes one real, or Is. 4d. for each horse, four-fifths for asses and whom it is desirable to deprive of power, though not of cows, one-third for sheep and goats, and one-sixth on the life, and sometimes on the male inhabitants of a rebellious hive of bees. There is a capitation tax, which sometimes town. Criminals are put to death by strangling, decapita- presses heavily upon Armenians, Jews, and Gabais, tie tion, or stabbing; but in aggravated cases the most inven- ancient fire-worshippers. The rate was in some cases fom tive cruelty is practised in devising modes of torture. In reals, or 5s. 4d. for a family, and sometimes eight reals. Persia, women are seldom publicly executed, but they suffer Shops and bazars pay a duty of from two to twenty reals dreadful violence in the recesses of domestic tyranny. a year; and the tenant also pays in the proportion of from When they are of high rank, the comprehensive injustice ten 2to fifty tumans a year, the value of the tuman being of the East often includes them in the punishment of their ] Is. All merchandise is subject to a duty of 5 per cent, husbands or fathers; and they are given away as slaves to on entering the first Persian town, whether by land or sea, the lowest and most infamous classes of the community, and to a variety of inland duties, which are levied at the such as mule-drivers. They are also sometimes tortured, different custom-houses, without any system, every governor in order to force from them a disclosure of wealth which endeavouring to extort all he can. Smuggling is very common fimon No estimate can be formed of the saadrat, they know to be concealed. Revenue, The collection of the revenue is intimately connected or the irregular duties, which include every extraordinary with the administration of justice, the same officer presid- expense of government, the expenses of all travellers and ing over both ; and this union is unfavourable to the inha- strangers, of members of the royal family, or government bitants, as it enables the collector to prostitute the judicial messengers, of transporting baggage, royal equipage, _ or power for the gratification of his avarice. Sir John Mal- presents, of repairing roads and bridges, of furnishing colm estimates, though not on any sure data, the revenue of troops and the like; for all which it is understood, though Persia at three millions. According to Fraser,1 the amount the practice is often different, that the village or province varies with each successive sovereign ; but Shell, who had shall obtain credit on the annual settlement of their accounts;, the best opportunities of learning the truth, states it at so that these heavy exactions, resembling those of the^ 3,177,000 tumans, or L.1,747,350. The public income of kino-’s purveyors in ancient Europe for the maintenance of Persia arises chiefly from the produce of crown lands, and his court and retinue when they were travelling, fall withfrom a tax on land. Landed property in Persia may out redress on the poor ryots. The Persian king’s order 1

2

Narrative of a Journey into Khorassan, chap. x.

Ibid., p. 74, note.

PERSIA. 428 Persia. Persia. is, in like manner, grievously abused to the oppression and or head accountant, who gets 50 tumans (L.27, 10s.); and four clerks, whose pay is from 30 to 40 tumans each. Each vexation ofhis subjects. Presents, fines, and confiscations, member of the band gets from 8 to 15 tumans. The regular form a considerable item of Persian revenue. At stated cavalry is limited to 500 men; according to Sheil, “ an abtimes, such as the new year, the courtiers are expected to surd, useless body.” The Shah’s bodyguard consists of 2500 accompany their respects to the king with a large present irregular cavalry, well mounted and armed, and excellent of money, which amounts in some cases to L.oO,UUU, horsemen. Their pay is 60 tumans each yearly, with 1£ L.40,000, and even L.55,000. Every one in any degree mans of bread, 4£ of barley, and 9 of straw for the horses, dependent upon the court endeavours to make up a purse on per diem. Over every 10 men is a dehbdshi, or decurion ; this occasion ; and in lieu of money, goods, such as shawls, and over 100, a yuzbdshi, or centurion, who gets 500 tumans horses, jewels, and merchandise, are brought. 1 he pro- annually. Besides these, there are from 30,000 to 50,000 duce of this new year impost is estimated at L.bbO,OUU. irregular horse, called ghiddm-i-suwdr, to distinguish them But there are various other lesser occasions for making ghuldm-i-rikdbi, the bodyguard. Sheil considers presents, no suitor being expected to approach the throne from them lully equal to the Cossacks. Six thousand of them empty-handed ; so that about L.275,000 may be received come from Ihe pay of a private is fiom 10 to in addition to the presents of the new year. The produce 15 tumans, Azarbijan. with half a man* of bread, 1£ of barley, and 3 of of the crown lands Fraser estimates, though, he admits, on straw, daily. A sultan, or captain of 50, gets 50 tumans ; a uncertain data, at L.493,950. According to Sheil (p. 388), the total expenditure from ndib, or lieutenant, 30; vakils and sarjaukas, 15 tumans; and a sarkardah, or colonel of horse, 1000 tumans per the revenue is as follows :— annum. . . . , „ , General expenditure, including presents, building L, 8 The regular Persian army owes its origin to the rrench, post-office, ; jS and dates from the mission of General Gardanne in 1808. Amalajat, or salaries at the capital rjo tvc) The first levies were raised in Karmanshah and Azarbijan. Shortly afterwards, Major Christie and Lieutenant Lindsay, Provincial expenses loupeof the Company’s army, who accompanied Sir J. Malcolm s L.1,461,130 mission in 1808, undertook the charge of the new levies. Army. The Persian army at present comprises 6000 artillery, Major Christie was killed in 1812, in the battle of Aslanabout one-half of whom are natives of Azarbijan. Ihe duz against the Russians, in which he distinguished himso much that the victors raised a monument to his men are active, efficient soldiers, and carry their guns over self memory. was succeeded by Major Hart of the royal^ any ground. There is one marked peculiarity in this arm army, who,Heunder Abbas Mirza, brought the infantry of of the service. The artillerymen are all mounted, and there Azarbijan to great efficiency. Lieutenant Lindsay, afterare more than thirty with each gun; the guns in Persia wards Sir H. Lindsay Bethune, did even more for the beino- to defend the infantry, rather than, as with us, the artillery; and the remains of the vigour he infused may still infantry to defend the guns. For the foundation of an traced. After the last war between Russia and Persia, ordnance department on a modern footing, Persia is in- be debted to England. A foundry under Englishmen was several officers and serjeants of the Indian army were sent to first established at Tabriz, as well as a powder manufactoiy carry on the work. Among the most distinguished was Sir outside the town. These have since been transferred to H. Rawlinson. They aided in placing Muhammad Shah Tehran. The regular infantry is rated at 100,000 men, on the throne; but that prince became jealous of them ; and but does not actually exceed 70,000. Of these, more finally, on his marching against Hirat, they were recalled. than a third come from Azarbijan, Internal discipline is After them came some French officers, who entirely failed , they in turn were succeeded by a party of Italian, said by Sheil to have no existence, and knowledge of evo- and Hungarian, and German refugees. ... lution to be limited to movement from column into line, The ancient religion of Persia was the worship of HorReiigio . and vice versd, and to the clumsy formation of squares. In the recent engagements, however, with the British mazd, the Good Principle, or God. Fire, and especially forces, the Persian infantry did not appear to be so de- the sun, being considered the fittest emblem of the deit\, ficient in these points. The arms of the infantry aie flint was the visible medium selected to receive adoration, but muskets, and bayonets, many of them out of order, ihe that this emblem was itself worshipped, is a vulgar error. men wear blue linen jackets, with white cotton trousers This religion was subverted by the Arabs in a.d. 651, when and leather buskins; and in cold weather they often put that of Muhammad was propagated in Persia by the victoMuslims. But the Persians are of the Shiah sect, on their own clothes under the jackets and trousers which rious who consider ’Ali, the nephew and son-in-law of Muhamare supplied by the state. Turks wear the lambskin cap, mad, as his lawful successor in the khalifat, to which he was and Leks felt caps. Instead of knapsacks, thirty asses are appointed by the Prophet; and Abubakr, ’Umr, and Uthallowed to each company for the carriage of the men s kit. man, his actual successors, and reverenced as the khahfs by The infantry is divided into regiments, each of which, called Sunnis as nothing better than usurpers. It was this a fautf consists of 1000 men, of whom 800 are sarbaz or the disputed succession which gave rise to these two hostile privates, 41 bandsmen, and 159 officers. 1 hefauj, again, is sects of Muhammadans. The doctrines of the former, divided into 10 dastah or companies, and in each there the Shi’ahs,—have been for more than three cenare 1 sultan, or captain; 2 ndibs, or lieutenants; 2 begzadahs, namely, turies warmly espoused by the Persians, who vowed eteiwho ride in the rear; 4 vakils, or serjeants ; and 4 sarjaukas, or corporals. The regiment is commanded by a sarhang, oi nal hatred and war against all who profess the Sunni lieutenant-colonel, who gets 500 tumans (L.275) a year , am creed. The religion of Muhammad, amongst its other 2 ydvars, or majors ; and over two regiments is a sartip, ox evils, is hostile to all improvement. It enjoins the decolonel, with 1000 tumans a year. The ydvar receives from struction of infidels as an act of piety ; and hence the 150 to 250 tumans a year; sultin, 60 tumans; the iidib, blind zeal and persecuting spirit which prevails in all from 30 to 40; the begzddah, 20; the vakil, from 10 to 12 ; Muhammadan states, and which breaks out into reproach, and the sarjauka, 8 tumans annually. The private receives outrage, and often into extreme violence, against their 7 tumans a year, and has, besides, a jirah, or ration of 84 Christian visitors. All knowledge is, according to this lb. of bread daily. Each regiment has, besides, a mushrif, system, rejected, beyond what is found in the Kuran ; 1

Shell, p. 383.

:

Binning, vol. ii., p. 202.

!

Binning, vol. i., p. 177, note, reckons the man at 7 lb.

PERSIA. 429 Persia, and the debasing influence of polygamy on the morals mirers as the gleaming of a sublime knowledge, which is Persia. ir and manners of both sexes is calculated completely to far beyond the comprehension of the profane and unen- ^ poison all the remaining sources of social happiness. 1 he lightened. Many discussions have arisen regarding the real baneful consequences of this false system have been as and mystical meaning of the writers of this class, and pardeeply felt in Persia as in any of the surrounding states. ticularly of Hafiz, whose odes are chanted as songs, to exThe fanatical influence of the Muhammadan religion has cite the young and dissipated to pleasure, and recited as of late years, however, been modified in Persia by the hymns, to remind the old and devout of the rapture of diprogress of a free-thinking and irreligious spirit, chiefly vine love.” The Persian poets excel in songs and odes, amongst the nobility, the merchants, and those who have which are tender and passionate. Satirical effusions are resided much in foreign countries, and even amongst the not so common ; though the verses of Firdausi on Mahmud priesthood, who frequently and openly, before their par- of Ghazni are remarkably bitter. There is a satirical poem, ticular friends, deride the superstitious observances of the by an unknown author, on the passion of avarice, which is Muhammadan creed. The zeal of the early Muhammadans extremely humorous. The Persians are enthusiastic in has also been cooled by many causes. The work of con- their taste for poetry ; and the meanest artisans can read quest, and the extinction or conversion of infidel nations or repeat the finest passages of their most admired writers. by the sword, is at an end. The enthusiasm of the mo- Sir John Malcolm mentions that his servants were familiar dern followers of the Prophet is no longer influenced by with Persian poetry ; and when at Isfahan, he was surprised the practice of persecution; and the whole system has to hear a common tailor, who was repairing one of his tents, declined into a set of useless forms and ceremonies, which, entertaining his companions with some of the finest mystimingling with all the common affairs of life, have dege- cal odes of Hafiz. Even the rude soldier will leave his nerated into a customary routine, without any appearance tent to listen to songs of love or to a tale of war. The art of reverence, and being in reality a mere mockery of of printing is unknown in Persia; and beautiful writing, which is carefully taught in the schools, is considered a high religion. Ijiterafure, In a state of society such as that which prevails in accomplishment, those who excel in it ranking with the scinr.ce, &c. persia we can scarcely look for any great progress in literary class. They are employed in copying the works of literature, science, or the arts. W ith the Muhammadan authors ; and a few lines written by a celebrated penman religion was introduced all the Arabian learning of tbe se- are often sold for a considerable sum. Almost all the tradesventh century. But the Persians have not improved this men, and many of the mechanics in Persia, have received original stock; on the contrary, it has gene to waste in some education. Schools are established in every town their hands; the light of science is nearly extinct, and and city, at which the poorest children are instructed, at their literature consists chiefly in poetry and tales. 1 hey fees sufficiently reasonable, in the rudiments of the Persian delight in tales, fables, and apophthegms, which Sir John and Arabic languages. The pupil after he has learned the Malcolm considers as the consequence of their despotic alphabet, reads, as a religious duty, the Kuran in Arabic ; government, where knowledge must be veiled in order to next some fables in Persian ; and, lastly, is taught to write be useful, as the direct truth would wound a despot’s a legible hand, which completes his education. Unless ear. The merits of Persian poetry have been very differ- amongst those who follow a studious life, and thus put in ently estimated. Sir John Malcolm, admitting its extra- practice what they have learned, these lessons are in many vagance and hyperbole, still praises its tenderness and cases forgotten. Yet this course of study, superficial as it beauty; and many passages breathe all the sweetness of appears, improves the habits, and introduces a refinement pastoral poetry. Firdausi is their greatest epic poet, whose of manners amongst the scholars, which is unknown to theii poem (the Shdh-ndmah) is a history of the ancient Per- ruder countrymen. No proper encouragement, however, sian kings. In it, according to Sir John Malcolm, “ the is given to schools; nor can it be expected that a grasping, most fastidious reader will meet with numerous passages despotic, and rapacious government, like that of Persia, of exquisite beauty. The narrative,” he adds, “of this should be any way anxious for the education of its subjects. great work is generally very perspicuous ; and some of the The literary men are numerous. They pursue their finest scenes in it are described with simplicity and elegance till they are entitled to the name of Mulla, and to all the of diction.” In the opinion of Persians, this poet excels honours of a Persian college, though they are not classed o in descriptions of the combats of heroes ; but to those whose with the priesthood. They follow various occupations. taste is offended with hyperbole, the tender parts of his the studious and literary classes a very high rank is assignee. work will have most beauty, as they are freest from this An eminent historian, astronomer, or poet is highly hocharacteristic defect of eastern writers. Nizami, who ce- noured, and has a place of distinction assigned him in every lebrates the exploits of Alexander the Great, is considered company which he honours with his presence; and this as as ranking next to Firdausi; and the subject affords ample much for his social qualities as for his supposed talents as a scope to his genius and powerful imagination. Amongst author. The conversation of these persons, replete with the didactic poets, Sir John Malcolm assigns the next rank anecdotes and information, amuses and instructs ; and even to S’adi, who is a moralist as well as poet, his works abound- the pretenders of this class, who are numerous, possess ing in lessons of prudence and morality, and exhibiting agreeable manners and a ready wit. A swarm of students a rare union of fancy, learning, urbanity, and virtue. I he isTthus produced, who pass their useless lives in indolence Masnavi of Jalalu’d-Din, the poems of Jami, and the odes and poverty. Isfahan in particular abounds with these of Hafiz, are amongst the most popular effusions of the literary mendicants; and from its colleges, and those of Persian muse; but the names of Rudiki and others are Shiraz, issue a crowd of vagrant poets, who he in wait for nearly of equal rank ; and some modern writers also have men of rank and wealth, or for any stranger from whom attained to great eminence. “ Many of these poems,” says they expect a reward. In music and painting the Persians have made little proSir John Malcolm, in his excellent History of Persia, “ are remarkable for harmony of numbers and luxuriance oress. They have a gamut and notes, and a melody that of imagination, but they all abound with the most extra- is adapted to various strains; and they sing to the accomvagant and hyperbolical passages; and the enraptured paniment of warlike instruments, of which they have a dreams of their visionary authors can only be esteemed number. Their strains are often pleasing, but they are beauties by men whose imaginations keep pace with that always monotonous. They are equally backward in the of the poet, whom they deem inspired, and whose most art of painting, in which they have advanced but little obscene lay is often considered by their enthusiastic ad- within the last three centuries. They use the most bril-

PERSIA. 430 Persia. liant colours ; and in portrait-painting they usually succeed often brought about by the temperate habits of the patient, Persia. in taking likenesses; and in some of their lesser drawings, complete the fame of a physician. The gains of the phy- > which are highly glazed, and painted on wood, they also sician are, however, trifling. The priests and astrologers display industry and taste. But they are entirely unac- succeed better ; their art is more suited to the taste of the quainted with the rules of perspective or of just proportions. inhabitants ; and it is only in cities and towns that there The despotic and unsettled government arrests all improve- are regular physicians. Those who dwell in tents are gement ; and in the fine arts the existing race have not ad- nerally attended by an old man or woman, who rely more vanced one step beyond their forefathers, as appears from on superstitious charms than on medical remedies. One the figures in the palaces at Isfahan, executed in the reign of these charms consists in laying a few pieces of bread of Shah ’Abbas, and equal to any of their modern produc- covered with oil upon a rock, as an offering to a saint. The Persians are remarkably ceremonious in their intertions. MathemaIn science the Persians have advanced no farther than in course. They receive the visit of a superior by rising hastics, astro- the arts. Their knowledge of mathematics or astronomy tily and meeting him at the door of the apartment; of an nomy, and is very limited ; and the latter science is chiefly studied for equal, by rising and standing erect; of an inferior, by only geography. the sake of judicial astrology, in which the whole nation, making "the motion of rising. The apartments are not so from the king to the peasant, evince the greatest faith. luxuriously furnished as in Turkey. The sofas and easy Their notions of the forms and motions of the heavenly pillows of the latter country are not known in Persia, where bodies, and the shape and surface of the earth, are borrow- the seat is on a carpet or mat, without any soft support on ed from Ptolemy ; and though some efforts have been made either side, or anything except the hands, or the accidento instruct them in the Copernican system and Newton’s tal support of a wall, to relieve the galling posture of the demonstrations, prejudices are too firmly rooted to be dis- legs. The fashion in presence of a superior is to sit upon pelled, except by time. Of geography they do not under- your heels, as they are tucked up under your hams, after stand the first principles ; for, independently of their error the manner of a camel. The length of time during which regarding the figure of the earth, they know little of its a Persian sits untired upon his heels is to an Englishman surface, even of that which lies within their view ; nor could quite extraordinary. He will remain half a day, and sometheir knowledge of surveying enable them to lay down any times he will even sleep, in this posture. They never portion of it with exactness. There cannot be a stronger think of changing their positions; and are as much surproof of the ignorance which prevails than the eagerness prised by the locomotive dispositions of the Europeans as with which all classes seek the aid of astrology. Any one we are by their habits of rest. It is a singular trait of Asiatic manners that so great a who can take an altitude with an astrolabe, or knows the names of the planets, with a few technical phrases, and un- proportion of the people still retain the vagrant habits of derstands the astrological almanacs, considers himself as the pastoral life. For this purpose the wide wastes of quite adequate to offer his services to all who consult him ; Khurasan, varied with spots of fertility, are well adapted; and nothing of consequence is transacted, especially by the and the pastoral tribes are accordingly found chiefly to great, without consulting stars. A new dress must be put border on this district, which has long been the debateable on, or a journey must be commenced, at the lucky or un- ground between several great monarchies, where their rival chiefs contended for victory in fierce and bloody lucky moment. As the science of astronomy is thus rendered subservient wars ; and on these occasions the wandering tribes are ento astrology, so chemistry is followed for the sake of alche- listed on one side or the other. Thus they are inured to my, a favourite pursuit of the learned, whose avarice is sti- blood and to pillage, and contract habits which have been mulated by the hope of discovering the philosopher’s stone. strengthened by time, and have at last become interwoven The alchemists make their experiments in the profoundest with their whole pursuits and character. They often atsecrecy, that they may themselves engross the whole be- tack surrounding states, carry off the people, and sell them nefits of the wonderful discovery which they expect to for slaves ; and most of the wandering tribes of I urkamans make ; and whether they may be themselves deceived, being Sunnis, who have sworn eternal hatred to the Percertain it is they deceive others, and practise the most seri- sians, who are Shi’ahs, thus add religious hatred to all their ous frauds on the credulous and the wealthy. Of medicine other incentives to murder and pillage ; so that their chaand surgery the Persians are thoroughly ignorant, and, racter is described as ferocious and blood-thirsty in the exwhen they are ill, become the prey of quacks, who rob treme. To the north of Khurasan there are various tribes them of their money, and often of their health. They are of Turkamans, who, occupying the country behind the Alentirely ignorant of anatomy and the circulation of the blood. burj and the steppe of Kharazm, pour from their deserts They have an arbitrary theory, by which they classify all upon the surrounding and cultivated districts, plundering diseases under four heads,—viz., hot, cold, moist, or dry ; villages and caravans, with every circumstance of atroand the great principle on which they proceed is, that the cious outrage. The old, the feeble, and the helpless are remedy must be of an opposite quality to the disease; dry murdered on the spot; those who are fit for labour are remedies being applied to an illness occasioned by mois- carried into slavery ; and whole districts of country are left ture, and cooling medicines to hot diseases. To this prac- desolate. From the east other tribes equally barbarous tice they are so bigoted, that, with all their respect for make inroads into Persia, and carry away their captives to European physicians, they dislike any prescriptions that the slave-markets of Khiva and Bukhara ; and on the contradict this paradox. Inoculation for the small-pox, south and east are found the wild Biluchxs, who forthough it is known, is seldom practised, though whole towns merly murdered and plundered, but now, preferring their are often threatened with depopulation by the ravages of avarice to their cruelty, carry their prisoners to the slave that dreadful disease. Mr Jukes, who accompanied Mr merchants who frequent the great northern markets. The Fraser into Persia, was remarkably anxious to introduce Afghan, also, though not naturally cruel, “ assumes,” says the practice of vaccination; for several years his efforts Fraser, “ in this ominous neighbourhood a fierce character, were unremitted ; but they were defeated, fully as much and adds to robbery and plunder the crime of murder.” from the cruel indifference of the government to the good By these dreadful inroads a considerable portion of the^ of their subjects, as from their prejudices. The practice of country to the north and east is laid waste ; the terror of physic in Persia is mere quackery, for which all the know- these tribes is spread far and wide ; and their depredations ledge necessary is that of the qualities and effects of a few have become more formidable in proportion to the corrupsimples; and hence a grave air, and a few lucky cures, tion and increasing weakness of the Persian monarchy

PERSIA. 431 attention of the traveller are the lofty walls of an enormous Persia, sia These tribes vary considerably in their physiognomy. The erSli » ^ j Goklan,1 Yamut, and Takeh Turkamans, who occupy the portal, the interior faces of which are sculptured into the country behind the Alburj Mountains, bordering on the colossal forms of two immense quadrupeds, resembling Caspian Sea, are tall, stout, and well made, and have all the bulls, which are elevated on a pedestal 5 feet in height. Tatar features,—namely, the scanty beard, the small eye The heads of the animals are entirely mutilated, so that drawn up at the corners, the high cheek-bones, and the Fraser says it is impossible to determine what species they small flat nose. Some, on the other hand, have handsome were intended to represent. Round their necks collars of features, rather resembling those of the Asiatics than of the roses are executed with critical nicety; and over the chest Europeans. The arms used by these tribes are chiefly the back, and ribs, short curling hair, cut with that peculiar sword and the spear. They are dexterous in the use of the correctness and delicacy of chiselling which Sir R. K. Porter sword, which is curved in the Persian fashion, and very states to be a distinguishing characteristic of the ancient sharp. Several of the tribes use bows and arrows. They Persian sculpture. The wall that forms one side of this have very few fire-arms ; only such as they have taken from magnificent portal is 5 feet in breadth, 21 feet in length, and 30 feet in height. The one wall is distant from the travellers whom they have plundered. Persia, the seat of learning, of wealth, and of improve- other about 12 feet, and tbe space between is flagged with ment, whilst the greater part of the world had scarcely beautifully-polished slabs from the neighbouring rock. Eastward, at the distance of 24 feet in a direct line from emerged from barbarism, might naturally be expected to abound in the precious relics of ancient art; and although the portal, once stood four magnificent columns, of which many such memorials have perished amidst the ruthless de- only two now remain. Their capitals are singularly beauvastations of war to which this and other Asiatic countries tiful. At the distance of 24 feet is a second portal, exactly have been exposed, yet numerous monuments of taste still resembling the former, only that it is 18 feet instead of 21 remain. Of these, the ruins of Persepolis belong to the in length. Its inner sides are adorned with similar sculpearliest era of Persian history. It was in this city, which tures. But the animals here represented are of a gigantic they took a delight in improving and embellishing, as the size, and of a monstrous formation ; the body and legs of a great metropolis of the East, that Cyrus and his immediate bull, with similar trappings to those already described, and successors resided. It has for centuries presented only a enormous wings, the feathers of which are exquisitely cut. scene of decay and ruin. The most remarkable remains2 The heads of the animals, though greatly defaced, show the in Persepolis, or, as it is called by the natives, Istakhar, faces of men ; the countenance has a cast of deep gravity, Taltht-i- Jarushid (“ The Throne of Jamshid”), are the Chi- and a long and carefully-curled beard adds to the general halminar, or forty “ minarets or pillars,” which are situated majesty. The head is adorned with a diadem, on both about 35 miles N.E. of Shiraz. Sir II. K. Porter recog- sides of which horns are represented winding from the brow nised in these ruins, en masse as well as in detail, a strong upwards towards the front of the crown ; the whole being resemblance to the architectural taste of Egypt; and he surmounted by a sort of coronet, formed of a range of conjectures that some of the architectural ornaments may leaves like the lotus, and bound with a fillet beautifully have been partly brought from that country by the Persian carved in roses. Between the right of this portal and the magnificent termonarchs, as trophies of their victories. These magnificent remains appear to be part of the great castellated palace of race that supports the range of columns from which it takes Darius, which was set on fire by Alexander whilst he was its name, there is an area ot 162 feet, in which is a cistern under the influence of intemperance. They are placed as hewn out of the solid rock, in dimensions 18 feet by 16. if in an amphitheatre, on a fine plain, inclosed by semicir- The approach to the terrace is superb, consisting ot a double cular mountains. The terrace on which the ruins of this staircase covered with the most beautiful decorations, and immense royal citadel or palace are is at the foot of a steep projecting considerably before the northern face of the terrock called the Kuh-i-Rahmat, or “ Hill of Mercy,” and race, which is 212 feet in length. At each extiemity L. overlooks the wide plain of Mervdasht. It is nearly 500 and W. rises another range of steps ; and about the middle, yards in length (according to Binning, vol. ii., p. 4), 312 in projecting from it 18 feet, appear two smaller flights, lising breadth, and from 10 to 20 high. Its form is irregular, and from the same points. The extent of the whole lange, init faces to the west. “ The strength and beauty of its con- cluding a landing-place of 20 feet, amounts t° 86 feet. I ie struction,” says Sir R. K. Porter, “ cannot be exceeded. ascent is extremely gradual, each flight consisting of ^ome The steep faces of the rocky terrace are formed of dark- 30 low steps, 4 inches in height, 14 feet in breadth, and 16 in gray marble, cut into gigantic square blocks exquisitely leno-th. The whole front is covered with sculptures so polished, and, without the aid of mortar, fitted to each other thickly that the eye is bewildered amid the various groups. with such closeness and precision, that when first completed, They consist chiefly of figures and emblematical devices. the perfected platform must have appeared as part of the These sculptures are executed with a nicety of detail whic i solid mountain itself.”3 The exterior wall is built of black gives them historical interest, as they mark with accustones, much harder than marble, finely polished, and of racy the costume of the time and the people, and the form such a prodigious size, that it is difficult to conceive how and variety of the armour used at different periods. But the most splendid division of the rums is the magthe workmen, without the aid of machinery, were able to move them. The only access to the summit of the plat- nificent colonnade, which occupies the terrace, and which form is by a double flight of stairs of a very gentle ascent, having survived the devastations of war and the wreck ot on its western side. There are fifty-five steps, each step empires, remains on the desolate plain a most impressive being 3^ inches in height, formed of blocks of marble so image of departed grandeur. I he terrace upon which large that each of them is cut into ten or fourteen steps. these pillars stand stretches N. and S. 350 feet, and from The first flight of steps leads to an irregular landing-place E. to W. 380 feet; the greater part of the intervening of 37 feet by 44, from which springs a second double flight space being covered with broken capitals, shafts of pilof forty-eight steps, which terminate on the ground level of lars, and numerous fragments exquisitely sculptured. There the platform in a second landing-place, occupying 64 feet. were formerly four divisions of columns, namely, a central On reaching the platform, the first objects that arrest the proup of thirty-six pillars, with two rows of six each on 1 2 3

Fraser’s Narrative of a Journey into Khorassan, pp. 256, 267. Gulistan of S’adf, ch. iv., story 12. The word in its first sense means “pool,” but it is now obsolete (Binning, vol. ii,, p. ii., note). Travels in Persia, Georgia, &c., vol. i., p. 583. I

PERSIA. 432 Persia, either side, as well as in front; in all seventy-two columns. Arabic, and Persian. Still farther to the southward ap- Persia, Of the division in advance only one was standing in 1818 pear other elevations or terraces covered with vast masses when Sir II. Porter visited the spot.1 About 38 feet of ruin, under which scarcely any traces of the original from the western edge of the terrace appears the second structure can be discovered ; but here may be seen the double range of columns, of which only five remained in remains of colonnades of elaborate sculpture. From the 1818. The distance is 268 feet to the corresponding east- extremity of the eastern colonnade on the terrace of Chihal ern rows, of which only four columns remained in the above Minar is an expanse of 315 feet, the plain of which is inyear. At a distance of 60 feet from the eastern and terrupted by an immense pile of ruins, which has the apwestern colonnades stood the central range of columns, to pearance of having been heaped up for centuries, and the number of thirty-six ; but of these no more than five which Sir R. K. Porter conjectures to cover a division of remained at the said period entire. The three exterior the palace answerable to that immediately to the S., and double rows of columns are of uniform architectme, and containing, as he supposes, the banqueting-chambere and described by Sir R. K. Porter as being perfectly beautiful. other apartments ; and this conjecture he supports by many “ The total height of each column is 60, feet, the circum- special reasons and learned authorities. South ot this is ference of the shaft 16 feet, and its length horn the capi- another terrace, on which he supposes that there stood tal to the top 44 feet. The shaft is finely fluted in fifty- those portions of the palace in which the monarch resided. two divisions; at its lower extremity begins a cinctuie and Here are the bases and plinths of pillars, and fragments ot a torus; the former 2 inches, the latter 1 foot in depth. beautiful sculpture, scattered about. The ponderous doorFrom thence devolves a pedestal, in form of the cup and ways and huge marble frames are yet in their places ; they leaves of a pendant lotus. It rests upon a plinth of 8 are of the finest workmanship, and are adorned with sculpinches, and measures in circumference 24 feet 6 inches; tures and figures such as those which have been already the whole, from the cincture to the plinth, comprising a noticed, and of which our limits do not admit ot a more height of 5 feet 10 inches. The capitals which remain, detailed description. A considerable way N. from the though much injured, suffice to show that they were also columns stands a structure which is next in extent to the surmounted with a double demi-bull. Ihe heads of the Chihal Mindr, or the “Palace of the Forty Pillars.” It is a bull forming the capitals take the directions of the faces of perfect square of 210 feet on each side, and is entered by the respective fronts ol the terrace; and I think there can two doorways on each side, and by a grand portal 13 be no doubt that the wide hollow between the necks re- feet in width, whilst the others are only 7. These are all ceived a beam, meant to support and connect an entabla- richly adorned with sculptures, representing scenes of state ture, over which has been placed the roof.” 1 he dimen- or of royal parade, or emblematical figures of lions and sions of the central pillars are the same as those of the imaginary animals. Among other remarkable antiquities of Persia, the tombs, others, only that they are 55 feet in height, whilst the others are 60 feet. The capitals, however, which surmount supposed to be those of her ancient kings,—namely, Cyrus them are of quite a different character, being of the same and his posterity,—have attracted the particular attention of description with that in the great portal where the crowned travellers. These excavations or tombs are generally cut and winged bull is so conspicuous an object. The two out of the solid rock. About 500 yards eastward from the lower divisions of the capital (it being of a triad form) are Hall of Columns, in the face of the mountain, is found a evidently constructed of the hollowed lotus. Ihe upper niche 72 feet in breadth by 130 feet in height, divided into compartment has only ttvo volutes. The middle compart- two compartments, and covered, as usual, with sculptures ment which is one division of lotus, appears to have had of nondescript animals, royal personages, and symbolical some extraneous body introduced into the opening be- figures. Three quarters of a mile southward from Takht-itween it and the lower compartment of the flower; and Jamshid, a tomb was discovered by Niebuhr, and visited the angular and unfinished state of that side of the capital by Morier, which seemed to have no entrance, from which seems to testify the same. “ Here then,” says Sir R. K. he supposes that those receptacles for the dead were enteied Porter, “ the connecting-line must have been whence the by subterranean passages. The sepulchres ot Naksh-i-Rustam, which have been visited by various European travelroof could spring.” The nearest building to the palace of the forty pillars lers, are also very curious. There are four excavations cut occupies a space of 170 feet by 95, and it is approached out of the perpendicular cliff, at the height, according to by a double flight of stairs, which are almost in complete Sir R. K. Porter, of 60 feet from the ground. T.he one he ruin ; but from the fragments it appears to have been examined, and to which hewvas drawn up by ropes, consists adorned with sculptures resembling the royal guards and of an excavation in the solid rock of about 14 feet, in the other figures. The side to the E. is so choked up with form of something like a Greek cross. Ihe length of the ruins that no corresponding trace of stairs can be found. cave, which forms the whole tomb, is 34 feet, and the height To the S. the whole face of the terrace which supports 9. It is adorned, like all the other ancient monuments, this building is occupied with another superb flight ot steps, with a variety of richly-sculptured figures of men and aniwhich terminates in a landing-place 48 feet by 10. Its mals, and emblematical devices. There are likewise numefront is divided by a tablet bearing an arrow-headed in- rous remains of antiquity in the plains of Murghab, 49 miles scription, on each side of which are seen spearmen of a N.N.E. of the ruins of Persepolis, and probably belonging gigantic stature. There appear to have been also other to the same era, which are fully described by Morier and apartments with lofty entrances, composed of four solid Porter. The most remarkable of these is the supposed upright blocks of marble of a colour nearly black, within tomb of Cyrus; an interesting monument, of which the latthe portals of which are bas-relief figures ot two guards ter writer gives an account with his usual accuracy. It is sculptured on the sides of the walls, besides various other surrounded by other ruins, which bear traces of the same figures, one of a monarch clad in royal robes; whilst in antiquity, as they contain numerous inscriptions in the another parts there are representations of single combats be- cient arrow-headed character. The very curious sculptures on the mountain called Bitween a man and a lion, a griffin, or some other imaginary creature. In another division of the same building Situn have already been noticed. Some have thought the may be seen a variety of inscriptions, cuneiform, Kufic, words mean “ without pillars ;” but it is probably a corrup1 Pietro della Valle was the first European who visited Istakhar. This was in 1621, and 25 pillars were then standing. In 1809 Morier found but 16.

PERSIA. 433 Persia. Persia, tion of a more ancient designation. Just over the fountain- figure, which, when erect, must have been from 15 to 20 ■ ^J head of a beautifully clear stream, which bursts from the feet in height, represents some one of the Sassanian kings,— ' mountain about 50 yards from this rocky platform, are seen Shahpur, as is supposed. There are various other Sassanian the remains of an immense piece ot sculpture, so greatly relics in the vicinity of Persepolis,—namely, the tombs of defaced that no continued outline can now be made out; the kings, where the sculptures, by the natives called but by close examination the rude forms of several colossal Naksh-i-Rustam, are to be found; also the sculptures namod figures may be traced. The principal cause of the muti- Naksh-i-Rajib. The sculptures of Naksh-i-Rustam are lation seems to be, that additions have been made to the contained in six tablets cut on the perpendicular rock, and original. In one place a Greek inscription has been intro- containing many bas-reliefs of the triumphs or victories of duced, and has, in its turn, been erased to make way for one the Persian arms under the Sassanian kings, with figures in Arabic. These rude sculptures are generally supposed of the sovereign in various attitudes, and of horsemen ento be of high antiquity, some referring them to the age of gaged in hostile collision. The sculptures at Naksh-i-Rajib Semiramis. Above these appears an interesting piece of consist of three tablets containing seven colossal and two sculpture, containing fourteen figures, one of a king tramp- diminutive figures. One of the sovereigns is on horseback ling on a prostrate body, probably of some ot his cap- in his greatest pomp ; and underneath is a Greek inscriptives. He has a diadem and all the other badges of sove- tion, which has been restored and translated by M.de Sacy. reignty; and a row of nine persons, having their hands bound It runs thus “ This is the resemblance of the servant of behind them, and being themselves bound together by a Ormazd, the divine Shahpur, king of kings, of Iran and cord round their necks, are seen approaching him in a sup- An-Iran, of the race of the gods, son of the servant of Orpliant posture, and with a dejected expression. Sir It. K. mazd, the divine Artaxares, king of kings, of Iran and AnPorter supposes that these ten persons, including the one Iran, of the race of the gods, grandson of the divine Babek under the feet of the monarch, represent the ten tribes the king.” The remaining tablet contains but a repetition which were carried into captivity; and the design of the of the two horsemen holding a ring. There are other sculpture, which is executed in a style not inferior to any ancient monuments in different parts of Persia, consisting at Persepolis, is to commemorate the final conquest of of sculptured rocks and other remains resembling Hruidical Israel by Salmanaser, King of Assyria and the Medes. erections. Above the head of each individual is a compartment with The early history of Persia is lost in remote antiquity, and for History, an inscription in the arrow-headed writing, full translations authentic accounts, the uncertain gleanings of oral tradition, or the of which will be found in Rawlinson’s Herodotus, vol. ii., fictions of poets, have been substituted. The Shdhndmah of Firdausi, the Homer of Persia, a legendary history of the Persian p. 590. composed of such materials, comprises all the information There are other monuments of antiquity, as at laid kings, by the Asiatic writers prior to the Muhammadan conBustan, already noticed, and at Shahpur, which belong to possessed quest. From this poem, and similar authorities, Sir J. Malcolm the era of the Sassanian kings, and which afford^ important has compiled the early annals of Persia, and to it we refer our and curious illustrations of these times. Fifteen miles readers for some account of that dim era. It will be sufficient here to mention that, according to the Ddnorth of Kazarun are the ruins of Shahpur, once the capital of Persia. At the entrance of the valley where it is situ- bistdn, there were four dynasties before Kaiumars, whom the Muhistories, such as the Zinatu-t-tawdrikh declare to ated stands an insulated hill, which exhibits portions of its hammadan have been the grandson of Noah, or Noah himself. These four yancient walls and towers; and the precipitous cliffs are nasties, viz.,—1. That of Mahabad; 2. The Jaianian ; 3. t hat of carved with sculptures. On the southern side of the river ShahKaliv: and 4. That of Yessan,—are purely fabulous. 1 he dywhich waters the plains, a much-mutilated bas-relief is carved nasty founded by Kaiumars is called the Pishdadyan, and must be on the surface of the rock, consisting of two colossal eques- regarded as legendary and pre-historic, though doubtless there is a of truth in what is said regarding it in the Shdhndmah, of trian figures. Their height appears to be about 15 feet. basis it forms the sole subject. The kings were-1. Kaiumars A tablet, divided into three compartments, contains the which 2. Hushang, the discoverer of fire, and inventor of useful arts second sculpture. In the central compartment is an 3. Tahmuras, the legendary founder of Babylon Nineveh, and equestrian figure, with the usual badges of Sassanian sove- Isfahan ; 4. Jamshid, the founder of Istakhar PersePollS’ ^ reignty. A suppliant is on his knees before the horse’s inventor of wine ; 5. Zahhak, the Syrian or Arabian, whom some head, his hands extended, and his face expressive of en- take to be Nimrod; 6. Faridun; 7. Minuchihr; 8. Nauzar 9. Afrasiab; 10. Zu; 11. Karshasp ; 12. Afrasiab II., who was detreaty ; whilst another figure with Egyptian features stands, feated by Rustam, and the victor placed Kai Kubad, a descendant likewise in the attitude of a suppliant, to the right of this of Minuchihr, on the throne, and with this prince commenced the compartment. The right-hand section contains three Kaianian, or second dynasty,the^narchsbelongingto whmhbore Kal K aU „ ^ figures in attitudes of supplication. A greater number of the following names:-l.Kai Kubad; 2. or Zoroaster tablets are still to be seen on the opposite side of the river. 4 Luhrasn; 5. Gashtasp, in whose reign Zartasht the fire-worship; 6. B.hman, ” ^d“h"eD™Zd“t ’ They contain various figures and designs, one of which is fntroducet? Dara I • 8. Dara II., or Darius Codomanus of the Greeks. an elaborate representation of the triumph of a Persian 7 ’ From the evidence of the cuneiform inscriptions, and other moover a Roman army. Colossal horsemen are pictured on numems Mh: Gue history of the rise of the others, with the royal emblems of Persia. In the Shahpur tn hp as follows:—At a very remote period, during the existence oi valley is a mountain, which is crowned by a perpendicular a powerful Assyrian mona/chy, there took place a great migration nation westward from beyond the Indus towards Perprecipice of limestone 700 feet in height. Here is a cavern of• the iArian at v in £80 b c the migration being still incomplete, of enormous extent, its communication intricate and endless, Zr/a ‘be Hn nation which was snb^ently c.il.d .ho with every form and variety of stalactites diversifying the Medes encountered a great Assyrian king named Shal-Manuhara, different chambers, some of which are wonderfully lofty and whose history is recorded in the cuneiform character on a black spacious, and, when entered by torch-light, present the obelisk and has been deciphered. From this period, a struggle most brilliant reflection of all sorts of fantastic shapes. continued between the Medes and Assyrians till B.C. 710, when third king of the Lower Assyrian empire, completely The entrance to the cave is about 140 feet above the base Sargon, the the newly-arrived tribe, and planted a number of cities of the precipice; and here, in a spacious archway 150 feet subdued in their territory, some of which were filled with Israelites, whom broad, and nearly 40 feet in height, within which is a sort £‘gon had carrhid off from Samaria. The Modes, however eonof natural ante-chamber, stands the pedestal of a statue, stantly endeavoured to assert their independence; and in B.C. 63., which lies mutilated and prostrate, with the head down- Cyaxares shook off the Assyrian yoke, and, having taken Nineveh wards. Both have been cut out of the solid rock. The in B C 625 laid the foundation of the Arian empire, which, sixty1 KawliHSon’s Herodotus, voj. i., p. 406, VOL. KVH,

3l

PERSIA. 434 efficient military force was also organized by this monarch, and Persia, Persia. seven years afterwards, was fully established by Cyrus. It has maintained at the expense of the different provinces. In process been shown by Mr Grote, in his History of Greece, vol. iii., pp. 307, of time, Grecian mercenaries were taken into pay; and, when the 308, that the account given us by Herodotus of Deioces is foreign country was engaged in war, the army was recruited from the to the oriental character, and savours far more of the Greek; and people. Colonel Rawlinson remarks that the very name of Deioces is a The reign of Darius was distinguished by several important mere repetition of that of Astyages, the one being a corruption of warlike expeditions. Crossing the Thracian Bosphorus, he invaded Dahdk, “ biting,” and the other Aj-dahdk, “ the biting snake. with 700,000 troops. But the Scythian tribes between the Further, it does not seem probable that Cyaxares would have been Europe and the Don successfully resisted his attack, and forced so universally regarded as the founder of the Median empire, had Danube to retreat with loss. He then overran the territories of Thrace he been preceded by Phraortes. On the whole, therefore, it seems him Macedonia, and left Megabyzus to complete the subjection of reasonable to consider what is said of the two first-named kings as and provinces. He next invaded the countries to the east of mere fiction, and to look upon Cyaxares as the first leader of the those Persia with a powerful army, and conquered some of the countries Arian hordes, who founded a kingdom after their migration west- bordering on the Indus, which he formed into a twentieth satrapy, ward from the Indus, and the same as the Kai Kubad of the Per- under the name India ; and his vast armies were also sent to oversian writers. Kai Kaus, then, would be Darius the Mede of the whelm the risingofcommunities of Greece. But his troops, though book of Daniel, that is, Cyaxares, grandson of the first Cyaxares, they far outnumbered their enemies, were completely overthrown and son of Astyages by Ariena, the daughter of Alyattis, King of on the plains of Marathon by the forces the Greeks. Amidst Lydia; and Kai Khusrau is Cyrus. Luhurasp, who is called in these disasters the reign of this monarchofterminated ; and he was the inscriptions Kabaijiya, and Gashtasp, or Kishtasp, must be . succeeded by his son Xerxes B.c. 486. regarded as the same as Cambyses and Darius Hystaspes, and the Xerxes carried on a successful war against the Egyptians, Pseudo-Smerdis is called in the Bisitun inscriptions Gaumata Go- w'hom gave over to the vengeance of his brother Achaemenes; mates. It is very remarkable that there is no mention of Xerxes, and heheresolved to avenge himself on the Greeks. \\ ith this view, or of his famous expedition to Greece, to be found in the Persian he fitted out a mighty in which he embarked an army writers or the legends of that country. Instead of Xerxes, a Queen amounting to 3,000,000armament, troops, or, with all the camp followers, Homai is mentioned as having reigned thirty years in succession to above 5,000,000 ;2 andofwith this vast force he resolved to annito Bahman or Ardishir Dirazdast, the Artaxerxes Longimanus of hilate the independence and liberties Greece at a single blow. the Greeks. A further examination of the inscriptions is required But he was met by the devoted bands ofofGrecian and exto unravel these difficulties, and also to reconcile the Persian ac- perienced a severe check at the celebrated pass patriots, of T hermopylse, count of Alexander the Great with that which has been adopted which was defended by 300 Spartans against his whole army, and from the Greek writers. According to the former, Alexander was which he only carried by an immense sacrifice of men; and his the elder brother of Dara or Darius II., being the son of Dara I. fleet and army w'ere finally overthrown at Salamis, Plataea, and by the daughter of Philip of Macedon. In the meantime, enough Mycale, he himself escaping from the scene of action in a miserhas been discovered to show that there is much fiction in the ac- able fishing-boat. He was assassinated, after a reign of twentycounts of this Persian dynasty furnished by the Greeks. With one years. these preliminary remarks, we proceed briefly to notice the chief He wras succeeded, in 464, by his grandson Artaxerxes Longicircumstances mentioned by those writers. manus, the Ardishir Dirazdast, or Longhands of the Persian hisArbaces, according to Prideaux, who makes this prince the Tiglath-Pileser of [Scripture, was the first sovereign of Media. He torians. He is celebrated for the internal regulation of his emflourished B.C. 747, and conspired with Belesis, governor of Baby- pire, and for the intelligence which he acquired relative to all the of the kingdom, by means of the agents whom he emlon, and other nobles, against Sardanapalus, with whose death ter- concerns minated the Assyrian monarchy. Without attempting to reconcile ployed. He is represented by some as the Ahasuerus of the Scnpbecause he is said to have treated the Jews with lenity and this view with that which makes Deioces the first, or that which, tures, regarding Deioces as a fabulous character, substitutes Cyaxarcs kindness, and to have married one of that nation. The two sucfor him, we proceed to note the statements of the Greek histo- ceeding sovereigns were Xerxes II. and Darius II. whose reigns were rians. Cyrus, according to them, was the chief of a pastoral short. The latter was succeeded in 605 by Artaxerxes Mnemon, his horde, who, quitting their own comparatively barren and un- eldest son, who had to contend for the crown with his younger broproductive country, subdued the territories of their wealthy ther Cyrus. It was in his reign that the famous retreat of the and luxurious neighbours. He was the conqueror of Babylon, Ten Thousand took place under Xenophon, who has given a narraand on the ruins of that great kingdom founded that of Persia, tive of the expedition. His reign, which continued twenty years, which was gradually extended by conquest from the Mediter- was a scene of intrigue, in which favourites bore the chief svi ay, ranean to the Indus and the Oxus. Cyrus was succeeded, in and during which those symptoms of decay became visible which the year 529 before Christ, by Cambyses, the Ahasuerus of the terminated at last in the overthrow of the kingdom. He was sucScriptures, who gave himself up to sensuality and cruelty. Still ceeded by Darius or Dara I., who reigned only twelve years. . n year 336 B.C., Darius Codomanus, or Dara II. of the Persian he extended his empire, having reduced Egypt to the state of a the colony, and also conquered a great part of Northern Africa. historians, assumed the sceptre. It was in his reign that exanPseudo-Smerdis, feigning himself to be the brother of Cambyses, der of Macedonia, having subdued the different principalities ot consolidated their power into one, invaded 1 ersia. e who had been murdered, was by a faction of the Magi raised to Greece, and the Hellespont in the year 334 B.C., with a well-disciplined the throne B.C. 522. Otanes, a Persian nobleman, finding out the crossed force of 35,000 men, and encountered and defeated the deceit, conspired with six other chiefs, who agreed to assassinate and veteran host on the banks of the Granicus. The hasty levies o him, which they effected, after he had reigned eight months. Persian were again routed in the fatal battle of Issus, in w ic i Along with him they put to death a number of the Magi; and Persia 100,000 were slain; and the family of Darius fell into the Victor's having decided on a monarchical form of government, they resolved hands. battle of Arbela, which succeeded, completed the to assemble next morning at sunrise without the city, on horse- triumph The of Alexander. The Persian armies were routed and disback ; and it was agreed that he whose horse should neigh first persed, and the unfortunate Darius, flying from the field of ba e, should be chosen king. The well-known trick of Aibares, the was seized by his nobles, at the head of whom was Bessus, wno groom of Darius Hystaspes, secured the throne to his master, 521. bound him in golden chains, and were carrying him to Bactnana He brought his master’s horse the evening before, with a mare, to in a car covered with skins being overtaken by the conqueror, the appointed spot; and the horse, as soon as he arrived, next they stabbed their victim to; but heart, and left him in the chariot morning, recollecting the mare, neighed, and he was immediately weltering in his blood. Withthe Darius terminated the dynasty of ysaluted king. The Greek character and fabrication of these tales rus, which had subsisted 206 years, according to the Greek writers. is self-evident. Darius Hystaspes reigned over Persia thirty-six After the death of Alexander, Asia continued for a long perio years, and was distinguished as a legislator as well as a conqueror. a scene of war and commotion, owing to the contests which arose He divided the country into nineteen satrapies or provinces, each liable for the payment of a fixed tribute. Over these provinces amongst his successors for the dominion of the country. But a, ou year 307 B.C. Seleucus Nicator by his success had. acquired t e satraps were sent to preside, with the delegated authority of the the king. Their duties were, to collect the revenue, to improve agri- dominion of all the countries which lie between the Euphrates, t e culture, and to perform all the royal commands. They were after- Indus, and the Oxus, and had even carried his victorious arms o wards invested with military commands; and securities were de- the Ganges, and established a friendly alliance with Sandrocottus, U.DU1 JJO/blUU. UA vised against their usurpation of independentu authority.- -An or Chandra Gupta, King of Pataliputra, who reigned on t e establishment of couriers was at the same time instituted, for ex- Ganges, near Allahabad. In B.c. 279 Seleucus was succeeded by pediting orders through every part of the empire. A regular and Antiochus Soter, who again, in 261, was succeeded by Antioc us 1

Rawlinson’s Herodotus, vol. i., p. 408, note.

The absurdity of these numbers needs no comment.

PERSIA. 435 Theus. In the eleventh year of his reign, or, according to Thomas,1 by Odenathus, prince of Palmyra; and his country was afterwards Persia, in 255, the Parthians revolted under Arsaces, who founded the invaded by Aurelian, the warlike Emperor of Rome. Hurmuzd his i third Persian dynasty, the Arsacidae or Ashkanians,—Ashk being son, the Hormisdas of Greek authors, reigned only one year, and the name given to Arsaces by the Persians. Arsaces, enraged at was succeeded by Bahram or Varanes I. in 271, who evinced his an affront offered to Tiridates his brother, put the governor of zeal for the ancient religion of Persia by the execution of Mani, founder of the sect of Manicheans. He reigned three years and Parthia, Agathocles, to death, and declared himself independent. The following, as given by Thomas, vol. ii., p. 299, is the list of three months, and was succeeded by Bahram or Varanes II., the Ashkanian kings, of whose authentic history little is known :— a weak prince. He engaged in a war with the Emperor Carus, who conquered Mesopotamia, carried his arms across the Tigris, and made himself master of Ctesiphon. Bahram or Varanes III. I Artabanus III I 1. Ashk, or Arsaces 1 255 ) Tiridates III .1 ^ reigned only three months. His brother Narsi (the Narses of 2. Tiridates I., or Ashk II. ...253 the Greeks) reigned nine years, and abdicated in favour of his son 3. Artabanusl., or Shahpur...216 ' (Artabanus III J 4. Phraapatius 196 Hurmuzd or Hormisdas II. He subdued Armenia, and signally 42 defeated the Emperor Galerius on the same fatal field on which 5. Phrahates 1 181 20. Bardanes 6. Mithradates 1 173 21. Gotarzes,or Bahram Gudarz 45 Crassus had been slain. The Romans invaded Persia next year, 50 and defeated Narses, who fled, leaving his tents and family in pos7. Phrahates II 136 22. Meherdates 51 8. Artabanus II 126 23. Vonones II 51 session of the conquerors. An inglorious peace followed, by which 9. Mithradates II 123 24. Vologeses I., or Volas 10. Mnaskires 80 25. Artabanus IV., or Hormuz 62 Mesopotamia and five districts to the eastward of the Tigris were 77 ceded to the Romans. No events of any consequence occurred 11. Sinatroces 77 26. Pacorus or Firuz 108 during the succeeding reign of Hurmuzd II. He was succeeded 12. Phrahates III 70 27. Chosroes or Khusrau 115 in 308 by Shahpur or Sapor II., who was crowned king from his 13. Mithradates III 60 28. Parthamaspates 116 birth, and during a reign of seventy-one years maintained the in14. OrodesI 54 29. Chosroes restored 121 tegrity of his kingdom. His first operations were directed against 15. Phrahates IY 37 30. Vologeses II., or Volas 31. Vologeses III., or Volasin 148 A.D. 192 the Arab tribes, on whom he took a severe vengeance for having 16. Phrahataces 4 32. Vologeses IV 1 r)nq invaded his territories. He was involved in bloody wars with the 17. Orodes II. 5 „o ( Vologeses V Romans, in the course of which he experienced serious reverses. 18. Yonones 1 5 ‘ I ArtabanusV.,or Arduan ) Constantine advanced into Persia with a formidable army, and was 34. Artaxerxes, King of Persia, first of the Sassanidae 235 The alternative appellations are those given by the Persian his- joined by the Arab forces. A dreadful conflict took place, in torians, who, it will be seen, omit the majority of these princes which the Persian army was routed with great slaughter; and the altogether. They are also silent as to the wars between this king himself narrowly escaped, with a few followers, from the fatal dynasty and the Romans. We learn, however, from the historians field. But having recruited his army, he again took the field; of the West that Pacorus, the 26th king, sent an embassy to Sylla and in a night attack he recovered some of the advantages which in A.D. 90 ; and that in a.D. 53, Crassus, having passed the Euphra- he had lost. .He was also successful in repelling the invasion of tes a second time to carry on a war he had commenced against the Julian, who was killed by an arrow; and his successor Jovian was Parthians, was defeated and slain, with 20,000 of his men, and fain to purchase a peace by the loss of all the provinces east of the 10,000 were made prisoners. Next year Cassius, his quaestor, who Tigris, which had been ceded in the former reign. He was suchad carried off the remains of the army, repelled from Syria an ceeded by Ardishir or Artaxerxes II., who was deposed by Shahpur, invading Parthian army; and in 51, on their returning and be- the son of the late monarch, after a reign of four years. He sieging Antioch, he defeated them again with great slaughter. In reigned only five years, when he was killed by the fall of a tent, the years 41 and 40, however, they returned and conquered all which was blown down by one of those whirlwinds which sometimes Syria, and took Jerusalem, slew Phasael, made Hyrcanus prisoner, occur in Persia. Bahram or Varanes IV., who succeeded, reigned and settled Antigonus on the throne of Judea. In 39 Ventidius eleven years, and was at length killed in 399 by an arrow, in endefeated the Parthians in a great battle, and drove them out of deavouring to quell a tumult in his army. The throne of Persia Syria; and in 36, Antony having invaded Parthia, was repulsed was next filled by Yezdijird, the Greek Isdegerde. He is very with the loss of the larger portion of his army. In 20 B.c. the differently represented by the Persians and Greeks ; by the former Parthian king sent an embassy to Augustus to seek his friendship, as cruel and abandoned to luxury, and by the latter as wise and and restored the standards taken from Crassus and Antony, and all virtuous. He was killed by a kick of his horse, after a reign of twenty years. Bahram Gur, or Varanes V., succeeded, and became the surviving prisoners. In 165 a.d. the generals of the Emperor Marcus took Seleucia, celebrated for his munificence and generosity. His dominions were which had become the Parthian capital, and put 300,000 of the in- invaded, and partly overrun, by the Tatars, who, being flushed with habitants to death. They at the same time pillaged and destroyed their conquest, gave themselves over to a false security, and were Ctesiphon; but this latter city, in 198, had become so populous one night surprised and defeated with great slaughter by Bahr&m. and strong, that it maintained an obstinate defence against the The only fruit which he sought from this victory was peace with Emperor Severus, and, when stormed, supplied him with 100,000 all his neighbours, after which he returned to his capital. He was captives. Even after this, Ctesiphon recovered, and became the engaged in wars with the Romans under Theodosius, in which neiwinter residence of the Parthian monarchs. About the year 217, ther party bad any cause to boast. His ruling passion was the purthe Emperor Macrinus purchased a disgraceful peace for Parthia chase, and he was fond of hunting the wild ass;. and it was in nea by the payment of a sum equivalent to three millions of our money. suit of one of these animals that he lost his life in a deep pool ^ This is all that is known of a period which is justly declared by Ausepas, about three marches from Shiraz, on the road to Isfahan. According to the Shdhndmah, however, and other authorities, he D’Herbelot to be the most obscure in Persian history. The Sassanian dynasty of kings forms a new era in the history died a natural death. He was succeeded in 440 by his son 1 ezdijird II., who followed his father’s footsteps, and during his reign of Persia. These monarchs were engaged in long and bloody wars with the Roman emperors; and hence we are enabled to correct of eighteen years was only once engaged in war with the Romans. the imperfect records of the East by the authentic narrative of the The succession to the throne was now disputed-between Hurmuzd Roman historians. The first of these, Artaxerxes, or Ardishxr, as or Hormisdas III., the younger son of Vezdijird, who was appointed he is called by the Persian historians, began his reign A.D. 226, heir by his father, and Firuz or Perose the Elder, who, being supand, having pacified the province of Ears, made himself master of ported by an army of Tatars, to whose king he fled for support, and ’Irak. Having defeated and slain Aravan or Artabanus, who ruled by the chief nobles, succeeded in wresting the sceptre from his over the mountainous country about Hamadan and Karmansbah, brother’s hand, and in putting him to death, after reigning a year. he was hailed in the field with the title of Shahanshah, or “ King of He lost his life in an expedition which he undertook against the Kings,”—a name which has ever since been assumed by the sovereigns Tatar prince, by whom he had been treated with so much generosity. of Persia. In the course of his reign he extended and consolidated Balias or Palash, the son of Firuz, now ascended the throne (485), his newly-acquired dominions, and waged, with various success, a and was succeeded by Kubad or Cavades, who, though he was dewar with the Roman emperor Alexander. He laboured to restore throned by his discontented subjects, re-conquered his lost dignity. the religion of Zoroaster, and the authority of the Magi, which he He carried on a successful war with Anastasius the Roman emperor, enforced by the most sanguinary decrees. He was succeeded by and died, after a long and troublous reign, in 531. His son and successor Khusrau Nushirvan, or Chosroes, is celehis son Shahpur or Sapor, a.d. 238, who carried on a successful war against the Romans, whose emperor, Valerian, in an attempt brated by the Persian historians as a model of justice, generosity, to relieve Edessa, was defeated and taken prisoner. Shahpur and sound policy. He is said to have been the fruit of a casual gained many victories over the Roman armies; but7 towards the amour of Kubad, who, flying from his brother Firuz, then estalatter part of his reign he suffered reverses. His army was attacked blished on the throne, halted for a night with a beautiful girl at 1

Indian Antiquities, vol. ii., p. 299.

Binning, vol. ii., p. 357.

PERSIA. 436 hoarded treasures. His subjects, headed by his own son, at last Persia, Persia. Naishapur. Four years afterwards, on his return to that city, his his against him, and put him to death, after a reign of thirtyfair mistress presented him with a boy, who was one day to reign rebelled years. Persia, after the death of this prince until the accesso gloriously on the Persian throne. His first care after his acces- eight of Yezdijird III. in 632, was a scene of confusion and misery, sion to the sovereignty was to extirpate the pernicious sect of Maz- sion the combined evils of famine, the contentions of the nobles, a dak, encouraged by his father, one of whose leading tenets was a from of weak sovereigns, or rather, as Sir J. Malcolm terms community of property and of women. The founder of the sect succession pageants of power, and from the threatened attack of the and many of his followers were put to death; and the women and them, tribes, who, under the standard of the Muhammadan faith, property which they had appropriated were restored to those to Arabian now become very formidable to all surrounding states. In their whom they belonged. He was indefatigable in promoting the pro- had attacks on the Persians, the Muslim armies were repulsed, and sperity of his dominions, in building and repairing bridges, in re- first leader Abu Obaid was slain. The Arabs, reinforced, were storing and re-peopling decayed towns and villages, in founding their again defeated by Mehran the Persian general. But in another schools and colleges, and in giving every degree of encouragement action Persians were defeated, and their general slain. Yezto learned men, and even to the Greek philosophers who resorted dijird, the who was now elevated to the throne, was the last hope of to his court. His empire was divided into four great governments, the sinking state. An ambassador was sent to him from the Arabian —namely, 1st, Khurasan, Sistan, and Karman ; The lands deproffering peace on condition that he should accept of their pendent on the cities of Isfahan and Kum, the provinces of Gilan, tribes, and pay the taxes which all believers are bound to pay. Azarbijan, and Armenia ; 3ct, The provinces of Pars and Ahwaz; religion, terms were rejected with disdain. Great armies were now and 4t/j, ’Irak, which extended to the frontier of the Roman em- These assembled both sides; they met on the plains of Nahavand, a.d. pire. A well-digested system of provincial government was in- 641 whereon the gained a remarkable victory that for troduced into those provinces, and every check adopted that could ever decided theMuhammadans fate of Persia. The Persians brought 150,000 men prevent the abuse of power. He imposed a fixed and moderate 1 the field, of whom 30,000 perished on the field, and many land-tax all over his dominions, and a capitation-tax on the Jews into were drowned in a deep trench which surrounded the camp. and Christians ; and the strictest regulations were adopted for pre- more from this date, fell under the dominion of the Arabian serving the discipline of his army. The reign of Nushirvan was Persia, khalifs. the last monarch of the Sassanian line, fled from illustrated as well by his conquests abroad as by his wise policy at the field Yezdijird, of battle to Sistan, to Khurasan, and lastly to Marv, from home. He compelled Justinian to conclude a disgraceful peace at which being also forced fly, he concealed himself in a mill eight the price of 30,000 pieces of gold ; and the reduction of Syria, the miles distant. But theto miller, by his rich robes and capture of Antioch, and the advance of the Persian armies to the armour, murdered him whilst he tempted and thus ended, a.d. 6ol, shores of the Mediterranean, attest his triumphant reign. Though the dynasty of the Sassanides, and slept, the Magian religion, which had he was checked in his career of conquest towards the west, yet his existed in Persia for 1200 years. sway was finally extended over the countries beyond the Oxus, After the flight of Yezdijird, the armies of Persia, scattered and some provinces of India, and the finest districts of Arabia. He discouraged, were able to oppose only a feeble resistance to the reached the advanced age of more than eighty years. children of the desert, skilfully commanded, and, besides, inHurmuzd or Hormisdas IV., the son of Nushirvan, ascended the hardy by a fanatic enthusiasm : and in a short time, accordingly, throne in 579. His administration was wise and prosperous for a flamed overran and laid waste the whole country with a bigoted time, whilst he acted under the advice of his preceptor; but on the they that had no parallel, sparing neither sex nor age, and subdeath of the latter, he fell into every excess, and, after a short and fury verting in one common ruin the laws, manners, and most sacred disastrous reign, was dethroned and put to death by one of his institutions of the country. Many were contented to purchase life generals, Bahram Chubin, who usurped the supreme authority. by embracing new faith; and others fled to the mountains and But Khusrau Parviz, or Chosroes II., the son of the late king, flying fastnesses of thethecountry, to a distant land. “ The progress of to the Roman emperor Maurice, his adopted father, was, by his the conquerors,” says Sir or John Malcolm, “ was rapid and wonderassistance, re-instated in the throne (591), and Bahram was forced ful ; colonies from the burning deserts of Arabia were extended to seek refuge amongst the Tatars, whose armies he had formerly over the cold countries of Khorassan and Balkh 2; and they flourished defeated, and amongst whom he died. The new monarch showed on the soil to which they were transplanted.” conquest of his gratitude to the Roman emperor by scrupulously fulfilling all the country being completed, it was divided intoThedifferent prothe engagements he had contracted with him. He surrendered vinces, over which lieutenants were appointed; and it was thus Dara and several other strong places on the frontier, and, besides, held for more than two centuries under the dominion of the khalifs. sent him costly presents. But no sooner did he hear of the death Towards the year 868 A.D. the dominion of the khalifs began to totter of Maurice, than he invaded the Roman territories with a large to its fall. In that year an adventurer expelled the governor of army; pillaged and destroyed Dara, Mardin, Edessa, and Amida; the khalifs from Persia. He was Yakub-bin-Lais (or Suffar, whence laid waste Syria ; took the holy city of Jerusalem; and set on fire this dynasty was called the Suffarides), the son of a pewterer of the the magnificent churches of St Helena and Constantine.. The true name of Lais, in Sistan. He worked, when young, at his father s cross, which had been inclosed in a golden.case, and buried deep in trade; but he was prodigal of his money; and, tempted by his the earth, was discovered, and borne in triumph to Persia; and a necessities, he became the leader of a desperate band, which gracrowd of captive priests and bishops swelled the train of the con- dually increased with the success of his enterprises.^ He soon atqueror. Egypt was added to his other conquests; his troops en- tained power and consideration ; and his aid was solicited by Salahtered Alexandria in triumph; and, after carrying his victorious the ruler of Sistan, against his fellow-ruler of Khurasan. arms westward to Carthage and Tripoli, and finally extirpating the ibn-i-Nasir, was afterwards raised to be commander of Salah’s army ; and Greek colonies of Gyrene, he returned in triumph through the sands He made of his power was to seize on the chief who had of the Libyan desert. In the same campaign another army ad- the first useit he on him, and to send him to Baghdad, -a service for vanced from the Euphrates to the Thracian Bosphorus; and, after conferred he claimed and received the government of his native protaking Chalcedon, his victorious troops remained encamped for which as the servant and lieutenant of the Faithful. He afterwards twelve years in the vicinity of Constantinople. But, whilst his vince, important fortress of Hirat, reduced the province of Kargenerals and his armies were thus gaining laurels in the field, took the marched thence to Shiraz, and finally made himself master of Khusrau was indulging at home in the most unheard-of luxury. man, greater part of Persia. The khalif, secretly dreading his Every season a splendid palace was raised; and his thrones were the sent him a formal investiture of certain territories as gomade of the most exquisite materials, one being formed to repre- power, which he rejected with disdain. In A.D. 873 the Khalif sent the twelve signs of the zodiac and the hours of the day. His vernor, declared Yakub a rebel, upon which that ambitious chief treasures; his wives, amounting to 12,000, besides the incomparable Muhammad against Baghdad, but was obliged to retire with the loss Shirin, or Irene the daughter of Maurice ; his horses, amounting marched the greater part of his army. In 877 he marched again to the to 50,000; his Arabian charger of surpassing fleetness; and Ins of but was overtaken by disease, and died, leaving almost the musician Barbud,—furnish inexhaustible topics for the pen ot the attack, kingdom of Persia to his brother ’Amru, who reigned twentyhistorian, and for the hyperbolical praises ot his countiymen. u whole years, but was defeated and taken prisoner by Isma 11-binhis reign, hitherto glorious, was, towards its termination, closed three a Tatar chief with whom he was at war, and, being sent with misfortunes. Herodius, the Roman emperor, alike remar - Ahmad, Baghdad, was there executed. With Amru fell the fortunes of able for luxury and indulgence in the palace, and for valour an to family; and though two more princes maintained a precarious military skill in the field, was roused to a sense of the public danger his the empire of Persia was divided between two families, by the victories of Khusrau, and with a powerful army suddenly authority, and Dilami. The power of the first extended over Khurainvaded Persia. In the course of six years he succeeded in strip- Samani ping the Persian king of all his foreign conquests ; he defeated his san, Sistan, Balkh, Transoxiana, including the cities of Bukhara armies in every encounter ; marched without opposition into the and Samarkand. The Dilami princes exercised sovereign power heart of his country ; destroyed his splendid palaces, and plundered over the greater part of ’Irak, Fars, Karman, Khuzistan, and Laris1

Ouseley’s Trawls, vol. iii., p. 3,

2

History of Persia, vol. i., chap. viii.

PERSIA. 437 spot, as from a centre, his dominion extended in one direction be- Persia. Persia, tan. The following is the list of the Samanides and Dilamites. yond the Indus, and in another to the Jaxartes. Towards the latter V. j Their names are as follows:— end of his reign, he experienced the most signal reverses of fortune. Dilamites. Samanian or Samam Dynasty. A.D. Advancing into Tatary, he was completely defeated by the moof Kara Kathai, his family were made prisoners, and all his A.D. 1. ’Ali Buyah 933 narch baggage was plundered. He afterwards marched against the Tur1. Nasr-bin-Ahmad 874-5 2. Ruknu’d-daulah 949 2. Ism’ail-bin-Ahmad 892 3. ’Izzu’d-daulah, who, after a kaman tribe of Ghaz, who had refused their royal tribute, and in 3. Ahmad-bin-Ism’ail 907 a decisive action which ensued he was defeated and taken prisoner. short time is deposed by 4. Nasr-bin-Ahmad 914 Azadu’d-daulah, who conAfter being long detained and cruelly treated, he made his escape, 5. Nuh-bin-Nasr 943 structed the Band-amir, or and returned to his own country, where the spectacle of his wasted 6. A’bd-ul-Malik-bin-Nuh 954 famous dam near Persedominions, ravaged and destroyed by barbarous invaders, so preyed 7. Al-Mansur-bin-Nuh 961 polis 977 upon his spirits, that he died of melancholy in 1175, at the age of 8. Nuh-bin-Al-Mansur 976 4. Samaniu’d-daulah ..982 seventy-three. After his death, Persia continued during forty 9. Al-Mansur-bin-Nuh, depos5. Majidu’d-daulah, taken pried and blinded..., 997 years distracted by the wars between different branches of the Selsoner by Mahmud of Ghaz10. A’bd-ul-Malik-bin-Nuh 999 ni 1907 jukian dynasty. The last who exercised sovereign power was 11. Ism’ail-bin-Nuh, killed ....1005 6. Malik Togral III., who was slain by the monarch of Kharazm, as he went Rahim, made prisoner by Togral Bey Seljuki.....l055 into battle flushed with wine. 7. The last of the race dies in From the decline of this dynasty to the conquest of Persia by the service of Alp Aslan...1094 Hulaku Khan, son of the great conqueror Jangiz or Genghis, the was distracted by the contests of these rival chiefs, who Of the Samanian dynasty, Ism’ail was the most celebrated. His country known under the name of Atabaks. They were petty princes, grandfather was a Tatar chief named Saman, who claimed descent are who, taking advantage of the weakness and anarchy which prefrom Bahram Chubin, the Sassanian. He extended his conquests vailed, extended their authority over some of the finest provinces both eastward and westward, and died in 907, at the age of sixty. of the country. A detailed account of the progress and decay of In the reign of Amir Nuh, the fifth Samanian king, Alptagin, his these various dynasties would exceed our limits; nor would it conviceroy in Khurasan, purchased a Turkish slave named Sabuktigin, tain either amusement or instruction. But there is one chief who and, finding him to possess great qualities, gave him the highest requires to be noticed, who, by means of assassins devoted to his offices, and at last bequeathed to him all his estate. Sabuktigin purposes, caused the most powerful sovereigns to tremble, and was thereupon chosen to succeed to the viceroyalty of Khurasan; spread far and wide the terror of his mysterious His foland in A.D. 367 made war upon Hindustan with such success that lowers were reckoned at 50,000 ; they were calledpower. mysterious and Nuh recognised him as an independent prince, and, as such, called devoted; and each was bound, under the most dreadful sanctions, him to his succour against the King of Turkistan. Sabuktigin to sacrifice, at the command of their chief, either his own or died in a.d. 387, and left his son Mahmud to succeed him. This that of another. Hasan Sabah was the first of these chiefs.life He prince was the celebrated Mahmud of Ghazni, whose Indian wars had been mace-bearer of Alp-Arslan ; but being displeased with are so celebrated. He died in 1208; and his successor Masa’ud his minister Nizamu-’l-Mulk, he retired to Rhe, and afterwards to was defeated by tne Seljuk Turks ; and in the next reign the House Syria, where he entered into the service of a chief of the family of of Ghazni lost the whole of their Persian possessions. These Tatar Ism’ail, and adopted their views concerning the right of the detribes were numerous and powerful; they were a nation of. shepof Ism’ail to the holy dignity of Imam, instead of the herds, inured to fatigue, to long marches, and to every kind of scendants brother of Ism’ail. He afterwards returned to Rhe, his hardy exercise, and trained from their infancy to the use of arms. younger where, leaguing himself with other malcontents, he Their numbers and discipline enabled them to overpower the civi- native place, in gaining possession of the mountain fort of Allahalized inhabitants of more fertile countries. _ Accordingly, in the succeeded whence he commenced a series of depredations on the survear 1042, the Tatar tribes subdued Khurasan; and their sove- maut, country. Malik Shah Seljuki sent a force against him, reign, Togral Beg, chief of the tribe of Seljuk, assumed the state of rounding was repulsed. He was soon afterwards exposed to a more a sovereign at Naishapur. In the succeeding twenty years Togral which overran all Persia, made himself master of Baghdad, and took pri- serious attack from the Sultan Sanjar, who resolved to extirpate a whose murders and depredations spread terror oyer his kingsoner the sovereign pontiff, the commander of the Faithful. He race approached him, however, with every outward mark of reverence, dom. But he was warned to desist from his fatal project by secret and was constituted the temporal lieutenant of the eastern and threats of assassination. He had made some marches in the direcwestern divisions of the empire. This alliance was further cemented tion of Allahamaut, when one morning as he awoke he discovered poniard stuck in the ground close to his bed-side, and read with by a marriage with the daughter of the khalif. But Togral Beg, asurprise, written on the handle, u Sultan Sanjar, e\\are. a no who had by this time attained to his seventieth year, died a few months after the marriage. He was succeeded in 1068 by his thy character been respected, the hand that stuck this dagger in o nephew Alp-Arslan, the “ Valiant Lion,” who has been praised by the hard ground could with more ease have plunged it into thy so The warrior who had often faced death in the field of all historians for his justice, valour, and generosity. He successfully bosom.” defended his dominions against an invasion by the Romans, de- battle trembled at this mysterious threat; and ^ is certain that from his meditated attack. Hasan Sab4h brought seve feated their armies, and, having made their emperor prisoner, desisted generously set him at liberty for a fair ransom. He was killed by other hill-forts under his sway; and was styled Shaikhul-Jabal, of the Mountain,” or, as his Arabic title has been erroa rebellious chieftain whom he had ordered to be put to death, but “Chief translated, “ The Old Man of the Mountain, the name by who, having shaken off his guards, assailed him on the throne with neously he and his descendants are distinguished in the E^opean all the fury of despair. Alp-Arslan, an unerring archer, seized his which histories. Khallfs, princes, and nob!es fell ^der the blo^ s of bow, and commanded his guards to stand aloof: but for the first assassins ; and the power and dominions of Hasan Sabah were time his arrow missed its mark, and he fell under the assassin s these handed down through a series of sovereigns who ruled for I7U stroke. the terror and disgrace of Asia, and who, in 125?> we^eHfin.^ The celebrated Malik Shah, his son, succeeded to the throne in years, by the overwhelming and victorious armies of Hulaku 1072 ; and his reign rivalled, and even surpassed, in glory that of extirnated KhanP who rivalled his sire in the rapidity of his conquests. _ His his father. Syria and Egypt were subdued by his victorious gene- first design was to turn his arms against the declining empire o rals; Bukhara, Samarkand, and Kbarazm yielded to his sway ; and the Greeks he was diverted from this object by an astrologer,S he received homage and tribute from the tribes beyond the Jaxartes, who directed; but th se his hostility Baghdad, ^ latur ^J es and from the distant country of Kashgar. Including the territomuja niace wasagainst speedily stormed ®by the armies, ries of all those princes whom he had conquered, and obliged to do S m e put to the’ sword; the Kh.lif JIustasi™, him homage and to pay tribute, his dominion extended from the ... , • iv surviving son, was slain; and thus was for ever exMediterranean to the wall of China. The country was greatly im- tinguished the celebrated empire of the Arabian khallfs. The proved during his reign ; many colleges and mosques were built; conquest of Persia, Mesopotamia, and all Syria, was achieved by and agriculture was promoted by the construction of canals and milk a in the same year, who meditated other ambitious schemes water-courses. Learning was also encouraged ; and an assembly of of conquest in the Elst. But the defeat of his army m Syria by astronomers from every part of Malik Shah’s wide dominions were the prince of the Mamelukes in Egypt compelled him to abandon employed for several years in reforming the calendar ; and their design; and having restored his affairs in Syria, he fixed his labours, which established the Jalalean, or “ Glorious Era,” is a proof his at Maragha, a beautiful town of Azarbijan, where he of the attention which was given at this period to the noblest of all residence his declining years in the cultivation of letters and philosciences. For thirty years after the death of Malik Shah, Persia spent He built an observatory on the summit of a mountain, the was distracted by the wars of his four sons, who contended for the sophy of which still remains, “ and where,” says Sir John Malsupreme power; but Sanjar having at length triumphed over his foundation “his favourite, Nasiru-’d-Din, formed those astronomical competitors, was elevated to the throne. His reign was for a time colm successful and prosperous. He resided in Khurasan; and from this tables which have become so celebrated under the namte of the Tables

PERSIA. 438 Persia. of Il-Khanf,” and are still referred to for the latitude and longi- oxiana. Kalil Sultan was succeeded by Ulugh Beg, who also fol- Persia, tude of such places as are not fixed by European observations. He lowed the arts of peace, and neglected those of war. He was dewas succeeded by Abaka Khan in the year 1264, who was anxious, posed and put to death in the year 1449, by his son ’AbduT Latif, by cultivating the arts of peace, to repair the ravages of war, and who was slain by his own soldiers within the short period of six to heal the still bleeding wounds of his wasted empire. He was months. The Mughul dynasty in Persia was now fast verging to assailed from the E. by the powerful armies of the Tatar chiefs ; but decay, and its final extinction was preceded as usual by scenes of he succeeded in repelling all their attacks, and in maintaining the confusion and civil war. The kingdom was at length divided integrity of his empire. He died, it is supposed by poison, in the amongst three sovereigns,—viz., Sultan Husain Mfrza, a descendyear 1281. The Mughul lords having held a council, raised to the ant of Timur, who kept a splendid court at Hirat, and governed throne his brother Nikudar Oglan, seventh son of Hulaku, who, Khurasan; Kara Yusuf, the Turkaman chief of the Black Sheep though he was baptized in his youth, afterwards renounced (the tribes of the Black and White Sheep being so called from their the Christian faith, which he persecuted with all the violence carrying the figures of those animals on their respective standards), of a renegade, and assumed the name of Ahmad Khan. But ruled over Azarbljan, 'Irak, Ears, and Karman; and Azan Hasoun, his persecution of the Christians was so obnoxious to his own chief of the Turkamans of the White Sheep, who finally acquired subjects, that they conspired against him, and deprived him possession of all Western Persia, and attacked the Emperor Muboth of his crown and of his life. Arghun, son of Abaka, hummad II., from whom he sustained a severe defeat. After his whom he had thrown into prison, was raised to the throne by death the country was distracted by the contentions of his sons, the Mughul nobles, but did not assume the name until he received grandsons, and nephews, for the supreme authority; and their disthe investiture from the emperor of Tatary, by whom he was hailed sensions, whilst they accelerated their own ruin, prepared the way as sovereign of Persia, Arabia, and Syria. His reign was marked for a native dynasty, which was gladly hailed by the people as the by no event of any consequence ; and on his death, which occurred auspicious omen of domestic peace. Shah Ism’all was the first monarch of the Safavean line. He in 1291, his brother Kai Khatu was raised to the throne by the majority of the amirs. The latter was indolent, sensual, and ex- traced his descent from Musa Kazim, the seventh imam. The first travagant; and his short and inglorious reign would hardly merit of the family who attained to any celebrity was Shaikh Saflu- 1notice, were it not for an attempt by an officer of the revenue de- Dln, who resided in the town of Ardebll, and from whom the partment, of known talent, to introduce a paper-currency, in order dynasty takes its name of Safavean. His son Sadru-’d-Dln inheto supply the means of royal extravagance. But credit, the foun- rited all the sanctity of his sire. The great conqueror Timur even dation of paper-currency, cannot exist under a despotism which condescended to visit him in his cell, that he might receive his affords no security either for life or for property. The scheme was blessing; and on his asking whether he, Timur, could do aught for therefore altogether vain, and appears to have been the device of a his comfort, “ Give up,” replied the saint, “ those Turks whom tyrant for cheating or plundering his defenceless subjects. From thou hast carried off as captives.” The disinterested request was this period until the conquest of the country by Timur Lang or Ta- granted, the saint was dismissed with presents, and the descendants merlane (“ Timur the Lame”), the history of Persia presents one of these captives ever afterwards acknowledged their gratitude by continued scene of intestine commotion. Timur was descended their ardent support of the Safavean dynasty. The immediate defrom Korachar Nevian, who had been vazir to Chaghtai the son of scendants of Sadru-’d-Dln, Khwajah ’All, Junaid, and Haidar, acJangiz, and also claimed kindred with that great conqueror. He quired also a great reputation for sanctity. The first, after making was counsellor and general to the Tatar prince, Ouleaus Khajah, the pilgrimage to Makka, visited Jerusalem, where he died. His who ruled over the territories between the Oxus and the Jaxartes. grandson Junaid assumed the sacred mantle or patched garment But having soon thrown off his allegiance to this prince, he led a worn by the Sufi teachers, after his father’s death; and so nuwandering life, with only a few faithful followers, enduring great merous were his disciples, that Kara Koinlu, who at that time ruled hardships and peril. He had formed a close alliance with Amir in Azarbljan, took the alarm, and banished him from Ardebll. lie Husain, one of the most powerful nobles of Transoxiana. Their returned to Shlrwan, where he was killed by an arrow in a conflict joint object was, to expel the enemies of their country; and Ouleaus, with the troops of that province. He was married to a sister of though he had conquered in the field, having been forced to retire Azan Hasoun, chief of the Turkamans of the White Sheep ; and this with disgrace from the siege of Samarkand, the countries between lady was the mother of Sultan Haidar, who succeeded him, and bethe Jaxartes and the Oxus were freed from the foreign enemy. A came a warrior as well as a saint. His uncle Azan Hasoun gave war for the possession of Transoxiana now ensued between Timur him his daughter in marriage, by whom he had three sons, Sultan and Husain, and was only interrupted by a short and hollow peace, ’All, Ibrahim Mlrza, and Sultan Shah Ism’all. Haidar was dewhich terminated in the overthrow of Husain, who was taken pri- feated and slain in an attack which he made on the province of soner, and, as is generally believed, put to death, with the secret Shlrwan in order to revenge his father’s death. Sultan ’All sucsanction or by the orders of his rival. Eleven years elapsed before ceeded ; but he and his brothers were seized at Ardebll, by \akub, Timur had fully reduced to tranquillity his newly-acquired domi- one of the descendants of their grandfather Azan Hasoun, who had nions, and had extended his power over Kashgar and Kharazm; become jealous of their influence, and confined in a fort, where after which his whole reign was one unvaried course of the most they remained prisoners for four years. They afterwards made triumphant success. He subdued Khurasan, Kandahar, and Kabul, their escape, and were soon joined by numerous adherents. But and laid the two latter cities under heavy contributions. He in- in the meantime they were attacked, Sultan ’All was slain, and vaded Persia, which, being now ruled by the degenerate descend- his brothers fled in disgrace to Gllan, where Ibrahim Mlrza died. ants of Hulaku, was entirely barren and wasted. He extended the These events occurred during the infancy of Ism’all, the third son limits of his empire to the farthest bounds of Tatary; and whilst of Haidar, of whom we know little till he attained the age of fourone body of his troops spread dismay to the wall of China, another teen, when he collected his adherents, and marched against the army penetrated to the banks of the Irtisch, and a third to the great enemy of his family, the ruler of Shlrwan, whom he defeated. Volga. Timur next marched against Baghdad, which he stormed, Alwand-Beg, a prince of the dynasty of the White Sheep, hastenand also took the remarkably strong fortress of Takrit; after ing with his troops to crush the young warrior, shared the same which his vast armies were dispersed over Asia Minor, Mesopota- fate; and the triumphant prince having made himself master of mia, Kurdistan, and Georgia. He afterwards invaded Russia, and, the province of Azarbljan, fixed his residence at Tabriz. Next advancing to Moskow, took and plundered that city. Returning to year he vanquished Sultan Murad, one of the military competitors his own country, he prepared for the invasion of India. His war for supreme dominion in Persia; and in less than four years from with Baiazld or Bajazet, and his defeat and capture of that warlike his leaving Gllan he was acknowledged the sovereign of Persia. Shah Ism’all, not being born the chief of a tribe, had no heredichief, were amongst the latest exploits of his active reign ; and. he had embarked on the arduous enterprise of the conquest of China, tary feuds to avenge; his family were objects of hostility to no when he was arrested by an enemy which he could not conquer, one ; and he united in his person the reverence and affection of all lie was seized with a violent illness at the city of Otrar, where he his subjects. He was a firm adherent of the Shl’ahs. The Turkish expired in 1405, declaring Pir Muhammad Jahangir his successor. tribes to whom he owed his elevation were highly honoured. They The latter, however, had a competitor for the crown in Khalil Sul- were distinguished by a red cap, from which they received the tan, his cousin, by whom he was deposed and murdered ; and, in his name of Kazilbash, or “ red heads,” which has descended to their turn, Khalil, infatuated by his attachment to the beautiful Shadu posterity. Persia, Khurasan, Baghdad, and Balkh, submitted to his l Mulk, on whom he squandered the vast treasures of Timur, was de- arms. His territories were afterwards invaded by Sultan Salim posed by the nobles. He was attached to the arts of peace, a phi- about the year 1514, with a numerous and well-disciplined army. losopher, a man of science, and a poet; and his whole care was to In the action which took place, the Persian monarch, after perheal the wounds inflicted on his country by the wars of the former forming prodigies of valour, was entirely defeated, which affected i eign. He rebuilt Hirat and Marv, and drew around him from all him so deeply that he was never afterwards seen to smile. After quarters men of literature and science. Sultan Shah Rukh, uncle the death of Salim he crossed the Araxes, wrested Georgia from the v f Khalil Sultan, hearing of the misfortunes of his nephew, marched possession of Turkey, and died at Ardebll in the year 1523. He from Khurasan, and his authority was acknowledged over all Trans- was succeeded by his son Tamasp, who ascended the throne when

439 PERSIA. Vaiz, defeated his army, and laid siege to Kandahar. The insur- Persia. Persia. he was only ten years of age. His reign, which continued fifty- gent chief having assembled another army, compelled the Persian V three years, proved prosperous. He repelled the invasions of t e general to raise the siege of that place, and afterwards defeated TJzbaks on the east, and of the Turks on the west. It was from him him in a decisive action, in which he was slain. In the midst of that Humayun, emperor of India, when he fled from his rebellious his successes Mir Vaiz died, and was succeeded by his brother Mir subjects, received the aid which enabled him to regain his throne. Abdullah, who was assassinated by Mahmud, son of Mir Vaiz. The It was to him also that Elizabeth sent her envoy, Anthony Jenkin- troubles which now afflicted Persia on every side gave ample son. But the intolerance of the Muhammadan monarch could not leisure to Mahmud to mature his plans, and to consolidate his brook the presence of a Christian. His family was^numerous ; and power. The Uzbaks were ravaging Khurasan ; the tribes of Kurafter several years of disputed succession, and of brief and trouble distan were almost at the gates of Isfahan ; the Abdali Afghans reigns, ’Abbas, his grandson, was proclaimed king in 1582, when a had taken Hirat, and afterwards Mashhad ; the islands in the Perminor. During the earlier years of this monarch s reign, t le sian Gulf had been subdued by the Arabian governor of Maskat; country was alternately alarmed by internal disturbance an and the rude tribes of Georgia had attacked Shirwan. A predicforeign aggression, each party in their turn using the name of the tion by an astrologer, of the total destruction of the capital by an sovereign. But as he advanced to manhood he vindicated Ins earthquake, completed the public dismay, when intelligence was rights ; and in the course of three years he reigned the undisputed received that Mahmud Ghilzy had entered the country at the head sovereign of the country. His reign, which lasted forty-three of 25,000 Afghans. He was met by the royal army of 50,000 years, was highly successful and glorious. He was engaged in troops ; and an action took place, which ended entirely in favour wars with the Turks and with the Uzbaks, whose armies he de- of the Afghans. The consequence was, the siege or blockade of feated in several actions ; and it was during his time that an ami- Isfahan, which, after enduring all the miseries of famine, surrencable intercourse commenced between Persia and Europe. on the 21st of October 1722, after a siege of seven months. Sir Anthony Shirley, a gentleman of family, was persuaded by dered The following day the fallen monarch of Persia, Husain, took a the Earl of Essex to repair to the court of Persia; and, with solemn leave of his subjects, and signed a capitulation, by which twenty-six followers, gallantly mounted and richly attired, he pre- he resigned to Mahmud. Husain, with his nobles, after sented himself to the king, who received him with every mark of doing homagethetocrown Afghan sovereign, was confined for seven years distinction. The military skill of these foreigners enabled him to in a small palace,the when his enemies, threatened with a reverse of discipline his army and to improve his artillery, so that with an fortune, caused him to be assassinated; and in his person may be army of 60,000 warriors he obtained a decisive victory over 100,000 said to have terminated the Safavean dynasty, as his son, Tamasp, Turks. In this battle, which was fought on the 24th of August though he assumed the title of king, never possessed any real power, 1605, Sir Anthony Shirley was thrice wounded. This victory and only struggled a few years against his inevitable tate.. gave a decided check to the Turks, who were driven from AzarMahmud having thus succeeded in acquiring the sovereignty Oi bijan, Georgia, Kurdistan, Baghdad, Mosul, and Diarbekir, all of Persia, now endeavoured to conciliate the people whom he had which were re-annexed to the Persian empire. This monarch also subdued. But the Persians hated the Afghan yoke ; and, as they entered into an alliance with the English for the destruction of the recovered from first dismay, they began to attack and cut ott flourishing Portuguese settlement of Hurmaz, which unhappily scattered partiestheir of the invaders. At the same time Persia was inproved but too successful; and this place, long renowned as the vaded both by Russian Turkish armies. The Russian army seat of wealth and a great commercial emporium, was plundered advanced into the countryand and took possession of Darband, ande the in and left to decay. _ r ^ army was already on its march to Hamadan, w en ’Abbas expended his revenues in the improvement of his do- Turkish habitants of Kazvin rose in insurrection, and expelled the Afgha minions, and erecting caravanserais, bridges, aqueducts, bazars, garrison from the place. Mahmud was now seriously alarmed. mosques, and colleges; he embellished Isfahan, his capital, built The probable revolt of the capital seemed to be the jn°st 1"(imed.1^ splendid palaces, the ruins of which still attest his taste and mag- danger; and his gloomy mind, alarmed and enraged by 4these si^ nificence. He was also distinguished by his toleration, especially of vengeance, conceived the horrible design of exterminating the to Christians; and he was liberal in his foreign policy. To his conquered people. He commenced with the ma®sacre °^r ® lv p family he proved a sanguinary tyrant. He had four sons, whom hundred nobles and their children, who were trencherously he caressed, whilst in infancy, with parental fondness, but who, as to a feast. He afterwards put to death three thousan o invited they arrived at manhood, were viewed with jealousy and hatred. king’s guards, whom he had taken into his P^T > an . The oldest son was assassinated, and the eyes of his other children every pfrson who had been in the service of bhah Husain ^as ^ were put out, by his orders. One of these, Khudabandah, had a eluded in one bloody proscription, and put to death without daughter, Fatimah, innocent and lovely, and the delight of her grandfather, who could not endure that she should be out of his “After this, Mahmud, being aided by the Kurdish tf^s, ^eeded sight. The prince, learning the fondness of his father for this his in making himself master of some of the pr>nclPal " * tingchild, seized her one day with all the fury of a maniac, and de- and Farsf But his affairs appeared to beon the dedme , hi hm king^ prived her of life. The rage and despair into which ’Abbas was dom was threatened from various points, and thrown by the death of his grand-daughter gave a momentary joy last unequal ^ the d^uWes with ^ch be w« ^ P• g to the son, who concluded this bloody tragedy by swallowing poison. ’Abbas died soon afterwards, in 1628, at the age of seventy, worn out with affliction of mind. __ fasting and enduring the sev®ref ’ j ,. reaSon and fell into fana el By the desire of the expiring prince, Sam Mirza, one of the sons nights, influence of this gloomy ^”> situaof Safi, who had been murdered, was placed on the throne, which the most furious paroxysms of madness. In thisdi melancholy ted bim to be he occupied fourteen years. His son ’Abbas II. succeeded him at tion his mother, out of compMs.o^to h.m, duec^^ ^ ^ the age of ten, and reigned prosperously twenty-five years, though smothered. But this event d ^ blood haci suffered an g his habits were licentious and intemperate. He was succeeded by orders, thirty-nine princes of^thOd^ofo^®^"! of Mlr Ab. d y his eldest son ’Abbas in the year 1641, who, under the title of untimely death. He was f Ashraf’s reign fi t iod 0 Shah Sulaiman, reigned twenty-nine years. He was, like his du’llah.andnephewof Mir Vaiz. inen i^ ^ the Turki8h father, the slave of dissolute habits ; and his drunken orgies were was successful. He gal|ie ^P^.^ . and he concluded the war often stained with blood. He was succeeded by Husain Mirza, a armies, who were compeUd ^ a’knowledge his title to the weak prince, who was ruled by eunuchs and priests, and whose by compelling the^Turki^ ^ ter by more another quar measures tended to destroy the little spirit which yet lingered throne. But ne was no Husain, and the repreamongst the nobles and chiefs. The first twenty years of his reign serious dangers. Tamasp, e was in Mazandarun, where he passed over in tranquillity, but it was only the prelude to a politi- sentative of the Sala. p 'Nodir Kuli a well-known cal storm. The Afghan tribes who inhabit the mountainous tract „as Me resolutiorf to “el every Afghan between Khurasan and the Indus had long been subject to Persia, and having often suffered great oppression, at length broke out r^mTeloU of Persia. Tamasp, from the day of his father s abinto rebellion, irritated by the tyranny of Gurjin Khan. The in- dicatiotg he ^ssumed^-oyiil state, and^ntor that he was supported surgents were headed by Mir Vaiz, an Afghan chief. They invited the obnoxious governor Gurjin Khan to a feast, where he ^"f authority of a sovewas suddenly attacked and put to death ; and Mir Vaiz, collecting f ^ N ulir beine invested with the sole command, soon suchis followers, surprised and stormed the fortress of Kandahar. He ceeded in reducing Mashhad and Hirat, and at length all Khurasan, then proceeded to strengthen himself in his newly-usurped power. the authority of Tamasp. Ashraf now prepared for the deWhilst the weak monarch endeavoured by negotiation to pacify Zceofhis soveSgn authority; and having raised an army, he this formidable insurgent, Mir Vaiz imprisoned his ambassabor, advanced into Khurasan against his enemy, whose followers, he and set his power at defiance ; and a second ambassador met with knew were daily increasing. The Afghans were defeated in a no better treatment. The court of Persia now assembled an army series’of sanguinary actions, and pursued, first to Tehran, and final } under the command of Khusrau Khan, who advanced against Mir

PERSIA. struck was he with remorse after the deed had been done, that Persia, Persia. to the gates of Isfahan. It was at first proclaimed in the city that so the Afghans had obtained the victory; but the loud wailings of the he vented his fury upon all around him ; and fifty noblemen were y, women from the citadel soon disclosed the result of the battle. The put to death by his orders, because they had not come forward to night was passed in preparations for flight. The old men, women, sacrifice their lives for the young prince, the hope of his country. and children, were mounted on mules and camels, and having “ It is not my eyes,” says the prince, “ that you have put out, but packed up all the treasure and spoil which they could carry away, those of Persia.” The mind of Nadir was deeply affected; he bethey took the route to Shiraz by break of day ; the tyraut Ashraf came gloomy and ferocious; all his future actions were deeds of having in the meantime cruelly murdered Shah Husain, who was horror; and he exceeded in barbarity all that has ever been restill detained a prisoner, and the pressure of circumstances only corded of the most bloody tyrants. The country languished under preventing a general massacre, which was fully intended. Nadir his extortions ; and when he at last raised the people to insurreclost no time in pursuing the discouraged and flying Afghans. They tion, his fury knew no bounds, and he not only murdered indiwere overtaken at Persepolis, and immediately fled towards Shiraz, viduals, but gave up whole cities to the destroying sword. Several where, though they were still 20,000 strong, they were deserted by of the principal officers of his court, learning that their names were their leader, who fled homewards with only two hundred followers. in a proscribed list, resolved to anticipate the vengeance of the The army was dispersed in wandering bands, which were closely tyrant. The execution of the plot was committed to four chiefs pursued and cut down by their exasperated foes ; and Ashraf him- who were employed about the palace, and who, on the pretext of self, whilst wandering in Sistan, was recognised and slain by Ab- business, rushed past the guards in the inner tents, and found the dullah Khan, a soldier of Biluchistan, who sent his head, with a tyrant asleep. He was awakened by the noise, and had slain two large diamond which he found on his person, to Shah Tamasp. The of the conspirators, when he was deprived of life by a blow from Afghan invasion was one of the most cruel calamities which ever Salah Beg, the captain of the guards. The sudden death of Nadir Shah involved the country in the befel the Persians. Within the short period of seven years they had massacred nearly a million of the inhabitants, laid waste the greatest distraction. He was succeeded by his nephew ’Ali, who finest provinces of the country, and levelled the proudest edifices took the name of Adil Shah. But his reign was short and inglorious. He was taken prisoner by his brother Ibrahim Khan, and with the dust. Nadir Kuli, afterwards known as Nadir Shah, was born in the put to death at Mashhad, as his captor himself also was, being slain province of Khurasan, on the 11th of November 1688. His father by the officer who guarded him. Shah Rukh, the grandson of was in a low condition, earning a livelihood by making coats and Nadir, succeeded ; but the throne was ere long usurped by Mlrza caps of sheep-skins. He was taken prisoner by the Uzbaks at the Saiyld Muhammad, by whom Shah Rukh was taken prisoner and age of seventeen, but made his escape from them after a captivity deprived of sight. The usurper being defeated and taken prisoner of four years. lie was for a considerable period the chief of a by Yusuf ’All, the principal general of Shah Rukh’s army, was band of robbers ; and being a plunderer of known valour and immediately put to death. The blind Shah Rukh was again raised resolution, had collected 3000 followers, by whose aid he laid under to the throne; but the measures of his general, Yusuf’All were contribution the extensive province of Khurasan. His friendship opposed by two chiefs, the respective heads of a Kurdish and an was now courted by his uncle, who was the chief of Kelat. Nadir Arabian tribe, and, by their joint efforts, the faithful general of pretended to listen to his overtures, but treacherously slew him Shah Rukh was defeated and slain, and he himself again sent from with his own hands, and proceeded to employ the power which he a throne to a prison. The two chiefs, however, soon quarrelled; had thus acquired against the Afghans, the enemies of his country. and Mir "Alam, the Arabian, triumphed, but only to fall before the And so well did he succeed in this popular and patriotic enterprise, rising power of the Afghans under Ahmad Khan 'Abdali. This that the Afghans were entirely expelled from the country ; whilst, leader might at the time have easily accomplished the reduction of for his services, he received from his sovereign, Tamasp, the pro- Persia. But judging more wisely, he assembled the principal vinces of Khurasan, Mazandarun, Sistan, and Karman. He then chiefs, and proposed to them that the province which gave birth to proceeded to attack the Turks, who still occupied the western pro- Nadir should be given as a principality to his grandson. To this vinces of ’Irak and Azarbijan, and having defeated them in various all the chiefs agreed, and Shah Rukh was again established in the actions, took possession of Tabriz, Ardebil, and all the principal undisturbed possession of Khurasan. At this period Persia was in cities. He returned to quell an alarming insurrection of the Afghans, a complete state of distraction, from the contentions of rival chiefs. who were unable to withstand his victorious armies; and in the Muhammad Husain Khan, chief of the tribe of Kajars, had estabmeantime the imbecile Tamasp commenced a war with the Turks, lished himself at Astarabad, and had brought under his authority which ended in a disgraceful peace. He had for some time been the whole province of Mazandarun. The province of Azarbijan a mere pageant in the hands of Nadir ; and this unfortunate war, was under the rule of Azad Khan, an Afghan leader, who had been with other complaints against him, furnished a plausible pretence one of the generals of Nadir Shah. Gllan was independent, under for his dethronement, which took place on the 16th of August 1732. one of its own chiefs, Hidayat Khan. At this time ’All Mar dan He retired to Khurasan, where he was afterwards put to death by Khan, a chief of the tribe Bakhtiyarl, took possession of Isfahan, lliza Kuli, the son of Nadir, with the knowledge, if not by the and, resolving to elevate a prince of the house of Safi to the throne, secret orders, of the father. His son, an infant eight months old, he invited the nobles to join his standard. The principal of those was seated on the throne ; but Nadir was now in substance, as he chiefs was Karim Khan, of the tribe of Zand, a man distinguished was soon to be in form, the real sovereign. In 1736 the death of by his sagacity and courage, and between whom and ’All Mardan this infant removed the only obstacle to his ambition; and in a Khan a rivalship for power soon took place. Karim Khan, dreadvast assembly of his nobles and troops, he was, after much pre- ing the enmity of ’All Mardan, took the field against him. But tended reluctance, prevailed on to accept of the crown. This high his assassination soon afterwards left Karim undisputed master of dignity served only to give a fresh stimulus to his active and the south of Persia. He was joined by most of the tribes from that enterprising habits. In the course of a new war with the Turks, country, and being at war with Azad Khan, he was entirely deafter having regained the provinces which had been wrested from feated by him in a general action, and so discouraged by the unprothe imbecileTamafep, and concluded a peace, he turned his arms east- mising state of his affairs that he meditated a retreat into India. ward. Kandahar and Balkh were besieged and taken by his son But he was dissuaded from so unworthy a course by the remonRiza Kuli, who passed the Oxus, and defeated the ruler of Buk- strances of his general Rustam Sultan, the chief of Khisht, who hara and the Uzbaks. Afghanistan was afterwards subdued ; and attacked the enemy in a narrow pass, and obtaining a complete Nadir finally completed his military glory by the conquest of Delhi. victory, re-established the power of Karim Khan, who again occuA single battle was sufficient to disperse the Mughul host; and pied the city of Shiraz, where he employed his utmost efforts to Nadir, with his triumphant legions, entered the capital, which recruit his army. Azad Khan, throwing himself on the clemency made no resistance. Its treasures were plundered; and its inha- of his conqueror, was received into his service, and became one of bitants, who rose on the Persian soldiery, were, in revenge, given his most attached followers. The most powerful enemy of Karim over to an indiscriminate massacre, in which neither age nor sex Khan was Muhammad Husain Khan, the chief of the Kajars, who was spared. Nadir returned in triumph, loaded with the spoils of ruled in Mazandarun. He advanced against Shiraz with a powerone of the richest capitals of the East. He continued to prosecute ful force; but the city being bravely defended, he was compelled his conquests on every side, and restored the ancient glory of the to raise the siege, and to retreat to Isfahan. He afterwards enPersian empire, when it extended from the chain of the Caucasus gaged Karim in a general action, in which, being deserted by part of his troops, he was defeated and slain. The whole province of eastward to the Indus. But the glory of foreign conquest was tarnished by domestic Mazandarun then submitted to the conqueror, and this was foltyranny. In an expedition against the Lesghis, a mountain tribe lowed by the submission of Gllan and the greater part of Azarbijan. upon the western frontier, Nadir was wounded by an assassin, who Khurasan was the only province which he did not subdue ; and his fired on him from a wood. His suspicion fell on his son Riza forbearance is ascribed to compassion for the blind Shah Rukh, Kuli, or had been instilled into his mind by artful intriguers. who still retained this remnant of his extensive dominions. Karim Khan was distinguished by a love of justice and a moUnder this impression he commanded his son into his presence, and immediately caused him to be deprived of his eyesight, Bat deration not usual amongst eastern princes, He died in the year

440

PERSIA. 441 upon the throne of Persia, his first care was to restore order throughPersia. in the ei htieth ear of his a e after a rei n of Persia.’ j l779 g y S> twenty-six out his dominions, and to repel foreign aggression. Having tran- k years.> His administration was generally justS and beneficent. quillized the southern and central provinces, he invaded Armenia ^ He encouraged agriculture and commerce, which.greatly revived Karabag, and, marching straight to Teflis, he defeatedHeraclius, during the latter years of his reign ; and he protected by his jus- and of Georgia ; and having taken the city, he sacked it, and made tice Christians as well as Muhammadans. He never refused mercy prince dreadful slaughter of the inhabitants, carrying into slavery 20,000 to a fallen foe, though he sometimes punished severely, that he awomen and children. He then turned his arms eastward, subdued might strike terror into his enemies. The humane dispositionconof Khurasan, repressed the incursions of the pillaging Turkathis prince prompted him to acts of mercy; and the generous ' mans in theandvicinity of Astarabad, as well as of the Uzbaks in fidence with which he treated those whom he forgave never failed Bukharia. But however rigorous his administration, and however to attach them to his person. active in the field, all his exploits were stained with cruelties. His After the death of Karim Khan, the succession to the crown was, avarice was unbounded ; and at no atrocity to gratify as usual, disputed, and in the course of these contests his four sons it. He had long thirsted afterhethescrupled jewels of which Nadir Shah had either perished under the daggers 'of assassins, or were sacrificed despoiled India, and these he wrested without remorse from their in the intrigues of ambitious chiefs contending for the crown. unfortunate possessors. From the aged blind Shah Rukh he Zaki Khan, the moment his father died, assumed the reins of go- extorted, by the severest tortures, several and of those which were the vernment; whilst Sadak Khan at the same time evacuated Basrah, most precious, particularly a ruby which had belonged to Aurangand advanced towards Shiraz. But he was unable to contend against zlb, and which was of extraordinary size and value. This preZaki, and was soon forced to retire. In the meantime, Agha cious jewel was retained to the last, until boiling had been Muhammad Khan Kajar, who had been detained prisoner at Shiraz, poured upon the head of the unhappy prince, when,lead in his intolerand who was duly apprised by his sister, an inmate of the royal able agony, he declared where it was hidden. He was afterwards harem, of the progress of Karim Khan's illness, and at last of his conveyed to Damghan in Khurasan, were he died in a few days, in death,’contrived to escape to Mazandarun, where he proclaimed the sixty-third year of his age, in consequence of the tortures to himself a competitor for the throne. The cruelties of Zaki, who had which he had been subjected. treacherously murdered a number of his rebellious nobles, alter Agha Muhammad Khan succeeded in tranquillizing the country, pledging his faith for their safety, soon provoked revenge, and he partly policy, and still more by terror. He often spared his himself was put to death at Yezdikhast. Abu 1 Fath Khan was enemies,byand them, not however from any feelings of proclaimed king of Persia the moment Zaki Khan was put to death. humanity, butconciliated a sense of his own interest; for his disposition Sadak Khan hastened from Karman to Shiraz when he heard was stern, cruel,from and vindictive, and his reign presents a series of of the assassination of Zaki and proclaimed himself king, arscarcely equalled in the bloody annals of the East. resting the person of Abu 1 Fath Khan, and causing his eyres to be atrocities ’AH Khan, a chief of the Afshar tribe, had opposed Agha put out. He was besieged in his capital by his nephew ’All Murad Muhammad in the field. He was decoyed into his power by the Khan, his most formidable enemy, and, being obliged to surrender, deepest treachery, being arrested amidst fawning and caresses, he was put to death, with most of his sons. ’All Murad was, in his his eyes were put and out. The brave and generous Jafar Kuli, his turn, put down by another rival; and J afar Khan, nephew of Karim, brother, was in like manner seduced, by the kindest assurand Agha Muhammad, were at length the only rivals left to con- own to visit the court of Tehran, where, after being welcomed tend for the crown. The former having disgusted one of his chief ances, supporters, Haji ’All Kull, he engaged in a conspiracy against him ; with every appearance of cordiality, he was cruelly assassinated. act stamps upon Agha Muhammad the character of a reand having put poison in his victuals, he and others rushed into This morseless tyrant. In truth, a temper naturally cruel had been his chamber when he was writhing under its effects, and put a pe- still more soured by cruelties he had himself undergone in his riod to his existence. He was succeeded by Lutf ’All Khan, who was one of the most remarkable characters recorded in the Persian ^ Agha Muhammad being apprised of the invasion of Persia by Rusannals. His appearance was greatly in his favour : his fine coun- sia, sent his army to defend the frontier; but the death of the tenance full of animated expression; his form tall and graceful, Empress Catharine relieved Persia from the serious danger with and, though slender, active and strong. He was at Karman when he heard of his father’s murder, which took place in the year 1789; which it was threatened. Agha Muhammad then determined to towards Georgia; and having received a friendly deputation and though Saiyid Murad Khan was at first proclaimed king by the move conspirators, yet, by the aid of Haji Ibrahim, appointed by his from the inhabitants of Shishah, he proceeded with some light and took possession of this important fortress, fhree days father the first magistrate of the province of Fars, he was soon en- troops, a dispute having occurred between a Georgian slave, a abled to assert his claim to the crown. He was bold in counsel and afterwards, fearless in action, and maintained a long and well-sustained strug- personal attendant on the monarch, and another servant, respecting gle for the sovereignty, in the course of which he performed prodi- some money that was missing, the king, enraged at the noise which gies of valour. But he wanted prudence and temper, and had no they made, directed that they should both be put to death. Sa solicited their parcontrol over his passions. Unbending in his pride, and harsh and Khln Shekakl, a nobleman of the highestth rank, n, ht f rl d a y unconciliating in his manners, he employed terror as the chief don, which was refused; but as it was ® S °. ^ a n d ’*Hh a prayer their lives were spared till1 next morning, and, with a source of his influence. His great error was in quarrelling with to the de^ot P*™ '**5 them *o perform its wealth. The principal towns are,—Perth and Culross, which are royal who was his superior both in educationtoan m burghs; Crieff, Callander, Kincardine, Doune, Comrie, Dunblane, ledge of books, and set steadily to work make their ^ Auchterarder, Dunkeld, and Blairgowrie. The villages are nume- the medium of the literary intercourse o , j rous, and many of them populous and thriving. The greater part Europe. The blockade of Hamburg by the french of Coupar-Angus is included in the county of Perth. Mills for spinning flax, bleachfields, and calico-printfields, are 1803 brought trying times to these enterprising men, w numerous; and there are some large establishments for spinning a lone series of yea's of trouble and anxiety hardly brought cotton-yarn at Stanley, near Perth, and at Deanston. Oil-mills are to a 'close. The French having regained possession also to be found in various places. The tanning of leather is car- Hamburg after their expulsion by the Russians in 1813, ried on to a considerable extent at Crieff and at Thornhill. V ool devastated the town, plundered Perthes’ ^op^an c ose is likewise an article of considerable sale. From the more fertile it nn as seauestrated. As one of the ten who were reruseu districts large quantities of grain are annually brought to market. nardon for their staunch resistance of foreign oppression, Bark and timber, principally larch and oak, also form commercial Perthes was forced to fly. His wife, who, with her childarticles of no small importance. The produce of its fisheries has i i iBnnfl a refuse at Wandsbeck, was, despite exalready been noticed as being among the list of exports. The population of the county of Perth amounted in 1831 to ^"privSn, de^ylnkfu. “that your [Perthes’] 142,166, being an increase since 1821 of 3919. In 1841 it was name stands among the ten enemies of the tyrant. By 137,457 ; and in 1851, 138,660. In the last-mentioned year_ Perth- the exertions of Besser, business was ™8““ed d shire contained in all 196 places of worship, with 84,583 sittings. 1814 Having lost his wife in 1821, Perthes remo e Of the former, 59 belonged to the Established Church, 60 to the Free Church, 35 to the United Presbyterians, 10 to the Episcopa- from Hamburg, and, settling at Gotha, commenced an ex ■ lians, 8 to the Baptists, 7 to the Independents, 5 to the Roman Ca- tens!ve business as a publisher, chiefly of works m theology i • Ejctorv. He brought out the,works of ISeander, tholics, 3 to the Original Secession, 2 each to the Relief Church and Wesleyans, and 1 each to several smaller sects. The number of Ullman, Tholuck, and Bunsen in theology, and of Niebuhr day schools was 307 (221 public and 86 private), with 21,143 scholars. There were also 230 Sabbath schools, with 16,294 scholars; and other eminent writers in history, rsiebuhr had the regard for Perthes, always spoke admiringly of hi, 19 evening schools, with 464 scholars; and 10 literary and scien- Greatest t • orA esteemed Pstppmed his his judgment iudement of power,” and of books books as as tific institutions, with 693 members. The county sends a member “ glorious to Parliament, as does also Perth, the principal city. Culross, superior to that of most men in Germany. Perthes marQueensferry, Dunfermline, Inverkeithing, and Stirling, unite in ried a second time in 1825 ; ultimately resigned his business returning a third. .PER

460 PER Pertinax to his son Justus, who continues to carry it on ; and having I! retired to the neighbourhood of Gotha, this good man died I>erU ’ j on the 18th of May 1843. A highly instructive and entertaining Life of Perthes was published by his son Clemens Theodor, professor of law in the university of Bonn, in 3 vols. 8vo, 1848-55. This work has been translated into English, with some condensation, and published under the title of Memoirs of Frederick Perthes ; or, Literary, Religious, and Political Life in Germany from 1789 to 1843, 2 vols. 8vo, Edinburgh, 1856. There is also an abridgment of this work, entitled Ljife and Times of Frederick Perthes, 1 vol. 8vo, Edinburgh, 1858. In addition to these memoirs of his father, C. T. Perthes has written Der Deutsche Slaatsleben vor der Revolution, 1845 ; and Einverleibuny Rrakaus, und die Schlussacte des Wiener Congresses, 1846. PERTINAX, Helvius, a Roman emperor, was the son of an humble wood-merchant and charcoal-burner, and was born in 126 a.d., according to some in Liguria, but

PER according to others at Villa Martis, among the Apennines. Pertuis The prudence and integrity of his character raised him [| rapidly from his native obscurity. From being a teacher .J'’61’11, of grammar, he passed gradually through many important offices, both civil and military, twice holding the consulship, and governing in succession most ot the provinces in the empire. At length, on the last day of the year 192, he was chosen to succeed the murdered Commodus. His death took place by assassination eighty-six days afterwards, in the sixty-seventh year of his age, after a reign of two months and twenty-seven days. (See Roman History. PERTUIS, a town of France, in the department of Vaucluse, on the Lese, not far from its confluence with the Durance, 18 miles S.S.E. of Apt, and 41 E.S.E. of Avignon. It is surrounded with ramparts; and contains a fine church and a college. Woollen yarn, earthenware, and brandy are made here ; and there are also dye-works, brick and tile kilns, &c. Some trade is carried on in grain, wine, brandy, and oil. Pop. 4776.

PERU. Peru, a republic of South America, lies between 3. 35. and 21. 48. S. Lat., and 68. 10. and 81. 30. W. Long. It is bounded on the N. by the republic ol Ecuador, W.^ by the Pacific Ocean, and E. and S. by the territories of Brazil and Bolivia. Its extreme length from N. to S. is about 1250 miles, and its breadth varies from 60 to about 750 miles, the width increasing gradually from S. to N. The coast-line stretches along the Pacific from the mouth of the Rio Tumbez on the N. to that of the Rio Loa on the S. The area may be roughly estimated at about 500,000 square miles. The present state comprehends only a small portion of that vast empire over which the Incas exercised their sw7ay at the time of the Spanish invasion. The ancient empire of Peru extended over nearly forty degrees of latitude, from the second degree of north to about the thirty-seventh of south latitude. Its breadth, however, must have been altogether disproportioned to its length; but the exact limits cannot now be determined. It extended eastward from the shores of the Pacific, in many parts considerably beyond the mountains, to the confines of barbarous states whose position cannot now be ascertained. Of the various traditions respecting the early inhabitants Early inhabitan ts. of Peru, the one best known is that which ascribes the introduction of civilization to Manco Capac, the fiist of the Incas, who is said to have flourished in the early part of the twelfth century. At the time of his advent the people were among the most barbarous of the American savages, roaming over the country without any fixed place of abode, at constant war with each other, and feasting on the flesh of their slaughtered captives. The sun, however, the great luminary and parent of mankind, taking compassion on their degraded condition, sent his son Manco Capac with Mama Oello Huaco, at once his sister and his spouse, to reclaim and civilize them. He taught them to till and irrigate the soil, to construct residences, and to worship the sun ; and farther, instructed them in the moralities of life, and framed wise and benevolent laws for their guidance. The empire, which at first comprised only a small territory around the city of Cuzco, gradually extended its authority over the surrounding tribes, until it became the first in size and importance of the South American States, occupying here a position equally prominent with that of Mexico in North America. Another legend, probably not less generally received among the Peruvians, but one which is less known among other nations, speaks of certain white and bearded men who, advancing from the shores of Lake Titicaca, established an

ascendancy over the natives, and imparted to them the blessings of civilization. None of these legends, however, throw any light upon the early history of the people. The date usually assigned to these events, 400 years before the conquest, is manifestly too early, as none of the accounts assign to the Inca dynasty more than thirteen princes, a number much too small to extend over such a period. There is also reason to believe that there existed in the^ country a race advanced in civilization before the time of the Incas, and the extensive architectural remains still existing on the shores of Lake Titicaca, evidently of a date anterior to the pretended advent of the Incas, would indicate that as their original seat. Who this race were, and whence they came, is a tempting theme for speculation, but lies far beyond the domain of history. It is only as we approach the time of the Spanish conquest that we begin to emerge from the impenetrable mists that overhang the early annals of the country. In the middle of the fifteenth century the famous Topa Inca Yupanqui, grandfather ot the monarch who occupied the throne at the coming of the Spaniards, led his armies across the terrible desert of Atacama, and penetrating to the southern region of Chile, fixed the peimanent boundary of his dominions at the River Maule. His son Huayna Capac, possessed ot ambition and military talent fully equal to his father’s, marched along the Cordillera towards the north, and pushing his conquests across the equator, added the powerful kingdom ot Quito to bis possessions. Were the accounts given by the earlier writers of the state Ancient the country and of its inhabitants at the period of the conquest Peru, not borne out by existing remains, and corroborated by what we know of such nations as the Chinese and Japanese of the present day, they would be quite incredible. The surface of the country was naturally very unfavourable for the purposes of agriculture. A sandy tract, seldom or never refreshed by rain, and watered only by a few scanty streams, extended along the coast, beyond which was the steep and rocky range of the Cordillera. But notwithstanding this unpropitious nature of the country, by means of a judicious system of artificial irrigation, an abundant supply of provisions was raised for a numerous population. Canals and subterraneous aqueducts were constructed in all directions, and terraces were raised upon the steep side of the Cordillera, where the productions of temperate and northern, as well as of tropical countries, were reared. Traces of these water-conduits are still to be seen in all parts of Peru. They were formed of large slabs ot freestone nicely fitted together, and were sometimes several hundred miles in length, carried through rivers and marshes, and not unfrequently tunnelled through the solid rock. The earth to the terraces had frequently to be brought from a considerable distance; and not uncommonly was the arid soil of the valleys and plains

PERU. 461 removed in order to reach a .ower stratum more suitable for culti- curiously wrought, of the same costly materials; and even much of Peru. vation. They further made large use of the different kinds of ma- the domestic furniture, including the utensils devoted to the most ^ nures, with the properties of which they were well acquainted. ordinary menial services, displayed the like wanton magnifiGuano especially, that valuable manure which has attracted so cence !” (Prescott.) The magnificent Temple of the Sun at Cuzco much notice of late years, was largely employed by them. Still covered a great extent of ground Tin the centre of the city, and was more remarkable as monuments of labour and ingenuity were the surrounded by a wall. Such v as its splendour, that a Spaniard great roads which traversed the kingdom in various directions, the who saw it in its glory asserts that there were only two edifices in remains of which are still in sufficient preservation to attest their his own country that could, in point of workmanship, be compared former magnificence. The most remarkable of these were the two with it. Every part of the interior was richly ornamented with which extended from Quito to Cuzco, and again diverging from the gold. On the western wall, and so situated that the rays of the capital, were continued in a southern direction towards Chile. sun struck directly upon it at his rising, was a figure of their god, “ One of these roads passed over the grand plateau, and the other engraved on a massive plate of gold of enormous dimensions, thickly along the lowlands on the borders of the ocean. The former was much studded with emeralds and precious stones. All the ornaments of the the more difficult achievement, from the character of the country. temple, and every kind of utensil appropriated to the uses of reIt was conducted over pathless sierras covered with snow; galleries ligion, were of gold or silver. Adjoining the principal structure were cut for leagues through the living rock ; rivers were crossed were several chapels of smaller dimensions, one of which was conby means of bridges that swung suspended in the air ; precipices secrated to the moon,—the deity held next in reverence to the sun, were scaled by stairways hewn out of the native bed ; ravines of as the mother of the Incas. Besides the Temple of the Sun, there hideous depth were filled up with solid masonry; in short, all the are said to have been no fewer than four hundred inferior temples difficulties that beset a wild and mountainous region, and which and religious houses in the Holy City. Other temples and religious might appal the most courageous engineer of modern times, were houses were scattered over the provinces, some of them constructed encountered and successfully overcome. The length of the road, of on a scale of magnificence that almost rivalled that of the metrowhich scattered fragments only remain, is variously estimated polis. The Peruvians manifested great skill and ingenuity in the mafrom 1500 to 2000 miles; and stone pillars, in the manner of European mile-stones, were erected at stated intervals of somewhat more nufacture of ornaments of various kinds. Here, however, like than a league all along the route. Its breadth scarcely exceeded the Chinese and some other eastern nations of the present day, their 20 feet. It was built of heavy flags of freestone, and, in some parts works are characterized more by minuteness in imitation or deliat least, covered with a bituminous cement, which time has made cacy of finish than invention or beauty of design. Many specimens harder than the stone itself. In some places where the ravines had of elaborate workmanship have been dug out of the huacas, or been filled up with masonry, the mountain torrents, wearing on it sepulchral mounds. They comprise vases of gold and silver ; bracefor ages, have gradually eaten away through the base, and left the lets, collars, and other ornaments for the person ; utensils of every superincumbent mass—such is the cohesion of materials—still description ; and mirrors of hard, shining stones, highly polished. spanning the valley like an arch.” (Prescott.) “ The great road of Though iron exists in the country, they were unacquainted with its the Incas,” says Humboldt, a man not given to exaggeration, “ was use. Their tools were of stone, or more frequently of copper; but one of the greatest and most useful works ever executed by man.” they had also a composition of copper and a small quantity of tin, Their bridges were constructed of the tough fibres of the maguey, which had almost the hardness of steel. In their textile manufacor of the osier of the country, woven into cables of the thickness of tures they likewise manifested considerable skill. Their vast flocks a man’s body. Several of these enormous cables, bound together, and of sheep, and the cotton which grew luxuriantly on the coast, supattached at each end, formed the bridge, which was covered with plied them with abundant materials for clothing; and they also wood, and well secured by a railing on each side. As the length manufactured a species of cloth from the tough thread of the maguey of this bridge sometimes exceeded 200 feet, and as it was sup- tree. Some of their woollen manufactures were of such delicacy ported only at the extremities, it presented an alarming inclina- and beauty, that the Spanish sovereigns, with all the luxuries of tion towards the centre ; while the motion given to it by the tra- Europe and Asia at their command, did not disdain to use them. The government of Peru was a despotism, mild in its character, veller caused an oscillation still more frightful, as his eye wandered over the dark abyss of waters that foamed and tumbled but pure and unmitigated in its form. The sovereign was the many a fathom beneath. Yet these light and fragile fabrics were source of all power and all authority, and stood at an immeasurcrossed without fear by the Peruvians. In the level country the able distance from even the highest of his subjects, none of whom broad and tranquil rivers were passed in balzas or floats, to which could venture into his presence unless barefoot, and bearing a light sails were attached,—the only instance of their use among American burden upon his shoulders in token of homage. As descended Indians. All along these highways caravanserais, or tambos as from, and as representative on earth of the sun, his person and acts they were called, were erected at the distance of 10 or 12 miles were endowed with a sacredness that no merely secular position from each other, for the accommodation more particularly of the could confer upon them ; and hence any disobedience of his law was Inca and his suite. Some of these were very extensive, consisting looked upon as sacrilege. But, while vested with all this power, the of a fortress, barracks, and other military works, and were evi- sway of the Incas was not a tyrannical one. They sought rather to dently destined for the accommodation of the imperial armies when imitate their supposed progenitor the sun, and to promote the welmarching across the country. Posts were also established along fare and happiness of all their subjects. Though so immeasurably all the great routes, and stations were erected within short dis- above his subjects, there were occasions when he condescended o tances of each other, where runners were stationed to carry for- mingle with them. He presided at some of the religious festivals ward dispatches. Messages were thus carried through the country and at intervals of several years he travelled in great pomp and at the rate of 150 miles a day. At the time of the conquest of magnificence through the empire, inspecting and inquiring into the Peru no nation in Europe could boast of any work of public utility condition of the various classes of his subjects. Once a year, too, he repaired to a field in the vicinity of the capital, and there, in that could be compared with the great roads of the Incas. The industry and ingenuity of the Peruvians was also shown presence of his court, and a vast assemblage of the people, turned in the construction and ornamenting of their temples and Sp the earth with a golden plough. The nobility of Peru were of palaces. The ruins of these magnificent edifices, which are to be two orders —the Incas, or descendants by the male line fiom the found in many parts of the country, attest at once the great power founder of the monarchy ; and the Curacao the caciques of the conof the Incas, and the high degree of knowledge in the arts to which quered nations, and their descendants. The Incas were divided the people had attained ; whilst they also show that, during two hito different lineages, according to the member of the royal dycenturies at least, the nation must have subsisted in a state of con- nasty from whom they were descended; and as polygamy was siderable advancement. They were usually low, but covered a ?reely indulged in, this class of nobility came in time to be very vast extent of ground, and were constructed of blocks of stone, numerous They were distinguished by a peculiar dress and ensome of them of great size, but of no regular form ; and though no ToyTd many important and exclusive privileges. They filled every cement was used, they were adjusted to each other with such ex- high place of trust and emolument,-the government of provinces actness that it was impossible to introduce even the blade of a the command of armies,—and were alone admissible to the great knife between them. Some of these stones were full 38 feet long, offices of the priesthood. The Curacas were usually continued in places by the government, and were possessed of more or less by 18 broad, and 6 thick. They were hewn from their native bed their nower according to the extent of their territory and the number and fashioned into shape by a people ignorant of the use of iron ; of their vassals, subject, however, to the jurisdiction of the great they were frequently brought from great distances, across rivers and ravines, up to a great elevation on the sierra, and finally ad- nrovincial governors. They were required occasionally to visit the justed with the nicest accuracy, without the aid of beasts of burden capital and to allow their sons to be educated there as pledges of or machinery of any kind. The interior of the palaces was adorned their loyalty. The object of war with the Incas was to extend the with the finest and most costly materials. “ The sides of the apart- worship of the sun, and to confer upon the conquered nations the ments were thickly studded with gold and silver ornaments. Niches blessings of such a civilization as they themselves enjoyed; and prepared in the walls were filled with images of animals and plants, hence their contests were not carried on in a bloodthirsty or rapa-

462 Peru.

PERU. cious spirit, and the conquered nation was immediately on sub- Inca by birth, is correct in asserting that “ no human victim was Peru. mission admitted to the full enjoyment of all the privileges of ever offered in the Temple of the Sun,” or permitted in worship,—• v v though this is expressly contradicted by most of the Spanish the natural subjects of the Inca. The empire was divided into four great provinces, each under a writers. On the death of an Inca, however, a number of his viceroy or governor, who was assisted in his administration by one attendants and favourite concubines, amounting sometimes, it is or more councils for the different departments. These viceroys re- said, to a thousand, were immolated on his tomb. Marriage was sided for at least a portion of their time in the capital, where they a ceremony performed once a year by the Inca among his own constituted a sort of council of state to the Inca. The nation was kindred, and by the Curacas and governors in their various disfurther divided into bodies of 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000, and 10,000 tricts. The nobles, like their sovereigns, were allowed a plurality inhabitants, each of which was under the authority and supervision of wives; but the people generally, whether by law or necessity, limited to one. of a responsible officer. The laws were few and exceedingly severe. were In looking at the ancient Peruvians, one is in doubt whether There was no appeal from one court to another; but visitors patrolled the kingdom at certain times to examine into the conduct of the knowledge they display in some respects, or their ignorance in the judges and magistrates, to hear complaints, and to report any others, is the more remarkable. In looking at their government, we can scarcely conceive of anything more suitable for a people in neglect or violation of duty. The whole land of the empire was divided into three parts, one their condition. Though despotic in its nature, it was eminently for the sun, another for the Inca, and the last for the people. The patriarchal; every one, from the highest to the lowest, being made lands assigned to the sun furnished a revenue to support the temples to feel his dependence upon it in every act of his life. Poverty and maintain the costly ceremony of Peruvian worship and the and idleness, the two great causes of dissatisfaction in a people, multitudinous priesthood. Those reserved for the Inca went to were carefully guarded against. No one could be poor; neither support the royal state, and to supply the various exigencies of the could any one become rich} for, however industrious, he could not government. The remainder of the lands were divided, per capita, add one rood to his possessions, nor advance himself one hair’sin equal shares among the people. This division of the soil was re- breadth in the social scale. All might enjoy, and did enjoy, a newed every year, and the possessions of the people were increased competence ; and ambition and avarice found no place in the breast or diminished according to the number of their families. The whole of the Peruvian. No despotic system of government was ever territory, however, was cultivated by the people. The lands be- devised more suited for its object than was this one. It contrilonging to the sun had to be first attended to; then those of the buted not a little to the security of the empire, that under the widows, orphans, sick, &c. j then their own ] and lastly those of the sovereign there was an order of hereditary nobles of the same Inca. The immense flocks of sheep scattered over the various pro- divine origin with himself, and immeasurably above the rest of the vinces belonged exclusively to the sun and the Inca. They were people. They thus received implicit deference from the multitude, entrusted to the care of experienced shepherds, and regulations for while, from long training, they became ready and expert agents in their management prescribed with the greatest minuteness, and carrying out the measures of government. It is not a little rewith a sagacity that excited the admiration of the Spaniards, who markable that, while in government, in morals, and in some of the were familiar with the management of sheep in their own country. mechanical arts, they had made such advances, in all that more At the appointed season they were all sheared, and the wool de- properly belongs to intellectual culture they were extremely ignoposited in the public magazines, whence it was dealt out to each rant. They possessed no written language, but used as a substitute family according to its wants. Care was taken that each house- an instrument called a quipu. This was a cord about two feet hold should employ the materials furnished for its own use in the long, composed of different coloured threads tightly twisted tomanner that was intended, so that no one should be unprovided gether, from which a quantity of smaller threads were suspended with the necessary apparel. All the mines belonged to the Inca, in the manner of a fringe. The colour of the threads represented and were wrought exclusively for his behoof by persons familiar various objects, the number of which was indicated by knots. with this service. A small portion of the community was in- Such was the imperfect substitute for writing, and in this way the structed in the mechanical arts. The nature and amount of ser- annals of their country were handed down from generation to vice required of every individual was prescribed by law, and was generation. They had no species of money, and carried on no so regulated with regard to the welfare of the people, that even the commerce. Their knowledge of astronomy was very imperfect, more wearing and unwholesome of the labours were carried on which is the more remarkable, seeing that the celestial bodies were without any detriment to health. Work was provided for all, the chief of their deities. In this respect they were far behind and idleness was severely punished as a crime. The different em- the ancient Mexicans. (See farther on the civilisation of ancient ployments usually descended from father to son. A part of the agri- Peru, Prescott’s History of the Conquest of Peru, and the various cultural produce and manufactures were sent to the capital, but the works therein cited.) The first distinct information received by the Spaniards of the History, greater portion was stored in magazines scattered over the different provinces, where there was frequently a supply of grain that would existence of Peru was about the year 1511. Vasco Nunez de Balboa, then governor of the small colony of Santa Maria in Darien, last for several years ; and thus seasons of scarcity were provided for, and relief furnished to those whom sickness or misfortune had made frequent incursions into the neighbouring country; and on reduced to poverty. There were no poor in the land. An account one of these occasions a dispute having arisen amongst the Spawas kept of the births and deaths in the various districts throughout niards about the division of some gold, a young cacique who was the country, and exact returns of the actual population made to the present struck the scales with his fist, and scattered the precious government every year. At certain intervals, also, a general survey metal, exclaiming, “ If this is what you prize so much that you are willing to leave your distant homes, and risk even life itself for of the country was made as to its soil, fertility, products, &c. The Peruvians believed in the existence of one great bupreme it, I can tell you of a land where they eat and drink out of golden Being, the creator of the world, whom they called Pachacamac (from vessels, and gold is as cheap as iron is with you.” The eager cupicamac, creator, and pacha, world). No temple was raised to this dity of the Spaniards was roused by this information, and no time invisible being, save one only in the valley, which took its name was lost in preparing for the invasion of this land of gold. Balfrom the deity himself, not far from the Spanish city of Lima. boa, accompanied by a hundred and ninety of his countrymen, and Subordinate to Pachacamac, but endowed with intercessory power, about a thousand Indians, commenced his journey across the isthwas the sun the deity whose worship they specially inculcated, and mus, which, although not more than sixty miles in breadth, prewhose temple rose in every city and almost every village throughout sented so many obstacles that five-and-twenty days were spent before he he obtained obtained aa siffht sight of of the the Pacific Pacific Ocean. Ocean, Armed with the land It was be who presided over the destinies of man, gave before light andwarmth to the world,—the founder of their empire, and the sword and buckler, he rushed into its waters, and cried out that father of their royal dynasty. Besides the sun, the Incas acknow- “ he claimed this unknown sea, with all that it contained, for the of Castile, and that he would make good the claim against all ledged other objects of worship, as the moon his sister-wife, and the King stars ; while among their subjects, the earth, wind, rain, thunder, Christians or infidels who dared to gainsay it.” This spot he desigas well as mountains, rivers, &c., received divine honours. They nated the Gulf of St Michael, a name which it still bears; and here also admitted among their gods the numerous deit ies of theconquered he obtained more explicit information respecting the Peruvian nations. The sacerdotal order was very numerous. At the head of empire. But though he extended his discoveries some twenty all was the high priest, or Villac Vma, who was second only to the leagues farther south, he was not destined to accomplish his object; Inca in dignity, and was usually chosen from his brothers or near for, having returned for reinforcements, he was superseded in his kindred. He was appointed by the monarch, and held office for command by an ungrateful government, and although afterwards life ; and he in turn appointed to all the offices under him. The restored to high authority, he soon fell a victim to the jealousy of duties of the priest were confined to ministrations in the temple, the individual with whom he was associated in the government. It was some time after this before any farther attempts were and his science was limited to an acquaintance with the fasts and festivals of his religion, which were very numerous, and their rites made to discover Peru; but in 1519 the capital of the colony was very complex and elaborate. Their sacrifices consisted of animals, transferred from the shore of the Atlantic across the isthmus to grains, flowers, &c.; and we would fain believe that Garcilasso, an the ancient site of Panama, on the Pacific, some distance east of the

P E E U. 463 into port soon after with his vessel laden with a fresh supply of Peru. Peru. present city, as being more suitable for prosecuting discoveries in stores, and bringing with him a considerable number of volunteers, v * ) that region. In 1524 an expedition was fitted out, at the head of v l which was Francisco Pizarro, the natural son of a gentleman ot With renewed spirits they proceeded on their journey ; but by time the favourable season had passed, and they were long family, but himself totally uneducated, and doomed to spend the this about before they reached the Island of Gallo. Proceeding early part of his career as a swine-herd. He subsequently entered tossed southward, they found the country more and more populous, the army, and being of a daring spirit, and endowed with a robust still the evidences of civilization to increase; and when they frame of body, he was foremost in every danger, and able to endure and off the port of Tacamez they saw before them a town of the greatest fatigue. Such qualities soon brought him into notice ; anchored 2000 or more houses laid out into streets, and containing a numerand he was found to be possessed cf others of a higher order, ous population. Further reinforcements were again necessary; fitting him to command as well as to serve. Thus, while a favourite it was agreed that Almagro should return to Panama, Pizarro with the soldiery, his superiors saw in him a man eminently fitted and the rest remaining at Gallo. With Almagro, however, came for carrying out their more difficult and dangerous enterprises, and to Panama of the deplorable condition of the party; so that and the success that attended him on such occasions speedily raised news governor not only refused to countenance any further attempts, him to an eminent position. He was one of those that had accom- the despatched two vessels to bring home Pizarro and his companied Balboa on the previous expedition, and gained the esteem but While most of the latter gladly embraced the opportunity of that general; and he subsequently distinguished himself in the panions. getting away, Pizarro and thirteen others sternly refused to rewars in the north. Associated with him on the present occasion of These were accordingly left on the island, and they subsewere Diego de Almagro, a man of like mean birth with himself, turn. quently removed to the uninhabited island of Gorgona, about 25 but a gallant and brave soldier, and Hernando de Luque, an eccle- leagues farther north, and 5 leagues from the continent. The gosiastic, who acted as priest and schoolmaster at Panama. The last vernor filled with indignation when he heard of the obstinacy of of these was to contribute principally to the expenses of the ex- Pizarro and his and sternly refused to render any assistpedition, while the others were to give their labour and experience, ance to men thusfollowers, bent on their own destruction. At length, howwith what small funds they had. A vessel was speedily got ready, ever, he was so far overcome by the arguments and entreaties of and Pizarro set sail from the port of Panama about the middle of Almagro and De Luque that he consented to another vessel being November 1524, with little more than a hundred men, Almagro sent to Pizarro, but with more hands than were necessary to being to follow in a second vessel of inferior size, as soon as it work her, and with expressno orders to Pizarro to return within six could be fitted out. The season of the year was the most unsuitable months. Though disappointed that it brought no additional refor the enterprise, for the periodical winds which then set in were cruits, Pizarro yet gladly welcomed vessel, having been by directly adverse to the course which he proposed to steer. He this time seven months on the island.theInlittle days after leaving touched at several places on the coast, but found the country every- Gorgona, the adventurous vessel roundedtwenty the point of St Helena, where of the same uninviting character,—the low grounds covered and glided smoothly into the Gulf of Guayaquil, off the with swamps and marshes, and the high lands overgrown with im- island of Santa Clara, at the entrance of the Bay ofanchoring Here penetrable forests. In seventy days they had reached no farther they beheld a town of considerable size, with manyTumbez. buildings apsouth than Punta Quemada, and a fierce engagement with the parently of stone and plaster. The people collected along the natives here, in which they had two killed and many wounded, at and friendly relations were exchanged between them and length determined them to return for assistance. By this time shore, Spaniards. Here the latter had their golden dreams, if posfamine, disease, and encounters with the natives had reduced their the sible, more than realized ; but for the present they could only feast numbers by more than a fifth. Almagro had in the meantime their eyes on the riches before them. To attack the place with fitted out another vessel, and set sail from Panama with about his handful of followers Pizarro saw to be useless; and accordingly seventy men. He reached Pueblo Quemada in a much shorter time he took a friendly leave of the natives, promising soon to return. than Pizarro had done, and was received in the same hostile manner He continued his progress and everywhere received the by the natives, whom, however, he vanquished, burning their town, like friendly welcome fromsouthward; and gathered information of and forcing the inhabitants to take refuge in the forests.. This the wealth and magnitude ofthethenatives, empire of Peru. He proceeded to victory, however, cost him dear, for by a wound received in the about the ninth degree of south latitude; having by this time encounter he lost one of his eyes. He pursued his voyage, touch- seen enough to convince him of the value ofand he turned ing at several places on the coast, till he reached the mouth of the his prow northward, and sailed for Panama. hisIndiscovery, way he touched Rio de San Juan, about 4. N. Lat. He here met with a higher at Tumbez, where some of his followers were athis request left, state of civilization than he had yet seen,—neat cottages and culti- and two or three Peruvians were taken on board.their The excitement vated fields; but his mind was by this time filled with anxious caused by their arrival at Panama was very great; but still the coldthoughts regarding Pizarro, having seen no traces of him beyond Quemada, and he resolved to return. Touching at the Pearl ness of the governor held out to them but little hopes of e cient being obtained from that quarter, and it was resolved to apIslands, he learned that his colleague was at Chicama, a place on help to the crown itself. Pizarro was accordingly sent to the motherthe mainland at a short distance from Panama. Here the two ply adventurers met j and after recounting each other’s exploits and country, and reached Seville early in the summer of 1528. He was received by the emperor Charles V., and vv as inves e< escapes, they consulted regarding their future operations. It was graciously supreme civil and military authority over the coun ry o o at length resolved that Almagro should proceed to Panama to raise with for 200 leagues south of Santiago. Pizarro, on his part, the necessary supplies, while Pizarro was to remain in his present conquered, engaged to raise 250 men, with the requisite vessels and stores for quarters. The former, however, met with considerable difficulty the conquest of the country within six months. He could scarcely, in the execution of his mission, for the governor Pedrarias de- however, raise half this body of men, and had to steal PrlV!^ely °“j; clared against the expedition, and was only after a time gained the port of Seville, in order to avoid the scrutiny of the officers of over by the intercession of Hernando de Luque. The three col- of He was accompanied by four brothers three of whom leagues now entered into a contract, by which the whole of the con- government. were illegitimate like himself—Francisco Martin de Alcantara on quered territory and spoils were to be divided equally among them, the side, and Juan and Gonzal° Plza.rf; ^Wessel ment, perpetuus in Ep. Pauli ta , iqqq.’ A ‘ Hilliet Comg quantities for exportation, as well as for home use; and the mentaire sur VEpitre de VApotre Paul aux Phil., Geneva, 1841, »vo. marshy nature of a great part of the soil is not unfavourIn English the works of Pearce and Ferguson may be mentioned, able to its growth. The sugar-cane is grown to a large IL ,! tglUb translation of “'JAnSh “iSM »T0T and increasing extent, and the sugar is of an excellent quality; tobacco, coffee, hemp, cotton, mdigo,pepper, cloves, and cassia, as well as maize, wheat, yams, sweet potatoes, in “ Clark’s Foreign Theological Library. and various fruits, are cultivated. Among the animals, one PHILIPPICS is a name applied to the orations of De- of the most important is the buffalo, which is found m a P mosthenes against Philip, King of Mace on. orato r> wild state, and is domesticated and used for ploughing, pics are reckoned the masterpieces o ia g and as a beast of burden. A breed of small but hardy (See Demosthenes.) This name is likewise applied to the horses has been introduced by the Spaniards: they are fourteen orations of Cicero against Marc Antony. only used for riding. A small number of sheep, numerous PHILIPPINES, The (Span. JslasPilipinas), a group goats, pigs, ducks, and other tame fowls, are also reared of islands in the Pacific Ocean, belonging to the Indian The only rapacious animal is the crocodile, which is Archipelago. They lie between N. Lat. 5.32. and 19. 38., . found in most of the rivers and lakes. Fish are numeLong. 117. and 127., being bounded on the N. and E. by rous on the coasts; and pearl oysters are obtained! the Pacific, S. by the seas of Celebes and Sooloo, and W. large quantities. The forests and jungles are filled with by the China Sea. The form of the group is triangular , many species of wild birds,—such as eagles, herons, and the total number of the islands, large and sma , is, a creepers, and parrots; and the swallow which makes the the lowest estimate, 1200. Of these the largest an mos edible nests used by the Chinese, haunts these islands. important are the following:—Luzon (by far the largest o Monkeys, wild cats, and small foxes are among the qu the whole), Mindoro, Panay, Negros, Zebu, Bohol, Leyte,

P II I 513 duction of the island under the Spanish authority. TophilippoPhilippines rupeds of the Philippines. The natives of the islands belong to several tribes, differing considerably from eacj^ other. wards the conclusion of the sixteenth century a considerable p°lis The mountains are occupied by the Negritos, a diminutive trade was openly carried on with Japan; and many rich Philips. Papuan race, who are said to have originally possessed the cargoes were brought from that country to Manilla, which whole of the islands, but have been displaced and driven to had now become an emporium of the trade with China, ~ the mountains by the Malays from the adjacent countiies. Java, the coast of Coromandel, and Mexico. In 1590 the These latter are now the predominant population of the island of Sooloo was attacked by the Spaniards, but they Philippines. They consist chiefly of two classes^—the were repulsed with great slaughter by the natives; nor Tagals in Luzon, and the Bisayans in the other islands. could the Spanish maritime force make any impression on Each of these speak a different language; and there are the Sooloo pirates, who continued for nearly three centuries also several subordinate dialects. 1 hese people have for the the scourge of these seas. In 1762 Manilla was attacked most part acknowledged the supremacy ol the Spaniards, and by the British under Admiral Cornish and General Draper, adopted the Roman Catholic religion, while the inhabitants and the place was stormed on the 5th of October. A of the mountains preserve their independence. Besides capitulation was agreed upon next day, when, in order to these races, the islands contain a comparatively small num- redeem the city from general plunder, a ransom was agreed ber of Spaniards; of Mestizos, or half-castes, who are largely upon of one million sterling. Manilla was restored to the engaged in commerce ; and a considerable number of Spaniards at the peace of 1763, and has ever since remained Chinese, who have recently settled here. The manufac- in their possession. Besides Manilla and the larger estatures are not very numerous or important. "V arious textile blishments in Luzon, the Spaniards have many smaller settlefabrics, from the coarsest to the finest materials, are woven ments scattered over the islands to the southward ; but they by the w'omen ; straw hats and cordage are made ; and the were long unable to protect them against the attacks of the building of ships and coaches is carried on. 1 he manufac- pirates who infest these seas. In 1851, however, the ture of cigars and cheroots, for which the islands are famous, governor-general sent an expedition against the Sooloo is a government monopoly, and at Manilla employs a large islands with a view to putting a stop to these attacks. In number of hands. Commerce is extensively and actively this he proved successful, having destroyed the power of the carried on here, although neither encouraged by the Spanish Sultan of Sooloo, and formed a settlement in the principal government, nor promoted by Spanish enterprise. Indeed, island. PHILIPPOPOLIS (Turkish Filibe or Felibe), a town were it not for the cheapness and excellence of the produce, and the advantageous situation of these colonies, the of European Turkey, in the province of llumilia, on the Maprohibitions and restraints imposed by the mother country ritza, 86 miles W.N.W. of Adrianople. It stands in a would have quite checked the commercial development of beautiful and fertile region, producing wine and rice; and the Philippines. The principal articles exported are sugar, contains fine mosques, caravanserais, khans, and numerous tobacco, cigars, indigo, hemp, coffee, dyewoods, hides, and public baths. Leather, silk, and cotton fabrics are manugold dust; while cotton, woollen, and silk stuffs, agricultural factured here. Philippopolis is the chief place of trade for instruments, clocks, watches, jewellery, &c., are imported. the northern provinces of Turkey. The Maritza is navigable The trade is chiefly in the hands of British houses; and in up to this town. A few remains of antiquity are still to be 1856 the value of the imports from Great Britain amounted seen here ; and the old church is pointed out in which Paul to L. 1,575,000, and that of the exports to L.1,370,000. is said to have preached. 1 he ancient town was founded Next to Great Britain, the United States have the largest by Philip, the father of Alexander the Great; but it aftertrade with the Philippines; and there are commercial rela- wards fell into the hands of the Thracians, who retained it tions with France, Spain, Germany, Switzerland, China, the until the Roman conquest. It was almost destroyed by an Sandwich Islands, and Chile. I he entire amount of the earthquake in 1818, and again laid waste by a terrible trade export and import of the islands is estimated at conflagration in 1846. About half of the inhabitants aie L.5,700,000, of which L.3,000,000 belong to Great Britain Greeks. Pop. 30,000. PHILIPS, Ambrose, an English poet of some note in and its dependencies, and L. 1,000,000 to the United States. The supreme authority, civil and military, is in the hands his day, was descended from an old Leicestershire farm y, of a governor-general, appointed by the crown, who resides and was born about 1671. He was educated at St John s at Manilla, the capital. He is commander-in-chief of the College, Cambridge, where he took Ins master s degree in forces, and president of the supreme court of law, and is 1700, and where, four years before, he printed a copy of assisted by a ministry. The islands are divided into pro- English verses on the death of Queen Mary, in the collecvinces, each under a governor appointed by the crown ; and tion published by the university. Little is known of his these again \nto pueblos or townships, with mayors elected career till the year 1709, when six pastorals appeared from by the people. The revenue is made up by the monopoly his pen, published along with Pope s in lonsons Miscelof cigars, a poll tax on the people, and duties on exports lany. During the same year Philips wrote his poetical and imports. The dominions of the governor-general of the Letter from Copenhagen, addressed to the Duke of Loiset. Philippines include also the Bashee and Babuyan islands, to It appeared in the Taller, with a laudatory criticism from the north of Luzon, and the Ladrones, which lie a long dis- Richard Steele, and Pope spokeof it as the production of a “ who could write very nobly. Meanwhile Philips tance to the west. The entire population of the group is man contrived to support himself by translating the Persian estimated at 5,000,000. Tales from the French for Tonson, and by empitomizing These islands were discovered in 1521 by Magalhaens, who named them the Archipelago of St Lazarus. In Hacket’s Life of Archbishop Williams. In 1712 he brought the stage his tragedy of the Distrest Mother, which, 1565 they were taken possession of by a fleet which was upon although little more than a translation of Racine s Androdespatched from Mexico, in consequence of orders from maque yet was received with rapturous applause, particuPhilip II. of Spain, and first stopped at the island of Zebu, from all trusty Whigs. The Spectator took an entire which was soon wholly subdued. In 1570 a fleet sailed larly to herald its advent, and after its appearance from the island of Panay for Luzon, and after several en- number Spectator was written “ to tell what impression it gagements with the princes of the country, effected a settle- another ment on the Bay of Manilla. In 1571 the Spanish admiral made upon Sir Roger;” and, to crown all, Addison, in the took possession of the town of Manilla, which he consti- name of Budgell, wrote an epilogue for it, which, according Johnson, was “the most successful epilogue that was tuted the capital of the Spanish possessions in the Philip- to pines (so named after Philip II.), and proceeded in his re- ever yet spoken on the English theatre.” {Lives 3ofTBrit. VOL. XVII. PHI

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word Kreti has been considered to prove that the Philis- Philistines, Philips Poets.) To have a rival, and a Whig too, thus puffed into tines were wanderers from Crete, which recent scholars „ fame, was too much for the forbearance of Pope, who, not have confirmed. Greeks and Romans support this view. Philistines, content with whispering something about “ packed audi- Tacitus (Hist. v.2) relates that inhabitants of Palestine came ences” into the ear of his friend Spence, resolved, by an thither f rom Crete. Stephen of Byzantium, under the word unexampled artifice of irony, to strip Philips of his laurels. Gaza, states that this city was properly called Minoa, from A short time before Addison had bestowed high Prais£ Minos, King of Crete, who came to Gaza with his brothers the “ admirable pastorals and winter-piece” of Philips both Acakos and Rhadamanthus, and named the place after in the Spectator and Guardian. Pope, under a guise ot himself (comp. Kreta, von Karl Hoeck, ii. 368). I he favourable criticism, put a paper into the hands of the guile- same writer adds that the Cretan Jupiter was honouied in less Steele, which he inserted in the fortieth number of the Gaza. (See Palestine.) # Guardian. This piece turned out, however, to be h led The Philistines are represented in the Old Testament with the most subtle irony and covert mockery of I hi lips as foreign immigrants. 1 he ordinary translation of their pastorals, while written with the apparent design of magni- name in the Septuagint is AX\o us an Onomasticon, or lexicon of classical terms, correspond- the biblical studies of the Jews, especially at Tiberias in ing in effect to the Amara-Cosha of the Indian gram- Palestine, and at Babylon ; that which manifested itself in marians. Other rhetoricians or grammarians ot the same the intelligent curiosity of Arabic scholars at the two a-e drew up glossaries or treatises on grammar and metres, extremities of the Mohammedan conquests,—Baghdad and which exhibit a thoroughly philological spirit, and have been Seville ; and that which is implied in the scholastic learning found very useful by modern scholais. Among e mos of Northern and Western Europe. eminent of these were Apollonius Dyscolus, who first reAt Constantinople, in the long interval between ^ a Ph. oduced Greek grammar to something like a systematic form, reigns of Justinian and Constantine Palaeologus, the culti- Kgy.^^ | and his son Herodian, whose writings treated of many de- vation of Greek literature went through many phases of partments of minute criticism. We see the influence o neglect and revival. And from the tune of Photms the the philological studies of the second century in some of the Patriarch, in the latter half of the ninth century, down to writings of the great satirist Lucian, who was not on y an the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when wandering eminent verbal critic, but contrived, by a careful stu y o Greeks appeared as the teachers of their own language in the best authors, to pass from the semi-barbarous He enism Italy and other parts of Europe, Byzantine literature conof his native place (Samosata, on the Euphrates) to a sty e tained some strong ingredients of a philological nature. more purely Attic than has ever been attained by an imi- Lexicons, like the well-known compilations known by tne tator. Philology of the same kind was cultivated by many , Rdmdyana. A r oaapn thinks that there were three recensions, all amplifications of a com1 See Gorresio’s Preface to his edition of„ the Lassen t mon nucleus. (Ind. Alterthumslc. ii., p. 500.)

PHILOLOGY. 521 Philology names of Hesychius and Suidas, or by the title of Etymo- Bokhara, and Kufa, and great libraries collected at the Philology during the logician Magnum ; commentaries, like those of Eustathius capital and in other places. The Moorish dynasty of the during the Alidille on Homer; treatises on grammar and dialects, like those of Omayids in Spain vied in this patronage of learning with WiddIe 1 es ° ' 1 Thomas Magister, Georgius Lecapenus, and Gregory of the A bbassidse at Baghdad ; and Cordova became one of the Ages‘ v ^ ^ Corinth, at least furnished the materials for those who, a chief seats of Arabic culture, especially in the tenth cenlittle later, and in a different part of Europe, were destined tury. Besides Cordova, Spain possessed 14 universities to bring a more accurate and searching criticism to the and many lower schools in which Arabic studies were prosecuted ; and the influence of these Semitic teachers on same department of study. 1. Philolo- The attention which the Jews had paid to the texts of the education of Europe in general is shown by the unigy among their sacred books from the time of their restoration, and versal substitution of the Arabic for the Roman numerical the Jews, especially after they had come into contact with the Greek signs, and by the adoption from the Arabic of a great many learning of Alexandria, was in the strictest sense philologi- technical terms, such as alcohol, algebra, alkali, azimuth, cal ; though, from their one-sidedness and natural prejudice, zenith, nadir, &c. The extent to which these Arabic they were not likely to bring any comprehensive or philo- scholars studied the classical writings of the ancients, at a sophical views to bear on the study of their own language time when they were almost unknown in Europe, is indicated and literature. The Masora or traditionary school, which by the importance attached, on the revival of letters, to the dates from the days of Ezra, continued to exist in Palestine translations and commentaries on Aristotle published by for many centuries. Even after the destruction of Jerusa- Averroes (Ibn-Roschd) of Cordova in the twelfth century, lem it had its seats of learning at Jabneh, Tsiphoriah, Cae- and rendered into Latin for the benefit of the European sarea and Tiberias. In the last of these places the Rabbi schoolmen. In Northern and Western Europe the clergy fora longd. SchoksJehudah was famous about a.d. 230 ; and after his death Babylon became the chief abode of Jewish learning, hav- time monopolized the little learning which still struggled J'ic ^arning been in fact the birthplace of the studies which Ezra for existence. The prejudice which the church had en- ^r|^ei,n and Nehemiah had imported into their native land, and tertained against heathen culture from the fourth century, and West_ having been the second home of the Israelites from the prevented the priests themselves from engaging with much era Europe, time of their exile under Nebucadnezzar. (See Fuerst, interest in the study of the best writers. Greek was an Kultur und Literaturgeschichte der Juden in Asien, i., p. unknown tongue to the Latin Christians; and the language 3.) In the time before this establishment of Jewish learn- of Cicero and Virgil was gradually breaking up into the ing in Babylon as its metropolis, three epochs are distin- Romance dialects, which are its representatives in Italy, guished,—that from 585 to 300 b.c., when the canon was France, and Spain. The Latin was indeed retained as the in the process of formation ; that from 300 to 32 B.C., when language of religion and law ; and the necessity imposed tradition and Jewish theology were establishing themselves upon the clergy of studying the vulgate translation of the on an independent basis of speculation ; and that from 32 B.c. Scriptures and the standard books of canon law, which were to 188 a.d., when the Mischna was in the process of for- written in the classical idiom, maintained the practice of mation. But although Babylon became the chief seat of grammatical training even on the part of those who had Jewish learning after the death of the Rabbi Jehudah, the no taste for a pure and accurate style. And if the classical school of Tiberias still retained its authority ; and it was writers were not much studied, they were at all events prehere, in a.d. 506, that the Masora of the law was first com- served from a wider destruction than has befallen them by mitted to writing, its last compiler and editor being Ben the monks of the Benedictine order, whose rules obliged Asher, who lived at a somewhat later period. The school them to read and copy manuscripts, and who exercised this of Babylon flourished till the year 1037 a.d., and from this rule not unfrequently on behalf of the best Latin authors. proceeded the thriving branches of Jewish literature which Individual instances occurred in which a desire for better were transplanted to Italy, Barbary, and Spain about the learning was manifested. In England, in particular, an year 900 a.d. These learned Jews not only devised an Asiatic Greek, named Theodore, who became primate in elaborate system of grammar, which still holds its ground, 668 A.D., introduced a knowledge of Greek and Latin ; to the great detriment of comparative philology, but they and in the following century Bede, and a little later Alcuin, endeavoured to fix the pronunciation of the sacred lan- exhibited a respectable amount of philological attainments. guage by a system of vowel-points, which came into use The intellectual excitement occasioned by the first Crusade, between the sixth and eighth centuries a.d. ; and while and the glimpses of eastern civilization and refinement they seem to have dealt rather arbitrarily with the text which this pilgrimage of warriors and priests opened to the itself, they sought to fix its interpretation by an elaborate ruder nations of the West, seem to have led to the development of universities in the twelfth century. It is generally Foundacontrivance of points and accents. e. Arabic While the Jews, though denationalized and dispersed in supposed that the university of Paris was the earliest of theseveisi ies> learning, foreign lands, were exhibiting this activity in the philolo- institutions; but it was followed speedily by similar estagical study of their sacred literature, another branch of the blishments in England and Italy. In all these universities Semitic* family had succeeded in carrying their living lan- the faculty of arts or philosophy w'as the original departguage from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic. The estab- ment ; and of the seven liberal arts of which the course of lishment of the religion of Mahomet, and the proselytizing study consisted, the first three, or grammar, logic, and conquests of his successors, had made Arabic the court rhetoric, attracted the greatest attention. And as all these language in more than one populous and civilized region ; consist more or less in the study of language for its own and it was the policy of the khalifs to encourage the culti- sake, it may be said with truth that the universities of vation of a native literature among their subjects. It was Western Europe had at once grappled with no inconsiderschounder the Abbassidae, and especially under Haroun-al-Ra- able part of philology. Almost contemporary with this be- The |astic Phl* shid, inA.D. 786-808, that this Alexandrian period of Ara- ginning of university education was the establishment oflos0i> iy ‘ bic learning attained its greatest lustre. Translations were the scholastic philosophy; that is, of a system of grammar and made from Greek, Syriac, Persian, and Pehlevi writings ; logic derived ultimately from the Stoics, and applied to the and this love of foreign learning was carried so far by Al- solution of the most difficult questions in metaphysics and Mamun, who reigned in 813-833, that he offered the By- theology. The founder of this school-philosophy was Roszantine emperor a large sum of money and favourable terms celin of Compiegne, who flourished in the early part of the of peace for the services of Leo the philosopher. Under twelfth century, and adopted the tenets generally known as this khalif schools were established at Baghdad, Bosra, nominalism. He was, therefore, the first to inaugurate a 3u VOL. XVII

PHILOLOGY. 522 different countries which made important contributions to Classical Classical mode of dealing with language, which in the fourteenth the methodical investigation of the class,callanguages and Sacred century, under the able guidance of our countryma , the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. . . . Philology. liam of Ockham, was destined to pave the way at once for We must begin with Italy, which, while it may claim the r a reformation of theology, and a revival °^e ary mticisrn honour of inaugurating modem learning, has peAaj “n-B.ha»_ The schoolmen, however, dealt only with the method or tributed less than any other country in Europe towards the language, or with the structure of the sentence; and thougl improvement of scientific philology. At the time of their they occasionally speculated on the meaning of terms, they greatest activity,-namely, in the first hundred years after had no Hnguistic knowledge; and if the universities had the revival of letters,—the Italian scholars were chiefly ocbeen left to the training which they encouraged and e cupied with printing Greek and Latin books, and furnishing e nullified, there would have been no restoration of the better the former with Latin versions. An eager desire to kr'ow ® Classical kind of learning. But while they were wrangling on ques- contents of the books written in Greek, which so few had studies re- tions of dtinity at Paris, Oxford, and Salamanca, and whifo adequately mastered, made the work of translator very povived in Bob °na was prosecuting the study of the civil law, eminent pular and remunerative. Pohziano’s version ot Herodian Italy in the Hterarv men in Tuscany had been led by their own good taste passed through three editions in 1493, the year of its pub14th cento make themselves acquainted with the great writers of an- Hcation ; and the versions of Plato and Plotinus, which tury. cient Greece and Rome, and to acquire the classical idioms in Marsilius Ficinus executed from the Greek manuscripts, which thev had composed their works. Danfo, who wrote his were for a long time the only sources of knowledSe ,{°r Divina Commedia at the very beginning of the fourteenth those who studied the Platonic and Neo-Platonic philo,1 :akps Virfol for his guide through the gloomy re- sophy. Laurentius Valla, who had begun at an earhe C < If future punishment, Admitting that he had derived period to translate the historians and epic poets, was the all°the graces oHi'is style from a careful study of that great first of these Italian scholars who attempted to deal philo onde^ Petrarch was induced to devote his special attention gicafiy with the Latin language. His six books on he the to Virgil and Cicero, and recommended them by his warm elegancies of Latin, which were first publishedmbefore eulogiums to the notice of his contemporaries. But the tra invention of printing, laid the foundation of °dern r„' ditions of classical Latin had never been entirely lofet ’ searches in syntax and the distinctions of synonyms. An Petrarch aimed at a more important acquisition when he en- he also set the first example of writing critical notes on the deavoured, with the aid of ‘the Calabrian Barlaam, to gain text of the New Testament. The first specimen of more some knowledge of Greek in 1342. In this effort he was general criticism was supplied by the Miscellanies ot Po inot successful; but the achievement was effected by Boc- ziano, which appeared in 1489, and contained illus rations caccio a few years later, when he was fortunate enough o of one hundred passages, taken at random from the best obtain the assistance of Leontius Pilatus, the last of those Latin authors. He entered into quest,ons somet,me, 1 in Greece itself, were supposed to understand the volving the minutest accuracy, tor example, be was the text’of Homer. These, however, were isolated instances first tcfprove what all scholars admit,though few adoptthat and no public teacher of Greek was estabfished in Italy spelling? that the name of Virgil was really Vergd™. With before the year 1395, when Emmanuel Chrysoloras gave all this, however, the book contains at the end the fofi°wlectures at Florence, and became the founder of a school of ino- curious admission and demonstration of the author & Impressit ex archetypo AnItalian Hellenists. Guarini of Verona had been h.s pupil disregard'of orthography a?Constantinople,and became his fellow-labourer in spread- tonius Miscominus. Famihares qmdam Pohtiam r.ec g inn- a knowledge of Greek. Numerous manuscripts of the novere. Politianus ipse nec Horthographiam se6 ait nec best authors were imported by Aunspa and others; an omnino alienam prsestare culpam.” In the same Y ^ ''^ nothing was wanted but formal and public patronage to the Miscellanies of Poliziano appeared the Cornucopia o p’tablish in Italy the renewed study of classical antiquity, Nicolas Perotti, which was mainiy a commentary on Marxt a CO dance'of that patronage in the fifteenth century tial ; and the same scholar compiled a Latin Gramma , combined with the invention of printing in Germany or he which was used as a text-book by the learners of that age. Netherlands, and other concurrent causes, gave rise to t Philippo Beroaldo did good service as an editor of Latin rev val of learning in Europe, and led to the foundation of works^ and Hermolaus Barbarus, a noble Venetian, who modern philology as a main ingredient in liberal education. enjoyed a reputation not inferior to that of Poliziano, boasled that he had introduced some 5000 emendauons into the text of Pliny’s Histana iVa^m/w. Meanwhfie ni—CLASSICAL AND SACRED PHILOLOGY AFTER THE the press of Aldus was in full activity, and befoie the end revival of literature. of the fifteenth century it had put forth nearly ^enty efori Patronage It was about the same period that .P "“d books began tions of Greek authors, beginning with the eiegant but co of ancient to appear in the Low Countries and in er Y recent poem of Musaeus. The Greek text of Learning in J, \ ts of the Turks drove the most learned Gieeks trom naratively Plato, whose writings had excited so much attention a 15th Sown country, and obliged them to seek an asylum m Florence, where they were known in the Latin translation of Italy Ind that Alfonso, King of Naples, the Pope Eugemus Ficinus, appeared for the first time from the press of Aldus Ivjand, abovea,,. Co-o dV ^dic^encouraged ^mng in 1513, under the editorship of Musurus, who piefixe some Greek elegiac verses of his own, perhaps the last specimen of such a composition from the pen of a native Greek. e general circulation of books, the active P/^nage «f th The heavy ecclesiastical atmosphere, which hung over German leading men in Italy enabled native or foreign scholars, Italy, did not allow that country to see the full develop-schok like Poggio Bracciolini, Laurent,us Valla, Tb^dore Gaza ment of the scholarship which it had inaugurated It was P John Bessarion, Filelfus, Gennstus Pletho, and others to “Sved to Germany ind the Netherlands whjch had mplace the study of the classical writers on a footing ot re troduced the art of printing, to produce also the h>st becognised importance. In tracing briefly t e i • , ginnings of a free and enlightened criticism which rescued development of philological studies from this peno , classicalism from the trammels of sacerdotalism, and pave was not only in one sense a revival of what had previous y the wav for intellectual liberty in all departments of literaexisted among the Greeks and Romans, but also, in ano e ture "The founder of modern scholarship in Germany, an sense, the beginning of critical scholarship and unguis ic the nioneer of the Reformation, which sprung, m part at science in the modern acceptation of these terms, it will ne least! from the establishment of a better kind ot learning m most convenient to consider separately and in succession the

PHILOLOGY. 523 Classical that country, was John Reuchlin, whose name, according not only stimulated by the direct influence of foreigners Classical jmd Sacred to the pedantic fashion of the age, was Graecized into Capnio. established in the country as teachers, such as Erasmus, P. and Sacred Philology. Born at Pforzheim in 1455, and having received his early Martyn, and M. Bucer, and by the intercourse between the Philology, ' education in Germany, he was enabled to extend his op- leaders of the Reformation on this side of the Channel, and men portunities of acquiring knowledge by visits to France like Melancthon, who represented at once the revived learn- Classical in and Italy; and while in the latter country in the suite of ing and Protestantfeelings of Northern Germany, but also by Earning En land Eberhard of Wiirtemberg, he excited the admiration of the labours of Englishmen high in the state—such as Sir T. g Joannes Argyropulus by the accuracy with which he Smith, who taught Greek at Cambridge in 1533, and was translated Thucydides, and elicited the exclamation that ultimately secretary of state to Queen Elizabeth ; Sir John the banished learning of Greece had taken refuge be- Cheks, who, after being regius professor of Greek and yond the Alps. His studies were-not confined to Greek public orator in the university of Cambridge, was tutor, and Latin. He was also an oriental scholar, and had privy councillor, and secretary of state to Edward VI.; and ' paid particular attention to the later Hebrew literature. Roger Ascham, who was private tutor and Latin secretary \ielanc- His mantle descended to Melanchthon, whom he recom- to Queen Elizabeth. The foundation of a number of thon. mended as his substitute when invited to Wittemberg; grammar schools in the latter half of the sixteenth century and he died in 1522, after having laid the foundation of did a great deal towards confirming the study of philology as the philology which has become the inalienable inheritance the chief branch of a liberal education; and not only the clergy and gentry, but even the ladies of England, attained of his country. ScholarIn the Low Countries, Desiderius Erasmus of Rotter- to a familiarity with Greek and Latin literature which was ship in the {Jam, who was born in 1467, and died in 1536, pursued a not common on the Continent. Grammar# of both languages Nether- course which tended to the same object as that of Reuch- were compiled ; and in a series of editions, beginning from the year 1548, Thomas Cooper, afterwards bishop of Lincoln Erasmus ^n’ though he was less frank and open in the avowal of and Winchester, so improved Sir T. Elyot’s Latin and Enghis convictions. He, too, had visited Italy, and became a doctor at Bologna. And he had made his appearance in lish Dictionary, that classical students in this country posEngland before the end of the fifteenth century, and not sessed, with explanations in their own mother tongue, a very only stimulated the learned activity which was commenc- adequate substitute for the Thesaurus of Robert Stephens. By the end of the sixteenth century, classical philology, Philology ing in this country, but actually held a professorship in established the university of Cambridge, and wrote a book on Latin in its modern sense, was fully established, and the publica- in style for the use of his friend Dean Colet’s newly-founded tion of various editions of the New Testament, an active Europe study of Hebrew, especially in Germany and England, and ** school of St Paul’s. Progress of Although the greatest normal influence is thus attributable various contributions to the interpretation of Scripture, had °entury philology t0 Germany and Holland, it was in France that the earliest placed sacred philology on a parallel footing in the counin Prance tries which professed Protestantism. Even the remote —Budaeus. philological works of the new school made their appear- kingdom of Scotland had felt the influence of this revived ance. William Bude (Budaeus), who was born in the same year as Erasmus, by the publication of his two study of antiquity ; and George Buchanan, who was born Buchanan, great works, De Asse et Partibus Ejus in 1514, and his in 1506, and died in 1582, obtained a place, at any rate in Commentarii Lingua Grcecce in 1519, opened a new era in Latin scholarship, equal to that of his most celebrated philological research. The latter, in particular, must be contemporaries.—Ov Skotos rjv, said his pedantic eulogist, regarded as the foundation of all modern Greek lexi- dAAa