Encyclopaedia Britannica [11, 8 ed.]

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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. EIGHTH EDITION.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, OR

DICTIONARY

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE.

EIGHTH EDITION.

WITH EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS; AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.

VOLUME XL

ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH. MDCCCLVI. [The Proprietors of this Work give notice that they reserve the right of Translating it,}

NEILL AND CO., PRINTERS, EDINBURGH.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA

Granville

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Graphite.

GRANVILLE, the ancient Grannonum, a fortified seaport town of France, department of La Manche, at the foot 0f a steep, rocky promontory projecting into the English Chamjel 30 miles S.W. of St L6. It is surrounded by strong walls, and the streets are narrow and steep. The only remarkable building is the parish church, a venerable Gothic edifice. The harbour is spacious and secure, but dry at low water. Works, however, are now in progress for the improvement of the harbour generally, and for the construction of wet docks. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the coasting trade, or in the cod and oyster fisheries. Ship-building is also carried on. It has a tribunal of commerce, an hospital, public baths, and a naval school. Granville was bombarded and burned by the English in 1695, and partly destroyed by the Vendean troops in 1793. Pop. 8347. GRAO, a seaport town of Spain, prov. of Valencia, and four miles E. of that town. It is situated at the mouth of the Guadalviar or Turia; and it has a town-house, prison, parish church, and two schools. Pop. about 3000, chiefly fishermen. GRAPE, the fruit of the vine. See HORTICULTURE, and WINE-MAKING. GRAPE-SHOT, in Artillery, consists of a quantity of shot piled round an iron spike which is placed in a strong canvas bag, the whole being firmly corded together so as to form a cylinder adapted to the calibre of the cannon. It differs from canister or case-shot in that the latter kind is composed of balls packed into a tin canister with a wooden bottom. GRAPHITE (ypd(f)u), I write), otherwise called plumbago, and often improperly black lead, is a mineral carbon with a slight admixture of iron. It may be made artificially by exposing iron with excess of carbon to a violent heat for a considerable length of time, when a real carburet of iron will be formed; whereas in the native specimens the iron and charcoal are only mechanically combined. The finest graphite occurs at Borrodale in Cumberland, and is appropriated exclusively to the manufacture of pencils. The coarser varieties are used for making crucibles and portable furnaces, for which purposes this substance is peculiarly fitted from its infusibility; and it is VOL. XI.

BEIT ANNIC A.

also much used for giving a gloss to the surface of cast- Graphoiron goods, as well as to diminish friction between rubbing meter surfaces of metal or wood in machinery. The properties lj and geographical distribution of graphite are more partial- ,'ratianus larly noticed under MINERALOGY. GRAPHOMETER, a mathematical instrument, otherwise called a semicircle, used in land-surveying to observe any angle the vertex of which is at the centre of the instrument in any plane, and to find how many degrees it contains. GRAPNEL, or GRAPLING, a kind of small anchor with four or five flukes or claws, chiefly used to secure small boats.

GRASMERE, a village of England, county of Westmoreland, picturesquely situated at the head of the lake of the same name, 4 miles N.W. of Ambleside. In the burial ground adjoining the parish church are interred the remains of the poet Wordsworth. The lake of Grasmere is about a mile in length by half a mile in breadth, and is surrounded by mountains presenting beautiful scenery. GRASS. See Graminece in index to BOTANY, and AGRICULTURE.

GRASSE, LA, a town of France, capital of a cognominal arrondissement in the department of Var, 23 miles E.N.E. of Draguignan. It occupies a highly picturesque situation on the southern declivity of a hill, facing the Mediterranean, from which it is about seven miles distant. The streets are narrow, steep, and winding, but the houses are generally well built. The climate is salubrious, and the town is well supplied with water from a rivulet which rises above it. It has a large Gothic church of ungainly appearance, three hospitals, town-hall, exchange, theatre, communal college, and public library. Next to Paris it carries on the largest manufactures of perfumery in France. The vicinity abounds in citrons, oranges, lemons, figs, and pomegranates, and in flowers used by the perfumers. Fine marble and alabaster are also found in the vicinity. Pop. (1851) 11,540. GRASSHOPPER. See index to ENTOMOLOGY. GRATIANUS, AUGUSTUS, son of Valentinian I., succeeded to a share of the Western Empire on the death of his father in A.D. 375. After a reign of eight years he was A

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the history of his country. He joined the ranks of the op- Grattan, position, and the accession of strength which it thereby acquired soon became apparent. The effect of his commanding eloquence was not confined to those who listened to it qualities. He was just and gentle, zealous for the public in the house. He infused the patriotic spirit with which he o-ood and a true friend of Christianity. was himself actuated into the country at large. It is allowed, GRATIANUS, a Benedictine of the twelfth century, is indeed, that the volunteer bands, who had begun to assemble said to have been born at Chinsi in Tuscany, and o have in the various parts of Ireland, acquhed new confidence Sed at Bologna. His name has been preserved by his from the bold uncompromising tone assumed by the young co ectlmiof thf canons or decretals of the church, pub- speaker; and in the course of a few years their ranks l°shed at Mainz in 1472, under the title of Decretum swelled to the number of 80,000 men, armed, disciplined, Gratiani. This work was a great improvement upon its and prepared for the field. The menacing attitude which, predecessors ; but from the want of standard authorities and Ireland assumed at this critical period, and the boldness rsound principle of criticism many of the canons in it are with which the members of the Irish opposition, particularly quite apocryphal, and the text in many places very corrupt Grattan, contested the supremacy of the sister kingdom, Gratian, however, was himself well aware of the defects of induced the British legislature, in the year 1782, to repeal his work, and warns his readers not to put too much faith the statute of the 6th of George I. By this law it had been either in his statements or his conclusions. He is o ten enacted that the crown of Ireland should be inseparably ouiltv of the most absurd self-contradictions in his endea- annexed to that of Great Britain ; that Ireland should be vour to reconcile incongruous canons; and is accused by bound by British acts of parliament, if named therein ; that the Abbe Fleury of unwittingly extending the authority of the Irish House of Lords should have no appellate jurisdicthe Pope, by his doctrine that the Pope was not himself tion ; and that the last appeal, in all cases of law and equity, subject to the canons. As Gratian’s errors ivere leading should lie to the British House of Peers. For Grattans to awkward results, an edition of h\s Decretals vyas pub- exertions in getting this statute rescinded, his country was lished in 1582 by order of Gregory XIII. ; in which the profuse in laudatory addresses to him ; and the parliament more flagrant mistakes were corrected. A treatise, Ve rewarded his services by a grant of L.50,000. A more Emendatione Gratiani, by Antonius Augustinus, is an in- magnificent donation was intended, but Grattan declined to dispensable supplement to Gratian’s own work. accept it. That bestowed was large enough to inspire envy GRATIUS, a Roman poet, whose real name has been and provoke misconstruction. The following sessions of almost supplanted by the epithet FALISCUS, added by a parliament were stormy; and the young patriot had to conmodern commentator. He was a contempoiaiy o ngi tend, amongst others, with Mr Flood, an antagonist formidand Ovid, and wrote a book on hunting called Cynegeticon able alike by his acknowledged talents and the unscrupuLiber, which seems to have fallen wholly into oblivion lous virulence of his attacks. The latter maintained that before the time of Caracalla. At least, we find in the the act of repeal did not involve a renunciation of the Brireign of that emperor the Greek Oppian writing on a cog- tish claims, and that therefore they might be resumed and nate subject, and boasting of having struck out an entirely exercised at any time. This sophistry found supporters in new path for himself. There is only one MS. °f the both houses of parliament, and the reputation of Grattan Cyneqetica extant, and even it is very corrupt. 1 hi*, actually began to wane. But the energy and success with added to the arbitrary use of many individual words, the which he opposed Mr Ord’s celebrated propositions, brought forced constructions, and a general haze that hangs over forward in 1785, fully re-established his fame. One of the whole poem, makes it very difficult to be understood. these was, that the Irish legislature should, from time to The work professes to describe the various kinds of game, time, adopt and re-enact such statutes of the British parliathe means to be employed for their pursuit and captuie, ment as related to the regulation of commerce. In opposthe best breeds of horses and dogs, &c. 1 he facts on ing this proposal Grattan put forth all his powers, and from which the poem is based are derived chiefly from Xeno- this period he began to be acknowledged as the leader of phon. The best editions of Gratius are those of Lurmann the countrv party, and as the head of the Irish ^ ”g Cluband Wernsdorf. There is an English verse translation of The members of this association were reciprocally bound the poem by Christopher Wase, London, 1654 ; and a not to accept office under any administration which had not German one by S. Perlet, Leipzig, 1826. its avowed principle the conceding of certain popular GRATTAN, HENRY, an illustrious Irish orator and for measures. These consisted of a bill to make the grea o statesman, was born at Dublin in the year 1750. His father fleers of the crown responsible for their proceedings ; a bi was a barrister, and, though not remarkable for brilliant to prevent revenue officers from voting at elections; and a qualities, was industrious and prudent. Being a Protestant, place and pension bill. Several other important subjects the corporation of Dublin extended to him its pationage, engaged the attention of Grattan at this period; and amongst in consequence of which he was elected as lepiesentative these was the establishment of a provision for the cleigy of the city in parliament, and made recorder. After passing independent of tithes. He also brought m a bill to enthrough the usual course of scholastic discipline, which he courage the improvement of barren lands, by exempting did with much ecldt, young Grattan was entered as a fellovy- reclaimed wastes from paying ecclesiastical dues during commoner in Trinity College, Dublin. Here also h& gieatly snace of seven years. But both these measures were ledistinguished himself amongst contemporaries who aftei- jected by the legislature, principally through the influence wards became the chief ornaments of the senate and tie 'of the established church. , bar. His original intention was to have studied for a felAbout the same period Grattan strenuous y advocated an lowship, but the persuasions of his relatives induced him extension of civil rights to his Roman Catholic countrymen. to remove to England, where he entered himself as a student That a Protestant statesman should exert himself m beha f of the Middle Temple. When the requisite number of of those who professed a religious creed different horn terms had expired, he returned to his native country, and own, was, at the time when Catholic emancipation was at in the year 1772 was called to the Irish bar. His practice length conceded by the British parliament, a matter of sue seems to have been small; but that his talents had already frequent occurrence, that no personal claim to d^mcUon begun to make an impression, is proved by the fact, that in could be raised upon that ground: to entertain such sen 1775 he was brought into the Irish parliament under the auspices of Lord Charlemont. From this period the life of timents was not considered as sufficient to subject the perGrattan became a portion, and a very conspicuous one, of son entertaining them to public suspicion as one infected

Gratianus murdered by the partizans of a rebel aspirant to thc ' P !l rial throne. Though only twenty-four at the tune o h^s Grattan deathj he had given proof of possessing many exce e 1

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with pernicious opinions. But during the early career of had supported. If Mr Grattan be thus estimated, he must Grattan, v Grattan the subject was viewed in another aspect, and ever be accounted one of the most ardent, consistent, and through a different medium. In Ireland, whilst the heads patriotic of modern statesmen. Viewing him as an orator, of the Protestant church, with the majority of the Protes- we can only judge of his excellence by the report of contestants, were arrayed in opposition to any concession to the temporaries, who but rarely agree in such matters. We Catholics, in England the tide of vulgar prejudice ran so are informed that he had to contend with an indifferent strongly in the same direction, that a great civil convulsion voice, which was thin, and, considered simply as an organ had nearly arisen out of it. When these facts and circum- of sound, unequal to the expression of impassioned feelings. stances are taken into consideration, the conduct of Grattan His action, too, was seldom elegant or graceful, but it poswill appear in its true light, as that of a wise statesman, sessed a far higher character, it was forcible and energetic. and a fearless patriot. His principal object was to obtain the Animation and ardour predominated in his manner; and elective franchise for the Catholics; but the administration of his pronunciation was distinct and articulate. Ihese are that day indignantly rejected the prayer of their petitions. the qualities which are calculated most powerfully to impress On the arrival of Earl Fitzwilliam, as lord-lieutenant, in a mixed assembly ; and the effects which he accordingly pro1795, Mr Grattan attached himself to that highly popular duced on several occasions have not been surpassed by nobleman, and under his auspices originated many plans those of any orator of modern times. “ With much of nabut chiefly in the manner,” says a very which had for their object to promote the peace and pros- tional peculiarity, 1 perity of his native land. But the recal of his lordship put able writer; “ with much, too, of individual mannerism, a stop to all amelioration, and at the same time generated^ his eloquence is, beyond all doubt, of a very high order. universal discontent, which was increased by the creation of Perhaps, after making every deduction for obvious defects, new sinecures, and the lavish profusion of titles. The con- he may even be accounted an orator of the first class. For sequences were memorable and instructive. The society he possesses an originality, and a force rising far above of United Irishmen, whose ostensible object was reform, any excellencies of mere composition. Fervid, vehement but who really aimed at the independence of Ireland, ac- thoughts, clothed in language singularly pointed and terse; quired new courage from these dissensions, and some even an extraordinary power of invective, so remarkable indeed, proposed to establish a republic in that country. The tri- that he may be ranked among the greatest masters of the umph of the French Revolution had no doubt inspired these sarcastic style; and, above all, and it is the distinguishing daring projectors with hopes of success. A large portion character of his oratory, a copious stream of the most sagaof the people adopted their principles; military associations cious and original observations, or the most acute and close were formed, and numbers disciplined and armed; whilst arguments, flowing, though not continuous and unbroken, an intercourse w7as opened with France, by which succours yet with an ease the more surprising, because they almost and assistance were liberally promised. From the com- all are in the shape of epigrams ;—these are the high and mencement of the rebellion which ensued, Mr Grattan ad- rare merits which strike the reader of Mr Grattan’s speeches, vised measures of conciliation ; and when he saw that there and must have produced a still deeper impression upon was no hope of stemming the general movement, he with- those who heard him in his prime.”—“ He had deep, and drew from parliament, and retired to his country residence. warm, and generous feelings, and, when roused to enthuBut the grand project of Mr Pitt for effecting a union siasm, they sometimes found vent in simple language ; but between Great Britain and Ireland summoned him from his his accustomed style of epigram is far more prejudicial to retirement. He obtained a seat in parliament for the ex- the expression of passion than to the conduct of an argupress purpose of opposing that measure, which, he main- ment ; and accordingly, his declamation was by no means tained, w'ould prove fatal to the best interests of Ireland. equal to his reasoning, if we except the vituperative parts Its success did not, however, prevent him from accepting of it, which were among the finest of all his performances. a seat in the imperial parliament, and there employing his He had a lively and playful fancy, which he seldom pertalents and eloquence for the benefit of both countries. Fie mitted to break loose; and his habits of labour were such was chosen, in 1805, to represent the small borough of Mal- that he abounded in all the information, ancient and recent, ton ; and in the year following he was returned as one of the which his subject required, and could finish his composition members for Dublin. Throughout the remainder of his with a degree of care seldom bestowed upon speeches in career, his public conduct continued to evince the purest modern times. Finally, he was a man of undaunted patriotism and the most undeviating consistency, illustrated spirit, and always rose with the difficulties of his situation. by an eloquence fraught with the finest inspirations of genius He was ready, beyond any man, perhaps, who ever laboured and liberty. Notwithstanding the uniform and vehement his speeches so habitually. No one ever threw him oft his opposition of the corporation of the city which he repre- guard. Whoever dreamt that he had caught him unawares, sented, he continued to advocate the Catholic claims with was speedily roused to a bitter sense of his mistake ; and it equal zeal and ability. Accordingly, towards the close of is a remarkable circumstance, that, of all his speeches now his life, we find him complying with an unanimous requisi- preserved, the two most striking in point of execution are tion on the part of the Catholics of Ireland, to present their those personal attacks upon Mr Flood and Mr Corry, which, petition to the British parliament, and to give it his support. from the nature of the occasions that called them forth, Some of his friends represented the fulfilment of this duty must, of necessity, have been the production of the moment. as incompatible with his health, which had now begun to The epigrammatic form in which he delighted to throw all decline ; but he nobly replied, that “ he would be happy to his ideas, and the diction adapted to it, had become so hadie in the discharge of his duty.” This event did actually bitual to him, that, upon such emergencies, they obeyed take place; for he expired on the 14th of May 1820, soon his call with the readiness of a natural style; and he could after his arrival in London ; and his remains were interred thus pour forth his indignation in antithesis and point, as easily as the bulk of mankind when strongly excited give in Westminster Abbey. It is comparatively easy for posterity to judge for them- vent to their feelings in the sort of language which, from selves of the moral and political qualities of a statesman’s this circumstance, we are accustomed to term the eloquence character, because these can be dispassionately determined of nature or of passion. “ In the more glaring defects of what has been called the from the information afforded by history as to the course of conduct which he had pursued, and the measures which he Irish school of orators, he certainly did not abound. Ex-

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travagance of passion ; strained pictures of feeling ; exuberanee of metaphor, and of forced metaphor; and, worse than all, excess of passion expressed by unnatural and far-fetched imagery, in language quite wide of nature, and often wholly incorrect;—from these characteristic vices of his country s fanciful and ingenious and ready orators, he was exempted beyond all his contemporaries, by the chastening effects of classical discipline. Occasionally, indeed, they do bieak out in his compositions ; but, generally speaking, it is rather in the style than in the ideas that he departs from nature; or if in the ideas, it is in his love of point, rather than in his proneness to metaphor. In one great quality he not only stands single among his countrymen, but may be pronounced eminently superior to our own greatest oiatois ; and it is that in which all modern compositions, those of Dante and perhaps of Milton alone excepted, fall so far short of the ancient, and especially the Greek exemplars ; we mean the dignified abstemiousness, which selects one leading and effective idea, suddenly presents it in a few words, and relies upon its producing the impression desired, without saying all that can be said, and, as it were, running down the topic. In Mr Grattan’s speeches we constantly meet with opinions delivered, or illustrations flung out, in a single sentence, or limb of a sentence, and never again recurred to, although the opinion may have been so sagacious, and the illustration so happy, that a copious modern, or even an ancient of the school of Cicero, would have worked the one into a dissertation, and the other into an allegory. This is a merit of the very highest order, subject to the remarks already made upon the difficulty of making things thus lightly touched at once perceived by an audience, and the aggravation of that difficulty by the obscurity incident to the epigrammatic style.” Grattan’s Life has been written in 5 vols. by his son, who has also edited his miscellaneous works and his speeches in pari iamen t. (J. F. s.) GRATZ, a city of Austria, capital of Styria, as well as of the circle of Gratz, occupies a commanding position on both sides of the river Mur, an affluent of the Drave, 1094 feet above the level of the sea, and 96 miles S. by W. of Vienna. It consists of the city proper or inner town, which stands on the eastern bank of the river, and four extensive suburbs, having altogether a circuit of about seven miles. The suburb Murstadt is on the western bank, and is connected with the opposite bank, on which are the three others, by two bridges. The inner town occupies little more than a seventh part of the entire area, and is separated from the suburbs by ramparts and a glacis. It lias a gloomy and antique appearance, and the streets are narrow and irregular. The suburbs are much more regularly built than the town itself, and contain many elegant edifices. That of Murstadt is the largest and finest. The vicinity abounds with beautiful gardens and villas. On the Schlossberg, a rocky eminence in the centre of the town, rising to the height of 300 feet, stand the ruins of the citadel, destroyed by the French in 1809. The cathedral or church of St dSgidi is a Gothic structure, erected by Frederick IV. in 1456, and contains many handsome marble monuments. Near it is St Catherine’s chapel, erected as a mausoleum by Ferdinand II., who lies interred here, together with his consort, mother, &c. Gratz possesses in all ten parish churches, twelve other churches and chapels, five monasteries, and two nunneries. The Landhaus, where the estates hold their sittings, is a very ancient edifice, in which is preserved the ducal hat of Styria, worn by the Emperor of Austria when he receives the allegiance of the Styrians. It also contains numerous suits of old armour. The university, founded by Charles Francis, Duke of Styria, in 1586, is one of the second order, having faculties of theology, law, and philosophy. Lectures are given in medicine, but no degrees are conferred. It has a library of about

G R A 100,000 vols. and 7500 MSS., a natural history museum, Graudens &c. In 1850 it had 866 students. The convicte, the II largest building in the town, and formerly a college of the ^ Graunt.^ Jesuits, is now used as a school in connection with the university. The Johanneum institution was founded in 1811 by Archduke John (Johann), from whom it takes its name. Its object is the encouragement of the arts, sciences, and manufactures of Styria by the formation of collections of various natural and artificial productions, by a library, and by gratuitous lectures delivered by professors attached to the institution. It has a reading-room, library of 32,000 vols., collections of animals, minerals, antiquities, coins, plans, &c., a botanic garden, and chemical laboratory. Gratz possesses also a gymnasium, episcopal seminary, deaf-mute institution, lunatic, foundling, and orphan asylums, a general hospital and lying-in institution, theatre, &c. It is the seat of the highest civil authorities for the duchy of Styria, and the residence of the prince bishop of Seckau. Its chief manufactures are cotton, woollen, and silk goods, iron and steel wares, leather, paper, hats, earthenware, and rosoglio. Being in the line of railway from Vienna to Trieste, it carries on a considerable trade with these places, as also with Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania, and Turkey. It is the seat of two great fairs, each of which lasts for three weeks. Gratz was taken by the French in 1809, after a siege of seven days. Pop. (1851) 55,421. GRAUDENS, a town of Prussia, province of West Prussia, and government of Marienwerder, on the right bank of the Vistula, here crossed by a bridge of boats 2700 feet long, 18 miles S.S.W. of Marienwerder. It is surrounded by a wall, and is farther protected by a strong fortress which commands the Vistula. It has a gymnasium, training seminary, house of correction, and an establishment for the reformation of juvenile offenders; also breweries, woollen cloth and tobacco factories, and some trade in corn. Pop. (1849) 7639, besides 2454 military. GRAUNT, JOHN, the author of Observations on the Bills of Mortality, and the founder of Political Arithmetic, was born at London, April 24, 1620. At an early age he was apprenticed to a haberdasher in the city; and when he entered into business on his own account, he gained the esteem and confidence of his fellow citizens, passed with reputation through all the offices of his ward, and was first captain and then major of the trained bands. It is not known at what precise time he first began to collect and digest the Bills of Mortality; but it appears, from his own statement, that he had directed his attention to the subject several years before he had any design of publishing the discoveries which rewarded his researches. His book entitled Observations on the Bills of Mortality was published in 1661, 4to, and met with so favourable a reception that a second edition was called for the succeeding year, and others followed. Immediately after its publication, Louis XIV., by a royal ordonnance, provided that a more exact i egistei of births and burials should be kept in Paris ; and Chailes II. conceived so high an opinion of his abilities, that, at the institution of the Royal Society, he recommended Gxaunt to the choice of the members, with this additional charge, that if they found any more such tradesmen they should be sure to admit them. Graunt appears to have changed his religion, and become Roman Catholic, some time before his death, which took place on the 18th of April 16/4. He left his papers in charge of Sir William Petty, who had all along befriended him, and who took care to adjust and insert them in a fifth edition of his work, published in 1676, 8vo. The observations of Graunt may be considered as having formed the elements of that useful science afterwards styled Political Arithmetic, which, therefore, he is entitled to the honour of having founded; and whatever merit may be ascribed to Sir William Petty, Mr Daniel King, Dr Davenant, and others, there can be no

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doubt that the Observations on the Bills of Mortality with that metropolis, it has been gradually increasing in Gravina. served as the model, if not as the basis, of all their investiga- size and importance. It occupies a pleasant and healthy Gravesend. {jons. (j. B—E.) situation, with good accommodation for bathing; and from GRAVE, in Grammar, a species of accent opposed to the heights above the town, especially that called Windmill acute, and expressed thus ('). It marks that the voice is Hill, extended views of the river with its windings and to be depressed, and the syllable it is placed over is to be shipping are obtained. During the summer season it is much resorted to by the middle classes of London, many pronounced in a low deep tone. GRAVE (Sax. grcef), a tomb or sepulchre. See BURIAL. of whom have houses here to which they come daily or GRAVELINES, a strongly fortified seaport town of weekly at the close of business. The crowds of visitors France, department of Le Nord, and arrondissement of Dun- that come here on Sunday in fine weather are very kerque, on the Aa, near its mouth, in the English Channel. great. The town occupies an acclivity rising from the It is chiefly known for its fortifications, which are of great river; the older and lower part of it is irregularly built, strength, having been constructed by Vauban ; and, being with narrow and inconvenient streets, but the upper and in a low marshy situation, protected from the sea by dunes newer portion is well and regularly built, and has several or sandhills, the surrounding country may be laid under handsome streets, squares, and terraces. The town-hall is water at pleasure. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in a neat and conspicuous Doric edifice, erected in 1836. The church, which stands near the centre of the town is a the cod, mackerel, and herring fisheries. Pop. 5582. GRAVESANDE, WILLIAM JACOB, a distinguished neat brick building. It has several other churches and Dutch geometer and natural philosopher, was descended of chapels, a free grammar-school, literary institution, marketan ancient and honourable family, and born at Bois-le-duc, house, custom-house, theatre, concert-room, bazaars, baths, in Holland, Sept. 27, 1688. The name of his family was &c. It has several piers, two of which, the town-pier and properly Storm van s’Gravesande. He studied the civil law the terrace-pier, are very handsome and convenient strucat Leyden ; but the mathematics were his favourite pursuit. tures, mostly of iron. East of the town is a battery, nearly When he had taken his doctor’s degree in 1707, he settled facing Tilbury Fort on the Essex side. Gravesend is the at the Hague, where he practised at the bar, and cultivated boundary of the port of London. In the vicinity are exthe acquaintance of learned men. In May 1713 he, with tensive market gardens. The borough is governed by a some other young men distinguished for their acquirements, mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors. It includes the organized a review entitled Le Journal Litteraire, which two parishes of Gravesend and Milton, and extends along was continued without interruption till 1722. In 1715 the river for a mile and a-half, and two miles inland in the s’Gravesande, in the capacity of secretary of legation, ac- southern part. Pop. (1851) 16,633. GRAVINA, GIOVANNI VINCENZO, one of the most discompanied the deputies of the states-general sent to London to compliment George I. on his accession to the throne, tinguished men of letters the kingdom of Naples has proand there, through the influence of Dr Burnet, Bishop ol duced, was born at Rogiano, a small town near Cosenza, in Salisbury, was admitted a member of the Royal Society. Calabria-Ulteriore, Jan. 20,1664. His parents, who, by their He returned the following year to the Hague, and in 1715 station and their fortune, held the first rank in the place, newas appointed ordinary professor of mathematics and astro- glected nothing to promote his early education ; but the prenomy in the academy of Leyden. During the vacations of cocity of mind, the vivacity of imagination, and the ardour 1721 and 1722, s’Gravesande made two journeys to Cassel to instruct himself evinced by their son, soon made them to visit the landgrave of Hesse, a prince who showed an sensible that he required other cares at their hands, and enlightened taste for experimental philosophy, and gene- needed to be restrained rather than stimulated. Gregorio rously furthered its advancement. In 1724 he resigned Caloprese, his uncle, after having cultivated, with success, the rectorship of the academy, to which he had previously at Naples, poetry and philosophy, had retired to his native been promoted, and on this occasion pronounced a discourse place, Scalea, a maritime city in that part of Calabria. The J)e Evidentia, which has been prefixed to the third edition education of a nephew, who inspired so high hopes, appeared of his Elements of Physics. In 1730 he added to his ordi- to him an agreeable task, and he willingly undertook it. nary course civil and military architecture, which he taught As the relations of Gravino had destined him for the proin Dutch ; and in 1734 he was also appointed to teach phi- fession of the law, the time was now appi'oaching when it losophy, including logic, metaphysics, and ethics. S’Grave- would be necessary to make jurisprudence a serious study ; sande died Feb. 28, 1742, at the age of fifty-five. His but for that science he had conceived an aversion which principal works are : Essai de Perspective, Hague, 1711 ; appeared to be insurmountable. But his prejudices at Physices Elementa Mathcmatica, experimentis conjirmata, length vanished; he applied himself vigorously to the sive Introductio ad Philosophiam Newtonianam, Hague, study of the civil and canon law, and at the same time 2 vols. 4to, 1720-1742; Philosophic Newtonianc In- extended his knowledge of theology by an attentive perstitutiones in usus academicos, an abridgement of the usal of the works of the Fathers. Gravina had long depreceding, Leyden, 1723, 1728, and 1744; Matheseos sired to visit Rome; but his uncle, Caloprese, who still Universalis Elementa, quibus accedunt, specimen com- superintended his education, opposed his wish until he mentarii in Arithmeticam universalem Newtoni et de should have completed his course of study. When this determinanda forma seriei infinite adsumtee Nova Regula, was accomplished, he repaired to the ancient capital of Leyden, 1727, in 8vo ; Iniroductio ad Philosophiam, Me- the world in 1689. In 1691, he published, under the suptaphysicam et Logicam continens, Leyden, 1736, 1737. posititious name of Priscus Censorious, a dialogue, entitled In the JDictionnaire Historique of Prosper Marchand may be De corrupta Morali Doctrina, Naples, 4to, the object ot found a detailed biography of s’Gravesande by Allemand, which was to prove that the corrupters of morals do more the editor of the work, who was intimately connected with injury to the church than the boldest heresiarchs. Gravina s’Gravesande and his family. There is also an elaborate was then only twenty-six years of age. But the eloquence of the style and the solidity of the reasoning ensured the suclife of him in the Biog. Univers., by De Gerando. GRAVESEND, a municipal borough, river port, and cess of the book, which, at the same time, excited lively dismarket-town of England, county of Kent, on the right bank satisfaction amongst the numerous partisans of convenient of the Thames, 22 miles below London, with which it is doctrines and loose practice. Father Concina has inserted connected by railway. Gravesend is chiefly indebted for this dialogue almost entire in his treatise De Incredulis. its prosperity to its intercourse with London ; and since the Nor did poetry escape the contamination which had so deeply establishment of steamboat and railway communication infected morals. A single writer, Alessandro Guidi, a friend Grave

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6 Gravina.

G R A of Gravina, struggled at Rome against the prevailing debasement of taste, and, at the request of Christina, queen of Sweden, had, under the Arcadian name of Erillo Cleoneo, written a comedy, entitled Endimione. As this piece became the object of the most virulent attacks, Gravina, under the name of Bione Crateo, undertook the defence of his friend, which he read in a literary assembly, and which was afterwards printed under the title of Discorso sopra Endimione, Rome, 1692. This little work, in which he laid down excellent principles, drew upon the author new adversaries, who considered it equally strange and unpardonable that Gravina should attempt to constitute himself at once the censor of morals and the reformer of taste. A jealousy, almost amounting to fury, was excited against the young Neapolitan ; whilst his disposition to censure the works of others, and the confidence which he appeared to repose in his own opinions, were but little calculated to calm the spirits of his enemies. Gravina sometimes commended, but he more frequently censured, and his decisions were often expressed in contemptuous terms. This tendency made him a host of enemies. His least actions were watched in order to calumniate him, and he was assailed with the most malignant invectives. Then appeared in succession, under the name of Quintio Settano, the Arcadian alias of Ludovico Sergardi, sixteen satires against Philodemus, the name under which Gravina was therein designated. 1 hese satires, which were equally spirited and bitter, obtained great success, and were circulated in profusion. Gravina at first affected indifference. It is a fault of the age, said he, to take pleasure in outraging merit. But as this tranquillity did not reduce his enemies to silence, he could no longer restrain his resentment, and composed some declamations of the nature of verrine, and also some iambics; but he has not published these retaliatory effusions, probably because he thought them inferior to the satires of Settano. The malignity of the enemies of Gravina did not lessen the esteem which he had inspired, nor abate his zeal for useful and wholesome pursuits. He united with several other literary men who had associated together for the purpose of cultivating poetry in silence. There were only fifteen of them, but their number soon increased, and Gravina assembled them for the first time in November 1695, at a house which he had provided for the purpose on Mount Janiculum. They framed for the association a democratic constitution, and took the name of Arcadi, or Arcadians. On the 20th of May 1696, the Arcadi held a general assembly on the Palatine Hill. Gravina, after an eloquent discourse, presented the marble .tablets containing the laws, which he had written for the association, with the expressions consecrated in the Roman jurisprudence. During this period Gravina had composed several dissertations, which he collected under the title of Opuscula, Rome, 1696, and in which are included—1. Specimen prisci Juris; 2. De Lingua Latina dialogus; 3. Epistola ad Gabrielem Reignerium & Galium; 4. De contemptu Mortis ; 5. Epistola ad Trojanum Mirabellam ; and, 6. Delle Favole Antiche, which has been translated into French by Joseph Regnauld. After the death of Alexander VIII., Antonio Pignatelli, having obtained the pontifical throne, under the name of Innocent XIL, wished to raise Gravina to the highest ecclesiastical honours; but the latter refused to embrace the clerical profession, as all his ambition was confined to teaching the laws, and his taste led him towards secular erudition. Nor was his ambition disappointed. In 1699 he obtained the chair of civil law, and in his opening discourse traced the history of that science ; whilst, in order to make his system of instruction better known, he composed the treatise De Instauratione Studiorum, which he dedicated to the new pontiff. The discourse De Sapientia, which he delivered in 1700, also relates to the same subject. In that one which is entitled

G R

A

after speaking Gravina of the pre-eminence and dignity of the Roman laws, he tl considers them in reference to the influence which they Gray, were likely to have in the civilization of the states of the czar, Peter the Great. The subjects of the other dissertations of Gravina we need not indicate, as they have been collected in his works. We shall merely refer to that one on the internal rule, because it makes known the religious sentiments with which the mind of this great civilian was deeply imbued. In 1703, Gravina passed from the chair of civil to that of canon law. From the commencement of his career as a public instructor he had abolished the usage of scholastic argumentation; and each succeeding year brought some useful change. He thought that the only means of establishing sound doctrine was to ascend to the sources or fountain-head of the laws ; and this accordingly is the object of his treatise De repetendis Doctrinarum Fontibus. But these little treatises, which he composed with extreme facility, did not prevent him from continuing his great work, De Ortu et Progressu Juris Civilis, the first book of which appeared at Naples in 1701, and the whole was completed in three books, and printed in 1713. During the period which elapsed from 1711 to 1714, Gravina completed and published several works, particularly his Discourses, his book De Romano Imperio, Naples, 1712, in 12mo ; his tragedies, Palamede, Andromede, Appius Claudius, Papinianus, and Servius Tullius, Naples, 1712, in l2mo; and his treatises, Della Ragione Poetica, Rome, 1708; and Della Tragedia, Naples, 1714, in4to. Gregorio Caloprese died at Scalea in the summer of 1714. As soon as Gravina heard of his illness, he hastened to pay his last duties to a relation to whom he lay under so many obligations. He passed nearly two years in Calabria, and it was not until 1716 that he returned to Rome, where he died on the 6th of January 1718, leaving to his mother, Anna Lombarda, the property which he possessed in Calabria, and to Metastasio all that he had acquired at Rome, excepting some legacies to his other pupils, Giuliano Pier-Santi, Lorenzo Gori, and Horazio Bianchi, all men of reputation in letters. The works of Gravina have been collected in three volumes, under the title of Opere del Gravina, Leipzig, 1737, in 4to, and Naples, 1756, with notes by Mascovius the editor. (J* B—E.) GRAVINA, an episcopal city of southern Italy, kingdom of Naples, and province of Bari, on the left bank of the Gravina, 37 miles S. W. of Bari. It is surrounded by walls flanked with towers, and has a cathedral and eight other churches, a college, and several convents. Its ancient castle was, during the middle ages, one of the strongholds of theOrsini, to which family the town and neighbourhood still belong. The cattle fair held here on the 20th April is one of the most famous in the kingdom. The vicinity is celebratedfor its pasturage and for itsbreed of horses. Pop. 11,000. GRAVITATION, and GRAVITY, terms used synonymously to denote the mutual tendency which all bodies have to approach each other. See PHYSICS. GRAVITY, SPECIFIC, the weight of any body as deter-

Pro Legibus ad magnum Moschorum regem,

mined by its relation to the weight of another body which is assumed conventionally as a standard of measurement.

The standard generally adopted is that of water at a certain temperature. This subject is explained in detail under HYDRODYNAMICS, chap. ii. GRAY, a town of France, capital of a cognominal arrondissement, in the department of the Haute Saone, on the declivity of a hill, on the left bank of the Saone, 29 miles S.W. of Vesoul. From its situation on the Saone, it enjoys great facilities for trade, and is an entrepot for goods passing between the south and east of France. The town is built in the form of an amphitheatre, and at a distance presents an attractive appearance, which, however, disappears on nearer inspection,—the streets being narrow,

G R A Y. Gray,

crooked, and steep. It is commanded by the ruins of an ancient castle, formerly inhabited by the Dukes of Bourgogne. It has a fine quay, a handsome bridge across the river, cavalry barracks, town-hall, exchange, theatre, several hospitals, communal college, and public library. Pop. (1851)6703. GRAY, THOMAS, the author of the celebrated Elegy written in a Country Churchyard, was born in Cornhill, London, December 26, 1716. His father, Philip Gray, an exchange broker and scrivener, was a wealthy and nominally respectable citizen, but he treated his family with brutal severity and neglect, and the poet was altogether indebted for the advantages of a learned education to the affectionate care and industry of his mother, whose maiden name was Antrobus, and who, in conjunction with a maiden sister, kept a millinery shop. A brother of Mrs Gray was assistant to the Master of Eton, and was also a fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Under his protection the poet was educated at Eton, and from thence went to Peterhouse, attending college from 1734 to September 1738. At Eton he had as contemporaries Richard West, son of the Lord Chancellor of Ireland, and Horace Walpole, son of the triumphant Whig minister, Sir Robert Walpole. West died early in his 26th year, but his genius and virtues and his sorrows will for ever live in the correspondence of his friend. In the spring of 1739, Gray was invited by Horace Walpole to accompany him as travelling companion in a tour through France and Italy. They made the usual route, and Gray wrote remarks on all he saw in Florence, Rome, Naples, &c. His observations on arts and antiquities, and his sketches of foreign manners, evince his admirable taste, learning, and discrimination. Since Milton, no such accomplished English traveller had visited those classic shores. In their journey through Dauphiny, Gray’s attention was strongly arrested by the wild and picturesque site of the Grande Chartreuse, surrounded by its dense forest of beech and fir, its enormous precipices, cliffs, and cascades. He visited it a second time on his return, and in the album of the mountain convent he wrote his famous Alcaic Ode. At Reggio the travellers quarrelled and parted. Walpole took the whole blame on himself. He was fond of pleasure and amusements, “intoxicated by vanity, indulgence, and the insolence of his situation as a prime minister s son”—his own confession—while Gray was studious, of a serious disposition, and independent spirit. The immediate cause of the rupture is said to have been Walpole’s clandestinely opening, reading, and resealing, a letter addressed to Gray, in which he expected to find a confirmation of his suspicions that Gray had been writing unfavourably of him to some friends in England. A partial reconciliation was effected about three years afterwards by the intervention of a lady, and Walpole redeemed his youthful error by a life-long sincere admiration and respect for his friend. From Reggio Gray proceeded to Venice, and thence travelled homewards, attended by a laquais de voyage. He arrived in England in September 1741, having been absent about two years and a-half. Flis father died in November, and it was found that the poet’s fortune would not enable him to prosecute the study of the law. He therefore retired to Cambridge, and fixed his residence at the university. There he continued for the remainder of his life, with the exception of about two years spent in London, when the treasures of the British Museum were thrown open. At Cambridge he had the range of noble libraries. His happiness consisted in study, and he perused with critical attention the Greek and Roman poets, philosophers, historians, and orators. Plato and the Anthologia, he read and annotated with great care, as if for publication. He compiled tables of Greek chronology, a ded notes to Linnaeus and other naturalists, wrote geographical disquisitions on Strabo; and, besides being familial with French and Italian literature ; was a zealous archae-

ological student, and profoundly versed in architecture, botany, painting, and music. In all departments of human learning, excepting mathematics, he was a master. But it follows that one so studious, so critical, and so fastidious, could not be a voluminous writer. A few poems include all the original compositions of Gray—the quintessence, as it were, of thirty years of ceaseless study and contemplation, irradiated by bright and fitful gleams of inspiration. In 1742 Gray composed his Ode to Spring, his Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College, and his Ode to Adversity, —productions which most readers of poetry can repeat from memory. He commenced a didactic poem, On the Alliance of Education and Government, but wrote only about a hundred lines. Every reader must regret that this philosophical poem is but a fragment. It is in the style and measure of Dry den, of whom Gray was an ardent admirer and close student. His Elegy written in a Country Churchyard was completed and published in 1751. In the form of a sixpenny brochure it circulated rapidly, four editions being exhausted the first year. This popularity surprised the poet. He said sarcastically that it was owing entirely to the subject, and that the public would have received it as well if it had been written in prose. The solemn and affecting nature of the poem, applicable to all ranks and classes, no doubt aided its sale ; it" required high poetic sensibility and a cultivated taste to appreciate the rapid transitions, the figurative language, and lyrical magnificence of the odes; but the elegy went home to all hearts; while its musical harmony, originality, and pathetic train of sentiment and feeling, render it one of the most perfect of English poems. No vicissitudes of taste or fashion have affected its popularity. When the original manuscript of the poem was lately (1854) offered for 'sale, it brought the almost incredible sum of L.131. The two great odes of Gray, the Progress of Poetry and The Bard, were published in 1757, and were but coldly received. His name, however, stood high, and, on the death of Cibber the same year, he was offered the laureateship, which he wisely declined. He was ambitious, however, of obtaining the more congenial and dignified appointment of Professor of Modern History in the University of Cambridge, which fell vacant in 1762, and, by the advice of his friends, he made application to Lord Bute, but was unsuccessful. Lord Bute had designed it for the tutor of his son-in-law, Sir James Lowther. No one had heard of the tutor, but the Bute influence was all-prevailing. In 1765 Gray took a journey into Scotland, penetrating as far north as Dunkeld and the Pass of Killiecrankie ; and his account of his tour, in letters to his friends, is replete with interest and with touches of his peculiar humour and graphic description. One other poem proceeded from his pen. In 1768 the Professorship of Modern History wras again vacant, and the Duke of Grafton bestowed it upon Gray. A sum of L.400 per annum was thus added to his income; but his health was precarious—he had lost it, he said, just when he began to be easy in his circumstances. The nomination of the Duke of Grafton to the office of Chancellor of the University enabled Gray to acknowledge the favour conferred on himself. He thought it better that gratitude should sing than expectation, and he honoured his grace’s installation with an ode. Such occasional productions are seldom happy; but Gray preserved his poetic dignity and select beauty of expression. He made the founders of Cambridge, as Mr Hallam has remarked, “ pass before our eyes like shadows over a magic glass.” When the ceremony of the installation was over, the poet-professor went on a tour to the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland, and few of the beauties of the lake-country, since so famous, escaped his observation. This was to be his last excursion* While at dinner one day in the college-hall he was seized with an attack of gout in his stomach, which resisted all the powers

8

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A

Graywacke of medicine, and proved fatal in less than a week. He died ii on the 30th of July 1771, and was buried, according to his Grazalema. own beside the remains of his mother at Stoke PoJ geis, near Slough in Buckinghamshire, in a beautiful sequestered village churchyard that is supposed to have furnished the scene of his elegy.1 The literary habits and personal peculiarities of Gray are familiar to us from the numerous representations and allusions of his friends. It is easy to fancy the recluse-poet sitting in his college-chambers in the old quadrangle of Pembroke Hall. His windows are ornamented with mignonette and choice flowers in China vases, but outside may be discerned some ironwork intended to be serviceable as a fire-escape, for he has a horror of fire. His furniture is neat and select; his books, rather for use than show, are disposed around him. He has a harpischord in the room. In a corner of one of the apartments is a trunk containing his deceased mother’s dresses, carefully folded up and preserved. His fastidiousness, bordering upon effeminacy, is visible in his gait and manner, —in his handsome features and small well-dressed person, especially when he walks abroad and sinks the author and hard student in “ the gentleman who sometimes writes for his amusement.” He writes always with a crow-quill, speaks slowly and sententiously, and shuns the crew of dissonant college revellers who call him “ a prig,” and seek to annoy him. Long mornings of study, and nights feverish from ill-health, are spent in those chambers; he is often listless and in low spirits ; yet his natural temper is not desponding, and he delights in employment. He has always something to learn or to communicate—some sally of humour or quiet stroke of satire for his friends and correspondents—some note on natural history to enter in his journal—some passage of Plato to unfold and illustrate— some golden thought of classic inspiration to inlay on his page—some bold image to tone down—some verse to retouch and harmonize. His life is on the whole innocent and happy, and a feeling of thankfulness to the Great Giver is breathed over all. Various editions of the collected works of Gray have been published. The first, including memoirs of his life and his correspondence, edited by his friend, the Rev. W. Mason, appeared in 1775. It has been often reprinted, and forms the groundwork of the editions by Mathias (1814) and Mitford (1816). Mr Mitford, in 1843, published Gray’s correspondence with the Rev. Norton Nicholls; and in 1854 another collection of Gray’s letters was published, edited also by Mr Mitford. Every scrap of the poet’s MSS. is eagerly sought after, and every year seems to add to his popularity as a poet and letter-writer. (R. C—S.) GRAYWACKE. See GREYWACKE. GRAZALEMA (anciently Lacidulermimri), a secular town of Spain, province and bishopric of Malaga, department of Ronda. It contains about 12,000 of a population, 5000 of whom are engaged in manufactures. This includes the suburbs of Gaidobar and Benamahoma; and it has 3 hermitages, 1 parish church, 1 convent of the barefooted Carmelites, &c. The name of this town is of Arabic origin ; and there are still found in it inscriptions and other Roman

antiquities. It stands on the great road from Ronda to Salt Great Cadiz. The neighbouring sierra of the same name is of |jak0 great extent, and occupied by sheep and immense herds of Q.re|ves swine, in which a large traffic is carried on in the town, as v v well as with Seville and Cadiz. The manufactures consist chiefly of woollen and linen, flannel, leather, and soap ; thread, dyeworks, carding-wool, &c. The export trade consists of the animal produce of the sierras, and articles manufactured in the town. GREAT SALT LAKE, in the Utah territory of North America, lies on the margin of the Great Basin, between W. Long. 112. and 113., and under N. Lat. 41. See UTAH.

GREAVES (Fr. greve), a kind of armour for the legs, originally of leather, quilted linen, &c., and afterwards of steel. This kind of defence for the legs was used both by the Greeks and Romans, by the former of whom they were called KVT)IXL8€

96,846

Marathonisi CEtylon

(1255 sq. m.)

9. Euboea

Chalcis

'Chalcis Xerchori Carysto .Scopelos Syra Zea

10. Cyclades

Syra

( Andros Tinos Naxos Santorin Milos Total

Religion.

134,099

Tripolitza Gortys Cynouria Agios Petros Megalopolis Leondari

8. Laconia

ISLANDS

Nauplia Argos Hydra Poros Spetzia Corinth

{Mantinea Gortys

{Lacedaemon III.

Pop. in 1851.

Chalcis Xerchori Carysto Scopelos Hermopolis Zea Andros Tinos Naxos Santorin Milos

70,969

159,172

j

1,142,227

bor the administration of justice there is an areopagus, or supreme court, 2 courts of appeal, 3 commercial courts, 10 civil and criminal courts, 120 justice of the peace courts, with jury trials, lawyers, notaries, &c. Then there is a provisional civil code, a commercial code, a code of civil process, and a code of criminal law, which seems to secure everything that can be desired for the ends of justice. Capital punishment was introduced by the penal code in 1837, but before an executioner could be found there were 30 or 40 prisoners waiting for execution. The guillotine is the instrument used ; and the horror of the scene is occasionally augmented by the struggles of the culprit to escape. The law provides that he shall walk freely and unbound to his doom; and as most of those who are thus condemned are vigorous men, brigands by profession, the struggle is sometimes fearful. The executioner, however, at length prevails, being armed with a dagger, and when the culprit is exhausted with loss of blood from its thrusts, he goes freely to suffer the last sentence of the law. The people, who are for the most part strongly attached to the Greek Church, have almost forgotten the religion of their king, because they look forward to the 40th article of their constitution being strictly enforced, which stipulates that the next heir or successor of King Otho shall be of the same religion as their own. Prince Leutpold, the brother next in age to Otho, declines changing his religion. A still younger brother, Prince Adalbert, consents to accept the sovereignty in his stead, and the London conference has authorized the substitution ; but as he is not absolutely certain of the succession, he chooses to continue a Roman Catholic till actually put in possession of the throne ; and to all appearance it will again be the fate of Greece to receive a king who is an utter stranger to them, and at heart averse to their religion. When Greece was a province of Turkey, its religious community naturally formed part of the patriarchate of Con-

stantinople, one of the four great divisions of the Eastern Church. The war of independence virtually freed it from this position, and the constitution of 1843 established the fact. The patriarch, however, did not recognise the independence of the church in Greece, and the result of a long negotiation between the Greek government and the patriarch was a bull or tomos, signed in 1850 by the patriarch and synod. It set forth that the right of uniting or separating ecclesiastical provinces had in all ages belonged to the oecumenical synods ; and it granted to the Greeks the permission to separate, but not without some restriction, to the effect that difficult cases should be referred to the patriarch and his sacred college. This tomos did not satisfy either party. The Russian emperor and his partisans desired to see the Greeks kept in connection with the synod, while the friends of independence desired more perfect freedom. In 1852, the matter was brought before the Chambers, and a bill was passed to the effect that the superior ecclesiastical authority of the kingdom should reside in a permanent synod, called the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece. This synod is composed of four prelates of the kingdom, besides the metropolitan, who enjoys the right of presidency. A commissioner appointed by the king attends the sittings, not to vote, but to countersign all their acts and decisions. The functions of the synod are either internal, including the preservation of pure doctrine and worship with the maintenance of ecclesiastical discipline, and other matters purely religious; or they are external, relating to matters which involve public interests, as marriage, divorce, the excommunication of laymen, and the celebration of extraordinary religious festivals on working days. In the former, the powers of the synod are independent of the state ; in the latter, it can act only in concert with the government. Excommunication, however, is used in a different spirit from the Roman Catholic Church, namely, to influence, by the fear of God and future punishment, the consciences of those who, knowing the perpetrators of a crime, conceal, or do not reveal to the authorities, the criminal, or of those who are the possessoi’s of stolen property. Very often this has succeeded better than the efforts of the police. It is, however, vei'y seldom used, and the synod must first have permission fi-om the king. The kingdom is divided into 24 episcopal sees, of which 11 are directed by archbishops, and the remaining 13 by bishops. Evei’y bishop is chosen by the king out of three candidates pi’esented by the Holy Synod. He can displace him again only in conformity with the canons, and after the advice of the synod. The metropolitan receives 6000 drachms (L.212) a year ; each archbishop, 5000 (L.180) ; and each bishop 4000 (L.145). The inferior clergy receive no salary from the state. They live chiefly by the altar, but they also levy certain portions of the harvest. The goveimment found the country infested with monks, and it has shut up many of their houses ; but it has been impossible either to suppress or reform a convent at Janina ( Turkey), containing about 200 females, who are not closely secluded, and whose morals are said to be scandalous. The religious houses are undei’stood to be asylums of anti-national intrigue, the inmates being generally devoted to the interests of the Russian emperor, and disposed to look on King Otho as a mere heretic. There are above 300 churches in Athens and its neighbourhood ; only five or six of them are habitable, the rest are miserable sheds or ruins, yet none of them is utterly abandoned. On the day of the saint to which it is dedicated, a little lamp is lighted, a little incense burned, and a few prayers chanted. It would be deemed sacrilege to destroy even the meanest of these sanctuaries. There are no infidels or latitudinarians in Greece ; no one is ashamed of punctually attending to the duties of religion. (For the

19 Greece.

20 Greece,

Education.

GREECE. doctrines and state of the Greek Church, see GREEK CHURCH.) Roman Catholics are tolerated, among whom is the king himself; but he is obliged to render Public homage to the state religion five or six times a year. There are few Jews who, though they have every protection, do not seem to prosper amongst the Greeks. The army, which was reorganized in 1843, consists now of 6 battalions of the line, 3 battalions of light infantry, 2 troops of cavalry, 3 companies of artillery, 1 company of engineers, and 1 of artillery workmen, 3 corps of gendarmerie, 1 corps of pensioners and phalanx ; in all, including the administrative hospital pensioners, 9o2 officers, 12,57 subalterns, 8237 soldiers—total 10,446. The fleet numbers 21 vessels, principally small, except 3 steamers and some gun-boats which the government has lately ordered in England. The complement of the Greek navy is 1431 men, including 418 officers and 139 subofficers. Greece boasts of one university, divided into the faculties of theology, philosophy, law, and medicine ; a military school ; a polytechnic school of arts and trades ; a normal school for training elementary teachers; a school of agriculture ; a seminary; seven lyceums ; an extensive institute for female education ; an orphan female school, called Amalion, was established last year at Athens, under the patronage of Her Majesty the Queen of Greece (who is very much beloved by the nation for her intelligence and judgment, and for the great zeal she shows for the patriotic cause); 179 Hellenic schools, in which ancient Greek is taught; and 369 communal or Romaic schools, in which strictly elementary instruction is imparted. In 1854-5 there were 643 students at the university—20 in theology, 190 law, 317 medicine, 74 philosophy, and 42 pharmacy; and there were 38,018 scholars at the various schools. The education in all, from the humblest village school to the university, is gratuitous. The effect is to draw the youth of the country in undue proportion towards the learned professions. A young man will at once enter the house of a Fanariot as a valet, and matriculate at the university as a medical student. When his studies are completed, he will ask his master’s permission to attend him in future as his physician. Children and youths of all ages prosecute their studies with indefatigable eagerness ; and at Athens an idle student is not to be found. Newspapers and periodicals form the principal literature of the country, but a considerable number of books are published yearly in every branch of knowledge, either translated or original. In 1851, 188; and in 1852, 164 books were published, the greater part of which were of poetry; and though we understand few of the latter are of a first-class character, yet it shows that the Greeks aspire to gather the laurels of Parnassus once more. All the books are written by Greeks; and it may be mentioned, that out of the 164 published in 1852, 120 belong to the kingdom of Greece, 29 to the Ionian Islands, 7 to Turkey, and 8 to Vienna and London. They are a very musical people ; but until lately music did not form a part of their education. In sculpture, there is now an establishment at Athens of a talented artist, who with such splendid prototypes before him may succeed in approaching his ancestors. In 1846 M. Salvandy, minister of public instruction in France, resolved to found at Athens a school for the promotion of literature, similar to the French Academy at Rome for the fine arts. It was decided that the members should be chosen from among young men who had obtained fellowships in history, philosophy, and literature; and that they should each spend two or three years in Athens, at the expense of the state, in a house provided for them, and prosecute the study of Greek literature. The first professors that repaired to Greece seemed at a loss what to do with themselves. Some began to learn

modern Greek under an Athenian professor; others em- Greece, ployed themselves in teaching French to the Athenians; others travelled about the country; while economisers at home, disposed to pick holes in the budget, wondered what end was gained by the 40,000 francs per annum which this academy cost the state. In 1850 a decree was passed, placing the school under the patronage of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, and enjoining that each member should annually send home a paper on some question of Greek history, geography, or archaeology. The institution was, however, nearly extinct, when the fortunate excavations of M. Beule gave it a fresh impulse. There are now five young professors prosecuting with enthusiasm their researches into the archaeological remains. The kingdom of Greece has ever been pecuniarily in an embarrassed state. It was necessary for the protecting powers to enable her to negotiate a loan by becoming security for her. The sum thus raised has been squandered by the Bavarian regency, and now the revenue never meets the expenditure ; so that there is little hope of the debt ever being paid. The greatest part ot the taxes are paid in kind, because of the scarcity of money. The wealthy proprietors bribe or intimidate the officials; and the lesser ones are protected either by a powerful friend or by their own poverty. The ministers of finance, therefore, up to 1846, used to prepare two budgets—one indicating what sums the government ought to receive; the other, wrhat it could dare to hope for. The year after the revolution, only a small portion of the taxes imposed were realized. The state income consists of—(1.) Direct taxes, including Income, land tax, paid in kind; usufruct, or the rent paid in kind by the cultivators of the state lands; except the tax on the currants, valonia, and all kinds of fruit, which is paid in money ; taxes on bees, cattle, and buildings, which are paid in money; and a tax on grants of land from the state, also payable in money. (2.) Indirect taxes, including customsduties, stamp-duties, taxes on trade and professions, licenses to carry arms, consular fees, and quarantine, harbour, and navigation dues. The public £stablishments—as the mint, the mails, and the royal printing-office—yield very little return. The national property—consisting of mines, quarries, medicinal springs, salt-works, fisheries, forests, olive-groves,^ vineyards, &c.—ought to supply a considerable revenue, it the government were intelligent enough to have them worked advantageously, and strong enough to compel payment from those who work them. The state expenditure consists chiefly of the interest on the national debt, internal and foreign ; the civil list; the salaries of the chambers and the expenses of the ministry; besides those of collecting taxes and customs. The following statement of the foreign debt is from the Debt, report of M. Metaxas, audited by M. Lemaitre, commissioner of the French government:— In 1832, France, England, and Russia, to complete the emancipation of Greece, and to assure her prosperity, supported by their guarantee a loan of sixty millions of francs. Each of the three powers guaranteed a third of the sum, that is to say, twenty millions. One part of these sixty millions was intended to indemnify the creditors of Greece, and particularly the Turkish government; the remainder was to supply the first wants of agriculture and commerce, and to form as it were a social capital for this improvised kingdom. Unfortunately, the funds were confided to the Council of Regency. The regents were irresponsible ; they employed the money as they pleased, and went away without giving in any accounts. It is difficult to say which most to admire, the audacity of the regents, the simplicity of the Greeks, or the rashness of the great powers, to confide sixty millions to three individuals who had the right of squandering them. Since the year 1832, up to the 31st December 1843, the issues of the bonds for the loan amounted to :—

21 GREECE. an article of this kind, we can do nothing more than allude Greece, Francs. Cents. Drachms. lep. to the various classes of objects comprised under the title. English 19,838,805 33£ = 22,155,977 79 Among these we may, without much impropriety, rank many Russian 19,999,573 33J = 22,335,523 50 of the cities themselves, which not only exist on the very French 17,400,661 33J = 19,433,058 58 spots they anciently occupied, and bear the same names, but, deriving their most striking characters from natural 57,229,040 63,924,559 87 objects which remain unchanged, they still present to the eye To be deducted :— Loss in the negotiation of the loan at a distance the same general aspect and outlines. With adjudged to MM. Rothschild, at Drachms, lep. regard to the interior of the cities, also, though the august 94 per cent 3,835,473 59 temples of the gods have disappeared, and filth and meanDiscount paid to those that took ness meet the eye everywhere, little doubt will remain with up the loan for payment in readythose who have read what the ancients have left us on the money 1,176,188 10 Commission and other expenses.... 1,964,251 73 subject of their private houses, and what modern travellers 6,986,013 42 have told us respecting the disinterred buildings of Pompeii, that the houses at the present day—with their square inNett capital ..56,948,546 45 closed courts, their projecting roofs, and dead walls, and all Interest, sinking fund, commisthat is most peculiar in their plan and interior arrangesion, ditferent expenses up to ments—are copies (though miserable copies) of those of the 31st December 1843 33,080,795 31 ancient Greeks ; and it is probable that some of the modern Remains, 23,867,751 14 dark and narrow streets of Athens come much nearer in Greece contracted in Bavaria anappearance to what they were in the age of Pericles than other loan, which produced, the admirers of antiquity are willing to allow. Among the after deducting the expenses of cities which occupy their ancient sites, and bear their ancient negotiation 4,658,186 14 names with little alteration, may be mentioned Athens, Paid for interest, sinking fund, commission and expenses up to Thebes, Livadia, Larissa, Pharsalia, Salonica, Corinth, Ar31st December 1843 2,809,077 66 gos, Nauplia, Patrse; and a great number of others of less note might be added. The ancient buildings of which reNett 1,849,109 00 1,849,109 00 mains now exist belong to three different eras :—1. The very Sums advanced by France 3,085,098 25 ancient structures to which the name of Cyclopean has been Sums advanced by the three Powers 2,757,028 32 given, consisting of vast masses of unhewn stone, put toGross total of the resources of which Greece gether without cement. They are not numerous. The could have disposed 31,558,986 71 ruins of the citadels of Tyrins and Mycenae, which are of To be added for two heads misplaced 100,947 62 this description, have remained in their present state for 3000 years, and present the most perfect specimen in existTotal 31,659,934 33 1 Greece, or at least her government, has therefore received from ence of the military architecture of the heroic ages. 2. foreign powers, between 1832 and 1843, a nett and clear sum of The works of the classical ages, consisting of temples, baths, 31,659,934 drachms, 33 lepta. porticoes, theatres, columns, stadia, fountains, which are extremely numerous, and executed in a great variety of Let us see how these resources have been employed :— Indemnity stipulated nominally in favour of Turkey, styles, exemplifying the infancy, progress, perfection, and but in reality to the advantage of Russia, who Drachms, lep. decline of the arts. Of the two or three hundred temples had pecuniary demands to press against Turkey, 12,531,164 54 enumerated by Pausanias—many of which were models of Reimbursement to ditferent persons for debts anterior to the establishment of the Greek kingdom, 2,238,559 15 the most exquisite beauty and symmetry—that of Theseus at Athens was the only one tolerably entire; and it was To which may be added, as useless expenditure, the Bavarian Regency, 1832-33 1,397,654 27 destroyed by the Turks in 1827. Others are found in vaThe conveyance, cost, and return of the Bavarian rious stages of dilapidation ; and the far greater part have troops, from 1st September 1832 to 30th Sepvanished from their sites, and only left traces of their existtember 1834 4,748,050 0 ence in their innumerable fragments of inscribed and sculp20,915,427 96 tured marbles scattered over the fields, or stuck into the Which, deducted from 31,659,934 33 walls of forts, churches, and clay-built cottages. 3. A number of square towers, of a rude construction, built on the tops Give a remainder of. 10,744,506 37 of hills, for military purposes, are the only memorials left With a little assistance, Greece paid the interest of the by the Latin princes who ruled Greece for two or three cenloan of 60,000,000 frs. in the years 1841,1842, 1843. Since turies before the Mohammedan conquest. 4. Next in imthen she has fallen hopelessly into arrears. She now owes to portance to the remains of ancient edifices we may rank the the three Powers 100,000,000 drs., which she cannot pay ; statues, bas-reliefs, and inscribed marbles ; a great number besides above 200,000,000 drs. to English capitalists, which of which, generally somewhat mutilated, have been brought from Greece to enrich the museums of Western Europe; she will not pay. As to other items of the state expenditure, the king’s and a much greater number, no doubt, lie buried under the civil list is 1,000,000 drs., or about L.36,000 sterling; the soil. 5. Vessels of terra cotta, or ancient pottery, consisting chambers receive about 600,000 drs. a year; the seven of vases, amphorae, lamps, &c., of exquisite workmanship, ministers, as salary, 9600 drs.; while the departments of adorned with coloured designs illustrative of the arts, habits, the army and navy expend A genus caster in Warwickshire. He was educated, along with his of plants of the natural family of Tiliaceae has been called cousin Sir Philip Sydney, at Shrewsbury; and on leaving “ Grewia” in his honour. school, spent a considerable time at both the universities. GREY, Earl. The family from which Earl Grey sprung After travelling on the Continent, and mastering some of had been settled in Northumberland since the Conquest, the modern languages, he returned home; and through the and was at various times ennobled in its branches, giving influence of friends at court, obtained some honourable and birth to the Earls of Tankerville in Normandy and Englucrative employments, chiefly in connection with the govern- land, and the Barons Grey of Werk. Charles, first earl, ment of Wales. In 1614 he was made under-treasurer and son of Sir Henry Grey of Howick, was aide-de-camp to chancellor of the exchequer ; and six years later, was raised Prince Ferdinand at Minden, served long and well in the to the peerage by the title of Lord Brooke of Beauchamp’s American War, and commanded the land forces at the reCourt. He was murdered in 1628, in a moment of rage, by duction of Martinique, &c., in 1794. As the reward of his an old servant of his own, who had no sooner done the deed long service, he was created Baron Grey of Howick in 1801, than he threw himself upon the sword with which he had and in 1806 Viscount Howick and Earl Grey. His eldest slain his master. son Charles, the subject of this notice, was born at Falloden, Fulke Greville’s name is noteworthy in the history of near Alnwick, on the 13th of March 1764. He received English literature, both from his own contributions to it, his early education at Eton, and before he was sixteen and the services which he rendered to some of its needy entered King’s College, Cambridge, where he studied with cultivators in his day. Besides founding an historical lec- distinction for two years. He completed his education in ture at Cambridge, he rendered much valuable aid to Da- the usual manner, by a continental tour, spending some time venant, Camden, Speed, and others, in their struggles with in France, Spain, and Italy. In 1786 he returned home, the hardships of a literary career. Of his own writings and soon after was sent to parliament by his native county. we may mention, The Life of the Renowned Sir Philip To the surprise of his friends, who belonged, of course, to Sidney, Lond. 1652; Certaine learned and elegant Workes the Tory party, the youthful member took his seat on the of the Right Hon. Fulke Lord JBrooke, ivritten in his youth, left of the speaker, and soon convinced the House that a and familiar exercise with Sir Philip Sidney, Lond. 1633; formidable ally had been gained by the small but brilliant The Remains of Sir Fulke Greville, Lord Brooke, being opposition that followed the banner of Fox. His maiden Poems of Monarchy and Religion, never before printed, speech, Feb. 21, 1787, stamped his character as a speaker. Lond. 1670; A Treatise of Human Learning ; An Inqui- The clearness and force of his argument, the animation and sition upon Fame and Honour ; A Treatise of Wars ; &c. grace of his delivery, joined to a stately and aristocratic Greville’s poems are remarkable for their depth of thought bearing, excited general admiration. The subject of debate and masculine strength of expression. They abound, how- was Mr Pitt’s commercial treaty with France, which the ever, more in solemn ethical and philosophical thought than young statesman followed his leader in opposing. A few in poetic beauties, strictly so called; and the diction in years sufficed to show that he was capable of taking wider Greta

61 Grew |( drey,

.

62 G R Grey, views, and shaping a course untrammelled by any docile —subservience to a chief. He soon became a prominent man in the House; and to have commanded respect in a house where Fox, Burke, and Sheridan spoke on the same side with him, implied no common abilities. In the following year, though not yet twenty-four, he was appointed one of the managers in the trial of Warren Hastings. From the very commencement of his political life, Mr Grey stood out as the champion of the principles which gave character to his whole career. The three words which summed up his ministerial programme in 1831, Peace, Retrenchment, and Reform, constitute the main burden of his early parliamentary history. In the debates on the Regency Bill in 1789, indeed, he vigorously supported his party in defence of expenditure for one whom they “valued highly as an auxiliary.” That Mr Grey’s conduct, however, was guided by no servile partizanship was evinced by his subsequent resistance to the additional grant for liquidating the prince’s debts. Of his principal appearances in the House from 1789 to 1792, it may suffice to notice his motion for inquiry into the convention with Spain in 1789, his opposition to a war with Russia (on the taking of Oczakow), and his efforts to mitigate the law of imprisonment for debt. The outbreak of the French Revolution, and the rapid series of events from 1789 onwards, produced a schism in the camp of the Whigs. While Burke vehemently opposed the progress of the terrible phenomenon, and many of the Wings consented to support the omnipotent minister, Fox and Grey, at the head of their small but resolute band, never swerved for a moment in their opposition to a war with France. Fearlessly committing himself to the advocacy of principles then regarded, not only by the order with which birth and feeling connected him, but by an immense majority of the people, as dangerous and revolutionary, Mr Grey became one of the chief promoters of a political confederacy, entitled “ The Society of the Friends of the People.” The very name smacked of revolution ; and though most of the leading and more liberal Whigs joined this Ibrmidable association, Mr Fox declined to have anything to do with it, and even exerted himself privately against it. The avowed object was to obtain a reform in the system of parliamentary representation ; and on the 30th April 1792 Mr Grey gave notice of a motion for next session, embodying the principle “ that the evils which threaten the constitution can only be corrected by timely and temperate reform.” Before next session the aspect of parties had considerably altered. The general antipathy to everything known as “liberal”—a synonym to many minds for Jacobinism, anarchy, and atheism—had its due weight with timid and time-serving politicians, and a section of the Whigs were already meditating an alliance with the ministry. The demand for parliamentary reform was not indeed quite new. It had been for some time recognised as a valuable stockcry lor ambitious politicians, and so late as 1785 Mr Pitt himself spoke of it as “ the great question which was nearest his heart.” Mr Pitt had changed his sentiments, so persuasive was the French revolution ; and it was no wonder that smaller men consented to leave things as they were. Of another stamp was Mr Grey. Amid almost universal selfishness and servility, he adhered to his principles from first to last, “ unshaken, unseduced, unterrified.” The faith of his youth continued to be the creed of his manhood, and its triumph was the glory of his old age. On the 6th of May 1793, the House of Commons was inundated with petitions in favour of parliamentary reform. Among others, Colonel Macleod presented one from Edinburgh “ of the whole length of the floor of the House.” Last of all came Mr Grey with the petition of the People’s Friends, a document “ of such length as took nearly half an

E Y. hour in the reading.” It stated “ with great precision and distinctness” the existing defects in the system of parliamentary representation, and the evils arising from the long duration of parliaments. It offered to prove that the treasury and the peers actually nominated 97 members, and influenced the return of 70 more, while 91 individual commoners procured the election of 139, in all 307—a majority of the entire House of Commons being thus returned by one hundred and sixty individuals. Mr Grey concluded his speech by moving for a select committee. After two long debates the motion was lost by 282 to 41. The House of Commons was well pleased with its own purity ! The war with France continued to meet with Mr Grey’s determined opposition, even after it had come to be regarded by many of his party as a necessary evil. Acknowledging as he did (1794) that France “groaned under the most furious tyranny,” and that “ he would prefer the dominion of Nero or Caligula to the authority which now governed that nation,” he made repeated motions (1795-96) for the opening of negotiations, dwelling always with great force on the ruinous expense of the war. The result was ever the same ; “ extended and animated speeches,” able reasoning, and undeniable figures, were followed invariably by crushing minorities. The introduction of foreign troops into England, the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, the large addition to the grant for liquidating the debts of the Prince of Wales, and the “detestable” bill to restrain public meetings, were opposed with equal vigour and with as little success. His motions in 1796 (March 10 and May 6), on the state of the nation, and for an impeachment of ministers for malversation of public money, were lost in like manner by overwhelming majorities. His whole career was a desperate battle against invincible odds. On the 26th May 1797, he again brought forward a motion for parliamentary reform, and this time he put forth a plan. He proposed to leave the number of members unaltered, but to increase the county representation from 92 to 113 ; to extend the county franchise from freeholders to copyholders and leaseholders ; the burgh franchise to all tax-paying householders; a voter only to vote for one member; the elections to be all on the same day; and, if the whole measure were carried, but not otherwise, triennial parliaments—a measure in principle little different from the Reform Bill of 1830. In concluding his speech, Mr Grey intimated that if his motion were lost he would despair of any further success in attempting to remedy the national ills, “and not again trouble the House with his observations.” The motion was lost by 258 to 63, and the general question of parliamentary reform went to sleep for more than a generation. Mr Grey did not speak again in parliament till 1799, when he came forward in opposition to the Irish Union. For some years after this he made no public appearance of importance. On the 23d of January 1806, Mr Pitt died, and the Whigs came into power7 under Grenville and Fox. Mr Grey, now Lord Howick, w as made first lord of the admiralty. On the death of Mr Fox, a few months after his great rival, Lord Howick succeeded his departed chief as secretary for foreign affairs, and leader of the House of Commons. The time had now come for attempting with better hope some of the great reforms for which he had hitherto battled. One only of these the brief duration of his power permitted him to carry—the abolition of the slave trade. Early in March 1807, he moved the abolition of the oath which barred Roman Catholics and other dissenters from serving in the army and navy. The opposition shriek of horror at so latitudinarian a proposal, was more loud than edifying. The cries of “ No Popery,” “ Church and King,” &c., were raised with great effect from the expectant premier down to the orthodox street-sweeper. The old king took violent alarm, and demanded a written promise from his ministers not to meddle with the obnoxious topic. Mr Pitt had given him

Grey,

G R E Grey, such a pledge, but Lord Howick and his colleagues respect—v--—^ fully declined to follow the example, and threw up their offices. A few years later their successors quietly passed the measure to the abjuration of which they owed their power. On the dissolution of parliament, Lord Howick declining to contest the county of Northumberland, took his seat for Appleby. The death of his father in November of that year removed him to the House of Peers as Earl Grey, and for several years he enjoyed the calm pleasures of domestic retirement, steadily refusing the power which was more than once within his reach, while its acceptance involved the slightest compromise of the principles for the realization of which alone power had for him any charms. To the sweeter influences of family life, though outwardly a man of stiff and haughty reserve, he was keenly sensitive, and nowhere were these influences more attractively displayed than in the family circle at Howick. He had married in 1794 the only daughter of William, afterwards Lord Ponsonby, by whom he had ten sons and five daughters. In 1809, 1810, and 1812, repeated overtures were made to Earl Grey and Lord Grenville to join the administration, but on each occasion the offers were unhesitatingly rejected. The Prince Regent was anxious to obtain the support of “ some of those persons with whom the early habits of his public life were formedand after the last unsuccessful negotiation, on the death of Mr Perceval (May 1812), Lord Grey was careful to express his willingness that his friends should take office without him, promising his cordial support;—for himself untrammelled freedom was a stern necessity. During the eighteen succeeding years, Lord Grey headed the opposition in the House of Peers. In that time of depression and discontent which followed the peace, he opposed, consistently with his ancient policy, the harsh and coercive measures of the government, ever advocating, as the true and constitutional method of dealing with the existing evils, the removal of the causes from which they sprung. In no part of his public life did he earn higher honour than on the trial of Queen Caroline. His severe and dignified opposition to the Bill of Pains and Penalties had great weight in influencing the decision of the Peers, and alienated him for ever from a king who had been from the beginning unworthy of his friendship. In 1827 Mr Canning became prime minister, and a shameful spectacle of place-hunting ensued. All the Whig leaders gave him their support. Earl Grey alone stood disdainfully aloof from a man whose tardy and doubtful liberalism contrasted so strongly with the unyielding consistency of his own political life. His utter distrust of Mr Canning’s policy, and the severity with which he criticised his career, were sufficiently justified to his rigid sense of honour by that statesman’s declaration of unqualified opposition to Reform and Roman Catholic Emancipation. In that session, in supporting the Duke of Wellington’s unpopular amendment on the ministerial Corn Bill, he made the memorable declaration so characteristic of his severe patrician spirit. “ If,” said he, “ there should come a contest between this house and a great portion of the people, my part is taken ; and with that order to which I belong I will stand or fall.” Coriolanus was not less “ ambitious for poor knaves’ caps and legs” than the lordly English reformer. The time at last came for the triumphant realization of the great objects for which Earl Grey had so long and almost hopelessly contended. One of these—the relief of the Roman Catholics from civil disabilities—was granted by his opponents as a tardy concession to the imperious voice of the nation. In the debates on that question in the House of Lords, Earl Grey was said to have “ excelled all others, and even himself.” The long sleeping question of Reform was once more revived when disappointed politicians found that ministers were bidding for popular favour, and the ex-

G R E citing impulse of the French Revolution of 1830 gave new life to the agitation of grievances. The Iron Duke with fatal honesty scouted the necessity of change, and affirmed that the existing system of representation enjoyed “ the full and entire confidence of the country.” The country answered with a groan, and the Wellington ministry had to retire. The veteran leader of the Whigs was summoned to the helm of affairs; and on the 22d of November, Earl Grey, as prime minister, delivered his programme in the House of Peers. The history of the great event which crowned his long labours in the cause of Reform is elsewhere fully narrated (see Britain). Throughout the whole of that trying and momentous time, the wisdom and firmness of the minister were manifested so conspicuously as to have earned him, in all impartial eyes, the glory of having guided the nation in safety over the kindling mine of revolution. The contest between his order and the people, of which he had once spoken, had actually arrived, and he sacrificed the independence of the peers to the will of the nation. That no other course was open to a man charged with so fearful a responsibility, is a sufficient answer to the charge of inconsistency. The moral courage requisite to so stern a duty was of higher account than a martyrdom purchased by civil war. The acts of the first reformed parliament are already told (see Britain). The emancipation of the slaves, the abolition of the East India Company’s monopoly, the reform of the Irish Church, and of the poor-laws, were the chief of the legislative victories won under the rule of Earl Grey. His foreign policy, in the able hands of Lord Palmerston, was at once bold and pacific, temperate but just. Personal changes and differences finally shook the cabinet, and in November 1834 Earl Grey resigned. The remaining years of his life were spent in retirement. For some time he appeared occasionally in the House of Lords, frankly supporting the administration of Lord Melbourne. He died at his seat, in Northumberland, on the 17th July 1845, in the eighty-second year of his age. A political career so long useful and unblemished had seldom been exemplified. Faithful, in the midst of so much inconsistency and cowardice, to the principles for which he had braved obloquy in his youth, and resisted the fascinations of power, he attained at length, in the decline of life but not of vigour, the goal of all his strivings, the grand results, of which he had all but despaired. In the latter part of his political life he stood alone—an u/timus Romanorum ; and, after his death, his characteristic part as a statesman was no longer possible to a successor, had any been fit to assume it. Let his defects have been ever so many, and they were few, the high example of his uncorrupted honour and constancy in the pursuit of great ends is a KTYj^a es aa to the nation which reaps their fruits. Grey, Lady Jane, a scion of the blood-royal of England, remarkable for her many virtues and accomplishments no less than her misfortunes, was born in 1537, at Broadgate, in Leicestershire. She was the great-granddaughter of Henry VII. of England. Mary, second daughter of that king, after being left a widow by Louis XII. of France, married Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, by whom she had a daughter, who ultimately married Henry Grey, Marquis of Dorset. The offspring of this union was three daughters, the eldest of whom was Lady Jane Grey. From an early period she was distinguished for her talents; it is known for certain that while still very young she had thoroughly mastered Latin, Greek, French, and Italian, and was conversant with at least three of the Oriental tongues, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic. In Ascham’s Schoolmaster is given a touching account of the difficulties and hardships under which she pursued her studies, and the causelessly cruel treatment she experienced from her parents. In 1553, her father and the Duke of Northum-

63 Grey,

64 G R I Greyhound berland, having risen to power after the downfall of Somerset, , ii resolved to transfer into their own families the right of sucne® ac • cession to the throne. A marriage was accordingly brought about between Lady Jane Grey and Lord Guilford Dudley, the Duke of Northumberland’s fourth son ; and the weakly Edward VL, when he found his end approaching, was easily persuaded to pass over his own sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, and nominate Lady Jane Grey and her husband as his successors to the English throne. Some days elapsed after the king’s death before Lady Jane was told that she was queen of England ; and when she came to know the fact, she could only with the greatest difficulty be persuaded to avail herself of it. After a reign of ten days, she quietly resigned the throne in favour of Mary. Her husband and she were thrown into the Tower; and though it was not originally intended to put them to death, yet, in consequence of Wyat’s insurrection, they were executed together, Feb. 12, 1554. Lady Jane displayed on the scaffold the same pious resignation and calm self-possession that had distinguished her throughout life. (Ascham’s Schoolmaster; Biog. Brit.; Burnet’s Hist. Ref.) GREYHOUND. See Hound, and Mammalia. GRE\ WACKE, or Grauwacke, a rock formation, composed of quartz, flinty slate, clay slate, and felspar, in pieces varying in size, and cemented together by a clayslate basis. See Mineralogy. GRIESBACH, Johann Jacob, an eminent German biblical critic, was born at Butzbach, in Hesse-Darmstadt, Jan. 4, 1745. He was educated at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, and completed his studies at the universities of Tubingen, Halle, and Leipzig. He distinguished himself especially in all theological and biblical inquiries, and was the favourite pupil both of Semler and Ernesti. At the early age of twenty-four he had determined to devote himself to the scientific study of the doctrines and text of the New Testament. To carry out his plan, he began a literary tour through Germany, Holland, and England, making friends for himself among^lhe leading literati of all these countries, and amassing large stores of valuable materials for his great work. In 1770 he returned to Frankfort to arrange and digest these; but in the following year was made theological lecturer, and in 1773, extraordinary professor of theology at Halle. In this office he distinguished himself so much that he was offered a professorship at Jena, which he accepted. In 1780 he became rector of the university, and was promoted to various other responsible offices. The Duke of Saxe-Weimar nominated him his ecclesiastical councillor, and a member of his states; and he had been already made prelate and deputy of the district of Weimar. About ten years before this, he had married a sister of the famous Schiitz, with whom he seems to have lived happily till his death, March 24, 1812. Griesbach’s first edition of his text of the New Testament was published at Halle in 1774, in the form of a hand-book for the students then attending his lectures. The first volume of the second edition was published in 1796, and the second in 1807. A font of types was cast expressly for this edition by the famous type-founder Goschen ; and as the expense of the paper was borne by the Duke of Grafton, chancellor of the university of Cambridge, the grateful author published his book simultaneously in London and Halle. The book has been since twice reprinted in London, once in 1809, and again in 8 1818. Griesbach’s recension of the text of the New Testament is based on a comparison of the three great classes into which he divides the various Greek MSS. These sets of MSS. are the Alexandrine, the Western, and the Bvzantine or Asiatic, which latter is the basis of the Greek Vulgate. Of these, the first is by far the best, as Griesbach considers undeniable, from the coincidence between the Scripture quotations in the extant works of Origen and the text of the

G E I celebrated Alexandrian MS. of the New Testament. The Byzantine, in opposition to Matthise and Scholz, he considers far from reliable. But his whole system has been attacked repeatedly in Germany and England, in the latter country more especially by Dr Nolan in his Enquiry into the integrity of the Greek Vulgate, or received Text 'of the New Testament, and by Archbishop Lawrence in his Remarks upon the Systematical Classification of MSS. adopted by Dr Griesbach. Griesbach’s chief works, in addition to those already mentioned, are—Dissertatio de fide historicd, ex ipsd rerum quae narrantur, natura judicandd, 4to, 1764 ; Diss. hist, theol. locos theologicos ex Leone M. Pontifice Romano Sistens, Halle, 4to, 1768 ; Dissertatio de Codicihus quatuor Evangeliorum Origenianis, 4to, 1771 ; Dissertatio curarum in historiam textus Grceci Epistolarum Paulinarum specimen, Jena, 1777; Programma de fontibus unde Evangelista; suas de resurrectione Domini narrationes hauserint, 1784; Progr. de imaginibus Judaicis quibus auctor Epistolce ad Hebrceos in describenda Messice provincia usus est, 1791-92; Symbolee criticce ad supplendas et corrigendas varias N. T. lectiones ; Accedit multorum N. T. codicum Graecorum descriptio et examen, Halle, 1785-93; Commentar. critic, in textum Grcecum N. T. • Grieshach’s Opuscula Academica were published at Jena in 1824. GRIFFIN, or Gryphon (gryphus, ypvf), in the natural history of the ancients, the name of an imaginary bird of prey, of the eagle species, represented with four legs, wings, and a beak ; the upper part resembling an eagle, and the lower a lion. This animal, which was supposed to watch over gold mines and hidden treasures, was consecrated to the sun; and the ancient painters represented the chariot of the sun as drawn by griffins. According to Spanheim, those of Jupiter and Nemesis were similarly provided. The griffin of Scripture is that species of the eagle called in Latin ossifraga, or osprey. The griffin is frequently seen on ancient medals, and is still borne in escutcheons. Guillim blazons it rampant, alleging that any very fierce animal may be so blazoned as well as the lion ; but Sylvester, Morgan, and others use the term segreiant instead of rampant. The griffin was also an architectural ornament among the Greeks, and was copied from them, with other architectural embellishments, by the Romans. GRIMALDI, one of the four ancient families of “ high nobility” of Genoa. The lordship of Monaco, afterwards elevated to the rank of a principality, belonged to the Grimaldi from a.d. 980 for more than 600 years. With the Fieschi they always acted an important part in the history of Genoa, especially in the disputes between the Ghibelines and the Guelphs, to which latter family both parties belonged. The influence of the Grimaldi was much increased by their large estates in France and Italy. Of this family there were several eminent men, of whom the principal are: 1. Ranieri Grimai.di, the first Genoese who conducted the naval forces of the republic beyond the straits of Gibraltar. He sailed to Zealand, in the service of Philip (the Fair) of France, in 1304, with sixteen Genoese galleys and twenty French ships under his command ; and there he defeated and made prisoner the Count Guy of Flanders, who commanded the enemy’s fleet of eighty sail.—2. Antonio Grimaldi, likewise was distinguished in the naval service of his country in the early part of the fourteenth century. Flis victories over the Catalonians and Aragonese, who had committed aggressions on the Genoese, gave the latter a decided maritime ascendency for a long time; but at length, in 1353, the Catalonians, assisted by the Venetians, under the command of Nicholas Pisani, gave him battle, and nearly destroyed his whole fleet.—3. Giovanni Grimaldi is celebrated for the victory he gained over the Venetian admiral Trevesani, on the Po, in 1431, when, in sight of Carmagnola’s army, he succeeded in taking twenty-eight galleys and a great number of transports, with immense spoils.—4. Domenico Grimaldi, cardinal, archbishop, and vice-legate of Avignon, was famous as a naval commander, and eminent as a zealous

Griffin I! aldi.

Grini

G K I Grimm, extirpator of heresy from the Romish Church. Though a bishop at the time, he distinguished himself by his skill and courage at the battle of Lepanto in 1571.—5. Geronimo Grimaldi, born in 1597, was sent by Urban VIII. as nuncio to Germany and France, and the services he rendered the Roman hierarchy were rewarded by a cardinal’s hat in 1643. His whole career was highly honourable. He was bishop of Aix, and strenuously endeavoured to reform the manners of the clergy in the diocese by establishing an ecclesiastical seminary. He also founded an hospital for the poor, and annually distributed 100,000 livres in alms alone. He died at the advanced age of eightynine, in the year 1685. GRIMM, Friedrich Melchior, Baron, born at Ratisbon in 1723, is a remarkable instance of the power of letters in the eighteenth century. He was born of poor parents, who, however, gave him an education far beyond their station. On completing his studies, he tried his fortune as a dramatic writer, and, failing utterly, went to Paris as tutor to the young Count Schonberg, whose father was Polish minister at the court of Versailles. He there became reader to the Prince of Saxe-Gotha, and attached himself to the Encyclopedists, who then numbered in their ranks nearly all the intellect of Paris. In the contest as to the respective merits of French and Italian music, which at this time divided the French capital, Grimm sided with the partizans of the latter, and published on the subject a very witty little pamphlet, entitled Le petit Prophete de Bohmisckbroda, which covered the champions of the national music with ridicule, while Rousseau drove them out of the field altogether by his Lettre sur la Musique Franqaise. Their common fondness for music was the origin of a sincere friendship between Grimm and Rousseau. Grimm’s reputation as a man of wit and talent now threw open to him the best salons in Paris. His inimitable social tact, his fine conversational powers, and the perfect elegance of his manners and person (on which last he bestowed infinite pains), all strengthened the impression which he had made on his first appearance as an author. His success was still further ensured by his powers of fascinating the fair sex, with several of whom simultaneously he contrived to pass as the perfect model of a passionate and disinterested lover. After the death of the Comte de Friesen (nephew of Marshal Saxe), to whom Grimm owed much, and whose secretary he had been, he attached himself to the Duke of Orleans, and began writing, for the benefit of some of the German princes, those literary bulletins, in which, with great ability, he analyzed the current literature of France. In 1776 he became the Duke of Saxe-Gotha’s minister at the French court. When the Revolution broke out he retired to Gotha. In 1795, Catherine II. of Russia appointed him her minister at Hamburg, and her successor Paul confirmed him in this office. A sudden illness deprived him of the sight of an eye, and he once more returned to Gotha, where he died in 1807, at the advanced age of eighty-four. Grimm’s only title to remembrance by posterity is his Correspondence Litteraire, Critique et Philosophique, of which there have been several editions, the best being that in 15 vols., Paris, 1829. This work is an invaluable guide to all who desire to know the secret, literary, and social, and even political history of France during the middle and towards the close of the eighteenth century. But it must be remembered that its author was till his death—what he had been all his days—an adventurer, without fixed principles, a professed atheist, and, on the score of morale, infinitely inferior to the Diderots and D’Alemberts, who respected, and even feared him. Of these men Rousseau alone seems to have thoroughly understood the intense selfishness, egotism, and spirit of intrigue that constituted the real basis of Grimm’s character. To the latter quality he owed mainly his success in life ; and that he possessed it in no common degree YOL. XI.

G R I 65 may be easily imagined from the skill with which he finally Grimma worked his way to the top of the social ladder. || GRIMMA, a town of Saxony, circle of Leipzig, on the Gl'msteadMulde, 16 miles S.E. of Leipzig. In the middle ages Grimma was an important commercial town. It has a bridge over the river; an old castle ; manufactures of cotton, linen, and woollen stuffs ; mathematical, surgical, and musical instruments ; and some trade. Pop. (1849) 5384. GRIMSBY, Great, a municipal and parliamentary borough and seaport-town of England, county of Lincoln, on the S. side of the estuary of the Humber, near its mouth, and 15 miles S.E. of Hull. In the reign of Edward III. it was a port of such importance as to furnish that monarch with 11 ships and 170 mariners for the siege of Calais ; but the gradual blocking up of the harbour by the accumulation of mud and sand led to the decay of the port, until the construction of the new harbour in the beginning of the present century. This soon became inadequate for the increasing commerce ; and, in 1846, a new harbour was commenced, and the foundation-stone was laid by Prince Albert 17th April 1849. The new works occupy a space of 135 acres, gained from the sea, and comprise a wet dock of upwards of 20 acres, with two entrance-locks, having in front a tidal basin of 13 acres. The latter is formed by two timber piers, which are together about 2000 feet in length, and is provided with landing-slips. The chambers of the two entrance-locks connecting the tidal basin and the dock are respectively 45 feet in width by 200 in length, and 70 in width by 300 in length. At the dock entrances the average depth of water is about 9 feet at ebb and 26 feet at high tides, the latter being the permanent depth in the dock itself. There are extensive warehouses and sheds for the storing of merchandise, and lines of railway extend along each side of the dock. The dock was opened on 23d March 1852. The Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire, and the East Lincolnshire lines of railway terminate here. The vessels registered as belonging to the port on 31st December 1853 were,—under 50 tons, 74 sailing-vessels, tonnage 2151, and 4 steamers, tonnage 71 ; above 50 tons, 14 sailing-vessels, tonnage 1251, and 2 steamers, tonnage 1030. The vessels that entered and cleared at the port during that year were,—Coasting trade, sailing-vessels, inwards 251, tonnage 17,143; outwards 176, tonnage 14,656; steamers, inwards 4, tonnage 1563 ; outwards 1, tonnage 346 ;—Colonial and foreign trade,—sailing-vessels, inwards 420, tonnage 82,397, outwards 243, tonnage 51,039 ; steam-vessels, inwards 88, tonnage 33,760, outwards 95, tonnage 36,311. The amount of customs duty received at the port during 1852 was L.29,101. The parish church of Grimsby is a large cruciform structure, with a tower and steeple rising from the centre. There are a free grammar and other schools, a mechanics’ institute, &c. Grimsby is governed by a mayor, four aldermen, and twelve councillors, and returns one member to parliament. Pop. (1851) of parliamentary borough, 12,263 ; of municipal do., 8860. GRINDELWALD, a village of Switzerland, in one of the most picturesque valleys of the Canton of Berne. It is 3250 feet above the sea, and is surrounded by the lofty Wetterhorn, Schreckhorn, and Grindelwald Mountains. Near it are the two glaciers of Upper and Lower Grindelwald. GRINDSTONE, a mass of sandstone cut intoaflat circular form, and mounted on a spindle, which is commonly made to revolve by means of a winch. It is used for grinding metal or sharpening tools. The finer grindstones, such as those called polishing stones by the cutlers, are obtained from different rocks in Derbyshire, Staffordshire, and Warwickshire. Stones of the common kind are exported from Newcastle. GRINSTE AD, East, a market-town of England, county of Sussex, 28 miles S. of London. It is pleasantly situated on an eminence, and the tower of its parish church forms a I

G It I Grisons. conspicuous object for a great distance around. The church and town-hall are both handsome edifices. At the east end of the town is Sackville College, a quadrangular stone building, erected in 1616. It was founded by Robert, Earl of Dorset, for the support of twenty-four aged unmarried persons of both sexes, but in consequence of a deficiency of income the number has been reduced to twelve. Each of these has a comfortable room, and L.8 a-year in money. Market-day Thursday. Previous to the Reform Act, by which it was disfranchised, E. Grinstead returned two members to parliament. Pop. of parish (1851) 3820. GRISONS (Ger. Graubundeii), the largest and most eastern of the cantons of Switzerland, is bounded on the N.E., E., and S.E., by Liechtenstein and the Austrian dominions, and on the other sides by the cantons of St Gall, Glarus, Uri, and Ticino. It lies between N. Lat. 46. 15. and 47. 4., and E. Long. 8. 40. and 10. 29.; is 80 miles in length from E.N.E. to W.S.W., and 45 in breadth, and has an area of 2963 square miles. Lofty ranges of mountains constitute its boundaries on almost every point, and occupy a great part of the interior; indeed, the whole canton may be said to be mountainous. The main chain of the Rhaetian Alps crosses the canton from W. to E., at first separating it from Ticino and Italy, and afterwards dividing the waters of the Rhine from those that flow into the Inn. A great portion of this chain is above the limit of perpetual snow; and some of the summits, as those of the Muschelhorn, the Piz Yal Rhin, and Monte Maloya, considerably exceed the height of 10,000 feet above the sea. It is crossed by the passes of the Spliigen, Bernardin, Albula, and Scaletta. Another mountain range, an offset of the Lepontine Alps, and little inferior in height to the former, extends in a N.E. direction from the St Gothard, and forms the western boundary of the canton, dividing the waters of the Rhine from those of the Reuss and Linth. A third chain bounds the Engadine on the S.E., and a fourth, called the Rhaetihon, forms the boundary between the Grisons and the Yorarlberg. The valleys are numerous and strikingly beautiful. There are five greater valleys, known as the Hither Rhine, the Farther Rhine, the Engadine, the Albula, and the Brettegau; and nearly 150 smaller valleys are connected with these. There are no fewer than 240 glaciers and 56 waterfalls within the canton. The Rhine and the Inn both have their sources in the Grisons, as have also several tributaries of the Upper Adige, the Po, and the Adda. The scenery is peculiarly grand and magnificent. The character of the country unfits it for agriculture, and consequently its chief wealth consists in cattle, which, with timber, constitute its principal exports. Sheep, goats, and hogs are also numerous. Iron, lead, and zinc are among the mineral products, but few mines are worked. The manufactures are not important, and are chiefly for domestic use. The climate is very various. In the upper valleys the snow lies for seven months in the year, while in some of the others the temperature is sufficiently mild to admit of the cultivation of the vine. The corn produced does not by half supply the wants of the inhabitants. Hemp and flax are largely cultivated. The principal branch of commerce is the transit trade with Italy, across the Alps. The old division of the canton into three leagues is still adhered to ; the Gray League {Graue Bund), the League of God’s House (Gottes-haus Bund), and the League of Ten Jurisdictions (Zehngerichte Bund). Each of these comprise several jurisdictions (in all twenty-six), and these in their turn contain a number of communes, which may almost be said to be so many little republics, as each exercises within itself rights almost independent. The legislative power is vested in the great council, as also the election to public offices, and the settling of disputes among the communes ; but the people have a veto in the passing of new laws, and in the concluding of treaties. It is composed of sixty-five members chosen annually, in the different

G R I jurisdictions, by universal suffrage of the male population above seventeen years of age. It nominates a commission of nine members, charged with the preparation and preliminary discussion of subjects coming before it; and also a small council of three members, one for each league, intrusted with the executive. Pop. (1850) 89,895, of whom 38,039 were Roman Catholics, and 51,855 Protestants. About 50,000 speak Romansch, 30,000 German, and 9000 Italian. GRIT, or Gritstone, a name given to several kinds of sandstone used in building, as well as for millstones or grindstones, and sometimes for filtrating water. In geology the term is applied chiefly to the calcareous grit, a part of the middle oolite formation; and to the millstone grit, a rock which contains embedded quartz pebbles. GROAT, an old English silver coin, equal to fourpence. Other nations, as the Dutch, Poles, Saxons, Bohemians, and French, have likewise their groats, groots, groschen, gros, and the like. In England in the Saxon times, no silver coin larger than a penny was struck, nor after the Conquest till the reign of Edward III., who about the year 1351 coined grosses or great pieces, which went for fourpence each; and so the matter stood till the reign of Henry VIII., who in 1504 first coined shillings. GROATS, oats deprived of the husks. GROCYN, William, a distinguished classical scholar, was born at Bristol in 1442, and educated at Winchester School, and New College, Oxford. He was the friend of Dean Colet the tutor of Erasmus, and the godfather of Lilly the grammarian. A Latin epistle of his to Aldus Manutius is prefixed to Linacre’s translation of Proclus de Sphcera. It was Grocyn who first publicly taught Greek in Exeter College, Oxford, and introduced a better pronunciation of that language than had hitherto been known in England. By the introduction of this language alarming many as a most dangerous innovation, the university divided itself into two factions, distinguished as “ Greeks and Trojans,” who bore such decided hostility to each other that they proceeded to open hostilities. Thus was Grocyn situated when Erasmus came to Oxford and studied Greek under his tuition. After distinguishing himself as one of the most learned and able men of his day, Grocyn died at Maidstone in 1519. His will is printed in the appendix to Life of Erasmus. GRODNO, a government in the middle and western portion of European Russia, lying between N. Lat. 51. 30. and 54. 20., E. Long. 23. 7. and 26. 42., and bounded on the N. by the government of Vilna, E. by Minsk, S. by Volhynia, and W. by the kingdom of Poland. Its greatest length is about 173 miles and its greatest breadth about 120. Area 14,700 square miles. The surface is an extended sandy plain, broken only by a few chalk hills. A large portion of it is covered with forests, particularly in the N., while in the S. are extensive marshes. The principal rivers are the Niemen, Bug, Narew, and Priepec. The climate is moist and foggy. Rye is the principal grain cultivated, of which about 2,348,000 English quarters are produced annually, and about one-third of this quantity is exported. Few other kinds of grain or vegetables are grown for food; but considerable quantities of flax, hemp, and hops are raised. The pasture lands are extensive, and the rearing of cattle obtains a considerable amount of attention. The sheep have been much improved by crossing, and wool constitutes a principal article of export. The mineral products comprise iron, chalk, nitre, and building stone. The manufactures are inconsiderable, and chiefly for domestic use; the principal are woollen cloths and leather. In the N. the inhabitants are mostly Lithuanians, elsewhere the Rusniaks prevail. It is divided into eight circles. The principal towns are Grodno, Novogrodek, Slonim, and Brzesc-Litovski. Pop. (1849) 905,666. Grodno, the capital of the foregoing government, is

Grit |(

Gro and elegance, which characterize that of Tasso, is full of rich and sparkling imagery; and his sentiments, if not always natural or just, are seldom deficient in force and vivacity. The greatest blemish of the Pastor Fido is its frequent indecency and exceptionable morality. It is no doubt true that Corisco repents towards the conclusion of the piece, and that there is an apparent conformity in this respect to the established rule; but this professed repentance comes only after having displayed a character equally vile and perfidious, and promulgated maxims of the most lax morality. Although the Pastor Fido had been represented in all the courts of Italy, and even before popes, yet it was afterwards put into the Index by reason of the licentiousness which pervades it, and particularly on account of the passage commencing Se’l peccar e si dolce e il non peccar si necessario. But, with all these defects, it is a work of undoubted genius, and will continue to maintain the reputation which it originally acquired for its author. An excellent translation of the Pastor Fido into English blank verse was published anonymously at Edinburgh in 1809. (J. b—e.) GUASTALLA, a walled town of Northern Italy, duchy of Modena, capital of a small district of the same name, on the right bank of the Po, 16 miles N. of Reggio. It is the see of a bishop, and has a cathedral and several other churches, and a public library. Manufactures—chiefly silk fabrics and twist. The French defeated the Imperialists under its walls in 1734. Pop. 10,000. The district of Guastalla formerly belonged to Parma, but since the death of the exempress Maria Louisa it has been transferred to Modena. GUATIMALA, or Guatemala, one of the republics of Central America, occupies most of the table-land of Guatimala, with the mountainous district between it and tlie Gulf of Honduras, besides a portion of the table-land of Yucatan. Its extreme latitudes are 13. 29. and 18. 12. N., and longitudes 88. 10. and 93. 22. W. It is bounded on the N. by the Mexican state of Yucatan, on the W. by Chiapa, on the S. by the Pacific Ocean, S.E. by the Republic of Salvador, E. by Honduras, and N.E. by the Gulf of Honduras, and the British Honduras, or Belize. The total area of Guatimala is about 49,000 square miles. It is divided into seventeen departments, and contained, according to the returns of 1852, a population of 972,000, distributed as follows :— Departments. Populations. Departments. Populations. Guatimala 89,500 Totonicapan 84,700 Sacatepec 44,500 Gueguetenango 64,800 Chimaltenango 56,400 Quesaltenango 66,800 Sanmarco 89,100 Chiquimula 73,000 Suchiltepec 36,300 Vera Paz 6,200 Escuintla 15,300 Salama 109,900 Amatitlan 33,000 Isabel 9,000 Santa Rosa 36,000 Mita 72,300 Total .972,000 Solola 84,200 The surface of Guatimala is wholly mountainous, the main chain of the continuation of the Andes traversing it from S.E. to N.W. at an inconsiderable distance from the Pacific shore, and branching off in various ramifications towards the Atlantic; forming many valleys, but inclosing few plains. Along the main chain occur numerous volcanoes, all near the Pacific. The culminating point of the surface is in N. Lat. 15. 30., between the towns of Totonicapan and Gueguetenango. The eastern border of the plateau descending to the Gulf of Honduras is cut by deep valleys, which extend to a great distance, and in some places advance to the very shores. The country lying to the W. and the N.W. ot the Golfo Dulce is a low plain, while all between the plateau and the Bay of Honduras is a succes-

G U A sion of ridges and valleys. In many places the shore is rocky, Guatimala wuth rocky barriers lying off it. Numerous streams drain this state. The most important are—the Lacantun, forming part of the Mexican boundary; the Motagua and the Polochic, which fall through the Dulce into the Bay of Honduras. The most important lakes are—the Dulce, advantageous for foreign trading vessels ; the Amatitlan, 18 miles S.E. of Guatimala, is 9'miles by 3, of great depth, and is much resorted to as a bathing-place by the inhabitants of Guatimala, from February till April; near it there are several mineral and hot springs; the Atitlan, 80 miles N.W. of the city of Guatimala, is about 20 miles long by 9 broad, surrounded by lofty heights, including the volcano of Atitlan, and is remarkable for its very great depth, and being without outlet, though several small rivers enter it; the Paten, near the frontiers with Yucatan, and about 30 miles long, 9 broad. The climate of the table-land is that of perennial spring, the thermometer scarcely varying throughout the year, and it resembles very much the climate of Valencia in Spain in almost every particular. In the northern part of the state, in what is called Los Altos, the highlands, the average is lower than any other part of the country. Snow sometimes falls in the vicinity of Quesaltenango, the capital of this department, but soon disappears, the thermometer seldom remaining at the freezing point for any considerable time. In the vicinity of the city of Guatimala, the range of the thermometer is from 55° to 80°, averaging about 72° of Fahr. Vera Paz, the north-eastern department of Guatimala, and embracing the coast below Yucatan to the Gulf of Dulce, is nearly ten degrees warmer. This coast from Belize downwards to Isabel and San Tome is hot and unhealthy. From May till October is the rainy season. Thunder prevails in June, and terrific storms from the S.W. sweep along the Pacific coast in August and September. Earthquakes are very frequent. The soil is generally very fertile, producing excellent rice, and all the cereals in great variety and abundance. Agriculture, however, is in a very backward state from the want of enterprise and the ignorance of the people, as well as from the want of roads. As articles of commerce, the most important products are cochineal and indigo. Cotton, cacao, sugar, vanilla, tobacco, and coffee, are grown in considerable quantities. The table-land is almost destitute of trees and even bushes, except on the declivities of the hilly ranges which so extensively traverse it. Trees of very large size form extensive forests on the lower lands along the Pacific. These are a source of great natural wealth. Among the trees the most valuable are the cedar, mahogany, Brazil, Santa Maria, pimento, guaiacurn, &c.; and abundance of medicinal plants are also found and turned to some account. The vegetation is luxurious and vigorous along the low tract by the Bay of Honduras. Sheep are reared in considerable numbers, especially over the northern districts, and their wool is used for native manufactures. The horse is small, hardy, and handsome ; and mules are numerous, being the chief beasts of burden. Pigs and poultry are very abundant, and of excellent quality. Salt is manufactured along the coast of the Pacific. Jasper, marble, and brimstone, are obtained in considerable quantity in the vicinity of some of the volcanoes. Lead is worked by the Indians in Totonicapan. The manufactures are mostly limited to those for domestic use. The cotton manufacture, once extensive, is now confined to the departments of Guatimala and Sacatepec. Coarse woollen cloth is now more manufactured, especially gerga, which is made into a peculiar black called poncho, in which much taste is displayed. Besides cochineal already noticed, the most important exports are woods employed in cabinet work ; sarsaparilla, vanilla, and other medicinal roots and plants; hides, sugar,

77 G U A T I M ALA. Mosquitia—was formed. In 1846, however, this confederation Guatimala. Juatimala. cofFee, ami cotton, in small quantities. The imports con- was dissolved ; and Guatimala, as well as each of the rest, be- ^ ^ .z > ^ > gist chiefly of wines, fancy goods, earthenware, porcelain, came independent. Of late, attempts have again been made to cutlery, hardware, silk and linens, dry goods, and British renew the confederation, but, owing to political jealousies, ■w ithcotton. . out any definite result. The country has long been kept in a The inhabitants of Guatimala are a mixture ot native state of constant agitation, industry has. been neglected, civil Indians, Europeans, and Negroes. The natives of negro wars have been rife, and every effort to improve the condition Under a united sysblood are principally along the N.E. coast, and in Ama- of the inhabitants has been frustrated. r titlan. With the exception of certain portions of the in- tem of government this country w ould rise into one of indigenous Indians, or northern portions of Guatimala, the calculable importance and influence. It possesses ail the eleof prosperity in the resources and advantages with people of this state are characterized by all the vices that ments which nature has so richly and profusely invested it. degrade the inhabitants of Central America. According to the constitution of October 19, 1851, the exeGuatimala received its name from the Mexican word cutive is in the hands of a president, elected by a general asquauhtemali, “ a decayed wooden log, because the Mexican sembly, composed of the legislative chamber, the Archbishop Indians who accompanied Alvarado found near the palace of of Guatimala, the members of the supreme court of justice, and the kings of Kachiquel an old worm-eaten tree, and gave this the members of the council of state. The legislative.assembly name to the capital. In the mouth of a Spaniard the pro- consists of fifty-nine members ; and the president is elected nunciation became gucttimcilci' Others have derived the naine for four years, but is eligible to be re-elected. The council of from the Tzendale word 'uJi&tcz’m&lhd, * a water volcano, state is composed of the ministry, eight councillors chosen by in allusion to the mountain on the skirts of which the city of the legislative assembly, and of others appointed by the presiGuatimala wms built. Another still less probable etymology dent. The revenue and expenditure are about L.50,000, and is that from coctecmalan, “ milk-wmod,” a peculiar tree found the debt now amounts to L.240,000. only in the immediate vicinity of the original capital, where The principal cities in this republic are New Guatimala, now stands the village of Tzacualpa. Still_ another is from the capital; Old Guatimala, Totonicapau, Quesaltenango, the name of Quitemal, the first king of Guatimala, as Quiche Chiquimula, Salamd, Flores, &c. ; and the chief ports are was named from Namaquiche, and ^Nicaragua from the cacique Isabel, or Golfo Duke ; San Tome, on the Bay of Honduras ; of the same name. and Istapa, on the Pacific. The principal part of Guatimala was conquered in 1524: by The antiquities of Central America have recently been partially Alvarado, who found above thirty different tribes in posses- investigated by travellers, and are beginning to yield some fruits. sion of the country, each governed by its own chief, and using The most prolific of the states, as yet, is Guatimala, which is now distinct languages and customs. ThePipil Indians still speak (1856) being examined by a judicious and experienced antiquarian, the Aztec or Mexican language, and dwell on the Pacific the Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg, who resides as cura at Babinal in shores. Besides this there are above twenty different dialects Vera Paz, one of the least known of the departments of Guatimala. used in the republic; but many of these are so similar that He is there in direct relationship with the native Indians of that one tribe with little difficulty understands another. According district, which has longest resisted the advances of European to a tradition related by the historian Juarros, the Toltec In- civilization, and in which the aborigines have probably retained of their primitive traditions, customs, and religious ideas. dians, the most civilized and powerful of the tribes of Guati- most Between Vera Paz, Yucatan, and Chiapas, there lies a wide tract mala, came originally from Tula in Mexico. This emigration of drained by the great river Usumasinta, and inhabited is said to have been undertaken by the direction of an oracle in by country, unconquered tribes of the Lacandones, Manches, Choles, &c., consequence of the great increase of the population in the reign ail the belonging to the great Tzendal or Maya tamily, who built the of Namaquiche (i. e., “ Quichd the Great”), the fifth king of now ruined temples of Yucatan, and reared Palenque* and Copan. the Toltecas. Namaquiche Y. died during their wanderings, This region is full of extensive ruins and imposing monuments ; and and was succeeded by his son Acjopil, from whom Kicab- the Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg is here earnestly prosecuting his Tanub, the contemporary of Montezuma II., was the four- researches under most favourable circumstances. His object is to teenth in succession who reigned in Utatlan, the capital of reach the lake of Peten, or Itza, so well known from the early Quiche, which stood near the Lake Atitlan, and was so named chronicles as the stronghold of the warlike Itzaecs. The islands of in honour of Quiche the Great, who had died during their this lake are covered with ruins, of which imperfect accounts have perilous and tedious wanderings southwards. None of the been given to the public by Colonel Galindo. But so little is yet Spanish settlements were conquered with so little bloodshed as known of this country that it has not been ascertained by Europeans that of Guatimala; and this was mainly owing to the cele- whether this large lake discharges itself north into the Gulf of brated Dominican Las Casas, who accompanied the conquerors Mexico, or east into the Bay of Honduras, or, indeed, if it have an in their expedition into this territory. In 1524: Alvarado outlet at all. The documents brought to light by the Abb6 de founded the city of Guatimala; and in 1542 a chancery and Bourbourg must prove of great value in elucidating the aboriginal of America. These consist of a copy of the Kachiquel gramroyal audiencia were established in this city, with authority history del Padre Flores, containing a comparison of the Kachiquelover all the settlements and provinces from the southern mar the Quiche and Zutugil, “the three metropolitan languages, ’ boundary of Costa Rica to the northern limit of Chiapas. with which are all dialects of a single stock; the original.MS. of Hence this city became the residence of the governor and Ximenes, of which only a part is copied in that of Ordonez ; The captain-general. Till his death in 1541 Alvarado had exercised Ancient History of Quiche in Spanish and Quiche; a MS. History authority over the Spanish settlements from their subjugation of (Juatimala of Vera Paz, in Spanish, with numerous details on in 1524, during four years under Cortez, and subsequently by the astronomy and religion of the natives. And beside these, a direct delegation from the Crown. In 1742 the bishopric of separate history of Vera Paz; another of San Salvador; and anGuatimala, which was established in 1534, became metropoli- other of the rebellion of the Tzendals, with a magnificent copy of tan, and was invested with authority over the suffragan the Tonalamatl,ov Calendar of the Indians of Quiche, as still secretly bishoprics of Nicaragua, Chiapas (and Comayagua in Hondu- used by the Indians of Santa Catalina Ixtahuacan, have been obras). At this time the kingdom of Guatimala consisted of the tained by this indefatigable Abbe. But the most precious of his aggregate of the settlements and districts ; and under the acquisitions is a MS. in the Kachiquel language, written about Spaniards it formed a captain-generalship independent of the 1550 a.d., by one of the princes of Solola, near the Lake of Atitthis he is rendering into French and Spanish; and it is full of other governments and viceroyalties of Spanish America. lan; details of the immigration of the Indians into these countries, their During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries Guatimala was early the valorous conduct of their chiefs, of the four severely harassed by the Dutch and English privateers, and Tulas sufferings, existed, &c. The abbe has visited two ancient cities by the inroads of the Poyaise and Mosquito Indians, who full ofthat large ruins; they are called Zamaneb or Cakyug, and freely permitted the English to settle along their coast, while Tzak-Pokoma. These he discovered by means of a bayle or dramathey maintained an unrelenting struggle with the Spaniards. tic dance, recited to him by a native Indian, a descendant of the On the 21st September 1821 the country became an indepen- ancient chiefs of Vera Paz. The facts of this bayle agrees with dent state, and united itself with the Republic of Mexico ; but Ximenes, and also with the Kachiquel MS. already mentioned. again, on 1st July 1823, it became a separate government, and The best writers on Guatimala are,—Bernal Diaz del Castillo, eventually the confederation of the five states of Guatimala—■ Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de Mexico, 1632; Herrera, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, with the territory of Historia General de los Hechos de los Castellanos en los Islas y Tierra

78 G U A Guatimala Ferme del Mar Oceano, Madrid, 1601; Alcedo’s Geographical Dictionary of Spanish America, by Thompson, London, 1810, but Guayaquil, at Madrid, 1786-89; Haefkin, Centraal Amerika; Juarros, Guati\ i mala, which garbles the facts preserved in the MS. of Ximenes; Humboldt’s, Thompson’s, Byam’s, and Dunn’s Travels; Baily’s Central America, which is accompanied with a good map, and is the most recent and reliable source of information up to this time (1856). Guatimala, la Antigua, a city of Central America, in the republican state of Guatimala, and about 27 miles W.S.W. from Guatimala la Nueva. It stands in a wide and fertile valley, at an elevation of 5820 feet above the sea-level. The place was abandoned after the earthquake of 1773, which partially destroyed it; but it now contains a population of nearly 20,000. There is collected here a considerable quantity of cochineal; and there are some insignificant manufactories. The city is regularly laid out, but a great part of it is still in ruins. Prior to the earthquake the population amounted to about 60,000. Guatimala, la Nueva, the capital of the republic of Guatimala, in Central America.1 Its situation is in N. Lat. 14. 36., and W. Long. 90. 30., at the extremity of a plain 22 miles in length by 7 in breadth, with a deep ravine on three sides, and elevated above the sea 4970 feet. The form of the town is quadrangular; and the streets are wide, straight, and clean. On account of the frequency of earthquakes the houses are only one story in height. The Plaza or Great Square measures about 150 yards on each side, and is surrounded on three sides by colonnades. Here are the principal buildings in the town—the cathedral, archbishop’s palace, the old royal palace, the College de Infantes, and the various government offices. In the centre stands a large and elegant fountain. The town is well supplied with water brought by pipes from the mountains upwards of two leagues distant. Besides the cathedral, there are 26 other churches and chapels ; and, besides the plaza, several other squares, each with a fountain in the centre. At the south side of the city there has recently been erected a fort mounting 20 guns. There are several private schools in Guatimala; and several printing establishments, whence two weekly newspapers are issued. Thompson, in his Official Visit to Guatimala, states that “ the mean heat” of the city of Guatimala “ during the day, from the 1st of January to the 1st of July is 75° of Fahr., at night 63°. In the summer months the average may be taken at ten degrees higher.” Fruits, vegetables, provisions, and all articles of ordinary consumption are abundant, at moderate prices, while many descriptions of British manufacture are as cheap as in Britain. The manufactures are muslins, gauze, cottons, earthenware, porcelain, jewellery, cigars, &c. The inhabitants are courteous and hospitable to strangers, but live very much apart from each other, their only recreation being their incessant religious processions. The suburbs are occupied mostly by ladinos (mulattoes) and Indians. The buildings of this city were begun in 1776, three years after the fearful earthquake of 1773, which completely destroyed Old Guatimala, the former capital. The population is variously estimated from 35,000 to 50,000. GUAVA, the fruit of the Psidium pyriferum and P. pomiferum, nat. ord. Myrtaceae, the pulp of which is made into a jelly of a peculiarly delicious flavour. This sweetmeat is imported in considerable quantities from the West Indies. GUAYAQUIL, the name of a department, province, city, river, and gulf, in the republic of Ecuador, South America. The department is bounded on the west by the Pacific, and on the other sides by Peru and the departments of Ecuador or Quito and Assuay. The great chain of the Andes forms its eastern boundary. The chief products are

G U B cacao, cotton, maize, tobacco, and various kinds of fruits. Guay mas Area, 26,238 square miles. Pop. estimated at 132,000. u II 10, It is divided into the provinces of Guayaquil and Manabi, ^ the capitals of which are Guayaquil and Puerto Viejo. Guayaquil, the capital of the above department, and the chief commercial town of the republic, stands on the right bank of the river of the same name, which is here about 2 miles wide, in S. Lat. 2. 12., W. Long. 79. 39. It extends about 2 miles along the river, and is divided into an old and new town ; the former stands higher up the river, and is entirely inhabited by the poorer classes. Guayaquil is very unhealthy, which may be sufficiently accounted for from its low, level site, without drainage, the marsh immediately behind it, and the effluvia arising, especially in hot weather, from the mud left exposed to the action of the sun by the receding tide. There is also a deficiency of fresh water, the river being brackish for a considerable distance above the town. None of the public buildings are remarkable for architectural beauty ; and the houses are generally of only one story, and built of wood. Vessels of considerable burden can come up to the town, as the tide at full and change rises 24 feet. Foreign goods are imported in considerable quantities, and sent up the river in balzas to Babayhoyo or Caracol, whence they are carried on the backs of mules to the valleys of Ambato and Quito ; and almost all the native products exported are sent from this port. It has a dry dock ; and several vessels of a superior construction have been built here. Cacao is the principal article of export, and next to it are straw-hats, hides, timber, tobacco, bark, &c. The chief articles of import are British manufactured cottons and hardware, silks, wine, flour, &c. In 1851, 181 vessels, of 16,051 tons entered and cleared at the port; the cargoes in the former case were valued at L.274,700, in the latter at L.287,800. Guayaquil is subject to frequent and terrific earthquakes. Pop. about 28,000. The Guayaquil River is the principal in Western Ecuador. It is formed by the union of numerous streams from the Andes, and becomes navigable for commeixial purposes at Babayhoyo or Caracol, 70 or 80 miles from its mouth—river boats ascending to one or other of these places according to the season. Below Guayaquil the channel is impeded by numerous rocks and small islands, while at its mouth is the larger island of Pana. Where the river falls into the Pacific it is known as the Gulf of Guayaquil, the extreme points of which are 70 miles apart. GUAYMAS, a seaport-town of Mexico. See Mexico. GUAYRA, La, the principal seaport-town of the republic of Venezuela, province of, and 11 miles N.N.W. of Caracas. It is in an unhealthy situation, and is closely surrounded by high mountains and rocks. The chain of mountains which separates it from the high valley of Caracas descends almost directly into the sea; and the houses of the town are backed by a wall of steep rocks, leaving scarcely 100 or 140 fathoms’ breadth of flat ground between this wall and the sea. The town is poorly built, and contains no edifice worthy of notice. The port is unsheltered, but has good anchorage in from 6 to 30 fathoms, and is well defended by land batteries. Its chief exports are coffee, cocoa, indigo, and hides, with some cotton and sugar. Pop. about 8000. GUBBIO, or Eugubio (the ancient Iguvium), a city of the Papal States, delegation of Urbino, and 27 miles S. of the town of that name. It is pleasantly situated at the foot of the Apennines, and is well built. Among its fine edifices are the ducal palace, cathedral, and several churches. Gubbio, however, derives its chief interest from the celebrated Eugubian tables which were found near this, in

1 A city of this name was founded by Don Pedro de Alvarado in 1524, about 27 miles W. of the present city, near the town of Guatimala la Antigua, and was destroyed in 1541 by enormous masses of water bursting forth from the neighbouring volcano which was henceforth called Volcano de Agua.

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Guben 1444, among the ruins of an ancient temple, and are now ij preserved at Gubbio. (See Eugubian Tables.) Pop. Judders. gQOO. GUBEN, a walled town of Prussia, capital of a cognomina! circle in the government of Frankfurt, and province of Brandenburg, on the Neisse, which is here navigable, and on the Berlin-Breslau railway, 27 miles S.S.E. of Frankfurt. It is the seat of the courts of justice for the circle, and of a board of horticulture; and has a gymnasium, a public library, and manufactures of woollen cloth, linen, hosiery, leather, &c. It carries on a considerable trade in cattle, wool, and agricultural produce. Pop. (1849) 11,448. GUDGEON, in Mechanics, the pin inserted in the end a horizontal shaft for its support, and on which it turns. Gudgeon, a species of cyprinus. See Ichthyology. GUEBRES, Guebees, Gaurs,orGavres{i.e., “giaour,” or infidel), terms used in the East to designate the Fireworshippers, a very ancient religious sect in Persia, who derive their origin from the immediate followers of Zoroaster. In India, where a colony of this sect has long been established along the western coast, they are called Parsecs, a name indicative of their origin. Many of these have acquired great wealth and distinction, particularly at Bombay. The characteristic feature in this religion is the worship of fire, which the Behendie (i. e., “ followers of the true faith”), as they designate themselves, profess to regard as symbolical of the Supreme Power, which, as imaged in the sun, quickens, vivifies, and blesses all things; or, in other words, as the emblem of Deity. Their sacred books are termed the Zend-Avesta, the authorship of which is ascribed to Zoroaster, though it is unquestionably a spurious production. For an exposition of the leading tenets of this sect, see Zend. The Fire-worshippers of Persia at the present day are nearly confined to the city of Yezd, and some towns in Kerman. They are a mild and inoffensive race, industrious, and temperate. They drink wine, eat all kinds of meat, and eschew polygamy, which is specially prohibited by tbeir religion, except in cases of hopeless sterility, when a second wife is admissible. They have a singular mode of disposing of their dead, by exposing the bodies \ipon the towers of their temples, to be devoured by birds; and, from observation of the part first preyed upon, they draw inferences as to the fate of the deceased. GUELDERLAND, or Geldeeland, a province of Holland, lying between N. Lat. 51. 45. and 52. 32., and E. Long. 4. 57. and 6. 47.; and bounded on the N. W. by the Zuider-Zee, N.E. by the province of Overyssel, E. by the Rhenish provinces of Prussia, S. by Limburg and North Brabant, and W. by South Holland and Utrecht. It is 88 miles in length from E. to W., and its greatest breadth is 54 miles. Area, 1962 square miles. The surface is generally level, but not so flat as in most of the other provinces of Holland, and some parts of it might even be said to be hilly. The soil in the cultivated parts is good, but a considerable portion of it is either sandy down or covered with heath. The principal crops are wheat, rye, potatoes, hops, and tobacco. The pasturage is excellent, and orchards are very numerous. The principal rivers are the Rhine, the Waal, the Yssel, the Leek, and the Maas, besides which there are several smaller rivers and canals. It is traversed by the railway from Amsterdam to Arnheim. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agriculture, but some manufactures are also extensively carried on, as of leather, paper, and linen. The province is divided into four arrondissements—Arnheim, Nimeguen or Nijmegen, Zutphen, and Thiel. The capital is Arnheim. Pop. (1854) 390,512. GUELDERS, or Geldeen, a town of Rhenish Prussia, government of Diisseldorf, on the Niers, 26 miles N.W. of Dusseldorf. Pop. 3974. It was the capital of the old duchy of Guelders, which subsequently formed part of the duchy

G U E 79 of Burgundy; and by the peace of Utrecht one part was Guelph ceded to the republic of the Netherlands and the other to II Guernsey. Prussia. GUELPH, Oedee of, or Royal Guelphic Oedee, a Hanoverian order of knighthood, founded in 1815 by the Prince Regent, afterwards George IV. It consists of grand crosses, commanders, and knights; and is both a civil and a military distinction. It is sometimes styled colloquially the “ Order of Merit" GUELPHS, or Guelfs, the designation of a powerful party in the middle ages, which, in Germany, and at a later period in Italy, opposed the German emperors and their adherents, who were called Ghibelins. The wars of the Guelfs and Ghibelins became the struggle between the spiritual and secular power—the Guelphs standing for the Pope, and the Ghibelins for the Emperor. These factions filled Italy with bloodshed for nearly 300 years. The rise of the Guelphs is referred by some to the time of Conrad III. in the twelfth century; by others to that of Frederick II.; and by others, again, to that of his successor, Frederick III., in the thirteenth century. The name of Guelph is commonly said to have been formed from Welfe, or Welfo. The Emperor Conrad III. having taken the duchy of Bavaria from Welfe VL, brother of Henry, Duke of Bavaria, Welfe, assisted by the forces of Roger king of Sicily, made war on Conrad, and thus gave birth to the faction of the Guelphs. Some derive the name Guelfs from the German Wolff; and others deduce it from the name of a German called Guelfe, who lived at Pistoia; adding, that his brother, named Gibel or Ghibel, gave his name to the Ghibelins. See Ghibelins. GUERANDE, a town of France, department of Loire Inferieure, arrondissement of Savenay, about 3 miles from the sea, 23 miles W. of Savenay. It occupies the slope of a hill, is surrounded by walls, and commanded by an old castle. The chief manufactures are woollen and cotton stuffs ; and large quantities of salt are procured/rom salt marshes in the vicinity. Pop. 8550. GUERCINO. See Baebieei. GUERICKE, Otto Von, a highly distinguished experimental philosopher, was born at Magdeburg in 1602 ; died at Hamburg in 1686. It is to him that we owe the first construction of the air-pump, afterwards improved by Boyle. (See Pneumatics.) He was also the first to prove the force ol the pressure of the atmosphere, by applying to each other two hemispheres of brass, from which he exhausted the air, and which sixteen horses were unable to pull asunder. These experiments are all detailed under Pneumatics. Guericke’s observations on these subjects, and also on astronomy, which he had studied with care and success, were published under the title of Experimenta Nova, id vocat. Magdeburgica, fyc., Amsterdam, 1672. Guericke’s personal character seems to have been a highly amiable one. He was held in high esteem by his fellow-citizens, who elected him burgomaster. He was also honoured with the title of Counsellor to the Elector of Brandenburg. GUERNSEY, one of the islands in the English Channel, belonging to Britain, and lying between N. Lat. 49. 24. and 49. 33., W. Long. 2. 32. and 2. 48. It is situated in the Bay of St Michael, 30 miles W. of the coast of Normandy, 52 miles S. of Portland, the nearest point of land to England, and 15 miles W.N.W. of Jersey. It is of a triangular form, is 9 miles in length, by from 3 to 4 in extreme breadth, and has an area of about 16,000 acres. The northern part of the island is a low level tract, but towards the S. the land becomes more elevated and hilly, with deep and narrow valleys and glens intervening. It has about 30 miles of coast deeply indented with commodious bays and harbours ; on the N. side low and flat, on the S. bold and precipitous. Off the coast are numerous sunken rocks and

G U E G U E 80 with 4315 scholars. Pop. (1851) of Guernsey, 29,757; of Guesclin Guernsey, crags, which, together with the rapid current S ’ adjacent islands, 3962. V > causing the tides frequently to rise to the height of 3^ fee , GUESCLIN, Bertrand du, Count of Longueville, conrender the approach extremely hazardous to strangers. I he stable of France under Charles V., was born at the castle geological formation of the island is almost entirely granite, of Lamotte-Broon, near Rennes in Brittany. His birth, the prevailing rocks being gneiss, granite, and siemte. I lese the exact date of which is not known, is variously assigned are extensively quarried in several parts, and are sent in to the years 1314, 1318, and 1320. At the pioper age he large quantities to Portsmouth, London, and other places. was put under the care of a tutor; but he had little taste for Some trap-rocks and micaceous schist occur on the western learning, and it was found impossible to teach him either to side of the island. It is tolerably well watered with spring's read or’ write. But in all manly games and exercises he and clear gravelly streams. The climate, though moist and displayed a most precocious dexterity; and at the tournasubiect to sudden changes, is not unhealthy. The winters ment given at Rennes in 1338, on the occasion of the marare mild ; and the summers, though hot, are less oppressive riage of Jeanne-la-Boiteuse with Charles of Blois, he was than on the neighbouring coast of France, or even than in eleven times victorious, and gained the great prize of the the S.W. of England. Snow is rare, and the frosts are day, which he presented to the friend who had lent him the neither severe nor continuous. The mean winter tempera- arms and horses he had fought with. He grew up strong ture is about 41° 62', that of summer 60° 7'. The thermo- and tall, but ill-made, and, as he himself said, so ugly, that meter seldom rises above 80°, or falls below 37 . Easterly- he knew he would never please the ladies; “ but, he added, winds prevail during spring, and westerly during the rest of “ I shall make myself dreaded by the enemies of my king. the year. Guernsey is not equal in fertility to Jersey, Entering on the military career, he distinguished himself by neither is it so well wooded; but fruit-trees are numerous, many deeds of chivalrous daring against the English, who especially the fig and apple. From the fruit of the latter at that time overrun the fairest provinces of France; much cider is made. Agricultural improvement is much had and when the battle of Poitiers threw King John into the retarded by the very small size of the farms, arising from hands of Edward of England, he alone upheld the fortunes the custom of each son sharing equally in his father’s landed his country, and checked in many places the victorious property. Few of them are exclusively devoted to agricul- of progress of the foe. Du Guesclin’s next great exploit was ture, but generally carry on also some other profession oi the defeat of the allied forces of England and Navarre at trade. Farms most generally vary in size from 5 to 12 the famous battle of Cocherel, on the banks of the Eui e. acres, and very few of them exceed 30. The chief of the For this achievement, which established Charles V. on the agricultural productions are wheat, barley, potatoes, and Du Guesclin was made Comte de Longueville and parsnips. Sea-weed is the principal manure in use. Oranges, throne, Marechal de Normandie. His usual good fortune, however, melons, and other fruits, which in England require shelter, was clouded towards the close of this same year (1364), by grow here in the open air. Flowers are also extensively sad disaster. At the battle of Auray in Brittany, he was cultivated, among which is the Guernsey lily. I he people ataken prisoner by the English under the redoubtable Sir devote their attention greatly to the rearing of cattle and John Chandos. After peace was restored between France the dairy. The cows are much esteemed, and the butter and England, Du Guesclin, who had been ransomed for is excellent. The native breed of horses is poor, but it has 100,000 crowns, was once mow* free to serve his country. been much improved of late years. Hogs are numerous, An opportunity was not long wanting. A great number of and of great size, but few sheep are reared or fattened. French and English adventurers whom the peace had tin own Guernsey is divided into ten parishes, and its chief town is out of employment had joined their forces, and under the St Peter Port. The trade of Guernsey is very inferior to of Pes grandes Compagnies, w7ere laying waste the that of Jersey, and has greatly decreased since 1807, when title richest provinces of France. Du Guesclin, w-ho had been it was made subject to our revenue laws, previous to which commissioned by Charles V. to get rid of them eithei by time its trade had chiefly consisted in smuggling. Steamers or by gentle means, induced them to take service ply between Guernsey and London, Southampton, Ply- violent with him the Moors, whom he professed himself mouth, and Weymouth. The imports are British manufac- anxious to against out of Spain. His real motive, however, tures, wheat, flour, wines, sugar, coffee, &c.; exports cider, was to helpdrive Henry of Transtamare, who was then at issue apples, potatoes, cattle, granite, and wine. Guernsey and with his brother Peter the Cruel for the throne of Casthe rest of the Channel Islands came to England with the tille. As the “ compagnies” passing Avignon, they duchy of Normandy, and are now all that remain to the demanded from the Pope, then were living there, a reversal of the English Crown of that possession. The inhabitants are sentence of excommunication, formerly pronounced against simple and thrifty in their habits, and still retain many of and a black-mail of 200,000 florins. The Pope retheir ancient customs. Their language is the Norman them, to grant either request; but when he saw the comFrench of some centuries ago, though English is very fused pao-nies” waste the country, and carrying their degenerally understood among the upper classes. The govern- vastationslaying Avignon itself, he gave them his blessing ment of the island is vested in the hands of the states, com- and half tjieinto required amount of gold. Du Guesclin, withposed of the bailiff, the procureur or attorney of the royal court, twelve jurats, eight rectors of parishes, and the con- out difficulty, placed his friend, Henry of Transtamare, on stables of parishes, one from each of the country paiishes, the throne of Castille; but the dethroned Don Pedro invokand six from the town parish—in all thirty-seven. The bailiff ing the assistance of the Black Prince, once more took the and procureur are nominated by the crown, the rectors by field, and in the engagement w'hich followed, Du Guesclin’s was annihilated. Seeing resistance useless, he surrenthe governor, while the constables are chosen by the inha- armv bitants. The “ Royal Court,” the supreme court of justice, dered to his noble captor, saying, “ J’ai du moins la gloire consists of a bailiff appointed by the crown, and twelve jurats de ne remettre mon epee qu’ au plus vaillant prince de la elected by the people. Guernsey, with Alderney and its terre.” When the subject of his ransom was mentioned, other dependencies, in 1851 had 64 places of worship, of “ I am but a poor knight,” said Du Guesclin. “Then I shall which 16 belonged to the Church of England, 7 to Inde- only ask you for a hundred francs, or less, if you choose,” pendents, 6 to Baptists, 26 to various classes of Methodists, said the chivalrous Englishman. Du Guesclin, however, de2 to Roman Catholics, and the rest to minor bodies. The clining to rate himself so meanly, offered 100,000 gold florins. total number of sittings was 23,827. There were 115 day “ It is too much,” said the Black Prince, “and if it be true schools, of which 28, with 2477 scholars, were public, and that you are a poor knight, whence will you get the means?” 87, with 1994 scholars, private; and 33 Sunday schools, “ The kings of France and Castille are my friends,” said he,

GUI Guiana. “ and will not allow me to want for anything; and there ^are, besides, a hundred Breton chevaliers who would sell their lands to make up the sum.” He was no sooner free than he took the field again in the interest of Henry, routed and slew Don Pedro; and after many bloody encounters with the Moors, seated his friend securely on the Castillian throne. His last exploit in the service of France was to drive back the English from the walls of Paris, which they had threatened ; and he afterwards re-annexed to the French crown many places that had long groaned under the English yoke. He failed, however, in some enterprises in Brittany ; and his enemies having maligned him to the king—who was foolish enough for a moment to doubt the honour of the warrior who had saved France and his throne—Du Guesclin, stung by the affront, resolved to quit his country and seek an asylum with his friend Henry of Castille. On his way into exile, he found his old brother-in-arms, Saucerre, engaged in the siege of Randam. The governor of the town, reduced to the last extremity, offered to surrender, if he were not relieved within fifteen days. In this interval Du Guesclin fell sick and died (July 13, 1380), and the next day the governor of Randam, marching out of the town at the head of his garrison, laid the keys of the gate on the breast of the dead knight. The name of Du Guesclin is still held in veneration by the French. His bravery, his gentleness, his generosity, and his modesty, have all contributed to make him one of the most popular heroes of France. His name is generally associated with that of Bayard, as the two last examples of all knightly virtues and accomplishments. GUIANA, Guyana, or Guayana, an extensive territory in the north-eastern part of South America, comprehending in its widest acceptation all that extent of country lying between the rivers Amazon and Orinoco, between Lat. 3. 30. S., and 8. 40. N., and Long. 50. 22., and 68. 10. W. It is bounded on the N. by the Orinoco and the Atlantic, E. by the Atlantic, S. by the Amazon and the Rio Negro, and W. by the Orinoco and the Cassiquiare. Its greatest length from E. to W. is about 1200 miles, and its greatest breadth about 850 miles ; estimated area 700,000 square miles. This vast territory is divided into Brazilian (formerly Portuguese) Guiana, Venezuelan (formerly Spanish) Guiana, and Colonial Guiana. The two former, comprising about five-sixths of the entire region, are now included within the limits of their respective countries; while Colonial Guiana is that to which the general term of Guiana is now commonly applied. It is subdivided into British, Dutch, and French Guiana. Guiana, British, the most westerly of the three colonies, is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Atlantic, E. by Dutch Guiana, from which it is separated by the River Corentyn, S. by Brazil, and W. by Venezuela. It lies between N. Lat. 0. 40. and 8. 40., and W. Long. 57. and 61., and has an estimated area of 76,000 square miles ; but the possession of much of this has been disputed by Brazil and Venezuela. It is divided into three counties, Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, so named from the three principal rivers which drain them. Demerara, situated between the other two, occupies the centre of the seaboard for nearly 90 miles. To the N.W. the county of Essequibo stretches along the coast towards the swamps and forests of the western frontier; and to the S.E. lies the county of Berbice. The entire coast of British Guiana is low, and generally bordered with a sandy flat extending far out to sea, so that vessels drawing more than 12 feet of water cannot approach within 2 or 3 miles of land. The rivers, too, deposit at their mouths large quantities of mud and sand, and are thus inaccessible to vessels of large size. Extending from lowwater mark to a distance of 5 or 6 miles inland, is a tract of rich alluvial soil of recent formation. This is succeeded YOL. XI.

GUI 81 by a flat narrow reef of sand running exactly parallel with Guiana, the present line of coast. Here remains of stranded vessels ,r ^ > and anchors eaten through with rust have been found, indicating that within a comparatively recent period it had been washed by the waves of the Atlantic. Running parallel to this reef, at irregular distances, varying from 10 to 20 miles, is a second and higher range, composed of coarse white sand; and which at a period more remote probably formed the sea-limit. In the wet seasons the intermediate tract between these two reefs becomes the bed of extensive savannahs ; for the creeks being then unable to carry off the torrents of rain which fall, overflow their level banks, and inundate the surrounding country to the depth of 5 or 6 feet. On the return of dry weather the waters gradually subside, leaving behind them a thick layer of decayed grasses and aquatic plants which had floated and flourished on their surface, and these in time produce a vegetable mould of considerable thickness. Beyond the second reef are swampy plains, intersected by sand-reefs, and extending to the mountainous regions of the interior. The high land does not rise immediately from the plain to a great elevation, but begins with a range of sand hills of from 50 to 200 feet above the plain. Behind these the high land stretches out in level or undulating plains, rising here and there into eminences. About N. Lat. 5., a mountain chain, an off-set of the Orinoco Mountains, and composed of granite, gneiss, and other primitive rocks, runs from W. to E. through this territory, forming large cataracts where it is crossed by the rivers, and rising frequently to the height of 1000 feet above the sea. About a degree farther south is the Pacaraima chain, which, in like manner, runs from W. to E., and is of primitive formation. Its highest point, called by the natives Roraima, in N. Lat. 5. 9. 30., W. Long. 60. 47., is 7500 feet above the level of the sea. The plains south of this range are in general level, and form extensive savannahs, covered with grasses and plants. The Sierra Acarai is a densely-wooded chain of mountains, forming the southern boundary of Guiana, and the watershed between* the basins of the Amazon and the Essequibo. This chain rises to the height of 4000 feet. The Conocou or Cannucu Mountains, running S.E. and N.W., connect the Pacaraima with the Sierra Acarai. The principal river of British Guiana is the Essequibo, which rises in the Sierra Acarai, and after a course of at least 600 miles, discharges itself into the ocean by an estuary 20 miles in width, in N. Lat. 7., W. Long. 58. 40. In the estuary of the Essequibo are a group of beautiful islands partially cultivated, the principal of which are Varken or Hog Island, about 21 miles in length by 3 in breadth, Wakenaam and Leguan, each about 12 miles by 3, and Tiger Island, about half that size. The entrance is difficult and dangerous, even for vessels of small size, on account of the banks of mud and sand. Its course lies through forests of the most gigantic vegetation. In N. Lat. 3. 14. 35., it forms a great cataract, named by Schomburgk, King William’s Cataract. In N. Lat. 3.57. 30., and W. Long. 58. 3., it receives the Rupunoony, which has a course of about 220 miles. At various points of its course it forms rapids and cataracts which impede its navigation. About 60 miles from its mouth occur the last of these, the Falls of Etabally, after which it pursues its course through the low alluvial plain. In this part of its course it receives the united waters of the Cuyuni and the Massaroony. The Demerara or Demerary rises probably near N. Lat. 5., and after a northward course, nearly parallel with the Essequibo, of more than 200 miles, it enters the Atlantic near N. Lat. 6. 50., W. Long. 58. 20. It is navigable for 85 miles, and at its mouth at Georgetown it is more than a mile and a half across. Farther east runs the Berbice, whose source is probably about N. Lat. 3. 40. It joins the Atlantic by an estuary 5 miles in width, 10 miles N. of New Amsterdam, and in L

82

GUI A N A. Guiana, N. Lat. 6. 21., W. Long, 57. 12. It is navigable for 165 row strip along the sea-coast, and for a few miles up the Guiana, miles from the sea, by vessels drawing 7 feet water. The Co- rivers, including a portion of the islands of Essequibo. The ^ rentyn which forms the eastern boundary of British Guiana, whole surface of the coast lands being on a level with highand probably has its source in the Sierra Acarai, flows water mark, when these lands are drained and cultivated generally northward and falls into the Atlantic in N, Lat. 6., they consolidate and become fully a foot below it, so that W. Long. 57- It is navigable for boats for 150 miles. The the estates require to be protected from inundation by dams mineral productions of Guiana are necessarily but imper- and sluices. Each estate has therefore a strong dam or emfectly known. Clays of various kinds, including excellent bankment in front; while a similar erection at the back or pipe-clay, are found near the coast. The chief rocks are inland boundary, as well as on each side, is requisite to keep granite, porphyry, gneiss, clay-slate, sandstone, &c. Traces off the immense body of water accumulated on the savannahs of iron are found in various parts; and gold has been re- during the wet seasons, and which, if not repelled, would cently (in 1852) discovered in considerable quantities on the rush down to the sea, carrying everything before it. The state of his dams, therefore, requires the planter’s unremitUpper Essequibo. The climate of Guiana is more healthy than that of most ting attention ; not the slightest hole or leakage is allowed places in the West Indies. Its salubrity has been much to exist in them, and by law their wilful injury is considered increased since the occupation of the country by Europeans, felony. One inundation destroys a sugar estate for eighteen the gradual clearing and cultivation of the surface having months, and a coffee one for six years. “ The original done much to mitigate those diseases so fatal in a low, cost of damming and cultivating is fully paid by the first marshy, and hot region. The hurricanes so destructive in crop, and the duration of the crops is from 30 to 50 years; the West Indies are unknown here, and gales are unfre- so that though great capital is required for the first outlay, quent. Thunder-storms occur only during the rainy sea- the comparative expense of cultivation is a mere trifle comsons, but like the few occasional shocks of earthquakes, are pared with that of the West India Islands, notwithstandnot attended with danger. The year is divided into two wet ing that the expense of works, buildings, and machinery may and two dry seasons. The long rainy season sets in about be treble or quadruple, being built on an adequate scale for the middle of April, when light showers begin to fall. The half a century of certain production,” (Geog. Jour., vol. iv., rain increases till the middle of June, when it falls in tor- 323.) Inside and at the foot of these dams are trenches 12 rents; in the beginning of July these heavy rains begin to to 18 feet wide, and 5 feet deep, running round the whole decrease ; and in August the long dry season begins, and plantation, and into these, smaller trenches and open drains continues till November. December and January consti- convey the water that falls upon the land. These large tute the short rainy season, and February and March the trenches discharge their contents into the sea through one short dry season. The winds during the rains are gene- or more sluices, which are opened as the tide ebbs, and shut rally westerly; in the dry season they blow mostly from the against the returning flood. ocean, loaded with moisture, and thus render the heat less % The staple productions of the colony are sugar, coffee, oppressive than it would otherwise be. The thermometer and cotton. From an official table of the exports of British seldom rises above 90°, and rarely falls below 75° Fahr. Guiana from 1826 to 1851, we find that in 1827, 15,904 The mean annual temperature at Georgetown is 81° 2'; the bales of cotton were exported; but from that period this total annual fall of rain averages about 100 inches. cultivation gradually gave place to sugar, and in 1844 ceases The vegetation of Guiana is most luxuriant. The inte- to appear in the table as an article of export. Since 1851, rior is thickly wooded with valuable timber, with the excep- however, it seems to have received more attention, for tion of the swamps of Berbice and the savannahs. The among the exports from British Guiana into the United trees are of great size, and many of them are valuable for Kingdom in 1854, we find 1093 cwt, of cotton. Coffee, their timber or their fruits, or as dyewoods. Medicinal from upwards of 9,500,000 lbs. in 1830, gradually fell off to plants, including quassia, gentian, the castor-oil plant, and only 3198 lbs. in 1851. As to sugar, making a due allowance many others, are abundant. Arnotto, so extensively used for the difference of seasons, the quantity exported remained in the colouring of cheese, grows wild in profusion on the pretty steady from 1826 to 1837, the year preceding the banks of the Upper Corentyn. That largest of the water termination of the apprenticeships,—averaging about 66,000 lilies, the Victoria Regia, was first discovered here by Mr hogsheads; but in the year following that event it fell Schomburgk on the banks of the Berbice. The hai-arry, down to nearly half its former average, being in 1839 only an indigenous plant deserving of notice, is a papilionaceous 3827 hhds. in 1846 it had sunk as low as 26,201 hhds., vine, the root of which contains a powerful narcotic, and is owing in a great measure to a protracted drought through commonly used by the Indians in poisoning the waters to a great part of that season. In 1851, 43,034 hhds. were take the fish, which are not thereby deteriorated, exported. In proportion to the sugar obtained the quanThe domestic animals are the same as those in England, tity of molasses is large, owing partly to the defects of and the wild animals are those common to tropical South the common process of preparation, but chiefly to the fact America generally. Black cattle here attain a larger size that the soil is so rich an alluvium, and so abundant in than in Europe, but their flesh is not so tender nor so fine alkaline and earthy saline matter. Little of the molasses flavoured. The wool of the sheep is converted into hair. is boiled down into sugar in the colony; it is chiefly made Game, chiefly deer, range the upper savannahs. Tigers, into rum, or sold to the refiners, by whom it is much little inferior in size to those of Asia, but different in charac- prized. In 1851 the quantity of molasses exported was ter, being rarely known to attack man, abound; as do also 9530 puncheons. Although the rum produced in this cojaguars, which prey upon the herds of wild cattle and horses lony does not equal in character that of Jamaica, it yet that graze on the extensive plains among the mountains. occupies a respectable place in the market. The quantity Among the other animals are the tapir, armadillo, agouti, exported in 1851 was 15,848 puncheons. With respect to ant-bear, sloth, and a great variety of monkeys. Lizards, the cultivation of the sugar cane, by reason of the lowness snakes, and alligators are numerous. There are several of the land and the plan of drainage in use—namely, that kinds of parrots, mackaws, and humming-birds; also the known as the open-drain and round-bed method—the system flamingo, Muscovy duck, toucan, spoonbill, and vampire bat. of cultivation remains exactly as in the times of slavery, Troublesome insects are numerous, as might be expected every part of the operations of culture being performed by from the swampy nature of the coast districts. The rivers manual labour. The plough and other implements have and coast abound with a great variety of fish. been tried, but cannot succeed in effecting a cheap and The cultivated portion of British Guiana is merely a nar- effective tillage till a system of covered drainage is resorted

GUIANA. 83 Guiana, to. It is said that “ were the system of drainage improved a stipendiary magistrate appointed and removeable only by Guiana, so as to admit of cattle and implemental labour, and were the secretary for the colonies, assisted by unpaid justices a mixed system in which the rearing and feeding of cattle holding their commissions from the governor. Courts are formed a part, and a judicious system of manuring adopted, held in each district two or three times a week. there is good reason to believe that three times our present The population of British Guiana is composed of aborireturn would be secured, and at little greater cost than the ginal tribes and foreign settlers. The aborigines consist present.” Among its other cultivated products are Indian of six tribes of Indians, a copper-coloured, lank-haired race, corn, rice, tobacco, indigo, yams, sweet potatoes, and arrow- and evidently members of the one great family which is root. According to the governor’s report for 1851, “the spread over the entire continent of America. When slavery revenue has been flourishing, population augmenting, edu- existed these were found useful allies and auxiliaries of the cation spreading, crime diminishing, and trade increasing.” planters in capturing runaway negroes who had taken reThe commercial state of the colony is still flourishing. In fuge in the “ bush.” They still enjoy British protection 1853 the value of imports from Great Britain was L.456,803; from the officers charged with the superintendence of from British colonies, L.134,817 ; and from foreign coun- rivers and creeks, who, while they look after the rights tries, L.255,563—being in all L.847,183. Exports to Great of the crown on ungranted lands, at the same time preBritain, L.958,616; to British colonies, L.26,856; to foreign vent acts of oppression or injustice on the part of the countries, L.29,472—in all, L.1,014,944. Shipping, tonnage woodcutters and squatters towards the native Indians; and of, in 1853: inwards, from Great Britain, 42,815; from also, as far as possible, all quarrels among the different British colonies, 50,579; from United States, 17,822; and tribes and families. Nor is their spiritual welfare neglected. from foreign states, 13,772—in all, 124,988 : outwards, to Numerous schools and missions have been established by Great Britain, 49,339; to British colonies, 28,323; to the bishop for their instruction in the remotest parts of his United States, 5814; to foreign states, 25,630—in all, diocese. 109,106. In 1854 the computed real value of exports to The census taken on 31st March 1851 gives the following Great Britain was L.1,636,267; of imports therefrom, results:— Demerara. Essequibo. Berbice. Total. L.492,646—of which L.460,867 was the computed real 51,044 15,776 19,631 86,451 value of the manufactures and produce of the United King- Natives of British Guiana 3,644 794 487 4,925 dom. The exports to Britain in 1854 included sugar, Natives of Barbadoes Natives of other W. I. Islands... 2,756 1,077 520 4,353 898,240 cwt.; molasses, 39,035 cwt.; rum, 3,360,920 African Immigrants 6,336 3,368 4,547 14,251 gallons; and coffee, 3664 lb. The revenue in 1853 was Madeirans 6,204 1,301 423 7,928 L.250,017, being L.32,002 above that of 1852; and the British, Dutch, & Americans... 1,486 269 320 2,088 4,284 2,332 1,066 7,682 expenditure, L.236,557, or L.9487 above that of the pre- Coolies from Hindostan Unknown 8 9 17 vious year. The constitution of Guiana still retains many traces of Total. 75,767 24,925 27,003 127,695 its Dutch origin. The government is vested in a governor and a court of policy ; the latter composed of ten members, The population of Georgetown, the capital (25,508), and five being government officers (the governor, chief-justice, of New Amsterdam (4633), are included in Demerara and colonial secretary, attorney-general, and collector of cus- Berbice respectively. Under the head Natives of British toms), and five elected from the colonists by the College of Guiana are comprised 2000 aborigines living near the culJustice. This college is composed of seven members chosen tivated parts of the territory; those beyond the settled disfor life by the inhabitants possessing the right of suffrage. tricts are estimated at 7000. Religion was here in a very neglected state till 1827, The unofficial members of the court of policy serve for three years, and go out by rotation. The general legislative when British Guiana was included in the see of Bishop business is carried on by the court of policy, but it many decided traces of the Jewish origin. Among these may be specified the rite of circumcision, which, with the exception of the Kru or Manou family, is, we believe, universal ; the division of the tribes into families, and in some cases into the number of twelve ; bloody sacrifices, with the sprinkling of blood upon their altars and door-posts; the observance of new moons; a formal and specified time for mourning for the dead, during which period they shave their head and wear tattered clothes; demoniacal possessions, purifications, and various other usages of probable Jewish origin. Respecting the natural products and trading capabilities of the country, the articles exported consist chiefly of ginger, gum, mendobi (Guinea grains, a species of seed), palm-oil, some ivory, a wood used for dyeing called camwood, and which is worth in England about L.15 sterling a ton. Vessels visiting that coast take on board—at Sierra Leone, or on the coast of Malagueta, between Cape Mesurado and Cape Palmas—some black sailors, called krumen, who are of great use in doing the heavy work on board, and for boat service; thus saving the European seamen from exposing themselves too much to the sun’s rays, &c. The services of these krumen are recompensed with two or three pieces of cotton cloth per month each. Their chief food is rice, which may be purchased at a very cheap rate on the coast of Malagueta; the price of a “kru” (a measure of capacity weighing about 30 lbs.) being a fathom and a half of cotton cloth, or any other article of proportionate value. On the coast of Malagueta (Grain Coast), the articles received principally in barter are rice and millet; also ivory, palm-oil, and camwood, especially at Monrovia, the capital of Liberia. At Sierra Leone, the pepper-tree (called malagueta) is cultivated on an extensive scale, and its fruit— Guinea pepper—after being dried, is purchased in largequantities by the Americans, and imported into the United States. English muskets, gunpowder, rum, and tobacco, are the principal articles of traffic on the whole of the coast as far as Onim at the bottom of the Bight of Benin. At Jaque Lahoo and Jaque Jaque, two considerable towns, situated at the extremity of the bight formed by Cape Palmas and Cape Three Points, commences the trade in gold-dust; here also a considerable quantity of palmoil and some ivory are found. After passing these towns, the European settlements commence. The first are Great Bassam and Assine, belonging to France, and situated at the mouths of the rivers of the same names. Five leagues to the west of Cape Three Points, is the small Dutch fort of Axem; and on the other side of the same cape is the English port of Dick’s Cove. From Cape Lahoo to Acora, and to all the European settlements on the coast, the monetary standard is the “ ake” (ackie) of gold-dust, which weighs half a dram English, and is worth nearly 5s. The kru on this part of the coast is almost double that assigned to it on the coast of Malagueta —averaging L.50, more or less. Between Dick’s Cove and the castle of St George of the Mine (S. Jorge da Mina) are situated the small forts of Serunde, Sanca, and Commendo; after which we come to the first large European settlement, viz., the castle of St George of the Mine, belonging to Holland. The castle is a Portuguese structure, and was formerly the most important of the Portuguese colonies on this coast. Next to it is Cape Coast Castle, belonging to England, and situated in sight of the former. The next place is Annamaboo, a small English fort, formerly abandoned, but where for some years past trade has been again in some degree developed. To this fort succeed others in ruins, as Winebah and Assam. Millet is found in abundance at these places, as well as palmoil and gold-dust. Proceeding along the coast, we come to the great English VOL. xr.

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89 settlement of Acora, where there are at present two for- Guinea tresses. The first, that of St James, was built by them || many years since; the second, that of Christianburg, was Guipuzcoa. purchased from Denmark, together with all its possessions on that coast, in the year 1850. Then follow the small settlements of Ningo ; after passing which, Cape St Paul, a little to the east of Rio da Volta (“ Return River”), is doubled. From Cape St Paul to Onim or Lagos, many negro towns or villages are met with stationed along the coast. These communicate with each other by means of the lake situated at no great distance inland from the beach; and then the ford converges to the principal points, which are Quita, Popo-pequeno, Ajuda, Porto Novo, and Onim. The trade which formerly flourished at all these places was that in slaves; but for some years past that in palmoil, or de7i-den, has greatly developed itself, the quantity produced amounting annually to more than 7000 tons, which are shipped to England, America, and France. On this section of the coast there are no European establishments, properly so called; but at Ajuda, Porto Novo, and Onim, there are factories ; and Europeans are also resident in the country, and traffic with vessels, as they do at those establishments. The trade of the Benin, Brass, Bonny, Calabar, and Cameroon Rivers, is all in palm-oil, and carried on exclusively by the English. The whole coast has been arbitrarily divided into five parts:— 1. The Sierra Leone district, from Cape Verga to Cape Mesurado. 2. Malagueta, Pepper or Grain Coast, from Cape Mesurado to Cape Palmas. 3. The Ivory Coast, from Cape Palmas to Cape Three Points. 4. The Gold Coast, from Cape Three Points to the River Volta. 5. The Slave Coast, or Benin district, from* the River Volta to the Cameroons. (a. p.) Guinea, New. See Australasia. GUINEA, a gold coin formerly struck and current in Britain, and so denominated because the gold of which the first specimens were struck {temp. Car. II.) was brought from tiie coast of Guinea; and for a like reason it originally bore the impression of an elephant. The value of the guinea varied greatly at different periods, but latterly it was worth 21 shillings. Its weight was 5 dwts. 9‘4125 grs. On the introduction of the sovereign—first coined in 1817—the old guinea coinage was gradually superseded. See Coinage, and Money. Guine^-FowI. See index to Ornithology. Guinea-Pig. See index to Mammalia. GUINGAMP, a town of France, capital of a cognominal arrondissement in the department of Cotes-du-Nord, on the right bank of the Trieux, 17 miles W.N.W. of St Brieuc. It was formerly surrounded by walls, part of which still exists. It has an old parish church with a tower and spire, and several other good buildings; also manufactures of ginghams, to which it gives name ; of linen fabrics, thread, leather, hats, &c.; and some trade in wine, brandy, cattle, and agricultural produce. Pop. (1851) 6718. GUIPUZCOA, the most easterly of the four Basque provinces of Spain, bounded on the W. by Biscay, S. by Alava, E. and N.E. by Navarre, N.E. by the Bidasoa, the mutual boundary between it and France. Its form is nearly that of a right-angled triangle, having the hypothenuse towards the S.E., and its area is nearly 600 square miles. Its coast is so much indented, that it contains no fewer than nine harbours—none of which, however, are very important. From the immense variety of surface in mountain, hill, and valley, the scenery of this small province is highly M

90 Guisborough I] Guise,

GUI picturesque and romantic. Lofty mountains—partly clothed with evergreen forests, and partly barren—shoot out from the Pyrenees, and spread over the whole surface. In this province commences the Cantabrian ridge, to which belongs the Alzanja, over which the great road of the Romans was conducted. To the coast belong the Cabo San Antonio, and the Cabo de Higuera ; and numerous small bays, forming good harbours—Orio, Zarauz, (juetaria, Zumaya, Deva, Motrico, Fontarabia, Le Passage, and San Sebastian. The streams are all short, rapid, unnavigable, and fall into the Bay of Biscay ; the principal of these are the Deva, Urola, Oria, Urumea, Lezo, and Bidassoa. The soil—especially in the lower valleys—is very fertile, and is cultivated very carefully; but, from the nature of the surface, agricultural labours are prosecuted with considerable difficulty. The climate, though moist, is mild, pleasant, and healthful; and the inhabitants often attain to a great age. The frequency of rain preserves the freshness of the verdure throughout most of the year; but thunder-storms often occur during December and January. The chief wealth of the province arises from its mineral stores and excellent fisheries, which supply the neighbouring provinces of Alava, Navarre, part of Castile, and Aragon, with excellent sea-fish. The grain raised falls considerably short of what is necessary for home consumption. The minerals chiefly wrought are iron, of excellent quality, being smelted with wood; argentiferous lead, copper, marble, and gypsum. The people are remarkable for their fine physical form, and bold, manly spirit; and, notwithstanding the simplicity of their manners, the prominent features of their character are industry, honesty, benevolence, gallantry. They are fond of games requiring bodily strength and exertion, in which even their women join. But they especially delight in dancing; and their great favourite amusements are their national dance, the zorcico, and a kind of bullfight called novillos. Tolosa is the capital. San Sebastian as a seaport has a good trade, and gives name to the province of San Sebastian since the administrative division of 1822. The other principal towns are Fuenterabia or Fontarabia, a small fortress on the Bidassoa, close to the French frontier; Mondragon, where are rich iron mines; Salinas, on the Deva, has a salt-work (whence its name) which produces about 1000 tons per annum. La Isla de los Faisanes, an island in the Bidassoa, is celebrated as the place where the “ Peace of the Pyrenees” was concluded in 1659 between France and Spain. Though the Spaniards name this island “ Isle of Pheasants,” yet these birds are now quite unknown there. The population of Guipuzcoa in 1849 was 141,752. GUISBOROUGH, or Gisborough, a market-town of England, North Riding of Yorkshire, at the foot of the Cleveland Hills, not far from the mouth of the Tees, and 40 miles N. of York. It consists chiefly of one wide and handsome street, having many good houses. It has a handsome town-hall, under which the market is held ; a church, a free grammar-school, and an hospital for old men and women. The first alum-works in the kingdom were established here about 1600. An Austin priory was founded here in 1129, of which some remains still exist. Marketday Tuesday. Pop. (1851) 2062. GUISCARD, Robert (1015-1085), Duke of Apulia and Calabria, one of the most famous captains of his age, rvas the son of the Norman Tancred Hauterville. His life, exploits, and character, are given in great detail in chap. Ivi. of Gibbon’s Decline and Fall. See also Naples. GUISE, a town of France, department of Aisne, on the left bank of the Oise, 13 miles N.W. of Vervins. It ranks as a fortified town of the third class, being surrounded by walls, and having a strong citadel. Pop. 3500. GUISE, or Guyse. The family of Guise, which plays a distinguished part in certain eras of French and Scottish history, was sprung from the royal house of Lorraine. It

GUI did not become known in France till the sixteenth century, Guitar, when Claude, son of Rene II., Duke of Lorraine, driven from home by an elder brother, entered the French army, distinguished himself on many battle-fields, and was desperately wounded at Marignan in 1515. For these services he was made Duke of Guise in Normandy and a peer of France by Francis I. He died in 1550, leaving, by his wife Antoinette de Bourbon, a large family, of which three members became especially notable. These were Marie, married to James V. of Scotland, and mother of Mary Queen of Scots; Francis, renowned as a soldier; and Charles, the Cardinal of Lorraine. For the history and character of Marie de Guise, see Scotland. Francis, surnamed “ le Balafre,” from a scar on his face left by a wound received at the siege of Boulogne in 1545, was the noblest of his race. He was brave, generous, and gentle-hearted, and wras as able a commander as a valiant soldier. He greatly distinguished himself in the wars between France and Spain, and retook Calais from the English, almost the last relic of their ancient conquests in France. Under Francis II. his power, which in the last reign had been counterpoised by that of the Montmorencys, became almost absolute, The Calvinists and the Prince of Conde made an effort to overthrow it; but this attempt, known in history as the conspiracy of Amboise, was defeated by the vigilance of the duke. Soon after this he had himself appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom, while the parliament voted him the title of “ conservateur de la patrie.” His first step was to take vengeance on the conspirators, wffiich he did in a manner bordering on cruelty. Under Charles IX. his influence was checked, to a certain extent, by that of Conde and Coligny. The unfortunate affair at Vassi was the signal for a general war of religion in France ; and shortly after the battle of Dreux (1563), in which the duke had distinguished himself, he was assassinated by Poltrot de Mere}7, a Calvinist nobleman, who regarded him as the most dangerous enemy of the Reformed faith. He was succeeded in his title and estates, and the leadership of his party, by his son Plenry, who, like himself, enjoyed the surname of “ le Balafre ” This son inherited all the talents, but few of the virtues of his father, except his courage. He seconded his uncle, the Cardinal of Lorraine, in carrying out all the schemes of the “ Ligue,” which, under the pretence of protecting the Catholic faith, was to serve the ulterior purpose of concentrating all the power of the kingdom in the hands of the Guises and their party. To prove his sincerity in the cause of the faith, Henri de Guise helped to carry out the massacre of St Bartholomew, planned the murder of Coligny, and hunted down the defeated Huguenots with pitiless cruelty. His successes at length made him insolent and overbearing even at court; and the king (Henri III.) forbade him ever to appear there again. Upon this the duke armed his retainers, and endeavoured to raise Paris in rebellion against its sovereign. This day, the 12th of May 1588, is famous in French history as the “ Journee des Barricades.” The king fled, and summoned a meeting of the statesgeneral at Blois. He found the deputies almost all in the interest of his revolted subject, and was obliged to make the most humiliating concessions to retain even the semblance of royalty. After enduring for a few months more the insolence of his too-powerful vassal, Henry had him privately assassinated, December 23, 1588; and next day the Cardinal of Lorraine met a similar end. Even this double shock, however, was hardly sufficient to break the power of the Guises. Under Henri IV. they had recovered so far as to be able to organize the League against that prince, and did not acknowledge his allegiance until he had abjured the Protestant faith. The dukedom of Guise became extinct in 1675. GUITAR (Span. Guitarra), a musical instrument much used in Spain for accompanying songs. It is supposed to

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Gujerat. be of Arabian origin, and is the last relic of instruments of the lute kind. There are different kinds of guitars—Spanish, French, and German; but the one most in use has six strings, generally tuned E, A, D, G, B, E, which chiefly belong to the bass register. Music for the guitar is written in the treble clef, though every note is an octave lower than represented. The guitar finger-board is furnished with frets, upon which the fingers of the left hand press down the strings, while these are struck by the fingers of the right hand. The Spanish and French guitars are nearly alike. GUJERAT, a town of Hindustan, in the Punjab, about 8 miles from the right bank of the River Chenab, and 75 miles N. of the city of Lahore. The place has acquired celebrity from the victory gained in the vicinity on 21st Feb. 1849, by a British force, commanded by Lord Gough, over a Sikh army greatly superior in point of numbers, under the command of Sirdar Chuttur Singh and Rajah Shere Singh. The British, notwithstanding their numerical inferiority, gallantly attacked the Sikhs, drove them in succession from point to point, put them to disorderly flight, and captured their artillery and baggage. N. Lat. 32. 35., W. Long. 74. 8. Gujerat, Gajrat, or Guzerat, a very large province of Hindustan, comprising within its limits the dominions of the Guicowar, besides several British districts, and situated principally between the 21st and 24th degrees of N. latitude. It has been computed to be 320 miles long by about 400 broad. On the N. it is bounded by Rajpootana, S. by the Presidency of Bombay, E. by Central India, W. by Cutch and the sea. The S.W. quarter of this province is inclosed on the S.W. and N.E. by the Gulfs of Cutch and Cambay, and has the form of a peninsula. A considerable portion, particularly towards the eastern frontier, is hilly, and much covered with jungle. On the N.W. boundary, along the bank of the River Banas or Bunass, the country in some parts produces good pasture; in other parts it is either an arid plain or a low salt swamp, which, where it is dried up, is barren and unproductive. The interior is hilly and rocky; but there are spots, where water is accessible, that are extremely fertile, especially in sugar and tobacco, and which yield all sorts of grain, oats excepted; also cotton, tobacco, indigo, gum, and sugar. The country, notwithstanding its smoothness to the eye, is in many parts intersected by ravines, and much broken by the heavy rains; and some of these chasms contain, during the season of the rains, a large volume of water, not to be crossed without the assistance of rafts or boats; and, accordingly, the natives in these cases establish temporary ferries. The climate is reckoned one of the worst in India, being intensely hot during the greater part of the year, with a heavy thickness in the atmosphere, which is extremely oppressive. A hot wind blows fiercely all the day ; and when it ceases at night, it is followed by a still more close and oppressive calm. “ I had certainly,” says Bishop Heber, “ no conception that anywhere in India the month of March could offer such a furnace-like climate.” “ It is,” he adds, “ in the same latitude with Calcutta, and seems 1to be what Bengal would be without the glorious Ganges.” During the hot and dry months the surface of the country appears mostly sand or dust, and in the rainy season a thick mire. In the N.W. parts, along the banks of the River Bunass, where there is good pasturage, and in various other parts of the province, they breed excellent horses and camels; and the cattle are superior to those of any other part of India. Some of their bullocks, which are in general white, with large bumps, are sixteen hands high, and will trot in a carriage as fast, and perform as long a journey, as good horses. This province is traversed by several large rivers, namely, the Bunass, the Nerbuddah, Tuptee, Mahy, Mehindry, and Sabermatty, 1

G U J 91 which, being navigable from the sea to a considerable dis Gujerat. tance up the country, afford great facilities for commerce. But there are many large tracts which experience a great scarcity of water ; and the inhabitants are forced to dig wells, which are in many parts from 80 to 100 feet deep. In some particular portions of this province not a stone is to be met with, whilst in some others nothing else is to be seen. In so extensive a province, never completely subdued by any of its numerous invaders, a great diversity of population may be expected. The population of Gujerat is accordingly very strangely diversified by numerous sects and castes, under the various designations of Grassias, Catties, Coolies, Bheels, Mewassies, Charons, Bhatts, Dheras, and others. In some parts of the province the Grassias form a numerous class of landholders, and in others they merely possess a sort of feudal authority over certain portions of land and villages. The origin of their rights is a controverted point of Hindu history, which has never been very satisfactorily explained. The common account of their title to the land is, that they were robbers and plunderers, who inhabited the hills and jungles, and by their incursions the country was so much infested, that, after the decease of the Emperor Akbar in 1605, the nabobs of Surat ceded to them certain lands in each village in lieu of all demands. But it is asserted that, encouraged by this success, they still continued their depredations ; and the Zemindars, in order to purchase peace, agreed to the payment, on certain lands, of what is called foda, or ready money; and the lands which are liable to this payment have been continually increasing, owing to the anarchy which so long prevailed in Gujerat. The proprietors of these claims never allow them to die out; and it is seldom that they prosecute them in person, but, having retired to some secluded residence, they rally round them a band of desperate adventurers, to whom they farm out the Grassia claim, and depute them to levy it. Hence the country, prior to the war of 1817, and the consequent interference of the British government, was a prey to the greatest disorders ; it was ravaged by predatory hordes, who acquired new rights, and in this manner it was plundered, and the rent of the land misappropriated. These claims have been involved in such complication and obscurity, that the British officers have found it impossible to reduce them to any accurate standard of law or justice. On the rugged margins of all rivers in Gujerat, many of these Grassias resided in a kind of independence ; and also all over the Gujerat peninsula, usually denominated Cattywar by the natives. Their numbers were recruited by criminals from the plains, who fled to their haunts for refuge, and were supposed to amount to one-half of the population N. of the Mahy River. Attempts made by the Bombay government to extinguish the Grassia claims by a payment from the public treasury, and thus to prevent the disorders which they occasioned, have been crowned with success. Of all the disorderly hordes which infested this country, the most bloody and ferocious were the Coolies. The most barbarous were those in the vicinity of the Runn, the salt morass which bounds the province on the W., and communicates with the Gulf of Cutch. These were taught to despise every approach to civilization ; they are of the most filthy habits, and consider it a mark of effeminacy to wear clean clothes ; and the priests and other persons of note exceed the laity in dirtiness. They consider cleanliness as indicative of cowardice. That class of men named Bhatts, or Bharotts, abound more in Gujerat than in any other province of India. They cultivate the land; but the greater part of them are recorders of births and deaths, and beggars or itinerant bards, and very frequently traders. They often stand forward as security for the public revenue, and gua-

Heber, vol. iii., p. 10.

G U J E 92 Gujerat. rantee observance of agreements and rewards. They always possess, however, an intimate knowledge of the person for whom they become security, of his character and resources; and when they find that they have been deceived, and are pressed for money for which they have become security, such is their proud and obstinate character, that they sometimes sacrifice their own lives, or some aged female or child of the family, in the presence of the person for whom they have broken their word. They form, in the rude state of society which prevails in India, a sort of middlemen between the contributors and the government; every Grassia, Coolie, and Bheel having his Bhatt, a class who are rewarded by a small percentage on the amount of the revenues for which they have become surety, and for the security which they afford against the importunity of the inferior agents of government, their persons being regarded as sacred, and their influence over the persons of the natives very great. They were chiefly employed under the Mahratta princes, between whom and the landholders they stood as middlemen, being bound to the government for the revenue, and acting as a security to the landholders against the oppressions of the government. Within the limits of British rule this agency has been discontinued, being found inefficient as an instrument of control for the unruly tribes of the country. The Charons are a sect of Hindus, allied in manners and customs to the Bhatts. They are often possessed of large droves of cattle for carriage, by means of which they carry on a distant inland traffic in grain and other articles. They also often hire themselves out as protectors of travellers in the wildest parts of the country ; and so faithful are they to their charge, that when a band of predatory horse appears, these persons take an oath to die by their own hands, in case those whom they have engaged to protect are plundered ; and this threat is always found effectual to restrain those superstitious thieves, who hold the Charons in great veneration. There is in Gujerat, as in other parts of Hindustan Proper, a race of people called Ungreas, whose profession is that of money-carriers, which they contrive to conceal in their quilted clothes. Although they are miserably poor, they may be trusted with large sums of money to carry many miles off, merely on the responsibility of the superior, who is frequently richer than the others. They are of all castes, and in general athletic and well armed ; and they are of such singular habits, that in performing distant journeys they form themselves into parties, and fight with desperation to defend a property lor which their only recompense is a mere subsistence. The Bheels are generally described as the original inhabitants of the country, who have been driven to their present fastnesses and their miserable way of life by the invaders of their country, whether Mohammedans or Hindus. These people were, in the first instance, treated with extreme severity by the British;1 but in 1825 a mild and conciliatory course of policy was introduced; and they have been reclaimed from their barbarous habits and formed into regiments, subject to such discipline as was suited to their turbulent character. They also received grants of land, and freedom from taxes for a numberof years; and they were in this manner trained to industrious habits. The Dheras of this province are of a very degraded caste, and their employment is to carry filth of every description out of the roads and villages. They are miserably poor ; they scrape bare the bones of every animal which dies within their limits, and share out the flesh, which they cook in various ways, and (eed upon. They are obliged to serve travellers as carriers of their baggage to the village nearest their own. In the course of their business they are always committing petty thefts, and are much given to intoxication. 1

E A T. The Vaneeya, or the merchants and traffickers, form a Gujerat. numerous class in Gujerat. Many of them travel to remote parts of India, where they remain from one to ten years, after which they return to their wives and children. Many also finally settle in the towns of foreign countries, where their descendants continue to speak and write the Gujerattee tongue. The Jains are also a more numerous class here than in any of the contiguous provinces, and possess many handsome temples adorned with well-wrought images. Besides its native hordes or castes, Gujerat, along with Bombay, contains nearly all the Parsees, or fireworshippers, to be found in the continent of India, the feeble remains of the once numerous sect of the Magi. In all the larger towns are to be found that remarkable race of men named the Boras, who, though Mohammedans in religion, are Jews in features, manners, and genius. They form a community amongst themselves, and are everywhere noted for their address in bargaining, minute thrift, and constant attention to lucre. The washermen are also considered as a degraded and cruel class, on account of the numerous deaths which they involuntarily occasion to the animalcula in the process of washing. The province of Gujerat flourished chiefly during the era of the Mogul government, and even during the most convulsed periods it carried on a much more extensive trade than ever it has done since. The principal trade is with Bombay, and the chief exports are cotton, piece goods, and grain. The imports are chiefly sugar, raw silk, pepper, cocoa nuts, and British fabrics. Its manufacturing industry has decayed, and in general has nearly disappeared, in consequence of the greater cheapness of British wares. The principal towns in this province are Surat, Ahmedabad, Broach, Cambay, Gogo, and the Guicowars capital of Baroda. Gujerat contains populous districts, but in other parts the country is extremely desolate. Surat and the neighbouring country is thickly planted with inhabitants, and the north-western districts are equally naked and destitute of people. The country has been so much exposed to the depredations of thieves and banditti from the jungles and mountains, that, for the sake of security, the great body of the people live, not in sequestered houses, but in villages; and these villages are frequently visited by travelling companies, who exhibit puppet-shows, and histrionical representations. They are also occasionally frequented by musicians, dancing girls, singing men and women, wrestlers, expert jugglers, dancing bears, goats, and monkeys. In the remote and savage districts of the country, where there are no villages, fortifications are numerous ; but in all the parts to which the British influence extends, they are fast crumbling into decay. In many parts the people are of savage and cruel manners ; and amongst the tribe of Jahrejahs the practice of female infanticide prevails, and the united exertions of all the British officers and statesmen have been employed to prevent it. There is another crime peculiar to this province, known in the British courts of justice by the name ofjhansa, which is the writing of threatening letters, the destroying of gardens or plantations, and the burning of stacks, in order to extort money, or to enforce a compliance with any other unjust demand. These offences were not formerly confined to the Grassias, but were resorted to in village feuds, even by the heads of villages. But since the regular administration of justice by the British, such disorderly practices have become less frequent. There is a class of persons, the Mahy Kaunta Coolies, who are so named from their residence on the Mahy River, who are thieves by profession, and also very ingenious, active, and courageous. They lurk on the highways, and intercept families and individuals proceeding to distant pilgrimages and religious fairs. They frequently visit Surat and other

Ileber, vol. ii., p. 496.

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Gulden- large cities in pursuit of their illicit occupation, though, staedt. from the increasing vigilance of the British police, their depredations are now more frequently checked. But, beyond the precincts of the British authority, in the northern and western quarters, and the centre of the Gujerat peninsula, the number of societies of armed and sanguinary thieves is scarcely credible ; and it is rather surprising that even the thinly scattered population of the country should keep its ground amid the many excesses and outrages which are committed. There are many remarkable wells and watering-places in Gujerat. One near Baroda is said to have cost nine lacks of rupees. There is another at Vadwa, in the vicinity of Cambay, which, from the inscription, appears to have been erected in 1482. The province of Gujerat was first invaded about a.d. 1025, by Mahmood of Ghizni, who subverted the throne of its native prince, named Jamund, and plundered his capital. After the establishment of the Delhi sovereignty, Gujerat was subject for many years to the Patan conquerors. In the fifteenth century it came under the dominion of a dynasty of Rajpoot princes, converted to the Mohammedan religion, who removed the seat of government to Ahmedabad; and under their rule it flourished greatly as a maritime and commercial state. This race of princes was overthrown by the Emperor Akbar in 1572; and after the death of Aurungzebe in 1707, hordes of Mahratta depredators overran the province, which in 1724 was finally separated from the Mogul empire. Until 1818 the Mahratta Peishwaand the Guicowar possessed large tracts of country, but at present only the last remains, the authority and dominions of the other having devolved to the British. The annual revenue of the Guicowar is estimated at L.668,744. The military establishment of this prince, in addition to his regular troops, amounting to 6000 cavalry and infantry, comprises also the subsidiary force at the disposal of the British government, which consists of five regiments of infantry, two of cavalry, and a company of artillery. He also maintains a contingent force of 3000 cavalry, and a corps of irregulars, known as the Gujerat irregular horse, commanded by British officers. In 1802 the British government negotiated with the Guieowar as a sovereign in his own right, and thus secured his independence of the Peishwa. Under the treaty then concluded the Guicowar agreed to receive a British subsidiary force. When, as a result of his first discomfiture, the Peishwa yielded to the British government his rights in Gujerat, the Guicowar received an accession of territory, and a new treaty supplemental to the former was concluded. Under this treaty the subsidiary force was to be increased by a battalion of native infantry, of not less than 1000 men, and two regiments of native cavalry. The establishment of British authority in this country experienced very serious obstructions from the intermixture of the territories ceded by the Peishwa with those of the Guicowar; also from the Nabob of Cambay, and the unsettled tributaries of Cattywar and Mahy Caunta, and still more from the lawless habits of a large proportion of the people, especially beyond the Mahy River. But, by a wise and conciliating policy, these difficulties have been surmounted, and tranquillity has gradually arisen from the confusion which at first overspread the country. (e.t.) GULDENSTAEDT, John Antony, a Russian traveller and naturalist of some celebrity, was born at Riga in 1745, died at St Petersburg in 1781. He took part in some of the scientific expeditions organized by the Russian government in the latter half of last century, and distinguished himself especially by his travels in the Caucasus. His memoirs on the natural history, languages, &c., of these countries, though they have been long superseded, were highly esteemed in their day, and even now possess a cer-

G U M tain historical value. His name is associated with that of the celebrated Pallas, who after Guldenstaedt’s death published an edition of part of his works. GULES, in Heraldry, a corruption of the French word gueules, which in this science signifies red, and is represented in engraving by perpendicular lines. See Heraldry. GULF, an arm of the sea. See Geography. GULF-STREAM. See Atlantic, vol. iv., p. 176. GULL. See index to Ornithology. GUM, the hard fleshy substance which invests the teeth of either jaw. See Anatomy. Gum (Lat. gummi). This term is applicable solely to those concrete vegetable exudations which soften or dissolve in water, and afford a more or less perfect mucilage, but which are wholly insoluble in alcohol. Gums are thus distinguished from resins—those fusible and combustible vegetable substances which are totally insoluble in water, but which soften and dissolve in ether, essential oils, and alcohol. Gum, properly so called, is used in large quantities for a number of purposes in the arts. There are six varieties of this substance, viz., gum-arabic, gum-senegal, cherry-tree gum, with that of other stone-fruit trees, gumtragacanth, gum of Bassora, or Bazrah, and that extracted from seeds and roots by boiling water. Gum-arabic is the purest of these, and consists almost entirely of the principle called arabine. It forms a clear mucilage with water, and is clearer, and keeps better if dissolved in cold water than when prepared with warm water, which is the common method. Gum-arabic is the produce of several species of Acacia; as tortilis, seval, Ehrenbergii, vera, arabica. One hundred parts of good gum were found to consist of 70,40 of arabine, 17'60 of water, and a few per cent, of saline and earthy matters. The method of collecting this gum as practised in Morocco may be briefly described :—About the middle of November, that is, after the rainy season, a gummy juice exudes spontaneously from the trunk and principal branches of the acacia-tree. In about fifteen days it thickens in the furrow, down which it ran either in a vermicular form, or, more commonly, in the shape of oval and round tears, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, and of different shades of colour as they belong to the white or red gum-tree. About the middle of December the Moors encamp on the border of the forest, and commence the harvest, which lasts six weeks. The gum is packed in very large bags of leather, and brought on the backs of bullocks and camels to certain ports, where it is sold to French and English merchants. It is highly nutritious. During the whole time of harvest, of the journey, and of the fair, the Moors of the desert live almost entirely upon it; and experience proves that six ounces of gum taken during the twenty-four hours are sufficient to support a man for a considerable period. The quantity of gum-arabic imported into Britain in 1852 amounted to 48,484 cwts.; that of gum-senegal to 4267 cwts.; of tragacanth, 1151 cwts. Previously to the year 1832, the duty on gum-arabic from a British possession was 6s. a cwt., and from other parts, 12s.; but the duty on all gums, from whatever part of the world, was then equalized, being fixed at 6s.; in 1841 it was further reduced to Is.; and it was finally repealed in 1845. Of the 48,484 cwts. of gum-arabic imported in 1852, Egypt produced 16,414 cwts.; Morocco, 7131 ; Italy, 3952; East Indies, 16,089; other countries, 4898. Gum-senegal is also a very pure gum, much resembling gum-arabic, and is applied to many of the same purposes as that of gum. It is also much employed in calico-printing. The tree which yields it is the Acacia Senegal, so named from the country of the River Senegal in Africa, whence this gum is procured. Its constituents are arabine 81T0, water 16T0, with 2 or 3 parts of saline matters. Cherry-tree gum is an inferior and less soluble kind of

93 Gules II Gum.

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94 GUM Gum-Resin gum? containing 54,90 parts of cerasine, 52-10 of arabine, Jj 12 of water, and 1 of saline matter, tzhaimer. Gum-tragacanth, familiarly called gum-dragon, is the prov ^ IL_ i duce of several species of Astralagus, but more particularly of A. verus and A. gummifer; the former a native of the north of Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor, and the latter of Mount Lebanon, Arabia, &c. These at least are the chief sources of the tragacanth met with in commerce. It is likewise yielded, though less abundantly, by A. creticus A. aristatus, and some other species. It is imported in twisted thread-like pieces, or in flattened cakes, is of a whitish or yellowish colour, devoid of taste and smell, nearly opaque, and a little ductile. It swells in water, and dissolves in part, forming a very thick mucilage. One hundred parts of it consist of 53*30 arabine, 33*30 bassorine and starch, 11*0 water, and from 2 to 3 parts of saline matters. It is used in medicine as a demulcent, and to form lozenges and pills, &c. It is also employed to stiffen and to glaze silks; and the inferior kinds are used by shoemakers to finish off the edges of their work. Gum of Bassora, or that brought from Bassora in Arabia, possesses most of the properties of tragacanth, and gives its name to the principle called bassorine, which forms a constituent part of this gum and of tragacanth. Gum from roots and seeds is extracted by boiling water. Linseed, for example, yields, by boiling, a gum consisting of 52*70 arabine, 28*9 insoluble matter, 10*3 water, and 7'11 saline matter. The substance called British gum, so largely used in calico-printing, is noticed under the head British Gum. Gum-Resin. This term is applied to an inspissated juice afforded by many kinds of plants, which combines the properties of gums and resins, being partly soluble in water, partly in alcohol. The principal gum-resins are aloes, ammoniac, assafoetida, galbanum, gamboge, euphorbium, olibanum, scammony, besides a great variety of other concrete juices. The chief of these are noticed under their respective names, as also the resins properly so called. GUMBINNEN, a town of Prussia, province of East Prussia, and capital of a government of the same name, on the Pissa, 70 miles E.S.E. of Konigsberg. The town is well built, with spacious and regular streets, and fine promenades, shaded by linden trees. It is the seat of the different governmental courts, and has a gymnasium, schools of architecture and midwifery, a public library, and an hospital. It has manufactures of woollen and linen stuffs, leather, and brandy; and some trade in corn. Gumbinnen was only a small village till 1732, when it was improved and made a town by Frederick William I., to whom a statue was erected in the market-place in 1832. Many Protestant families from Salzburg, driven from their homes, settled here and contributed to its rise and prosperity. Pop. (1849) 6794. The government of Gumbinnen has an area of 6312 English square miles, and is almost one continued flat, extensively covered with lakes. The cultivated land is fertile, but a large portion of this government is densely wooded, or covered with heath and morass. The chief products are wheat, rye, flax, and hemp; and cattle and sheep are numerous. Pop. (1849) 614,047, of whom 601,016 are Protestants. GUMPELTZHAIMER, Adam, a musician, born at Trosberg, in Bavaria, in 1560. The year of his death is not known. In 1581 he was appointed cantor of the school of Augsburg. He merits historical notice as one of the early creators of that German style of harmony which was afterwards employed with such effect by Handel, J. S. Bach, and others. “ His modulations,” says an eminent critic, “ were based on the modern system of tonality; and while they were lively and unexpected, were still smooth and natural.” I here are several published collections of his Spiritual Songs for Four Voices.

GUN GUN. See Gun-making, and Rifle. Gun GUN-COTTON. Cotton is one of the numerous forms || Gun of lignine, a compound of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen; but < !otton' when it is subjected to the action of nitric acid, nitrogen, ' which exists in most explosive bodies, enters into its composition. The action of nitric acid on lignine had long attracted the attention of chemists; but the nearest approach to the formation of gun-cotton was made by Pelouze, who, in 1838, writes in the Comptes Rendus of the properties of a substance named Xyloidine, from £v\ov, wood, discovered by Braconnet in 1833:—“ It is very combustible, taking fire at 356° Fahr., burning with great rapidity; and almost without residue. This property has led me to an experiment, which I think susceptible of some application, especially in artillery. By plunging paper in nitric acid of sp. gr. 1*5, leaving it there the requisite time for the acid to permeate the paper, which is usually accomplished in two or three minutes, then withdrawing it, and, lastly, washing it in water, we obtain a kind of parchment impermeable to moisture, and extremely combustible.” In 1846, Schonbein exhibited to the British Association at Southampton specimens of cotton, which appeared to be as explosive as gunpowder; but it was not till April 1847, on the enrolment of the patent, that the method of preparing this cotton was known, although, in the interval, Otto of Brunswick, Morel of Paris, and Bottger of Frankfort, published recipes for making explosive cotton. Schonbein’s method consisted in mixing three parts of sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1*85, with one part of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*45 to 1*50; and when the mixture had cooled down to between 50° and 60° Fahr., clean rough cotton in as open a state as possible was immersed in the acid; when well soaked, the excess of acid was drawn or poured off, and the cotton pressed lightly in order to separate the principal portion of the acid. The cotton was then covered over and left for half an hour, when it was pressed and thoroughly washed in running water to get rid of all free acid. After being partially dried by pressure, it was washed in an alkaline solution made by dissolving one ounce of carbonate of potash in a gallon of water. The free acid being thus got rid of, it was put into a press, the excess of alkaline solution was expelled, and the cotton left nearly dry. It was then washed in a solution of pure nitrate of potash, one ounce to the gallon, and being again pressed, was dried at a temperature of from 150° to l700. It was stated, that three parts of the gun-cotton thus prepared were equal in force to eight parts of Tower-proof gunpowder. Cotton gains considerably in weight by the above treatment, but it is scarcely changed in colour or in general appearance, if the process has been carefully conducted : it is, however, harsh to the touch, and gives a crepitating sound when pressed by the hand. It differs from common cotton by its electric excitability, the slightest degree of friction causing it to be powerfully attracted and repelled by other bodies ; and also by its action on a ray of polarized light, which it does not depolarize like ordinary cotton. It explodes at a temperature of from 350° to 400°, with such rapidity as to interfere with its practical application, for if applied to the purposes of artillery, it may burst the gun before it has time to move the shot, and some of the products of its combustion make it also objectionable for firearms. Among these products water may be mentioned, and, should the cotton not have been well washed, nitrous acid. Another great impediment to the use of gun-cotton is its hygrometric condition, for if exposed to a damp atmosphere, it will in an hour or two absorb a considerable portion of moisture. Many attempts have been made to apply it to mining purposes on account of its enormous force, and the small quantity of smoke which it produces ; but the objections to its use are numerous, the most fatal objection being its liability to spontaneous ignition. Nevertheless, gun-cotton continues to be an objectof great

GUN Gundamuk interest on account of its application to the beautiful art of II photography. When the cotton is prepared in such a way Gundwana as t0 burn s]owiy; jt js not liable to spontaneous ignition, and in this state it is perfectly soluble in sulphuric ether, which the more explosive cotton is not. If the ethereal solution, called collodion, be poured on the surface of cold water, a paper is produced, which is prepared for the use of the photographer. This paper is a very active electric, and is perfectly soluble in ether. Collodion has also been made use of in surgery, by applying the ethereal solution to a wound, when a thin delicate artificial skin is formed by it, which perfectly excludes the air. In the preparation of gun-cotton, nitric acid is the active agent in the formation of xyloidine: the sulphuric acid has no direct action on the lignine, its use being to retain the water abstracted from the cotton, and prevent the solution of the compound which takes place to a greater or less extent in nitric acid alone. The purity and exact strength of the acids are matters of great importance. Mr Hadow found that the best mixture for producing collodion wool is obtained by mixing 89 parts by weight of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1 *424, with 104 parts by weight of sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1 ’833. On trying the effect of various re-agents on gun-cotton, Mr Hadow found that it could be perfectly restored to the original cotton, without loss of form, by means of an alcoholic solution of hydro-sulphuret of potassium. On this, and other points connected with the chemistry of gun-cotton, we must refer to Mr Hadow’s paper, published in the Transactions of the Chemical Society. (c. T.) GUNDAMUK, a walled village of Afghanistan, on the road from Jelalabad to Cabool, 28 miles W. of the former. Here, on its retreat from Cabool, in 1842, the remains of the British force, amounting to about 100 soldiers and 300 camp followers, were massacred, and only one man escaped. GUNDUCK, a large river of Hindustan, flowing from the Himalaya Mountains, and falling into the Ganges. Its source is presumed to be in the territories of a native chief, named the Moostang Rajah, now tributary to the Rajah of Nepaul. After a course of about 200 miles, it sweeps round the base of the Maddar Mountain, where the river is perfectly clear, and broader than the Thames at Chelsea, with banks of abrupt rocks alternating with levels covered with stately forests. In the upper part of its course the river is called Salgrami, from a curious species of stones found in its bed and held sacred by the inhabitants. They are mostly round, and perforated in one or more places with worms, which the Hindus, in their degraded superstition, believe to have been done by Vishnu in the form of that reptile ; and the stones are prized in proportion to the number of perforations or spiral curves in each. These stones are called Salgrams. A few grains of gold are occasionally separated from the sand of the Gunduck. From the Maddar Mountain the course of the river is in a south-easterly direction for the further distance of 200 miles, when it falls into the Ganges, at the town of Hajeepoor, opposite the city of Patna, in N. Lat. 25. 39., W. Long. 85. 16. GUNDWANA, a large province of Hindustan, in the Deccan, extending from the 19th to the 25th degree of N. latitude. The tract may be considered as comprising part of the British territory of Saugor and Nerbudda with the districts of Singrowlee, Chota Nagpore, and Sirgooja, the petty native states on the S.W. frontier of Bengal, the Cuttack Mehals and the northern portion of Nagpore. It is estimated to be 400 miles in length, by 280 in average breadth. Gundwana, in its most extensive sense, includes all that part of India within the above-mentioned boundaries which remained unconquered by the Mohammedans up to the reign of Aurungzebe. But Gundwana proper is

GUN 95 limited to four districts, named Gurrah-Mundela, Chotees- Cundwana* gur, Nagpore, and Chandah, and it stretches S. along the E. side of the Wurda and Godavery, to within 100 miles of the mouth of the latter. The greater part of this province is a mountainous, unhealthy, and ill-watered country, covered with jungle, and thinly inhabited ; and to its poverty and other bad qualities its independence may be ascribed. A continued chain of moderately elevated hills extends from the southern frontier of Bengal almost to the Godavery, and by these the eastern was formerly separated from the western portion of the Nagpore dominions. This province contains the sources of the Nerbudda and the Soane, and is bounded by the Wurda and Godavery ; but a want of water is still the general defect, the streams by which it is intersected, namely, the Mahanuddy, Caroon, Hatsoo, and Silair, being inconsiderable, and not navigable within its limits. The Goands, or the hill tribes, who took refuge in the mountains and fastnesses from the invaders of the country, are the original inhabitants of the country, and still retain all their primeval habits of barbarism. The country which they inhabit is a mere wilderness, its inhabitants scarcely rising above the level of beasts. Their habits are loose and disorderly, and they frequently descend from the mountains which they inhabit to plunder the plains below, from which they were originally driven. In the course of the last century they have acquired an increasing appetite for salt and sugar, and the desire to procure these articles has operated as a stimulus to their industry, and tended more than any other circumstance to promote civilization amongst them. These Goands are Hindus of the Brahminical sect ; but they retain many of their impure customs, and abstain from no flesh except that of the ox, cow, and bull. The more fertile tracts of Gundwana were subdued at an early period by the Bhoonsla Mahrattas, who claimed as paramount over the whole. The inhabitants were rendered nominally tributary ; but it was found impossible to collect any revenue from them without a detachment, so that in fact the collection of the revenue was rather like a plundering expedition, the cost of which always exceeded the profit. During the war against the Pindarees in 1818, when the British troops invaded the territories of Appa Saheb, the Rajah of Nagpore, their operations were greatly facilitated by the insurrection of the hill tribes, who occupied the passes into the Nagpore territories. For a long series of years it was the policy of the rajah of this territory, a descendant of Sevajee, to interfere as little as possible with the neighbouring powers. At length, in 1803, Ragojee Bhoonsla was induced, in an evil hour for himself, to depart from this system of neutrality, and to join Scindia in a confederacy against the British. He was soon reduced, however, by the defeats which the confederates sustained at Assye and Argaun, to sue for peace, as the price of which he ceded a large portion of his dominions to the conquerors, namely, the province of Cuttack, including the pergunnah and port of Balasore. After the death of this rajah, whose sole object seemed to be to amass treasure, and who, for this purpose, laid the country under heavy contributions, and even joined with the Pindaree plunderers, the throne, contested by various competitors, was at last secured by Appa Saheb, his nephew, who, in the war against the Pindarees, joined the coalition against the British power, and was involved in ruin along with his other allies. A treaty of peace was concluded with him, which he violated; and he was finally deposed in 1818, and the grandson of the late rajah put in his stead. The latter prince, after a reign of 35 years, died in 1853 ; and leaving no issue, the dynasty became extinct, and the kingdom of Nagpore was incorporated with the British empire. (E-T-)

96

G U N-M A K 11ST G. GanThe term gun-making is applied to the manufacture of waking. sman arms generally—including the fowling-piece, the musv—*' ket, the rifle, and the pistol. The rifle, being an arm of peculiar construction, and having properties distinct from those of other fire-arms, is treated separately. (See Rifle.) The parts of a gun are the barrel, the lock, the stock, and the furniture. ]. Of Barrels.—Gun-barrels being made for various purposes and for different classes of purchasers (some of whom are willing to pay the highest price for the most perfect weapon, while others desire the cheapest article), vary considerably in the quality of their material, the mode of their construction, and the amount of labour expended on them. The material is in general iron, but steel is used to some extent in the preparation of the best and highestpriced barrels for sporting guns, and also, in the form of cast-steel, for a new species of rifle-barrel that has been used in America with the greatest success, and which recently has been introduced into this country both at Birmingham and Glasgow. In the selection of iron for barrel-making, two qualities are absolutely essential—tenacity and elasticity. The first that the barrel may not burst under the explosive action of the powder, which does not expand gradually, but strikes suddenly like a hammer; the second that the barrel may not bulge, and also that it may preserve a certain sharpness of reaction requisite for the good shooting of the piece. It is therefore of the first importance that the iron should be of the best description that can be procured. Common iron, such as is used for the heavier ivorks of ordinary manufacture, is so large and loose in the grain, that it could not stand the shock of explosion; and the gun-barrel makers from an early period have made strenuous endeavours to improve the quality of the metal, which in their hands has been brought to a higher state of perfection than in any other art. The finest iron ever used in this or any other country has probably been produced by the gun-makers in their attempts to work the metal up to its limits of excellence. The more iron is drawn out and forged under the hammer the more its quality improves, provided it is not burnt; and this circumstance induced barrel-makers to select the materials that had already undergone the utmost amount of work by fire and anvil. Hence arose the manufacture of gun-barrels from stubs or horse-shoe nails, which were not only made from rods of the best iron, but heated and hammered into their peculiar form, and afterwards coldhammered to render them smooth, and to give the turn to the point which brings the nail out of the hoof. The stub was therefore the article that had most hammering expended on it, and was the best material for the manufacture of gunbarrels. So great was the superiority of the iron, that since stubs have ceased to be employed—either from the scarcity of the nails, or from the fact that inferior metal was employed in their manufacture—the efforts of barrel-makers have been directed to the production of an iron that should equal the stub ; it being considered the standard of excellence to which all iron employed for good barrels should be made to approach more or less nearly. The barrels of the best sporting guns are now made of a mixture of iron and steel, which passes under the name of laminated steel. These barrels are of excellent quality, and shoot better than iron barrels on account of the elasticity of the metal. When the iron is selected, whether of ordinary or superior quality, it is clipped by a pair of shears worked by steam

into pieces the size of stubs. These are then washed to ounretnove dirt, and cleansed in dilute acid to remove rust, making. They are then placed in a drum which revolves rapidly on a shaft, and the pieces are rolled and tumbled over each other till they become as bright as silver. They are now carried to the air-furnace, where they are heated almost to a state of fusion, so that they adhere together into a ball called a bloom of iron. From the furnace the ball, wei, it will require a countable resistance is observed, as we have seen in the considerable degree of strength to move the piston from b experiments already related by Mr Robins. Thus, if the to d. air presses in with a velocity of 1200 feet in a second, and If now we suppose the tube to be entirely removed (which if the body changes its place with a velocity of 600 feet in indeed answers no other purpose than to render the action the same time, there is a resistance of fifteen pounds on the of the air more evident), it is plain that if the piston be moved fore part, and a pressure of only 7^ on the back part. The either up or down, or in any other direction we can imagine, resistance therefore not only overcomes the moving power the air will press as much upon the back part of it as it re- of the air by 7^ pounds, but there is a deficiency of other sists it on the fore part; and, consequently, a ball moving 7£ pounds owing to the want of half the pressure of the atthrough the air with any degree of velocity, ought to be mosphere on the back part, and thus the whole loss of the as much accelerated by the action of the air behind, as it is moving power is equivalent to 15 pounds; and hence the retarded by the action of that before. Here then it is na- exceeding great increase of resistance observed by Mr tural to ask, if the air accelerates a moving body as much Robins beyond what it ought to be according to the comas it retards it, how comes it to make any resistance at all ? mon computations. The velocity with which the air rushes \ et certain it is that this fluid does resist, and that very into a vacuum is therefore a desideratum in gunnery. Mr considerably. To this it may be answered, that the air is Robins supposes that it is the same with the velocity of always kept in some certain state or constitution by another sound ; and that when a bullet moves with a velocity greater power which rules all its motions, and it is this power un- than that of 1200 feet in a second, it leaves a perfect vacuum doubtedly which gives the resistance. It is not to our pur- behind it. Hence he accounts for the great increase of repose at present to inquire what that power is, but we see sistance to bullets moving with such velocities; but as he that the air is often in very different states ; one day, for in^ does not take notice of the loss of the air’s moving power, stance, its parts are violently agitated by a storm, and an- the anomalies of all lesser velocities are inexplicable on his other perhaps they are comparatively at rest in a calm. In principles. Nay, he even tells us that Sir Isaac Newton’s the first case, nobody hesitates to own that the storm is oc- rule for computing resistances may be applied in all velocicasioned by some cause or other, which violently resists any ties less than 1100 or 1200 feet in a second, though this is other power that would prevent the agitation of the air. In expressly contradicted by his own experiments already a calm the case is the same ; for it would require the same mentioned. exertion of power to excite a tempest in a calm day as to Though for these reasons it is evident how great diffiallay a tempest in a stormy one. Now it is evident that all culties must occur in attempting to calculate the resistance projectiles, by their motion, agitate the atmosphere in an of the air to military projectiles, we have not yet even disunnatural manner, and consequently are resisted by that covered all the sources of resistance to these bodies when power, whatever it is, which tends to restore the equilibrium, moving with immense velocities. Another power by which or bring back the atmosphere to its former state. they are opposed, and which at last becomes greater than If no other power besides that above mentioned acted any of those hitherto mentioned, is the air’s elasticity. This, upon projectiles, it is probable that all resistance to their however, will not begin to show itself in the way of resistmotion would be in the duplicate proportion of their velo- ance till the velocity of the moving body becomes consicities ; and accordingly, as long as their velocity is small, derably greater than that by which the air presses into a we find that generally it is so. But when the velocity comes vacuum. Having therefore first ascertained this velocity, to be exceedingly great, other sources of resistance arise. which we shall suppose to be 1200 feet in a second, it is One of these is a subtraction of part of the moving power, plain that if a body moves W’ith a velocity of 1800 feet in which, though not properly a resistance, or opposing another a second, it must compress the air before it; because the power to it, is an equivalent thereto. This subtraction arises fluid has neither time to expand itself in order to fill the from the following cause :—The air, as we have already ob- vacuum left behind the moving body, nor to rush in by its served, presses upon the hinder part of the moving body by gravity. This compression it will resist by its elastic its gravity, as much as it resists the forepart of it by the power, which thus becomes a new source of resistance, insame property. Nevertheless the velocity with which the creasing, without any limit, in proportion to the velocity of air presses upon any body by means of its gravity is limited; the moving body. If now we suppose the moving body to

121 GUNNERY. Ballistic Pendulum ; and this will give the momentum Gunnery, Gunnery, set out with a velocity of 2400 feet in a second, it is plain the ' > j t]iat there is not only a vacuum left behind the body, but of the gun, its weight being known, and consequently the the air before it is compressed into half its natural space. momentum of its charge. But in order to detei mine the The loss of motion in the projectile therefore is now very velocity of the bullet from the momentum of the recoil, it considerable. It first loses 15 pounds on every square will be necessary to know how much the weight and veloinch of surface on account of the deficiency ot the mov- city of the elastic fluid contribute towards it. That part of the recoil which arises from the expansion ing power of the air behind it, then it loses 15 pounds more on account of the resistance of the air before it; of the fluid is always very nearly the same as stated by again, it loses 15 pounds on account of the elasticity of the Robins, whether the powder is fired alone, or whether the compressed air; and lastly, it loses another 15 pounds on charge is made to impel one or more bullets, as has been account of the vacuum behind, which takes off the weight determined by a great variety of experiments. If, thereof the atmosphere, that would have been equivalent to one- fore, a gun, suspended according to the method prescribed, half of the elasticity of the air before it. The whole re- is fired with any given charge of powder, but without any sistance therefore upon every square inch of surface mov- bullet or wad, and the recoil is observed, and if the same ing with this velocity is 60 pounds, besides that which piece is afterwards fired with the same quantity of powder,^ arises from the power tending to preserve the general state and a bullet of a known weight, the excess of the velocity of of the atmosphere, and which increases in the duplicate the recoil in the latter case, over that in the former, will proportion of the velocity, as already mentioned. If the be proportional to the velocity of the bullet; for the difbody is supposed to move with a velocity of 4800 feet in a ference of these velocities, multiplied into the weight of second, the resistance from the elasticity of the air will then the gun, will be equal to the weight of the bullet multibe quadrupled, or amount to 60 pounds on the square inch plied into its velocity. Thus, if W is put equal to the of surface, which, added to the other causes, will produce weight of the gun ; U = the velocity of the bullet when a resistance of 105 pounds upon the square inch ; and thus fired with a given charge of powder without any bullet; the resistance from the elasticity of the air would go on Y = the velocity of the recoil when the same charge is weight of the bullet, and continually increasing, till at last the motion of the projec- made to impel a bullet; B = the (V-U)W tile would be as effectually stopped as it it were fired against v = its velocity ; it will be v = ' g • a wall. This obstacle, therefore, we are to consider as really To determine how far this theory agreed with practice, insuperable by any art whatsoever, and therefore it is not advisable to use larger charges of powder than what will an experiment was made with a charge of 165 grains of project the shot with a velocity of 1200 feet in a second. powder, without any bullet, which produced a lecoil of 5 5 To this velocity the elasticity of the air will not make great inches ; and in another, the recoil was 5'6 inches, the mean resistance, if indeed it makes any at all; for though Mr of which is 5-55 inches, answering to a velocity of IT358 Robins has conjectured that air rushes into a vacuum with feet in a second. In five experiments with the same charge the velocity of sound, or between 1100 and 1200 feet in a of powder, and a bullet weighing 580 grains, the mean was second, yet we have no decisive proof of the truth of this 14-6 inches ; and the velocity of the recoil answering to the supposition. At this velocity, indeed, according to Mr length just mentioned, is 2*9880 feet in a second ; conseRobins, a very sudden increase of resistance takes place; quently V - U, or 2*9880 - 1*1358, is equal to 1*8522 feet but this is denied by Mr Glenie, in his History of Gun- in a second. But as the velocities of recoil are known to nery (p. 48, 50), who supposes that the resistance proceeds be as the chords of the arcs through which the barrel gradually ; and, indeed, it seems to be pretty obvious that ascends, it is not necessary, in order to determine the velothe resistance cannot very suddenly increase, if the velocity city of the bullet, to compute the velocities V and U; but be only increased in a small degree. Yet it is certain that the quantity V — U, or the difference of the velocities of the swiftest motions with which cannon-balls can be pio- the recoil when the given charge is fired with and without jected are very soon reduced to the standard; for Mr a bullet, may be computed from the value of the difference Robins informs us, that “ a 24-pound shot, when discharged of the chords by one operation. Thus the velocity answeiwith a velocity of 2000 feet in a second, will be reduced to ing to the chord 9*05 is that of 1*8522 feet in a second, that of 1200 feet in a second in a flight of little more than which is just equal to V — U, as was before found. In this experiment the weight of the barrel with its cai500 yards.” s In the seventy-first volume of the Philosophical L rans- riage was just 47;jlb *’ 1° which jjths of a pound were to actions, Count Rumford has proposed as new a method of be added on account of the weight of the rods by which it determining the velocities of bullets, by measuring the was suspended ; thus making W = 48 lbs., or 336,000 force of the recoil of the piece. As in all cases action and orains. The weight of the bullet was 580 grains ; whence reaction are supposed to be equal to one another, it appeals B is to W as 580 to 336,000—that is, as 1 to 579*31 very that the momentum of a gun, or the force of its recoil back- nearly. The value of V — U, answering to the experiwards, must always be equivalent to the force of discharge ments before mentioned, was found to be 1*8522; conse in the opposite direction ; that is, the velocity with which the quently the velocity of the bullet = v was T8522 x 5 calibres in length. This attempt at classification was not, libres would weigh 103 cwt., being the mean between however, adhered to by all the founders of guns, and hence the two heavier 68-pounders, one of which is 112 cwt. it became absolutely necessary to take some step to lessen and the other 95 cwt., whilst the ratio between the weight the confusion. At the beginning of the seventeenth cenof the ball and the weight of the gun would be 1 :170. ° tury, therefore, Christobal Lechuga attempted to reduce the As the weight must therefore depend, first, on the thick- vast number of existing guns to six different calibres only, and ness of metal necessary to resist the greatest expansive force of shortly afterwards Don Juan Bayarte fixed the number, which the gunpowder intended to be applied; and secondly, on the were afterwards called guns of regular calibre or of ordilength of gun—an element in itself depending on the charge nance. This great progressive step of the Spanish artilto be used, and the initial velocity to be given to the ball — lery was imitated by the other European Powers, by whom it becomes necessary to determine the length to be adopted, the species, dimensions, and calibre of the guns to be rewhich is generally stated in calibres as well as in feet and tained were established by regulations of state, and were inches. In the early periods of artillery every founder hence called ordnance. Cannon may naturally be divided seemed to adopt his own fancy, and hence the variety of into two great classes—namely, guns for firing solid shot, and guns was not only great as regards the calibre, but also in mortars for firing shells or hollow projectiles; but an interreference to the length of guns of the same calibre. Some mediate genus, partaking of the characters of both, has been of the guns were of either monstrous size or form. Luis interposed, namely, the howitzer, which is manipulated like Collado, mentioning a culverine mounted at Naples, and a gun, but is used for the discharge of hollow projectiles. filing a ball of 48 lbs. weight, which was47 calibres in length, Lechuga adopted at first the calibres of 40, 24, and 12-pounand the double cannons founded by order of the Castellan ders, calling the two latter medium and quarter guns, but of Milan, Don Alonso Pimento!, which were 130 calibres afterwards added the 16, 8, and 2-pounders. The 40-pounin length ; and he mentions that in his time at Milan no less der was rejected by Diego Ufano and Bayarte, and subse-

GUNNERY. 137 runnery. quently the calibres fixed by the French Ordinance of 1752 conclusive, and still meriting further and very careful ex- Gunnery, were adopted in Spain—namely, the 4, 8, 12, 16, and 24- periments, it may for the present be assumed that there is pounders for land service, and the 6, 12, 18, 24, 32, and 36- little reason for exceeding 19 calibres in length, or for going pounders for the marine; but the 4-pounder was subsequently below 12, so far as the effective working of the gun, as maniabandoned. Gribeauval was the great reformer in 1765 of fested in its range, is concerned. The lesser number of calithe French artillery, when, for siege and fortress guns in brass, bres is best fitted for guns of large calibre, and the greater 24, 16, 12, 8, and 4-pounders were retained, and for field number for those of small calibre. Assuming then, as has guns the 12, 8, and 4-pounders; but in the eleventh year of been done, 15 calibres for the 68-pounder, and resolving the the Republic the list was reduced to the 24-pounder, short; gun into two parts—a cylinder and a truncated cone—with 12-pounder, long and short; 6-pounder, long, short and light a reinforce in rear of the charge, another at about half a caor field, mountain; 3-pounder; and 24-pounder howitzer; libre in front of it, and a third at the muzzle, a simple and and, as is well known, the present Emperor of the French apparently an effective gun would be obtained of moderate has put upon trial a still more simple arrangement, having weight; and the same would be the result with other guns. invented a howitzer gun something like the Licorne of the In the particular case of the 68-pounder, as the proof charge Russians, and thus endeavoured to reduce calibres to a is about -|ds of the charge which gives the greatest initial veminimum. In our own service the list of guns shows locity, the length of the cylinder, or breech section, might be that there is still a superfluity of species, or rather varieties, diminished, and the muzzle or chase, or conical section, inand that many must be considered merely experimental; as, creased, by which the weight would be diminished ; but as for example, of the 68 and 42-pounder, and still more of a general rule, the other appears the most satisfactory, as the the 32 and 24-pounder: but some of these have already proof charge is usually fds of the weight of the ball. been practically abandoned. Impossible to diminish the weight of the gun beyond a Not only does the powder, as it progressively burns, certain limit.—It would be wrong to pass from the importcontinue by successive shocks to act against the ball, but ant subject of the construction of guns without noticing also the gases, as they expand, continue to act upon it, the necessity of securing the carriage of the gun from too though with a regularly diminishing force. This variable severe a shock; and this can only be done by bestowing but diminishing accelerating force is opposed to the resist- upon the gun itself a considerable weight, or by interposing ance of the ball from friction in the bore, which is uniform, springs, which must be very difficult if not impossible in and by the resistance of the air, which is variable, but increas- practice. This will be readily understood from the following as the velocity of the ball increases. Whenever, there- ing considerations. Let W be the weight of the gun, and fore, the sum of the retarding forces has become equal to that w that of the carriage, and WV the momentum of the gun, of the accelerating forces, it is evident that no further ad- on first receiving the shock, and before it has acted on the vantage can be obtained by the action of the gases, and hence carriage; now, in hard bodies, when one in motion strikes that the limit of length has been attained. Capt. Boxer another at rest, the whole quantity of the motion of cites the experiments of Col. Armstrong (1736), who endea- the two bodies after the shock will equal that of the first voured to determine this question by the ranges obtained. before the contact; hence, taking v as the common velocity He used a brass 24-pounder, 10 feet 6 inches long, which was of the gun and carriage after the shock, or velocity of recoil shortened by 6 inches after each trial, and the mean ranges he of the compound body, (W + w)v== W V. Further, the moobtained were—for the length of 10 feet 6 inches, 2502 ; for mentum of the gun on receiving the first shock of the 10 feet, 2512§; for 9 feet 6 inches, 2564^; for 9 feet, powder cannot be altered by diminishing its weight, as the 2617f; for 8 feet 6 inches, 2514; and for 8 feet, 2453f ; velocity would increase in the same proportion ; and supposfrom which it appeared that the greatest ranges were ob- ing W' and V' the new weight and velocity, W' V' = W V ; tained from the gun of 9 feet, or 18j calibres. Dr Hutton’s and in like manner as (W' + w) would then be less than experiments, before noticed, with the ballistic pendulum, (W + w), so v', or the velocity of (W' + w) would be greater showed that, as regards the initial velocities, they continue than v, and in consequence viv, or the momentum communito increase with the length of the bore, but in a much less cated to the carriage itself, greater than vw, or the motion proportion. By Piobert’s first quoted series of experiments, or communicated when the gun weighed W. Every diminution, those made in Hanover in 1785, cited also by Capt. Boxer, therefore, in the weight of the gun increases the shock upon it appeared that with a charge equal to half the shot’s weight, the carriage. And if to preserve the amount of recoil within no advantage in point of range was obtained by increasing a reasonable limit, and to increase the power of resistance of the length beyond 18 to 24 calibres; and by his second the carriage, its weight should be increased as much as that series of 1801, beyond 18 or 19—though in the trials with of the gun had been diminished, say by #, then the momena 6-pounder, the 15 calibre and 12 calibre guns were very tum of the gun and carriage would be the same as before ; little inferior to the 18 calibre. Capt. Boxer, whilst re- and the velocity, as in the first assumption, v. But this marking on the uncertainty as to the absolutely best length would be composed thus (i?W — vn) + (viu + vn) ; so that the of gun, as exhibited even in these extensive experiments, carriage would have received the shock of the additional points to a curious law observed in examining these ranges force represented by vn, and have suffered accordingly, as by Mr J. F. Heather, M.A., one of the very able mathe- it is impossible to transfer the momentum of the gun to the matical masters of the Royal Military Academy—namely, gun and carriage without some portion of it being lost in that the ranges obtained from guns of 12, 15, and 19 destructive action upon the carriage, a portion which will calibres are relative maxima, being greater than those of necessarily increase as the amount of the force expended on the guns of intermediate lengths; and he adds that the the carriage is increased. The greater, therefore, the weight Hanoverian experiments point to another such maximum of the gun as compared to that of the carriage, the less will in guns of 23 calibres. Reflecting on the experiments of be the loss of force in the transmission of momentum, and Hutton, and on the general theory of the accelerating and of course the less injury done to the carriage. This being retarding forces already noticed, it seems impossible to considered, it is evident that though by the use of wrought connect such alternations with the action of the gases, and iron, the weight of the gun might be diminished by nearly they can only be accounted for by some modifying cause, §ds, it would be impossible in ordinary guns so far to disuch as the zig-zag motion of the ball within the bore, minish the weight without the introduction of other means causing it to range further, or vice versa, according as the to protect the carriage from injury. In field guns, where last rebound may discharge it in a direction passing above the recoil is of less importance than mobility and durability, or below the axis of the piece. Although, perhaps, not fully wrought iron seems the very best material which could be YOL. XI. s

138 Gunnery.

G U N N E K Y. the object is not a great nance this excess in garrison and siege guns is xYth ; in Gunnery, range but a large calibre, as in flank guns, it might be ad- field guns, -jY-th; and ^-th or ^-th in howitzers, excepting v, — visable to replace such guns as short 24-pounders, by the mountain howitzer, in which it is about TYth of the wrought-iron 68-pounders, or by cast-iron guns of large weight of the whole piece. Piobert gives the prepondercalibre but diminished thickness of metal, strengthened by ance in the heavier guns as 8 or 9 times the weight of the wrought-iron hoops, as in the gun of Captain Blakeley, R.A. projectile; in field guns as 12 to 13 times; and in howHereafter, more may be expected; and a travelling 68-pounder itzers as 6 to 7£ times that weight. Tinmerhans deduces constructed of a wrought-iron cylinder, sliding on a cast-iron from general practice a preponderance varying from x£xths bed, but checked in its motion by springs or buffers—the to xWhs of the weight of the gun. In the British artillery bed itself being supported on the carriage—the gun, or the preponderance is very various, being Jjth, J^th, ^th, cylinder, being carried separately from the bed and carriage ; rrth, Toth, ith, £tb, j-th—the result in some measure of the guns of such large calibre might then enter into ordinary great number of pieces of the same calibre, though it is siege equipments. The monster gun of the Mersey Foun- evident that it ought to be reduced in most cases, as excess dry is of wrought iron, but as its weight will be 24 tons 7 of preponderance in heavy guns greatly increases the labour cwt., and the weight of its solid shot 300 lbs., it is rather a of adjustment. The position also of the axis of the truntriumph of forging than an example of diminished weight, nions is, as represented by the circles on the figures of Plate the proportion of the weight of gun and shot being 180 to II., below the axis of the gun, a position which causes a 1. It is only further necessary briefly to state the pro- rotation on the trunnion, and hence a pressure upon the portions between the weights of the ball and of the gun, elevating screw, which is useful also in securing steadiness. or between the weights of the charge of powder and of the gun, most generally adopted. In Spain the proportion beMANAGEMENT OF GUNS. tween the weights of the gun and the charge in long guns is between 800 and 947 to 1 ; and in short, or field guns, Laying a gun includes two operations—pointing and eleabout 480 to 1 ; or between the gun and ball from 234 to vating. By pointing is understood the placing it in such a 313 to 1 ; and in short or field guns, about 142 to 1. In position that the axis of the piece shall be exactly in the France the proportion in the naval 36-pounder is as 214 to vertical plane passing through the object aimed at; and by 1 ; in the 30-pounder, 221 to 1 ; and in brass guns about elevating a gun is understood the placing it at such an angle 160 to 1. In the United States, from 299 to 1 in the iron above the horizontal line as will counteract the force of 12-pounder, to 201 to 1 in the 42-pounder; but in their gravity, and thus cause the ball to strike the object aimed at. 12-feet and 10-feet columbiads, the heaviest of their ordnance, When a gun is both pointed and elevated, it is said to be laid. as they weigh 15,400 lbs. and 9240 lbs. respectively, the pro- The line-of-metal is a visual line extending from the summit portion is as 137 to 1. In brass guns it is as 147 to 1. In our of the base-ring to the swell of the muzzle. Its position own service, in the three forms of 68-pounder, the longest of is ascertained by placing the trunnions perfectly horizontal, which weighs 112 cwt., the proportions are 184, 166, and and then finding the highest point both on the base-ring 143 to 1 ; in the 42-pounder, between 224 and 179 to 1; and the swell of the muzzle, when the line joining those two in the 32-pounder, between 223 and 140 to 1 ; in the 24- points will be the line-of-metal. But in consequence of pounder, 233 and 154 to 1; in the 18-pounder, 261 and the conical shape of guns, this line has an inclination to the 124 to 1 ; omitting some of the very light and bored-up axis of from one to two or more degrees, which is called guns, which can only be considered exceptional cases. In the the dispart. In pointing a gun, the line-of-metal is first laid brass guns, the proportion in the light 6-pounder is 112 to 1; in a line with the object; then, if the trunnions are horizonand in the 9-pounder and 12-pounder medium, 168 to 1. tal, the axis of the piece and object will be in the same verSo that, taking the guns really effective for all purposes, tical plane ; but if the trunnions are not perfectly so, the the weights of brass and iron ordnance are nearly propor- continuation of the line-of-metal will cross that of the axis tional to their respective tenacities. In the Spanish guns, of the piece, and the shot will be thrown to that side of however, the weights of the garrison and siege guns of the object on which the lowest trunnion is. As the axis bronze are as great in proportion to the ball as our iron of the gun would not be in the same horizontal plane guns—a striking illustration of the necessity, with the present as the object when the gun had been pointed by the linesystem of carriage, of retaining a due weight for the gun. of-metal, but elevated above it by the angle of dispart, a In addition to the bearing of the effective action of the dispart sight is placed either on the muzzle, or, accordpowder, &c., on the length of the gun, as before explained, ing to General Millar’s plan—which is now universally it is well to bear in mind that there is a minimum limit adopted in heavy guns—on the second reinforce; so that the in lespect to those guns intended to fire through embra- visual line becomes parallel to the axis of the gun, and when sures, as it is necessary that the muzzle should enter at laid point-blank, however much one trunnion may be lower least 2 feet into the embrasure to prevent its rapid destruc- than the other, the shot cannot be thrown more than the tion by the concussion consequent upon the discharge. If, thickness of metal to the right or left; but when elevated then, the trunnions be placed at fths of the whole length of it is subject to the error pointed out. A gun is said to be the gun from the muzzle, and the radius of the wheel of the point-blank when the axis of the piece is in a line with travelling carriage be 2 feet 6 inches, the minimum length the object fired at, without having any elevation or depresis given by this simple equation, f-ths x-2 feet 6 inches = sion, or when the axis is parallel to the horizon; it is de2 ; or x='l feet 10^ inches. So that 8 feet may be taken sirable also that the platform should, if possible, be laid as the minimum in this respect. horizontal. Ihe elevation required to strike any object is I reponderance.—If the axis of the trunnions of a gun were found by ascertaining its distance. For this purpose sets of fixed in the line passing through its centre of gravity, great tables have been constructed from actual practice (see instability would be the result, and consequent uncertainty Tables at the end), by reference to which the different of fire, as the shock of the ball against the bore would be sorts of shot and shells may be projected with the greatest sufficient to disturb its equilibrium; and the ball would accuracy. be liable to disturbance, even before firing, from many A scale made of brass, and called a tangent scale, in accidental causes, when the front of the gun could be so French, hausse, being marked with the different lengths of fsilyrnovcd vertically. The weight of metal, therefore, the tangents for the several degrees, slides up and down in behind the trunnions always exceeds that before, and this the breech. By means of this the elevation may be given excess is called “ preponderance.” In the Spanish ord- without any reference to the difference between the level use(j. an(]} jn

manner? where

GUNNERY. 139 junnery. of the gun and the object fired at, and it may be elevated the angle of natural aim, which angle, with its correspond- Gunnery, and pointed at the same time. In guns which have dis- ing range, ought to be marked on each gun. parts, the tangent scale only comes into use at a greater Another method, when it is required to fire continually angle than that of the dispart of the gun. Degrees are at the same object—for instance, a breach—is, after distherefore marked upon the base-ring, beginning at the charging a few rounds, to observe some object which the gun quarter sight, by means of which the gun may be elevated points to when at the proper elevation, and always point at any less angle than that of the dispart. at that object. This is called pointing at a false object. The ‘21 of an inch is the tangent of one degree to every The modes of pointing and elevating here described are foot of the gun’s length, from the base-ring to the swell of used in guns, howitzers, and carronades. In respect to the the muzzle ; and therefore, if the distance in feet between first of these it will be observed, that since Colonel Paixthose two points, or between the base ring and the sight, be hans proposed his canons a bombes, the tendency has been multiplied by *21, the product will be the tangent of 1° to return back to guns of large calibre, for a long time in inches, which, when the dispart is subtracted from it, will almost abandoned, and only partially revived in carronades ; give the length of the tangent scale above the base-ring at and this change is unquestionably one of great importance one degree of elevation for that particular gun, or when to the defence, and will be equally so to the attack, when the dispart exceeds the tangent of 1°, and is subtracted the difficulty of transporting such heavy weights has been from the natural tangent of 2° on the scale, the length of in some degree overcome. In our service at present the the scale at 2°: when, however, a middle sight is used, the heaviest solid shot proposed to be used is that of 68 lbs., and elevation can of course be given by the tangent scale from there are three varieties of it, as shown by the table, of which 0° upwards to about 5°. If the scale be applied to the perhaps the 112 cwt. and the 95 cwt. (or Dundas gun) are quarter sight of the gun, of course the dispart need not the best; but for throwing hollow shot—differing from shells be subtracted. by being cast concentric—or shells, there is a 10-inch as Elevating guns at sea has always been attended with well as an 8-inch gun, these guns corresponding in their difficulty and uncertainty. To effect this, the following object with the canon-obusier of the French. Plate II., fig. method has been proposed:—Let the trunnion of a gun be 1, represents the 68-pounder, and fig. 2 the 8-inch gun—a divided by lines passing through its centre, parallel and per- shell gun, as it is commonly called, the length and weight pendicular to the axis of the piece, and the lower limb be being greatly inferior to the 68-pounder, though nearly of divided into degrees, &c.; a plumb suspended from the the same calibre. The shell guns are admirably fitted for centre of the trunnion will cut the degree of elevation or coast batteries, as their moderate weight renders them more depression the gun is pointed at, which of course is always easily manageable than the 68-pounder, whilst the magnivarying, from the motion of the ship. If the axis of the tude of their calibre, whether hollow shot or shells be used, piece, therefore, be parallel with the deck, the degree of renders their fire very destructive to ships. It is to be obthe inclination of the deck and gun will at the same time be served also, that in coast batteries space alone requires conascertained, and the gun will be fired at the moment when sideration ; whilst in ships weight is an equally essential the plumb-line cuts the proper degree marked upon the element, as a vessel which could carry on her broadside lower ring of the trunnion. Great accuracy may thus be only eleven 8-inch guns, might be armed with fourteen attained at sea. 32-pounders; and as Sir Howard Douglas therefore reaA scale has of late years been sometimes used for iron sons, the magnitude of the fractures being taken as the guns, marked with the number of yards range instead of de- squares of the diameters, or as 704 to 506, whilst the number grees ; and this has been found very useful to men who of shots will be as 11 to 14, the actual spaces opened or might not perhaps understand the tangent scale. It would fractured will be as 7744 to 7084, or considerably in favour unquestionably be very useful to mark approximately on the of the 8-inch gun ; but, on the other hand, the fire of the 32tangent scale opposite the degrees the number of hundred pounder would be spread over a much larger space, and be yards of range ;—thus, for example, in the 9-pounder, 1° = 4, more destructive as to the men; so that it is probable Sir 2° = 5, &c.; and in the 24-pounder, of 50 cwt, 1° = 7^, Howard is justified in considering that the greater number of 2° = 11^, 3° =14^, 4° =16^, 5° = 18^ hundreds, &c.; and shots from the 32-pounders more than counterbalances the this is indeed the more necessary where there are several greater space of fracture from the fire of the 8-inch guns. varieties of the same gun differing as to length from each Another reason which induces Sir Howard to object to the other, as it becomes almost impossible to commit to memory too exclusive arming of ships with 8-inch guns is, that the the ranges corresponding to the elevation in each species; and 32-pounders may commence double-shotting at 400 yards; great loss of time, and chance of confusion, would be avoided whereas the 8-inch guns cannot commence effective firing by thus avoiding the necessity of a reference to printed with two shots at a greater distance than 200 yards; so that tables of ranges in the field. In marking the tangent scale, between 400 and 200 yards the 32-pounder armament would regard should be had to the mean rise of the ball on leaving have the advantage. On land, however, the number of guns the gun, referred to in treating of deviations, or else allow- would be the same in either case ; and the 8-inch gun, ance should be made for it. Another mode occasionally used mounted on the dwarf-traversing platform (Plate III., fig. by the French is by the depression of the breech, and is thus 1), is deservedly a favourite, being associated either with effected: A line being drawn through the centre of the trun- the 68-pounder for longer ranges, or with the 32-pounder. nion to the extremity of the button of the cascabel, the length (Plate II., fig. 3.) It will be observed that the shell of this line becomes a radius for determining the lengths of guns (fig. 2) are chambered on the Gomer principle; the natural tangents corresponding to the degrees of a new but this system of construction will be further noticed in tangent scale; and these being marked on a long rule, the treating of howitzers. For field batteries the favourite zero point being the point of contact of the rule and button, brass gun of our service is the 9-pounder (Plate II., fig. 4, when the rule is resting on the platform, and the axis of the and Plate III., fig. 7), but these are associated with the 24piece is horizontal, and the degrees or tangents being num- pounder brass howitzer (Plate II., fig. 7); so that in the same bered from 0° downwards—a very convenient mode when battery two different calibres are in use, and consequently in night-firing at a breach, for example, it is only necessary two different classes of ammunition. The present Emto secure the elevation. It may be here observed, that by peror of the French has done away with this complex conusing the middle sight in our iron guns, it becomes impos- struction of batteries, and has adopted one form of gun— sible to use the angle of dispart. This might be avoided by namely, the 12-pounder howitzer gun—fitted for discharging perforating the sight, and thus enabling the gunner to use three kinds of projectiles—namely, solid shot, shells, and case

140 GUNNERY. unnery.^ shot, and thus requiring only one form of carriage. The co-conical. The Gomer form in which the truncated cone principles upon which this great simplification has been is terminated by a spherical end, is that used in the howit- Gunnery. adopted have been described by Captain Fave of the French zers (Plate II., fig. 6), and the mortar (Plate II., fig. 9), as artillery, whose work has been well translated by Captain well as in the shell-gun. In the carronade (fig. 5) the Hamilton Cox of the Royal Artillery. They are the prin- chamber is cylindrical, being terminated by a spherical end; ciples frequently referred to in the preceding pages—namely, and such was its form in the great Antwerp mortar (fig. that though a greater initial velocity may be obtained by a 10). It may also be added, that by adopting a chamber a greater charge, the resistance of the air so rapidly diminishes greater thickness of metal is obtained around the charge in high initial velocities, that the ultimate ranges and the ulti- ordnance which are comparatively thin from their lightness. mate momentum are very little superior to those obtained Experiments were made in France at Strasburg, Douay, and from a considerably less initial velocity. This is illustrated Toulouse, to ascertain whether the lodgment in the bore proby a reference to Piobert’s tables, by which it appears that duced by the pressure of the gases on the ball, an important a 12-pounder, discharged with a velocity of 1610 feet per consideration in brass guns, could be lessened or obviated by second, corresponding to a charge of ^d the weight of the a peculiar position of the vent. One was placed in the proball, retained a velocity of 1516 at a distance of 164 feet, longation of the axis, the cascabel being suppressed so as to having therefore lost in that short space a velocity of 94 feet fire the charge in the centre of its extreme end ; the second per second; whilst, by experiments made at Metz in 1836 in a line, making an angle of 30°, with the vertical drawn and 1840, a 12-pounder shot, fired with a charge of ^th, had from the extremity of the axis, and the third in the usual an initial velocity of 1516 feet per second ; so that the ball way. The destructive effect of the charge in producing a propelled with a charge equal to ^-th the weight of the ball depression in the bore was found to be nearly in the proporon leaving the gun was much in the same condition as to tion of 6 to 1 as regards the two first and the last, the diffevelocity as the ball propelled with ^d at 164 feet from it— rence between the two first being very small. Experiments the two trajectories from these respective points being the were also made in France in 1817 to determine the best posisame. It is indeed only where great momentum is required tion of the touch-hole, or vent, of muskets, as regards the at a short distance from the gun that great charges become charge, the musket being suspended as a pendulum, and the effective; and for the purposes of field guns there seems ball being discharged against a ballistic pendulum ; but the great ^ strength in the reasonings which have led to the results, though exhibiting a maximum effect of the ball at a adoption of the 12-pounder howitzer gun by the French, position of the vent corresponding to a distance of one line as, in addition to what has been stated, a French battery is in front of the bottom of the charge, were so nearly equal to equally effective when called upon to fire shot, shell, or case ; it in several other positions that they would not justify the whereas, in the compound British battery, the howitzers are peculiar selection of any one, unless dictated by convenience so much deducted from its strength when solid shot firing in other respects. In artillery it is only necessary to arrange is lequiied; and, in like manner, the guns are a loss when it in a position which will ensure the ready conveyance of fire howitzer firing becomes the most valuable. The calibre of to the charge, and it is therefore usual to form the vent at a 9-pounder would be too small for fulfilling all the pur- an angle of 15° with a vertical from the axis, and terminposes of shot and shell; and hence the French have wisely ating at two or three lines in advance of the bottom of the adopted the 12-pounder, and might perhaps have gone even charge—this slight inclination facilitating the breaking of higher in calibre, reducing the weight of their gun by a cor- the cartridge by the pricker, which might otherwise slip responding reduction in the weight of the charge. between the cartridge and the bore. Howitzers. This form of ordnance is of later date than Howitzers were, according to Senderos, first made in the mortar, which will be presently noticed, and was de- Germany, and subsequently improved by the English and signed for the purpose of firing shells in the field, for which Dutch, but were not used in France till a later period, as object it was necessary that it should be mounted upon a they did not appear in the ordinance of 1732, though aftercairiage, so that it combines in itself the functions of the wards adopted and introduced in the celebrated system of gun and mortar. As the charges for the service required Gribeauval. In the British service the 12-pounder howfiom howitzers are small, so are their comparative weight; itzer is associated with the 6-pounder gun in the horse arfor example, whilst the 24-pounder gun of 18£ calibres weighs tillery, the 24-pounder with the 9-pounder gun in the field 48 cwt., and is charged with 8 lbs. of powder, the 24-pounder batteries, and the 32-pounder may be associated either with howitzer weighs only 12 J cwt., and is charged with only 2^ the 12-pounder gun*in the reserve for positions, or with the lbs. of powder; and in like manner, whilst the 8-inch shell 18-pounder guns, shouldabrass gun of that calibre be adopted gun of 13 calibres weighs 65 cwt., the 8-inch howitzer in our field service, as it has long been in that of Austria. weighs only 20 cwt. The use of such small charges renders I he 10-inch howitzer (Plate II., fig. 6), and the 8-inch are it necessary to adopt chambers—that is to say, spaces either used in sieges ; and the small howitzer (fig. 8), analogous entirely or in part of less diameter than the bore itself, as to the Coehorn mortar, for mountain service. the small cartridge containing the charge could not be so Carronades.—The carronade, invented, or rather improved, placed in a large bore as to prevent great irregularities in by Mr Gascoigne, was, in June 1779, approved as a standard the relative position of the cartridge and ball. Chambers of navy-gun, and ten of them were appointed to be added to various forms have been at different times contrived; and, every ship of war. The carronade is made so short that according to the principles adopted by Piobert, their rela- it is worked with its carriage in the ship’s port. (See Plate tive values may be thus stated, taking into account the posiIE, fig. 12.) It is correctly bored ; and the shot so nearly tion of the vent, or of the point of the charge at which fills calibre that the least possible impulse of the powthe inflammation is first set on foot;—1st, Spherical, coni- der isthe lost by the escape of gas between the cylinder and the cal, or pyramidal, when the vent communicates with the sur- shot, which is also thereby more truly directed in its face of the first and base of the two last, and the trunco- flight. The last bottom of the cylinder is terminated by a chamcomcal ranks with these when fired at its greater base. ber ending in a hemisphere, to which the end of the carCylindrical, when fired by the lateral surface. 3d, Cylinis not liable to stick, and in which the smallest charge drical, when fired from either base. 4th, Trunco-conical, tridge powder envelopes the shot, exhausting upon it nearly when fired from its lesser base. 5th, The spherical, coni- of the whole of its impelling force. There are sights cast cal, or pyramidal, when fired at the exact centre of the first upon the vent and muzzle, to point the gun quickly to an or vertices of the other two : or, merely classifying the forms object at 250 and 500 yards distance ; and there is a ring in general use—1st, spherical; 2d, cylindrical; 3d, trun- cast upon the cascabel, through which the breechin-rope

G U N N E E Y. 141 Gunnery, is reeved, the only rope used about these guns. This gun at the late siege and defence of Sevastopol, and became Gunnery, . ^ ^ / has some advantages over others of light construction. It the principal fire at the attack on Sveaborg. Coehorn, who is so extremely light, that the smallest ships can carry al- was opposed to Vauban, the author of ricochet fire, was most any weight of shot (the 12-pounder weighing under a great advocate of vertical fire, as was also Carnot. Mortars.—Mortars have succeeded to the ancient bomfive hundredweight, and the other calibres in proportion), and that without being attended with the inconveniencies bards, and were at first intended for discharging either one imputed generally to light guns, since it cannot injure its very large ball of stone or a shower of smaller stones. As carriage, or jump out of its station in the port upon recoil; they are now intended for the projection of shells only, they and it never becomes heated. are designated, not by the weight of the hollow projectile, Though the carronade cannot throw its shot to an equal which is subject to considerable variation, but by its diameter distance with a longer gun, yet, from the adaptation of the in inches, as 13-inch, 10-inch, 8-inch iron mortars, ando^shot to its cylinder, with a charge one-twelfth part of the inch and 4§-inch brass mortars, of the British Service—the weight of its ball, at very small elevations, it will project its 5|- being also called the “ Royal,” and the 4f the Coehorn, shot to triple the distance at which ships usually engage, having been invented by that celebrated engineer, and inwith sufficient velocity for the greatest execution, and with tended to be used against “ sap-headsand, indeed, from all the accuracy in its direction that can be attained with its portability, to be carried to any point, either in the guns of greater lengths ; but it has its disadvantages, as for defences of the place or in the trenches, from which the example, by adopting so small a windage, or difference be- nearest portions of the approaches, or of the counter-aptween the diameters of the bore and shot, a windage which proaches of the enemy could be most efficiently molested. would have been impracticable in long guns, it often hap- (See Plate II., fig. 11.) The projectile used is the shell pened that the shot, although fitted for the long guns, when or “bombe” of the French, which is thickened at the end rusted would not enter the carronades; and the advantage, next the powder, or at the point of greatest shock, and also therefore, consequent on less windage ought not to exist, about the hole in the shell intended to receive the fuze, as the windage of guns and carronades should be the same, or, in the earlier periods of artillery, the match for igniting being reduced as much as possible, consistent with facility the bursting powder. It is also provided with loops to faciof loading and the use of hot shot; the windage in iron litate the operation of lifting and placing it in the mortar, guns need not, indeed, exceed 'lo inch, and Sir Howard in which respect, as well as in having the “ culot,” or thickenDouglas recommends T4 inch for heavy guns, and '1 inch ing at the bottom, it differs from the “ obus,” or howitzer or’ll inch for the 9-pounder downwards. And further, shell of the French. The object is twofold; first, as a carronades are liable in some positions to fire the rigging simple projectile, in which character it acts by the exploor the hammocks either by the flash or by the vent fire, an sion of the bursting powder within, which shatters the evil which might be remedied, as Sir Howard Douglas shell, and causes its splinters to fly about and act as so suggests, by giving the 24 and 32-pounder carronades a many distinct projectiles; and, second, as a mine. In the somewhat longer bore, and adding “ something to the first case, only that quantity of powder necessary for explosion need be carried, but in the second, the effects flash-rim.” The serious results of the too general adoption of car- depend on the quantity, and hence it is that in a previous ronades in our ships of war during the last American War article the advantage of very large shells has been strongly on the Lakes, where the Americans obtained such great urged. The difficulty of constructing mortars for propeladvantage by the use of their long and heavy guns, fully ling very large shells is undoubtedly very great; but should justify Sir Howard Douglas in his final remarks on this Mr Mallett succeed with his proposed 36-inch mortar, description of ordnance :—The defects of carronades, formed of flat rings bound together by longitudinal bars of and the danger of employing this imperfect ordnance, wrought iron, the problem will be solved, and the effect are now generally felt and admitted; that ordnance, how- of the explosion of 480 pounds of powder, sunk deep into ever, rendered important service in its time, for it taught the ground, or penetrating, by the weight—probably 3000 us practically the great value of a reduced windage, the lbs.—of the charged shell through the roof of a magazine or advantages of quick firing, and the powerful effects pro- casemate, may readily be conceived. The weight of this duced at close quarters by shot of considerable diameter mortar and its bed will be 45 tons, and the weight of the striking a ship’s side with moderate velocityand these heaviest piece when asunder about 15 tons. Mr Mallett is remarks are in some measure applicable, though in a minor sanguine as to its success. See Cannon for examples of degree, to the bored-up guns, in which it has been attempted the former use of wrought iron in the manufacture of ordto obtain increased calibre with diminished weight by ream- nance in France and Spain, both at remote and recent ing or boring out guns of originally lesser calibre, as may epochs; the St FMenne Company having submitted an 8-pounder to the most severe trials, and offered, in 1813, to be seen on inspection of the table of iron ordnance. The fire of artillery may be divided into two classes— supply the government with 24-pounders of forged iron at horizontal (or at angles near the horizon), and vertical. the rate of eight per diem. The mortar is made much shorter than guns, in order to Horizontal fire may be subdivided into horizontal direct, and enfilade. Direct fire is that used in the field or at facilitate loading (see PI. II,, fig. 9). It is chambered cosieges, where the gun is discharged directly at the ob- nically, or on Gomer’s construction, so that the shell fits ject with a full charge. The enfilade fire is that which into the chamber, and does away with windage, an advanis not directed against the front of a line but along its pro- tage which cannot be fully secured by that form of chamlongation, and the most important form of it is the ricochet ber in guns or howitzers fired horizontally, or nearly so. fire, which is not confined to any particular charge or The great Antwerp mortar (fig. 10) had a cylindrical chamelevation; each must vary according to the distance and ber, but it was only partially successful from the defects in level of the object to be fired at, and particularly the the casting of its shells (fig. 17). Senderos states that the spot on which it is intended it shall make the first bound. art of projecting shells was a happy invention of the latter Firing en ricochet was first invented by Marshal Vauban, end of the fifteenth century, and that the difficulty which first at the siege of Ath ; and it is principally used in sieges attended it, as well as the amount of subsequent improvefor enfilading the face of a work, by sweeping or bound- ments, may be judged by the fact that the celebrated artiling along it. Vertical fire is that which is thrown from lerist Don Antonio Gonzales, for a long time afterwards, mortars at elevated angles. It was much used at the siege deemed it necessary to set fire to the charge and to the fuze of the citadel of Antwerp in 1832 ; still more, perhaps, of the shell separately, which was called serving it with two

142 GUNNERY. Gunnery, fires, a tedious and dangerous process. Until lately it was brought into line with them by means of a plumb-line held Gunnery, 's—‘v-*-'' usual in loading the mortars to lift up the heavy shells by by a gunner standing behind the mortar, on which the line v means of handles provided with hooks adapted to seize upon of metal has been marked, the line being placed in the vertical the loops of the shell; and with such weighty masses as the plane passing through the two pointers. Other modes of 13-inch shell, the firing could only be slow and gradual, pointing both guns and mortars will doubtless be hereafter which, after all, must always be the most effective fire. It introduced, as the great improvement of artillery practice at is now customary to use a “ derrick,” as in PI. II. fig. 14, for long x-anges will require the use of telescopic sights, and the this purpose; this simple form being that of Sergeant Forrest, introduction of the collimating principle, a fact which has Royal Artillery, represented here as in use, but drawn back not escaped the attention of artillery officers. The elevawhen not in use. The navy use also mechanical means, and tion is given by the gunners’ quadrant. in consequence the firing against Sveaborg was so rapid and Besides the ordinary projectiles, shot and shells, grape continuous that many of the mortars were destroyed by it. and case shot are fired from guns ; the first being a number Fig. 13, PI. II., represents also another modern arrangement, of balls tied or quilted together like a bunch of grapes, and namely, the suspension of the large sea mortar, according the other a cylindrical tin case filled with balls. They are to the plan of Captain Julius Roberts of the Royal Marine not calculated for long ranges, but are very destructive at Artillery. The figure explains that by the rotation of the short ranges from 200 to 400 yards either against advanccircular platform below, ready means are obtained of point- ing troops, or fired from the flanking defences of a fortress ing the mortar in any direction ; and as the mortar revolves along the ditch. The Shrapnel shell, or spherical case, is, round the horizontal axis on firing, it is hoped that the ill however, a projectile of still greater value, as it can now be effects of recoil will be avoided. In anticipating the results used at almost any range. They can be fired from either of this arrangement it must be remembered that as the gun, howitzer, or mortar ; but the object is to fire them from mortar is at an angle of 45°, one half of its momentum will the two first, as, on bursting, the balls which fill them fly be expended in the direction of recoil, and that the other forwards with the then velocity of the shell, and being spread half must act with a most powerful shock on the axis. Some by the resistance of the air, deal out destruction equivalent were tried in the Baltic, but the results are not yet conclu- to the action of many muskets in addition to that effected sive, though several new mortar-boats are fitting with them. by the splinters of the shell. The practice of putting balls The moment of bursting is regulated by the fuze fixed into shells, in addition to the bursting powder, is by no into it, as seen in figs. 15, 16, and 17, PI. II. Fuzes may means modern ; for Lucar (1588), after explaining the mode be either concessive, percussive, or time fuzes. The ob- of charging shells, and causing them to burst by means of ject of the two first is to cause the shell to burst im- a piece of gunner’s match fixed in the match or fuze hole, mediately on striking an object; of the latter, to cause it says— to burst after a certain time, as determined by the length “ Also you may, if you will, put into the saide hollow baule or of the burning composition in the fuze. The concussive pellet certaine square or rounde pieces of lead, or divers shorte fuze is provided with an internal mechanism, so adjusted pypes of iron like unto pocked dogges full charged with gunpowder that though it resists the shock of firing, or even that of a and pellettes, and fill up the rest of the concavatie with fine gunshort graze, it shall yield to the shock of impact, the concus- powder, and having annointed it with turpentine, and roled it in gunpowder,.shoote it out of a peece of artillery, with a trayne sion shaking the burning composition into the loaded cavity fine laid to the mouth.” of the shell, and causing it to explode. The percussion fuze or shell depends for its ^plosion on a chemical comThis was in every respect a Shrapnel shell, the mode of position of highly explosive character, which bursts the shell firing being consequent upon the early idea that the fuze at the moment of striking, without being previously ignited. required to be separately ignited. Shrapnel, however, reCaptain Moorsom’s percussion fuze is well known as the vived this forgotten projectile, and by giving it an effective British type of this class of fuze, just as Captain Boxer’s form, became its second inventor; as Captain Boxer may now is of the time-fuze. The time-fuze is divided into now be considered its third, as by the total separation of the metal and wooden fuzes, the former being used in the navy, balls from the bursting charge, he has done away with the and regulated to burn according to the specific use, 20", failures by premature bursting consequent on the ignition 7", and 2"; the object of percussion or concussion fuzes of the powder by friction against the balls, and rendered it being to replace especially these short-timed fuzes. The possible to use it with high charges, and for all ranges— wooden fuze now so admirably constructed by Captain the Shrapnel still becoming the true counterpoise to the Boxer, and which has so entirely replaced the old fuzes, improved Minie rifle ball, and restoring to artillery its supewhich required to be cut in the field to the proper length, has riority over musketry. Carcasses, or shells filled with a been figured and explained in art. Artillerv. The com- highly inflammable composition which escapes in several position-bore is now made eccentric, so as to allow more directions through the holes (3 or 4) made in them for that thickness for the two powder channels. Two rows of holes purpose, may be fired from mortars or guns : they are also are made, one into each powder channel, the bottom hole in a very old invention. each row being continued into the composition-bore—each Rockets.—The history, principle, and possible importance hole of one row, corresponding to the centre of the space be- of these projectiles have been fully discussed in art. Artiltween a pair of holes of the other, admitting therefore of sub- lery, where it was shown that almost every country but that division without too much weakening the fuze by bringing the of Congreve, who had first introduced into modern Europe holes of one row close together. By a simple boring-bit a war rockets, had paid great attention to their improvement. communication between any one hole required for the special In France also they have latterly been much improved; and length or range, and the composition of the bore, is readily it has been found possible to use a short stick instead of made. The fire, therefore, is communicated from the com- the long one seen in PI. II., fig. 19. In our own arsenal also, position of the fuze, when it has burnt down to this perfora- the subject has been taken in hand by Captain Boxer, and tion, to the rifle powder in the powder channel: see Ar- mechanical means adopted for insuring precision in the bore, tillery for further explanation : and it may be observed and in the position and form of the vent with every prosthat Captain Boxer has since extended the principle, with pect of success. But with every respect for these laudable the necessary modification, to fuzes for mortars. and skilful efforts, it would be unjust to deny to Mr Hale As mortars are not fired through embrasures but behind the merit of having first in this country invented machinery epaulements, they are directed by pointing rods, placed in of a most beautiful description for the manufacture of rockthe proper line upon the epaulement; the mortar being ets, and for doing away with the stick entirely. Mr Hale’s

143 GUNNERY. Let V be the initial velocity in the direction of projection ; Gunnery, lunnery. contrivance consists in causing the rocket to rotate on its the angle of projection above the horizontal plane; axis during its flight; and, as in the case of an elongated x and y the horizontal and vertical co-ordinates to shot, to move steadily with the point foremost. For this the curve of the trajectory at any point P, estipurpose the burning material issues from five orifices made mated from the commencement of the curve, or near the neck, obliquely to the axis of the tube, the effect of which is, that the body of the rocket is made to rotate when point of departure as the origin ; t the time of flight to that point, v the horizontal it is also propelled. Sir Howard Douglas adds to his description of these rockets that the contrivance is very invelocity at it, and v the velocity in a vertical direction ; genious, and may be expected to produce advantageous 8 the angle of inclination of the tangent at that results. He, however, adds that, at low angles, they had been found liable to failure, being subject, on a graze, to be point with the horizon ; deflected from their original direction much more than orX the whole horizontal range, or horizontal codinary rockets, and that unless this cause of failure could ordinate, when y becomes again 0 as it was on departure ; be removed they would be of little use against troops in Y the greatest height of ascent, or when is a maxithe field, that is to say, in horizontal firing or plane battlemum ; fields. He also observes, that “ in other respects also the T the whole time of flight; success of the Hale rocket may be doubted ; the stick H the height, falling from which a body would acrocket continues its flight, directed by the stick, after the quire a velocity equal to V. composition is burnt out; but the Hale rocket loses its directing power as soon as the composition is consumed, be■ r r ■ , — 7-77 ar2 5—: ; cause the rotation then ceases, and nothing can be expected x= vt cos sin °; . Magni lastly, numismate of Censorinus, 1743, de - Alexandri quo fecture and chief town of the department of Seine-Inferieure. quatuor summa orbis terrarum imperia continentur, et de nummis It stands on the N. bank of the estuary of the Seine, in contorniatis, Leyden, 1722, in 4to; Thesaurus Morellianus, Amster- N. Lat. 49. 29. 14., and W. Long. 0. 6. 38.; by railway dam, in 2 vols. folio; Universal History explained by Medals in 143 miles from Paris, 127 from Poissy, 108 from Mantes, Dutch, Leyden, 1736, in 5 vols. folio, incomplete; Sylloge Scrip- 55|- from Rouen, and 32 from Yvetot. It is the port of the torum qui de Linguas Grascce vera et recta pronunciatione Commentaria reliquerunt, Leyden, 1736-1740, in 2 vols. 8vo; Introductio Seine and of Paris, and one of the most thriving maritime in historiam patrias a primis Hollandice comitibus usque ad pacem towns of France. It is quite modern in its construction, chiefly Ultrayect. et Radstad (1714), Leyden, 1739, in 8vo; Introductio in builton alow alluvial tract of ground, and divided into two parts Antiquitates Romanas, ibid. 1740, in 8vo; Museum Wildianum in by its outer port and basins. It has no fine buildings or duas partes divisum, Amsterdam, 1740, in 8vo ; Museum Vilebrochianum, ibid. 1741, in 8vo; Bronze Medals, large and small, in the historical monuments; its streets run chiefly in straight lines and at right angles with one another ; and they are grouped Cabinet of Queen Christina, Hague, 1742, in folio. round the basins or docks which communicate by lock-gates, HAVERFORDWEST, in Welsh Hwlffordd, a mar- and are placed so as to form a triangle entered from the ket-town, seaport, and parliamentary and municipal borough outer port. of Wales, in Pembrokeshire, and the capital of that county. Havre is a fortified town of the third rank; a mariIt stands on a declivity descending to the banks of the West time prefecture, with a tribunal of the first instance and of Cleddan. Some of the streets are wide and handsome ; but commerce; an exchange and a chamber of commerce; a in the older parts of the town they are narrow, and geneschool of the first class ; a maritime arsenal, rally very steep. Viewed from a little distance, the aspect hydrographic &c. The mouth of the harbour, formed in the flat alluvium of the town is very picturesque. The majority of the shops of the Seine, is kept open by the aid of a reservoir of water, and houses have an air of wealth and comfort, arising from by sluices. During only four hours each tide can the fact that many persons of independent means have been regulated vessels enter the port, which is left dry at low water. The attracted to the town by its character for cheapness. The three old docks are capable of containing from 200 to 300 piincipal public buildings are the Guildhall market-house; vessels; the third, the Bassin de Vauban, the largest of all, the three parish churches; the various dissenting chapels ; situated outside the walls, and finished in 1842, is a maga Free school; an almshouse; and a large union poornificent work with a fine masting machine, and warehouses house. A literary and scientific institution was established of the best construction. At the extremity of the reservoir in 1847; and one newspaper, the Pembrokeshire Herald, has been constructed a fifth dock for steamers. is published weekly. Napoleon said that “Paris, Rouen, and Havre, formed Haverfordwest was at one time strongly fortified, but all only one city, of which the Seine was the highway.” This traces of its walls and towers have long since disappeared. briefly accounts for the prosperity of Havre. It is the On a rock overhanging the river was a strong castle, built place of import of all foreign articles required for the supply in the reign of Stephen by Gilbert de Clare, first Earl of of the French capital, as well as of cotton for the manufacPembroke. In the insurrection of Owen Glyndwr, it was turers of Rouen, Lille, St Quentin, and Alsace, which cities successfully defended against the French troops in the again export through Havre their manufactured goods. Welsh service. In the civil war of the 1 7th century it was Like Liverpool, it is the point of communication between held by the royalists. The only remaining vestige'of the the continent of Europe and America; and a great trade castle is the keep, which has been largely added to, and has been here carried on with the United States since the deconverted into the county gaol. In the neighbourhood of claration of their independence. Though Havre is much the town are the ruins of a priory, dating from the 12th inferior in size to Marseilles, Bordeaux, or Nantes, the other century, and dedicated to St Mary and St Thomas. great mercantile ports of France, yet it yields to none of On the N. side of the river is the suburb of Prendergast, them in activity. Its imports, though only half the weight where are the remains of a very ancient mansion, formerly of those of Marseilles, nearly equal them in value. The occupied by a family of that name. The river itself is chief imports from America by Havre are coffee, indigo, navigable at spring tides as far as the quay, where there is hides, peltry; but above all, cotton for the Rouen and a custom-house, subordinate to that of Milford. The town Mulhausen factories. From Spain are imported wine, oil exports in some quantity coal, oats, butter, and cattle. The barilla, and timber; from Sweden and Norway, deals, on y manufactory of importance is a large paper-mill. The planks, masts, pitch, and tar. market held on Tuesday and Saturday is one of the largest I he manufactures of Havre are not numerous or extena e>S le ar They consist mostly of chemicals, starch, oil, tobacco, "rn ’ ^and ’n Pfor Rcular is very abundant. I he assizes quarter-sessions Pembrokeshire are held sive. tar, cordage, sailcloth, cables, earthenware, furniture, and lace. ln a er which u ,West > with the one contributory boroughs of,£ F ishguard and , Harberth, returns member to parlia- I he Havre station of the Paris, Rouen, and Havre railway covers an area of 36 acres. Pop. (1851) 26,410. eleCt0rs 1851 686 In 1509 Louis VII. founded Havre; and Francis I. took < ) 5 P°P6580. a mal1 J of Chelmsford, market-town and of England, r , q ffi, o s e a of Suffolk, 25 miles N. 59 milescounty from * r-UrUer P ?* ^ but Pr°tection, it the name of Franciscopolis; a chapelbestowing dedicatedupon to Notre-Dame

246 H A W Haw de Grace ultimately conferred on it its present name. The li French East India Company and the Companies of Senegal Hawick. and Quinea made it their entrepot and the chief seat of their commercial operations. In 1 759 (during the Seven Years’ War) preparations were made here for an invasion of England, which led to the bombardment of the place by Admiral Rodney. In 1794 and 1795 it was again bombarded bv the British. In 1485 Henry of Richmond embarked at this place for Milford Haven and Bosworth Field with 4000 men, furnished by Charles VIII., to aid his enterprise. The town was delivered over to the keeping of Queen Elizabeth by the Prince de Conde, leader of the Huguenots, in 1562, and the command of it was entrusted to Ambrose Dudley, Earl of Warwick; but the English were expelled within a year, after a most obstinate siege, the progress of which was pressed forward by Charles IX. and his mother, Catherine de Medici, in person. Havre is the birthplace of Bernardin de St Pierre, author of Paul and Virginia ; and of Mademoiselle Scudery, and of Casimir Delavigne. HAW, in farriery, an excrescence resembling a gristle, growing under the nether eyelid and eye of ahorse, which, if not timely removed, destroys it. Haw, a small parcel of land, as a Hemphaw, or Beanhaw, lying near the dwelling-house, and enclosed for these uses. But Sir Edward Coke, in an ancient plea concerning Feversham in Kent, says hawes are houses. HAWAII. See Polynesia. HAWARDEN, a small market-town of North Wales, Flintshire, 12 miles W.N.W. of Chester. It consists of little more than one street, about half a mile in length. The collieries, potteries, and iron-works in the vicinity afford employment to the inhabitants. Hawarden Castle is a handsome modern edifice, with an extensive park, in which are the ruins of the ancient castle, supposed to have been built by the Britons. Pop. of parish, which is extensive (1851), 6203. HA WASH, a river of Abyssinia. See Abyssinia. HAWES, Stephen, the author of the Pastime of Pleasure, flourished in the reign of Henry VII. Little is known of his personal history, except that he was a native of Suffolk, and that he styled himself “ gentleman and grome of the chamber to the famous prynce and seconde Solomon, Kynge Henrye the Seventh.” He is known to have been a great favourite with the king, who took much pleasure in his recitations from the old English poets. A common admiration of the literature of France, in which both were proficients, cemented their feelings of mutual esteem. The dates of Hawes’ birth and death are alike unknown. The Pastime of Pleasure, for which he is chiefly remembered, is a long and somewhat tedious allegory; exhibiting, however, more invention than any similar work of that day. The poem describes the life and adventures of the Prince Graunde Amour, who is enamoured of La Bel Pucell, and who, to make himself worthy of her, studies, in the Tower of Doctrine under the Ladies Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Arithmetic, and Music. He then visits the Tower of Geometry, and finally that of Chivalry ; and, after proving his valour by various exploits, he at length gains the hand of La Bel Pucell, with whom he spends the rest of his life. The details of the allegory are wrought out with very considerable skill, and the poem is useful as showing the advancement of the language towards that perfection which it reached under the master-minds of the Elizabethan era. HAWICK, a town in the county of Roxburgh, Scotland, 10 miles S.W. from Jedburgh, the county town, and 53 miles S.S.E. from Edinburgh by the Hawick branch of the North British railway. It stands on the S. bank of the Teviot, and is divided into nearly equal parts by a wild and irregular stream, the Slitrig, which has been known to rise *

HAW more than 20 feet above its ordinary level, sweeping away Hawick, houses, and leaving the foundation rock without a vestige of building-material or soil. Hawick is of undoubted antiquity, being mentioned in the Chronicles of Melrose as early as 1214; and the name itself is of Saxon derivation. But the strongest testimony to the early settlement of the spot is afforded by an artificial mound at the upper end of the town, called the Moat, having 312 feet circumference at the base, an elevation of 30 feet, and a nearly level top of 117 feet in circumference. Its origin is entirely lost; but Mr Jeffrey, whose acquaintance with the historical memorials of the Scottish border is perhaps unparalleled, throws out the conjectures, in his History and Antiquities of Roxburghshire, that “ the children of the Gadeni may have used it as a burying-place for their dead, and their descendants afterwards have converted it into a moathill; or it may have been used from a very early period as a place for enacting as well as administering laws. . . There can be no doubt (he adds) that in later times the flat top of the Hawick Moat was used by the judge of the day for hearing the rude suitors of the district.” Another illustration of past modes of life in the district is afforded by the building now used as the Tower Inn, which was at one time a fortress of the barons of Drumlanrig, from one of whom the town charter (circa 1537) was derived. Eight years after this baronial grant, the corporate privileges were confirmed by Queen Mary, who was gratified with the hospitality she received here. The government of the town is vested in two bailies and a council; the former being elected annually by the burgesses, the latter consisting of fifteen life members and fourteen representatives of incorporated trades. The bold and enterprising spirit which characterized the borderers prior to the union of the Scottish and English crowns is now specially distinctive of the inhabitants of Hawick; and having, about the middle of last century, embarked in the manufacture of wool beyond the wants of the district, they have steadily developed a trade that at the present time gives employment in the town to a capital of L. 180,000 and to 3689 hands. The carpet manufacture was the first attempted (1752), and was soon followed by the manufacture of inkle and cloth ; but these have given way to the hosiery manufacture, which was first set on foot by Bailie Hardie in 1771. The bailie employed 5 men and 6 women, who produced annually, from 4 looms, about 2400 pairs of coarse stockings. Twenty years later (1791), 14 men, 51 women, and 8 looms, turned out 3500 pairs lambs’ wool and 600 pairs cotton stockings—the population of the town being 2320. About the commencement of this century machinery was introduced ; and in 1816 there were 7 mills, 44 engines, 100 hand jennies, and 510 stocking frames, from which 1044 operatives worked up 288,000 lbs. wool into 328,000 pairs of stockings. The subsequent progress of the trade may be seen in the following table; the statistics for 1838 and 1850 being taken from the Annals of Hawick, by James Wilson, town-clerk ; those for tl 856 being made up from returns obtained from the several manufacturing houses:— 1838. 1850. 1856. partly 11 (6 water 12 1. Carding Mills... | 11by(1steam) and steam) 106 engines or 2. Engines or Scrib- 1 60 sets. 53 sets bling Machines ) 74 pairs. 3. Spinning Jennies... 4. Annual consump- 1 2,595,888 lbs. 2,016,000 lbs. 2,116,357 lbs. tion of Wool... f value £65,000 value £142,100 value £264,544 5. Quantity of Yarn ) 854,462 lbs. 1,209,600 lbs. 1,617,768 lbs. Manufactured... ) 6. Number of Stock- ) 1209 1200 1611 ing Frames f 5SI 7. Number of Stock- 1 1,049,676 pairs ... 1,670,168 ingsmade } 8. Articles of Under- ) 12,552 120,000 563,104 Clothing ) 9. Number of Weav- ) 226 268 332 ing Looms J

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1856. 1850. 1838. 10. Number of Opera- ) 1788 (besides 3689 3465 females) fives j 11. Quantity of Soap ] 102,899 lbs. 207,378 lbs. 191,397 lbs. consumed j 12. Annual Amount £81,689 £81,650 £48,726 of Wages 13. Value of Property £178,604 £185,616 £101,861 employed in Manufactures 14. Value of Manu£280,904 £333,217 £140,000 factures 15. Quantity of Coal 4261 tons. 10,000 tons consumed As the policy of the Duke of Buccleuch, to whom ninetenths of the soil of the parish belongs, is adverse to manufactures, this steady growth of the staple trade of the town has only been accomplished in the face of great difficulties in regard to mill sites. Though the chief manufacture is in articles of hosiery, there are also produced tweeds, shawls, blankets and flannels; and the preparation of leather, and the manufacture of gloves and candles, are carried on extensively. On Thursday there is a weekly market, principally for grain ; and several fairs and hiring markets are held during the year. The trade of the town is assisted by branches of the British Linen, Commercial, and National banks, besides which there is a savings’ bank. A newspaper, a literary institution, two reading-rooms, a trades’ library, and some minor libraries, are evidences of the mental activity of the people ; and their religious character may be judged of by the fact that there are 10 places of worship, with accommodation for the entire population of the town. These places of worship are,—2 Established, 1 Free, 3 United Presbyterian, 1 Episcopal, 2 Congregational, 1 Baptist, 1 Roman Catholic, and 1 Quaker. The ancient buildings of the town are fast disappearing, and in their stead are rising handsome modern buildings. The principal street is broad, well paved, and clean ; and two bridges crossing the Slitrig render intercommunication easy, whilst an excellent bridge across the Teviot gives access from the country. Pop. of parish (1801), 2798; (1841), 6573; (1851), 7801 ; of town (1851), 6683. (w. e—s.) HAWK. See index to Ornithology. HAWKER (German hoker), an itinerant retailer of wares of any kind. Hawkers and pedlars are classed together, and are subject to the same regulations ; but the former are supposed to carry on business on a larger scale than the latter. The legislature has always regarded this class of dealers with some degree of suspicion ; and accordingly stringent enactments have been made from time to time with a view to prevent the dishonest practices so common in itinerant trading. All hawkers and pedlars must take out an annual license, the duty on which amounts to L.4 ; and for each horse, ass, or other beast employed by them in the transport of goods, there is an additional duty of L.4. H AWKESBURY, a river of New South Wales, formed by the junction of the Nepean and Grose, and falling into Broken Bay 20 miles N. of Sydney. It has a course of about 130 miles, and is navigable for vessels of 150 tons to Windsor', 40 miles from the sea in a direct line, but upwards of a 100 by the windings of the river. HAWKESWORTH, John, LL.D., a distinguished litterateur of the eighteenth century, was born in London in 1715, or, as some say, in 1719. He was apprenticed first of all to a clockmaker, and afterwards to an attorney, but ended by adopting the profession of letters. In 1744 he succeeded Dr Johnson as redactor of the parliamentary debates for the Gentleman’s Magazine. Eight years later he started, in company with Johnson, Bathurst, and Warton, a periodical which he called the Adventurer. This journal had a great success, and ran to 140 numbers, of which 70 were from the pen of Hawkesworth himself. It aimed at a high standard of moral teaching ; and as it was believed to exercise a wholesome influence, its editor was rewarded by the

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Archbishop of Canterbury with the degree of LL.D. This Hawking, distinction turned his head for a time, and his overbearing conduct alienated some of his best friends, Johnson in the number. The doctor was not unwilling to renounce his old ally, who had been honoured, as he believed, at his expense ; and in truth Hawkesworth was nothing more than an imitator of Johnson, though he certainly was a good imitator. After producing some fairy tales and minor pieces, which had great success at Drury Lane, Hawkesworth published in 1761 an edition of Swift, with a life prefixed, to which Johnson bore most honourable testimony in his Lives of the Poets. This and other pieces of literary work which he executed gained him so much credit that he was selected to redact Captain Cook’s papers relative to his first voyage. This work appeared in 1773, in 3 vols. 4to, and. comprised a good narrative of the previous voyages of Byron, Wallis, and Carteret, with maps, charts, &c. The compiler received from government L.6000 as the reward of his labours, and the work was at first warmly received by the critics. It was soon discovered, however, that in his preface the editor had expressed some ideas apparently at variance with the established religion, especially on the subject of a special providence. Hawkesworth was now suspected of having aimed a secret blow at Christianity, and his simple and naive descriptions of savage life were represented as dangerous and immoral. I he real truth, however, was, that his success had made him many enemies among the critics who were jealous of his rise ; and the epigrams and pasquinades of which he became the subject were in reality a tribute to his genuine merits. It is said, though with no great, show of reason, that the severity with which his work came at length to be treated shortened his days. He died in November 17, 1773, and was buried at Brnmlev in Kent, where a monument has been erected to his memory. HAWKING, the practice of taking wild-fowl by means of hawks. The method of reclaiming, manning, and bringing up a hawk to this exercise is cs\\q& falconry. Falconry is of high antiquity; but at what period hawks were first trained to this sport does not appear. 1 he Asiatics seem to have been acquainted with it from beyond the date of history. In the time of Ctesias foxes and hares were hunted in India by means of rapacious birds ; and we are told by Aristotle that “ in Thrace they go out to catch birds with hawks.” Also in another work, ascribed to Aristotle, the same account is to be found, with two remarkable additions—namely, that, the hawks appear when called, and that they brought whatever they had seized to the fowlers, who rewarded them with part of the spoil. (Z)e Mirabilibus Auscultate c. 128.) Whether or not the sport of hawking was practised by the Greeks has been much controverted; but it seems probable that they employed the rapacity of some of the feathered tribe in hunting and fowling. The original Britons, with a fondness for the exercise of hunting, had also a taste for that of hawking, and every chief maintained a considerable number of birds for that sport. To the Romans this diversion was scarcely known in the days of Vespasian, but it was introduced immediately afterwards. Most probably they adopted it from the Britons ; but we know certainly that they greatly improved it. In this state it appears among the Roman Britons in the sixth century. Gildas, in a remarkable passage in his first epistle, speaks of Maglocunus, on his relinquishing the sphere of ambition, and taking refuge in a monastery, and proverbially compares him to a dove, which hastens away at the noisy approach of the dogs, and with various turns and windings takes her flight from the talons of the hawk. In after times hawking was the principal amusement of the English. A person of rank scarcely stirred out without his hawk on his hand ; and in old paintings this is the criterion of nobility. Harold, afterwards king of England,

248 HAWKING. Hawking. when he went out on a most important embassy into Nor- nishes a great variety of significant terms which still obtain Hawking. mandy, is painted embarking with a bird on his hand, and in our language. Thus, the parts of a hawk have their proa dog under his arm; and in an ancient picture of the per names, the legs, from the thigh to the foot, are called nuptials of Henry VI. a nobleman is represented in much arms ; the toes, the petty singles ; the claws, the pounces ; the same manner. In those days, “ it was thought suffi- the wings, the sails ; the long feathers of the wings, the cient for noblemen to winde their horn, and to carry their beams ; the two longest, the principal feathers ; and those hawk fair, and leave study and learning to the children next thereto, the flags; the tail, the train; the breast of mean people.” The former were the accomplishments feathers, the mails ; and those behind the thigh, the penof the times. Spenser makes his gallant Sir Tristram dant feathers. When the feathers are not yet full grown, boast, the falcon is said to be unsummed; when they are complete, it is summed. The craw or crop, is called the gorge ; “ Ne is there hawk which mantleth her on pearcb, Whether high tow’ring, or accoasting low, the pipe next the fundament, where the faeces are drawn But I the measure of her flight doe search, down, the pannel; the slimy substance lying in the pannel, And all her prey, and all her diet know.” the glut; the upper and crooked part of the bill, the beak ; In short, this diversion was, in the good old times, the the nether part, the clap; the yellow part between the pride of the rich, and the privilege of the poor. No rank beak and the eyes, the sear or cere ; the two small holes of men seems to have been excluded from the amusement. therein, the nares. We learn from the book of St Alban’s that every degree As to the furniture, the leathers, with bells buttoned on had its peculiar hawk, from the emperor down to the holy- the legs, are called bewits; the leathern thong by which water clerk. Vast was the expense which sometimes at- the falconer holds the hawk, is called the lease or leash ; tended this sport. In the reign of James I. Sir Thomas the little straps, by which the leash is fastened to the legs, Monson is said to have given L.lOOOfor a cast of hawks. jesses; and a line or packthread fastened to the leash, in We need not wonder, then, at the rigour of the laws tend- disciplining the bird, a creance. A cover for the head, to ing to preserve a pleasure which was carried to such an ex- keep the falcon in the dark, is called a hood ; and a large travagant pitch. In the 34th of Edward III. it was made wide hood, open behind, to be worn at first, is called a felony to steal a hawk; and to take its eggs, even in a per- rufter hood. To draw the strings, that the hood may be son’s own ground, was punishable with imprisonment for in readiness to be pulled off, is called unstriking the hood; a year and a day, besides a fine at the king’s pleasure. In the blinding a hawk just taken, by running a thread Queen Elizabeth’s reign the imprisonment was reduced to through her eyelids, and thus drawing them over the eyes, three months ; but the offender was to find security for his to prepare her for being hooded, is called seeling ; a figure good behaviour for seven years, or lie in prison till he did so. or resemblance of a fowl, made of leather and feathers, is Such, then, was the enviable state of the times of old England. called a lure; the resting-place, when off the falconer’s During the whole day the gentry gave their attention to fist, is called the perch ; the place where the meat is laid the fowls of the air and the beasts of the field ; in the even- is called the hack; and that in which the bird is set, whilst ing they celebrated their exploits with the most brutish sot- the feathers fall and come again, the mew. tishness ; and the inferior classes, by the most unjust and Anything given to a hawk, to cleanse and purge the arbitrary laws, were made liable to capital punishments, to gorge, is called casting ; small feathers given to make the fines, and loss of liberty, for destroying the most destruc- bird cast, are called plumage; gravel given to help to tive of the feathered tribe. bring down the stomach, is called rangle; the throwing According to Olearius, the diversion of hawking is more up of filth from the gorge after casting, is called gleaming ; followed by the Tartars and Persians than ever it was in the purging of grease, or other matter, enseaming ; being any part of Europe. “ II n’y avoit point de hutte,” says he, stuffed is called gurgiting ; inserting a feather in the wing “ qui n’eust son aigle ou son faucon.” in lieu of a broken one, is called imping; giving a leg, The larger falcons are used to pursue antelopes, bustards, wing, or pinion of a fowl to pull at, is called tiring. The cranes, &c.; the smaller and less powerful birds are em- neck of a bird the hawk preys on is called the hike ; and ployed to fly at pigeons, partridges, quails, and the like. what the hawk leaves of its prey is called the pill or pelf. The gyrfalcon, which is one-third larger than the peregrine, There are also proper terms for the several actions of the is imported from Tartary, and sold at Constantinople, bird. When a hawk flutters, as if striving to get away, Aleppo, and Damascus. either from the perch or hand, it is said to bate; when, The falcons or hawks which were in use in this kingdom standing too near, they fight with each other, it is called are still found in Wales, and in Scotland and its isles. The crabbing; when the young ones quiver and shake their peregrine falcon (a species very generally diffused over the wings in obedience to the elder, it is called cowring; world) inhabits the rocks of Caernarvonshire. The same when the bird wipes its beak after feeding, it is said to species, with the gyrfalcon, the gentil, and the goshawk, are feak; when it sleeps, it is said to jouk; from the time of found in Scotland, and the lanner in Ireland. But we may exchanging the coat, till the bird turn white again, is callhere notice that the Norwegian breed were, in old times, in ed intermeicing : treading is called cawking ; when the hawk high esteem in England, and were thought bribes befitting a stretches one wing after the legs, and then the other, it king. Jeoffrey Fitzpierre gave two good Norway hawks to is called mantling; the dung is called muting; when the King John, to obtain for his friend the liberty of exporting hawk mutes a good way behind, it is said to slice ; when a hundredweight of cheese ; and Nicholas the Dane stipu- it does so directly down, instead of jerking backwards, it lated to give the king a hawk every time he came into is said to slime, and if it be in drops, it is called dropping ; England, that he might have liberty to traffic throughout when the bird as it were sneezes, it is called suiting; when the king’s dominions. Hawks were also made the tenures it raises and shakes itself, it is said to rouze; and when, by which some of the nobility held their estates from the after mantling, it crosses its wings together over its back, crown. Thus Sir John Stanley had a grant of the Isle of it is said to warble. Man from Henry IV. to be held of the king, his heirs, and When a hawk seizes, it is said to bind; when, after successors, by homage and the service of two falcons, pay- seizing, it pulls off the feathers, it is said to plume ; when able on the day of his or their coronation. And Philip it raises a fowl aloft, and at length descends with it to the de Hastang held his manor of Combertoun, in Cambridge- ground, it is called trussing ; when, being aloft, it descends shire, by the service of keeping the king’s falcons. to strike the prey, it is called stooping; when it flies out Hawking, though an exercise now much disused, fur- too far from the game, it is said to rake; when, forsaking

HAW lawking. the proper game, it flies at pyes, crows, and the like, it is ^ > called check ; when, missing the fowl, the bird betakes itself to the next check, it is said to fly on head. The fowl or game it flies at is called the quarry ; the dead body of a fowl killed by the hawk is called a pelt. When the bird flies away with the quarry, it is said to carry; when, in stooping, it turns two or three times on the wing, to recover itself ere it seizes, it is cd\\e& canceliering; when it hits the prey, yet does not truss it, it is called ruff. The making a hawk tame and gentle, is called reclaiming; the bringing one to endure company, manning; an old stanch hawk, used to fly and set example to a young one, is called a make-hawk. The reclaiming, manning, and bringing up a hawk to the sport, cannot easily be brought under any precise set of rules. It consists in a number of little practices and observances, calculated to familiarize the falconer to his bird, and the latter to the falconer. When the hawk comes readily to the lure, a large pair of luring bells are to be put on; and the more giddy-headed and apt to rake out the hawk is, the larger must the bells be. Having done this, and the bird being sharp-set, ride out in a fair morning, into some large field unencumbered with trees or wood, with the hawk on your hand; then having loosened the hood, whistle softly, to provoke her to fly; "unhood, and let the bird fly with its head into the wind; for by that means it will be the better able to get upon the wing, and will naturally climb upwards, flying in a circle. After the hawk has flown three or four turns, then lure her with your voice, casting the lure about your head, having first tied a pullet to it; and if your falcon come in and approach near you, cast out the lure into the wind, and if she stoop to it, reward her. You will often find, that when she flies from the hand, she will take stand on the ground. This is a fault which is very common with soar-falcons. To remedy it, fright her up with your wand; and when you have forced her to take a turn or two, take her down to the lure, and feed her. But if this does not succeed, then you must have in readiness a duck seeled, so that she may see no way but backwards, and that will make her mount the higher. Hold this duck in your hand, by one of the wings, near the body; then lure with the voice to make the falcon turn her head ; and when she is at a reasonable pitch, cast your duck up just under her; when, if she strike, stoop, or truss the duck, permit her to kill it, and reward her by giving her a reasonable gorge. After you have practised this two or three times, your hawk will leave the stand, and, delighted to be on the wing, will be very obedient. It is not well, for the first or second time, to show your hawk a large fowl; for it frequently happens that a large bird escapes from the hawk, which gives the falconer trouble, if it do not also involve the loss of the hawk. But if she happens to pursue a fowl, and, being unable to recover it, gives it over, and comes in again directly, then cast out a seeled duck ; and if the bird stoop and truss it across the wings, permit her to take her pleasure, rewarding her also with the heart, brains, tongue, and liver. But if you have not a quick duck, take her down with a dry lure, and let her plume a pullet and feed upon it. By this means a hawk will learn to give over a fowl that rakes out, and on hearing the falconer’s lure, will make back again, and know the better how to hold in the head. If your hawk be a stately high-flying one, it ought not to take more than one flight in a morning. When she is at the highest, take her down with your lure : and when she has plumed and broken the fowl a little, feed her, .by which means you will keep her a high-flyer, and fond of the lure. So much for the technicalities of hawking, which, from VOL. XI.

HAW

249

change of times and manners, has now in a great measure Hawkins, fallen into disuse, though frequent attempts have been made 'wv-w in England during the last few years to revive it. The reader will find some admirable descriptions of this national sport in the novels of Scott, who, on this as on many other subjects, has brought the past as it were before us, rendering us familiar with its habits, customs, and amusements, and engaging our sympathy in favour of the feelings, notions, and even prejudices, with which these were associated. Among the most celebrated treatises on this subject, once so universally interesting, may be mentioned The Book of St Albans by Juliana Berners, 1486; La Fauconnerie, by Charles d’Esperon, Paris, 1605 ; Latham On Falconry, 1658. HAWKINS, Sm John, a celebrated English seaman, was born at Plymouth about 1520. From his father, who, like himself, was a sailor, he learned the advantages of the trade with Africa. After spending his youth in trafficking with Spain and Portugal he visited the coast of Guinea, embarked a cargo of negroes (obtained partly by force and partly by purchase), and made a large fortune by selling them to the Spaniards of Hayti. He made a second voyage to the same place on the same errand in 1564, and with equal success. His third and last voyage (1567), however, was very unfortunate. He was attacked by the Spaniards in the port of St John de Ulloa, and only saved two ships of all his squadron. How different the sentiment was regarding the slave-trade in those days and in our own, may be learned from the fact that Queen Elizabeth approved all that Hawkins had done, allowed him to assume as his crest a demy-Moor in his proper colour, bound with a cord, and made him treasurer of the navy. In 1588 he was made vice-admiral of the Victory, and fought with such distinction against the Spanish Armada, that he was knighted by the queen. In 1595 he accompanied Drake on an expedition against the Spanish colonies in the West Indies, but he quarrelled with his colleague, and died Nov. 21st, withoutagain distinguishing himself. There are some very interesting notices of Hawkins in Hakluyt, and also in Purchas. Hawkins, Sir John, the historian of music, was born in London in 1719. His father was a builder and surveyor, and it was intended that the young Hawkins should adopt the same profession ; ultimately, however, he was apprenticed to an attorney. At the expiry of his apprenticeship he began business for himself, and by industry and integrity, soon raised himself to wealth and station. In his earlier days he had been a hard student, and now in virtue of his acquirements he was admitted into the best literary society in London. Dr Johnson himself (in whose life by Boswell there are numerous and not always very respectful notices of Hawkins) admittedhim into his favour, and helped forward his literary views. Hawkins was at this time a frequent contributor to the Gentleman!s Magazine and other periodicals. His well-known taste for music gained him admittance into the Madrigal Society. In 1753 he married a lady who brought him a considerable fortune, which subsequent events so much increased, that in 1759 he retired from business and settled at Twickenham. He distinguished himself greatly as a county magistrate, and was so valuable a public servant, that in 1772 he was rewarded with knighthood by the king, to whom he had been presented as “ the best magistrate in his dominions.” Four years after this event appeared his General History of the Science and Practice of Music. The literary merit of this work is unquestionably very small, but its value as a storehouse of useful learning on the subject of music is very considerable. But Dr Burney, the rival historian of music, believing that Hawkins was trenching on a province which he considered peculiarly his, had put all the machinery of the press in operation before Hawkins’ work appeared. When at last it was published it met with nothing but 2i

250 HAW Hawlbowabuse from the entire press, and its sale was completely line stopped. The next age did Hawkins the justice denied him own anc wor now jjaay dn ’ ^ k fetches a higher price than The valuable musical library v t when it was first published. which he had amassed in the composition of this history, he made over to the British Museum. In 1760 Hawkins undertook an edition of Walton’s Complete Angler, which has been frequently reprinted; but his only other work of any value, besides his History is his Life of Dr Johnson, which is rather a tribute to that great man’s memory than a requisite to his fame. Hawkins himself died, May 21, 1789, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. (See the Memoirs and Anecdotes of Lsetitia M. Hawkins; Boswell's Life of Johnson, &c.) HAWLBOWLINE, a small island in Cork harbour. See Cork County. HAWSE, the situation of the cables before a ship’s stem, when she is moored with two anchors out forward, viz., one on the starboard, and the other on the larboard bow. This term also denotes any small distance a-head of a ship, or between her head and the anchors employed to ride her ; as, a vessel sails athwart the hawse, or anchors in the hawse of another vessel. Haavse-Holes, the holes in the bows of a ship on each side of the stem, through which the cables pass. HAWSER, a large rope, intermediate between the cable and tow-line of the ship to which it belongs. It is used for various purposes, as warping, for a spring, &c. HAY, or as it is often called, Welsh Hay, or The Hay, a small market-town of Wales, in the parish of Hay, hundred of Talgarth, and county of Brecknock. It stands on the River Wye, near the point where the counties of Radnor, Brecknock, and Hereford converge. The town is well lighted and paved, and contains, besides various dissenting meeting-houses, a handsome parish church, rebuilt in 1838 in the early English style. It has also British and national schools, and a savings bank. The vestiges of a Roman camp near the church point to an ancient origin. The castle of Hay, a very old building, was destroyed by Henry II.; afterwards restored, and finally dismantled by Owen Glyndwr. Between two and three miles from the town is Clifford Castle, the birth-place of the celebrated Jane Clifford, better known as the “fair Rosamond,” the favourite of Henry II., who built for her the maze at Woodstock, where she perished by the cruel jealousy of Queen Eleanor. There are six annual fairs at Hay, besides a weekly market on Thursday. Pop. (1851) 1238. HAYDN, Francis Joseph, a celebrated musical composer, born at Rohrau, a small town fifteen leagues from Vienna, in 1732. His father was a Cartwright, and his mother before her marriage had been cook in the family of Count Harrach, the lord of the village. Haydn’s father had a fine tenor voice, and played a little on the harp. On holidays, after church, he used to accompany his wife whilst she sung; and, when only five years old, Haydn was wont to stand by his parents and join the concert in his own way, with two pieces of w'ood, one of which served for a violin and the other for a bow. When loaded with years and honours, the great symphonist would often recall the music of this domestic performance ; so deep an impression had its simple strains made on his soid. A cousin of the Cartwright, whose name was Frank, a schoolmaster at Haimburg, came to Rohrau one Sunday, and assisted at the trio. He remarked that the child, then scarcely six years old, beat the time with astonishing exactness and precision. Frank was well acquainted with music, and proposed to his relations to take little Joseph to his house and teach him. They accepted the offer with joy, hoping to succeed more easily in getting Joseph into holy orders if he should understand music. Chance brought to Frank’s house Reuter, maestro di capella of St Stephen’s, the cathedral church of Vienna.

II A Y He was in quest of children to recruit his choir. The Haydn, schoolmaster soon proposed his little relation to him; and a when he came, Reuter gave him a canon to sing at sight. The precision, purity of time, and spirit with which the child executed it, surprised him; but he was more especially charmed with his voice, which was naturally sonorous and delicate. He only remarked that he did not shake, and asked him the reason with a smile. The boy smartly replied, “ How should you expect me to shake, when my cousin does not know how to do it himself?” “Come here,” said Reuter, “ and I will teach you.” He then took the young Hadyn between his knees, showed him how he should rapidly bring together two notes, hold his breath, and agitate the palate. The child immediately made a good shake. Reuter, enchanted with the success of his scholar, took a plate of fine cherries, which Frank had ordered for his illustrious brother professor, and emptied them all into the child’s pocket. The delight of the young musician may be readily conceived. Haydn often mentioned this anecdote, adding with a smile, that he fancied he had these beautiful cherries in his mouth whenever he happened to shake. Young Haydn was now placed in the hands of Reuter, and accompanied him to Vienna. Haydn, in afterwards speaking of his studies under this master, said he did not remember to have passed a single day without practising sixteen or eighteen hours daily, and this he did of his own accord, for the children of the choir were not compelled to practise more than two hours. It was by this unwearied assiduity, aided by the inspirations of his genius, that Haydn, almost in the dawn of life, laid the foundation of his future eminence. Mozart at twelve years of age composed a successful opera; but, less fortunate, Haydn at thirteen produced a mass, which his worthy master ridiculed. Convinced, after comparing his work with the compositions of others, that Reuter was right, and that nature without art was like an eagle unfledged, Haydn resolved to apply himself to the study of counterpoint. But Reuter did not teach composition ; and none of the masters in Vienna were so generous as to instruct an unknown and unpatronized boy. But to this misfortune Haydn perhaps is indebted for his originality. Under a master he might have avoided some of the errors he has fallen into when he subsequently ivrote for the church and for the theatre ; but, upon the whole, he would certainly have been less original. He purchased the theoretical works of Mattheson, Fuchs, Emanual Bach, and Kirberg, which he studied most assiduously, labouring alone, and exercising every scientific intricacy ; and so great was the pleasure he experienced in his pursuits, that, poor as he was, shivering with cold, and oppressed with sleep, seated by the side of an old worn-out harpsichord, he declared himself never to have been happier at any period of his life. At eighteen Haydn’s voice broke, and he left the class of soprani at St Stephen’s. Obliged to seek for a lodging, chance threw him in the way of a poor peruke-maker named Keller, who received him as a son. Haydn, in the quiet obscurity of his new dwelling, was enabled to pursue his studies without interruption. His residence here had, however, a fatal influence on his future fortune. Keller had two daughters, and his wife and he arranged that one of them should marry Haydn, Avho, absorbed in his studies, and thinking little about love, made no objection to the proposal. He adhered to his engagement honourably in after life, but the union was an unhappy one. Haydn now began to compose short sonatas for the pianoforte, which he sold at low prices to his few female pupils. He also wrote minuets, allemands, and ivaltzes for the liidotto. By performing in concert with two of his friends a serenata in the streets, he attracted the attention of Curtz, the director of the theatre of Carinthia, who employed him

HAYDN. 251 exhausted him, and he complained that he was forced to Haydn, Haydn, to write music, which was performed with the happiest sucv. j cess. But Haydn’s talent was not for the stage ; he chose seek ideas which used to come to him formerly unsought. his own proper ground when in his twentieth year, and pro- He wrote, however, subsequently afewquartetts, and arranged duced six trios, which, from their striking originality, at nearly 300 Scotch songs, a work which produced him about once brought him into notice. Shortlyafter this he published 600 guineas. At last he grew so weak, that a vertigo seized his first quartett, which every musical amateur soon had by him the moment he sat down to the piano. He now seldom heart. Leaving the house of Keller, Haydn went to lodge quitted his house and garden at Gumpelsdorf, and he be- • with Martinez, and became acquainted with Metastasio the came feeble in mind and body. On the morning of the poet, who taught him Italian, and instructed him in the 31st of May 1809 he died, aged seventy-eight years and two months. He was privately interred at Gumpelsdorf, for fine arts. Haydn struggled long against want, but at last his genius Vienna was at that time in the occupation of the French. brought him into notice, and he received employment from Haydn’s heir was a blacksmith, to whom he left the bulk of Prince Antony Esterhazy, and his successor Nicholas, for his fortune. His manuscripts were purchased by Prince whom he composed a number of pieces for the baryton, an Esterhazy. He left no posterity. Cherubini, Pleyel, Neuinstrument now scarcely ever used. Haydn did not forget komm, and Weigl, may be considered as his disciples. Haydn, in his symphonies, stands first in the list of the his promise to his benefactor Keller; and being now in better circumstances, he married his daughter Ann, from greatest instrumental authors. In sacred music he opened whom he afterwards separated on account of her bad tem- a new path, by which he placed himself on a level with the most celebrated composers for the church. In theatrical per and conduct. Placed now at the head of a full and excellent orchestra, music he was least successful. In that department he was and attached to the service of a rich patron, Haydn found only an imitator. His instrumental music consists of chamhimself in that happy union of circumstances which gives ber symphonies for a greater or less number of instruments, opportunity to genius to display all its powers. From this and of symphonies for a full orchestra. The first of these moment his life was uniform and fully employed. He rose divisions comprehends duets, trios, quartetts, sestetts, ocearly in the morning, dressed himself very neatly, and tetts, and divertimentos; sonatas, fantasie, variations, and placed himself at a small table by the side of his piano- capricci. In the second are contained the symphonies forte, where the hour of dinner usually found him still seat- for the grand orchestra, concertos for different instruments, ed. In the evening he went to rehearsals, or to the opera serenades, and marches. The allegros of his symphonies are in general full of life which was performed in the prince’s palace four times every week. Sometimes, but not often, he devoted a morning to and spirit. They generally begin with a short, easy, and hunting. The little time he had to spare on common days intelligible theme. Gradually, and by a procedure full of was divided between his friends and Mademoiselle Boselli, genius, this theme, repeated by the different instruments, a singer of eminence. Such was the course of his life for acquires a character of mingled heroism and gaiety. There more than thirty years ; and this can alone account for the is more variety in the slow movements; in these the lofty prodigious number of his productions in instrumental music, style is majestically displayed. The phrases or musical ideas church music, and operas. In fifty years he produced no in his andantes and adagios are finely and nobly developed. less than 527 instrumental compositions, and in the whole Sometimes the composer is carried away by his copiousness of these pieces he has never copied or imitated himsell, but and power ; but this excess of vigour does not exclude passion and sentiment. His minuets are admirable, being rich when it was his intention to do so. Haydn wrote his best music with some labour, not from in harmony and accumulated beauties. The general chaany w'ant of ideas, but from the extreme delicacy of his taste, racter of Haydn’s instrumental music is that of romantic which he could with difficulty satisfy. A symphony would imagination. “ Haydn,” says Carpani, “ e V Ariosto della sometimes cost him a month, and a mass perhaps two. His musica. Passeggia il suo genio per tutte le regioni dell’ arte. manuscripts of one piece sometimes contain passages enough La sua immaginazione apre i tesori d’ogni bellezza, e ne for three or four pieces. But although it seemed labour, it dispone a sua voglia.” As a composer of symphonies and was not so; for he was wont to say that he never felt so quartetts, he may be considered as the first who moulded happy as when at work. Nothing troubled him till the death them into that form which Mozart, Beethoven, and others, of his patron, Prince Nicholas, in the year 1789, and the have adopted. The famous seven instrumental pieces called subsequent demise of his favourite Boselli; circumstances Die Siehen Worte des Heglandes am Kreuze were esteemed which induced him to come to England, upon the solicita- by the composer as his best works. The oratorio of the Creation is replete with grandeur, tions of Salomon. This musician was about to give concerts in London, and offered Haydn L.50 for each performance, sublimity, and beauty. The Seasons, with less sentiment which terms he accepted. Haydn was then fifty-nine years and learning than the Creation, is equally admirable as an old, and he resided in England upwards of a year, and expressive and delightful composition. The ideal part of Haydn’s masses is brilliant and dignified ; the style is noble brought out there some of his finest instrumental pieces. From England Haydn went to Germany, but he re- and full of fire. His Agnus Dei is full of tenderness; the turned for a short time in 1794, and was complimented with Amens and Hallelujahs breathe all the reality of joy; the the diploma of Doctor of Music from Oxford. He afterwards fugues display all the exultation of an enraptured mind. (a. h.) went to Austria, and did not return again to England. He (Ze Hay dine de Carpani.) Haydn, John Michael, a younger brother of Francis was in his sixtieth year when he commenced his Creation, to which he devoted two years. When urged to hasten its Joseph Haydn, was born at Rohrau in September 1737. completion he calmly said, he had been a long time about After learning the elements of music, and how to play on it because he intended it to last a long time. It was finished the harp and harpsichord, in his father’s house, he entered in 1798, and performed in Vienna with enthusiastic appro- the imperial chapel at Vienna as a chorister. His voice bation. All Germany rang with its praises ; in a few weeks had the remarkable compass of three octaves, from the it was printed, and spread over Europe with a rapidity be- lowest contralto F up to highest soprano F in alt. The fore unheard of. Two years later he composed his oratorio emperor and empress were so much pleased with his singing, of the Four Seasons ; of which he used to say “ It is not that they took him under their protection. He next studied another Creation, and the reason is this : in that oratorio the organ-playing and composition; and, by a constant exaactors are angels, in the Four Seasons they are peasants.” mination of classical compositions, without lessons from any This work terminated his musical career; the labour of it master, he soon acquired skill as an organist and composer.

252 HAY Haydon. In 1763 he was appointed music director in the chapel of the Bishop of Grosswardein, in Hungary; and in 1768 chapel-master to the Bishop of Salzburg, with the small salary of 300 florins, together with board and lodging. Afterwards this salary was raised to 600 florins. In the first year of his residence at Salzburg he married the daughter of Lipp, the organist. She bore him a daughter, who died in her third year; and the loss of this child deeply affected him for the rest of his life. At Salzburg he opened a school of composition, in which several distinguished artists were taught. In 1801 Prince Esterhazy gave him the title of his chapel-master, with a pension ; but he still continued to reside at Salzburg. Pie died there, on 10th August 1806. He was considered by his brother Joseph as the best composer of church music of his time in Germany. He refused to allow any of his works to be published in his lifetime. Since his death, a number of his church compositions, and several of his symphonies, &c., have been published in Germany. Some pleasing specimens of his music are contained in Latrobe’s Selections. (g. f. g.) HAYDON, Benjamin Robert, historical painter and writer, was descended from an old Devon family, the Haydons of Boughwood, Cadby, and Woodbury. He was an only son and was born January 26, 1786. His mother was the daughter of the Rev. Benjamin Cobley, rector of Dodbrook, Devon, whose son, General Sir Thomas Cobley, signalized himself at the siege of Ismail. His father was a man of great lite/ary taste, and was well known and esteemed amongst all classes in Plymouth. Haydon, at an early age, gave evidence of his taste for study, which was carefully tbstered and promoted by his mother. At the age of ten he was placed at Plymouth grammar school where his love of study and painting was still further developed by the principal, himself a man of refined taste and great artistic acquirements. At the age of fourteen he was sent to Plympton St Mary school. He completed his education in this school where Sir Joshua Reynolds also had acquired all the scholastic knowledge he ever received. On the ceiling of the school-room was a sketch by Reynolds in burnt cork, which it used to be Playdon’s delight to sit and contemplate. Whilst at school he had some thought of adopting the medical profession, but he was so shocked at the sight of an operation that he gave up the idea. A perusal of Albinus, however, inspired him with a love for anatomy; and Reynolds’ discourses ai’oused within him his smouldering taste for painting, which, from his earliest childhood, had been the absorbing idea of his mind. Sanguine of success, full of energy and vigour, he started from his parental roof May 14, 1804, for London, and entered his name as a student of the Royal Academy. He began and prosecuted his studies with such unwearied ardour that Fuseli wondered when he ever found time to eat. At the age of twentyone (1807) Haydon exhibited, for the first time, at the Royal Academy, “ Repose in Egypt,” which was bought by Mr Thomas Hope the year after. This was a good introduction to the young artist, who shortly after received a commission from Lord Mulgrave and an introduction to Sir George Beaumont. In this year also he finished his well-known picture of “ Dentatus,” which, though it brought him a great increase of fame, involved him in a violent and life-long quarrel with the Royal Academy, whose committee had hung the picture in a small side-room instead of in the great hall. Haydon saw in this act an attempt to crush him by depriving him of his due; and his subsequent conduct was disastrous chiefly to himself. In 1810 his difficulties began, though he wras still receiving from his father an allowance of L.200 a-year. Bad luck also attended his struggles for professional advancement; for, though he put his name down for admission into the academy, he did not obtain a single vote. His disappointment was embittered by the controversies in which he now became involved with

H A Y Leigh Hunt, with Sir George Beaumont, for whom he had Haydon. painted his famous picture of “ Macbeth,” and Mr Payne v^ Knight, the last of whom had denied the beauties as well as the value of the Elgin Marbles. The “ Judgment of Solomon,” his next production, gained him L.700, besides L.100 voted to him by the directors of the British Institution, and the freedom of the borough of Plymouth. Success rewarded his efforts. West wept on beholding the “ Pale Fainting Mother; ” and Miss Mitford addressed to him one of her best sonnets. To recruit his health and escape for a time from the cares of London life, Haydon joined Wilkie in a trip to Paris ; he studied at the Louvre; and on his return to England produced his “ Christ’s Entry into Jerusalem,” which afterwards formed the nucleus for the American Gallery of Painting, which was erected by his cousin John Haulland of Philadelphia. With such professional renown as he had now acquired, Haydon again aspired for admittance into the Royal Academy, and was again unsuccessful. Amid the trials and difficulties of this period of his life, he found time to write a long and elaborate essay on Painting for the Encyclo’pcedia Britannica. This essay has been twice reprinted. (See article Painting.) Whilst painting “ Lazarus,” his pecuniary difficulties increased, and for the first time, he was arrested but not imprisoned, the sheritf-officer taking his word for his appearance. Amidst all these harassing cares he married. In 1823, Haydon was lodged in the King’s Bench, where he received the most consoling letters from the first men of the day. Whilst a prisoner he drew up a petition to Parliament in favour of the Elgin Marbles, which was presented by Mr Brougham. He also produced the picture of the “ Mock Election,” the idea of which had been suggested by an incident that happened in the prison. The king (George IY.) gave him L.500 for this picture, and Haydon was enabled to purchase his release. Haydon’s other pictures were— 1830, “Eucles,”and produced however, not to modify by supposing merelythis by theory, the motions of the will will be here sufficient to state, that though the thermoparticles of the heated substance, but by the vibrations or undulations of a very subtile matter existing in all bodies. meter affoi ds us indications of the changes in the sensible heat of bodies, it does not give us any information respect1 ins will approximate the vibratory theory to that which ing then latent caloric, nor the absolute quantity of heat t0 the sensation warm body, and at

H E Diffusion they may contain. This mustbe sought for by other modes, of Heat, which we shall shortly explain, after we have considered the modes in which caloric is diffused amongst bodies, and its general effects on different kinds of matter. SECT. II. DIFFUSION OF HEAT. The tendency of heat to diffuse itself equally amongst bodies is so great, that we are unable permanently to accumulate it in any substance. All that can be effected in this way by the most skilful contrivances, is to produce some retardation of this dissipation. The mode in which it is diffused through solids, liquids, and gases, is different, and demands a separate consideration. I. Diffusion of Heat by Communication. 1. Diffusion in Solids.—When we place a heated solid in contact with a colder body, the superabundant, caloric of the first immediately begins to flow into the latter. The nearest particles are first heated, and they communicate a portion of their caloric to the second series, and these last to a third, until both bodies acquire a common temperature ; and this equilibrium will be established amongst all contiguous bodies. If a bar of iron twenty inches long be heated at one end, it will require four minutes for the smallest sensible increase of temperature to be perceived at the other. Biot has endeavoured to ascertain the rate of this transmission. He employed a bar of iron several feet in length, and bent into a right angle, at one end of which a steady heat of 216° Fahrenheit was applied. Thermometers were placed in holes drilled for the purpose, at intervals of four inches along the top of the bar. In four hours all the thermometers became stationary, the difference between the first and second zz 21o-50 ; between the second and third, = ll°-25; between the third and fourth, = 7°'25; between the fourth and fifth, — 5°; between the fifth and sixth, = 4°; between the sixth and seventh (beyond which no sensible effect was perceptible), = 1°*75; which, allowing for the unavoidable errors in such investigations, would show, that, taking the distances in arithmetical progression, the decrease of temperature follows a geometrical ratio in penetrating solids. In such cases, the heat seems to be communicated from particle to particle, and is said to be conducted through the body. All bodies do not conduct heat with equal celerity. If we place equal thermometers on equal cubes of metal, ivory, marble, and glass, heated by the same source, we shall find that the thermometer placed on the metal will rise soonest; next, that placed on the marble, then those on the ivory and the glass. The most dense bodies conduct heat, in general, more readily than rarer bodies ; but experiment shows that their conducting power is not always in the ratio of their density, but probably depends also on their affinity for caloric. Spongy and light bodies are found to be extremely bad conductors of caloric. Silk, cotton, and wool, are especially so; and hence their utility in preserving our animal heat in cold climates. Count Rumford made a series of experiments on the conducting power of different substances of this nature, and found that raw silk, fur, and eider-down, were remarkably bad conductors of heat. They give to us the sensation of warmth, not by communicating heat to our surface, but because their bad conducting power prevents the waste of our animal heat by the ambient air. Their stopping the transmission of heat seems partly to depend on the air they entangle; for, by twisting them, i. e. by expelling a portion of the air contained in such bodies, their conducting power is increased.

A T. 261 The facility with which bodies conduct heat is not ex- Diffusion actly in proportion to any of their sensible qualities, but of Heat, is more nearly in the direct ratio of their density than any other quality. This may be ascribed to the greater intensity of the repulsive energy of the atmospheres of caloric surrounding each particle of dense bodies (by reason of their greater proximity) conveying each fresh addition of temperature with greater celerity through such substances. But if we conceive “ heat to be a material agent,” this quickness of conducting power may also be modified by the different degrees of affinity between caloric and each kind of matter. However this may be, scarcely any two substances conduct heat with equal facility. Solids conduct much more readily than liquids. Of the former, the best conductors are the metals ; and amongst these, the very best are gold, silver, platinum, and copper, whilst iron and lead are among the worst. The rapidity with which silver conducts away heat is well illustrated by wrapping a piece of muslin smoothly round a spoon, of that metal, when the muslin may be held in the flame of a candle or a lamp, so as to boil water in the spoon, without burning the muslin. The following table of the conducting power of different metals and other bodies is given by Despretz (H«n. Chim. et Phys. xxxvi.) :— Gold 1000 Tin 303-9 Platinum 981 Lead 179-6 Silver 973 Marble 23-6 Copper 898-2 Porcelain 12-2 Iron 374-3 Clay 11-4 Zinc. 363 2. Diffusion in Liquids.—The extreme slowness with which liquids conduct heat is shown by a beautiful experiment of Count Rumford. Freeze a little water in the bottom of a tube, and then pour water over the ice: by inclining the tube, the flame of a lamp may be applied to the surface of the liquid, so as to cause it to boil; and by slowly moving the flame towards the ice, we may raise the water to ebullition in successive portions; yet this ebullition will almost reach the ice before it shows any signs of melting. The same fact is exhibited by fixing an air thermometer in a vessel filled with water to one or two tenths of an inch above the ball of the thermometer, and pouring a little aether on the surface of the water. On kindling the aether, it will burn with a copious flame, without affecting in the slightest degree the submersed thermometer. This extreme slowness of liquids in conducting heat induced Count Rumford to suppose that they were absolute nonconductors of caloric; but this inference is not warranted by his own experiments, and was fully refuted by the investigations of Hope, Murray, and Traill, which proved, that though liquids conduct heat slowly downwards, they are not absolute non-conductors of caloric. If, however, we apply heat to the lower part of a vessel containing any liquid, it rapidly acquires a higher temperature. This, however, is in a different manner from conduction. The liquid is heated by the transportation of its particles in quick succession. In this case the particles nearest the heating cause become specifically lighter by receiving heat; they therefore ascend through the fluid, to which they impart part of their caloric, while their place is supplied by another series of particles, which become heated, and ascend in their turn ; and this succession continues until, by these rapid changes, the whole body of the fluid attains its boiling point, if the heat be sufficient for that purpose. These motions may be rendered visible by throwing into the vessel a few particles of matter a little heavier than water, such as powdered amber. It is by this transportation of their particles that liquids are principally heated ; and the rapidity with which a piece of ice melts when it floats in ajar containing hot water, com-

HEAT. 262 Diffusion THffusion pared to the extreme slowness of the melting of a similar II. Diffusion of Heat by Radiation. of Heat. of Heat- mass of ice fixed in the bottom of a jar, and defended from The diffusion of heat by the means already noticed is a ' the immediate contact of the hot water by a thin film of ice-cold water, exhibits, in a striking manner, the differ- comparatively slow process, and is limited to bodies in conence between the heating of fluids by transportation and tact with each other. But heat is capable of being diffused among bodies not in contact. A heated body suspended in by conduction. 3. Diffusion in Gases.—The conducting power of gases vacuo emits its excess of heat in all directions ; and in air, is not so easily ascertained, because it is difficult to separate though much of its caloric apparently passes off with the astheir conducting power from the effect of radiation of heat cending currents which it produces in the ambient air, the through them. The experiments of Professor Sir John emanations of heat also pass off in directions contrary to these Leslie and of Dr Dalton, however, decidedly show a diffe- aerial currents. Thus a person standing before a fire perrence in the conducting power of gases, which is also more ceives its warmth, though a light body like a feather will nearly in the direct ratio of their specific gravity than of show that there is a cui'rent of air perpetually flowing toward their other properties; hydrogen having the lowest con- the fire. This emission of heat is termed radiation, and is ducting power, atmospheric air one considerably higher, analogous to the emanations of light from a luminous oband carbonic acid the greatest of all the gases subjected to ject ; each point of the heated surface emitting divergent rays, which are subject to the same modifications as those this examination. The difference of bodies in conducting heat is a most of light, by reflection from polished surfaces, and by reimportant subject, as on it depends not only many of our fraction through transparent media. When the rays of heat fall on a bright metallic surface, contrivances to concentrate artificial heat, and apply it to numerous purposes in the useful arts, as the obtaining of they are reflected. As early as 1682, Mariotte showed metals from their ores; but on it also depend the methods that “ the heat of a fire is reflected from a burning mirof defending our bodies against external cold. The living ror, so as to be sensible in its focus ; but that it is intersystem has within itself the power of supporting a nearly cepted by a plate of glass interposed between the mirror equable temperature, notwithstanding the perpetual ten- and the fire.” The next important step was made by dency of contiguous bodies to a common temperature ; Lambert, who discovered that the heat might be so inbut if the naked surface be exposed to the elements in our creased, by employing two concave mirrors and a charclimate, the heat of the body would soon be reduced be- coal fire placed in the focus of the one, that a combustible low what is consistent with health or comfort. To pre- might be kindled in the focus of the other. But the most serve the animal heat, we surround our bodies with bad successful cultivator of this branch of science during the conductors of caloric, such as woollen, silk, or cotton; and last century was Scheele of Sweden, who proved that methe more imperfectly these defences conduct heat, the less tallic surfaces are the most powerful reflectors of radiant will our temperature be reduced. Hence the worst con- caloric; that glass is far inferior in this respect; that if ducting substances are the most suitable garments for a we cover the surface of the metallic mirror with a film of cold climate ; and, in hot latitudes, the comfort of man re- lamp-black, it does not reflect heat, but actually absorbs quires that the coverings of his body should be of the kind it; that radiant heat is separated from light by interposing that would most rapidly abstract his redundant animal heat. screens of glass ; and that it, passes through air, without Nature has beautifully adapted the covering of the lower suffering any obstruction from the direction of the aerial animals to the climates they inhabit. The thick fur of the currents through which it radiates. Greenland bear, the musk ox, and the arctic hare, adapts Saussure and Pictet repeated the experiments of Lamthem to the rigours of their native climate ; whilst the bert. They showed the instantaneous transmission of heat short and sleek hair of the antelope, the giraffe, the leo- by radiation ; that it was in such experiments material to pard, and the lion, proclaims them denizens of the warmer place the heated body and the thermometer in the focus regions of the earth. Even in the same species inhabiting of each mirror ; and that, a very little beyond the focus, the a changeable climate, nature adapts their covering to the effect was trifling, although the thermometer was nearer season. The glossy sleekness of the horse, and of our do- the heated body. When the heated body was a red-hot mestic cattle, diminishes toward the close of autumn. The cannon bullet, combustibles were speedily kindled in the bear, the fox, and the weasels of northern regions, assume focus of the other mirror at the distance of several feet. a longer and more shaggy coat on the approach of winter ; These researches were greatly extended by Pictet, who and the sheep, which in Europe is covered with a thick showed that a flask of hot water radiated heat which fine wool, an extremely bad conductor of heat, in the burn- could be concentrated in the focus of a metallic mirror, ing plains of Africa is clothed only by a short and coarse and thus rendered sensible by a thermometer, showing hair, that presents comparatively a small obstacle to the that the invisible rays of heat might be reflected, as well evolution of animal heat. as those emanated from a hot luminous body. In the vegetable kingdom a similar care is bestowed to The experiments on radiant heat may be exhibited by defend plants from excessive cold. Plants of cold cli- means of a pair of concave mirrors of well-polished tinned mates, wdiich are perennial, are protected by a consider- iron, hammered into segments of spheres of about one foot able thickness of bark; a substance which experiment in diameter ; but still better with mirrors of thick brass proves to be a bad conductor of heat. In high latitudes plate, hammered, on Sir John Leslie’s plan, into a parabothey are further defended against the excessive cold of the lic form. The writer of this possesses a pair twenty-two climate by a spongy covering of snow, which, until it be- inches in diameter, hammered into a parabolic curve with gin to melt, is found to be a very bad conductor of heat; and surprising accuracy, by Mr Alexander Kilpatrick of Edintherefore tends to preserve the juices of plants from being burgh, with which he has repeatedly melted lead by colfrozen. Thus trees are more seldom killed by the freezing lecting the sun’s rays in one of them. This form of mirror of their sap, when a fall of snow has preceded an intense is the best; because the rays which fall on the mirror pafrost; an accident not uncommon, even in the temperate rallel to its axis are reflected, not divergingly, but so as to climates of the earth, in a long continuance of what is meet in the focus of the parabola. termed a black frost. Recent voyages of discovery have Pictet found the sensibility of the thermometer much also shown that the Esquimaux find the excessive rigour increased by painting its ball black ; and he showed that of their inhospitable climate very endurable in houses built glass screens intercepted the rays of caloric from burning of frozen snow. bodies or a heated bullet; but it wras found that the ra-

263 H E A T. Diffusion diant heat in the sun’s rays was not intercepted by a plate history of the radiation of caloric. This very original and Diffusion of Heat, of glass, or even by a sheet of tin, which completely inter- able philosopher, by the simplicity and delicacy of his ap- of Heat, paratus, and the ingenuity of his well-devised expericepts heat derived from other luminous bodies. Such was the state of our knowledge of radiant heat, ments, did more than has been accomplished by any other when our veteran astronomer, Sir William Herschel, dis- individual to develop the laws which regulate the transcovered, toward the close of the last century, that rays of mission and reception of this mysterious agent; and his heat exist, independently of those of light, in the solar work will remain a land-mark in the history of this branch spectrum. When he received the solar rays through a of physical science. In his experiments, a single mirror prism of flint-glass, he found that a row of delicate ther- only was employed; and the source of heat generally mometers placed in the coloured spectrum were different- used was a cube or square canister of tinned iron placed ly affected at its two extremities. In the violet ray it only before the mirror, at the distance of three or four feet, rose 2°, in the red ray it rose 7° ; but his most interesting whilst the ball of an air thermometer was placed in the fodiscovery was, that half an inch beyond the red ray it was cus of the mirror. The air thermometer employed by him still hotter. These very important results were fully con- was his own modification of that figured by Sturmius. firmed by Sir Henry Englefield. In one of Englefield’s {Colley. Curios, p. 53, 1676.) In the instrument of Leslie, termed by him a differenexperiments, the following results were obtained :—In the blue rays, in 3' the thermometer rose 2° ; in the green, in tial thermometer, both limbs of the instrument, as well as 3' it — 4° ; in the yellow, in 3' it = 6° ; in the middle of both bails, are equal; and instead of being joined with cethe red, in 2'-5 it = 16° ; in the outer edge of the red, ment, the recipient ball is united by the blowpipe to the in 2'-5 it := 17°-5; and beyond the spectrum, in 2'-5 it same piece with the sentient ball. These changes give — 18°. When the bulbs of the thermometers were pre- additional delicacy and accuracy to the instrument; in viously blacked, the full red ray raised the thermometer in which the coloured fluid is sulphuric acid tinged with three minutes 22° ; and just beyond the spectrum it rose carmine. Leslie’s principal object was the relation of different 33°. Even half an inch beyond the spectrum altogether, surfaces in emitting and receiving calorific rays. Of his the rise was 6° more than in the red ray. These experiments show that the refrangibility of the cubical canister, one side was polished, or, as it is termed rays of heat and light are different, and that the former by workmen, planished; the second was covered by a plate of glass; a third with white paper smoothly pasted are less refrangible than the latter. The experiments of Berard and of Leslie confirmed the on; the fourth was painted with lamp-black mixed with fact, that the point of greatest heat in the solar spectrum size. The cubes he used were from four to ten inches, is in the red rays; and Leslie states the result of his ex- and were filled with boiling water. When the polished periments to have made the difference between the violet side was turned toward the thermometer, placed at four and red as one to sixteen; but neither of these philoso- feet from the mirror, the increase of temperature was no phers detected any heat altogether beyond the spectrum. more than 12° ; when the glass side was presented, the The conclusions of Herschel have, however, been con- differential thermometer under the same circumstances firmed by subsequent investigations; and Seebeck has rose to 90°; when the papered side was the radiating shown that prisms of different substances produce a dif- surface, the temperature was 98°, and the painted side ferent refraction of the rays of heat. With a hollow prism indicated 100° ; when the polish of the planished side was filled with water, the greatest heat is in the full yellow destroyed, by ploughing it in one direction with a finelight; with sulphuric acid it is in the orange ; with crown toothed plane, its propelling or radiating power rose to 19° ; and when scratched in one direction with a fine file, glass it is in the dark limit of the red. We may here state, that not long after Herschel’s dis- its effect was as much as 26°. On covering one of the covery, Ritter, Wollaston, and Beckmann, simultaneous- surfaces smoothly with gold and silver leaf, the effect was ly discovered the existence of other invisible rays in the about equal to the surface of polished tin; a plate of posolar spectrum, which are only known by their chemical lished iron gave 15° ; a surface of fresh lead 19° ; but effects in decomposing some metallic saline compounds, when the same became tarnished, its effect was equal to as the nitrate of silver. Ihese chemical rays are the most 45° ; and painting it with red oxide of lead raised it to 80°. refrangible of all, and exist in greatest abundance^ to- An amalgam of mercury and tin, when fresh, gave no ward the violet end of the spectrum, and even entirely more than 20°. Leslie then investigated the relative receiving power of beyond it. Thus the solar spectrum would seem to condifferent surfaces, by coating the sentient ball of the difsist of three species of rays, the luminous, the calorific, and the chemical; all differing in their refrangibility, and ferential thermometer with different substances. When effect of in their apparent effects: and if we consider white light that ball was smoothly coated with tinfoil, the 0, the blackened side of the canister was only 2 5, or about as composed of red, yellow, and blue rays, we have five kinds of rays in the solar beam, three of which are visible, one fifth of what it produced on the naked ball; and he and two invisible. In the solar beams these are intimate- found, that of either side of the canister the effect was ly blended, but may be in some degree separated by re- now just one fifth of that observed with the naked ball. fraction through diaphanous prisms. The separation of On the other hand, when the ball was covered with a coat the luminous and calorific rays may be made by black of china ink, or formed of a black enamel, the effect of opake bodies, through which the sun’s heat will pene- either side of the canister was greatly increased. The power of surfaces in reflecting heat was also intrate without admitting a single ray of light. The sun s vestigated. In fact, it was shown by the last series of exrays, however, pass through all transparent media, without a separation of light and heat. Glass and ice inter- periments with the coated ball; but he proved it also by cept the rays of terrestrial heat, the first partially, the varying the reflecting surface. When a glass concave latter wholly ; yet the sun’s rays passing through and mirror, two feet in diameter, was substituted for the mecollected in the focus of a lens of glass, produce the most tal reflector, the effect of the blackened side of the canisintense heat; and Scoresby and others have shown, that ter on the naked ball was but just perceptible ; and if a a lens of ice will concentrate the sun’s rays, so as to ignite film of china ink be spread over the surface of the mirror, even this slight effect totally disappears. If, however, the inflammable substances. The publication of Sir John Leslie’s Inquiry into the concave surface of the glass mirror be smoothly coated Nature of Heat, in 1804, forms an important era in the with tinfoil, the effect of the black side of the canister

264 H E Diffusion will be ten times more than with the naked glass surface. p. 139 to 150.) Yet he is disposed to consider the phe- Diffusion ofHeat.' Removing the silvering from the back of the mirror pro- nomena of radiation as depending on certain undulations, «f Heat, duced no effect on its reflecting the calorific rays, neither produced by radiating surfaces in the ambient air. This was this affected by roughening the back of the mirror. view has been ably combated by the late Dr Murray, with Hence Leslie infers, that reflection of heat takes place at the sagacity which distinguished that philosopher. But the surface of the glass mirror, or principally so. the limits of the present article will not allow us to enter A polished tin reflector had its power diminished one into this part of the subject, for which we must refer the third by being coated as smoothly as possible with tin- reader to Leslie’s Inquiry, and Murray’s Chemistry. foil, evidently by the imperfection of the smoothness of The more usually-received theory of radiation is, that its surface. Scratching its surface with sand-paper di- from heated bodies emanate rays of caloric in all direcminishes its effect one tenth ; and he found that the mir- tions, which proceed through gaseous bodies with little or ror seemed to have its reflecting power more impaired no sensible interruption, and with amazing velocity ; that when the scratches were all in one direction, than when these rays are absorbed by dark and rough surfaces, and they crossed. A film of tallow on the surface of the mir- are reflected by polished bright surfaces. ror reduced the effect of the blackened side from 100° to There is, however, one curious experiment, which is ra8°; but if held before the fire until all that could be thus ther difficult of explanation, namely, the seeming raeftaft'ora removed had run off, the effect of that side rose to 37°. of cold. The Florentine philosophers of the Academia del When the surface of the mirror was covered with a very Cimento found, that when a mass of snow was placed in thin iridescent film of isinglass, the blackened surface the focus of one mirror, the thermometer placed in the gave an effect of 80°; but when that film was only y^oo^1 focus of the other sunk, or indicated cold. This subject of an inch, the effect was reduced to 15°. has been investigated by Pictet and by Leslie. The latThe results of his experiments with other reflecting ter observed that his canister, filled with snow, produced surfaces gave the following proportions :—A reflector of the greatest effect when its blackened side was towards polished brass — 100°, of the same coated with tinfoil rr the thermometer and the mirror, and the least when its 83°, of steel = 70°, of fresh lead = 60°, of glass = 10°. polished side was in that direction. The effect of screens, The inference from these investigations is, that the re- in retarding the influence of the cold body, he found anaflecting powder of various surfaces bears some inverse pro- logous to their effect on the radiation from the hot water. portion to their propelling and absorbing powers. The These facts were considered by Leslie as proving the numerical results of Leslie’s experiments w'ould give the existence of what he denominated cold pulses from the snow ratio between metallic surfaces and glass, in reflecting towards the mirror, “ on the wings of the ambient air;’* power as ten to one ; in propelling power as one to eight; but the explanation of Pictet appears to account for it in absorbing power as one to five. It was, however, sup- well, without the necessity of inferring the existence of posed that some minute circumstances, of which it is dif- frigorific particles, which is a highly improbable supposificult to estimate the effect, interfered in the two last pro- tion. On this view, radiation is considered as only taking cesses, and that the propelling and absorbing powers are place amongst bodies unequally heated. He conceived that equal in all bodies: we shall find this to be incorrect. bodies at the same temperature do not radiate heat to One of the most interesting parts of Leslie’s investiga- each other, because in this state caloric exists in them tions was the effect of screens of different kinds, inter- all in an equality of tension ; but when a cool body is posed between the sources of heat and the thermometer. introduced, all radiate heat towards it, and consequently When he interposed a screen of tinfoil, the effect of the their temperature falls. Hence radiation is nothing more blackened side of the canister was 0°; a thin sheet of than the tendency of caloric to establish an equilibrium crown-glass was zr 20° ; a sheet of common writing paper, of temperature. The rays of heat enter into the snow placed about two inches from the cube, was r= 23°. If the from the surrounding matter, and, amongst others, from screen of any material was placed one foot from the cube, the thermometer, which is now a radiating body; and these the effect was only one thirtieth of what it was at the collected in the mirror pass in right lines to the snow, distance of two inches. From this he inferred, that the with a celerity in proportion to their absorption by the screen prevents all transmission of radiant heat until it cold body. Hence the caloric of the thermometer will becomes itself heated ; and then it radiates from its other more rapidly leave it when the blackened side of the cold surface toward the thermometer. This was confirmed canister, that is, its most absorbent side, is turned to the by substituting a plate of ice (a substance the tempera- thermometer. ture of which cannot rise above 32° F.) for the screen, Leslie explains this phenomenon by his theory of when the effect was 0°. This view he considered as con- aerial pulsations. He considers the cold surface as abfirmed by his beautiful contrivance of the double or com- stracting part of the caloric of the contiguous stratum of pound screen. He coated one side of two plates of glass air, which induces a momentary contraction of that porwith tinfoil; when the coated sides were outermost, the tion ; and this contraction produces pulsations, accompanied thermometer did not rise; when the glass surfaces were by a discharge of heat, in a continued chain from the outwards, the thermometer rose to 18°. He blackened one thermometer and the mirror to the snow. surface of two plates of tinned iron ; when the blackened The effect of surface on the refrigeration of bodies, an surfaces were outwards, the effect was 23° ; but if the important part of the consequences of radiation, has been plates were separated from each other, the thermometer ably examined both by Sir John Leslie and Count liumford. fell back to its former station. When the tinned surfaces The experiments of both show, that to preserve the heat were outermost, the thermometer was not at all affected. of any liquid, a bright metallic vessel is the best; and Leslie included his whole apparatus in a trough of wa- Rumfbrd has pointed out many important economical purter, in such a way as to be able to fill the canister with poses to which these principles may be applied, Thus, hot water after the whole was adjusted ; but there was no where it is of consequence to preserve the heat of liquids, radiation of caloric. of steam, or of hot air, they should be conveyed in vessels I he inference which this philosopher drew from his in- and tubes of polished metal. On the other hand, if we vestigations is, that heat is an elastic substance, extreme- wish to have the greatest radiant heat from a stove or ly fluid and active; and he advanced strong arguments grate, its surface next the room should be dark and rough, against the theory which ascribes all the phenomena of as these are the most favourable for radiating heat into heat to vibrations in the particles of matter. (See Inquiry^ the apartment. Ihe same principles show why a silver

H E A T. 265 this change, are beautifully illustrated by Leslie’s elegant Diffusion Diffusion tea-pot makes better tea, and keeps it longer warm, than invention, the JEthrioscope. (See, for the description of of Heat, a china one. . # One of the most beautiful applications of the principle the aethrioscope, the article Climate.) This instrument of the radiation of heat, is Dr Wells’ explanation of the is so delicate, that it instantly indicates cold on pi esenting phenomena of dew and hoar-frost. Dr Wilson of Glas- its uncovered ball to the clear sky ; but if a passing oloud gow had observed, that bodies upon which dew and hoar- cross the zenith, even momentarily, the movement of the frost formed, were always colder than the surrounding air. fluid in its stem immediately shows an increase of temperaThis cold he ascribed to these depositions : but an atten- ture. If one walk in a clear night, with this instrument in tive examination of facts led Dr Wells to draw an oppo- one hand and a parasol in the other, it may be kept in a site conclusion, and to infer that the coldness of the bo- perpetual state of fluctuation, by alternately projecting it dies was the cause of the deposition of dew and hoar-fiost. beyond and drawing it under the parasol. The radiant heat afforded by the sun’s rays is the most This he successfully established, by proving that, before any dew formed, the surface on which it condensed was important phenomenon of this class. Light and heat are uniformly cooler than the ambient air. And it was re- in these rays so united, that experiment would seem to served for this accomplished man to offer a theory of those prove the one to be always in proportion to the other. meteors, complete in almost all its parts, and pei fectly sa- This is by no means the case with the light and heat of tisfactory. He ascribed it to the radiation of heat, with- common combustibles, or what we may term terrestrial, in out any return from the air to the surface of the earth. contradistinction to solar emanations of light. PhosphoHe observed, that it was chiefly in serene, clear nights, rus gives an intense light during combustion, but a feeble that dew was formed; that exposure to the open clear Srcy heat^; whilst hydrogen, which has a very feeble light, exfavoured the formation of dew ; and that cloudy skies were cites a high temperature by its combustion. Solar light unfavourable to its formation. These phenomena he beau- and heat, on the other hand, are uniformly proportional. tifully explained on the theory of radiation. The upper re- There are more marked differences between solar and tergions* of the atmosphere are well known to be the abodes of restrial radiant heat. Screens of glass greatly interrupt the perpetual congelation, as is seen whenever mountains reach passage of the latter, but do not sensibly intercept that of a certain altitude, differing, it is true, in different climates, the sun. A plate of the most diaphanous ice totally interbut yet invariable over the earth. When we have a clear cepts terrestrial radiant caloric, but does not impede the atmosphere at night, the surface of the earth lapidly parts sun’s heating rays. Fhis has, with considerable i eason, with the heat it had acquired during the day, by radiation been supposed to depend on the different velocities of the to the superior regions, whence it can receive no heat in re- two species of calorific emanations. Sir John Leslie consiturn. In this case, the empyrean regions act the part of dered “ that the phenomena of solar radiation proved heat the snow in the Florentine experiment; and the eaxths to be only light in a state of combinationr {Essay, 162.) For thirty years after the publication of Leslie’s Experisurface may represent the thermometer. But if fleecy mental Inquiry, little appears to have been attempted on clouds intervene, they act the part of screens, intercepting the passage of radiant caloric from the earth, and conse- this subject, until within a recent period, when the experiquently retarding the nocturnal cooling of its surface. Air mental researches of Melloni and of Nobili, particularly of at an increased temperature contains more water than cool the former, opened a beautiful field of investigation, which air, and on the reduction of its temperature deposits its has already been cultivated with success by Professor James surplus water. Now, as the radiation from the eai th s sui- Forbes of Edinburgh. Melloni has, by means of a thermoface cools it more rapidly than the air during serene nights, magnetic combination, invented a very delicate test of miits temperature rapidly falls, as the thexmometer shows, nute degrees of heat, wholly inappreciable by any thei moand the consequence is the cooling of the stratum of air meter, and has successfully applied it to investigate the in immediate contact with the ground, and the deposition laws of radiant heat. By uniting fifty small bars of antiof its superabundant moisture, in the form of dew or hoar- mony and bismuth into one bundle, about three fouiths of frost, according to the celerity and intensity of the refnge- an inch square, and about IT7 inch in length, and connectino- this with a galvanometer, he obtained an apparatus so ration. This theory is experimentally proved by placing sub- sensible to heat, that the warmth radiating from the hustances absorbent of moisture, along with thermometers, man hand, at the distance of several inches from the end of the bars, is indicated by the deviation of the needle of below and above screens, and then noting the tempeiature the galvanometer. and the increase of weight. If, for instance, a light table, Melloni’s instrument is represented in the adjoining figure, about three feet high, be placed in a garden on a dear where a firm sole of wood is seen, provided with a groove, night, and a few grains of wool, previously weighed, be laid under the table, and as much on its upper surface, with a thermometer by each parcel of wool, it will be found that the upper thermometer will indicate the greatest degree of cold, and the wool on the table will have imbibed much more moisture than that below. The table, in such experiments, acts the part of clouds in intercepting the discharge of radiant heat, and preventing the cooling of the earth’s surface. The theory agrees with the fact, that(dew is heaviest in our climate in serene nights, after a hot ‘ay; and that the dews of hot climates are far heavier than with us, so as, in clear weather, in the south of Europe, to drench the clothes of persons exposed to the air about sunset. The slight anomalies which sometimes occur in such experiments are easily explicable by the different conducting power of substances in regard to heat, by which the influence of radiation may be in some degree modified; but undoubtedly the principal effect is due to radiation. The influence of a clear sky in reducing the temperature of the earth’s surface, and the effect of clouds in preventing in which tlie different parts of the apparatus slide to adjust 2l VOL. XI.

266

HEAT. Diffusion their relative distances. A is the bundle of metallic bars, substance the transmission of radiant heat is diminished by Diffusion of Heat, enclosed in a square case of brass; B is the source of the the thickness of the plate interposed, and this diminution °f Heat, heat; C, D are the wires proceeding from the bars, to con- is proportional to the lowness of the temperature of the vey their thermo-magnetism to the nearly neutralized needle radiant body. 3. That there are combinations of two media, which alor galvanometer, which is not here represented; G is the stage for occasionally supporting various substances, the low a notable quantity of light to pass, but totally intercept effect of which on the calorific rays it is intended to as- radiant heat; whilst others transmit heat, but wholly intercertain ; FF are screens of brass, moveable on joints, for cept light. 4. That in traversing a transparent plate, radiant heat cutting off at pleasure the radiant heat, or for obviating the influence of extraneous sources of heat. In F is a hole undergoes certain modifications, variable with the nature of through which the heat radiates to A when the screen is the plate; a change which renders it more or less suscepremoved. tible ultimately of being transmitted through other diaphaThis apparatus has been employed by Mellon! to inves- nous substances. Melloni instances this last property in tigate the laws of radiant heat; and he has not only con- glass, in crystallized citric acid, and in alum. firmed the general results of Leslie, but extended greatly Delaroche had inferred, from his experiments, that it our knowledge of this mysterious agent. was a general law of radiant heat, that the permeability of Melloni found, that the j-adiant and absorbent power of plates to this agent depended upon the intensity of the surfaces were not always proportional, as the following ta- source of the caloric ; and in this way he explained the inbles show. stant permeability of glass and ice to the calorific rays of the sun, whilst they retarded those from terrestrial sources The radiant power of surfaces of of heat; but Melloni has discovered one substance which Lamp black = 100 he found to be equally pervious to heat, from whatever Carbonate of lead zz 100 terrestrial source, whether proceeding from the brightest China ink zz 85 flame, or from water far below the boiling point. Isinglass zz 91 The power of penetrating glass and other media inLac zz 72 creasing in proportion as the radiating heat approaches A metallic surface zz 12 the state of light, had been used by Delaroche as an arguThe absorbent power of surfaces of ment for their identity ; but the anomaly of rock-salt deLamp black zz 100 stroys the universality of the supposed law on which the arCarbonate of lead zz 53 gument is founded. Yet Mrs Somerville has ingeniousChina ink zz 96 ly employed the unlooked-for analogy between light and Isinglass zz 52 heat, in the equal transmission of the latter, however eliLac = 52 minated, through rock-salt, as an argument for their being A metallic surface zz 14 Melloni also found, that the absorbent powers of the modifications of the same principle. The condition of vior invisibility, she contends, may depend on the surfaces varied considerably, according to the source of the sibility construction of our eyes, not on the nature of the agent radiation, and the temperature of that body. Thus, radiation from incandescent platinum wire, from copper at 400° producing the sensations of vision and of heat. “ The sense of seeing, like that of hearing, may be conand copper at 100° centigrade, gave the following results. fined within certain limits ; the chemical rays beyond the Incand. Platinum. Copper 400° Copper 100°. violent end of the spectrum may be too rapid, or not sufLamp black....z: 100 100 100 ficiently excursive in their vibrations to be visible to the Carb. oflead...zz: 56 89 100 human eye ; and the calorific rays beyond the other end China ink zz 95 87 85 of the spectrum may not be sufficiently rapid, or too exIsinglass zz 54 64 91 tensive, in their undulations, to affect our optic nerves, Lac zz 47 70 72 though both may be visible to certain animals or insects.” Metal, surface zz 13'5 13 13 She has traced the analogies between light and heat in their reflection by polished surfaces, their refraction This experiment proves, 1. That bodies do not always agree in their emitting and through transparent media, with their concentration by absorbent powers, though generally nearly so. concave and dispersion by convex mirrors; and since the 2. That their absorbent power varies very remarkably publication of her beautiful essay on the connection of with the origin and intensity of the calorific rays, the physical sciences, Professor J. D. Forbes has drawn the 3. That they approach each other more and more in analogy closer, as we shall presently see. But to return to Melloni. This able philosopher has their power of emitting and absorbing rays of heat, when the temperature approaches that of boiling water ; and that, shown that radiant caloric is susceptible of refraction ; when exactly at that temperature, the emitting and ab- and when it arrives at the second surface of the refracting angle, with a certain obliquity, it is, like light, reflectsorbing powers coincide. With respect to the reflection of radiant heat, he has ed toward the interior of the prism, and issues at the opshown, that it is equally reflected by metallic surfaces, from posite face. By interposing the same plate of glass, he ascertained whatever source it emanates. But Melloni’s most original experiments are those on the the influence of transmission on the absolute power o* transmission of radiant heat through various transparent different radiating surfaces thus : media. Before the interposition of the plate of glass. After ditto. 1. He showed that radiant heat is intercepted in a Lamp-black zz 100 100 greater or less degree by all diaphanous bodies, in proporCarbonate of lead zz 53 24 tion to the lowness of the temperature of the radiating body. China ink zz 96 100 2. That of two bodies unequally diaphanous, it may hapIsinglass zz 52 45 pen that the thickest and least diaphanous may transmit Lac zz 43 30 most radiant heat. Thus he showed that a thin plate of A metallic surface zz: 14 17 very transparent alum, placed on the stage G, transmitted four times less heat than a plate of almost opake quartz, Melloni, however, failed to detect the polarisation of about 100 times as thick; but he found that in the same radiant heat: indeed, he states that the direction in

HEAT. 267 Diffusion which we slice crystallized bodies does not exert any Ra s of 100 0 larise(I General ofHept infjueuce Up0n the quantity of radiant heat immediately Sources of Heat. fby the mica plates. Pf Effects of Caloric. transmitted by them ; and adds, that radiant heat is not Argand lamp with a glass chimney 29 polarised by transmission through tourmaline. In this, Oil lamp with a square wick 24 however, Melloni was deceived; and it was reserved for Alcohol lamp 36 our countryman Professor Forbes of Edinburgh to com- Incandescent platinum 40 plete the analogy between light and heat, by demonstrat- Brass heated to about 700° F 22 ing the polarisation of the latter. Mercury in a crucible at about 500° F.... 17 Since the characteristic phenomenon which marks the Water under 200° F 6 polarisation of light is its variable susceptibility as to Mr Forbes next proceeded to attempt the polarisation reflection or transmission, under circumstances in which by reflection ; and in this also he succeeded by the use of common light would be reflected or transmitted, it will reflecting surfaces of mica, as in the corresponding case appear that the correlative fact in the case of heat would of light. be indicated by a diminished effect on the thermometer, The success of these investigations, and the analogy of where the intensity of light, under similar circumstances, light, led him to the more delicate problem of the depowould be a minimum, and vice versa. The importance of larisation of heat by plates of mica. By interposing a film establishing this effect with regard to heat is far greater of mica between the two bundles of mica plates already than the mere addition of such facts to our knowledge ; mentioned, having their planes of incidence at right angles for, as the corresponding facts in the instance of light to each other, and marking the difference of the heat have been completely brought into the domain of analysis transmitted to the galvanometer, when the principal secby Fresnel, the polarisation of heat must be considered tion of the film of mica was parallel to the plane of primias almost decisive of its nature. tive polarisation, or inclined to it at an angle of 45°, he Mr Forbes employed Melloni’s apparatus ; and by insucceeded in demonstrating the polarisation of the rays of terposing twro plates of tourmaline, cut parallel to the axis heat, even when heat without light was employed. In of the crystal, and mounted on two slips of thin glass, he these experiments, when the principal section coincided made a series of successive observations under the two with the plane of polarisation, the depolarising effect was conditions of the axes parallel and perpendicular to each nils but when it was inclined at the angle of 45°, he obother. Two measures of intensity in the position in which tained the following proportions in one series of experileast light is transmitted were noted, and in the following ments. table this position is indicated by dark; their mean is 100: 118 — 100: 120—■ 100 : 120 — 100: 113. given, which is then compared with the intervening obThe depolarisation is still more marked with incandescent servation, in the position of greatest illumination, which platinum ; as the results were is marked light. * 100 : 126 — 100 : 138 — 100 :138. The source of heat was a small oil lamp placed on the stage, six inches from the centre of the pile of Melloni’s One of the most striking proofs of the depolarising apparatus ; the numbers indicate the degrees of the gal- power of mica is obtained, when the two bundles of mica vanometer. plates are crossed, so as to intercept most heat, and we interpose a very thin plate or film of mica as above menDark. Mean. Light. Ratio. tioned ; then the galvanometer moves towards zero, or the i 45 586 : 100 2 thin plate evidently stops more heat than it depolarises ; but if we substitute a much thicker plate of mica for the 6*0 583 : 100 0 film, the instrument will indicate a higher temperature than when no mica at all is interposed, or the thick plate 60 5-2 86: 100 depolarises more heat than it intercepts. These experiments were varied in a great variety of 6-5 5-4 83 ; 100 ways, so as to establish the fact of the depolarisation of 5£ He afterwards obtained the polarisation of heat from va- heat; and if we admit that it depends on a similar cause rious luminous and non-luminous sources, such as brass to the analogous phenomena of light, it follows that the heated by a spirit lamp to 390° centigrade. The quan- rays of caloric are susceptible also of double refraction ; tity of heat from different sources, polarised by the tour- that the two pencils are polarised in opposite planes, and that they become capable of interference by the action of malines, was as follows :— the analysing plate. With Argand lamp ..z= 16 per cent. These curious facts would indicate at least a great siOil lamp = 11 do. milarity between light and heat; and the concluding obIncandescent platinum..=: 12 do. servations of Professor Forbes’s paper {Edin. Phil. Trans. Brass at 390° cent — 3 do. xiii.), tend to confirm their identity. The most convenient way of polarising heat is by transmitting it through a bundle of extremely thin laminae of SECT. III. GENERAL EFFECTS OF CALORIC. mica, inclined to the incident ray at the polarising angle ; The general effects of heat applied to other matter are, mica having the property of transmitting heat very readily. The amount of polarisation is indicated by the rela- expansion, fluidity, vaporization, and incandescence. The tive quantities of heat reaching the pile, or thermo-mag- most general effect of heat, however, is, netic combination of the instrument, through a second 1. Expansion. bundle of thin plates of mica, placed alternately in a parallel or perpendicular position to the first. With such When a body is heated, it expands in all its dimensions ; an apparatus Mr Forbes demonstrated, in the most deci- but when the heat is withdrawn, the body returns to its sive manner, the polarisation of heat; and obtained this original size. This is well shown by having a turned rod effect, even with water below 200° F. as the source of of metal, loosely fitted to a gage, to ascertain its length, heat. The quantity polarised, however, always bears a and provided with a hole which first allows it, when cold, proportion to the temperature of the source of the radiant to pass through. This expansion is small in solids, but heat, as is seen by the following tabular results. has been most accurately measured by philosophers, for

HEAT. 268 0-00700 = y1^ General General the important purposes of ascertaining with precision the Oil of turpentine Effects of true length of the pendulum vibrating seconds in any iEther 0-00700 = ^ Effects of Caloric. Caloric. ]at;tu(ie, and for obtaining a perfect standard of length. This difficult subject engaged the attention of Ellicot, 0*1100 = ^ Smeaton, Roy, Troughton, Lavoisier, and Laplace. The Alcohol The inequality of the expansion of fluids by heat has later experiments were made b_y the two last-mentioned philosophers, and were first published by Biot in the fol- long been known to form an obstacle to the accuracy of lowing table, which shows the expansion which different thermometers. Deluc found, that of all fluids mercury solids sustain, in passing from the freezing to the boiling was the most equable in its expansions, which is probably owing to the great distance between its freezing and point of water, in fractions of their own lengths. boiling points ; for it is found that those liquids which have Steel, not tempered 000107915 — — _1 9 27 a low boiling point are the most irregular in their expanSteel, tempered and annealed 0-00123956 — u/lT sion at ordinary temperatures ; and hence alcohol is not Silver, cupelled 0-00190974 — _i 524 a suitable fluid for thermometers. Silver of Parisian standard 0 00190868 524 The expansibility of liquids is not in proportion to their Copper 000171733 density ; but it is more nearly in the inverse ratio of their Brass 000187821 = 772 Tin of Malacca 000193765 z= j{o density than of any other known property. The expansion of gases by heat is much more considerTin of Cornwall 0-001217298 - 7(1'2 Iron, forged 0-00122045 zr 7T9 able than that of the other two forms of matter. The higher increasing ratio in the expansibility of liIron, wire-drawn 0.00123504 — 8 I17 quids with their augmenting temperature, than in solids, Gold, pure 0-00146606 — 7^7 Gold, standard, annealed 0-00151361 — 7fi 1 led philosophers at first to infer, that the inequalities of Gold, standard, unannealed 0-00155155 = 677 the gaseous bodies, in this respect, would be still more Platina 0-00085655 = TlW considerable; but the elaborate researches of General Lead 0-000284836 = 75i 1 Roy have disproved this idea; and some experiments of Mercury, in volume 0-01847746 — 54 the late Dr Murray of Edinburgh, and of Dr Dalton, would Flint-glass, English 0-00081166 — 12 48' rather indicate a decrease in the ratio with the increased Glass, French, with lead 0-00087199 — TT^T temperature. This, however, may probably be owing to Glass tube, without lead 0-00089694 — 1 Mi_ 7 the imperfection of our best thermometers, and to the Plate glass 0-00089089 — T12 2 difficulty of estimating the expansions of the glass containing the air examined. A very elaborate and interesting set of experiments on Dr Dalton has ascertained that all gases expand equalthe expansion of building materials by heat, with a view ly by equal increments of heat; a conclusion which has to determine how far the changes produced by tempera- been confirmed by Gay-Lussac. They have shown that, ture may affect the stability of edifices into which these between the freezing and boiling point of water, 100 cudifferent materials enter, were since laid before the Royal bic inches of atmospheric air expand to 137-50, that with Society, by Alexander J. Adie, Esq. civil engineer. He hydrogen the result was 137-52, with oxygen gas 137-48, exposed square rods of these substances, twenty-three inches and with nitrogen 137-49; differences so slight as to be in length, and either half an inch or an inch in diameter, within the probable limits of experimental error. in a pyrometer of his own invention, to a heat of 212°. The force opposed to expansion would appear to be coThe increments in length were accurately determined by hesion. Expansion is least in solids where the cohesion a microscope-micrometer, attached to the instrument; and is strongest; it is more considerable in liquids where the the following table gives the increase of the whole length cohesion is greatly weakened; and it is greatest in gases, produced by 180° of heat, in decimals of an inch :— in which cohesion is wholly overcome. Decimals The expansion of bodies by heat, and their contraction of an Inch. on the reduction of the temperature, would show that the Sandstone of Craigleith Quarry, Edinburgh -0011743 atoms of bodies are not in absolute contact. In fact, we Greenstone of Ratho, Edinburgh -0008089 may suppose them surrounded by atmospheres of heat, Arbroath paving flag -0008985 which prevent, by the repulsive energy of caloric, their Caithness paving flag *0008947 absolute contact; whilst the force of cohesion limits the Penrhyn slate -0010376 diffusive influence of the contained caloric. In some, the Aberdeen gray granite *00078943 superior force of cohesion gives rise to solidity. When Peterhead red granite -0009583 more heat is introduced, the cohesion is weakened, and Galway black marble -00044519 the body becomes a liquid ; and a further addition of caCarrara white marble -0011928 loric destroys cohesion altogether, separates the atoms, Best stock brick -0005502 and the body becomes a gas. Cast iron, half inch square -00114676 The expansion of bodies by heat proves the mutual reThe expansion of solids at different temperatures ap- pulsion of their particles ; but this limits the repulsive pears to be nearly equable, as far as we can ascertain. The energy of heat to insensible distances. In 1824, Libri ratio of their expansion really increases with their tempera- endeavoured to prove, from the movements of globules ture ; but their whole expansion is so inconsiderable, that of water along fine wires, that the repulsive power of the increasing rate is inapplicable, except in the nicest in- heat was exerted also at sensible distances. But his exvestigations. periments are not conclusive ; for the motions may have The expansion of liquids is much more considerable. In arisen from the formation of vapour at one end of the passing from the freezing to the boiling point of water*, the globule. Fresnel attempted to prove this point by bringexpansion of several is as follows: ing discs of foil or of mica, on the end of a delicately susMercury 0-00200 = jL- pended magnet, into contact with fixed discs in vacuo, Water 0-00456 - ^r and marking the effect of heat collected from the sun’s A saturated solution of common salt 0-00500 — ^ rays. The moveable discs sensibly receded ; but this may have arisen from some change produced by the heat in Sulphuric acid 0-00600 = Muriatic acid 0-00600 = yy the form of the discs. Professor Forbes has happily ap-

H E General plied the repulsive energy of heat acting at sensible dissects of tances, to explain the curious vibrations of the metal bars Calonc^ in Trevelyan’s experiments. Still more lately Professor Powell of Cambridge has demonstrated the repulsion of heat at sensible distances {Phil. Trans, for 1834), by the changes produced, on the approximation of a heated body, in the Newtonian coloured rings of plates of glass which are pressed together. When, for instance, a flat plate is laid on a slightly convex surface of glass, the rings appear. On bringing a heated body near the upper surface of the plates, the rings instantly contract, and again enlarge on withdrawing the heated body. On repeating the experiment with the colours formed under the base of a prism placed on a lens of small convexity, he found the repulsion of heat acting at distances, which Sir J. Herschel has calculated at -x ^0th of an inch. Expansion is so general an effect of heat, that there are only two known exceptions, viz. in clay, and in water at a certain limited range of temperature. It is well known that porcelain clay contracts in baking, and ever afterwards retains its contracted dimensions. It was this quality which induced Wedgwood to employ its contractions as a pyrometer. (See Thermometer and Pyrometer.) This property, however, seemingly depends on heat producing in the heterogeneous substance clay, a more intimate union of its parts, or a partial conversion of this mechanical mixture into a chemical compound. The exception of water between 42° and 32° Fahrenheit, is, however, real. When water is cooled down from the ordinary temperature, say 60°, it regularly contracts by the cooling, until it has attained 42° ; but whilst passing from that point down to its freezing point, it continues to expand gradually, until converted into ice. The important purposes which this constitution of water serves in the economy of nature, the immense quantity of heat which is by this contrivance saved to our lakes and other collections of water, are strikingly pointed out by Count Rumford in his Essays; and this peculiarity in water has been confirmed by the well-devised experiments of Professor Hope and Dr Murray. Many liquids at the moment of congelation expand, from the crystalline arrangement of their parts. This is familiarly known in the floating of ice in water, in the bursting of water pipes by frost, and in the splitting of masses of rock by the congelation of the water which has insinuated itself into their fissures. This force is well known to be enormous, as was shown by the experiments of the Florentine academicians, of Huygens, and of Major Williams at Quebec (see Edin. Phil. Trans.). The same cause produces the expansion of cast iron at the moment of becoming solid; and it is to this property that we are indebted for the sharpness of the casts obtained from this metal. In these instances we do not find an exception to the law of contraction by diminished heat. It is wholly owing to a crystalline arrangement of the particles, by which interstices are left between them, and consequently the solid occupies more space than if solidification took place without crystallization. Hence lead expands not in cooling, though cast iron does. Many operations in the arts depend on the contraction of metals as they cool. It is in this way that the tyers of coach wheels are fitted tightly to the fellies. The expansion of metals by heat seemed at one time to form an insurmountable bar to the perfection of the going of a pendulum clock ; but the ingenuity of an English artist showed how, by a combination of bars of metals of unequal expansibility, this property might be applied to keep t le pendulum, at all temperatures, of precisely the same length. Ibis first produced the gridiron pendulum; and moie lately the compensation pendulum, with a mercurial cistern at the end of a metallic rod. Similar principles

A T. 269 have been successfully applied to the balance-wheels of General pocket chronometers. Effects of Caloric. 2. Liquefaction, or Fluidity. VWhen solids are heated, they first expand, and then melt. This is a very general effect of caloric, the exceptions to which are disappearing, as we discover new sources of intense temperature. The oxyhydrogen blowpipe has fused almost all the more refractory substances; and the sun’s rays collected by immense lenses, or metallic mirrors, have melted, or even dissipated in vapour, many bodies, which were long regarded as incapable of fusion. We are therefore entitled to regard solidity as the natural state of all matter, and its two other modifications as resulting from its union with caloric. Those bodies always fused at the ordinary temperatures are no exception to this law, since, by artificial cold, we have reduced most of them to a solid state. Thus mercury, at about — 40° of Fahrenheit, becomes a solid metal with the lustre of silver; and alcohol, which has not yet been frozen, may be considered as having its melting point lower than any yet discovered artificial cold. The point at which bodies become fluid differs widely in different substances, but remains uniformly the same in the same fluid under similar circumstances. Thus ice always melts at 32°. It was long believed, that when solids began to melt, they were converted into liquids by a small increase of heat; and that they might again return to the solid state by a small diminution of their temperature. An attentive consideration of the process of liquefaction convinced the celebrated Dr Joseph Black of the insufficiency of the commonly-received opinion ; and he promulgated in 1/57 more philosophic views of this subject, which he illustrated by a beautifully simple experiment. He introduced equal quantities of water into two thin glass flasks of the same form and weight. One of them he froze, by placing it in a freezing mixture; the other he reduced by similar means to the temperature of 32°, oi its freezing point, but without allowing it to become solid. When removed from the freezing mixture, the flask of ice soon acquired the same temperature as the ice-cold water, and both were suspended in a room at 47°. In half an hour the thermometer in the ice-cold water had risen to 40°, but it required twenty-one half-hours to raise the temperature of the flask which had been frozen to the same point. As both were exposed to the same medium, equal quantities of heat must have been imparted to each in equal times; but it required twentyone times as long to raise the frozen flask 8°, as sufficed to impart 8° to the ice-cold water. Dr Black inquired what had become of this quantity of caloric, which was not indicated by any rise in the thermometer? He inferred that it had entered into the ice during its liquefaction ; and as the quantity so absorbed was not indicated by the thermometer, he denominated it Latent Heat.—In repeating the experiment with much care, he found that a pound of ice required twenty times as long to rise through 7°, as did as much ice-cold water; and therefore inferred, that during the conversion of that ice into water, as much heat disappears, or is absorbed, as would have elevated a pound of ice-cold water 140°. This absorption of heat during liquefaction is easily shown. If we add a pound of boiling water to a pound of ice, the temperature of the mixture will still remain at 32° but if to a pound of water at 32°, we add a pound of boiling water at 212°, the temperature of the mixture will be found about 122 , or a mean between the extremes of" temperature. Similar absorptions of heat take place during the melting of tallow, bees-wax, and of the metals.

HEAT. 270 General When liquid bodies congeal, or become solid, their la- its immediate contact, and still more by its evaporation, General Effeets of tent js agajn given out. assuages the fervour of a broiling climate ; and in high la- Effects of Calori c. Poss*ble, by nice management, to cool down water titudes the caloric, eliminated on the freezing of water, considerably below its freezing point. The principal cir- tends to mitigate the rigours of an arctic winter cumstance necessary for this experiment is to leave it at perfect rest, in an atmosphere from 10° to 15° below 3. Vaporization. 32° (Dalton succeeded in this way in cooling water as low as 5° without freezing); but on slightly agitating it, the When liquids are heated, the first effect is expansion ; water suddenly freezes; and if a thermometer has been but if the application of heat be continued, they assume suspended in it, the instrument suddenly rises to 32°, the aeriform state, or pass into vapour; and when the caowing to the conversion of latent into sensible heat. loric is abstracted, they again assume the liquid form. Another experiment shows this fact in a striking point When water is heated to 212° Fahrenheit, it boils, and is of view. Into a glass flask introduce a mixture of sul- converted into an invisible aeriform fluid, which remains phate of soda and water, in such proportions that it will perfectly transparent and colourless as long as its temperaform a saturated solution about the point of ebullition. ture is not below 212° ; but what in common language is When this is heated to that point, pour a little oil on its called steam, is this elastic fluid partially recondensed surface, introduce a thermometer, and remove it from the into water, by the loss of a portion of its heat. The invifire. When quite cold, drop into it a small crystal of sul- sible elastic vapour is capable of occupying space and exphate of soda, and the solution will speedily crystallize into pelling atmospheric air, as is shown by corking a flask a solid mass, during the formation of which the thermome- when boiling, and opening it under water ; when the flask ter will be seen to rise, indicating the evolution of sensible will be suddenly entirely filled with the water, which conheat, during the conversion of the liquid into a solid. denses the steam. The absorption of sensible caloric on the liquefaction Liquids, however, pass also into vapour by a more graof bodies forms the basis of most of the processes by which dual process. If exposed to the air, water, for instance, we obtain artificial cold. When to some salts, such as sul- gradually disappears; and if the process be carried on phate of soda, we add nitrous acid diluted with an equal under a glass vessel, the included air becomes charged part of water, the salt rapidly melts, and the temperature with moisture, which may be again abstracted from itTby is reduced to the beginning of Fahrenheit’s scale. Di- dry quicklime, or other substance having a strong affinityfor luted acid added to snow rapidly melts it, and the tempe- water. The process by which liquids are thus converted rature is greatly reduced. A mixture of common salt into vapour is termed Spontaneous Evaporation ; an imporand snow, which is the mixture generally employed to tant operation in nature, as on it depends the charging of procure ice-cream, will sink the temperature to the be- the atmosphere with water, for the formation of clouds, ginning of Fahrenheit’s scale. Dry muriate of lime added mist, rain, and dew; all elastic fluids, however, are not to dry snow will reduce the temperature, during their li- capable of being condensed into liquids by any decrease quefaction, so low as to freeze mercury. In all these in- of temperature we can command. Thus, no artificial cold stances it is the absorption of heat caused by the liquefac - has hitherto been discovered capable of converting attion, or the conversion of sensible into latent caloric, that mospheric air into a liquid. produces the cold. The common property of all aeriform fluids is elasticity, Dr Black applied his theory of latent heat to explain or the tendency, when forcibly compressed, to resume many phenomena. The ductility of a body appears to be their former bulk. Thus, if we throw air, by means of a owing to the presence of latent caloric; for if we ham- forcing pump, into an air-tight cistern, provided with a mer a piece of iron smartly, it becomes intensely hot, by small orifice commanded by a stop-cock; on opening the parting with its latent caloric, and at the same time has latter, the air will issue out with great force, until the air its ductility greatly impaired. This ductility is onlv re- has regained its former volume. stored by again heating the metal in the fire, by which But vapours, or those aeriform bodies which are not it re-acquires latent heat, that may again be forced out by permanently elastic, may, by strong pressure, even whilst a repetition of the hammering. their temperature is above their vaporific point, be conThe absorption of heat by bodies whilst melting is an densed into liquids. important law in the economy of nature. Had it merely The elasticity of all aeriform bodies is increased by augbeen necessary, for the immediate conversion of ice or mentation of temperature. In atmospheric air this increase snow into water, to raise the atmospheric temperature a has been found equal to ^Joth of its volume for every 1° few degrees, the sudden formation of water would have Fahrenheit; and the elasticity of steam, or the vapour of deluged the earth on every occurrence of a thaw. On water, is nearly doubled by 30° of increased temperature the other hand, had the slightest lowering of the tempe- above 212. rature of the air below 32° been all that was requisite to We are indebted to the celebrated Dr Dalton for accuconvert water into ice, the sudden expansion of the con- rate ideas as to the elasticity of aeriform bodies at different gealing juices of vegetables must have burst their sap-ves- temperatures. He showed that the vapour of water, sels, and rent asunder the strongest ornaments of the under a barometrical pressure of thirty inches at the boilforest. But the law of the gradual absorption and ema- ing point, is just equal to the elasticity of atmospheric air nation of caloric during these transitions from the solid under the same pressure ; that the ratio of increase is to the liquid, and from the liquid to the solid state, pro- rather less than a geometrical series, when the temperaduces those changes tranquilly and beneficially. The ture is taken in an arithmetical progression ; and, what melting snow gradually augments the sources which fer- was less obvious, that the elasticity of all vapours is pretilize the valleys; whilst the soil, loosened by the expan- cisely the same with the elasticity of the vapour of water, sion produced by the previous frost, when softened by the at the same number of degrees above the boiling point of succeeding thaw, is fitted for the reception of the roots each liquid, ihus water, under a mean barometrical of plants. pressure, boils at 212° ; and the elasticity of its steam at The influence of these processes on climate is not in- 220°, or 8° above its boiling point, was found by Dalton to considerable. The absorption of heat during the lique- be = STAG inches : alcohol boils at 175°, and the elasticity faction of ice on tropical mountains, sends down into the of Us vapour at 183°, or 8° above its boiling point, is just heated valleys copious sources of cool water, which by

II EAT. 271 General The bulk of a body is very much increased by its con- perature; and as the heat was uniform during the whole General nects of version into vapour. Dr Black and Mr Watt made expe- time of the experiment, it must have received an equal Effects of Calonc. rjments to ascertain this increase. They boiled water in quantity of heat during the whole interval; or, during the Caloric, a flask, and, as the last drop was converted into steam, other sixteen minutes, 810° must have flowed into it, yet accurately closed the flask, which was then carefully during the whole time a thermometer in it rose no higher weighed; on opening the flask below the surface of wa- than 212°. Black naturally inferred that this large quan ter, the quantity of water which rushed in was easily as- tity of heat, which disappeared, had entered into the vapour certained by a second weighing of the flask. The mean in a latent form. of several experiments showed that water, in the state of A series of experiments were undertaken by him, and vapour, occupied 1800 times the space it filled as water. by his friend Mr Watt, from which they inferred, that When heat is applied to solids, its first effect is expansion, when water is converted into steam, it unites with 940° of next liquefaction, and, lastly, conversion into vapour. A heat, which the thermometer does not indicate; or, in few solids pass at once into the state of vapour, as carbo- Black’s phraseology, that quantity becomes latent in the nate of ammonia. steam. This determination nearly coincides with the exDifferent liquids acquire different degrees of heat for periments of Lavoisier, who estimated the quantity which their vaporization. Thus aether becomes vapour at 104°, thus disappears at 1000° Fahr. alcohol at 175°, water at 212°, and mercury requires a The absorption of heat during the formation of vapour temperature about 692°. The vaporific point, however, is easily demonstrated. A piece of muslin moistened with remains constantly the same, in the same liquid, under any liquid, laid on the bulb of a thermometer, sinks the the same barometric pressure. If, however, we diminish temperature; and if that liquid be very evaporable, the the pressure, the liquid will boil at a lower temperature. temperature thus produced will be low in proportion. The This is easily shown by the air-pump, in the exhausted evaporation of aether will freeze water under the receiver receiver of which aether will boil at a temperature con- of the air-pump ; and the evaporation of the fluid called siderably below the freezing point of water. It is also sulphuret of carbon is so rapid, that, in a well-exhausted strikingly exhibited by the following experiment: If a por- receiver, it will freeze the mercury in the bulb of the thertion of water, say two ounces, be boiled in a flask capable mometer. of holding eight or ten, and if it be corked whilst briskly A liquid may even, by particular management, be frozen boiling, a vacuum will be formed on its surface, by the con- by its own evaporation. This is the principle of Wollasdensation of its vapour, on removing it from the lamp. As ton’s philosophic toy, called the cryophorus ; and it was inthp steam condenses, the liquid in the flask will begin to geniously applied to an important practical purpose by the boil more briskly as the flask cools ; and if we pour cold wa- late Sir John Leslie, viz. the production of ice at a cheap ter on this flask, the more will the pressure of the vapour in rate in all climates. The apparatus employed by this phithe flask be removed, and the more violently will the con- losopher is a powerful air-pump, which can at once exhaust tained water boil. If now we pour boiling water on the from three to six flat receivers about twelve inches in diaflask, more steam will be formed, and the boiling will cease, meter. These are fitted to different plates, each connected but will be again renewed on a second application of the with the pump, and each provided with its own stop-cock. cold water. This may be alternated for several times if A shallow glass dish, nearly the width of the receiver, intended to hold a thin stratum of sulphuric acid, is introduced the flask be well corked. As the boiling point of liquids varies exactly in the ra- under each receiver, and a cup of porous earthenware, suptio of the barometrical pressure, it is obvious that the height ported on a glass tripod about an inch above the surface of of mountains may be ascertained by noting the thermome- the acid, is under each receiver. Water is to be poured trical degree at which liquids boil on them. A portable in- into this cup, which is to be placed on its tripod, and the strument, constructed for this purpose, was devised by the whole covered by the receiver. By working the air-pump, each receiver may be exhausted in succession. The withReverend F. Wollaston. We cannot heat any liquid beyond its boiling point in drawing of the atmospheric pressure causes the rapid evaan open vessel. Water placed on the fire soon rises to poration of the water, the vapour of which is immediately 212°, but a thermometer plunged in it remains at this absorbed by the sulphuric acid; and thus the vacuum is point, however long it boils ; but if the vessel be provided sustained. The latent heat necessary for the conversion of with a steam-tight cover, the temperature of the liquid may the water into steam or vapour is derived from the water be much increased, according to the strength of the ves- itself; its temperature therefore falls ; and the absorption sel. The elasticity of the steam in such cases is enor- of the vapour by the acid, as quickly as it is formed, keeps mous ; and experiments with steam under high pressure up the vacuum, and speedily reduces the whole water to are hazardous, unless the vessel be of great thickness. The the freezing point, when it soon forms a cake of ice. By Marquis of Worcester seems to have burst a cannon by a full-sized machine of this kind, about a quarter of an this means; and the frequent explosions of steam-engine hour’s labour will set the process in full operation; and boilers is a familiar instance of the same. Dr Black and within the period of an hour afterwards six pounds of Mr Watt heated water in a strong copper vessel to 400° ; solid ice may be obtained. During this process, the water and in some of Perkins’ experiments lead was melted, it loses only about one fiftieth of its bulk ; and the acid will is said, in water subjected to strong pressure; yet in an be sufficiently strong for repeated operations of the same kind. open vessel we cannot heat water to more than 212°. Leslie showed, that any substance which is powerfully Dr Black sagaciously and happily applied his doctrine of latent heat to explain the conversion of liquids into vapour. absorbent of watery vapour, may be substituted for the acid: He remarked, that when a kettle was placed on the fire it and he found that highly toasted oat meal, or well-dried soon rose to 212° ; but though the same heat continued to powder of greenstone, had very considerable power to probe applied, it rose no higher. In one of his beautifully duce ice, when employed instead of sulphuric acid. He simple and conclusive experiments, a vessel containing even showed, that by enclosing a globule of mercury in a some water, at temperature 50°, was placed on a red-hot small pyriform mass of ice, suspended over the acid in a iron plate ; in four minutes it began to boil, but it required good vacuum, the mercury might easily be frozen. twenty minutes to convert the whole into vapour. In the The latent heat of steam may be shown by the large first four minutes it had acquired an increase of 162° of tem- quantity of water which may be rapidly heated by a small

272 H E A T. General quantity of steam. The elegant distillatory apparatus figur- of the important arts of evaporation and distillation. By Quantity Effects of eci 4Q) jn Henry’s Chemistry readily proves this. In the first we obtain salts from their solutions ; by the latter, of Heat 111 an experiment with a similar apparatus, the condensation of the spirituous or more volatile particles of compounds. Bodies. one ounce 0f steam heated eight ounces of water from 60° See Evaporation and Distillation. to 180° ; that is, the whole water gained 120° of temperature ; consequently that ounce of steam had lost as much 4. Incandescence. caloric as would have elevated an ounce of any fluid, capable of being so heated, to 960°. When the temperature of a body is raised to a certain The same phenomena attend the condensation of all pitch, it begins to emit light as well as heat; and this is other vapours ; and we are to regard the discovery of Black, termed incandescence, or glowing heat; a designation prethat during the conversion of solids into liquids, or of liquids ferable to ignition, which may be confounded with combusinto vapours, heat is absorbed, which is again given out on tion ; a process totally different from that treated of in this their recondensation, as a general law, and one of the high- section, inasmuch as it is accompanied by important cheest importance, both in its practical application, and in mical changes in the body acted on; whereas incandesexplaining the phenomena of nature. cence may be repeated innumerable times with the same With regard to those aeriform bodies which we cannot body, merely by raising its temperature. The point at condense, or, as they are called in chemical language, per- which this takes place would seem to be the same in all manently elastic fluids or gases, we have every reason to bodies, and has been approximated by Newton ; but as the consider them but as vapours, of which the point of gene- determination depends on the acuteness of the eye, and ration is so low, that we have not yet found any means of the degree of obscurity in the apartment where the experiexhibiting them in their unelastic state. This view is sup- ment is made, it is not easily fixed. According to his calported by analogy, and by recent discoveries. Some of the culations, a good eye can perceive a body faintly luminous gases which a few years ago were reckoned permanently about 635° Fahrenheit; it shines with a full red in the dark elastic, have been, by a great pressure, reduced to the state about 752°, it is luminous in twilight at 884°, and glows in of liquids. This has been shown in the case of chlorine, broad day-light when its temperature has reached 1000°. muriatic acid, ammonia, and carbonic acid. It can also be The experiments of Irvine, who found that mercury, which shown that gases contain latent caloric. Thus, if we sud- boils at 660°, is not in the slightest degree luminous at that denly compress atmospheric air in a small tube fitted with point, prove that Newton fixed the point of incandescence a piston, so much heat is given out as to ignite touchwood. too low. On the other hand, the determination of W~edgThe sudden expansion of air, too, is always attended with wood appears too high. In general the point of incandesthe absorption of heat. Thus, on discharging an air-gun, cence may be stated at aboist 800° Fahr. Its lowest pitch the sudden expansion of the air produces a sensible degree is at first a dull red, which becomes a full red with an of coolness in the condenser. increased temperature, or the least refrangible rays first The same facts are shown when chemical action of the meet the eye ; if the heat be increased, these rays become gases with each other produces condensation, or when they mingled with the yellow ; and, when the temperature is are evolved from their combinations. raised to the utmost, all the other rays of the spectrum are The qualities of vapour are applied to many important evolved in the proportions which constitute white light. purposes in the useful arts ; and, on account of its econoAll solids which are not volatilized by heat may be renmical fitness, the vapour of water, or steam, is that almost dered incandescent; and all liquids may be heated to redalways employed. ness, provided we can repress their volatility. But it has The application of steam to domestic purposes is fami- been doubted whether gases be capable of incandescence. liar to all; and it is frequently employed to communicate Dr Fordyce had remarked that the extremity of the flame an equable heat, when a temperature above 212° would of a blowpipe, which was itself invisible, heated a thin rod be injurious or dangerous. Thus steam, confined in me- of glass to a white heat; and some experiments of Mr T. tallic tubes, is used to dry some delicate articles of manu- Wedgwood prove that air, heated in a bent tube passing facture ; and in some instances, where there is risk of ex- through a crucible filled with red-hot sand, was not lumiplosion from even a moderate increase of temperature, the nous, although a gold wire suspended in the heated air same contrivance is adopted. Steam has also been em- became red. The speculations of Sir Humphry Davy on ployed to warm apartments. It is employed to heat the flame show that his opinion inclined to consider flame as dye-vats in calico-printing, and other species of dyeing, luminous gases; but in all such cases there is reason to and has likewise been used for heating warm baths. For consider the light as derived from the combustible. Inthese last purposes, the steam is usually allowed to escape candescence can be excited by the mere percussion of hard into the fluid to be heated by numerous small apertures in bodies against each other. Thus, two pieces of quartz pipes coiled in the bottom of the vessel; which may thus struck together will produce light; the same will take place be made of less costly materials than if it were necessary with two fragments of porcelain ; and the light produced to subject it to the fire. by the collision of flint and steel is partly incandescence, The most important application of steam, however, is as partly a species of combustion of the steel. a moving power in the most stupendous of human invenIt has been supposed that incandescence affords a protions the steam-engine, the perfecting of which has con- bable evidence of the identity or convertibility of heat into ferred an enviable immortality on the name of Watt. The light. But this is not a legitimate deduction ; for we may application of this noble discovery to the moving of ma- conceive that light and heat, though two distinct fluids, chinery of every sort, from the ponderous hammers of the may have an intimate affinity for each other, or a tendency forge to the slender needles of the tambouring frame, to to unite, that both may exist united in all matter, that heat the drawing out and twisting the gossamer filaments of is most easily separated by percussion and friction, but that, the cotton factory, to the weaving of cloth with a cele- when the percussion is violent, both are given out. rity that gives the process the air of enchantment, the winged velocity of the locomotive engine on the railway, and the stately mechanism which renders navigation indeSECT. IV. QUANTITY OF HEAT IN BODIES. pendent of the winds, belongs to different branches of practical mechanics. Equal weights of the same body, at the same temperaThe conversion of liquids into vapour is the foundation ture, contain equal quantities of heat; and when their tem-

273 HEAT. Quantity peratures are unequal, their heat is in proportion to their of temperature are necessarily very minute. Crawford Quantity of H at of Heat temperature. But it is very different with dissimilar bodies, found the difference in the specific heat of the gases . ,. f. n Bodies. be shown to contain unequal quantities of heat rarely to exceed * th of a degree of Fahrenheit. He emcan Tn at the same temperature. The following is the method of ployed two equal hollow spheres of brass, united by a bar proving these positions. If we mix a pound of water at of the same metal, and furnished with stop-cocks, and an 40° with a pound of water at 112°, the resultant is 76°, the adapting piece, to be screwed to an air-pump. One of these was filled with the gas to be tried, and the other mean between the extremes of temperature. But if we mingle a pound of water at temperature 112° was exhausted of air. Each ball had cemented into it a with a pound of mercury at 40°, the resultant temperature very delicate thermometer ; both were heated to the same will not be 76°, the mean, but 109°. Here the tempera- pitch by exposure to the same source of heat, conveyed ture of the water has only been diminished 3°, yet that by cylinders surrounded with warm water. They were of the mercury has risen 69°. If we reverse the experi- then simultaneously plunged into separate vessels containment, and take water at 40° and mercury at 112°, the ing each equal quantities of cold water, and the elevation of product will be 43°; the mercury losing 69°, whilst the temperature of the water in both vessels ascertained by water only acquires 3° ; or the same quantity of heat delicate thermometers, indicating as small a change as jjjth which can elevate the temperature of mercury 23° will of a degree of Fahrenheit. The temperature communionly augment that of water 1°. If a similar experiment cated by the vacuum being subtracted from that given be made with spermaceti oil, Dr Thomson has shown out by the other ball, the difference exhibited the heat (System of Chemistry) that the quantity of caloric which communicated by the included air alone ; and the accuwill elevate the temperature of the oil 2° can only raise racy of the method was afterwards tested by again comparing them when the exhausted vessel was filled with atthat of water 1°. Dr Black was undoubtedly the first who promulgated mospheric air. The specific caloric of gases has been again investigatthe idea of the absorption of heat during liquefaction and the formation of vapour ; and this doctrine was publicly ed by Berard and Delaroche in 1813. They passed a curtaught in his lectures in Glasgow university from 1757 to rent of each gas, at a given temperature, through a spiral 1764. His pupil, Dr Irvine, continued these experiments tube, fixed in a cylinder of thin copper filled with water at his suggestion, and ascribed the absorption to a change and then closed. The temperature communicated, by the in the capacity for heat. These experiments were made passage of the gases from a gasometer through the spiral, between 1765 and 1770 ; and in 1779 Dr Adair Crawford to the surrounding medium in a given time, being proporpublished his treatise on Animal Heat, in which the capa- tional to the excess of temperature each gas acquires from cities of numerous substances are given, which were cor- the source of heat above that of the medium in the cylinrected in his edition of 1788, from the results of most ela- der, the comparative specific heat of each gas may be asborate experiments. Professor Wilcke of Stockholm pub- certained. For the success of such experiments the current of gas lished some valuable experiments on the same subject, in the Stockholm Transactions for 1781. This philosopher must be uniform, and the temperature of the gas, when enintroduced the term specific heat for what Irvine named tering and escaping from the cylinder, must be accurately capacity for heat. Various experiments on the same sub- ascertained, as well as that of the water in the copper vesject were made by Lavoisier and Laplace, with the instru- sel. The conclusions of these philosophers are directly at vament called a calorimeter, in which the specific caloric was estimated by the quantity of snow melted by different riance with those of Crawford, and, indeed, would tend substances heated to the same pitch. The subject of ex- to overturn some of the most important points of the phiperiment in their investigations was introduced into a losophy of heat now generally received. But these expewire cage suspended within a vessel of tinned iron. This riments, though highly ingenious, are not more satisfactory vessel was filled with snow or ice ; and to secure that than those of Crawford. The only objection to his consnow from being melted by the external air, the vessel clusions is derived from the smallness of the quantities containing it was placed within another exterior case, and operated upon in his experiments; but the simplicity of his the space between them also filled with snow ; and the apparatus, the delicacy of his instruments, and the appawhole covered by a lid, likewise covered with snow. I hus, rent care of his manipulations, more than fully counterif water in passing from 212° to 32° melted one pound of balance that objection ; whilst the complexity of the appaice, and the same weight of oil melted a half pound; if ratus of Berard and Delaroche, the acknowledged diffithe specific caloric of water be termed L0, that of oil will culty of keeping up an equable current through the spiral tube, the impossibility of obviating in such investigations be 05. A considerable series of experiments on this curious the influence of changes in the medium during the expesubject were made by Dr Dalton (New System of Chemi- riments, and the nicety requisite to ascertain the temperacal Philosophy). In these investigations Dalton pursued ture of the entering and escaping currents, present sources a method, also employed by Leslie, namely, to observe of error of which it is almost impossible to estimate the the comparative rates of cooling, as was proposed by amount. On these grounds we may consider the concluMeyer. This would be preferable to the other modes of sions of Crawford as not yet overturned. The deductions of these gentlemen would lead to the conascertaining the specific caloric, were we sure that the cooling of bodies is not influenced by other circumstances clusion that all the gases, with the exception of hydrogen, than their capacity; but in this method it is difficult to have an inferior specific heat to water ; and they even obviate the effects of radiation and conducting power on make steam inferior in capacity to water in the ratio of 847 refrigeration. In all these determinations there are to be to 1000. If this last were true, instead of an absorption of found discrepancies inseparable from the difficulties at- heat when steam is generated, we should have an extricatending such delicate investigations; but they have suf- tion of caloric from it; and water in the worm-tub of a still, ficient accordance when we attempt to estimate the ca- or in the condensing-bach of a steam-engine, ought not to pacities of solids and of liquids. It is a far more difficult increase in temperature. It may be added, that more reand delicate problem to determine the specific caloric of cently the conclusions of Berard and Delaroche have been gaseous bodies, from the minute quantities of matter to controverted by Delarive ; and his experiments, as well as be operated on in such experiments, and the difficulty of those of Clement, support the opinions of Crawford. Mr Haycraft (in a paper in Trans. Royal Soc. Edin. x.) obviating the chance of accidental error where the changes 2M VOL. XI.

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HEAT. Quantity has endeavoured to show that all gases at the same tempe- cribed to this more intimate union. This opinion is scarce- Quantity .°1 Heat rature, when perfectly freed from moisture, have the same ly perhaps reconcilable with the immediate effect of mix- .of Heat inBodies. Specifjc }ieat. an(j t]iat ^en they are saturated with water, ing ice cooled to 20° and water a little above the freez- *n Boclks. their specific caloric is a certain ascending arithmetical ing point, when the water parts with its latent heat to ratio, in proportion to the quantity of moisture they contain. raise the temperature of the ice; or with the effect of These views are rendered not improbable by the well-as- mechanical pressure in causing gases to part with their certained fact, that the elasticities of all the gases are the latent caloric. same at the same temperature. The capacities of bodies are more nearly in the inverse Absolute Quantity of Heat in Hodies. ratio of their density, than of any other sensible property. Thus solids in general have less capacity for caloric than liIt will be sufficiently obvious, that neither by the therquids, and liquids less than vapours or gaseous bodies. In mometer nor by the capacity of bodies do we determine the same body a change of capacity accompanies a change the whole heat which they contain at any temperature. of volume. Thus gases compressed have their capacity The first is evidently nothing more than an indication of diminished, and heat is extricated ; and when they expand, changes in a scale, of which the two extremes are untheir capacity is increased, which is the cause of the cold- known ; the last mode affords us but the relative quanness felt on a sudden expansion of the air. Crawford en- tity of caloric required to elevate the temperature of deavoured to show that this was also the case with liquids ; other bodies compared to water, but it does not point but his experiments are scarcely to be relied on as esta- out how many degrees any given temperature is above blishing that point. The contraction of Wedgwood’s py- that point at which a body is deprived of all its heat. rometrical pieces would seem to diminish sensibly their Irvine appears to have first conceived the idea of ascercapacity for heat. The capacity of bodies is not, however, taining by calculation the absolute zero, or deprivation of exactly in the inverse ratio of their density, which pro- all heat, on the supposition that the whole heat in any bably arises from the effect of density on capacity for heat body is proportional to its capacity. If this be granted, being modified by a difference in the force of affinity be- the whole caloric it contains at a given temperature may tween caloric and various substances. There seems also to be found by ascertaining the quantity of heat it absorbs be some relation between capacity and power for conduct- when passing from the solid to the liquid state. Thus ing heat, as the former is nearly in the inverse ratio of the ice has the capacity of 9 to water as 10, and, when both latter. If these views be correct, we may assume that the are at temperature 32°, water will contain one tenth more capacity of all bodies for caloric is directly as their volume heat than the same weight of ice ; but this excess is and their affinity for heat, and inversely as their conduct- given out when water freezes, and as much is again abing power and their density. sorbed when it melts. According to Black’s experiment, When a body changes its form of existence, its capacity ice absorbs as much caloric, whilst passing into water, as for heat is also changed. When a solid is melted, its capa- would elevate an equal quantity of ice-cold water 140° city is increased, and the specific heat of the same sub- Fahrenheit. Therefore 10 X 140 r= 1400°, will give stance is still further increased when it is converted into tlie natural zero, or the point of the absolute deprivation vapour. Thus, according to the best experiments, the ca- of heat. Almost the same result is obtained by comparpacity of ice is 09000, that of water being TOGO, and that ing the capacity of steam and water, viz. TO and T5. of steam T500. Water, in passing into steam, absorbs 940° of sensible heat, This important law was applied by Dr Irvine to explain and 940 X T5 — 1410. the liquefaction of solids. Dr Black regarded the liqueThe following general formula, as applicable to this infaction as owing to the absorption of heat; Dr Irvine as- vestigation, is given by Professor Robison in his notes on cribed this absorption to a change in the capacity of the Black’s Lectures. Let the capacity of water be 1. Let body. The first ascribed the melting of the solid to the the quantity of water be W, and its temperature be w. absorption of the heat, whilst the other attributed the ab- Let the quantity of the body whose capacity is tried be sorption to the change of form. As the change of form B, and its temperature be b, and the temperature after and the absorption or extrication of caloric are in such cases mixture be m. Then the simultaneous, it is obvious that the question cannot be W x m—w decided by direct experiment. It has been objected to capacity 1 J of B = ~—t-===-. Or if the water be the B x —« Irvine’s theory that it assigns no cause for the change of form, whilst Black’s ascribes the change to the ingress of hottest of the two bodies mixed, the formula is caloric. On the other hand, Black’s theory does not explain why the heat is absorbed. When we heat a solid, j, W x w— m the first effect is expansion, and this expansion keeping B X m—b pace with the increasing temperature, a point will be attained when the expansion has so far overcome the coheThe accuracy of this conclusion, however, depends on sion of the solid that its particles move freely among each three points : first, the perfect determination of the speother, that is, when the body will become liquid. Thus far cific heat of water, and of its two other forms of existence, the change may be attributed to sensible heat; but the ca- to which it is probably impossible to obtain any more pacity of the body for heat has all the time been increasing, than an approximation ; secondly, on the assumption that and, to satisfy this increased capacity, sensible heat has be- the whole heat of bodies is retained in them by their cacome latent. This appears the simplest view of the sub- pacity ; and, lastly, on the supposition that while the ject, ascribing the change of capacity to the expansion by body retains its form of existence, its capacity remains the sensible heat; and the difference between the solid unchanged. Until these points be established, the theory and fluid states may be conceived to depend on the pre- is but an amusing speculation, in which the estimates of valence of one of two opposing forms, the cohesive attrac- other philosophers do not materially differ from those of tion of the particles of matter for each other, and the repul- Irvine. Rumford, from experiments on the heat extricatsive energy of caloric. ed by the combination of hydrogen and oxygen, placed Dr Black has supposed that latent heat is retained in the natural zero at 1552° Fahrenheit below the freezing bodies by an affinity superior to that between sensible point; Gadolin, from the cold produced by dissolving mucaloric and the particles of matter, and liquefaction is as- riate of soda in water, inferred it to be at — 1432°.

H E A T. Variation? of Temperature.

SECT. V. VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 1. Artificial Means of Increasing Temperature. Caloric may be excited by the sun’s rays collected by a lens or by a concave mirror, by friction and percussion, and by chemical action. 1. When we collect the sun’s rays by a lens, it is well known that combustibles may thus be fired; and if the lens be large, it produces the most intense temperature we can command. In the focus of the powerful lens made in London for Mr Parker (which measured three feet in diameter, three inches thick at the centre, and weighed 212 lbs.), the most infusible metals were instantly melted and dissipated in vapour, and most stony substances were vitrified. Another, constructed at Paris, is described in the Memoires of the French academy. Lenses of great power have been also made of two curved plates of glass joined together, and filled with spirit of wine. A remarkable lens of this sort, formed by bending two plates of glass on a parabolic mold, and filling the cavity between them with ninety quarts of spirit, was constructed by Rossini of Gratz, in Styria. The diameter of the plates was 3 feet 3 inches, and they were united by a strong ring of metal. The whole was mounted on a heliostat, which, with the lens complete, weighed 550 lbs. This fine instrument cost about L.1000, but became, a few years ago, the property of the French government for L.338. In its focus a diamond was instantly kindled and dissipated ; and a piece of platinum, twenty-nine grains in weight, was melted and thrown into violent ebullition. Soncave metallic mirrors are capable also of concentrating the sun’s rays, so as to produce a powerful heat. Mirrors of hammered brass, or tinned iron, are used for experiments on the radiation of heat. It was by some combination of mirrors that Archimedes is said to have fired the Roman fleet at the siege of Syracuse ; and Kircher, having found a description in Tzetzes, of the device of Archimedes, from which it would seem that the mirrors were placed on hinges, in order to adjust them to a focus, constructed a compound burning mirror of this kind possessing considerable power; but Bufibn, by combining as many as 168 plane glass mirrors, six inches broad, showed that silver might be fused at the distance of sixty feet by such an instrument. 2. The capability of friction between two solids to excite heat is well known. In Rumford’s experiments water was made to boil by the friction in boring a cannon ; and the simple experiment of rubbing a smooth metallic button on a board, by which much heat is produced, is familiar to every school-boy. The firing of carriagewheels, and of difterent kinds of machinery, whose parts, moving against each other, are not well oiled, is well known. This extrication of heat takes place in vacuo as well as in the air, and appears to be owing to the compression employed forcing the particles of the solid more closely together, and extricating their latent caloric. Berthollet showed that this extrication of caloric is not unlimited, as Rumford erroneously supposed ; but that, if we repeatedly compress any body, the quantity of heat extricated rapidly diminishes by each application of the compressing force. Percussion acts in precisely the same manner. A piece of iron, by smart hammering on an anvil, may become so hot as to fire combustibles. This process evidently diminishes the capacity of the iron for heat, its specific gravity becomes greater, and the loss of its latent heat renders it still and brittle. A similar change takes place in xoiremetals ; so that, to restore pliability and ductility, we must subject them to the fire, which restores their latent heat, and renders them again ductile. 3. Chemical action is a fruitful source of increase of

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temperature. If we mingle together equal parts of suL Variations em phuric acid and water, or of alcohol and of water, the°lT pebulk of the mixture diminishes, and heat is given out. The raturetemperature produced by chemical action will often ignite inflammables. Thus a drop of sulphuric acid on a mixture of chlorate of potassa and sugar will set the mixture on fire. Indeed, the process of combustion, the great source of artificial heat, is nothing more than the chemical union of the oxygen of the air with the combustible body. The source of the temperature is the liberation of the latent heat of the oxygen, on its entering into union with the carbonaceous matter of the fuel ; and the increase of the temperature is in proportion to the air consumed in a given time. If we wish a higher temperature, we increase the quantity of air that passes through the fuel; hence the utility of bellows, and of the blowpipe, in exciting a higher temperature than the spontaneous combustion of the burning body would afford. See Furnace. 2. Artificial Means of Diminishing Temperature. There are three methods by which we can cool bodies ; by placing them in contact with colder substances, by the evaporation of liquids, and by the liquefaction of solids. 1. The first method is very familiar, and depends on the tendency of caloric to an equilibrium in contiguous bodies. 2. I he conversion of a body into vapour causes, by the increase of its capacity for heat, an absorption of caloric. Thus the evaporation of water from the ball of a thermometer causes the mercury to fall. If we apply a still more eyaporable fluid, ether, the fall of the thermometer will be still lower ; and, if we accelerate this process by an airpump, the cold produced will be intense ; the degree of the absorption of heat, or, in other words, the production of cold, being in proportion to the quickness of the evaporation. 3. I he most powerful means of reducing temperature is by what are termed freezing mixtures. All these depend on the rapid melting of solids by the addition of various substances. Many experiments have been made on this subject by Lowitz of Petersburg, and bjr Mr Walker of Cambridge. Salts are the solids most commonly used, and they are in general either mixed with snow or with acids. Thus, if we mix common salt and snow together, the temperature falls to 0 of Fahrenheit. If we pour two ounces of nitric acid diluted with an equal quantity of water on three ounces of sulphate of soda, the temperature sinks below the beginning of Fahrenheit’s scale. Equal parts of strong muriatic acid and of snow will produce a cold of—30° Fahrenheit; and the same proportions of diluted sulphuric acid and snow, it previously cooled down to 20°, will cause the freezing of mercury, reducing the temperature to — 60°. Dry muriate of lime and dry powdery snow, in the proportions of two of the former to one of the latter, if previously cooled by immersion in salt and snow, will sink the temperature to — 66° ; and three parts of muriate of lime and twyo of snow, similarly treated, will reduce the temperature to — 73°. In all these experiments, it is the sudden conversion of sensible into latent heat that lowers the temperature of the mixtures; the substances assume the liquid form, their capacity for heat is increased, and the disappearance of the sensible heat is manifested by the sinking of the thermometer. tor the natural variations of temperature and their causes, see Climate, and Physical Geography. For various important facts and observations on heat, see Black’s Lectures on Chemistry, vol. i.; Murray’s System of Chemistry, vol. i.; Dalton’s Chemistry; Leslie on/Teat; Sur le Feu ; Kumford’s Essays ; Deluc Sur les Modifications de VAtmosphere ; Saussure Sur VHygrometrie/ Young’s Lectures on Philosophy ; Biot, Traite de Physique,!., Martine on Heat; Crawford on .ffeaf; Irvine’s Essays; J. and G. Murray s Popular View of Chemistry; Mrs Somerville's Connection of the Physical Sciences; Phil. Trans., 1754,1777 1783 1788, ^ 1800, and22, 1801; Edin. Trans., vi., ix., x., xii., xiii.; Ann. de Chim., 3,14, 29,71, andPhil. 75; Nicholson’s Journal, 4, «

276 Heath

H E A 9,11, and 12, 8vo series; Journ. de Physique, 61; Ann. of Phil., 2, &c.; Manchester Memoirs; Memoires de VAcademic de Geneve, &c. Heber. The theory of heat which ascribes this agent to motion among the particles of matter, and which has been distinguished by the name of The Mechanical or Dynamic Theory of Heat, was adopted by Count Rumford in 1778, and by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1799. Since that period it has been very ingeniously maintained by Mayer, in Liebig’s and VT6h\ev,& Annalen for 1842; by Mr Joule, before the British Association in 1843; by Mr John Macquorn Rankine ; and by Professor William Thomson of Glasgow, in the Edinburgh Philosophical Transactions. The principal fact on which Rumford founded his views is the high temperature exerted by friction in the boring of cannon; Davy adduced his experiment of the melting of

HEATH. See Boxany; nat. ord. Ericacece. HEATHFIELD, Lord. See Elliox. HEBE, in Grecian Mythology, the goddess of youth, and cup-bearer of the gods. She was the daughter of Jupiter and Juno, and is sometimes depicted assisting her mother in yoking her horses to her chariot. In her function of pouring out the nectar at the feasts of the gods, she was superseded by Ganymede ; but she always retained her power of restoring the aged to the bloom and vigour of youth. In Rome she was worshipped under the name of Juventas, and a temple in her honour existed on the Capitoline Hill as early as the time of Servius Tullius. HEBER, Reginald, bishop of Calcutta, was born April 21, 1783, at Malpas in Cheshire. He was sent to the grammar-school of Whitchurch at the age of eight, and entered Brazen-nose College, Oxford, at the age of seventeen. In his first year there (anno 1800) his Carmen Seculare gained the prize for Latin verse, as did his Palestine in 1803 for English verse. In 1804—the year of his father’s death—he was elected fellow of All Souls’ College. In the following year he began his travels in Europe, visiting Sweden, Norway, Russia, and the Crimea. After an absence of more than a twelvemonth, he returned through Austria and Germany to England. Soon after he took the degree of M.A. he married Amelia, daughter of William Shipley, dean of St Asaph, and settled on the living of Hodnet in Shropshire. In 1812 he began a Dictionary of the Bible, and published a volume of poems. In 1815 he was appointed to deliver the Bampton lecture on “ The Personality and Office of the Christian Comforter.” In 1822 he was elected preacher at Lincoln’s Inn. On the 16th June 1823, after having been made D.D. of Oxford by diploma, he sailed with his family for India, having been appointed to succeed Bishop Middleton at Calcutta. He landed at Calcutta on the 10th of October, and shortly afterwards consecrated the church of St Stephen at Dumdum. His first visitation in the cathedral at Calcutta was held on Ascension Day 1824. In May 1825 he held a visitation at Bombay. At Trichinopoly, on the 3d April 1826, he was found dead in his bath before breakfast, having been suddenly cut off by an apoplectic fit at the age of forty-three. Bishop Heber gave early indication of that love for the classics, in the study of which he afterwards gained such high honours at college ; for at the age of seven he had translated Phcedrus into English verse. With a natural thirst for knowledge, a strong memory to retain what he once learned, and a glowing fancy, he possessed also the application necessary to develop these faculties into important results. Not possessing originality in the same degree, the classics became his model. For the exact sciences he had not the same relish. Logic, at least as unfolded by Aldrich, he even disliked. He had a taste for drawing and natural history. During his European travels he kept a

H E B two cakes of ice when rubbed together in vacuo ; Mayer Heberden. adduces the rise of 1° of the thermometer by the agitation of water in support of his views ; Joule draws his conclusion from the heat produced by the friction of water running through a pipe, which he estimates at 1° for every pound of water moving with a force equal to raise a weight of 770 lbs. one foot. Other arguments have been drawn from the still obscurely understood heating effects of magnetic electricity, and the analogies between radiant heat and light; to which last the undulatory hypothesis has been ingeniously applied. The views are specious, and by some are considered as satisfactory; so as to have converted the celebrated Melloni to the undulatory theory, which considers light and radiant heat as differing only in the length of their undulations, (x. s. x.)

copious journal of what he saw and read. Hence his voluminous correspondence with his friends contains the results of his close observations of the manners, customs, and superstitions of the people through whose countries he passed. He wrote a history of the Cossacks, contributed to the Quarterly Revievj, and published a complete edition of Jeremy Taylor’s works, with a life and criticism. As an author he is most popularly known for his hymns and sacred pieces. These breathe a strain of the most exalted piety and Christian fervour; and in this accurately reflect himself. But it is as the Christian pastor of Hodnet, and the apostolic Bishop of Calcutta, that Heber is specially entitled to our regard. From a very early age his mind was imbtied with feelings of the deepest reverence for God. Prayer and reading of the Scriptures were attended to by him with exemplary regularity during the absorbing period of college life. When he returned from his travels in Europe, after his unusually brilliant career at Oxford, the path to literary fame was open to him, yet he preferred devoting himself to the humbler duties which devolve on the pastor of a parish. When disease was spreading through the district, Heber was still to be found at his post, visiting the sick, comforting the afflicted, relieving the distressed, and making known to all the way of salvation through Jesus Christ. An amiable temper, conciliatory manner, a benevolent heart, and a sound head, accompanied by such faithful discharge of duty, endeared him to all his parishioners. Modest as he was, it is not remarkable that when he was offered the vacant bishopric of Calcutta his diffidence led him twice to refuse such a responsible charge. When, however, he did enter upon its duties, his whole energies were directed to the great work of evangelizing India. He travelled extensively, planting churches and encouraging the missionaries. Of his route through the upper provinces, between Calcutta and Bombay, a narrative was published in 2 vols. 4to. He also visited the Deccan, Ceylon, and Madras, carrying out with characteristic zeal the great object of his mission. HEBERDEN, William, a practical physician of great celebrity, was born in London in the year 1710. He was sent at a very early age, near the end of 1724, to St John’s College, Cambridge. He took his first degree in 1728, and obtained a fellowship about 1730 ; he became master of arts in 1732, and took his degree in physic in 1739. He remained at Cambridge about ten years longer as a practitioner of physic, and gave an annual course of lectures on the Materia Medica. In 1746 he became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in London; and two years afterwards he left Cambridge, having presented to St John’s College the specimens which had been subservient to his lectures. He also added to this donation, a few years afterwards, a collection of astronomical instruments of some value. Having determined to establish himself in London, he was

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[eberdeen. elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1769; and was employed in a very extensive medical practice for more than thirty years. When he became sensible that his age required some indulgence, he resolved to pass his summers at a house which he had taken at Windsor; but he continued his practice in the winter for some years longer. In January 1760 he married Mary, daughter of W. Wollaston, Esq., by whom he had five sons and three daughters; but he survived them all, except Dr W. Heberden, and Mary, married to the Rev. G. Jenyns. In 1778 he was made an honorary member of the Royal Society of Medicine at Paris. Dr Heberden’s first publication seems to have been a short essay on the incongruous composition of the mithridate and theriac, entitled Antitheriaca, 8vo, 1745. 2. He sent to the Royal Society an Account of a very large Human Calculus, weighing more than 2|- lbs. avoirdupois {Phil. Trans, xlvi., 1750, p.596; Abr. xi., p. 1005). 3. Account of the Effect of Lightning at South Weald, in Essex {Phil. Trans, liv., 1764, p. 198). Roth these essays are erroneously attributed, in Dr Maty’s index, to his brother, Dr Thomas Heberden of Madeira, who sent several other papers to the society. Dr Heberden was one of the principal contributors to the first three volumes of the Medical Transactions, published in a great measure at his suggestion, by the College of Physicians, in which we find about sixteen of his original communications. 4. Remarks on the Pump Water of London, 1768. 5. Observations on Ascarides. 6. On Night Blindness, or Nyctalopia. 7. On the Chicken-Pox. 8. On the Epidemical Cold of 1767. 9. Queries relating to bark, camphor, cold, the gout, and apoplexy. 10. On Hectic Fever. 11. On the Pulse. 12. On a Disorder of the Breast, the angina pectoris. 13. On Diseases of the Liver. 14. On the Nettle Rash. 15. On Noxious Fungi. 16. Queries on sizy blood, on hernia, on damp clothes, on venesection in hemorrhages. 17. On an Angina Pectoris. 18. On the Ginseng. 19. On the Measles. 20. Table of the Mean Heat of the different Months in London {Phil. Trans. Ixxviii., 1778, p. 86). 21. Commentarii de Morborum Historia et Curatione, London, 1802, in 8vo; also in English. He had long been in the habit of making notes in a pocketbook, at the bedsides of his patients; and every month he used to select and copy out, under the proper titles of the diseases, whatever he thought particularly worthy to be recorded. In the year 1782 he employed himself in digesting this register into the form of a volume of Commentaries on the history and cure of diseases, religiously observing never to depend on his memory for any material circumstance that he did not find expressly written down in his notes. These Commentaries were intrusted to the care of his son, Dr W. Heberden, to be published after his death. We find in them a greater mass of valuable matter, accurately observed and candidly related, than in almost any other volume which has ever appeared upon a medical subject; yet they are but too likely to chill the ingenuous ardour of many a youthful mind, and even to lead to a total apathy with respect to the diligent study of a profession in which so respectable a veteran was so often disposed to exclaim that “ all is vanity.” There are, indeed, many instances in which he does not seem to have been perfectly master of all the instruments of his art: thus, he appears to have been but partially acquainted with the virtues and various uses of antimony and ipecacuan, and to have reasoned very inaccurately on the operation for a strangulated hernia. But it has been remarked, that the more experience a physician acquires in his profession, the more he is in general inclined to approach the opinions of Dr Heberden, and to esteem his writings. Notwithstanding that he has been accused of having occasionally been liable to personal and professional prejudices, it may safely be asserted that he possessed a singular combination of modesty and dignity of character. He was not only a well-intbrmed and accomplished scholar, but a man

H E B 277 of the purest integrity of conduct, of mild and courteous Hebrew manners, distinguished by genuine piety, and by unaffected Language benevolence of heart. It is related by one of his biographers, ebrews I! that he bought a sceptical work, left in manuscript by Dr v « Conyers Middleton, of his widow, for L.50, in order to burn ” v--- ' it. He was at the expense of publishing another work of the same author on the Servile Condition of Physicians amongst the Ancients, as well as an edition of some of the plays of Euripides by Markland. He had an opportunity of rendering an essential service to Dr Letherland, a man of the deepest and most extensive learning and science that adorned the last century, but of retired habits, and very little known even in his own profession, though he contributed by his literary information to the popularity of more than one of his colleagues. Dr Heberden’s extensive practice made it inconvenient for him to accept the appointment of physician to the queen; and the king, who had always shown him the greatest esteem and regard, readily adopted his disinterested recommendation of Dr Letherland as his substitute in the situation. He died on the 17th of May 1801, at the age of above ninety years, having exhibited at the close of his life the same serenity of mind which he had enjoyed throughout its course. {Life prefixed to his Commentaries ; Chalmers’ Biographical Dictionary?) (t. y.) HEBREW Language. See Philology, § Hebrew Language; Alphabet, &c. HEBREWS, Epistle to the. The authorship of this epistle has been greatly disputed. It has been ascribed to Luke by Origen, Jerome, and Philastrius ; but, 1st, the similarity of style between this epistle and Luke’s admitted writings is too general to support a claim of authorship. 2nd, Admitting Paul to have been the author of the epistle, such similarity of style as occurs between the epistle and Luke’s writings could be easily accounted for by the fact that Paul and Luke were much associated together. 3d, The same resemblance between Luke and this epistle can be extended to the epistles which Paul is admitted to have written. Also Stuart and Eichhorn point out the preponderance of Jewish feelings, and familiarity with the Jewish schools, in the epistle over what is found in Luke’s writings. Hence Luke is not the probable author of the epistle. Barnabas has been claimed by some as the author This view is supported somewhat inconclusively by Ullmann and Wieseler, the latter of whom has appended a long dissertation on the subject to his Chronology of the Apostolic Age. An Alexandrian origin has been claimed by Eichhorn, Schulz, Bleek, and others, chiefly on account of the close resemblance between this epistle and the writings of Philo, an Alexandrian Jew. Stuart, however, has shown that there is nothing in the epistle which could not have been written by a person wdio had never quitted Palestine. It is alleged by Bleek that the author of the epistle makes a mistake about the furniture of the tabernacle (ix. 3, 4) which a Jew in Palestine would not have made ; but Deyling has shown that there the mistake belongs only to those who have discovered it. The claims of Apollos to the authorship of the epistle fall to the ground with those for an Alexandrian origin. Apollos was first suggested by Luther, and in this the Reformer has been followed by Heumann, Bertholett, De Wette, Bleek, and Tholuck. Clement, Silas, and others, have also been proposed as the authors of the epistle. The claims of the apostle Paul are founded—1st, upon the doctrinal correspondence between this epistle and his other writings. To him peculiarly belongs the doctrine, that Judaism was typical and temporary ; while Christianity was typified and permanent. The glory of the Mediator, both in his humiliation and exaltation, is described in the Epistle to the Hebrews in the same manner as in Paul’s admitted epistles. The w7ord Mediator occurs only in the Epistle to the Hebrews and in Paul’s epistles; so also the expression the God of Peace. So obvious are these resemblances in

278 H E B Hebrides. Hebrews to what occurs in Paul’s epistles, that even those who deny his claim admit that the author must have been one of his companions. But, 2d, many of the figures used in the Epistle to the Hebrews are Pauline : the Christian life is a struggle, a race; through Christ we have access with confidence to God; the Word of God \sa.sivord; some Christians are only children, and to be fed with milk ; others are men, to be fed with strong meat. 3d, Peculiarities of style favour the Pauline authorship. Paul is given to the use of unusual words in his admitted epistles ; unusual words occur in Hebrews ; so of paronomasia, and the tendency “ to go off at a word” into a long parenthesis ; also the manner of reference to Old Testament illustrations; and the multiplication of these references favours the Pauline origin. 5th, The concluding personal references of the writer of Hebrews accord with the supposition of the Pauline origin of the epistle. The objections to the Pauline authorship are—1st, the difficulty of assigning a reason for the suppression of the name of Paul, were he the author. But the difficulty is just as great whether Luke, or A polios, or Barnabas, or any other be supposed to have written the epistle. 2d, Eichhorn urges that the Epistle to the Hebrews is more logically reasoned than accords with the Pauline authorship. It is answered that the reasoning of the Epistle to the Romans is as closely logical as that in Hebrews. Tholuck urges that Paul nowhere calls Christ priest, shepherd, apostle, &c.; it is replied that Paul applies figurative appellations to Christ according to the peculiarities of the parties addressed. To speak of priests to Gentiles could not be done without explanation. It was quite otherwise in addressing Jews, who had a priesthood of divine appointment; so of other names. As to external evidence, the Pauline authorship was universally received from the first by the Eastern Church. In the Western Church, however, it was not so universally adopted till the fifth century. The general result is—1st, no better claims can be urged than those of Paul; 2d, there is no decided obstacle in the way of his claims; and, 3d, both internally and externally the evidence preponderates in his favour. The object of the epistle was to convince Jewish Christians of the superiority of Christianity over Judaism. It was written before the destruction of the temple. HEBRIDES, The, or Western Islands of Scotland, consist of about 200 islands or islets, lying between N. Lat. 55. and 58. 51., and W. Long. 5. and 7. 52. Their ancient name was Hehudce or Ebudce, and the alteration was simply the result of a printer’s error in an early edition of the works of the venerable Bede, published in Paris. From the census returns it appears that in 1851 the number of inhabited islands in the Hebrides was 79, having a population of 116,367 ; from 20 to 30 more are partially inhabited during the summer and grazing season. The most southern of the group are situated on the Firth of Clyde—as Bute, Arran, the Cumbrays, Lamlash, and Inchmarnoch. The geological formation of these islands includes granite, gneiss, slate, trap, sandstone, and limestone. Arran is peculiarly rich in attractions both to the geologist and botanist, and possesses highly picturesque scenery. The other islands are usually divided into the Outer Hebrides, or Long Island, and the Inner Hebrides. The former consists of the Lewis, Harris, North and South Uist, Benbecula, Barra, and a number of smaller islands—the whole length from Barra-Head to the Butt of Lewis being about 130 miles. The Inner Hebrides include Islay, Skye, Mull, Jura, Coll, Colonsay, Rum, Tiree, Ulva, Lismore, &c. The outer range consists almost exclusively of gneiss rocks, with poor soil and large proportions of moss and moor. The inner range is composed chiefly of trap and slate “ a basis,” as is said by a recent authority, “ for the most part of secondary sandstones and limestone, out of which have arisen from the fiery nucleus of the earth, enor-

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mous overlying, and, in some cases, overflowing masses and Hebrides, mountains of trap rocks, chiefly greenstone, sienite, basalt, hyperstene, and an endless variety of pitchstone, claystone, and felspar porphyries, with their associated crystals and minerals.” The magnificent basalt columns and caves of Staffa are well known. The islands are not rich in minerals. Iron has been found in several of them, but the want of coal in sufficient abundance renders it of but nominal value. Lead exists, and was sometime wrought in Islay. In Skye and Tiree are marble quarries, which also were worked for a short time, but are now abandoned. There are excellent slate quarries at Easdale, Luing, Seil, Shuna, Lunga, &c.—a small and intricate group of islands annexed to Argyllshire, which, from the number of workmen employed, the workmen’s houses, and vessels shipping cargo, present a busy and animated scene. The Outer Hebrides are almost wholly destitute of wood. For miles the eye ranges over tracts of dreary moss, though efforts have been made in Lewis to redeem the sterility of the soil. At one time the manufacture of kelp from the seaware afforded employment to the people of Barra, Harris, Lewis, Skye, &c., but the reduction of the duty on salt and barilla has nearly extinguished this branch of Hebridean trade. When Dr Johnson visited Skye in 1773, agriculture was neglected, and there was scarcely a vegetable grown on the island. Now arable farms, cultivated with care and skill, and gardens producing all the fruits and flowers grown in Scotland, are found. The mild and humid climate of the islands is peculiarly favourable to vegetation, and vast improvement has been effected. Arable cultivation, however, is in most districts considered subordinate to grazing and sheep-farming. The greater part of the surface consists of mountains incapable of cultivation. The valleys by which these mountains are intersected are narrow, and frequently covered with peat-moss, and the sides of the valleys are often too steep and rocky to be fit for tillage. But the most formidable obstacle to the profitable pursuit of corn-farming is the excessive humidity of the climate, which no industry can overcome, and no skill obviate. The drenching rains and cloudy skies for which the Hebrides are so notorious, frustrate the efforts of the cultivator in every stage of his operations. In winter the finer particles and every soluble and fertilizing ingredient in the soil are washed away ; in spring the land cannot be brought to the requisite condition for receiving the seed; in summer the corn is etiolated and does not fill, and in harvest the process of ripening is retarded, and the crop is often little better than' straw. In truth, the islands are essentially pastoral. Drainage and artificial manures have done much, and there are farms in Skye and Islay which may vie with any on the mainland, but the general characteristics of the islands are such as we have described. Rearing of cattle (which is carried on to a considerable extent) and sheep-farming seem to be the only sure and profitable occupations. Much of the land has been converted into sheep-walks, on which large flocks of Cheviot sheep are now reared, and sold at the Inverness or Falkirk trysts. The Crinan and Caledonian canals offer facilities for export and intercommunication ; steamboats from Glasgow now visit most of the islands; and excellent roads, under the charge of a parliamentary commission, traverse the principal districts. The impulse which all these combined have given to trade and production need not be described. The moors and desolate tracts are often let at high prices to English sportsmen. Every year the passion for field sports, especially deer-stalking, seems to increase, and many Highland lairds derive a larger revenue from their moors than their grandfathers did from their whole estates. One great and permanent interest in the Hebrides is that of the fisheries. This has never been prosecuted with sufficient spirit or perseverance. The Lewis islanders are perhaps the most

HEBRIDES. 279 Norwegians. Alexander II. led a fleet and army to the Hebrides, lebrides. active ;—of old, Barra was celebrated for its bold seamen and fishermen, but their descendants are sunk in apathy shores of Argyleshire in 1249, but he died in the island of and poverty. To Lowland adventurers is left the chief Ker rera. On the other hand the Norwegian sovereign was harvest of these distant seas. no less indignant at the independence assumed by the Jarls, The scenery of the Hebrides may be generally described or governors of the islands, and at the indignities offered to as partaking of the wild and sublime. Large masses of his subjects. King Haco or Hacon sailed with a great mountains, of all forms, tower up in the interior; and the fleet and army to assert his rights. The exact date of his coasts, indented by arms of the sea, are rugged and varied expedition is ascertained by a fact illustrative of the light in outline. Skye is now a favourite resort of tourists. The thrown by science on history. The Norwegian chronicler Bay of Scavaig, Loch Coruisk, Glen Sligachan, and the remarked, that when the king lay with his fleet in Orkney, Cuchullin Hills, are scenes of almost unexampled grandeur “a great darkness grew over the sun, so that only a little and picturesque desolation. The Spar Cave, with its lofty ring was bright round his orb.” The eclipse was calculated, chamber and white translucent stalactite, and the mighty and found to have taken place on the 5th of August 1263. ocean-temple of Staffa, have no parallels. Spots of great Haco’s fleet was shattered by tempests in the Firth of beauty—green pastoral glens, sheltered bays and lakes, are Clyde, and the portion of his army which landed was deinterposed amidst the wildest scenes. Even among the feated at Largs. The discomfited monarch retreated, rough rocks of Harris and Barra, enchanting marine views passing the narrow strait between Skye and the mainland burst on the spectator. In winter they are terrible ; but (which still bears the name of Kyle-Hacon, or Kyleakin), “what can be more delightful,” asks a native of that and reaching Orkney, died thereon the 12th of December. solitary coast—the late Professor Macgillivray—“than a Magnus, son of Haco, concluded a peace with the Scots midnight walk by moonlight along the lone sea-beach of (1266), renouncing all claim to the Hebrides and other some secluded isle, the glassy sea sending from its surface islands, excepting Orkney and Shetland, and King Alexa long stream of dancing and dazzling light, no sound to ander agreed to give him a sum of 4000 merks in four be heard save the small ripple of the idle wavelet, or the yearly payments. It was also stipulated that Margaret, scream of a sea-bird watching the fry that swarms along the daughter of Alexander (then only four years of age), should shores ? In the short nights of summer, the melancholy be betrothed to Eric, the son of Magnus—a connection long song of the throstle has scarcely ceased on the hill-side, remembered and lamented in Scottish song and story. when the merry carol of the lark commences, and the plover The race of Somerled continued to rule the islands, and and snipe sound their shrill pipe. Again, how glorious is from a younger son of the same potentate sprung the Lords the scene which presents itself from the summit of one of of Lorn, who took the patronymic of Macdougall. John the loftier hills, when the great ocean is seen glowing with of Isle or Islay, between the years 1346 and 1354, first the last splendour of the setting sun, and the lofty isles of adopted the title of “ Lord of the Isles.” He was one of St Kilda rear their giant heads amid the purple blaze on the most potent of the island princes, and was married to a the extreme verge of the horizon!” We may add that a daughter of the Earl of Strathern, Steward of Scotland. sail on a summer day down the Sound of Mull, amidst the His son, Donald of the Isles, was memorable for his rebelarchipelago of islands, gigantic mountain-ranges in the dis- lion in support of his claim to the earldom of Ross. The tance, and by the shores, perched on projecting rocks and chiefs of Mackintosh and Maclean joined his standard, but promontories, the ruins of Dunolly, Dunstaftnage, Duart, Donald was defeated or weakened at the battle of Harlaw, Ardtornish, Mingarry, &c.,—“ chiefless castles breathing fought in July 1411, and was ultimately compelled to make stern farewells,”—is an event never to be forgotten or re- submission, and abandon his claim to the earldom. His son membered without emotion. Alexander resumed the hereditary warfare against the The original inhabitants of the Hebrides seem to have Scottish crown. The sceptre, however, was now in the been of the same Celtic race as those settled on the main- firm and unrelenting hand of James I.; and the Lord of land—the Scoto-Irish, whom Columba, about the middle the Isles, after undergoing, with his mother, the Countess of the sixth century, converted to Christianity. Scandina- of Ross, imprisonment for a year, was fain to make abject vian hordes then poured in, with their northern idolatry submission, delivering up his sword on his knees. The son and lust of plunder, but in time they adopted the language of Alexander, John of the Isles, soon however appears in an and faith of the islanders, and were recognised as Earls of attitude of sovereignty, treating as an independent prince Orkney and Kings of the Hebrides and Isle of Man. The with Edward IV. of England. In 1462 was concluded, chief seat of their sovereignty was at Islay. About the between John of Isle, Earl of Ross and Lord of the Isles, year 1076 or 1096 died in Islay, Godred Crovan, King of and King Edward IV., the treaty of Ardtornish, by which Dublin, of Man, and of the Hebrides. He was succeeded John, his son Donald Balloch, and his grandson John by Olaus or Olave, and the daughter of Olaus was married of Isle, became bound to assist King Edward and James to Somerled, or Sorlet (in Gaelic Somhairle, and corrupted Earl of Douglas in subduing the kingdom of Scotland. by chroniclers into Sorli Marlady, &c.), who became the The reward promised for this high service was not great. founder of the dynasty known as Lords of the Isles.1 From They were to receive respectively, in time of war, L.200, the year 1156 to 1164, Somerled was styled Prince of L.40, and L.20 yearly; and in time of peace 100 merks, Argyll (Regulus Eregeithel) and Lord of Kintyre. After L.20 and L.10 sterling. The alliance seems to have led a rebellion of twelve years against the Scottish monarch, to no active operations, and the island king was adjudged Malcolm IV., he was slain in 1164, and was succeeded by to be a traitor to his liege sovereign of Scotland, and dehis son Reginald, who styled himself Lord oflnchgall (the prived of his earldom of Ross, which was annexed to the Western Isles), and also King of the Isles and Lord of crown. In the reign of James V. another John of Isla reArgyll and Kintyre. This Reginald, his son, and grand- sumed the title of “ Lord of the Isles,” but was compelled son, were monks of Paisley, and liberal benefactors to the to surrender the dignity. Lie afterwards laid siege to the monastery there. Angus Oig, the fifth of the race of So- Castle of Ellandonan in Ross-shire, and was slain with an merled, in 1306, after the defeat of Robert Bruce by John arrow. The glory of the lordship of the Isles—the insular of Lorn, entertained the king for three days at his castle of sovereignty—had departed. From the time of Bruce, the Dunaverty, in South Kintyre. Previous to this many efforts Campbells had been gaining the ascendancy in Argyll. had been made by the Scottish monarchs to displace the The Macleans, Macnaughtons, Maclachlans, Laments, and 1

Worsaae’s Danes. Origines Parochiales Scotia!, Bannatyne Club, 1854.

280 H E B Hebrides, other ancient races had sunk before this favoured family. WThe lordship of Lorn was wrested from the Macdougalls by Bruce, and their extensive possessions, with Dunstafthage Castle, bestowed on the king’s relative, Stewart and his descendants, afterwards Lords of Lorn. The Macdougalls, at a subsequent period, regained possession of their ancient residence, Dunolly Castle, but this branch of the house of Somerled was never reinstated in its former importance. The Macdonalds of Sleat, the direct representatives of Somerled, though driven from Islay and deprived of supreme power by James V., still kept a sort of insular state in Skye. There were also the Macdonalds of Clanranald and Glengarry (descendants of Somerled), with the powerful houses of Macleod of Dunvegan (£*0/ Tormod), and Macleod of Harris (Siol Torquil), M‘Neill of Barra, and Maclean of Mull.1 Fierce sanguinary feuds continued throughout the 16th and 17th centuries among these rival clans and their dependent tribes, and the turbulent spirit was not subdued till a comparatively recent period. James VI. made an abortive attempt at the colonization of Lewis. William III. and Queen Anne attempted to subsidize the chiefs in order to preserve tranquillity, but the wars of Montrose and Dundee, and the Jacobite insurrections of 1715 and 1745 showed how futile were all such efforts. It was not till 1748, when a decisive blow was struck at the power of the chiefs by the abolition of heritable jurisdictions and the appointment of sheriffs in the different districts, that the arts of peace and social improvement made way in these remote regions. The change was great, and at first not unmixed with evil. It was no longer the interest of the chief to surround himself with a host of dependents. His strength lay in money, not in arms. A new system of management and high rents were imposed, in consequence of which numbers of the tacksmen, or large tenants, emigrated to America. In twenty years, from 1772 to 1792, about 6400 persons left the country, carrying with them, in specie, at least L. 38,400. The exodus continued for many years. Sheepfarming, on a large scale, was next introduced, and the crofters were thrust into villages or barren corners of the land. The consequence was, that despite the numbers who entered the army, or emigrated to Canada, the standard of civilization sunk lower, and the population multiplied in all the islands. The people came to subsist almost entirely on potatoes and herrings; and in 1846, when the potatoe blight commenced its ravages, a scene of nearly universal destitution ensued. The population of Skye, which Johnson, in 1773, considered too great for the means of subsistence, had swelled from 15,000 to 24,000 ; and of these, 8000 (one-third) demanded and received relief from the Destitution Fund nobly provided by the British nation. In Tiree there were 1400 people who paid no rent and had exhausted the fuel on the island. Over the islands, generally, the proportion of destitution was in the ratio of 70 per cent, of the population. Temporary relief was administered in the shape of employment on roads and other works; and an emigration fund being raised, from 4000 to 5000 of the people, in the most crowded districts, were removed to Australia, where labour, and the reward of labour, awaited them. The condition of the islanders at home is still deplorable. To elevate them must be the work of many years; and a still more extensive family emigration seems necessary as a preliminary step. Education in the English language is also required, to which should be added the prosecution of the fisheries on a better basis, and the colonization in the Hebrides of east coast fishermen (descendants of the

H E C industrious and hardy Shetlanders and Scandinavians) in Hebrides eligible fishing stations. || Hebrides, New, a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean. Hecat®us See Australasia (vol. iv., p. 265). HEBRON, a very ancient city of Palestine, in the tribe of Judah, 18 miles S. of Jerusalem. Its most ancient name was Kirjath-arba, i. e, “ the city of Arba,” so called from Arba, the father of Anak and of the Anakim, who dwelt in and around Hebron. The patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob resided much at Hebron, and are there entombed. The ancient city lay in a valley ; and the two remaining pools, one of which at least existed in the time of David, serve with other circumstances to identify the modern with the ancient site. David on becoming king of Judah, made Hebron his royal residence, and reigned here seven and a half years. Its modern name is .£7 Khulib, “ the friend” of God, the title by which the Moslems designate Abraham. In modern history Hebron is chiefly noted for the part taken by its inhabitants in the rebellion of 1834, and the heavy retribution which it brought down upon them. They gave battle to Ibrahim Pasha near Solomon’s pools, but were defeated, and retired within the city, which was taken by storm, and given over to sack and pillage. The town of Hebron lies low down on the sloping sides of a narrow valley. The houses are all of stone, high and wellbuilt, with windows, and flat roofs, on which are small domes, sometimes two or three to each house. The streets are narrow, seldom more than two or three yards in width. The bazaars and shops are well supplied with commodities. It has nine mosques, the principal of which is the massive structure built over the tombs of the patriarchs. This is esteemed by the Moslems one of their holiest places, from which Christians are rigorously excluded. Hebron has long been noted for the produce of its glass-works, consisting chiefly of glass lamps, many of which are exported to Egypt. Pop. variously estimated from 5000 to 10,000. HEBRUS, now the Maritza, the largest river in Thrace, rises in the high ground between Mounts Scomius and Rhodope. It flows in a S.E. direction from its source to Hadrianople ; from that city to the sea its course is almost due S. It falls into the Mgaean nearly opposite the island of Samothrace, and forming at its mouth the Palus Stentoris. Unlike most of the rivers in Greece the Hebrus is navigable for about two-thirds of its course. Small craft sail up as far as Philippopolis. Its principal tributaries are the Artiscus (Bujuk-dere), the Agrianes (Ergene), Contadesdus (Saradjala), and Tearus (Tekedere). It was at the source of the Hebrus that Darius erected a pillar with an inscription to the effect that its waters were the purest and best, just as he himself was the fairest of men. HECATASUS, one of the earliest of the Greek historians. He was sprung from a noble family of Miletus ; his father’s name was Hegesander. The dates of his birth and death are not ascertained ; but he is known to have taken part in the counsels of the lonians when they were deliberating to throw off the Persian yoke. He tried to dissuade his countrymen from this attempt; and as he was well acquainted with the strength and resources of the Persian empire, he dwelt on the hopelessness of a contest with so powerful an antagonist. His advice was neglected, and the consequence followed which he had predicted. This fixes his floruit about 500 B.c. Like Herodotus, Hecataeus seems to have visited foreign countries, and to have described, from personal observation, their physical characteristics, and the manners and customs of their inhabitants. His works

1 The M‘Neills were originally of Irish origin. It is related that when the chief dined, a horn was sounded from the battlements of the castle tower in Barra, and a herald proclaimed, “ Hear, 0 ye people, and listen, 0 ye nations! The great M'Neill of Barra, having finished his meal, the princes of the earth may dine!” The charters granted hy the Macdonalds ran in a similar mock-heroic strain :— “ I, Macdonald, give you a right to your farm from this day till to-morrow, and every day thereafter, so long as you have food for the great Macdonald of the Isles.”

H E C Hecite were of three kinds, historical, genealogical, and geographical, and were held in some esteem by the ancients. HeroI Hector. dotus sometimes refers to him as an authority. The numerous fragments of his works which have come down to us have been collected by Creuzer in his Historicorum Antiquissimorum Fragmenta. (See Memoires de VAcademic des Inscript., tom. vi., p. 475 ; Vossius de Hist. Grcec., p. 440; and Ulrici, Charakteristik der antiken Historiographic, Berlin, 1833.) HECATE, in Grecian Mythology, the name of a mysterious goddess, who, in many of her attributes, bore a strong resemblance to Diana. Her power was at one time so extensive that she was identified with several other deities, such as Proserpine, Ceres, Cybele, and especially Diana or Artemis. Her statues were set up in cross-roads and in front of houses. She was worshipped w ith peculiar honours at Athens and TEgina, where she was regarded as the patron goddess of the domestic hearth. The sacrifices offered to her consisted chiefly of black lambs, dogs, and honey. (See Diana.) HECATOMB, in Grecian Antiquity, signifies, according to its etymon, an offering of a hundred oxen. Even before Homer’s time, however, the word had lost its strict etymological meaning, and was employed to denote generally a great public sacrifice. Homer himself {II. vi., 93) talks of a hecatomb of twelve oxen ; and again {II. i., 315), hecatombs of oxen and rams; and even {II. xxiii., 146) a hecatomb of fifty rams. Later writers used sometimes to reckon even the votive gifts under the hecatomb. (See Sacrifice.) IIECATOMBjEON, in Grecian Antiquity, the first month in the Attic year, answering to the last half of our July and the first of August. It took its name from the great festival of the Hecatombje, at which hecatombs were offered. HECHINGEN, a city of Germany on the Starzel, 31 miles S.S.W. of Stuttgart. It was capital of the sovereign principality of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, which was ceded to Prussia in 1849. Pop. about 3400. HECLA, a volcano of Iceland. See Iceland. HECTARE. See France, § Weights and Measures. HECTOGRAMME. See France, § Weights and Measures. HECTOLITRE. See France, § Weights and Measures. HECTOMETRE. See France, § Weights and Measures. HECTOR, in Grecian Story, the most valiant foe that the Greeks had to encounter in the siege of Troy. He was the eldest son of Priam and Hecuba, and of all the Trojan chiefs was the wisest in coupsel and the bravest in the field. During the whole continuance of the siege he was the bulwark of his country, devotedly meeting all risks, and bravely encountering all odds. He slew some of the most distinguished leaders of the Grecian host, and fought on equal terms with Menelaus, Ajax, Diomede, and others. His last exploit was his conquest of Patroclus, the friend of Achilles, whom he slew and stript of his armour. The death of Patroclus roused Achilles from the lethargic indifference which he had maintained since he had been insulted by Agamemnon. He sought out the slayer of his friend, and Hector fell in the encounter. His victorious foe dragged his corpse three times round the walls of Troy ; but the body was preserved from injury by the gods. Some of the scenes in which Hector takes part are among the finest in the Iliad. Such are his interview with his brother Paris, and afterwards with his wife Andromache and his son Scamandrius at the Scaean gate (book vi.) ; his final combat with Achilles; and after his death, the interview of his aged father with that chief concerning the ransom of the slain hero’s body. The Iliad closes with the description of the funeral rites and games in his honour. VOL. XI.

H E G 281 HECUBA, the daughter of Dymas (Horn. II. ii., 718), Hecuba or of Cisseus (Eurip.), or of the River Sangarius and Metope H (Apollodor. iii., 12, 5), was the second wife of Priam, and HeSelhad by him nineteen sons and a great number of daughters. Of the sons, the most celebrated were Hector, Paris, Deiphobus, Helenus, Polydorus, Troilus ; and of the daughters, Polyxena, Cassandra, Creiisa, and Laodice. When Hecuba was pregnant of Paris, she dreamed that she had brought into the world a burning torch, which reduced her husband’s palace and all Troy to ashes. This dream was interpreted to mean that the son she should bring into the world would prove the destruction of his country. To avoid this, she exposed Paris as soon as he was born ; but he was saved by shepherds, and afterwards acknowledged by his parents. During the Trojan War she witnessed the death of nearly all her children, and at last saw her husband murdered before her eyes. (Virg. JEn. ii.) When Troy was taken, Hecuba fell to the lot of Ulysses. They set sail and landed in the Thracian Chersonnesus, where Hecuba learned that her son Polydorus had been murdered by Polymnestor, the ancient friend of the Trojans, to whom Priam had sent him. She proceeded with some Trojan women to the house of Polymnestor, put to death two of his sons, and tore out his own eyes. Polymnestor foretold to her that she would be changed into a she-dog, and would leap into the sea at Cynosema. The tradition further says, that under this form she ran for a time howling through Thrace, till she was at length stoned to death by the inhabitants. FIEDGEHOG. See index to Mammalia. HEDJAZ, El, a district of Arabia. See Arabia. HEDWIG, Johann, a distinguished German botanist, was born in 1730 at Cronstadt, in Transylvania. He early lost his father, and was obliged to fight his way as he best might through his medical course. This he did manfully and honourably. After graduating at Leipzig he returned home, only to find that it was not lawful for him to practise with a foreign diploma in the Austrian dominions. He then removed to Chemnitz in Saxony; and thence, in 1781, to Leipzig, where he published his great work on the mosses under the title of Fundamentum Historice Naturalis Muscorum. This work secured him the chair of botany at the university, when it fell vacant in 1789. He held it till his death in 1799. Hedwig was an excellent observer; one of the best, indeed, of last century. In microscopic researches his skill was pre-eminent. Two valuable qualities in an observer he combined in a very unusual degree— memory and keenness of eye-sight. Besides his Fundamentum, he wrote many other scientific works and papers, nearly all bearing on his favourite study, but none of them approaching in value the important work with which his fame is now identified. HEGEL, George Wilhelm Friedrich, was born at Stuttgart, on the 27th of August 1770. At the age of eighteen he entered the University of Tubingen. During Ifis philosophical and theological curriculum he was the chosen friend of Schelling, who, though his junior, at this time far outshone his destined rival. He took his degree in 1793 ; and for the following eight years was engaged as a private tutor, partly in Berne, and partly in Frankfurt-on-theMaine. During this period he entered deeply into those theological, historical, and political studies, the results of which in after-life gave so much lustre to his peculiar system. But his mind was already becoming more and more exclusively bent towards philosophy. The death of his father in 1799 having left him in possession of some property, he gave up private teaching, and in 1801 went to the University of Jena with the view of qualifying as an academical lecturer. At this time his earliest publications were issued (Jena, 1801), viz., his Habilitations-Schrift, De Orbitis Planetarum; and an essay—Ueber die Differenz des Fichte'schen und Schelling,schen Systems. Soon after he 2N

282 Hegel,

HEGEL. embarked, along with Schelling, in the publication of the mon sense, external perception, was not to be thought of. Hegel. Crilische Journal der Philosophic. During the six follow- Accordingly, Schelling hit upon the old Platonic figment ing years he was engaged in the preparation of the earliest of intellectual intuition—Anschauung—a state of cognition of his larger works, the Pheenomenologie des Geistes in which the soul transcends the ordinary conditions of (Bamb. 1807). In 1806 he was made professor of philosophy thought and limitations of being, and gazes directly upon at Jena. But the disastrous campaign of that year drove the unconditioned, the self-existent, the absolute. This him to Bamberg, where for two years he was editor of a absolute, the object of intuition, has a real existence beyond political journal. In 1808 he became rector of the Academy the knowing subject. At the same time subject and object, of Nuremberg. During the last four years of his residence ideal and real, though diverse, are identical; they are but there he issued the second of his great works—Wissenschaft opposite poles of the same universal subject, of the one, der Logik (Niirem. 1812-16). In 1816 he was removed to true, indivisible, absolute object—the living soul of the unia chair of philosophy at Heidelberg. Here he published verse. Thus the solid footing which Kant had failed to his Encyclopcedie der Philosophischen Wissenschaften find for metaphysics was sought by Fichte and Schelling (Heidel. 1817). In 1818 he at last reached a position where in the knowledge of the absolute. Fichte assumed this his genius found full scope and appreciation. He was called transcendent reality as existing in man himself; Schelling, to Berlin, to fill the chair of Fichte; and here he remained as—phenomenally, at least—manifesting itself ah extra. Only one step further remained to be taken; that step till his death, the acknowledged chief of the German philosophers. Men of all ranks and professions, even from foreign was taken by Hegel. He, too, seeks to solve the same countries, flocked to his lectures. A school of zealous dis- problem by an assumed knowledge of the absolute. But ciples formed around him. In 1827 a review (.Jahrhucher this absolute with him is not a universal substance, as with fiir Wissenschaftliche Critik) was established as the organ Spinoza; or se/f, as with Fichte; or a universal mind or and advocate of his doctrines ; and through the influence of subject, as with Schelling. Hegel’s absolute is neither the minister Von Altenstein, his scholars came to occupy matter nor mind, neither a substance nor a subject, extermany of the professorial chairs in the Prussian universities. nal nor internal; but a process, even the process of thought Thus honoured and rewarded, Hegel survived till 1831, itself. The constitutive principle of his system is the when he was cut off by cholera (14th November), in the identity of thought and existence. And it is not merely sixty-first year of his age. During this period he had pub- that the ideal and the real are identical, as in the system lished his Grundlinien der Philosophic des Rechts (Berlin, of Schelling ; it is this relation of identity that is the sole 1821). Soon after his death a complete edition of his works reality—the absolute itself. And again, it is not merely that was commenced by a number of his scholars. Besides those the absolute may be recognized, as by Schelling’s Anschaupublished in his lifetime, this issue included his lectures on ung, as uniting in itself the subject and object; it is the Philosophy of Religion, on ^Esthetics, on the Philo- this recognition that constitutes the absolute, because it is sophy of History, and on the History of Philosophy ; and only in this conscious recognition that the unity is realized also a copious Life of Hegel by Rosenkranz, forming the or brought into being. Thus, the process of apprehending, last volume of the series. It was completed in 1844, in and the object apprehended, the absolute thought and the absolute existence, are one ; all being is represented by the 18 vols. octavo. Hegel did not stand alone ; he stood at the culminating term absolute idea; this process, thought, or idea, is the point of German philosophy, towards which there had been ground of all existence, embracing in its bosom, as its posa continuous progress ever since the days of Kant. That sible developments, God, the universe, and man. Having thus indicated the marvellous results, let us now great thinker, in opposition to the reigning sensationalism of his time, had chiefly devoted himself to the investigation revert to the method by which they have been reached. and vindication of our a priori principles of knowledge ;—of This is the more necessary in the present case, because those principles, regulative and constitutive, analytic and it is its method, or dialectic, which forms the distinctive synthetic, which depend upon experience only (as the spark peculiarity of the Hegelian system. In fact, Hegel’s aim at in the flintstone depends upon the steel) as the occasion of first was, not so much to establish a new system, as to give eliciting them into conscious recognition, and which, more- scientific form and method to the somewhat loose materials over, being prior to experience in the order of thought and thrown out by Schelling. Hegel’s genius was severely of nature, though posterior to it in the order of time, are systematic; and the Anschauung which his illustrious necessary in order to the possibility of experience itself. friend had invented as an organ of constructive thinking, But while vindicating, with a hitherto unequalled power was to him only a stumbling-block. It grieved him to see and success, the independence of onx a priori knowledge the absolute arrived at in this arbitrary way—“ shot,” as he to experience, Kant left experience itself and its a poste- himself expressed it, “out of a pistol.” So, in place of this riori products on a very unsatisfactory footing. He held intuition, he resolved to substitute a rigidly dialectic method. that the data of the sensory, of perception internal and ex- With this view, he first of all (in his Phaenomenologie) ternal, must be recognized as valid for practical purposes; instituted an inquiry into the process by which, in point of but he refused to recognize their truth and validity within fact, man does arrive at the knowledge of the absolute. the sphere of speculation. As he was thus confessedly This process, both in the individual mind and in that of the unable to bridge over the gulf between the internal and race, he found to embrace three distinct epochs—three sucthe external, the ideal and the real, his system was one cessive, progressive, and mutually connected stages of inof virtual idealism. The Gordian knot which Kant thus telligence. The first is that of pure and simple sensational failed to untie was boldly cut by the subjective idealism intuition; in which the subject is barely conscious, being of Fichte. Beginning with the admitted impossibility of aware of no object, but merely of a “ here ” and a “ now.” establishing the existence of an external world, Fichte car- The second is that of perception or understanding ; in which ried it out to this conclusion, that for man there is no exter- the subject and object appear as diverse and contrasted; nal world; that as no other thing is known to him, so in in which they are regarded only as opposites or contraries; fact no other thing exists for him, but his own mind ; that in which the thinker regards the objects of his thought as self, or the “ egoJ is the universe. The objective idealism of having an independent existence, and forming a world disSchelling was an attempt to deliver the human spirit from the tinct from the thought itself. The third, last, and highest, is prison-house of the ego in which it had been thus pent up by that of absolute thought. Here the point of view is reached Fichte. The question was, how to find a way out of it to the from which man attains to the knowledge of the absolute knowledge of something beyond. The good old way of com- The multiplicity of the second epoch or stage now disap-

283 HEGEL. pears, by being brought back into a unity—a unity which realities of the spirit-world in the light of the Hegelian pan- Hegel, consists in the recognized identity of the seemingly con- theistic idealism, that its frightful consequences fully unfold trasted opposites. But this recognition is now no longer, themselves to our view. In reviewing Hegel’s deduction as in the first epoch, a mere undeveloped sensation ; it is of the universe from the abstract idea (or being = nothing), an act of thought, carrying along with it a distinct con- we naturally inquire, Where is God to find a place in this sciousness of the seeming or phenomenal diversity of the system ? In answer to this, we are told that he is in the universe, as the soul is in the body, “ all in the whole, and all in things thus brought into one. But we have not merely thus reached the point of view every part.” The absolute thought or existence itself is God; from which the absolute is descried, or, in other words, that who, therefore, reaches self-consciousness and personality absolute thought in which the absolute consists. In so only in the person and consciousness of man. This is, in doing we have also discovered the regulative principle— effect, to affirm that there is no God—i.e., that there is no perthat of the identity of contraries—which has presided over sonal, supreme, intelligent being, distinct from and presiding its genetic development. This principle or law is the im- over the universe ; that creation and providence are not the manent fate or inborn necessity of thought. By the force actions of a free agent, but the mechanical operation of a of this law the subject in its first stage is eternally con- nothing, obeying the constraining power of the law of the strained to project itself into an object; and the contrast identity of contraries. To say that though God is not a thus produced gives birth to the second stage. But by the person, yet he is personality realizing itself in man, is only same law the thinker or thought is made to seek for the to say that the only vestige of divinity in the universe is an recognition of the unity of these apparent contraries ; and in attribute of what we are accustomed to regard as one of God’s seeking and finding their unity the last and highest stage imperfect creatures. And while man is thus seemingly exof thought is reached. Further, in thus discovering the alted with one hand into a god, with the other he is reduced development of thought, we have also found the law of the to a phantom. For man is thus not a separate, independent history of being. For thought and existence are identical. person, endowed with a free will, and responsible for his acAnd therefore the principle of the identity of contraries, in tions ; he is but the absolute thought in its highest manifesbeing the law of thought, is also the law of things; and tation, ever moved only by the power of the supreme regulathus we have the materials, not only of a logic, but also of a tive principle of all existence. Human history is not the prometaphysic; the faithful application of this one law will gression of the free, but the necessary evolution of thought, enable us to deduce, from the bare idea of being, a true according to the same all-pervading law of the identity of history of actual things, a complete system of the universe. opposites. And not only is man thus stripped of his disThis, in fact, is what Hegel professes to have accom- tinctive attribute, that of freedom and responsibility, he is plished. His only postulates are, the identity of thought at the same time robbed of his distinctive hope, that of imand existence as a constitutive, and the identity of contra- mortality. There is, no doubt, a verbal admission of man’s ries as a regulative principle. This regulative principle immortality, as there is also of God’s personality. For, it is guides him through all the departments of human know- said, as God finds his personality in man (by being deledge, in all their details and ramifications. Everywhere graded into the finite), so man finds his immortality in God, he finds the same rhythm endlessly repeated, the one un- by having his being absorbed in the infinite, by sinking varied trilogy of, first, the idea simply; then, the idea of oppo- back into unconsciousness. Thus man finds immortality sites as contrasted ; and then, the contraries returning into by ceasing to be, by losing his personality; even as God, a recognized unity. In thus following out his principle to in order to begin to be, in order to find personality, has to its results he has shown wonderful dialectic skill, and at lose his infinity by becoming identified with evanescent the same time lighted incidentally upon many views of real humanity. God is but a shoreless, soulless, thoughtless value to true philosophy. Let us illustrate his principle by ocean of being, ever striving to come into personal existits application. By his self-imposed limitation, he feels ence in the consciousness of men. The generations of men, compelled to begin with the barren, empty idea of being, past, present, and future, are but the separate waves, or eviscerated of all contents, and in fact equal to nothing; rather, the froth on the crest of the waves of the endlessly and from this Seyn = nichts to develop the universe in the evolving tide, destined, each one in succession, to pass following manner1st, We have pre-supposed the bare away into oblivion and nonentity, as they sink back and idea, being, or thought (for they are identical), as yet un- are absorbed in the ocean whose heavings gave them a developed, and recognizing nothing beyond itself. 2d, momentary and phantastic existence. Having thus bereft The immanent necessity of its own law causes thought to humanity of its three grand moving powers—a personal project itself into externality or objectivity ; and thus gives God, a free will, and a real immortality—it only remained to us nature, and the philosophy of nature. 3d, Under that Hegelianism should extend its baleful influence into the the impulse of the same necessity, the thought, or idea, or sphere of revelation. And this has not been left undone. being, is carried to its completed evolution, by a regression While preserving the terminology of orthodox Christianity, to the primitive unity, but now a unity that is consciously and even while professing to be a devout adherent of the recognized; and this self-consciousness gives mind, and Lutheran Church, Hegel contrived to torture the Bible the philosophy of mind. Thus the universe is produced ; itself until it became a witness for his absolute idealism. and by the same method we arrive at all its varied details. Thus the doctrine of the Trinity is that of absolute thought, Speculations so shadowy, unsubstantial, and wildly remote developing itself in the three-fold movement prescribed by from men’s living sympathies and interests, might safely the law of contraries. The fall of man is simply a deparbe allowed to pass away unrecorded into their native dream- ture of the absolute idea into a state of objectivity or exland, if it were not that certain of their practical conse- ternality ; redemption is a method of restoring the unity quences, or rather of their practical aspects, invest them thus lost between the soul and God—i.e., between the phenwith a deep, and even a tragic interest. We might per- omenal opposites ; and the church and its ordinances haps be disposed to recoil from the view which this system are the means by which their reunion is symbolized and gives us even of what we are accustomed to speak of as the realized. The followers of Hegel have been divided into three parmaterial world; for surely to describe nature as being merely one of the manifestations of thought, is not to explain nature, ties. The “ extreme right” endeavour to harmonize the but to substitute a shadow in its place. This, however, might speculations of the Hegelian philosophy with the doctrines be tolerated, side by side with the ingenious speculations of of Christianity, to philosophize with their master, and beour own Berkeley. It is only when we look upon the great lieve with the orthodox Christian. How this can be effected,

284 Hegel,

H E G or even attempted by a sane mind, it is hard for a British intellect to fathom. The “ centre” party, again, hold by the principles of Hegel, and deduce from them their legitimate logical results—among other things, the subversion of the historical truth of Christianity. But even here we find evidence of that strange obliquity ot intellectual and moral vision which, in those of the “ extreme right” we might regard as a misfortune arising from their false position. One of the “ centre” (Strauss), avowedly in application of the Hegelian principles, has made a formal attempt to overthrow the authority of the gospels, and reduce their contents to the rank of mythic fables. Thus far might have been expected. But what we cannot reconcile with the supposition of his possessing the feeblest sense of moral distinction is, that this coryphaeus of infidelity was a doctor in divinity 1 A third party, the “ extreme left,” though not shining among the great lights of philosophy, is yet important because of its extended ramifications in Germany, in France, and even in Britain. But while this party have adopted the negative and destructive results of Hegelianism, they have departed altogether from its real principles, spirit, and method. Hegel himself would be the last to recognize as his legitimate offspring the spurious brood of gross materialistic atheism and red republicanism which has assumed his name. The fontal error, from which consequences so disastrous have flowed, is found in Kant’s refusal to hold as valid for speculation the products of experience, the data of the sensory, of perception and reflection. This refusal was grounded upon the fact that these a joosfen'oW judgments are not, like the a priori, possessed of the qualities of universality and necessity. While the German philosophers, down to Hegel, were unfolding the results of this one-sided system, another, and a wiser, though a humbler philosophy, in Scotland, while vindicating as vigorously as they against sensationalism, the idealistic, or a priori portion of our knowledge,^ was no less firmly contending for the reality and validity ot the a posteriori or contingent elements given in perception and reflection. It was asserted that the only authority, that of consciousnesss, which we possess for the truth of the a priori, speaks no less emphatically for the truth of the a posteriori ; and that, therefore, if upon that authority we accept the one as true, we must also accept the other; if we reject either, we must reject both. But while a direct refutation of the Kantian error was thus being prepared in Scotland, an indirect, and perhaps a more effective one, was being prepared in Germany itself. In the hands of its own adherents the principle that would reject our experience, in being carried out to its full legitimate results, found a reductio ad absurdum. Their fundamental principle, that nought is to be held as valid for metaphysics which does not possess the criterion of necessity and universality, renders metaphysic impossible. For metaphysics is the science of being; and being can be made known to us only as contingent. All being, all actual concrete existence—God, the world, man, personality, identity, freedom, responsibility—is made known to us, and can be made known to us, only as logically contingent; as something that is ; as a matter of fact or history. Being, therefore, can be revealed to us only a posteriori through experience—i.e., through the medium of external and internal perception. And thus, in rejecting experience as a source of knowledge, Kant deprived metaphysics of all its possible materials. That which remains, the law of contradiction and the causal judgment, is purely formal. These a priori principles may themselves be elaborated into the formal sciences of logic and induction ; they may give form to matter obtained through experience ; but they can never themselves give to us any knowledge of existing things—of an object or objects to be constructed into a science of the actual. Thus we

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are shut up to a philosophical rationalism, compelled to Hegira find in our discursive reason itself, not only the principles, 11 but also the constituent elements of our knowledge. It is vain with Fichte and Schelling, after having dethroned in- ^ ergtuitive reason in its normal exercise of perception and reV* flection, to seek fora the lost materials of knowledge by such expedients as the Anschauung”—i.e., the same intuition, but now, in an arbitrary acceptation, and a confessedly abnormal exercise—the same mind, but now raised to a preternatural and extranatural elevation, to which, although the ascent wTere possible, no mortal could be known to ascend, nor would be able to bring down the results of his exstatic vision so as to render them intelligible to the world below. Hegel clearly saw that this Anschauung was but a makeshift. He carried out the rejection of experience to its legitimate results. In his system alone can rationalism be consistent with itself. It is only where thought is existence, where logic is metaphysics, that metaphysics not based on experience can exist. But as soon as it thus exists it ceases to be. For in asserting that thought is not only the organ, but also the whole material and substance of our knowledge of the actual, we are at the same moment admitting that this knowledge has no material whatever. And thus the coryphaeus of idealism is the nemesis of sensationalism; while carrying a false philosophy to its last extreme Hegel has vindicated the true ; he has done modern philosophy the service of furnishing] the most impressive refutation, while presenting the most completely and consistently developed exposition, of the German speculative idealism, (j. m/g.) HEGIRA (from the Arabic hajara, to desert), a Mohammedan epoch, dating from the expulsion of Mohammed from Mecca, July 16, a.d. 622. (See Chronology and Mohammed.) HEIDELBERG, an ancient and interesting city of Southern Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden, and circle of the Lower Rhine. It stands in one of the most beautiful spots in the whole of Germany, on the left bank of the Neckar (here spanned by a covered bridge of nine arches, and more than 700 feet in length), about 12 miles above its confluence with the Rhine at Mannheim ; N. Lat. 49. 25., E. Long. 8. 42. The town is picturesquely situated at the foot of the finely wooded hills which slope towards the river, while the rising grounds on the opposite bank are covered with the richest vineyards. To the S. is the Konigstuhl, or king’s seat, which, since it was ascended in 1802 by the Emperor Francis, has been called the Kaiserstuhl. On the top of this hill, which is 2000 feet high, a tower has been erected, from which charming glimpses of the distant Rhine are to be had. In fine weather the spire of Strasburg Cathedral, 90 miles distant, is plainly visible. The streets of the town, which diverge nearly all from one central street, the Haupt-strasse, are narrow and gloomy ; and the interest attaching to the great public buildings is more historical than artistic. All the splendid monuments of architecture in which it once abounded have long since perished in the many bloody wars, sieges, and conflagrations, from which the town has suffered so terribly. Of the extant buildings may be mentioned the church of the Holy Ghost in the market-place, which is divided by a partition wall, so that the Catholic and Protestant services are conducted simultaneously in the different compartments; and the church of St Peter, the oldest in the town, and memorable as the scene of the daring exploit of Jerome of Prague, who hung up on its gate his celebrated thesis, in which he attacked the doctrines and practice of the Church of Rome. In the adjoining churchyard is the tomb of the learned Olympia Morata, whose history in many respects resembles that of the celebrated Hypatia. There are two other churches of inferior interest, and a Jewish synagogue. The university, of which the buildings stand in a small square near the centre of the town, is, with the exception of that of Prague, the oldest

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[eilbronn. in Germany, having been founded in 1386. The number of carpets, tobacco, silver articles, and chemicals. Pop. about Heiligenst fc ^ students that flocked to it at one time was very great; but 10,000. HEILIGENSTADT, a town in Prussian Saxony, capiJccius# Hein their annual average is now not more than about 700. In > the departments of law and medicine it still maintains its tal of a cognominal circle in the government of Erfurt, 32 ^ ^ miles E.N.E. of Cassel, on the Leine. It has a castle, ^ ancient renown. Mittermeyer the jurist, and Tiedemann the anatomist, are acknowledged to rank among the first ol gymnasium, normal school for Roman Catholics, five modern authorities on their respective subjects. Near the churches, and two orphan asylums. Its chief manufacuniversity is the library, which contains 150,000 volumes, tures are woollen yarns and wooden clocks. Pop. (1849) besides numerous and valuable MSS. The famous Pala- 5240. Under the French Heiligenstadt was capital of the tine library, sacked and pillaged in the Thirty \ ears’ \\ ar, department of Harz. HEINE, Heinrich, a distinguished German poet and was partly restored in 1815 by Pope Pius VII., to whose predecessors a portion of it had been sent as a present by miscellaneous writer, was born at Dusseldorf, Dec. 13, the Bavarians. There is a tradition that Tilly the impe- 1799. His father was a Jewish merchant in that city, in rialist general, being in want of straw for his cavalry alter circumstances so humble that without the aid of a wealthy the storming of the town, used the invaluable MSS. of the brother in Hamburgh he would not have been able to eduelector’s library to litter his horses. In a suburban build- cate the future poet. On leaving school in 1819 the young ing, formerly a Dominican convent, are good museums of Heine became a student of law at Bonn, where he wrote anatomy and zoology. By far the most interesting relic of the now forgotten tragedies of Almansa and Ratcliffe, and the past in Heidelberg is the castle, once the residence of the some short miscellaneous pieces. In the following year he elector's palatine, and a magnificent combination of the pa- removed to Gottingen, which in a little while he exchanged lace and the fortress. It is now in ruins, but is sufficiently for Berlin, where he mixed with the fashionable literary well preserved to show the tastes of the different occupants, circles. In 1823 he returned to Gottingen, and in due time who added to it the architectural styles of the successive he graduated there as doctor of law. He first attracted (Pictures of Travel), centuries, and the horrors of war in the three conflagrations notice as an author by his and ten sieges which it had to undergo. In the beginning begun in 1826 and finished in 1829. His Buck der Lieof last century it was rebuilt and restored to its old mag- der (Book of Songs), extended his reputation ; and when the nificence ; but in 1764 it was set on fire by lightning, and expulsion of the old Bourbons from France in 1830 seemed burnt to the ground, and since that time it has continued to point to Paris as the future centre of political action and to crumble away an untenanted ruin. In one of the cellars liberty in continental Europe, Heine established himself in is the famous Heidelberg tun, constructed in 1751, and that city, and remained there till his death, Feb. 18, 1856. It able to contain 800 hogsheads of wine. It has never been was in Paris that he wrote his Salon, and Romantische Schule, filled, however, since 1769. The view to be obtained from two collections of poems entitled respectively Neue Gedichte the castle-rock is in its way one of the finest in Europe, and Romanzen, and his Vermischte Schriften (Miscellaneous Works), published in 1854. During the ministry of Guizot and has afforded the material for many a poet’s song. The causes of the decay of Heidelberg are not difficult he enjoyed a pension of 4000 francs from the French goto trace. In 1622, the era of the Thirty Years’ Mar, it vernment. Since the days of Voltaire there has been no such scofwas taken by Tilly after a month’s siege, and delivered over to plunder for three days. Eleven years later it was fer as Heine; and were it credible that his cynicism was recovered by the Swedes, who did the town nearly as much wholly genuine, Voltaire might in comparison with him be damage as the Austrians had done. But the cruelties and almost called an orthodox Christian. Nothing that men brutalities of this period were far surpassed by those which have ever considered sacred or estimable has escaped his sneer. devastated the town at the close of the seventeenth cen- Christianity of course he mocked at; and when in his latter tury, when the French under Turenne turned the whole years he professed himself a convert to it, it was discovered palatinate into a desert. In 1688 the town was again from his own Confessions that he had not embraced Chrisstormed and plundered by the trench under Melac, in tianity, but had merely ceased openly to countenance athecomparison with whom the brutal Tilly was a humane ism, because it had grown vulgar. He alternately mocked commander and a generous foe. Five years later Melac and praised every generous and noble sentiment; and he was in his turn outstripped and left behind by Chamilly, found an endless subject of scoffing in the diseases that whose fiendish excesses have made the French name a confined him almost entirely to his bed during the last byeword of horror and execration in Germany to this day. eight years of his life. The very agonies of mental and It is matter of wonder that after such a history Heidelberg physical torment that he underwent he seemed to delight should exist at all. It is a place of no commercial acti- in intensifying by describing them in their minutest details, vity, and is increasing very slowly. Were it not for the and then laughing at them and his own descriptions of students and the visitors, whom the beauty and cheapness them. His poetry repays perusal better than his prose, of the place attract in considerable numbers, the general which is often flippant, epigrammatic, and merely smart; but his poetry is in a style peculiarly his own. “ Other stagnation would be complete. Pop. about lo,000. HEILBRONN, a fortified town of Wiirtemberg, form- bards,” says a recent critic, “ have passed from grave to gay erly a free imperial city, on the right bank of the Neckar, within the compass of one work ; but the art of constantly 26 miles N. of Stuttgart. The most interesting of its showing two natures within the small limit of perhaps three buildings is the church of St Kilian, a Gothic edifice with ballad-verses was reserved for Heine. No one like him a beautiful tower (225 feet high), the lower part of which understands how to build up a little edifice of the tenderest was built in the thirteenth century, the upper part in 1529. and most refined sentiment for the mere pleasure of knockThe town-hall is an antique building, in which some inte- ing it down with a last line. No man like him approaches resting ancient records are deposited ; and in the outskirts his reader with a doleful countenance, and pours in the ear of the town is the tower in which Gotz von Berlichingen a tale of secret sorrow, and when the sympathies are enwas confined in 1525. The house of the Teutonic knights listed, surprises his confidant with a horse-laugh.” He is now used as a barrack. Heilbronn has a gymnasium, ridiculed with merciless sarcasm the very democracy of public library, and a richly endowed hospital. The vicinity which he had been at one time the apostle and the martyr. HEINECCIUS, Johann Gottlieb, one of the most produces a tolerably good wine, and the town itself carries on an extensive transit trade between Frankfurt and South learned jurists of Germany, was born at Eisenberg in SaxGermany. Its chief manufactures are woollen cloths ony, Sept. 21, 1681. His life is totally unmarked by any

286 II E I Heinsius. event or incident of importance. He held a chair first of philosophy and afterwards of law at Halle, from which in 1724 he was transferred to a similar chair at Franeker in West Friesland. He next migrated to Frankfort-on-theOder, where he remained till 1733, when he once more resumed his professorship at Halle, where he died in 1741. A list of his numerous works will be found in the Bibliotheque Germanique, tom. ii., part 1st. The principal are—Fundamenta styli cultioris una cum Sylloge exemplorum, Halle, 1719, in 8vo; Elementa Philosophies Rationalis et Moralis, quibus preemissa Historia Philosophica, Francfort, 1728, in 8vo; Antiquitatum Romanarum Jurisprudentiam illustrantium Syntagma juxta seriem Institutionum Justiniani, Halle, 1718, in 8vo; Elementa Juris Naturae et Gentium, Halle, 1738, in 8vo; Prcelectiones Academical in H. Grotii de Jure Belli ac Pads libros, Berlin, 1744, in 8vo ; Prcelectiones Academicae in Sam. Puffendorf de Officio Hominis et Civis, ibid. 1742, in 8vo; Historia Juris Civilis Romani ac Germanici, Halle, 1735, in 8vo; Elementa Juris Civilis secundum ordinem Institutionum, Franeker, 1725, in 8vo; Elementa Juris Civilis secundum ordinem Pandectarum, Francfort, 1756, in 2 vols. 8vo ; Elementa Juris Cambialis, Amsterdam, 1743, in 8vo. The works of Heineccius were collected and published by Uhl, professor at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, under the title of Opera ad Universam Jurisprudentiam, Philosophiam, et Litter as humaniorcs pertinentia, Geneva, 1744—48, in 8 vols. 4to, reprinted in the same city, with additions, 1771, in 9 vols. 4to; and to these two editions a supplementary volume was at the same time added. After the works of Cujas, this collection is perhaps the most valuable and necessary to a student of jurisprudence. The commentary of Heineccius on the Julian and Papian laws would alone suffice to place him in the rank of the greatest jurisconsults ; and if his authority has decreased somewhat in Germany, which we believe to be the case, it is because his successors, profiting by his researches, have been enabled to surpass him. We are also indebted to Heineccius for editions of the Jurisprudentia Romana et Attica, Leyden, 1738, in 3 vols. folio, with a learned preface prefixed to the first volume. HEINSIUS, Daniel, a distinguished Dutch scholar, was born at Ghent, of a noble family, in 1580. The Low Countries were then distracted by civil wars, which compelled his father to fly with him for safety to England. After a short residence in that country, the family returned home, and the young Heinsius was sent to Franeker to study law. He soon exchanged law for Greek, however, and removed from Franeker to Leyden to enjoy the tuition of Joseph Scaliger. After holding some minor appointments at that university, he was made professor of politics and history at the age of twenty-five, and, on the death of Paul Merula, librarian and secretary of the university. His editions of the classics made him so famous that his services were courted by nearly every crowned head in Europe, but he steadily refused to leave his country, whose historiographer he had now become. In 1618 he acted as secretary to the synod of Dort, having already distinguished himself in the theological controversies of the day. In his later years he suffered greatly from the failure of his memory. He died Feb. 23, 1655. His works consist of—Editions of the Greek and Latin classics, or works of criticism connected with them, amounting to eighteen in number—Latin poetry, particularly Iambi ; Auriacus, a tragedy ; Herodes Infanticida, also a tragedy ; De Contemptu Mortis, a poem in four books; fugitive pieces under the titles of Extemporanea and Juvenilia, and some Greek poems ; Latin harangues, which have been collected under the title of Orationes Varii Argumenti, Leyden, 1615, 1620, in 12mo; Rerum ad Sylvam Ducis atque alibi in Belgio aut a Belgis anno 1629 qestarum Historia, Leyden, 1631, in folio. (j. b—e.) Heinsius, Nicolas, was the son of Daniel Heinsius, and obtained nearly equal eminence with his father as a scholar. He was born at Leyden in 1629, and was educated there by his father, as well as by Grotius, Gronovius, and other celebrated scholars. In 1642 he visited England previous to commencing a literary tour through France, Italy, and Sweden. In 1659, on the invitation of Queen Christina, he settled at Stockholm, and remained there till his father’s

H E I death in 1655 recalled him home. After his return to Heir-atSweden he was in 1667 sent as ambassador to the Czar of Law Moscow, from which he returned with broken health and Jl spirits. The remaining ten years of his life he spent IIeir.l)11y for the most part in Holland, and died at the Hague, tion " October 7, 1681. His principal works were his Claudian, i with notes, Leyden, 1650, in 12mo, and Amsterdam, 1665, in 8vo ; Ovid, with notes, ibid., 1652, 1661, 1668, in three vols. 12mo ; Virgil, without notes, Amsterdam, 1676, and Utrecht, 1704, in 12mo; Valerius Flaccus, without notes, Amsterdam, 1680, in 12mo; Remarks on Silius Italicus, Petronius, and Phaedrus ; A great number of Letters, which may be found in the Sylloge Epistolarum of Burmann, in 5 vols. 4to ; Poemata, the best edition of which is that of Elzevir, Amsterdam, 1666, in 8vo, dedicated by the author to the Duke of Montausier. Peter Burmann the younger also published Nic. Heinsii Adversariorum, libri v., followed by the notes of Heinsius on Catullus and Propertius ; and the same author also cites inedited notes of Heinsius on Tacitus, on the dialogue De Claris Oratoribus, and on the Catalecta veterum Poetarum. HEIR-AT-LAW, is a person who succeeds to another by descent. Both in England and Scotland, estates, in the absence of a different special destination, descend to heirs in the direct line, however remote. The exclusion of parents, until the extinction of all descendants, both direct and collateral, is almost peculiar to the laws of these kingdoms. By the Jewish law, on the failure of issue, a father succeeded to his deceased son, to the exclusion of the son’s brothers, unless one of them married and had issue by his widow. By the Roman law, on the failure of children or lineal descendants, the father and mother, or other lineal ascendants succeeded, together with the deceased’s brothers and sisters. As a consequence, however, of the feudal system in Britain, a landed estate descends to sons, in the order of their seniority—the issue of the elder son always excluding the immediate younger son, and so on through the whole sons. It is only in default of such issue that daughters succeed, and then they succeed equally. The children of a deceased child in the order now mentioned, represent the parent, and exclude all relatives which such deceased parent, if surviving, would have excluded. By this rule the son of an eldest son, and failing him and his issue, the daughters of an eldest son, equally among them, and their descendants, exclude the other sons and daughters of the ancestor, and so on through all the ancestor’s children. On the entire failure of lineal descendants, the estate goes to collateral heirs—that is, the ancestor’s immediate younger brothers in the order above mentioned, and their issue ; failing whom it goes to his sisters equally and their issue. On the entire failure of collateral descendants, it goes to the ancestor’s father, then collaterally to the ancestor’s uncles and their descendants; whom failing, to his aunts (the latter equally) and their descendants. It is only on the failure of all these, that the succession opens to the grandfather, and next to his relatives. There is no succession by or through the mother, unless the estate came from her. In Scotland where an estate is not acquired by inheritance, it is called conquest; and in all competitions among brothers or uncles, or their descendants regarding conquest, it is not the immediate younger brother or uncle, as in heritage, who succeeds, but the immediate elder brother or uncle. Heir by Destination, sometimes called “ heir of provision,” is a person called to succeed by the will of the proprietor, either directly, or on the failure of persons to whom the estate is primarily conveyed. Any absolute proprietor executing a conveyance of his estate, can regulate the order of succession; but unless the specified destination be protected and enforced by certain legal prohibitions and re-

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straints, attention to which require all the skill of the practised conveyancer, a hope of succession is merely created, which may be defeated by each heir as he enters on the p0?session. tlKm-apparent is a person so called in the lifetime of his ancestor, whose right of succession is indefeasible, provided he outlive the ancestor; as the right of the next heir to the throne, or to an estate under a deed of entail, or under the marriage-contract of his parents. WTAK-presumptive is one who, if his ancestor should die under existing circumstances, would be his heir, but whose right of succession may be defeated by various contingencies, such as the subsequent existence of a nearer heir, even though by posthumous birth, or the special conveyance of the estate by the ancestor to a different person. HELDER, a fortified seaport town on a projecting tongue of land at the N. extremity of North Holland. It is separated by the Mars diep from the island of Texel, and stands 40 miles N. W. of Amsterdam. It commands the Mars diep, the channel to the Zuider Zee. East of the town is the fine harbour of Nieuwe diep, accessible to the largest ships. It is connected with Amsterdam by the Helder Canal, by means of which the largest merchant vessels reach Amsterdam without encountering the difficult navigation of the Zuider Zee. This canal is 50 miles in length, 125 feet broad at the surface, and 21 feet deep. The Dutch admiral, Van Tromp, wras killed in an engagement off Helder in 1693. It was taken by the British under Sir Ralph Abercrombie in 1799. Pop. about 2900. HELENA, the daughter of Leda (wife of Tyndareus, king of Sparta), and of Jupiter, who, under the form of a swan, had obtained the favours of the queen. In consequence of this amour she produced two eggs, from one of which sprang Castor and Clytemnestra (both mortal, as being children of Tyndareus), and from the other Pollux and Helena, who were considered immortal, as the offspring of Jupiter. From her infancy she possessed that dazzling beauty which became in the course of time so fatal to her admirers. About the age of ten she was carried off by Theseus, who concealed her at Aphidnm, in Attica, under the protection of his mother TEthra. She was rescued by her brothers, Castor and Pollux, who discovered her place of concealment by means of Academus. They carried off at the same time /Ethra, who henceforth remained the captive slave of Helen. This adventure did not prevent her from being sought in marriage by all the young princes of Greece. The most celebrated of her suitors were Menelaus, Diomede, Philoctetes, Idomeneus, Merione, Amphilochus, Patroclus, the two Ajaxes, Teucer, Antilochus, Ulysses, with others to the number of thirty. Her father, lyndareus, was alarmed at the number of her suitors, believing that the preference he showed to one would bring on him the displeasure of all the rest. He was relieved from this dilemma by Ulysses, on condition he should receive the hand of his niece Penelope in marriage. His advice w^as to bind all the princes by an oath that they would yield implicitly to the will of the princess, and that they would unite to defend her if any attempt should be made to carry her off from the arms of her husband. The rivals consented, and Helen decided in favour of Menelaus, who thus became the heir apparent, and soon afterwards possessor, of the throne of Sparta. By her he had a daughter, Hermione, and two sons, Morrhaphius and Diethus. Venus had promised to Paris the possession of the most beautiful of women. At her instigation, he proceeded to Sparta during the absence of Menelaus, and succeeded in gaining the affections of Helen, and in inducing her to quit her husband and her country. It was in vain that Menelaus sent to Troy to demand back his wife, in vain that the sons of Atreus threatened that all Greece would march against

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Troy. During the celebrated Trojan War she remained Helena, St. faithful to Paris, and had by him Bunichus, Agane, Idaeus, and Corythus. On the death of Paris she married Deiphobus, the bravest of the sons of Priam after Hector; arid on the taking of Troy, she is said to have betrayed him in order that she might ingratiate herself with Menelaus. It appears that Menelaus forgave her, and that they proceeded on their way to Sparta, where, according to some, they did not arrive till the space of eight years had elapsed. Here they received the visit of Telemachus, who had been sent by his mother in search of his father Ulysses. And here the legend of Homer ends. According to Euripides, she was killed by Orestes, her son-in-law, or she was banished by her step-sons, Megapenthes and Nicostratus, when she retired to the island of Rhodes, where she was suffocated in a bath. Helena, St, the mother of the Emperor Constantine, was born of humble parents in Bithynia. The place of her birth was the little town of Drepanum which her son afterwards raised to the dignity of a city, under the name of Helenopolis. Reasons of state compelled her husband (Constantius Chlorus) to divorce her when he assumed the purple in a.d. 292; but she was amply compensated for this indignity by her son Constantine. After her conversion to the Christian faith, which seems to have been effected by her son, she made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where she is said to have discovered the Saviour’s tomb, and the real wood of his cross. She exhibited so many virtues and so much Christian zeal and charity, that in due time after her death, which happened in a.d. 328, she was canonized by the church. HELENA, St, an island in the S. Atlantic, belonging to Britain ; S. Lat. 15. 55. 26. ; W. Long. 5. 42. 30. It is about midway between Africa and South America, 1800 miles from the Cape of Good Hope, and 600 miles from the Island of Ascension. Its extreme breadth is 7 miles ; and its greatest length 11 miles; its area is 30,300 English acres. The geology of St Helena is interesting. 1 he island may be considered as the highest peak of a range of mountains traversing the S. Atlantic, and is most probably an extinct tertiary volcano. Geologists have been unable to fix with exactness its chronological position. The volcanic forces which have produced the complicated disturbances so conspicuous throughout the island, must have ceased at a very remote period, as it has evidently retained for ages its existing conformation. The climate of St Helena, though within the tropics, is temperate and healthy, and not unfavourable even to European constitutions. In James’ Town (600 feet above sealevel), the thermometer seldom rises above 80° ; but in calm weather the heat reflected from the sides of the valley is often oppressive. In the open country the temperature is more uniform and mild, scarcely so hot and never so cold as in England. During some seasons the highest point of the thermometer during the summer has been only 72 ^in the interior ; and the ordinary range during winter from 55 to 56°. The soil of St Helena is clayey, and in many places of considerable depth. Vegetation is very luxuriant in the island, which is abundantly supplied with water from 160 excellent wells. In some parts of the island iron ore has been found, but the scarcity of fuel prevents it from being smelted. Gold and copper have been observed in small quantities. Concrete limestone is excellent in quality and abundant. I he hills are covered with furze and various indigenous shrubs and trees. Of the latter the most abundant is the gumwood, of which there are three kinds, the common, the bastard, and the dwarf gum-tree. Other native trees are stringwood, dogwood, redwood or ebony, and the cabbagetree, of which the last two are very durable as building

II E L 288 II E L Helens- timber. Oaks, cypress, and pinaster, have been introduced distance from it as to become visible before sun-rising, Heliades burgh the plantations and thrive well. 1 be ferns of St Helena The heliacal setting of a star denotes its entering into the HeligoI are numerous, and the myrtle grows to the height of 30 feet. sun’s rays, and thus becoming lost in the superior splendour land. Heliacal. The cotton p]ant alg0 thrives Very well. Fruits ripen best of that luminary. HELIADES. See Phatthon. in the valleys near the coast, but every farm produces in HELIiE A, the chief law-court of Athens, at which stateabundance the common fruits and vegetables both of theti opical and temperate zones. The attempts to grow cereals offences were tried, and which was probably presided over have not succeeded. Of the 756 species of plants now found by the Thesmothetse. HELICON, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated mounin the island only 52 are natives. The cattle, sheep, and tain range in Bceotia, lying between the Lake Copais and goats on the island are of English origin. The greater part of the surface of St Helena is waste- the Corinthian Gulf. It was the fabled abode and favourite land ; but about 160 acres have been reclaimed and brought haunt of the muses, thence called Heliconides and Heliinto cultivation, 7000 improved as pasture ground, and coniades. On the hill-side was a grove sacred to these 28,000 are suitable for grazing sheep and goats. Such deities, not far from which was the celebrated fountain of Aganippe. About twenty stadia from this same grove was roads as exist are wretched. In 1851 the total revenue of the island was L.l 7,177, and the still more famous fount Hippocrene (horse’s well), said to have been made by the foot of the winged horse Pegasus. total expenditure L.16,427. The supreme authority is vested in a governor, and a The mountain is nearly equal to Parnassus in circumfercouncil composed of the lieutenant-governor, colonial-secre- ence, but not much more than half as high. Its highest tary, and chief-justice. When the council is not assembled peak, Paleovuni, is rather less than 5000 feet in height, while Parnassus is more than 8000. The eastern slopes of the whole authority of the board centres in the governor. Helicon are well-watered and fertile, and produce a great St Helena was discovered by the Portuguese in 1501. They suc- variety of trees and fruits. Those on the western side are ceeded in concealing the position of St Helena from other European nations till 1588, when it was descried and visited by Captain Ca- less productive. Helicon owes its celebrity chiefly to its poetical associavendish on his way home from a voyage round the world. Soon after this it became well known to the Dutch and Spaniards. In tions; and it became famous in Greek poetry, from its neighcourse of time it was abandoned by the Portuguese, and taken pos- hood to Ascra, the birth-place of Hesiod, the first and session of by the Dutch, who in turn abandoned it on the establish- greatest poet of his class, who was born in Greece Proper. ment of their colony at the Cape of Good Hope in 1651. On their HELIER, St, the capital of Jersey ; N. Lat. 49. 11., W. departure the English East India Company formed a settlement upon St Helena, and about ten years afterwards obtained from Long. 2. 6. It is situated on St Aubin’s Bay, on the S. Charles II. a charter for its possession. In 1665 the Dutch suc- coast of the island, between two rocky heights, on one of cessfully attacked the island, but in a few months were driven out which stands Fort Regent, an irregular fort of great of it by the English. Again, in 1672, the Dutch recaptured it, strength, erected in 1806, at a cost of L.800,000. The through the treachery of the planters; but it was almost imme- fortress of Elizabeth Castle, capable of containing 600 diately recovered by an English squadron, under Captain Munden, and again restored to the East India Company. As the trade of men, stands on a small rocky island, which, though about a the East India Company increased, the importance of the island mile from the shore, is accessible at low water by a long became daily more apparent. natural causeway. The port is large, and consists of an But the chief historical interest of St Helena centres in inner and an outer harbour, the latter completed in 1846. Longwood House, the residence of the exiled Emperor The town of St Flelier is rapidly extending; and in the Napoleon from 1815 till his death, May 5, 1821. I he outskirts there are many handsome villas. The court-house house in which the Emperor lived has been allowed to fall in the Royal Square is a plain structure erected in 1647. gradually into decay ever since his body was removed to In it the “ states assembly” hold their meetings. The paFrance in 1841. (Brooke’s History of the Island of St rish church w as built in 1341. The theatre is a neat buildHelena; Johnson’s Account of St Helena; Beatson’s ing, with a light portico. St Helier has a public library and reading-rooms, baths, savings bank, hospital, and seveTracts relative to the Island of St Helena, &c.) In 1805, the pop. was 3078; in 1823, 4381 (composed ral other benevolent institutions. Shipbuilding is extenof 1201 whites, 911 in the civil and military establishments, sively carried on. The cheapness of living has induced 1074 slaves, 729 free coloured, 442 Chinese, and 24 Las- many persons of limited means to settle here. Pop. (1851) cars); in 1839, 4205; in 1849, the total military force 29,133. HELIGOLAND, properly Helgeiand, Holt amounted to about 1500 regular troops, besides four volunteer companies of white and black militia. Soldiers are Lane, a small cluster of islets belonging to Great Britain in sometimes placed at St Helena to undergo a seasoning pre- the German Ocean, about 25 miles off the coast of Holvious to being sent to India; and this island and the Cape stein, and about the same distance from the mouth of the of Good Hope are the principal stations to which captured Elbe. The group consists of Heligoland (which gives name to the whole cluster), Sandy Island, and a great number of slaves are brought, and employed in public works. HELENSBURGH, a burgh of barony, and a fashion- banks, reefs, and uninhabited cliffs, of which latter the largest ablewatering-place, Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on the Firth is called the Monk. The islet of Heligoland is only about three miles in circumference. It consists of two distinct of Clyde, opposite Greenock. Pop. (1851) 2841. HELEN US, one of the sons of Priam and Hecuba. He parts, the low ground and the rock. The latter, which rises distinguished himself during the Trojan War by his valour, with an almost perpendicular abruptness to the height of beand by the gift of prophecy which he possessed. He be- tween 150 and 200 feet above the sea, consists of a reddish came the captive of Ulysses, who afterwards made him sandstone, and has a very striking aspect from the sea. over to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles. When Neopto- The flats at its foot produce a little corn, and are chiefly valemus returned home, he took his prisoner with him, and luable for the excellent double harbour which they preassigned Andromache to him as his wife. Helenus after- sent. To the east of them is an excellent roadstead, well wards became king of a part of Epirus, and was visited sheltered, and capable of accommodating the largest vessels. Heligoland is said to have been at one time much larger there by Ainseas while on his way to Italy. HELIACAL, a term applied to a star or planet, with than it is now ; and Sir C. Lyell, in his Principles of Georeference either to its emergence from the light of the sun, logy, endeavours to prove, that since the year 800 it has or immergence into it. A star is said to rise heliacally when, been gradually crumbling away before the action of the after being in conjunction with the sun, it gets at such a currents. Portions of the island, it is quite true, have been

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[eliodorus swept away; but it has also been thought that the famous || map by Meyer, which exhibits the island as containing nine Heliostat. parishes, &c., is a mere fiction. A comparison of the oldest extant maps of good authority shows, that the amount of destruction for the whole circumference in the course of a century does not exceed three feet. The people of Heligoland live chiefly on the rocky part of the island ; a few fishermen only inhabiting the flats. The native inhabitants support themselves principally by fishing and piloting. Though the island has been in possession of the English since 1807, there are almost no English residents except the governor and his suite, and the garrison. During the great continental war, however, when Heligoland became the depot of a vast quantity of merchandise, which was thence smuggled into the Continent, the population rose to upwards of 4000, and the commercial interests of the place became very considerable. A lighthouse and batteries have been erected by the English for the protection of the island and shipping. Heligoland was anciently inhabited by the Frisii, and it is believed that the famous temple of the Frisic god Fosete stood on the island. This temple was destroyed in the eighth century, at the time when the inhabitants embraced Christianity. The existing natives speak the language of the old Frieslanders, whose customs, manners, and dress, they have also retained with slight modifications. Pop. about 2300. HELIODORUS, the first and best of the Greek romancers, was born at Emesa in Syria, and flourished under Theodosius at the close of the fourth century. Nothing is known of his personal history, except that he became bishop of Tricca in Thessaly, and compelled every married priest in his diocese to put away his wife as soon as he applied for ordination. His famous romance, the Althiopica,—so called, because the scene is laid in ^Ethiopia,—narrates the loves of Theagenes and Chariclea. The work is interesting, both because it exhibits the first germs of the great modern art of novel-writing, and because the story as a story has very considerable merit. The adventures are, perhaps, too numerous ; and, besides following in too rapid succession, are occasionally rather improbable ; yet both the main plot and the episodes are well managed, the characters are well drawn, and the scenery is well described. The language, too, though somewhat deficient in point and terseness, is natural and pleasing. The JEthiopica was not known to modern scholars except by repute, till the sack of Ofen in 1526, when a MS. copy from the library of Matthew Corvinus fell into the hands of a German soldier, who carried it off with him into his own country. It passed into the hands of Obsopaeus, by whom it was printed at Basle in 1538. Other MSS. were discovered, and new and more correct editions followed. The most recent is also the best—that of Coraes, Paris, 1804. HELIOMETER (^Aios, sun, and plrpov, measure), the name given by Bouguer, to a kind of double-image micrometer for measuring the diameters of the stars, and especially those of the sun and moon, or any small apparent dis^ tance between the heavenly bodies. Mr Savary of Exeter communicated to the Royal Society, in the year 1743, an account of a double-image micrometer, from which the 7/eliometer proposed by Bouguer, five years afterwards (1748), does not differ in construction. This instrument is described under the head Micrometer, in which the various improvements it has received are given in detail. HELIOPOLIS, i.e., the city of the sun, in Ancient Geography, a town in Lower Egypt, on the right bank of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, not far from the point where it diverges from the main stream. See Egypt. Heliopolis, the classical name of Baalbec in Syria. See Baalbec. HELIOSTAT, in Optics, the name given by s’Gravesande to an instrument devised by him for the purpose of YOL. XI.

H E L 289 fixing, as it were, the solar rays during the whole time of Heliotropi observation—namely, by reflecting them in the same straight II line by a mirror, to which a proper motion is given by n^i1ca^°' means of clockwork. The original instrument is described v ' t in his Phys. Elementa Mathematica; but it has been greatly improved by Mains and others. HELIOTROPE {heliotropium), amongst the ancients, an instrument or machine for showing when the sun arrived at the tropics and the equinoctial line. This name was also used generally for a sun-dial. Heliotrope, a siliceous mineral of a dark green colour, and variegated commonly with bright red spots, whence it is called hcematite, or bloodstone. See Mineralogy. Heliotrope, a genus of plants of the nat. ord. Ehretiacece. H. peruvianum and some other species are much cultivated on account of their fragrance. HELIX (eAi£, a wreath or winding), a spiral line. In architecture, some authors make a difference between the helix and the spiral. A staircase, according to Daviler, is helical when the steps wind round a cylindrical newel; whereas the spiral winds round a cone, and is continually approaching nearer and nearer its axis. This term is also applied to the caulicules or little volutes under the flowers of the Corinthian capital. HELLANICUS, of Mitylene, the best of the old Greek logographers, lived and wrote in the fifth century b.c. His exact era is not known ; but the best authorities place the date of his birth in B.c. 496, and of his death in b.c. 411. Nothing is known of his personal history except that he died at Perperene, a town of Mysia, opposite the island of Lesbos. His works, which were very numerous, and are frequently alluded to in the classics, are only known to us from the fragments that still survive. They seem to have comprised treatises on mythology, history, and chronology. Of these the most important were his Atthis, or History of Attica from the remotest times ; his AEolica, Persica, and Junonis Sacerdotes. This last-mentioned work is a History of Argos arranged chronologically according to the succession of the priestesses of Juno in the great temple in that city. It contains, however, besides mere dates, a number of traditions and historical events which were afterwards turned to account by Thucydides. Hellanicus was the first Greek who can be said to have even tried to rise above the method of the old logographers, and his success is very partial. His histories are not so much separate works as detached and isolated fragments of the same work, which he had not the skill to work up into an harmonious whole. Thucydides censures his chronology as incorrect. The fragments of Hellanicus have been published by Sturz, Leipzig, 1787; and again in 1826 in the Museum Criticum ; and in Muller’s Fragmenta Historicor. Grcec. LIELLANODICdB, in Grecian Antiquity, the chief judges at the Olympic games. They were chosen by lot from the whole body of the Elean people, to whom the entire management of the festival belonged. They were originally only two in number, but were afterwards increased to nine, three of whom superintended the horse-races, three the pentathlon, and three the other sports. A tenth judge was next added, and in the 103d olympiad, when the Elean phylse were twelve in number, the judges were next increased to twelve, one being chosen from each phyla. In the war between the Eleans and the Arcadians (104th olymp.) the former lost a considerable extent of territory, and the hellanodica? were reduced from twelve to eight. A few years afterwards, however, their number was increased to ten, and remained unchanged till the time of Pausanias, from whom most of our information on the subject of these umpires is derived. For ten months before the games began the hellanodicae were trained in their duties by certain Elean magistrates entitled nomophylaces. Their duties, which only lasted over one festival, consisted in 2o

290 Hellas II , Helminip ogy.^

H E L seeing that the laws were strictly observed by the competitors and others who took part in the games, in adjudging the pr;zeS) an{} awarding them to the victors. The hellanodicae yppj-g in high esteem in virtue of their office, and were allowed to wear a handsome uniform. The best seats at the games were also reserved for them. All the details of the arrangements were controlled by them. HELLAS. See Greece. HELLE, in Grecian Mythology, was the daughter of Athamas, king of Thebes, and the goddess Nephele, whom be had married at the command of Juno. Athamas, however, secretly loved the mortal Ino, and at last took her to bis home as his wife. Dissensions, of course, sprang up between the wives and their respective families. Athamas went to Delphi to consult the oracle as to the best means of restoring domestic harmony. Ino bribed the priestess, and Athamas was told that it wotild be necessary to sacrifice Phrixus, the brother of Helle. Thereupon Nephele and her two children fled for safety towards Asia on the back of the ram with the golden fleece. Helle, however, had the misfortune to slip off its back, and the strait into which she fell was called in her honour, Helles Ponlus or Hellespont, the Sea of Helle. Phrixus, after burying his sister, held on his way to Colchis. HELLEBORE a genus of plants of the nat. ord. Ranunculacece, all of which possess very active purgative qualities. (See Botany.) The black hellebore was a famous remedy among the ancient Greeks and Romans, especially in mania: and so prevalent was the belief in its efficacy in imparting clearness to the mental faculties, that the most celebrated philosophers used to prepare themselves for intellectual labour by drinking an infusion of the leaves of this plant. The best grew in the island of Anticyra in the JEgean Sea, and the gathering of it was accompanied with superstitious observances.

H E L HELLENISMS are idioms transferred from the verna-Hellenisms cular into the Greek by the writers of the New Testament. [| HELLENIS PS [Hellenistoe), a term occurring in the tholo Greek text of the New Testament, and which in the Enggylish version is translated Grecians. The authors of the Vulgate, indeed, render it Grceci ; but the Port-Royalists, more accurately, Juifs-Grecs, Grecian Jews—that is, Jews who spoke Greek, and who are thus distinguished from the Jews called Hebrews, who spoke the Hebrew tongue of that time. The Hellenists, or Grecian Jews, were those who lived in Egypt and other parts where the Greek tongue prevailed. It is to the Hellenists that we owe the Greek version of the Old Testament, commonly called the Septuagint. The Hellenists are properly distinguished from the Hellenes or Greeks, mentioned in John xii. 20, who were Greeks by birth and nation, and yet proselytes to the Jewish religion. HELLESPONT. See Helle and Dardanelles. HELLIN (anciently Ilunum), a royal town of Spain, in the province of Murcia, and capital of a cognominal department in the bishopric of Cartagena. It lies on the slope of the Sierra de Segura. The parish church is very elegant, the masonry and marble pavement at the entrance being worthy of special notice. Near Hellin are the mineral baths of Azaraque; and the celebrated sulphur mines, at a distance of twelve miles, are under its jurisdiction. Hellin was sacked by the French under Montbrun ; and was the point where Joseph and Soult united with Suchet after Marmont’s rout at Salamanca. The industry of Hellin is chiefly confined to the manufacture of earthenware, linens, cloths, hats, flour, oil, and chocolate. Pop. 8818. HELMET, a piece of defensive armour for the head. In heraldry the helmet is placed over a coat-of-arms as its chief ornament; and, according to its form, position, &c., marks the quality or dignity of the bearer. See Heraldry.

HELMINTHOLOGY. (ANNELIDA.) The title of this article was formerly bestowed on a much larger group of animated beings than that to which it has been here restricted. The Linnaean group of Vermes contained, in fact, the whole of the intestinal and other worms, the molluscous and testaceous tribes, the Zoophytes and Infusoria—which now form the natural materials of many classes. We here apply it exclusively to the Annelida, or red-blooded vermes, of which the medicinal leech and earth-worm afford familiar examples. Bruguiere and others have no doubt conjoined them, in comparatively recent times, with the intestinal tribes; and it was at one time our intention (see Animal Kingdom, § Divisions') to have adopted that arrangement. But we conceive it to be more in accordance with the principles adopted in our other systematic articles, to abide by the example of Cuvier, and, referring the latter to the radiated or zoophytical division, to include in the article Helminthology the Anne lida alone. In truth, the intestinal tribes exhibit no organs of respiration, either tracheal or branchial—no traces of a true circulation—and their nervous system is extremely obscure. It will therefore become apparent, from the following definition, how greatly the Annelida differ from the creatures just named. I he Annelida or red-blooded worms form the first class of the articulated or annulose division of the animal kingdom.2 I heir blood, of ared colour, resembling thatof thevertebrated 3

animals, circulates in a double system of closed vessels, that is, in arteries and veins. This system, though destitute of a heart properly so called, is sometimes provided with one or more distinct fleshy ventricles. Respiration is carried on through the medium of organs, which are sometimes external, occasionally developed beneath the surface of the skin, or sunk more deeply into the interior. They may all be presumed to breathe by means of branchiae, although the respiratory system of the so-called Abranchial Order is still in some respects obscure. The branchiae or respiratory organs of the greater number are external, and vary considerably in their size, form, number, and position. Their body,, of a softish texture, is more or less elongated, and always divided into numerous rings or segments, of which the anterior, known under the name of head, scarcely differs from the others, except by the possession of a mouth, and of the principal organs of the senses. None of the Annelida possess articulated members properly so called, but in room of these many are furnished ivitb setiferous mammillae, or fleshy projections, bearing bundles of hairs or bristles, and forming what may be called pedes spurii, of which the number is extremely various. These peculiar organs are sometimes composed of two parts, the one superior and dorsal, the other inferior and ventral. The muscular power resides in the interior, and is capable of producing only an undulatory or creeping movement—

From sAw/vs, a worm, and Xoyos, a discourse. For a description of these primary divisions of the animal kingdom, see Animal Kingdom, § Third Primary Division.

HELMINTHOLOGY.

291

Annelida, the locomotive parts being incompetent to sustain the body, other, constituting thus one common space. This cavity Annelida. y.— ^—1 The organs of the mouth consist sometimes of parts re- is lined by a distinct membrane, which is obviously the 's— sembling jaws, more or less developed, sometimes of a anatomical analogon of the 'peritoneum, and is filled by a simple tube. The organs of the external senses are com- fluid which is unquestionably an organic fluid. Dr Wilposed of fleshy tentacula, sometimes articulated, and of cer- Hams adduces reasons for regarding it as physiologically tain blackish points, not existing in all the species, regarded allied to the chyle of the higher animals, and the containas eyes. The nervous system consists of a double gangli- ing cavity as the prototype of the 'peritoneal. This geneonic cord, analogous to that of insects, as already described ral splanchnic chamber he therefore names the peritoneal in our art. Entomology. In regard to their natural habits, cavity, and its liquid the peritoneal fluid, or the chylemost of these creatures are aquatic (the Lumbrici or earth- aqueous fluid of the peritoneal cavity. As the peritoneal worms excepted), and a great majority marine. Some membrane of the Annelida is not vibratory, the oscillations dwell in holes beneath the waters, others form tubes or tun- of the fluid contents cannot be caused by ciliary vibration, nels of mud or other matters, or even transude from their This fact is regarded as distinguishing the class from the own bodies a calcareous secretion, which forms around Echinodermata, of which, in all the species, the peritoneal them a protecting covering.1 Considered sexually, they space is richly lined with vibratile cilia. The real characare for the most part hermaphrodite, and some require re- ter of this fluid was till recently unknown. Its coagulating ciprocal communication. principle consists of fibrine, and there can be no doubt that It will be perceived, even from the preceding brief ex- the greater portion is composed of sea-water. In a few position, that the Annelida are animals of a very peculiar minutes after removal from the body of the animal, it throws nature. Although their nervous system coincides with that down an unquestionable coagulum, like the clot of true of the other articulated classes, and although their bodies blood. The organic corpuscles cohere into groups and are likewise divided by transverse sections, yet their loco- masses, and sink with the clot. Mechanically and physiomotive organs are entirely dissimilar to those of the Crus- logically this fluid is immediately essential to the maintentacea, Arachnides, and Insects. Their setiferous mam- ance of life—mechanically, by preventing contact between millae are merely retractile sheaths; and the hairs or bristles the intestine and integument, thus favouring the circulawhich they inclose are in no way comparable to the f eet of tion of the blood proper; and physiologically, by furnishing the last-named classes, but are organs of a very different the pabulum out of which the latter fluid is perpetually renature. newed or reinforced. In the genus Sabella this peritoThe Annelida are few in number compared with insects neal fluid is opalescent and thickly corpusculated ; it does and other articulated classes, and the greater proportion are not change its colour with that of the true blood, since its marine. Their possession of red blood is a singular cha- colour is the same in those species which are distinguished racter in animals so low in the scale, and one not possessed by green blood, as in those of which the blood is red, alby the molluscous tribes, which are yet regarded as their though so generally charged with corpuscles. Aphrodita superiors in other points of organization. Some peculiar!- aculeata is an exception, and exhibits a fluid which, bearties in the circulating fluids of these creatures have been ing no visible morphous substances, seems to depart but recently described by Dr Williams.2 With the exception slightly from the standard of salt water. The physiological of one or two species, two distinct and separate fluid ele- character of this fluid is unequivocally manifested in Glycera ments of nutrition exist in these creatures—one, consisting alba, in which it bears in great abundance blood-red flatof the proper and true blood, is contained in closed vessels, tened oval corpuscles, resembling those of the frog. This and moving in a definite orbit, constitutes a well-marked is the sole instance of an Annelid with coloured corpuscles circulation ; the other is a liquid mass, filling the open in the peritoneal fluid. The blood proper in this species is space which, in all species, intervenes between the intes- so faintly red as to be nearly devoid of colour, and is quite tine and the integument, holding organic corpuscles in sus- incorpuscular. pension, varying in different species, and performing irreThat the basis of this fluid consists of sea-water is rengular to-and-fro oscillations under the agency of the mus- dered almost certain by the following expedient. If it is cular contractions of the intestine and integuments. On collected in adequate quantities (say from Arenicola or these two fluids two separate physiological functions devolve, Terebella nebulosa), and carefully filtered, and the clean each essential to the maintenance of life in the Annelida, liquor then submitted to evaporation, the crystalline proAll the recesses and ramifications of the general cavity of ducts will be found identical with those resulting from the the body in these animals communicate freely with each evaporation of simple sea-water. Dr Williams infers 1 “ As to the external tube which the Chetopoda (by which term M. de Blainville denominates the setigerous genera of the class Annelida) often inhabit, although it is frequently sufficiently regular and solid, it cannot however in any manner be compared to the shell of the Mollusca, not even where there is the greatest approximation, as in Dentalium and Siliquaria. These tubes of the Chetopoda are always simple excretions from their body, which are by no means attached to it, and from which the animal may issue forth without dying immediately. We begin to observe something of this kind in the mucosity with which certain species line the hole hollowed in the mud or sand which they inhabit, as in the Arenicolas, and some Lumbrici. This is analogous to the mucous pellicle of the tube of the Amphitritse and the Sabellae; but in the latter, surrounding this mucosity, is attached externally a stratum, more or less thick, composed merely of mud or very fine grains of sand, or, in fine, of debris, more or less thick, of shells and larger grains of sand. These tubes are constantly open at both extremities; there are also some of them more regular, which are completely calcareous. The double opening is a character whereby they are distinguished from tubular shells, the summit of which, on the contrary, is constantly imperforate. These tribes, however, appear constantly to grow, after the manner of tubular shells, by laminae or strata extremely thin, placed inside of and out-edging one another. From this result striae, marking the growth, more or less apparent outside ; but we never remark longitudinal striae on their surface, nor anything indicating the delicate working of the edges of a mouth, as in the Mollusca. This character alone might suffice to distinguish them from the true tubular shells ; but to this we may add, that the constant perforation of the summit of the tube of the Chetopoda never allows the animal, in growing and advancing in its tube, to form partitions there, whereas in the tubular shells the reverse is invariably the case. A final character which distinguishes the tubes of the Chetopoda is, that they are adherent, and fixed flatly, through a greater portion of their extent, on foreign bodies, which never takes place with the tubular shells.” (Griffith’s edition of Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom, vol. xiiL, p. 58.) We may add, that the young of the shell-bearing Mollusca are always born with shells, because that part forms, in fact, a portion of their skin; but there is no doubt that the young Annelida are produced in an exposed condition, and afterwards proceed, by a voluntary effort, to form their protecting habitations. 2 See his excellent and elaborate paper “ On the British Annelida,” published in the Reports of the British Association for 1851. London, 1852.

292 H E L M I N T H 0 L 0 G Y. Annelida, that this sea-water, under such circumstances, readily as- is not quite clear that the true blood is reproduced out of Annelida sumes the character of an organic fluid—that is, becomes the elements of the peritoneal fluid ; since the vessels distri- ^ , 1 vitalized with great facility by the solid organic elements buted oyer the parietes of the alimentary canal may take up contained in the peritoneal fluid. Whether the peritoneal some of the immediate products of digestion, before the fluid is organically capable of maintaining the nutrition of latter exude into the general cavity of the body to mingle the solid structures of the system, cannot be directly proved ; with its semi-aqueous contents. Nor can it be affirmed, but it is scarcely susceptible of doubt, from the intricate from the evidence drawn from its composition, that the pemanner in which the true blood-vessels afterwards coil in ritoneal fluid is unfitted to supply the means of nutrition to the midst of the fluid contents of the general cavity, that the solid structures, into the interior of which in every part the former must absorb from the latter the elements from of the body it intimately penetrates. It is more probable, which the true blood is afterwards manufactured. It pre- because more in accordance with analogy, however, to supsents, in fact, according to our author, the same relation to pose, that it is a manufactory in itself; that its corpuscles the contents of the proper blood system of vessels as the execute an office by which the mineral substances and proxichyle of the higher animals does to the true blood ; the peri- mate principles are vitally assimilated; that the corpuscular toneal fluid of the Annelida differing from the chyle of the elements in the Annelida do in this fluid, what in the higher mammalia only in the fact that the latter is contained in animals analogous bodies effect in the blood-proper. From vessels, while the former rolls in a capacious chamber. these facts the physiologist may advisedly say thus much, Although we are deeply indebted to M. Milne-Edwards that in these animals nature divides the vital fluids into for his ample exposition of the colour and distribution of two separate and distinct orders, on one of which the prethe blood in the Annelida,1 he appears to have overlooked, parative and elaborative cell-agency devolves, on the other if not mistaken, its corpuscular or microscopic character. the work of solid nutrition. They prove with great clear“ Mais, du reste,” he remarks, “ examine au microscope, ce ness, that the corpuscular elements, either in the blood itliquide ne m a pas semble differer du sang des autres ani- self, or, as in this case, in some contributory fluid, are esmaux sans vertebres. Les globules qu’on y voit nager n’ont sential to the preparation of the blood-proper; for when in pas du tout I’aspect de ceux propres au sang des animaux the zoological series, as in the higher articulata, this coryertebres; ce sont des corpuscules circulaires, dont la sur- pusculated fluid disappears, the blood itself becomes corface a une apparence framboisee, et dont les dimensions pusculated; or when the peritoneal fluid, as in the Echinovarient extremement chez un meme animal.” Mr Wharton dermata, becomes less organic, then also morphotic eleJones has also figured and described these blood corpuscles ments are developed in the true blood. From these obseras supposed to exist in the earth-worm and leech.3 Now, vations the inference may be further drawn, that between Dr Williams, after the most careful and extended examina- these two nutritious fluids there exists a definite physiolotion, states as follows :— gical balance ; that one is capable of absorbing or merging “ In no single species among the Annelida does the blood into the other, according as the observer ascends or deproper contain anrj morphic element whatever ! In all in- scends the organic scale. The peritoneal system of fluid stances, without a single known exception, it is a perfectly terminates at the standard of the insect, the true blood amorphous fluid, presenting under the highest powers of system traced downwards terminates at the Echinoderthe best microscope no visible corpuscles or molecules, or mata.”3 cells whatever; it is a limpid fluid variously coloured, as The swelling of certain portions of the body in progresoriginally and correctly described by M. Milne-Edwards, in sion may be regarded as due to the interior fluids. These different species. No complete distinction into venous and are driven to a given point of the containing cavity, where arterial blood can be observed, and the plan of the circula- they are momentarily imprisoned by the contraction of the tion renders such a distinction only partially possible. In circular integumentary muscles before and behind,—thus all cases the colouring matter is fluidified, and uniformly producing a bulging. The muscles of the integument are blended with the fluid mass of the blood ; the colour there- then excited to action, and the fluid is forcibly compressed fore must be developed in the fluid mass, for there exist forwards or backwards, in accordance with the direction of here no morphotic elements in the blood itself by which the muscular agency. This is the mechanical use of the the separation of the coloured substances from the peritoneal chyle-aqueous fluids of the peritoneal cavity, the physiologifluid can be effected, unless indeed the parietes of the ves- cal purposes of which have been already explained. AE sels of the blood-proper discharge this eclectic function. most all the Annelida are struck, as it were, by paralysis, With one exception, namely, that of Glycera alba, in which when this fluid is made to escape from its cavity by a puncthey are red, the corpuscles of the peritoneal fluid are in ture through the external walls. The power of motion is all species destitute of colour. But it is not at all chemi- immediately suspended, and the body becomes flaccid and cally impossible that the coloured ingredients may exist in passive. The peritoneal fluid is really the fulcrum on this fluid in a colourless state, and that these ingredients, which all muscular action is based, and without it these creathrough entering into new combinations, may become tures cannot make the required contractions with sufficient brightly coloured after transition into the true blood. In effect and precision. But this is not the only mechanical consequence of the impracticable minuteness of the quan- use which it affords. It prevents that injurious pressure tity, no direct chemical analysis of the blood in the Anne- amid the internal organs which might impede or arrest the lid can be executed. As to the colour, however, analogy circulation of the blood. In the leech tribe it is the fluid removes all doubt that the red tinge is due to the salts of contained within the stomach that accomplishes this imiion, and the green to those of copper. In those species in portant object. “ Nothing in the history of the Annelida,” which the blood is light, yellow, opaque, or lymph-like, it says Dr Williams, “can be conceived more wonderful than does not follow that the salts of the coloured minerals are the mechanically perfect and facile manner in which Linus altogether absent; they may exist under colourless combina- longissimus, a worm of many yards in length, performs the tions. I he physiologist cannot view with unconcern the feat of locomotion, and that too over craggy and rugged question, which in this class of animals affects the mode in rocks. Without the conjoined action of these internal which the peritoneal fluid and the blood-proper stand re- fluids, the motor apparatus would be incapable of effort. lated to each other. I hat the former is higher than the 1 he Annelida, as a class, may be said to undergo, in latter in degree of organization, no doubt can exist; but it their earlier stages, few, if any, metamorphoses. The young 1

Annales dcs Sciences, October 1838.

2

Phil. Trans , Part II, 1846.

Report, p. 175.

HELMINTHOLOGY. 293 Annelida, seem at first to be entirely devoid of appendages, but the other writers, the external structure of the Annelida cannot Annelida, body does not in any instance exhibit those peculiar transmu- be said to have been at all rigorously determined, or viewed tations so observable in the growth of insects and Crustacea. in relation to that of conterminous groups, till we received In regard to the external parts, we shall here indicate a the fruits of Savigny’s laborious and most delicate obser-2 few of the most important,—premising, that the characters vations, originally presented to the Academy of Sciences. mentioned are not universal to the class, but rather confined At that period Blainville was also occupied in the study of to certain races. The head, in such as possess one, is a the same group, which, with the exception of the leeches, small anterior swelling, which bears the antennae commonly forms his class of Setipodes. He published3 an extract from so called, and the eyes, and is distinct from the first seg- his labours in the course of the ensuing year. Oken, Leach, ment of the body. The Nereids of Linnaeus are regarded Latreille, Duges, Audouin, Milne-Edwards, and others, have by Latreille as the only Annelida of which the anterior seg- likewise contributed to our knowledge of this curious and imment merits the name of head, or possesses organs fit to be portant class, in publications, to the majority of which we shall compared to eyes, more especially to those of the larvae of more particularly allude in the course of the present treatise. In regard to the geographical distribution of the Annelida, insects. The eyes, where such exist, are simple, extremely small, and appear like blackish points. The organiza- our data are not yet sufficiently precise and numerous to tion of the mouth varies greatly in the different orders. admit of any satisfactory generalization. We have already The parts called maxillae by Savigny are hard circumscribed said, that with the exception of the earth-worms (and even parts, of a corneous or calcareous nature, to which Latreille these require a moist abode), all the known species are does not accord the name of jaws. The latter author in- aquatic. We may add, that the great majority inhabit the deed seems to regard the Annelida as a suctorial rather saline waters of the ocean. Most of the Naids, however, than a masticating class. Most of them are of carnivorous occur in fresh water, and some true Nereids are found in habits, and live on the blood of other creatures. The trunk the lakes of North America. Annelida of some kind or or sucker is a contractile fleshy portion, constituting the other are met with in all quarters of the globe, and the mouth, and containing the so-called jaws. The latter por- species of many genera are very widely distributed; but tions, however, being adherent to the inner coats of the others, such as the Amphinomce, for example, are characsucker, which is itself nothing more than a prolongation of teristic of, if not peculiar to, the warmer seas. Undoubtedly the oesophagus, can scarcely be regarded as genuine jaws. the most magnificent are native to the Indian shores. “ It Several tribes have their branchiae uniformly spread over is in general on the coasts of the sea, in the midst of Thathe extent of the body, or over its central portion, while lassiophytes, in the anfractuosities of madrepores, in the others (and these usually dwell in tubes) bear those organs sand, and particularly in mud, that the Chetopoda are to be at their anterior extremity. In the erratic species, or such found ; and if some species are more commonly to be met as are naked, and without fixed dwellings, they are usually with in the open sea, as, for instance, the Amphinomae, disposed longitudinally along the sides of the body, there named by M. Savigny Pleione vagans, it appears that they being one for each foot. Blood-vessels sometimes appear may have been drawn along with marine plants by1 the curto spread into the setiform processes, and to convert them rents, as is the case with many other animals.” Their natural movements are extremely slow, and may be cominto respiratory organs. We have already stated that Linnaeus placed the Anne- pared to those of slugs, although their appendages for locolida in his almost unlimited class of Vermes,—a vast and motion are much more numerous. The Nereides, however, by no means well-combined group, which the later labours not only creep in a kind of serpentine manner over the of Otho Frederick Muller, Pallas, and other naturalists, surface of solid bodies at the water’s edge, but frequently failed to cast into a much more natural mould. The great swim very respectably, either by successive undulations of the Swedish naturalist separated the true Annelida from each body, after the manner of eels and serpents, or by agitating6 other, placing one portion of the group in the order Intes- theirappendages, and thus making these organs serve as oars. The utility, in an economical point of view, of the Annetina, and the other in that of Mollusca. In Cuvier’s earliest work {Tableau Elementaire, &c., 1789), he restricted the lida in general, to the human race, is by no means great. class of worms to the Annelida and intestinal species, a According to Pallas, the inhabitants of some parts of Belmode of grouping previously practised by Bruguiere in the gium eat those portions of Aphrodita aculeata which comEncyclopedie Methodique. Subsequent investigations in- pose the mouth ; the Nereides and Arenicolae, as well as duced the French anatomist to raise the former to the rank the earth-worms, are extensively employed as baits for fish, of a separate class, which he named Vers d sans rouge, in and the medicinal uses of the leech are notorious ; but, with a memoir read to the French Institute in 1802. On this these, and, it may be, a few other exceptions, little can be same group Lamarck {Extrait1 du Cours, &c., 1812) be- said regarding the direct benefits derivable from this peculiar stowed the name of Annelides, which has since been very class. Its subjects, however, are by no means on that account generally adopted. A slight disparity, however, still exists the less important in the eyes of the philosophical naturalist. Several of the Annelida possess a phosphoric property, in the constitution of the class, in the works of Cuvier and Lamarck, the former including therein the genus Gordius, from which Linnaeus named a certain species Nereis noctiluca. Others, characterized by the6 same attribute, were which the latter associates with the other Vermes. But notwithstanding the valuable labours of these and afterwards described by Sig. Viviani. 1 From annellus, a little ring. The body of these animals is composed of a series of annuli or rings, a formation which suggested to Lamarck the general name which they now bear. The substance of these rings is neither horny nor calcareous, but soft and fleshy, and thus so far differs from the truly articulated tribes in the entire absence of any approach to a hard skeleton, or the consistent covering of insects. The segments are divided from each other only by a circular band of muscular fibres, the annulations not being perfectly distinct from each other,—the longitudinal muscles passing over and under the constricting circular bands. Thus, as Dr Williams remarks, these segmentations of the Annelida are more apparent than actual. In addition to the works mentioned in the course of this article we would especially recommend Dr Williams’ifeporf already referred to, and of which we have made frequent use. We may moreover refer the reader to M. de Quatrefage’s elaborate Etudes sur les types inferieurs de Vembranchement des Annelides, consisting of many Memoires published in the Annales des Sciences Nat., S™0 serie, for the years 1848,1850, and 1852. See also Siebold’s Anatomy of the Im/erte&rata (translated by Dr Burnett), London, 1854 ; Dr Carpenter’s General Physiology, 5th edit., Ibid., 1854 ; and Mr Kymer Jones’s General Structure of 2the Animal Kingdom, 2d ed , Ibid., 1855. 3 Systeme des Annelides, forming a portion of the great French work on Egypt. Bulletin de la Soc. Phil., Mai et Juin 1818. 4 6 Griffith’s Animal Kingdom, vol. xiii., p. 73. The lateral parts are hence named rames by M. Savigny. 6 Phosphoremia maris quatuordecim lucescentium animalculorum novis speciebus illustrata. Genuae, 1805.

HELMINTHOLOGY. 294 Annelida. The presence or absence of the organs of motion, and in the European seas. They are very contractile, and are Annelida, v —^ the position of the branchiae, furnish natural characters of supposed to feed on animalcules. A well-known species, S. i ^ easy application, which modern zoologists have employed contortuplicata (fig. 1), has rounded tortuous tubes, of about to signalize the primary groups. Lamarck divides the An- three lines in diameter. Its operculum is tunnel-shaped, nelida into three orders—les Apodes, les Antennes, and les and its branchiae are often of a beautiful red, or varied Sedentaires; and in the system of Cuvier they likewise with yellow and violet. Any object thrown into the sea is form an equal number of orders—les Tubicoles, les Dorsi- apt to be speedily covered by this species. In tropical seas they usually form their encrusting habranches, and les Abranches. In both systems the Serpulae occupy the highest position in the scale. Savigny’s ar- bitations in the midst of corals, lengthening their tubes as rangement of these animals consists of five orders, of which the coral is built up around them. Their extent is some* the author has as yet treated only of four—viz., les Nereidees, times equal to three feet; and the expanded gill-tufts are les Serpulees, les Lombricines, and les Hirudinees. He of extremely vivid colours, equalling in brilliancy the brightplaces the Aphrodites and Nereids at the head of the class. est carnations. Some of the many small species which occur Latreille is also of opinion that these Annelida, especially along our own coasts are also remarkable for the beautiful the Nereides, so far as regards their external organization, tinting of their gills. are entitled to precedence, and make the nearest approach Genus Spirorbis, Lam. Branchiae much less numeto the articulated animals provided with feet, such as In- rous than in the preceding genus (from three to four on sects and Crustacea. each side), placed anteriorly in a somewhat radiated form. We shall here, in as far as general1 arrangement is con- A pediculated operculum, with a flat summit placed between cerned, follow the system of Cuvier. the branchiae. Tube testaceous, and rolled after the manner of a Cornu ammoms. Order I.—TUBICOLiE, Cuv. This genus is composed of very small species, which are Some form a calcareous homogeneous tube, supposed to found attached to fuci, shells, and other result from transudation, like the covering of testaceous marine bodies. They frequently occur in Mollusca, but which does not adhere by any muscular at- great numbers, though always separate from tachment ; others construct a covering by agglutinating each other. The animals are of a bloodgrains of sand, broken shells, and other debris, by means red colour. We have figured the Sp. nauof a membrane, likewise the result of transudation ; while a tiloides of Lam. (fig. 2) synonymous with the Fig. 2. third group are surrounded by a tube of an entirely mem- Serpula spirorbis of Linn. branous or corneous nature. Genus Sabella, Cuv. Amphitrite, Lamarck. Body Genus Serpula, Linn. The body is composed of nu- and fan-shaped branchiae resembling those of the precedmerous segments; its anterior portion is enlarged in the ing genus, but both the fleshy filaments adhering to branform of a disk, armed on either side by several bundles of chiae terminate in a point, and do not form an operculum ; stiff bristles ; and on each side of the mouth is a fan-shaped they are sometimes even wanting. Their tube is rarely plume of branchiae, usually adorned by lively colours. At calcareous, and seems often formed of grains of very fine the base of each plume is a fleshy filament, one or other of clay or mud. Most of the ascertained species are of consiwhich is always prolonged and dilated at the extremity into derable size, and are remarkable for the extreme delicacy a disk of various form, which serves as an operculum, and and lustre of their plumy branchiae. closes the overture One of the most splendid of the genus is figured by Dr of the tube whenShaw under the title of Tubularia magnificat It is found ever the contained on various parts of the coast creature chooses to of Jamaica, adhering to the retire. Of this gerocks. It is extremely wary, nus the calcareous and when approached instantly tubes cover, by their recedes within its tube, which tortuous windings, on a further alarm also retires the surface of stones, into the rock, so that specishells, and other mens can be obtained only by submarine bodies. breaking off portions of the mass. The species are These, when put into tubs of widely distributed sea-water, may be preserved for throughout the seas months, and the habits of the of Europe, India, animals attentively studied. The and America. The species in question is characterlargest are indigeized by a simple undulated tube nous to the warmer of a whitish hue, the tentacula climates of the being varied by beautiful alterglobe. Little is nate bands of red and white. known of their inSab. vesiculosa (fig. 3) is a British stinctive habits or species described by Montagu.3 natural economy. The internal texture of its tube is They are said to coriaceous, but the outer coat is feed on aquatic animalcules, which they seize by means of invariably covered by coarse their branchial tentacula. sand, intermixed with fragments Linnaeus, and most of the naturalists of his time, placed of shells. Considerable variety the Serpulae among the testaceous Mollusca. They now exists in the form and aspect of constitute a numerous genus, of which several species occur the genus Sabella. 1 llegne Animal fed. 1830), vol. iii. See also the two following works :—Synoptische Uebersicht der Ringehvurmer oder Anneliden; Naeh Cuvier's Classification. (Mit vielen Abbildgn.) Lithog. gr. imp. fol., Ebend. 1841. Schmidt's Neue Beitrdge zur Naturgeschichte der Wiirmer, Jena, 1848. 2 3 Linn. Trans, v., p. 228, tab. 9. Ibid, xi., p. 19, tab. 5.

HELMINTHOLOGY. 295 innelida. Genus Terebella, Cuv. These, like the preceding, type of form. Ere long, however, their bodies become Annelida, —t. j inhabit a tube of their own formation, but composed of elongated, and begin to assume a somewhat symmetrical or coarser materials than that of the generality of Sabellse. two-sided form, consisting of four zones or rudimentary Their body presents much fewer segments, and the head segments, the posterior of which is continuous, provided with is otherwise adorned. Numerous filiform tentacula, capable a ciliary apparatus. A fifth ring next makes its appearance of great extension, surround the mouth; and on the neck between the penultimate and terminal joint, while the rudiare placed the branchiae, which are not fan-shaped, but in ments of the mouth and alimentary canal become distinguishable. The growth now advances rapidly, the body the form of little branches. The animals of this genus, according to Montagu, either becoming more worm-like as the segments are added beprepare a sheath from the tenacious secretion of their own tween the last-formed segment and the terminal one. It bodies, mixed with adventitious matters, or reside in pre- is observable that the originally ultimate segment continues pared perforations at the bottom of the sea. Their tubes are so to the end. Simple subulate setae, supported by small in general so extremely fragile as to be easily destroyed, fleshy tubercles, begin to appear on both sides, and the larva and the animals are then found lurking beneath stones, or is no longer apodous. At this period it resembles a minute forming a new dwelling. Some fabricate their tube in old sub-cylindrical worm, and in a few days the cilia entirely shells or stones, to which they adhere by their entire length, disappear, the body now exhibiting the aspect of one of the while others fix a tube perpendicularly in the sand. These erratic Annelids, in no respect resembling the tubicolous tubes are indeed frequently observed to obtrude several genus to which it actually belongs, and is ere long transinches above the surface of the soil, and when the waters formed into. This young larva is furnished with a distinct flow, the gills and other appendages are stretched forth, and head, an antennary organ, eyes, and feet, provided with subuseem agitated to and fro. The gills or branchial appendages late setae; while we afterwards come to know, that the are extremely sensible, of a fine blood colour, and when adult or 'perfect state, as we are wont to term it, have neither touched they contract so suddenly as to expel the fluid head, eyes, nor antennae, and exhibit feet furnished with which they contain, and then they lose their sanguine hue. hook-like appendages. Having lost its locomotive cilia, The cephalic tentacles form auxiliary organs of respira- it now ceases to swim, and begins to inclose itself in a kind tion, not for the aeration of the blood-proper, but for that of mucous substance, which gradually solidifies into a cylinof the peritoneal fluid already mentioned, by which they are drical tube, open at both ends. ‘ The first stage of its existfilled. They exhibit some peculiar features. From their ence, during which it has led an unfixed or erratic life, now great length and vast number, they expose a large aggre- closes, and it commences a life similar to that of its parents. gate surface to the action of the surrounding medium. The The ventral oars, armed with terminal booklets are succeslower surface of each tentacle is clothed with cilia, and is sively developed, as are also the tentacular appendages thinner than the dorsal aspect. The richly corpusculated around the head ; but it is not till the creature has acquired peritoneal fluid enters freely into the hollow axis of all these some forty pair of feet, that the branchial apparatus begins tentacles, and is thus brought into contact with the sur- to show itself under the form of two simple tubercles, springrounding waters. The tentacles themselves can grasp a ing from the lateral regions of the neck. Dr Williams states that the number of setiferous feet congrain of sand or other minute fragment, at any point of their length, or, if placed in a linear series, a row of grains. So stitutes by far the best character for the fixation of the perfect is the order of the muscular fibres at the extremity boundaries of species. Between several of these, as constiof each filament, that it is gifted with the twofold power of tuted by Montagu, thei’e is no actual difference but that suction and ordinary muscular action. When the tentacle of the age of the observed individuals. Many of the Tereis about to seize upon an object, its extremity is drawn in- bellae are gregarious, and some are so numerous that the wards (like a portion of the finger of a glove reversed) in sea-shore after a storm is seen to be covered with their consequence of the sudden reflex of the interior fluid. By fragments. When their tubes are entire, but a small porthis movement a cup-shaped cavity is formed, in which the tion of the body is protruded, with the exception of the long object is securely held by atmospheric pressure—a power filiform tentacles, which are thrust about in all directions as immediately reinforced by the contraction of the circular if in search of food. The branchial appendages previously mentioned as so finely coloured during healthy life, are obmuscular fibres. In addition to these important purposes, the tentacles of served to lose their brightness from day to day as the anithe Terebellae are also the organs of locomotion. Being mals become sickly in confinement. Terebella gigantea, Mont., the largest of the genus, meaoutstretched by the ejection into their interior of the peritoneal fluid—a process effected by an undulatory contrac- sures sixteen inches in length, and occurs, though rarely, tion of the body from behind forwards—they are next at- on the coast of Devonshire. Genus Amphitrite, Cuv. Pectinaria, Lam. Recogtached like so many slender cables to a comparatively distant surface, and being then shortened, the otherwise nizable by the golden-coloured bristles ranged in a cohelpless body is hauled forwards. 1 he concentration of the ronal or pectinated manner, in one or more rows, on the tentacles and branchiae around the head in this genus, gives anterior portion of the head, where they probably serve as a means of defence, for the purposes of locomoa great development in that quarter to the circulating system. either 2 The generative apparatus conforms in its general arrange- tion, or for collecting the materials of their dwelling. ment with that of the earth-worm, and others, in presenting Numerous tentacula surround the mouth, and at the coma segmental repetition, of the ovigerous organs, while the mencement of the back, on either side, there are combmale portion is grouped together in a lobated mass at the shaped branchiae. The gills or branchial appendages of this genus are atmesial line. We owe to M. Milne-Edwards a detailed account of the development of the young.1 On first leaving tached to the anterior part only of the body ; and this is the egg they exhibit no resemblance whatever to their the case, in fact, with all the tribes that inhabit tubes, because covered, would parents, but might rather be mistaken for the ciliated larvae gills attached to the other parts which are 3 of Polypi or Medusae, presenting no vestige of the annular be useless for the purposes of respiration. 1 Recherches Anatomiques et Zoologiques faites pendant un Voyage sur les Cotes de la Sidle. Annales des Sdences Nat., 3e sei'ie, Zool t. iii. (Mars 184:5). 2 Montagu observed Terebella venustula fixing its tentacula, and then, by contracting them, draw its body forward. 3 Griffith’s Animal Kingdom, vol. xiii., p. 86.

i

296 Annelida.

HELMINTHOLOGY. Certain species construct very light and delicate tubes, tween Chiton and Patella. In Dentalium, the symmetrical Annelida, in the form of a lengthened cone, which they carry along sub-ventral position of the branchiae, the posterior flow of in the course of their travels. Their golden bristles form water which takes place in them, and the resemblance of two combs, the teeth of which are directed downwards. the foot to that of some of the bivalves, appear in a striking Their intestine is very ample, folded several times, and is manner to prove its connection with the Conchiferce, whilst usually filled with sand. A well-known European species is by its oesophageal cerebral ganglions, and the completeness the Amph. auricoma Belgica of Gmelin, of which we have of its circulating system, its affinity to the Gasteropod is established. But neither can it be disputed that the genus given two representations exhibits some peculiar approximations to the Annelida or (fig. 4). Its tube measures annulose tribes; such as the red blood, the vermiform conabout two inches in length, figuration of the posterior portion of the body, the tubular and is formed of little rounded figure of the shell, the operation of the operculum, and the grains of various colours. apparent resemblance of the branchia* to those of the SaOther species attach their bellce. All these characters may readily be viewed as pretubes to different substances; figuring some of the outward features of the Annelida, and their golden setae form although they are in truth only analogies of an apparent upon the head several concenand superficial nature. The species have therefore been tric crowns, from which an excluded from the latter class in Dr Williams’ Report. Our operculum is produced, which author maintains the close and natural approximation of the closes the tube when the aniAnnelida and Entozoa. mal is in a state of contraction. Each foot is furnished Order II.—DORSIBRANCHIA. with a cirrhus, and the body, The genera of this order bear their branchiae throughout terminating posteriorly in a the length of their body, or are at least along its middle portube curved towards the head, tion, and in the various forms of branches, tufts, plates, or is provided with1 a kind of tubercules, in which the sanguineous vessels ramify. The muscular gizzard. To these Fig. 4. majority of the species live in the mud, or swim freely in XiAovLgAmph.alveolata, Ellis, 4 Corail. 37, of which the tubes, combined in a compact mass, the sea. A few dwell in tubes. Those in w'hich the branchiae are most highly developed present regularly disposed orifices, resembling the cells of a piece of honeycomb. Another species, Amph. ostrearia of are placed at the head of the order. Genus Arenicola, Lam. Branchiae numerous, compliCuvier, forms its tubes on the shells of oysters, and is said to be extremely injurious to the increase of that valuable mollusc. cated, bush-shaped, and disposed over the intermediate segCuvier has placed in this order of Annelida the singular ments of the body. Mouth terminal, in genus Syphostoma (fig. 6), first made known by Dr Otto the form of a dilatable fleshy trunk, without in a dissertation published at Breslau in 1820. It appears to either teeth or tentacula. No apparent eyes. The posterior extremity wants both have two anterior openthe branchiae and the bundles of setae with ings or mouths.2 which the other segments are furnished. Here also, but with a There are no cirrhi to any part of the body. very doubtful claim, the This genus was established by Lamarck, genus Dentalium (fig. 5) at the expense of the old genus Lumbricus is allowed to stand. Its of Linnaeus. The best-known species, A. covering is a solid calcapiscatorum (Lum. marinus, Linn.) or lugreous shell, in the form worm (fig. 7), measures about a foot in of an arched elongated length, and bears thirteen pair of branchiae. cone, open at both ends, It is of a reddish colour, and, when handled, and compared by some to stains the fingers of a fine yellow. It ina small tusk of an elehabits moist sand by the sea-shore, and is phant. The animal itmuch used as a bait by fishermen. self does not appear to This Annelid lives almost entirely by the be in any way articulatswallowing, of sand, and its position is indied, nor to possess lateral cated by the numerous little coils so fresetae. Its body is of a quent on the sea-shore below high-water conical form, like that of mark. The sand traverses the entire exthe shell, and is very 3 tent of the animal’s body, yielding for dismooth and compact. gestion and assimilation whatever it may It seems now to be contain of an organic nature, the residuum determined that the poFig. 5. Fig. 6. sition of this last-named genus in the Cuvierian system was being rejected in the form of sand-coils. Fi 7 s- a misplacement. Dr Williams is very clearly of opinion Deglutition, with this species, can only be that the researches of Deshayes and Savigny, and more performed when the sand is saturated with water. If too satisfactorily of M. de Blainville and Mr Clark (in Annals dry, it cannot be swallowed; if too wet, it cannot be seized of Nat. Hist, for Nov. 1849), have proved that the Denta- by the proboscis. ' Though the lug-worm may seem to inhabit the loose liada are gasteropodous Mollusca, ranking somewhere be1

These species form the genus Sabellaria of Lamarck, and Hermella of Savigny. No department of natural history is more darkened by a confused cloud of synonyms than that which treats of the Annelida. “ Ces perpetuels changements des noms,” says Cuvier, “ finiront par rendre 1’etude de la nomenclature heaucoup plus difficile oue celle des faits. (Regne Animal, t. iii., p. 195.) 2 See the article Siphostome, in the Diet, des Sciences Nat. 3 See Savigny, Systeme des Annelides, p. 98 ; and Deshayes, Monographic du Genre Dentale, in Mem. de la Soc. d'Hist. Nat. de Paris, t. ii., p. 321. We may here note, that the genus Dentalium (now classed with the molluscous tribes^ seems to have been equally abundant in 4ancient as in modern times,—many of its calcareous tubes being found in a fossil state. Consult Orsted’s Gronlands Annulata, dorsibranchia, Kjdbenhaven, 1813; and by the same author, Beschreibung der Plattuiurmer, ibid., 1844.

HELMINTHOLOGY. 297 \nnelida. moist sand, or to perforate it merely mechanically, it is well natives are exceedingly fond of them, and calculate with Annelida, ^ ^ known to secure the sides of the passage from closing in great exactness the time of their appearance, which is by applying to them a glutinous cement, which unites the looked forward to with great interest. The worms are particles of sand into a kind of wall or coating. This co- caught in small baskets, beautifully made ; and when taken vering does not adhere to the body, but forms a surrounding on shore are tied up in leaves in small bundles and baked. tube, within which the animal moves with perfect freedom, Great quantities are eaten undressed, but either dressed or and which it leaves behind it as it progressively advances; undressed are esteemed a great delicacy. Such is the so that the passage is kept pervious throughout its entire desire to eat palolo by all classes, that immediately the fishlength by means of the lining, which may not inaptly be1 ing parties reach the shore, messengers are despatched in all compared to the brickwork of the shaft of a mine or tunnel. directions with large3 quantities to parts of the island on As allied to Arenicola, we may here name a singular which none appear.” Genus Amphinome, Brug. A pair of branchiae on each Annelid, or sea-worm, called Palolo, of which specimens were some years ago 2presented to the British Museum by segment of the body, and two bundles of setae, and a pair of the Rev. J. B. Stair. It is described by Mr J. E. Gray as cirrhi to each foot. The sucker is destitute of maxillae. This genus was formed by Bruguiere from Aphrodita characterized by—“ a cylindrical body, separated into equal joints, each joint with a small tuft of three or four spicula of Pallas, and Terebellao? Gmelin. Savigny divides it into on the middle of each side. Head ? Last joint end- three, viz.,— 1st, Gen. Chlceia, containing such as have five tentacula ing in a couple of tentacles. Eggs globular.” Most of the specimens examined were unfortunately much broken ; and to the head, and branchiae in the form of tri-pinnate leaves. as none of the portions possessed a head, Mr Gray very properly did not describe it. He names the species Palolo viridis. It is of a green colour, with a row of round black spots down the middle of the dorsal (?) surface,—one spot on the middle of each joint. The following is Mr Stair’s account of its habits and locality :— “ Palolo is the native name for a species of sea-worm which is found in some parts of Samoa (the Navigator Islands), in the South Pacific Ocean. They come regularly in the months of October and November, during portions of two days in each month, viz., the day before, and the day on which, the moon is in her last quarter. They appear in much greater numbers on the second than on the first day of their rising, and are only observed for two or three hours in the early part of each morning of their appearance. At the first dawn of day they may be felt by the hand swimming on the surface of the water ; and as the day advances their numbers increase, so that by the time the sun has risen thousands may be observed in a very small space, sporting merrily during their short visit to the Pig. 8. surface of the ocean. On the second day they appear at the same time, and in a similar manner, but in such count- We have figured as an example a large and beautiful speless myriads that the surface of the ocean is covered with cies, C. capillata (fig. 8), remarkable for its long and thickthem to a considerable extent. On each day, after sport- set bundles of setae of a brilliant yellow, and its purple ing for an hour or two, they disappear until the next season, branchiae. It inhabits the Indian Seas. 2d, Gen. Pleione, and not one is ever observed during the intervening time. containing those species which, with the same number of Sometimes, when plentiful at one island in one month, tentacula, have tufted branchiae. 3c?, Gen. Euphrosine, scarcely any are observed the next; but they always appear containing species characterized by bushy branchiae (fig. 9), with great regularity at the times mentioned, and these are of a complicated structure, and strongly developed. The the only times at which they are observed throughout the head is furnished with only a single tentaculum. The whole year. They are found only in certain parts of the known species inhabit the Red Sea. islands, generally near the openings of the reefs on portions Genus Eunice, Cuv.—Leodice, Sav. Branchiae in the of the coast on which much fresh water is found ; but that form of plumes, but the mouth or trunk armed with three is not always the case. pair of corneous maxillae of different forms. Each foot has “ In size they may be compared to a very fine straw, and two cirrhi and a tuft of setae. The head bears five tentacula are of various colours and lengths, green, brown, white, and placed above the mouth, and two on the nape of the neck. speckled, and in appearance and mode of swimming resemble Some of the species are furnished with a pair of eyes. very small snakes. They are exceedingly brittle, and if This genus contains a monstrous worm, Eun. gigantea, broken into many pieces, each piece swims off as though it Cuv., the largest of all known Annelida. It measures from were an entire worm. No particular direction appeared to four to six feet in length, and its body consists of 448 segbe taken by them in swimming. I observed carefully to ments. Its colour is ashy grey, with an opalescent reflection. see whether they came from sea-ward or rose from the reef, It inhabits the Indian Seas. Montagu (in Linn. Trans., vol. and feel assured they came from the latter place. The xi., pi. 3) has figured and described a species, under the title of 1 3

2 Maunder’s Treasury of Natural History, p. 35. Proceedings of the Zoological Society, March 9, 1847. We owe a recent notice of this marine worm (misnamed a/sA) to the Rev. William Harbutt, now officiating under the London Missionary Society. The following is an extract of a letter (addressed to Mr R. M. Smith of Edinburgh,) dated Samoa, 9th December 1854 :—“ I remember I promised to send you a few of the singular fish which annually visits our shores, and only on one morning in the year—the day in which the moon enters her last quarter in November. I should say two days, for on the first day the fish are just seen, few in number, and for a few minutes ; on the second in great numbers. This year I had an argument with the people here. They calculated that the fish would appear on the 11th and be taken on the 12th; I, by the almanac, told them the days would be the 12th and 13th, and I proved correct. I was at the fishing, and a busy hour it was.” The specimens transmitted to Mr Smith did not arrive in very good condition. Palolo seems to be, if not brittle, at least what mineralogists term “ easily frangible.” YOL. XT. 2V

helminthology. 298 Annelida. Nereis sanguined, but which, from the author’s description more or less convex above, and composed of numerous V Annelida | of the jaws, is no doubt referrible to the present genus, or segments. The term Sea Scolopendrae, sometimes applied wv^ to them, expresses not inaptly their usual rather to that subdivision of it called form. The species represented (fig. 11) Marphysa by Savigny, and distin■, j , is Nereis tiuntia. N. margaritacea of guished by the absence of nuchal tenLeach is distinguished by its pearly body, tacula. The body is long, slightly determinated by two long setae. Its head is pressed beneath, and its segments extri-lobate, with eight tentacula. This speceed 270, about 40 of which, at the cies is common near the Bell Rock, and posterior extremity, were of a much is subject to great variation of colour. paler colour than the others, and apNear the preceding Nereids may be peared to Montagu as if they had been classed several genera of the same slender lately reproduced. The rest of the form, and with branchiae reduced to simple body was of a fine bronze colour, replates, or even to threads or tubercles. In splendent with changeable prismatic some the maxillae and tentacula2 are absent.1 tints. It is a large species, measuring Genus Phyllodoce, Sav. Tentacula fourteen or fifteen inches in length. on the side of the head, in equal numbers, Ewi. tubicola (fig. 10) inhabits the with four or five smaller ones in advance. North Sea, and is remarkable for dwellEyes apparent. Trunk large, and proing constantly in a solid corneous transvided with a circle of very short fleshy tuparent tube. bercles. No apparent jaws. Branchiae broad, After the preceding genera of the and in the form of leaves, thin, flat, and dorsibranchial order, of which the veined. Body linear, with many segments. branchiae are complicated, Cuvier places Ph. laminosa, Sav., is almost cylindrithose of which the respiratory organs cal, and consists of from 325 to 338 segare reduced to simple laminae, or even ments. It is of a brown colour, with reto slight tubercles. In some species, Fig. H. flections of purple and violet. Though indeed, the branchiae are represented nearly a foot long, it measures only a line and a half in by cirrhi alone. breadth. It inhabits the shores of Nice. The Nereis laSome exhibit an alliance to the melligera atlantica of Pallas3 is probably a Phyllodoce. genus Eunice, in the strength of their Genus Alciopa, Aud. and Edw. Mouth and tentacula jaws, and the unequal number of resembling those of the preceding genus, but the feet or their antennae. Such are the genera Fig. 10. organs of movement present, in addition to the tubercles Lysidice and Aglaura of Savigny. Genus Nereis, Cuv.—Lycoris, Sav. Tentacula of even which bear the setae and foliaceous cirrhi (branchiae), two brannumbers, attached to the sides of the base of the head, and chial tubercles, which occupy the upper and under margins. Genus Spio, Fab. Body slender, with two very long a little further onwards two others bi-articulate, with a pair of simple tentacula between them. A single pair of max- tentacula resembling antennae. Head furnished with eyes. illae in the proboscis. Branchiae composed of small plates, in Branchiae on each segment of the body, in the form of a which a net-work of sanguineous vessels is disposed. Each simple filament. The species of this genus occur chiefly in the North Sea. foot is moreover provided with two tubercles, two bundles They are of small size, and dwell in membranous tubes. They of setae, and an upper and under cirrhus. “ The Nereides,” it is observed in Mr Griffith’s Supple- continually agitate their long tentacula. We have figured4 ment, “ most usually live in the excavations of littoral rocks, as an example the S. crenaticornis of Montagu (fig. 12). in the hollows of sponges, in certain alcyones, in univalve or bivalve shells, in madrepores, in the interstices of the radicles of Thalassiophytes, under stones, and in general in all bodies which present fissures more or less profound. There are some which bury themselves in mud or sand, where they excavate a lodge proportional to the dimensions of their body, and sometimes they line this dwelling with a mucous matter issuing from their body, in sufficient abundance to construct a tube or sheath. From this they put forth a greater or less portion of their body, but rarely the posterior extremity, so that they may be able to reenter on the slightest indication of danger. They all appear Fig. 12. to feed upon animal substances, whether in the living state, or in a state of putrefaction more or less advanced. M. The tube of this species is extremely tender, being comBose, who has observed the manners of some species on posed of minute adventitious matter slightly agglutinated. the coasts of the United States, tells us positively that these It is usually attached to Sertularice. In general the feelers animals feed upon polypi and small worms, on which they or tentacula are alone displayed; these are kept in constant throw themselves, by darting out the anterior part of their motion, and are turned about in all directions, although they body, which they have first contracted. Otho Fabricius tells are at the same time capable of instantaneous contraction. us of some species of Spio, or Nereides with tubes, that they Genus Syllis, Sav. Tentacula of uneven number, and seize the planariae on which they feed, by means of their moniliform, in common with the superior cirrhi of the feet. long tentacula.” The latter very simple, with a single tuft of setae. The species of this genus have a linear-shaped body, Some diversity seems to exist in this genus in regard to 1 2

Consult Ratlike Da Bopyro et Nere'ide, Rigse, 1837. Not to be confounded with the genus so named by Ranzani (in Mem. di Storia Natur. 3dec. prima, pi. i., fig. 2-9), at a period posterior to the publication of Savigny’s work. Nov. Act. Petrop , t. ii., 233, tab. 5. 4 Linn. Trans, xi., tab. 14, fig. 6 (not 3, as in the author’s references to his own figures).

HELMINTHOLOGY. Annelida,J the presence or absence of the so-called jaws. The segments of the body are very numerous. S. Monilaris, Sav. (fig. 13) inhabits the Red Sea. Its body is long (consisting of 341 segments), slightly depressed, insensibly narrowed towards the tail, Fig. is. which terminates in two slender moniliform threads. Genus Glycera, Sav. Recognizable by the form of the head, which bears the shape of a fleshy conical point, resembling a little horn, and of which the summit is divided into four scarcely perceptible tentacula. The maxillae are alleged to vary as in the preceding genus. Few of the species have been observed in a recent state. G. unicornis is supposed by some to be identical with the Nereis alba of Muller and Gmelin. Its native country is unknown. G. Meckelii of Audouin and Edwards occurs on the shores of France.1 Genus Nephthys, Cuv. The species of this genus are distinguished by a trunk resembling that of Phyllodoce, but they want the tentacula, and have on each foot two bundles of setae, widely separated, with an intermediate cirrhus. The only species admitted by Savigny is N Hombergii, discovered by the gentleman whose name it bears, near Flavre de Grace. Genus Lombrinera, Blainv. Tentacula wanting. The body, which is extremely elongated, bears on each segment merely a little forked tubercle, from which issues a small bundle of setae. To this genus are referrible, among other species, the Nereis ebranchiata of Pallas,2 and the Lumbricus fragilis of Muller.3 The latter forms the doubtful genus Scoletoma of Blainville. Genus Aricia, Sav. Teeth and tentacula wanting. Body elongated, with two rows of lamellar cirrhi on the back. Anterior feet furnished with dentated crests, which are absent from the other organs of movement. Genus Hesione, Sav. Body short, thickish, composed of few segments, and these not very distinguishable. A very long cirrhus, probably performing the functions ot branchiae, occupies the upper part of each foot, which has also another beneath, and a tuft of setae. The sucker is large, but unprovided with either teeth or tentacula. The species, though few in number, seem pretty widely distributed. H. splendida, Sav.4 (fig. 14) occurs on the coasts of the Red Sea, and was found by Mathieu at the Isle of France. H.festiva greatly resembles the preceding, though of smaller size. It was discovered in the neighbourhood of Nice, by M. Risso.5 Genus Ophelia, Sav. Body thick and short, with the segments not very apparent, and the setae scarcely visible. For two-thirds of its extent long cirrhi serve as branchiae. The palate contains a toothed crest, and the lips are surrounded by tentacula, of which the two upper are larger than the others. O. bicornis, Sav., discovered by Orbigny, seems the only species yet distinctly known. Genus Cirrhatulus, Lam. A very long branchial filament, and two small tufts of setae on each segment of the 1 4 7 9

299

body. These segments are very numerous and closely set, Annelida, and there is an additional range of filaments on the posterior part of what may be called the neck. I he head, but slightly apparent, has neither jaws nor tentacula. To this genus Lamarck (under the name ot C. borealis') refers the Lumbricus cirrhatus ot Otho habricius.6 Cuvier considers the Terebella tentaculata of Montagu' as likewise being a species of Cirrhatulus. The body of this marine Vermis is long and slender, and composed of more than 200 annulations, each of which is furnished with two fasciculi of very minute bristles. There are no eyes, and the branchiae are obscure. 1‘rom the sides of the segments issue very long, red, capillary, appendages, most numerous near the anterior end, the extreme point of which, however, is destitute ot them, and becomes acuminated. The mouth is placed on the inferior face. The posterior end is likewise obtusely pointed. The length of this animal is eight or nine inches. The colour of the upper portion is olive green; of the under, dull orange. While in a state of nature, the filiform appendages of the sides are in continual motion, appearing like slender red worms, twisting themselves around the body in all directions. This curious species was taken from a piece of timber that had been perforated by Pholades, and was destitute of any natural covering.8 Although Montagu placed it in the genus Terebella, he expressed his doubts as to the genus to which it really belonged. Cirrhatulus Lamarckii, so abundant between tidemarks on the coast of Swansea, is described by Dr Williams as subsisting almost entirely by swallowing clay. Its long branchial appendages are but slightly, if at all subservient to the seizing of food. T. he mouth is a small circular orifice, situated ventrally a short distance below the tapering snout in which it terminates, and is well adapted for the suction of semi-fluid food. The native colours of this marine worm are beautifully variegated; the brilliant yellow of the intestine, which begins near the head and continues to the tail, being relieved by the greenish hue of the back, and contrasting well with the vermilion thread which spangles every portion of the body. I his creature is capable of throwing out from the general cutaneous surface a considerable quantity of viscid secretion, by which it is enabled to roll itself within an impenetrable coat of mail. The mechanical art of applying the surrounding substances to the body is accomplished by the thready appendages; and nothing can be more exquisite and admirable than the perfect, though very rapid manner in which these microscopic strings accomplish their protecting work. In its natural state, Cirrhatulus does not seem so much to inhabit channels, as soft semi-fluid clay, in which it is found beneath stones, near the ebb-mark ol the tide. Genus Palmyra, Sav. Setae of the upper tufts large, flattened, fan-shaped, and shining with the brilliancy of polished gold; under tufts small. Cirrhi and branchiae not much developed. Body elongated, with two rather long, and three very short tentacula. The only known species is P. aurifera, a native of the Isle of France, from whence it was sent to Paris by M. Mathieu. Genus Aphrodita, Linn. Distinguished by its two longitudinal ranges of broad membranous scales, which cover the back, and beneath which the branchiae, in the form of little fleshy crests, are concealed.9 The form of these Annelides is usually flattish, and is shorter and broader than in most of the genera. The interior contains a very thick and muscular oesophagus, sus-

2 LRJor. de Za .France, Annelides, pi. vi., fig. i. ^ Zool. Ban., pi. xxii. 5 A'bv. AcZ. Pefro^>., t. ii., pi. vi., fig. 2. Ouvrage d'Egypte, pi. iii., fig. 3. Eur. Merida t. iv., p. 418. Fauna Groenlandica, p. 281, fig. 5. 8 Linn. Trans, ix., pi. vi., fig. 2. Ibid., p. 110. In the opinion of some observers, the Aphrodites offer an exception to the characters of their class, in not being possessed of red blood, but Cuvier has stated his belief (Regne Animal, t. iii., p. 186, note) that that feature is distinguishable in Aph. squamata.

300 HELMINTHOLOGY. Annelida, ceptible of being in part protruded outwards, like a trunk Dr Williams regards it as impossible to resist the conclu- Annelida, or sucker; there is likewise an unequal intestine, furnished sion that the contained fluid is really a reservoir wherein v m- . on each side with a great number of branched caeca, of the oxygen of the external respiratory current already which the extremities are attached between the bases of referred to, becomes accumulated. From the peritothe tufts of setae, which serve as locomotive organs. It is neal fluid the aerating element extends in the direction alleged that the sexes are separate in the Aphroditae, and of the caeca, and imparts to their contents a higher character that the females are oviparous. At certain periods the of organization. These contents thus prepared by a sofemale is certainly found filled with egg-like substances, journ in the caeca of the stomach, become the direct pabuwhich swim in a circumambient liquid, and the male is said lum for replenishing the true blood which is distributed in to abound with milt. vessels over the parietes of those chylous repositories. The ordinal term of dorsibranchiate scarcely applies to Another subdivision of the Linnaean Aphroditae has none the majority of the species, so many of which present no of the flax-like substance on the back—the tentacula are branchial appendages either on the back or elsewhere. They five in number—and the trunk encloses strong corneous are exceptional also in this respect, that their blood is mandibles (fig. 15). It is named Polynoe by Savigny, and colourless. Respiration is performed on a different prin- contains most of the old species described ciple from that which pervades the other annelids. The by Linnaeus, Pallas, Muller, and Otho Fablood-system is in abeyance, while that of the chyle-aque- bricius. The Aph. clava of Montagu1 is a ous is exaggerated, and this fluid of the peritoneal cavity is Polynoe. Several other generic groups in this group the exclusive medium through which oxygen have been recently formed by Audouin, is absorbed. Milne-Edwards, and others, from the Savigny has raised this genus to the rank of a family, genus Aphrodita.2 Fi 15 containing three genera, viz., Palmyra, already noticed, In Erichson’s Archives (for January &- Halithea, and Polynoe. 1845), we have an interesting note on the development To the genus Halithea belongs a well-known British and metamorphoses of Polynoe cirrata. It is born under a species, Aph. aculeata, Linn. It is of an oval form, six or larva form greatly resembling the young of a very dissimiseven inches in length, and nearly two inches broad. The lar genus Terebella. The eggs are found in packets on scales of the back are covered, and in part concealed, by a the back of the mother, and are of a bluish colour. The substance resembling tow, which takes its growth from the larva, of an ovoid form, and greenish colour, bears in front sides. From these sides also spring groups of strong spines, of its ciliated cincture a cephalic lobe, terminated by a which partially pierce through the tow-like substance, and little bundle of ciliae, and enclosing two blackish eye-shaped bundles of softer and more flexuous bristles, which shine points. The mouth is transverse, and is placed behind the with the brilliancy of gold, or exhibit the various tints of ciliated collar. the rainbow, scarcely yielding in beauty, as Cuvier has obGenus Ch;etopterus, Cuv. Mouth with neither trunk served, either to the lustrous plumage of the humming-bird, nor sucker, provided above with a lip, to which are attached or the sparkling of precious gems. Lower down is a tu- two or three small tentacula. Then follows a disk, furbercle, from which spines issue in three groups, and of nished with nine pair of feet, followed by a couple of long three different sizes, and lastly, a fleshy cone. There are silky bundles like wings. The lamelliform branchiae are forty of these tubercles on each side; and between the first attached rather to the under than the upper portion, and two there are a pair of small fleshy tentacula. There are prevail along the middle of the body. fifteen pair of broad scales, sometimes pursed, upon the There is only one species of this singular genus, Ch. perback, and fifteen small branchial crests on each side. This gamentaceus, Cuv. which measures from eight to ten inches curious creature is known along our native shores by the in length, and inhabits a tube formed of a substance rename of sea-mouse. Two other species, Aph. sericea and sembling parchment. It occurs in the West Indian seas.3 hystrix, are referrible to the same genus. It appears from Dr Williams’ observations that the true Order III.—ABRANCHIA. aphrodite type of respiration occurs in Aphrodita aculeata. In this species, the actual uses of the “ elytra,” or dorsal In this the third principal division of the Annelida there scales, become apparent. Furnished with a peculiar apparatus of muscles, they exhibit periodical movements of ele- is no apparent external organ of respiration. Certain spevation and depression. Overspread by a coating of felt, cies, like the earth-worm, seem to respire over the entire easily permeable by the w^ater, the space beneath the scales, surface; others, like the leech, by interior cavities. We during their elevation, becomes filled with a large volume perceive a circulating system of closed vessels, generally offiltered w'ater, which, during the descent of the scales, is filled with red blood, and a4 nervous knotted cord, as forcibly emitted at the posterior end of the body. It is im- among the preceding groups. Some are furnished with portant to remark that the current thus established laves setae, which aid the locomotion, while others are destitute only the exterior of the dorsal region of the body. It no- of these parts; from whence arises a subdivision into two where enters the internal cavities, the latter being shut up principal families. by a membranous partition from that spacious exterior enclosure bounded above by the felt and the elytra. The FAMILY I.—ABRANCHIA SET1GERA. peritoneal chamber is very spacious in this species, and is filled by a fluid which only in a slight degree contains orThese are furnished with setae, and correspond to the ganized particles. The complex and labyrinthic appen- two genera Lumbricus and Nais of Linn. dages of the stomach lie floating in this fluid, and in the Genus Lumbricus, Cuv. Body long, contractile, cylinchambers which divide the roots of the feet. From this drical, divided by wrinkles into a great number of apparelation of contact between the peritoneal fluid and the di- rent rings. Mouth without teeth, subterminal, bilabiate, gestive caeca, which are always filled by a dark green chyle. the upper lip larger than the other, advanced. No eyes. 1

2 Linn. Trans, ix., pi. vii., fig. 3. See Regne Animal, t. iii., p. 207. For descriptive notices (with figures) of several rare and otherwise interesting British Annelida, consult a series of papers published in the Magazine of Natural History (chiefly volumes 6th and 7th), by an excellent observer, the late Dr Johnston of Berwick. ^ See M. Ant. Duges Sur VAnat. et Phys des Annel. Abranch. in Ann. des Sciences Nat. for September 1828.

HELMINTHOLOGY. 301 Annelida. This genus corresponds to Enterion of Savigny, and many different kinds. Savigny, to whom we owe so much Annelida, ) contains the earth-worms and other species. The setae are in relation to the Annelida in general, has, since the pub- v rough and short, as if unguiculated. Each segment is lication of his great work on that class, devoted his attenprovided with eight of these setae, that is, four on each tion more particularly to the genus Lumbricus, and has asside, united in pairs, and forming, by their distribution on certained the existence of about twenty-two species in the the body, eight longitudinal rows, of which four are lateral environs of Paris alone.4 and four inferior. From six to nine of the segments, comEarth-worms undoubtedly possess a certain reproductive prised between the 26th and the 37th, are swollen, and power, when deprived of portions of their bodies, but not form towards the anterior and superior portion of the body to the extent of producing perfect individuals from separated a kind of cincture, especially perceptible during the breed- portions. It is easy to conceive that the removal of the ing season. In the interior of these creatures we perceive hinder part of the body, which does not contain any organs a straight wrinkled intestine, unprovided with a caecum, essential to life, would not destroy the anterior portion ; but receiving in its course several muscular fibres (proper but that the hinder half, when left to itself, should reproto the rings of the body), which form an equal amount of duce the mouth, gizzard, stomach, and other important small diaphragms. Some internal whitish glands towards parts, wras much less likely. On cutting an earth-worm into the anterior of the body are regarded as connected with two, the anterior portion, according to Mr Rymer Jones, is the generative system. The nervous cord consists of a generally {bund to survive ; but this is not the case with series or infinity of very small ganglia, closely set together. the other end, which, although it may show signs of vitality The circulation of the blood among the Lumbrici is by no for a length of time, possesses no power of reproduction, means difficult to detect. We may perceive arising from and eventually dies. The experiments, however, of M. the intestinal canal, and from the inner surface of the outer Duges, certainly go to prove that very important portions envelope, an infinite number of small veinous vessels, which may be removed and reproduced. He cut off from four to interlace with a great assemblage of arterial ones. These eight of the anterior rings, thereby, of course, removing the veins unite in one common trunk, placed longitudinally be- cephalic pair of ganglia, the mouth, and a part of the cesoneath the belly, and from that trunk proceed five small phagus. After the lapse of from ten to thirty days, a canals, which unite in a single dorsal vessel, which may be conical vascular protuberance was perceived to sprout from regarded as the heart. From the last-mentioned organ the bottom of the wound; and in eight or ten days more, small arteries take their origin, and proceed to form a net- this new portion had become so far developed, that not only work with the veins of the superficies of the body,—thus were all the removed rings apparent, but even the mouth and completing the circulation. Respiration appears to be car- upper lip had assumed their pristine form, and the creature ried on at the surface of the skin, most likely by means of began to swallow food, and bury itself beneath the earth. Dr Williams’ experiments, again, were attended by an enextremely small internal branchiae. The appearance of the common earth-worm {Lumoricus tirely different result. He found that although the anterior terrestris) is too familiar to half, after the bisection, did not lose the power of locomoneed description in this place. tion, its movements after a few days became much less active We shall merely mention, that and vigorous. The wounded segment soon began to conbeneath the sixteenth segtract and wither away; and this process of dissolution, creeping onwards from segment to segment, the cephalic extrement there are two pores, the uses of which are still unmity, or head itself, soon ceased to live. The tail half loses known. The mode of producat once all power of onward motion, and merely writhes tion is likewise still disputed. about on one spot. Its movements become excited, not voM. Montegre1 maintains that luntary, and it never re-acquires the power of swallowing earth. The process of decay begins much sooner than in the eggs descend between the the other half, and, extending towards the tail, implicates intestine and the outer envefirst one ring, and then another, till the whole is dead.5 lope, around the rectum, where they hatch, and are speedily The common earth-worm, though apt to be despised and trodden on, is really a useful creature in its way. Mr Knapp protruded in the living state.2 M. Dufour, on the contrary, describes it as the natural manurer of the soil, consuming on the surface the softer parts of decayed vegetable matters, asserts that they lay eggs3 reand conveying downwards the more woody fibres, which sembling those of leeches (fig. 16). The ordinary habits of the there moulder and fertilize. They perforate the earth in all directions, thus rendering it permeable by air and water, earth-worm are well known. both indispensable to vegetable life. According to Mr They inhabit moist earth, Darwin’s mode of expression, they give a kind of underwhich they pierce in all directions, and a quantity of which tillage to the land, performing the same below ground that the spade does above for the garden, and the plough for they swallow. They also, arable soil. It is, in consequence, chiefly of the natural however, feed on animal and operations of worms that fields which have been overspread vegetable remains, and always with lime, burnt marl, or cinders, become in process ot time prefer soil imbued with those Fig. ks. substances. They seek each other’s society chiefly during covered by a finely divided soil, fitted for the support ot the night, and in the month of June. Under the specific vegetation. This result, though usually attributed by farname of terrestris, naturalists have no doubt confounded mers to the “working down” of these materials, is really 1 3

2 nn Mem. du Mus., t. i., p. 242. -^ Sciences Nat., t. v., p. 17 ; and xiv., p. 216. This seeming contrariety may be reconciled by bearing in mind that these creatures are in fact ovo-viviparous, and are sometimes born in the completed state, sometimes still surrounded by an envelope or egg-like covering. Dr Milliams, however, has recently testified to the fact, from experimental observation, that the young escape from the ova before they leave the body of the parent, and are endowed with independent powers of locomotion. 4 5 See also M. Morren’s Treatise De Lumbrici terrestris Historia Naturali nee non anatomica. Brux., 1829. Hoffmeister has published some valuable researches regarding the various species of earth-worm, in his work, Devermibus quibusdam ad genus Lumbricorum pertinentibus, Berol., 1842. To the genus Lumbricus, properly so called, he assigns six species, viz., Lumb. agricola, rubellus, anatomicus, riparius, olidus, and agilis, all of which occur in North Germany.

HELMINTHOLOGY. 302 Annelida, due to the action of earthworms, as may be seen in the in- These ciliae, however, and other apparently indigestible por- Annelida, ^ i~ — ■> numerable casts of which the initial soil consists. These tions, are afterwards disgorged by the polypi, in the same are obviously produced by the digestive proceedings of the manner as owls and other birds of prey reject from their worms, which take into their intestinal canal a large quan- stomachs little rounded pellets of hair and feathers. The productive powers of the Naides, by whatever protity of the soil in which they feed and burrow, and then reject it in the form of the so-called casts. “In this manner,” cess accomplished, are truly astonishing. They appear in says Mr Darwin, “a field, manured with marl, has been countless thousands in the waters of marshes after the lapse covered, in the course of 80 years, with a bed of earth of a few hours, prior to which only some solitary individuals were perceptible. The mouth in these animals is someaveraging 13 inches in thickness.’ In the genus Hypogceon of Savigny, each segment is times a simple cleft, sometimes an opening, accompanied by furnished with an additional seta on its dorsal surface, and two lips. The N. proboscidia of Gmelin, being provided the setae are long, spiny, and sharp-pointed. The body in with a trunk, forms the genus Stylana of Lamarck ; while form and colour greatly resembles that of the common earth- certain anomalous species, such as Lumbricus tubifex and worm, but the segments are less numex*ous, not exceeding marinus of Muller, constitute the conterminous genus Tubi106, whereas those of the latter amount to 120 and up- fex of the former author. They dwell in perforations in the wards. The only species with which we are acquainted is mud of streams and marshes, and in the sand of the seaHyp. hirtum, first observed in the neighbourhood of Phi- shore. We may conclude by observing, that the nervous system of the Naides is but obscurely known, and that the ladelphia. Genus Nais, Linn. Body elongated, linear, flattened, ocular points on the heads of certain species, though vaguely transparent or semi-transparent, and in general provided named eyes, cannot with actual certainty be regarded as with lateral cilise, simple or in tufts. Segments less dis- organs of vision. Genus Climena, Lam. Head without tentacula or other tinctly marked than in the earth-worm. The synonymy of this genus is very confused, its nature appendages. Body cylindrical, composed of few segments, and attributes obscure, and its position in the system con- somewhat swollen about the middle, and attenuated at sequently various, according to the views of different ob- either end. The posterior extremity is truncated and servers. The name, borrowed from the heathen mytho- radiated. These creatures inhabit fixed tubes of a cylindrical form logy, was first applied by Muller, and was generally adopted by contemporaneous, as it has been by succeeding, natura- and membranous texture, open at both ends. Our illustralists. It was written Naias by Bruguiere (in Encyc. Method?), an erroneous alteration, in so far as the latter term had been previously consecrated by Linnaeus to a genus in botany. Lamouroux increased the confusion by bestowing the name of Naisa on a polypus genus of the family of Eig. 17. Tubularia, already known by the title of Plumastella ; and (fig. 17), a species taken in the the resemblance of the two names has induced some com- tion represents pilers to refer to them as synonymous, although they in fact Gulf of Suez, and indigenous to the shores of the Red Sea. Its signify objects belonging to separate classes of the animal tube is composed exteriorly of grains of sand and fragments of shells, and is usually attached to the interstices of rocks, kingdom. Lamarck and Cuvier, in preserving the name of Nais to or to Madrepores and other productions of the sea. the subjects of our present notice, do not agree regarding their relations to other groups. The former author places FAMILY IL—ABRANCHIA ASETIGERA. them in the third or concluding order of his class Vermes This family comprehends such of the abranchial order as (Vers hispides), thus disposing them between the genus Gordius and the Epizoarice. His reason for so doing is, are unprovided with setae, and is constituted by the old gethat the structure of the Naides is by no means sufficiently nera Gordius and Hirudo of Linn.,1 of which all the discomposite to entitle them to a place among the true Anne- tinctly-known species are aquatic. Dr Williams is of lida ; and the fact of their being capable of multiplication opinion that although all the Annelida may be comprised in by incision, shows that their nature is somewhat anomalous the twofold division of branchiata and abranchiata, such disin relation to the last-named class. We may bear in mind, tribution would be neither convenient nor unobjectionable. however, that notwithstanding the observations of Trem- Several species exist, such as those of the genus Syllis, in bley and Roesel, their tomiparous generation is doubted by which the soft pedal appendages do not contain any speBose, and denied by Dr Williams; and, all things consi- cially organized branchial element. But the proposition is dered, they may be regarded as more nearly related to the anatomically true, that the Annelida are really divisible into such as have and such as have not external and apparent genera Nereis and Lumbricus than to any other. The Naides in general are small vermiform creatures, of branchial organs. The bipartite arrangement, long since a few lines in length, of a reddish colour, though diapha- propounded by M.Dumeril, of Crypto-branchia and Gymnonous, extremely active in their movements, and of a vora- branchia, proceeded on this conception ; the former term, cious disposition. They abound in fresh waters, where some however, being inaccurate, in so far as there is actually no dwell upon aquatic plants,—others beneath stones, or in species in which the branchiae are internal or concealed. perforations in the mud. They prey on minute Crustacea, Respiration, according to Dr Williams, in all those destisuch as the genus Daphnia, and on the still minuter ani- tute of external appendages, ^performed internally, but not malcular tribes, and are themselves greedily devoured by by any specially constructed organs. The function, under the fresh-water polypi, which swallow them up, notwith- such circumstances, devolves either upon the general walls standing the pointed ciliae with which their sides are armed. of the alimentary canal or external surface of the body, or 1 We do not exactly know what species of the lower tribes is alluded to by Sir T. S. Raffles in one of his letters descriptive of an excursion from Bencoolen. “ I must not omit to tell you, that in passing through the forest, we were, much to our inconvenience, greatly annoyed by leeches; they got into our hoots and shoes, which became filled with blood. At night, too, they fell off the leaves that sheltered us from the weather, and on awaking in the morning we found ourselves bleeding profusely. These were a species of intruders we were not prepared for.” Another species of land leech is said to inhabit Madagascar, where it occurs on plants. It seizes greedily on the legs of the passers by, and sucks their blood.

HELMINTHOLOGY. 303 Vnnelida. it is enacted by the fluid which, in nearly all the abranchiate we know to be destitute of eyes, but even upon the sub- Annelida, genera (except the leech and earth-worm), occupies the jects of the vegetable kingdom. M. Moquin-Tandon how- N— peritoneal cavity. All the external branchial appendages ever asserts, that having placed a small piece of red-coloured may be sub-divided into two chief divisions. In one, the wood in front of Nephelis vulgaris, it evidently turned round organ is constructed with special reference to the exposure on purpose to avoid it.1 Their perception of the sense of of the blood-proper to the agency of the respiratory element; touch is delicate, although they possess no special or circumin the other, the branchia is a mere hollow process filled scribed organs for its reception. The sense of taste is obviwith the chyle-aqueous fluid of the cavity just named. ous,—that of hearing and of smell imperceptible. No odour It has been affirmed, as a law of the organization in all affects them,—no sound seems to produce any influence; abranchiate Annelida, that the system of the blood-proper is nor can we detect any organs which may reasonably be more developed on the parietes of the intestinal canal than deemed the seat of these last-named functions. on the integuments. This fact, whenever the peritoneal The tegumentary system of leeches has been examined space is obliterated by the adherence of the intestinal in detail in very few species. In the medicinal leech three cylinder to that of the integument, transfers the office of parts are, however, distinguishable—the epidermis, an inrespiration from the latter to the former region; that is, as termediate layer which is the seat of colour, and the is practically demonstrable in the instance of dermis. The epidermis is extremely fine and delicate, perthe large volume of water which is incessantly streaming fectly colourless, and remarkably deciduous, that is to say, throughout the length of the alimentary canal, holding at- it is frequently renewed, even as often as once in every mospheric air in solution, while it ministers by its organic four or five days in warm weather. It adheres intimately particles to the nutrition of the system, contributes also by to the lower layer, but not by its entire extent—being frethe air with which it is mixed to the great purpose of aerat- quently free between the rings of which the body of the ing the living fluids of the organism. creature is composed. When detached we perceive that it We may now observe that leeches in general (Hirudines) is perfectly transparent at the points which adhered to the are characterized by an oblong body, sometimes depressed, coloured layer, and slightly opake, or even of a whitish transversely wrinkled, and furnished with a dilatable cavity colour where it became unattached in passing from one at either extremity—that is, the mouth is surrounded by a segment to another. Under the microscope it is seen to lip, and the posterior end is provided with a flattened disk. be pierced by an infinity of small holes, through which a These latter parts are useful as organs of prehension and mucous liquid flows, which lubricates the surface. The locomotion, and also act as suckers. The mouth, placed in coloured layer, or pigmentum, adheres strongly to the derthe anterior cavity, is furnished with three jaws. mis on which it lies. The hues which it exhibits are very These useful vermes were probably known in very ancient different according to the species,— sometimes they are times. The Halukah or Gnalukah of the Hebrews appears to dark and uniform, but usually lighter on the under than have been one of this tribe, at least the term has been so the upper surface ; sometimes the ground colour is varied translated in our versions of the Proverbs, ch. xxx., v. 15: by spots or streaks of different intensities, while the pig“ The horse-leech hath two daughters, crying, Give, give.” ment, if we may so express it, is occasionally almost colourThe Greek writers make mention of them under the name less, and we may then perceive distinctly through the skin of Bdella. and the Latin authors under those of Hirudo and all the interior organs of the body. The dermis, or deepSanguisuga ; but the ascertainment of the precise species est layer, exhibits a curious organization ; it consists of a indicated is by no means easy. After the revival of learn- thickish tunic, presenting an appearance of distinct circular ing we have various general notices of their history and articulations, which produce the ringed or wrinkled aspect habits, although it was so late as the time of Linnaeus be- of the external surface. The spaces which exist between fore we attained to any knowledge of their specific distinc- these rings are covered by the epidermis, and seem intended tions. The Swedish naturalist (in his Fauna Suecicd) de- to facilitate the varied movements of the animal. k scribed eight species, and numerous additions have been Beneath the skin, of course, are placed the muscles. We made in more recent times. For a long period the genus find first a layer of transverse fibres, which adheres intiHirudo, as founded by Ray and adopted by Linnaeus, ex- mately to the dermis. This layer covers other muscles, of perienced no sub-division ; but the labours of Leach, Oken, which the direction is longitudinal; and beneath these Savigny, Lamarck, and others, have shown the propriety of we find some more, of which the direction is again transre-arranging a group, consisting no doubt of natural con- verse. stituent parts, but composed of beings exhibiting a varied The copula or oral sucker is formed by two extensile range of structure, and too much extended for the forma- lips—the one superior, usually large, sometimes almost tion of a genus, properly so called. lanceolate ; the other inferior, and less advanced. Within The structure of these creatures is soft and contractile, it are placed the jaws, rarely wanting, and usually three in composed of a great number of articulations, and generally number, disposed triangularly, and fixed upon a correspondinvested by an abundant supply of mucous moisture. The ing number of little tubercles. Their consistence is slightly anterior cavity, which contains the mouth, is named copula cartilaginous, their form almost lenticular, and their margin, by Savigny, while the posterior disk bears the name of cotyla free and cutting, is sometimes smooth, sometimes furnished in the nomenclature of that author. On the anterior seg- with a double row of dentations, more or less numerous ments certain small black points are observable, which are according to the different kinds. A sort of cartilaginous regarded as fulfilling the functions of eyes. They vary in ring, which frequently surrounds the base of the tubercles, number in the different genera, from two to ten. Various indicates the opening of the intestinal canal, which comexperiments have been made with a view to the ascertain- mences by a species of oesophagus more or less narrow, ment of their sense of sight. If we place leeches in a ves- presenting occasionally some longitudinal folds, but never sel surrounded by black paper, and permit the light to any lateral pouch-like swellings. The ensuing portion or enter only by means of a single small orifice, they are by stomach, on the contrary, usually exhibits throughout its no means slow in directing themselves to that point;—but entire extent expansions more or less perceptible, according this observation we deem to be in no way conclusive, in as to the state of repletion. In certain species (such as Clepfar as light produces an efficient action and a directing in- sina complanata) these lateral appendages are never effaced, fluence, not only upon many of the lowest tribes, which but constitute permanent cseca. The rectum is generally 1

Monographic de la famille des Hirudinees. Montpellier, 1826, in 4to.

304 HELMINTHOLOGY. Annelida, separated from the stomach by a valvular contraction. The extending from the mouth to the extremity of the bod}', Annelida, ana l opening is on the back, at the origin of the posterior and placed, as among the other articulated classes, beneath sucker, called cotyla by Savigny. The digestive canal is the alimentary canal. From each ganglion proceed nervous throughout composed of two pellucid tunics, and towards its threads, which ramify ad infinitum to the other parts. The circulating system of leeches has been the subject extremity some muscular fibres are perceptible. Although the existence of a liver in the leech tribe is not so ascer- of still more numerous researches. It is probably more tained as to be at all generally admitted (indeed it is denied highly developed among these animals than in any other by some, and doubted by many), yet M. Blainville describes Annelida. In this class the presence or absence of a an apparatus for the secretion of bile, consisting of a cellulo- heart, or heart-like centre, is by no means the true criterion membranous tissue surrounding a portion of the stomach of its amount of evolution. The quantity of blood relatively to the size of the body, the degree of capillary subdivision and intestine.1 All leeches are blood-thirsty and voracious, and support on the periphery of the blood system, and the proporthemselves by sucking the life-blood of other animals. Their tion of the latter to the peritoneal fluid, give true indicapowers of digestion and assimilation are, however, extremely tions. In the leech there exists no free space between the slow; and hence, probably their reluctance to repeat their intestine and the integument, and so the chylous fluid, which operations for behoof of a patient, when their doing so is in nearly all the other Annelida occupies the general cavity neither pleasant nor profitable to themselves. After the of the body, is transferred into the interior of the lateral lapse of days, weeks, and even months, portions of the liquid diverticula of the stomach. We shall here briefly notice or solid matters which they may have swallowed are found the labours of some foreign physiologists. MM. Thomas,2 to remain in the intestinal canal. The kinds used in medi- Cuvier, Carena,3 Moquin-Tandon, Duges4 and Audouin,5 cine, moreover, offer this peculiarity, that the blood which have signalized themselves in this laborious field. All the they have sucked does not seem to experience any sensible species hitherto examined have presented four longitudinal alteration in their stomach, but maintains its natural colour vascular trunks—one dorsal, another ventral (these two beand fluidity. If, however, the leech dies, or the blood is ing separated by the alimentary canal), and two lateral. exposed to the air, it speedily coagulates, and becomes of a These principal organs communicate with each other, not blackish brown. only by the capillary vessels which meet and intermingle in In regard to the bleeding of leeches, M. Olivier {Journal the different parts to which they are distributed, but also by de Chirurgie par Malgaigne, 1844, Mars., p. 88), has pro- special branches of considerable diameter, which proceed posed the following procedure:—When fully gorged, the directly from one vascular trunk to another. The ventral creature should be punctured with the point of a lancet in vessel furnishes large branches, which, mounting vertically one of the transverse wrinkles of the back, at the termina- on either side, embrace the intestinal canal, and open on tion of the first third of the length of the body, the incision the dorsal vessel. Duges names these the abdomino-dorsal being made parallel with it, between the vein and artery, branches. The lateral branches communicate with each and in a direction from the anterior backwards. The wound other by means of transverse branches, which pass beneath is to be two millimetres in length, and the leech is to be the medullary cord. These branches have been well figured afterwards placed in lukewarm water; in which, by its own and described by Jean Muller (in Archiv. fur Anat. und contractions, which may be assisted by pressure with the Phys. Jan., Marz., 1828), and Duges names them laterofingers, all the blood which it has sucked escapes through abdominal branches. Lastly, these lateral trunks also send the wound. It should afterwards be placed in rain or river large branches to the dorsal vessel, which bear the designawater. It is said that, notwithstanding the carnivorous na- tion of latero-dorsal branches. In addition to these canals, ture of these creatures, they are benefited by having access which thus establish a direct connection between the printo the plant called Ranunculus aquaticus. The young are cipal trunks, each of the latter gives rise to an infinite numalleged to feed upon its leaves. On contemplating the ber of small vessels, which carry the blood to the various singular dental apparatus of the leech, and considering the parts, and especially to the skin, which may be regarded as nature of the food (we presume minute aquatic animals) on the principal, though not the sole organ of respiration. That which it usually subsists, Mr Rymer Jones finds it difficult other organ, to which we now allude, consists of certain to avoid the conclusion that such a structure is rather a pouches, amply provided with blood-vessels, which form a provision subservient to the alleviation of human suffering, net-work on their coats, and proceed from the subdivision than necessary to supply the wants of the animals them- of a vessel furnished by the latero-abdominal branches, as selves. It is certain that in the streams, ponds, and marshes well as of a large vascular pouch or bag called pulmonary where they usually inhabit, an opportunity of sucking any by Duges, and which is derived from the lateral trunk. In warm-blooded animal, whether man or beast, must be ex- a species of Albione dissected by M. Audouin, the lateral tremely rare, so that they can but seldom exercise their vessels were perceived to be in direct communication with instinctive love of blood. Neither does it appear that the the respiratory pouches by means of two branches, one of fluid which they swallow so greedily is fitted to their consti- which is anterior, the other posterior. He also observed tution ; for, although it is true that it remains for a consider- that numerous branches sprang from the anterior portion of able time in their interior without corrupting, yet it is well the dorsal vessel, and proceeded partly to the pouches, and known that the death of the leech is generally caused by the partly to the lateral trunks. Thus the pouches communiindulgence of such inordinate repletion, provided the greater cate at the same time, both with the dorsal and lateral vesportion of what has been swallowed is not speedily regur- sels. In accordance with these views, the process of circugitated through the mouth. lation is supposed to be as follows :—The lateral trunks are The nervous system of the leech tribe has been described regarded as great veins, which receive the blood from all in some detail by several authors, especially that of San- parts of the body, and transmit it to the respiratory pouches, guisuga officinalis, Hcemopis vorax, Nephelis gigas, and in which it becomes re-oxygenated; a small portion then Albione muricata. It is composed of a series of ganglions, flows back to the lateral vessels, while the greater portion 1 2

Essai d'une Monographie de la famille des Ihrudinies. Paris, 1827, in 8vo. Mem. pour servir d VIlistoire Nat. des Sangsues. Paris, 1806. ^4 Monographie du Genre Hirudo, in Mem. de VAcad, de Turin, tom. xxv. Recherches sur la Circulation, dec., des Annelides Abranches, 1828. 5 Articles Sangsue and Sangsues, in the Dictionnaire Classique d'JIist. Nat.

HELMINTHOLOGY. Annelida,7 enters the dorsal vessel, and then the ventral one, both of v which assist in propelling it to all the other parts of the body, from whence it returns to the lateral branches, and thence flows to the respiratory pouches as aforesaid. We must add, however, that M. de Blainville and others deny that the pouches or vesicular sacks just mentioned are ot a pulmonary nature.1 They regard them rather as secreting glands ; and it is certain that respiration is carried on in great part through the medium of the skin, or rather that the function of breathing falls on the united structure of the intestine and integument. Various kinds of leeches may be often seen fixed by their posterior sucker, and swinging themselves to and fro for hours and even days together, their bodies being at that time more than usually flattened in order to render the motion more effective. They are then respiring after the manner of the Naids, by bringing their cutaneous system into constant contact with a fresh supply of water. "During this singular process the pulmonary pouches are almost quite inert, and their sanguineous vessels scarcely perceptible, while the cutaneous network, on the contrary, is in full and remarkable activity. Leeches are hermaphrodites, like others of their class; but sexual union of separate individuals is indispensable to the process of fecundation. Although in many of their more obvious characters they so nearly resemble the Planariae, they stand too high in the scale to be capable of reproduction by excision or the cutting of parts. A variety of opinion exists among naturalists regarding the mode of production, whether by eggs or living young. It is probable that such as do not appear to lay eggs are merely ovo-viviparous, and bring forth their young alive, after they have been hatched in the body of the parent. The majority of species in truth lay oviferous capsules, each containing several germs. Certain kinds of Clepsina are distinguished by a small and peculiar pouch in the abdomen, in which the young seek protection during infancy. They attain to full size rather slowly, and the duration of life is considerable, though not distinctly known. Medicinal leeches have been kept in life for a period of eight years; and it has been inferred that if, with the disadvantages of confinement and irregular supplies of food, they survive so long, their natural term of life must be much greater. This, however, we regard as an inconclusive, if not erroneous mode of reasoning; for we know that among insects and other classes of the more lowly organized departments of animal life, abstinence, and the non-fulfilment of their natural instincts, are uniformly found to prolong their period of existence. The leech tribe in general is widely distributed over the earth’s surface, although, as usual, each species has its own range of localities.2 Our medicinal kinds seem proper to Europe, although they extend from Russia to the southern point of Spain. All the species are extremely sensible of atmospheric changes. They become agitated

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during high winds, and often bury themselves in the mud Annelida, during cloudy weather. Some fanciful observers have even kept them in confinement, that they might serve to indicate the state of the atmosphere; but we incline to think that it is fully as useful, and not more troublesome, to look out of a window than into a phial. On the approach of cold weather they sink into the mud, and pass the winter in a state of lethargy. We shall now proceed to a brief consideration of the principal genera into which the tribe has been partitioned by modern naturalists. Genus Sanguisuga, Sav. Oral sucker consisting of several segments. Tapper lip almost lanceolate. Aperture transversal. Jaws three in number, compressed, and each armed on their cutting edges with two ranges of fine teeth. Eight or ten black points (regarded as eyes) disposed in a curved line ; the posterior four more isolate.3 Anal sucker obliquely terminal. This genus contains the leeches properly so called, that is, the medicinal kinds ; and, according to Savigny, consists of three species. Some recent additions, however, have been made to these by MM. Moquin-Tandon and Carena. H. medicinalis (fig. 18) of naturalists is the most common kind, and that most frequently used for blood-letting purposes. It occurs throughout the fresh-water marshes of Europe, and measures from four to five inches in what may be called its medium state, although capable of both contraction and extension within and beyond those limits. Its body, including the anterior sucker, is composed of ninety-eight rings, and is of a deep-green colour on the back, with six reddish bands, three on each side. The two inner bands are almost spotless ; the two central ones are marked by a chain of small spots and points of velvet-black; the exterior bands are marginal, and each subdivided by a black fillet. The abdomen is of an olive colour, broadly bordered and spotted with black. r>g-18Savigny distinguishes, under the name of S. officinalis (it is

Fig. 19. the H. provincialis of Carena), another species, likewise used in medicine, and frequently confounded with the preceding (fig. 19). It is vulgarly known as \hegreen feeeA, and resembles

3 Cuvier seems to express no very decided opinion on the subject above referred to. “ On voit dans plusieurs en dessous du corps deux series de pores, orifices d’autant de petites poches interieures que quelques naturalistes regardent comme des organes du respiration bien qu’ils soient la plupart du temps remplis d’un fluide muqueux” (Regne Animal, t. iii., p. 213). Dr Williams has more recently shown that the so-called pulmonary vessels are in fact ovario-uterine organs. 2 We observe it stated in several continental works of authority, that leeches are unknown in, or at least not indigenous to, the western world. We were inclined a priori to doubt the accuracy of this statement, and lately instituted some inquiries on the subject, in which we were aided by an excellent physiological naturalist, Dr Allen Thomson. We find that in the Dispensatory of the United States, by Drs Wood and Bache (published at Philadelphia in 1833), there is a description of a true American medicinal leech. These authors state, that at New York, Boston, and elsewhere, European leeches, that is, the gray and green varieties of the Hirudo medicinalis of Linnaeus, are chiefly employed, and are imported in great quantities; but that in Philadelphia and the neighbourhood the indigenous Hirudo decora is used. It is this species which is described in Major Long’s Second Expedition (vol. ii., p. 268). The back is of a deep pistachio-green colour, with three longitudinal rows of square spots, twenty-two in number, and placed on every fifth ring. The abdomen is spotted with black. This kind usually measures two or three inches in length, occasionally attaining to the extent of four or five inches. It is carried to Philadelphia by the country people from Bucks and Berks county. It is said to draw less blood than the European leech, and does not cut so deeply. About three American do not more than correspond to a single European leech in their suctorial powers. 3 The eyes of leeches are easily detected by the assistance of a lens, under the form of a semicircular row of black points, situated above the mouth, upon the sucking surface of the oval disk, a position evidently calculated to render them efficient agents in detecting the presence of food. According to Professor Muller, they do not exhibit any apparatus of transparent lenses adapted to collect or concentrate the rays of light, but each ocellus, or visual speck, would seem to be merely an expansion of the terminal extremity of a nerve VOL. XI. 2Q

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HELMINTHOLOGY. Annelida, the common kind in size, and the number of its segments ; leeches simply in moistened clay, in which the creatures Annelida, but the colour of the back is not so sombre, and the abdo- form holes and galleries, where they live happily for years. Mr Brightwell states that a dealer in Norwich keeps a men is of a more yellow green, and, though bordered with black, is without spots. The six anterior eyes are very pro- stock of about 50,000 in two large tanks of water, floored jecting, and have more truly the appearance of organs of with soft clay, in which the creatures burrow. On examinvision. The third species mentioned by Savigny is the S. ing these tanks he found many capsules or ova deposits of granulosa. It was brought by M. Leschenhault from the leech, which the owner, ignorant of their nature, stated Pondicherry, where it. is used in blood-letting after the to be at times very numerous, but which he neglected, and manner of our European kinds. S. obscura and interrupta indeed generally destroyed. (The curious in leeches may consult the following works, are both described by M. Moquin-Tandon as indigenous to the vicinity of Montpellier; and S. verbena of Carena in addition to those already quoted:—Histoire Naturelle occurs in the Lago Maggiore. et Medicale des Sangsues, See., par T. L. Derheims, 8vo, With the exception of the last-named species, and that Paris, 1825 ; Observations sur la conservation el la reprofrom Pondicherry, M. Blainville refers all the others to duction des Sangsues, par Chatelain, 8vo, Paris, 1826; the H. medicinalis of Linn., of which, according to his Monographic des Sangsues Medicinales et Officinales, par peculiar views, he establishes five varieties; the grey, the A. Charpentier, Paris, 1838 ; Sur la Multiplication des green, the spotted, the black, and the flesh-coloured. Sangsues, par T. B. Hazard, 8vo, Paris, 1841. See With that love of change for which too many modern also some observations On the Minute Anatomy of the naturalists are remarkable, he names the genus Jatrobdella. Horse leech, by J. E. Quekett, in the Zoologist, pp. 17, 88, We have already mentioned that leeches are abundant 324.) in all the countries of Europe. France furnishes an imGenus H^iiopis, Sav. Differs from the preceding mense supply, and their collection in some of her pro- chiefly in the jaws being not compressed, and furnished with vinces affords the materials of an important branch of less numerous dentations. commerce. Some curious details on the subject were H. sanguisorba, Sav. (Hirudo sanguisuga, Linn.), comread several years ago to the agricultural society of the monly called the horse-leech, is a well-known species, somedepartment of Seine-et-Oise. Towards the month of April what larger than the medicinal kinds, and of a uniform or May, according to the nature of the season, the country greenish-black colour. A great diversity of opinion seems people collect the cocoons or capsules formerly mentioned to exist regarding the blood-drawing propensities of this as containing the eggs. These they find in abundance in species. Many allege that it causes wounds extremely the mud of shallow marshes, and convey them to various re- dangerous both to man and beast. Linnaeus asserts that servoirs in other quarters, so as to spread and propagate the nine will kill a horse. MM. Huzzard and Pelletier, on the breed. They do not use them commercially till they are other hand, maintain that the horse-leech, improperly so about eighteen months old. Leeches are very numerous called, never attacks any vertebrated animal whatever ;2 in the lakes and marshes in the neighbourhood of Nantes ; while M. de Blainville again is of opinion that these writers and their collection is carried on throughout the whole have mistaken their subject of observation, and have deyear, but chiefly during summer.. They are transported scribed the black leech (his Pseudobdella nigra), which is to Paris in linen bags, each containing about 500, placed in truly characterized by the jaws being nothing more than panniers, and surrounded by wet moss. During a favour- folds of toothless skin, and may therefore be inferred to conable season the dealers of Nantes will sometimes receive at fine its attacks to the lower orders of creation. We agree the rate of fifty thousand every day ; and a Parisian drug- with Cuvier in thinking that the subject deserves a fresh gist informed M. Audouin, that in the summer of 11820 he examination. In addition to the common species, Savigny dereceived from Moulins 130,000 for his own share. Four scribes three other kinds,—H. nigra, luctuosa, and lacertina. of the principal dealers in London are said to import beGenus Bdella, Sav. Dentations of the jaws entirely tween seven and eight million of medicinal leeches every wanting. Eyes only eight in number. year. Many leeches refuse to bite. This generally arises As far as we know, this genus consists either from their appetite for food having been recently sa- of only a single species, the Bd. Nilotica tisfied, or from their being about to change their skins. (fig. 20), found in Egypt, and familiar to It is believed, however, that capricious individuals sometimes the Arabs under the name oi'Alak. Itapoccur, which will not suck at all; and of this it is impos- pears to have been known to the ancients; sible to ascertain the cause. Inflammation occasionally fol- and Herodotus {Hist. lib. ii., cap. 68) lows the infliction of the bite, and in this case a vulgar pre- describes it as a parasite of the crocojudice exists that a horse-leech has been applied. This is dile. It is of a chestnut-brown colour in every way an error, for the horse-leech refuses to fasten above, of a lively red below. upon the human body. The means used for the preservaGenus Nephelis, Sav. In this getion of leeches in confinement are various. The most com- nus the eyes are also only eight in nummon mode consists in placing them in a bottle of water ber, the four anterior being disposed in frequently renewed. Some apothecaries find advantage a crescent form, the four posterior ranged from placing moss or aquatic plants at the bottom of the on each side on a transverse line. The vessel, which aid in freeing them from slime. The chief jaws are reduced to three simple folds. pig.-20. dispenser of the marine hospital of Rochefort keeps his Savigny describes three species, N. ndila, testacea, and derived immediately from the brain, spread out beneath a kind of cornea formed by the delicate and transparent cuticle, behind which is a layer of black pigment, to which the dark colour of the ocular points is due. We ourselves entertain no doubt that leeches have eyes, but the evidence (from written authorities) is very contradictory. Weber was the first to show the true nature of the black specks in H. officinalis (Meckel’s Archives, 1827, p. 301). More recently Wagner (Lehrbuch d. vergleich, Anat. 1835, p. 428) has described, in the interior of the pigment layer, a transparent body, composed of two parts, which he regards as consisting of a crystalline lens and a vitreous portion. Brandt has even traced the ten optic nerves from the brain to the eyes {Med. Zool. i., p. 250). On the other hand, Moquin-fandon, in the revised edition of his work (Monographic des Hirudinees, Paris, 1846), states that these black specks contain -ther lens nor vitreous humour, although they are light-receiving organs; while Leydig (in Siebold and Kolliker’s Zeitsch. i., 1849, p. 103) goes so far as to assert, in relation to the alleged eyes of the parasitical genus Piscicola, that they neither receive a nerve, nor contain a light-refracting body. He regards them as simple ornaments, analogous to the corresponding pigment dots on the pedal shield, with which they also correspond both in colour and distribution. 1 2 Diet. Class d Hist. Nat. t. xv., p. 108. Journal de Pharmacie, Mars 1825.

HELMINTHOLOGY. 307 Annelida, cinerea. The two former occur near Paris ; the last named terized by a broadened body, possessing only a posterior Annelida, ✓ is frequent in the marshes of the forest of Fontainebleau. Of sucker. The anterior portion is a simple orifice, without v ^—/ Nephehs tessellata, Muller observes that the female is some- any appearance of the usual disk. The species make a times found filled with 300 young. N. vulgaris is frequent near approach to the Planarice, and the one represented in our fresh waters, and the brown capsules containing the by the annexed cut was described and figured by Mr Kirby, ova may be found on the underside of the leaves of many under the name of Hirudo crenata (fig. 21).2 The dewater plants, among the ova of the helices. Mr Brightwell velopment of the ova in this genus has been described by kept several species through the summer, and carefully ob- Grube.3 C. complanata usually deposits from five to seven served the deposition of the ova, and development of the ova, enveloped in a very transparent, soft, succular egg-case, young. On the 2d of June N. vulgaris deposited one while in C. bioculata there are only three or four, and capsule containing ova, on the 5th another, on the 10th a in C. marginata only a single ovum third, and on the loth two more, each containing from in each capsule. These egg-cases seven to ten eggs. On the 22d the young appeared in the are glued by a peduncle to water capsule deposited on the 2d, and on the 13th July they plants, and continue hanging thereemerged from the capsule, and in six weeks they left it, to, but the young, when excluded, fully developed. He detected rotiferous animalcules in attach themselves to the abdomen their stomach. of the mother. Other genera, allied The genus Trochetia of Dutrochet does not seem to to the preceding in their enlarged differ from the preceding, except by an enlargement near form and absence of the oral disk, the position of the generative system. One species (Geob- have been established by Oken and della trochetii of Blainville) comes on shore in pursuit of Blainville. Of these, however, we earth-worms. Another minor genus has been established cannot give account within our preby M. Moquin-Tandon, under the name of Aulastoma. scribed limits, and we shall therefore The jaws are represented by numerous projecting folds. conclude the present treatise by The eyes are ten in number. We may here also mention a short notice of the more distantly M. Odier’s genus Branchiobdella, of which the jaws are related, two in number, and the eyes wanting. It inhabits the Genus Gordius, Linn. Body gills of cray-fish.1 filiform, smooth, or with very slight In all the preceding groups or genera of leeches, the an- transverse markings. Neither branterior sucker is but slightly distinguishable from the adjoin- chiae nor tentacula of any kind. ing portion of the body ; but in the two following genera A wrell-known species of this genus (£?. acquaticus, Linn.) it is rendered more perceptible by a restriction, and is com- is distinguished in this country by the name of the hair-eel. posed of only a single segment. In the genus H^emo- It occurs in springs and marshes, and among moist sand, and charis of Savigny, the eyes are eight in number, the body also dwells in mud, which it perforates in all directions. It slender, and indistinctly ringed. The species do not swim, is believed by some to be parasitic in the abdominal cavity but march after the manner of the surveyors or geometric of many insects. A list of these latter, so infested, has caterpillars. They attach themselves particularly to fishes. been published by Professor Siebold {Entomologische ZeitThe genus Albione of the same author differs from the ung. Yahrg. 1843, p. 77). The position of the genus is preceding in its body being beset by tubercles, and in pos- variously regarded by different naturalists, and the extreme sessing only six eyes. The species inhabit the sea. We tenuity of form in these creatures has probably opposed obmay mention, as an example, the Hirudo muricata of stacles in the way of a precise knowledge of their structure. Linn. I he nervous system being composed of a ganglionic cord, The genus Branchellion of Sav. is distinguished by seems, however, a strong reason for placing them among what some regard as projecting branchias. The epidermis the Annelida. We follow the Baron Cuvier in so doing, is loose and ample, and seems to enclose the animal as in although we are aware that Rudolphi and Blainville coma sack. The species are parasitical, and attach themselves bine them with the genus Filaria, which contains the noted chiefly to fish of the torpedo kind. With the leeches, Cu- Guinea worm (F. Medinensis), and is usually regarded as vier also places the genus Clepsina, Sav., which is charac- belonging to the intestinal class. (j. w.)

INDEX. Page ABRANCHIA... 300 Abranchia SeTIGERA 300 Abranchia AseTIGERA 302 Aglaura 298 Albione 307 Alciopa 298 Amphinorae 297 Amphitrite 295 ANNELIDA 290 Aphrodita 299 Arenicola 296 1

Page Aricia 299 Aulastoma 307 Bdella 306 Branchellion 307 Branchiobdella ...307 Clepsina 307 Chlceia 297 Cirrhatulus 299 Chastopterous 300 Climena 302 Dentalium 296

Pago DORSIBRANHair-worm CHIA 296 Halithea Hesione Earth-worm 301 Hirudo Enterion 301 Horse-leech... Eunice 297 Hypogaeon Euphrosine 297 Jatrobdella Glycera 299 Gordius 307 Leeches Lombrinera Hasmocharis 307 Lumbricus Haemopis 306 Lysidice

Page 307 300 299 303 306 302

Marphysa

306

Nais Nephelis Nephthys Nereis . Ophelia

303 299 300 298

Palmyra Pleione Polynoe Phyllodoce

Page 298 Pseudobdella ....302 306 299 298

Page 306

Sabella 294 Sanguisuga.......305 Serpula 294 Spio 294 Spirorbis 298 299 Syllis 298 Syphostoma 296 299 297 Terebella ,.295 300 Trochetia 307 298 TUBICOLA3 294

2 Mem. de la Soc. d'Hist. Nat., t. i., pi. iv. Linn. Trans, ii., tab. 29 p. 318, 3 Ztf,r Anatomie und Physiologic der Kiemenwiirmer, Kbnigsberg, 1838.

308 H E L Helmont HELMONT, Jean Baptiste Van, a celebrated chemiII cal inquirer, was born at Brussels in 1577. He was eduIlelos. cated at Louvain, and began the study of natural science under the Jesuits in that city. Their hard and dry philosophy, however, had few attractions for a nature so ardent and imaginative as his. Turning for relief to other systems, he found no rest except in the mysticism of a Kempis and Tauler. From them he learned that wisdom is the gift of the Supreme Being; that it must be obtained by prayer; and that we must renounce our own will if we wish to participate in the influence of the divine grace. From this time he began a life of exemplary meekness and humility, made over his property to his sister, and retired from the high society in which he had hitherto walked. He sought relief in the study of medicine; pored over Galen and the Greeks ; mastered them, and finding their inadequacy, abandoned them for ever. He then turned to Paracelsus and the alchemists, and conferred a real boon on humanity by rescuing chemical science from the erratic absurdities of the post-Paracelsian alchemists, and applying to it the principles of the newly-discovered induction. He graduated as M.D. in 1599 ; and, after travelling through France and Italy, married a rich lady of Brabant, by whom he had several children. He died in Holland in 1644 in the sixtyseventh year of his age. Science is under real obligations to Van Helmont, though at one period of his life he was a sworn alchemist, and revived the old doctrine of Thales, that the material particles of the universe consist essentially of nothing but water. To him is due the invention, or at least the first application, of the term gas in the sense in which it is now used. He also discovered that gas was disengaged in abundance by the application of heat to various bodies, and during the solution of various carbonates and metals in acids. His theory of the formation of urinary calculi is also nearly correct. The personal character of Van Helmont, as given by his biographer Lobkowitz, is interesting:—“ He was pious, learned, famous, a sworn enemy of Galen and Aristotle. The sick never languished long under his hands, being always killed or cured in three days.” His works were published at Amsterdam in 1648 by his son Mercurius, who aspired to rival his father, and is described on his tombstone as being nil patre inferior. The best edition of these is that of Elzevir, 1652. HELMSLEY, a small market-town of England, North Riding of Yorkshire, on the Rye, 21 miles N. of York. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agriculture and the linen manufacture. Helmsley Castle, now in ruins, was built in the time of Edward I. and Edward II., and was taken and dismantled by Fairfax in the civil war. Pop. of township (1851) 1481. HELMSTEDT, or Helmstadt, a walled town of Germany, duchy of Brunswick, on the high road from Brunswick to Magdeburg, 20 miles E. of the former city. The ditches which formerly surrounded the town have been filled up, and converted into public walks, planted with trees. A university, founded here in 1575, was suppressed by Jerome Bonaparte in 1809, and a portion of its library transferred to Gottingen. The university building is now used as a court-house. The church of St Stephen and the town-hall are the principal buildings of the town. It is a place of considerable trade, and has manufactures of flannel, soap, hats, spirits, &c. Pop. about 6000. HELMUND, a river of Afghanistan. See Afghanistan. HELOS, in Ancient Geography, the name of several towns, so called from their position among, or near, fens. * I he most important town of this name was in Laconia, at the mouth of the Eurotas, in a plain close to the sea, marshy yet very fertile. In the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnese Helos was taken, and its inhabitants carried off to

H E L Sparta, and reduced to slavery. Their name is said to have Helots, been applied by their masters generally to all the bonds- i men or helots that fell into their power. This, however, is a mere etymological fancy. (See Helot.) The name Helos is still given to the champaign country at the mouth of the Eurotas; and ruins, said to belong to the ancient town, are still visible near Bizani. Leake identifies Helos with Priniko ; but as the remains there do not go further back than the middle ages, the first supposition is the more likely to be true. HELOTS, in Grecian Antiquity, the serfs or bondsmen of the Spartans. Etymologically the word signifies, beyond doubt, a captive ox prisoner, and is derived from the root eA found in cAeiv, ryAwv, and other verbs. A fanciful etymon of the word is mentioned under the art. Helos. (See Helos.) The inhabitants of Sparta were classified under four general heads,—the Spartan citizens themselves ; the Perioeci, who enjoyed civil but not political privileges; the Helots, the serfs or bondsmen, adscripti glehce; and the Neodamodes, who were Helots liberated by the state in reward for service in war, and who probably received some civil rights which entitled them to rank above the Periceci. Of these classes the Helots were the lowest. They were looked upon as the property of the state, which, though it made over their services to individuals, still retained the right of setting them free, as it might see fit. They were adscripti glebce.—attached to the soil, and could not be sold away from it. In time of peace they tilled the land, which was allocated in the proportion of one lot to six or seven families. For each lot they paid their masters an annual rent in kind—82 medimni of barley, and a corresponding quantity of wine and oil. The domestic servants of the Spartans were all Helots. In times of war the Helots used to share in the campaign as light-armed troops, and a certain number of them, varying from two to seven, was allotted to each Spartan hoplite. They were only allowed to serve as hoplites in great emergencies ; but if they fought well they were generally rewarded with their freedom. Much has been said of the cruel treatment to which the Helots were subjected by their masters ; but it only holds true of the later history of Lacedaemon, when the number of Spartan citizens had been so reduced by continual wars that the Helots became an appreciable power in the state. There can be no doubt that originally their position was an enviable one beside that of the slaves in all the other states of Greece. Every care was indeed taken to distinguish between them and their masters, even in the matter of dress ; but, as Grote observes, they formed “ a part of the state, having their social and domestic sympathies developed, a certain power of acquiring property, and the consciousness of Greek lineage and dialect—all points of marked superiority over the foreigners who formed the slave population of Athens and Chios.” But after the Messenian wars, when their numbers had made them formidable in the reduced state of the country, there is only too much reason to believe that no cruelty was held too severe to be practised towards them. The evidence is strong that the Crypteia, instituted ostensibly for the purpose of inuring the Spartan youth to hardship, was in reality intended to reduce the number of the Helots by assassination. It is known from Thucydides that the Spartans did not scruple to employ this method of keeping their slaves down when they became too numerous. On one occasion, when the Helots had rendered the state some great service, their masters, to try their temper, offered liberty to such as thought they had deserved it. Two thousand of the Helots, tempted by the offer, came forward to claim the reward, and were immediately put to death. Helots, when emancipated, were known under the name of Neodamodes, or newly-enfranchised, and took rank next to

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Helsing- the citizens proper. These Neodamodes were again subfors divided into several classes, to which special functions were I assigned. Helvetii. Who the Helots were has been matter of much dispute ; but it seems now agreed that they were the aborigines of Laconia, who at the time of the Dorian invasion were reduced to slavery by their conquerors. Their numbers were greatly increased at the close of the second Messenian War by the incorporation of the conquered Messenians, who were classed among the Helots, and subjected to all the hardships of slavery till their restoration by Epaminondas after the battle of Leuctra. HELSINGFORS, a seaport town and naval station of the Russians in the Gulf of Finland, on a peninsula to the W. of'the River Wanna, 180 miles W. of St Petersburg, 100 S.E. of Abo, and 60 N. of Revel; N. Lat. 60. 10., E. Long. 24. 57. It is the capital of Finland, the seat of the principal authorities, and an archbishop’s see. It was founded by Gustavus I. of Sweden in the sixteenth century, burnt by the Russians in 1728, and again in 1741. In 1742 it was taken by the Swedes under Lewenhaupt. In 1808 it was defended by Admiral Cronstadt against the Russians ; but after his unaccountable surrender of the fortress of Sveaborg, which defends the entrance to the town, Helsingfors, with the whole of Finland, was ceded to the Russians by the treaty of 1809. Within little more than thirty years the town of Helsingfors has undergone a complete change. It is now regularly laid out in streets and squares, and adorned with public buildings. Of these the principal are the senate-house, governor’s house, university, barracks, hospital, assembly rooms, and a handsome Lutheran church with four porticoes. Some of these, as well as the quay, are built of granite. It was not till the destruction of Abo by fire that Helsingfors rose to importance. In 1819 the government, and in 1827 the university, were transferred from the old to the new capital. The university comprises 4 faculties, with 22 professors, and about 500 students. The library, which is kept in the senate-house, amounts to 80,000 volumes, containing the editions of the classics taken from the monasteries by Charles XII. Besides the library there are museums of mineralogy and zoology, botanic gardens, and an observatory, which commands a fine view. Its trade in time of peace was considerable in grain, fish, deal and other wood, iron, &c. The inhabitants manufacture sail-cloth, linen, tobacco, &c. Pop. 16,000. (For the fortress of Sveaborg, see Sveaborg.) HELSTONE, a municipal and parliamentary borough and market town of England, county of Cornwall, on the left bank of the Loe or Cober, 15 miles S.W. of Truro, and 276 from London. It was made a borough by King John, and a coinage town by Edward I. Previous to the Reform Act it returned two members to parliament. Among its public buildings are the market-house, town-hall, and old coinage-hall. The church is surmounted by a tower 90 feet in height, forming a conspicuous object at sea. Helstone has a grammar, national, and other schools. It is important as being the centre of an extensive agricultural and mining district. Market-days, Wednesday and Saturday. At Portleven, about three miles distant, a considerable export and import trade is carried on. Shoes are extensively made in the town. It returns one member to parliament. Pop. (1851), of parliamentary borough, 7328; of municipal borough, 3355 ; registered electors, 400. HELVELLYNj one of the highest mountains of England, county of Cumberland, about half-way between Keswick and Ambleside. Height 3055 feet above the level of the sea. It is easy of ascent, and commands an extensive view of the lake district. HELVETII, in Ancient Geography, a warlike and

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powerful Celtic tribe in Gaul, inhabiting the country now Helvetius. represented by the western portion of Switzerland. In the time of Caesar, when they first became historically important, their country was bounded by the Rhine on the E. and N., by Mount Jura on the W., and by the Rhone and the Lake of Geneva on the S. It was divided into four pagi or cantons, containing in all, according to Caesar, 12 towns and 400 villages. Of the names of these pagi only two are known, the Tigurinus and the Verhigenus ; or, as it is sometimes, though less correctly written, Urbigenus. It is conjectured that the other two were held by the Tugeni and the Ambrones. The brief history of the Helvetii is known to all who have read the Commentaries of Caesar. They aspired to make themselves the sovereign people of Gaul. Their own territory had become too small for their numbers, and was inferior in climate and fertility to the rest of the country, and they were exposed to incessant attacks from their restless neighbours of Germany. Such were probably the motives that induced them to leave their homes in a body and set out in quest of a happier clime, after burning their towns, villages, and personal property, all but the proportion of corn which it was decreed that each man should carry with him. The utter failure of their expedition, and the fearful slaughter with which it was accompanied, are described in the first book of the Gallic War by the great captain who alone, with a few legions, overthrew the vast host of the Helvetii. Of the 368,000 souls that left the Helvetian territory, only 110,000 returned to it. Ihe survivors were compelled to rebuild all the towns and villages that had been burnt down ; and as they had lost everything in the expedition, their neighbours, the Allobroges, received instructions from the conqueror to assist them with everything necessary for their support till they were once more able to support themselves. (The whole question of the Helvetian expedition is very fully discussed in Smith’s Diet. Geog. by Mr George Long.) HELVETIUS, Claude-Adrien, a famous French philosophe of the last century, was born at Paris in 1715. He was educated at the Jesuit College of Louis-le-Grand in that city, and while there gave no sign of that talent which afterwards carried him on to such distinction. While his class-fellows were busy with their themes, he was assiduously developing the personal advantages he had received from nature. He was eminently handsome, was one of the best fencers and dancers of his day, and was so popular with the fair sex, that he had good reason to boast, as he often did, of his bonnes fortunes. After a short apprenticeship under his uncle M. D’Armancourt, directeur des fermes at Caen, he obtained, through the influence of the queen Marie Leczinska (whose physician his father had been), the office of fermier-general. With the vast fortune thus placed at his disposal he performed many acts of kindness, selecting chiefly as the objects of his generosity the struggling litterateurs of the day. He settled an annual pension of 3000 francs on Saurin, and a nearly equal sum on Marivaux. I hese and countless other acts of generosity he managed with that delicate tact which carefully avoided to humble or wound the self-respect of his proteges, whom he always succeeded in persuading that he was the obliged party. On one occasion Marivaux, in a hot dispute with his benefactor, lost his temper and became grossly abusive. When he left the room Helvetius merely remarked, “ How I would have answered him, had he not laid me under an obligation by accepting my good offices.” This extreme gentleness of heart showed itself afterwards on a greater scale. When he found that the faithful discharge of his duties involved an oppression of his countrymen similar to that at one time practised by the English towards their subjects in Eastern India, he resigned his highly lucrative appointment, after in vain attempting to reconcile himself to the work by the gentlest possible exercise of his authority. With his savings he pur-

310 H E L Helvetius. chased the office of maitre d’holel to the queen ; and as it v _ —, i did not necessitate a constant residence in Paris, he retired to the estate of Yore in La Perche which he had purchased. He took with him his newly-married wife, Mile, de Ligneville, niece of the famous Madame Graffigny. In compliment to her he had reformed his dissolute habits of life, and directed into the field of literary enterprise his mind which still craved morbidly after distinction of any kind. So insatiable indeed was his appetite for applause, that he once danced on the stage of the opera, under the mask and name of the famous Javillier. His beautiful figure, graceful carriage, and exquisite dancing, prevented the trick from being discovered. A higher ambition, however, had seized him before he retired from Paris. He aspired to scientific and literary fame. He began with mathematics, which Maupertuis had made the fashion; and his ambition was fired to rival that philosopher, whom he had seen in the gardens of the Tuilleries surrounded by a circle of the most brilliant court beauties, and engrossing their attention despite his grotesque bearing and strange dress. Then he thought to rival Voltaire by philosophical epistles, a poem on Happiness, and a tragedy. The prodigious success of Montesquieu’s Esprit des Lois, published in 1 748, decided him to raise a monument which he hoped posterity would allow to stand beside that of his illustrious countryman. Immediately on his retiring into the country he began the composition of the work that was to divide the praises of future times with that of Montesquieu. Though he worked at it with the most conscientious assiduity, he yet found time to fulfil his duties at court (where he regularly spent four months of the year), and also towards his own tenantry, whose condition he did his best to improve, by administering justice among them, establishing manufactures, and teaching improved modes of agriculture. He was very jealous, however, of his seignorial rights, and was particularly severe in punishing infractions of the game-laws. The right of hunting he reserved strictly for himself and his friends. These duties and pleasures engrossed his spare time during the seven years he spent on the composition of his work. At last, in 1758, it was published anonymously under the title of De VEsprit. The motto from Lucretius prefixed to the work, indicates its object better than any exposition :— unde animi constet natura videndum, Qua fiant ratione, et qua vi quaeque gerantur In terris. The Encyclopedists and their partizans received the book warmly, and sounded its praises everywhere; but it was denounced at court by the priests as subversive alike of good government and sound morality. The first to express his dissatisfaction with the author and his work, was the dauphin (the son of Louis XV.), and Helvetius, terrified at the storm which he had raised, sought to allay the tempest by a series of recantations, each more humbly penitent than its predecessor. His apologies, however, were unavailing, especially as the priest party, then powerful at court, succeeded in persuading the court that the De VEsprit was nothing other than a resume of all the dangerous and immoral tenets of the Encyclopedie. The doctors of the Sorbornne took up the question, and formally condemned the work, which was forthwith burned publicly by the common hangman, along with some others of an equally obnoxious cast. 1 he doctrines themselves which excited such general reprobation were merely those that had been brought into fashion by the Encyclopedists, expounded with the grossest literality. He posits as an axiom, that man is purely a creature of sensations; that these sensations when they impel to action, show themselves under different modes called passions ; that pleasure or pain are the end and object of all human existence ; and that consequently to seek the former

II E M and avoid the latter, is the only duty and object of man. HelvoetAs natural results of these postulates self-interest comes to slius be the sole principle of all our actions and judgments, and II virtue and vice only another way of distinguishing the agree- emansable or disagreeable, the useful or hurtful qualities of things. The other parts of Helvetius’s system are of a piece with those already stated. He maintained that as all men had received from nature the same physical constitution, they are naturally on a footing of equality in regard to their intellectual and moral powers ; that the passions are the only mode of all development; and that to cultivate these passions is to educate the man. It were time thrown away here to refute a system so irremediably gross and grovelling, and which, after a brief career of fashion rather than of popular acceptance, passed away even before its author. It only remains to say, that as a literary performance, the De VEsprit is well and consistently argued throughout. The arguments are enforced by numerous and often apt illustrations ; while the style is viciously rhetorical. To escape the storm he had unwittingly raised, Helvetius passed over to England in 1764, and in the following year visited the Great Frederic of Prussia, who received him with every mark of honour and respect. After leaving the Prussian court Helvetius returned to his own country, where he died, Dec. 26, 1771. His posthumous work, De VHomme, de ses facultes intellectuelles et de son Education, may be regarded as a sort of commentary on the work which first made him famous, though in a literary point of view it is infinitely superior. Many of the old theories, however, are rejected, others are greatly modified, and an attempt made to establish the principles on a better foundation. There are numerous editions of Helvetius’complete works, of which may be mentioned those of Liege, 1774 ; London, 1777; Paris, 1794, again in 1796, and a third time in 1818. They have also been translated into most of the languages of modern Europe. HELVOETSLIUS, or Hellevoetslius, a strongly fortified seaport-town of Holland, province of South Holland, on the right bank of the River Flakkee or Haringvliet, the largest mouth of the Rhine, 16 miles S.W. of Rotterdam. It has an excellent harbour and large naval dockyard. Pop. about 2000. William III. embarked here for England 11th Nov. 1688. HEMANS, Mrs, one of the most pleasing of English poetesses, was born at Liverpool in 1793. Her maiden name was Felicia Dorothea Browne. Her father was a Liverpool merchant, who, meeting with some reverse in business, retired with his family into Wales, where his daughter imbibed that love of nature that glows in her works. Before she was fifteen she published a volume of poems, which had no great success, but the popularity gained by her second publication (a poetical volume on The Domestic Affections which appeared in 1812), encouraged her to persist in her literary career. In the same year she married Captain Hemans, but the union was not a happy one; and though it was never formally dissolved, yet when the Captain was obliged by bad health to seek a more genial clime in Italy, his wife remained at home to educate her children, and they never met again. In 1819 Mrs Hemans gained the prize of L.50 offered by a patriotic Scotsman for the best poem on the subject of Sir William Wallace. Her next considerable effort was a tragedy entitled The Vespers of Palermo, which, though produced on the London stage by John Kemble (he and Young taking the principal parts), was not successful. It is matter of much regret that she should have been obliged to waste her powers on occasional pieces which she produced in great numbers for the periodicals of the day. But the expenses of her children’s education compelled her to exert herself in this way, and it may be doubted, even if she had had the leisure necessary for the production of a great work, whether her powers of mind

HEM HEM 311 lematine were equal to such a task. The Lays of Leisure Hours, HEMI, a word employed in the composition of different Hemi I National Lyrics, Songs of the Affections, &c., under which terms. It signifies the same with semi or demi, viz., half; titleS he r fu itive dromiT ier - ^ P^ces were republished, all show that being an abbreviate of i^ucrus, which signifies the same thing. Hemp. genius was lyrical and reflective in its character, and The Greeks retrenched the last syllable of the word fjfjLurvs i / i hardly equal to any great narrative or dramatic effort. Her in the composition of words ; and, after their example, we best pieces, it must be confessed, are those which, from their have done so too in most of the compounds borrowed from shortness, give no scope for the inflation and mannerism them. that disfigure most of her more ambitious efforts. These HEMINGFORD, Walter, or, as he is called by Lesmall poems exhibit much purity of sentiment, a fine vein land, Hemingoburgus, one of the old Latin chroniclers of of feeling, and a dangerous ease of versification. Her the fourteenth century, was a canon regular of the Austin powers of description are very considerable ; and as Lord Priory of Gisborough in Yorkshire. His chronicle relates Jeffrey remarked, “ a lovely picture serves as a foreground the history of England from the time of the Norman Conto some deep or lofty emotion.” It may be doubted if much quest till the twentieth year of Edward III. The first three of Mrs Heman’s poetry will be read by posterity. Sir Wal- books of this work (extending from the Conquest to 1273) ter Scott hinted that “ there were too many flowers for the were published by Gale in his Scriptores Quinque, and the fruitand it is true that her works, though they fill the remainder by Hearne, at Oxford, 2 vols. 1731. Hemingear and the fancy, leave the heart and the intellect unsatis- ford died in ] 347. fied. Mrs Hemans’ personal character was in all respects HEMLOCK, the Conium maculatum of botanists, is an exemplary and amiable. After various changes of residence umbelliferous plant possessing narcotic and powerful poisonshe settled in Dublin, where she died in 1835. There is a ous properties. It may readily be distinguished from most complete edition of her poems, with a biographical memoir other umbelliferous plants by the numerous dark purple by her sister, 6 vols. Edinburgh, 1839. spots which cover its smooth stem and leaf stalks, and by HEMATINE, the colouring principle of logwood. See the strong heavy odour, resembling that of mice, which it Dyeing. exhales. The poisonous properties reside in every part of HEMEL-Hempstead, a market-town of England, county the plant, and are owing to the presence of a peculiar voof Hertford, 24 miles N.W. of London. It stands on the latile oleaginous alkaloid, called conia or coneine, capable of acclivity of a hill rising from the small River Gade, and forming salts with acids, which are equally energetic as the consists of one main street of considerable length. The conia itself. parish church is a cruciform, and partly Norman strucIt was long doubted whether this plant furnished the ture, surmounted by a lofty octagonal spire. The town- kwvclov or poison with which the ancient Greeks despatched hall is a long narrow building with an open market-place their state prisoners, and which the death of Socrates has underneath. Market-day, Thursday. Straw-plaiting is ex- immortalized. This obscurity appears to have resulted from tensively carried on. In the vicinity are several large paper the circumstance that the symptoms observed in cases of mills. Pop. (1851) 2727. reputed poisoning with the roots of this plant were different HEMEROBAPTISTS, a sect amongst the ancient Jews, from those attributed to the ancient state poison—a differso called from their bathing every day, as a religious rite ence now explained from other roots having been mistaken necessary to salvation. Epiphanius, who mentions this as for it. Recent research has now, however, demonstrated that the fourth heresy among the Jews, classes the hemerobap- the action of this plant as a poison closely corresponds with the tists doctrinally with the Scribes and Pharisees, with this description given by Plato of the action of the state poison, so exception, that, like the Sadducees, they denied the resur- that no reasonable doubt now exists as to its identity. Hemrection of the dead. lock is an energetic poison, especially in the form of its alkaloid HEMERODROMI, in Grecian antiquity, were, as the conia, causing rapid death by inducing general paralysis of name imports, runners or couriers, who could keep running the muscles, and consequent stoppage of the breathing, withall day. In a country like Greece, where the roads were out bringing on convulsive spasms or insensibility. In mefew and bad, the Hemerodromi were indispensable for the dicine hemlock has been much used in the form of poultices rapid diffusion of important news. Every Greek state made of the fresh leaves in cancerous affections, and seems to rea point of training a number of these men who could travel lieve the lancinating pain by its narcotic action. It is also great distances in an incredibly short space of time, and at applied externally in the form of poultices, extract, tincture, every dangerous crisis were stationed on commanding points &c., to glandular tumours, scrofulous sores, &c.; and interto observe and report at head-quarters what it was necessary nally it has been administered in cancerous and strumous for the authorities to know. Some interesting information affections, enlargements of the liver, spleen, and glands, concerning these couriers is given by Herodotus. He dwells chronic catarrh, hooping-cough, neuralgia, hypertrophy of at considerable length on the efficiency of those in the ser- the heart and other affections attended with an excited state vice of the Persian kings. The men were called angoroi, of the circulation. Its virtues, however, have not been sufand the service angereion. Instances are on record of the ficiently investigated. (j. s—K.) extraordinary swiftness of foot attained by the Hemerodromi. HEMP, a tough fibre yielded by the large annual plant A little before the battle of Marathon, Phidippides, a pro- Cannabis sativa, of the natural order Cannabinaceae. There fessional courier, was sent to Sparta by the Athenian gene- are, however, several other fibres known in commerce to rals with the news of the impending fight, and arrived there which the term is more or less commonly applied. For on the second day after leaving Athens,—the distance be- example—Jute hemp is obtained from Corchorus capsutween the two cities being nearly 150 miles. Pliny men- laris and C. olitorius ; Manilla hemp from Musa textilis ; tions that Anystis, a Lacedaemonian, and Philonides, a courier Brown hemp from Hibiscus canabinus; Pite or Pita hemp in the service of Alexander the Great, ran from Sicyon to from several species of agave and aloe; Sunn hemp, Madras Llis in one day—a distance of 1200 furlongs. Many other hemp, brown Bombay hemp, and Malabar hemp, from Croequally wonderful cases are on record in the classics. Among talaria juncea ; Jubbulpore hemp, from Crotalaria tenuithe Romans these couriers were known as Cursores ; they folia, and several others. travelled sometimes on foot, sometimes on horseback. GibThe true hemp {Cannabissaliva) has been recognised as bon commends their swiftness and regularity. It is a well- a useful plant from a very early period, although probably known fact that running footmen attended the Duke of not of the same antiquity as flax. Herodotus is the first i ai boiough in his wars in the Low Countries and in Ger- writer who mentions it (iv. 74), but he speaks of it in a many. (See Coukiek.) manner which show's it must have been then well-known,

312 Hemp,

H E M P. for he describes the hempen garments made by the Thra- and chewing—the gunjah and bang in India and Persia, Hemp, cians as being equal to linen (flax cloth) in fineness. Its and the hashish in Africa. When the bushmen of Southern use for making cordage is noted as early as 200 years b.c. Africa were brought to England, they passed much of their by Moschion, who mentions that a large ship, the “ Syra- time in smoking this narcotic in pipes made of the long cusia,” built by Hiero II., was rigged with ropes made from teeth of alligators, hollowed out for the purpose. Its use as a means of intoxication is said to have given rise to our hemp brought from the Rhone. The original country of the hemp-plant is not positively word assassin, from the fact that the low Saracen soldiery, known, but it is generally believed to have been the moun- called hashashins, when intoxicated with hashish, were sent tainous districts in the extreme north of India, whence it into the camps of the crusaders for the purpose of killing spread westward through Europe, and southward through whomsoever they met, the drug rendering them quite rethe peninsula of India. Its cultivation in each direction gardless of the consequences. The physiological effects of had in all probability a different object; for it is found to the various preparations above mentioned are most remarkproduce under tropical culture an inferior fibre, and a able, and are unlike every other narcotic at present known. powerfully intoxicating drug, but in cold and temperate It produces inebriation and delirium of decidedly hilarious climates it yields an abundance of strong fibres in great character, inducing violent laughter, jumping and dancing. perfection for textile purposes, and loses its narcotic quali- The writer several times witnessed its effects upon the bushties. The similarity of its name in various languages is a men. After inhaling the smoke for some time they rose strong indication that it has taken the course here indicated ; and began a very slow dance, which was gradually quickthus, in the Sanscrit it is called goni, sana, or shanapu ; ened until they became perfectly frenzied, and finally fell Persic, canna ; Arabic, kanneh or kinnub ; Greek, kanna- down in a state of complete insensibility, from which they bis ; Latin, cannabis ; Italian, canapa ; French, chanvre were a considerable time in recovering. Dr O’Shaughnessy or chanbre ; Danish, kamp or kennep ; Lettish and Lithu- relates some most remarkable effects of the churrus, partianian, kannapes ; Slavonic, konopi; Yxsz, canaib ; Scan- cularly its power in producing a state of true catalepsy. dinavian, hampr ; Swedish, hampa ; German, hauf; Anglo- The same effects do not appear to take place upon Saxon, haenep ; and English, hemp. In India other names Europeans, but this point has not yet been fairly tried, as are applied, indicative of its intoxicating or narcotic powers ; the drug evidently suffers some change in its transmisthus, according to Dr Royle, it is called the “ increaser of sion by sea. But it is not as a narcotic and excitant that the hemp pleasure,” the “ exciter of desire,” the “ cementer of friendship,” the “causer of the reeling gait,” the “laughter plant is most useful to mankind ; it is as an advancer rather mover,” &c.; and he also suggests that it may have been the than a retarder of civilization, that its utility is made most nepenthes (“ assuager of grief”) of Homer, given by Helen manifest. Its great value as a textile material, particularly for cordage and canvas, has made it eminently useful; and to Telemachus. The intoxicating properties of hemp reside in a peculiar if we were to copy the figurative style of the Sanscrit resinous extract naturally secreted by the plant when grow- writers, we might with justice call it the “ accelerator of ing in a hot climate. So remarkable is this peculiarity, that commerce,” and the “ spreader of wealth and intellect.” botanists until lately insisted upon the hemp of India being For ages man has been dependent upon hempen cordage a distinct species (C. indica). It is now, however, decided and hempen sails for enabling his ships to cross the seas; that there is really no specific difference, the change being and in this respect it still occupies a most important place in our commercial affairs. simply climatal. For its valuable fibre hemp is very largely cultivated in The secretion is deposited by exudation upon the surface of the leaves, the slender branches, and the flowers. Ac- Europe, but chiefly in Russia and Russian Poland. It uncording to Dr O’Shaughnessy, it is collected during the hot dergoes the same process for decomposing the parts of the season by men clad in leathern dresses, who rush with vio- stem as that described in the article on Flax, called waterlence through the hemp fields; the resin adheres to their retting, by which the cellular tissue of the bark and medresses, from wdiich it is scraped off and kneaded into lumps dulla is destroyed, and the long fibres of the woody part which have the appearance of pieces of linseed oil cake in are set free. This is not done by simply soaking in the colour and texture, and a peculiar and by no means agree- waters of ponds and streams, for it requires to be dried able smell. In this state it is called “ churrus ;” and there both previously and subsequently to the retting process; are evidently several varieties of the substance, as Dr Pe- after which it is beaten with wooden beetles or mallets, reira describes it as being “ in masses of the shape and size or by an apparatus called a break or brake worked by a of a hen’s egg, or of a small lemon, and formed by the ad- treddle. Sometimes, however, this laborious operation is hesion of superimposed elongated pieces. It has a dull effected by water or steam-power. Some of the finer kinds grayish-brown colour, and not much odour whereas one of hemp are more carefully prepared; the seed is sown specimen in the writer’s collection differs in being in large broad-cast instead of in drills, by which the stems are grown shapeless fragments of the colour of amber, with the loose more slender and the fibres finer; and after the water-retfriable texture of linseed cake, and a heavy unpleasant ting each stem is taken in the hand, and the epidermis is odour. Another specimen has a resinous lustre, a dark- stripped or peeled off, and the reed or boon is then subbrown colour, and is formed into an elongated oval shape, mitted as before mentioned to the breaking process. In but not larger than half a hen’s egg. This is almost odour- both cases after breaking the stalks are conveyed to the less, and is probably the momeea or waxen churrus, said to scutching-mills, where the separation of the fibres is still be collected with great care by the hand, and to be highly further effected by rubbing and striking, after which it is prized. The dried plant, after it has flowered, and from heckled or hackled—the heckler taking as much as he can which the churrus has not been removed, is compressed into conveniently hold and drawing it through a number of iron bundles of twenty-four plants each, and is sold in the bazaars spikes fixed in a board forming a kind of comb. The process called dew-retting, described in the article of India under the name of gunjah. The larger leaves and capsules, without the stalks, are also compressed into irre- on Flax, is also adopted for very fine varieties of hemp, gular sized masses, which receive the names of bang, subjee, such as the white crown Marienburg, and the Italian garor sidhee, in India. The hashish of the Arabians consists den hemp; and in Russia and Sweden another method of the tops of the small branchlets after inflorescence, care- called snow-retting is used. After the first fall of snow fully gathered and dried. Both this and the two previously the hemp which has been put up in stacks is spread out over mentioned preparations are extensivelv used for smoking the snow, and left to be buried by successive falls. It thus

HEM Hemp, J remains covered until the snow disappears, and is then suf-m ficiently retted. We have hitherto received the largest quantity of hemp from Russia—St Petersburg, Memel, and Riga being the chief ports of shipment; but the late war, which put a stop to the supply from this source, is likely to produce a beneficial result to our colonies. The indefatigable exertions of Dr Royle on behalf of the Indian government have led to the knowledge of various fibrous substances which are produced in the greatest abundance in our Indian empire, several of which are rapidly taking the place of hemp both in the manufacture of cordage and canvas ; so that having been forced into a knowledge of our own resources, it is not probable we shall ever be so dependent upon Russia in future for this necessary article. The best substitute appears to be the Caloee or Rheea fibre produced by a plant of the nettle tribe (Urticaceae), Boehmeria nivea. The Rheea fibre can, it is expected, be produced very much cheaper than Russian hemp, and it is nearly twice as strong. Hitherto hemp has had one great advantage over all other fibres in the manufacture of cordage, and it remains to be seen whether the Rheea fibre has this qualification. When a hempen rope is worn out, if it has not been tarred, it is valuable for making paper; and if it has been tarred, it is even more useful for oakum. This is not the case certainly with the fine ropes of Manilla hemp {Musa textilis), which, though stronger than the best Russian hemp, are almost useless when worn out. The same may be said of the admirable coir ropes now so extensively used for ship’s hawsers and other cordage exposed to water. These ropes are made of the fibres from the husk of the common cocoa-nut. The fibre called New Zealand flax, which is procured from the long sword-shaped leaves of Phormium tenax, a liliaceous plant, has been much recommended of late ; but whether from the difficulty of preparing it, or from the inadequacy of the supply, it has not yet become a regular article of commerce. The epidermis of its leaves is more compact and harder than that of the stalks of the plants previously mentioned, and this may cause great difficulty both in retting and scutching. We import hemp from Russia, Italy, Holland, Turkey, the East Indies, and latterly from the United States. That from America, however, is of inferior quality and blackish colour. The East Indian hemp is coarse, and is in small hanks plaited about the thickness of a man’s arm. The Italian hemp is very fine, that variety called garden-hemp being the longest of any kind ; its superiority is supposed to be the result of spade culture in very suitable soil. It is also as white and soft as the finest white Russian. Of the Russian kinds the St Petersburg clean and the Riga rein (or clean) are the best for general purposes. The variety called white crown Marienburg is remarkably short, white and soft; it is only fit for fine canvas. The quantity of hemp imported into the United Kingdom was— From other countries. From Russia. In 1851 33,229 tons In 1851 31,441 tons ... 1852 26,551 ... ... 1852 26,857 ... ... 1853 40,320 ... ... 1853 20,619 ... ... 1854 35,927 ... ... 1854 1,044 ... ... 1855 28,010 ... ... 1855 nil. The price of Russian hemp has ranged from £38 to £90 per ton during the last five years, the maximum price being caused by the war. Considerable quantities are also raised in England and Ireland. Of the figures just given those relating to Russia may be depended upon, but those referring to the imports from other countries are by no means satisfactory ; for owing to the slovenly manner in which our commercial statistics are collected by the government, all articles which bear the VOL. XI.

HEN

313 trade name of hemp are included, such as Manilla hemp, Hems and very often even jute. || There is one other useful quality in the hemp plant; it Henault. produces an abundance of seed, which not only yields a valuable oil, but the seed is extensively used in feeding singing birds. As the hemp is dioecious, only about one half the plants produce seeds; but these yield it in such abundance that an acre will yield from three to four quarters at about 40s. per quarter. As this is independent of the fibre produced it is a profitable crop in countries like Russia where the land is not too valuable. For fuller information upon the subject consult Dr Royle’s Illustrations of the Botany of the Himalayan Mountains, and his Fibrous Plants of India ; Dr O’Shaughnessy on the Preparation of the Indian Hemp or Gunjah ; and the erudite work Textrinum Antiquorum, by James Yates, Esq., M. HEMS or Homs, the ancient Emesa or Emissa, a city of Syria, 90 miles due N. of Damascus. It stands on the N. which affords abundant supplies of water for the irrigation of the neighbouring districts. Besides a considerable trade, Hems possesses woollen, cotton, and silk manufactures ; and its gold and silver thread are in high repute. The mosques, churches, and bazaars, are numerous and handsome. In ancient times Hems was celebrated for its splendid temple of the sun. One of the priests of this temple was, at the early age of fourteen, made emperor of Rome, under the name of Heliogabalus. It was in the vicinity of this town that Zenobia, the renowned queen of Palmyra, was defeated by the emperor Aurelian, a.d. 272. HfiNAULT, Charles-Jean-Fran^ois, author of the Abrege Chronologique de VHistoire de France, and president of the parliament of Paris, was born in that city in 1685, and died there in 1770. His father was one of the fermiers-generaux, and he himself, partly from his inherited wealth, partly from his position in the queen’s household, of which he was controller-general, and partly from his personal qualities, was received into the best society of the French capital. He was in early life gay, witty, graceful in his manners, a good musician, and a neat song-writer. He had all, in short, that could make him (what was then the chief ambition of most Frenchmen to become) a man a-lamode. In literature he attained such considerable distinction by his comedies and fugitive poems, that in 1723 he was received into the French Academy, and afterwards into the leading literary societies of Europe. After his fiftieth year he retired into private life, and devoted the remainder of his days to study and religious exercises. But as the Marquis d’Argenson remarks, “ his devotion was as free of fanaticism as his writings of pedantry.” His friendship for Voltaire remained undiminished till the close of his life; and it was a kindly motive that impelled him at the age of eighty to write seriously to that arch-scoffer, praying him to desist from his ceaseless pasquinades against Christianity. Henault will be remembered chiefly for his Abrege Chronologique, first published in 1744, without the author’s name. Between that date and 1756, there appeared numerous editions of it; but it was not till the latter year that Henault proclaimed himself as the author of the book. The Abrege is a perfect model of its kind, and though it has now fallen somewhat into disuse, yet that result is rather a reaction against the excessive praise that wras at first lavished on it, than a proof that it has been superseded. In the compass of two volumes, Henault has comprised the whole history of France from the earliest times to the death of Louis XIV. His information is, for the most part, drawn from original sources. The results of deep researches and lengthened disquisitions on public law are summed up in a few words. Controverted points of history, on which volumes have been written, are cleared up sometimes in a single sentence. 2R

A

E

314 HEN Henbane The moral and political reflections are always short, and II generally as fresh and pleasing as they are just. A few Ilenley-on- masterly strokes reproduce the leading features of each age, Thames. and the cilaracters 0f its illustrious men. Accurate chronological tables set forth the most interesting events in the history of each sovereign, such as his birth, accession, marriage, death, &c., and the names of the great men that flourished during his reign. Interspersed throughout the work are occasional chapters on the social and civil state of the country at the close of each era in its history. Henault’s other works are his Histoire Critique de Vetablissement des Fran, i , ♦.

324 HERALDRY. Heraldry. No. 9. Shield of Eudo de Arsic, who died in the latter part of the bearings they are charged with, Thus, in the annexed Heraldry. reign of Henry III. outline of an escutcheon,— No. 10. Peter, Earl of Richmond, anno 1248. ABE D E F G II I

No. 11. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14.

A is the dexter chief, B the precise middle chief, C the sinister chief, D the honour point, E the fess point, F the nombril point, G the dexter base, H the middle precise From the monumental effigy in the Temple Church, c. temp. base, and I the sinister base. Edw. I. De Roos. The knowledge of these points is of great importance, Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford, who died in 1221. From the effigy of a knight of the Montford family, 1286. and ought to be well observed, for they are frequently occupied with things of different kinds. It is necessary to A knight’s shield, anno 1295. observe, that the dexter side of the escutcheon is opposite to the left hand, and the sinister side to the right hand, of the person who looks thereon. II.—OF TINCTURES, FURS, LINES, AND DIFFERENCES. 1. Of Tinctures.

By tinctures'll meant the colours of shields and their bearNo. 15. From the monument of John of Eltham, Earl of Cornwall, ings. According to the French Heralds, there are but seven tinctures in armoury, of which two are metals. The in Westminster Abbey. He died in 1329. No. 16. From the brass of Sir John D’Abernon, at Stoke D’Aber- metals are gold, termed or; and silver, termed argent. non in Surrey, who died in 1327. The colours are blue, termed azure ; red, gules; green, No. 17. From the monument of Sir John Harsick at South Acre, in vert; purple, purpure; and black, sable. When natural Norfolk, 1384. objects are introduced into arms, they retain their natural colour, which is expressed by the word proper. Besides the five colours above mentioned, the English writers on heraldry admit two others, namely, orange, termed tenny ; and blood-colour, termed sanguine. But these two are rarely, if at all, to be found in British bearings. These tinctures are represented in engravings and drawings by dots and lines, which are the invention of the ingenious Silvester de Petra Sancta, an Italian author of the No. 18. From the seats in the choir of Worcester Cathedral in the time of Henry IV. No. 19. From the screen to the monument of Henry V. in Westminster Abbey. No. 20. A shield of the time of Edward V. No. 21. A shield from about the time of Edward IV. to the middle of the reign of King Henry VII.

‘i/

4

i. 2. 4. seventeenth century. Thus, 1, or is expressed by dots; Soon after this period shields ceased to be used as de- argent needs no mark, and is therefore plain ; 2, azure, by fensive weapons, and the forms of shields for architectural horizontal lines ; 3, gules, by perpendicular lines ; 4, vert, or domestic decoration became entirely subject to caprice by diagonal lines from the dexter chief to the sinister base and fashion. Some very fine specimens of carved shields may be seen in engravings of private houses and public buildings in works illustrating the tonography of the times of the Tudors and Stuarts. The shield or escutcheon is the field or ground on which are represented the figures that make up a coat of arms; and wherever these figures may be fixed, they are repre- points; b,purpure, by diagonal lines from the sinister chief sented on a plane or superficies, the form of which resem- to the dexter base points; 6, sable, by perpendicular and bles a shield. horizontal lines crossing each other; 7, tenny, by diagonal Shields (in heraldry called escutcheons or scutcheons, lines from the sinister chief to the dexter base points, trafrom the Latin word scutum) have been, and still are, of versed by horizontal lines ; 8, sanguine, by lines crossing different forms, according to the usages of different times each other diagonally from dexter to sinister, and from and nations. The modern escutcheons of the English, sinister to dexter. hiench, Germans, and other nations are formed in different This mode of expressing the colours of heraldry was as ways. rl hose of the Italians, particularly of ecclesiastics, early as the time of Charles II., as appears by engravings are generally oval. Those of maids and widows are gene- at that time, but was not adopted upon seals till about the rally of the form of a lozenge. Sir George Mackenzie reign of Queen Anne ; and not in architectural decorations mentions one Muriel, Countess of Strathern. who carried till our own times, when the fashion of imitating styles her arms ima lozenge, in 12,84. of the middle ages has become prevalent. It is amusing Ai rnori^ distinguish several parts or points in escut- to the heraldic eye to discern that, amidst all the care taken clieons, in order to determine exactly the position of the to copy the details of the Gothic style in church-building,

HERA leraldry. the heraldic sliield is disfigured by adopting the lines used —to denote heraldic tinctures, at once proclaiming a barbarous anachronism, if no other incongruity existed. Some fantastic heralds have blazoned not only by the ordinary colours and metals, but by flowers, days of the week, and parts of the human body, and have been condemned for it by the heralds of all nations. Others lay it down as a rule that the coats of sovereigns should be blazoned by the planets, and those of noblemen by precious stones. According to this rule, which some think judicious, and others reprobate as absurd, the relative blazonry would stand thus:— Or Topaz Sol. Argent Pearl Luna. Sable Diamond Saturn. Gules Ruby Mars. Azure Sapphire Jupiter. Vert Emerald Venus. Purpure Amethyst Mercury. Tenny Jacinth Dragon’s-head. Sanguine Sardonix Dragon’s-tail. But in no instance does there occur throughout the official MSS. in the Herald’s College this fanciful mode of blazoning arms. The heraldic terms of blazon are derived peculiarly from the French ; and necessarily so, as in the twelfth century, when heraldry originated, Norman-French was the language in all proceedings connected with the government and jurisprudence of this country. Metal should never be upon metal; nor colour upon colour. This rule, however, does not apply if a charge lies over any field composed of metal and colour. The English heralds give difterent names to roundels, according to their colours. Thus, if they be or, they are called bezants ; if argent, plates; if azure, hurts; if gules, torteaux ; if vert, pomeis ; if purpure, golpes ; if sable, pellets; if tenny, oranges; and if sanguine, guzes. The French, and all other nations, do not admit such a multiplicity of names for this figure, but call them torteaux, expressing the tincture. Bezants were so called from coins struck at Constantinople, the Byzantium of the ancients. Gules bezants or, was the armorial bearing of Aleyn la Zouche, temp. Hen. III. Torteaux were borne as early as the time of Henry HI. Or, two bars gules, in chief three torteaux ;—Hugh 2. Of Furs. There are three different kinds in general use, namely, Ermine, which is afield argent, powdered with black spots,

1. 2. 2. 4. the tails of which terminate in three hairs (No. 1); Ermines, where the field is sable, and the powdering white; Erminois, where the field is or, and the powdering sable ; Pean, where the field is sable, and the powdering or; Erminites, the same as ermine, with the addition of a red hair on each side of the black. Vair (No. 2), which is expressed by blue and white skins, cut into the forms of little bells, ranged in rows opposite to each other, the base of the white ones being always next to that of the blue ones. Vair usually consists of six rows; if there be more or fewer, the number ought to be expressed ; and if tl»e colours be different from those above mentioned, they should likewise be expressed. Counter-vair, when the bells of the same tincture are placed base against base, Ad point against'

L D R Y. 325 point (No. 3). Potent-counter-potent, anciently called Heraldry. vairy-cuppy, as when the field is filled with crutches or / potents counterplaced (No. 4). Ermine only, was the armorial bearing of the ancient earls of Brittany and Richmond in the twelfth century. Ermines.—Gules, a fess engrailed ermines, surmounted by a pale engrailed ermine. —Dyrwyn in some of the early rolls. Bruges, who was the first Garter, temp. Hen. V., bore ermine, a cross quarterpierced ermines. Erminois.—Stringer, of Overthorpe in Yorkshire, bore three eagles displayed erminois in 1612. Vair only, was borne by Robert de Beauchamp, temp. Henry III. 3. Of the Lines used in Arms. The field is sometimes parted by lines either straight or crooked. Straight lines are carried evenly through the escutcheon, and are of four different kinds,—viz., a perpendicular line | ; a horizontal —; a diagonal dexter, \; a diagonal sinister, /. Crooked lines are those which are carried unevenly through the escutcheon. rYYYVVVYYV> 2. UTJT_n_rLri_r 4. ^^^ 6. wwwvwv 7.

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n. 1, The engrailed; 2, the invected ; 3, the wavy; 4, the embattled, or crenelle; 5, the nebule; 6, the regule; 7, the indented; 8, the dancette; 9, the dove-tail; 10, the battled embattled; and 11, the champaine. These lines not only vary the disposition of colours in the fields but are also generally used to alter the character of th^principal ordinaries; and were adopted in the earliest times of heraldry. The principal reason why lines are thus used in heraldry, is to distinguish bearings which wrould otherwise be the same ; for an escutcheon charged with a chief engrailed, differs from one charged with a chief wavy, as much as if the one bore a cross and the other a saltier. As the lines above mentioned serve to divide the field, it must be observed, that if the division consist of two equal parts formed by the perpendicular line, it is called parted per pale ; by the horizontal line, parted per fess ; by the diagonal dexter, parted per bend ; and by the diagonal sinister, parted per bend sinister. If a field be divided into four equal parts by any of these lines, it is said to be quartered. Parted per saltier is made by two diagonal lines, dexter and sinister, crossing one another in the centre of the field, and likewise dividing it into four equal parts. The escutcheon is sometimes divided into a greater number of parts, in order to place it in the arms of the several families to which the bearer is allied. These divisions may consist of several quarters, as these divisions are * termed ; an extraordinary instance of which was exhibited at the funeral of the Viscountess Townshend, whJil^erpse * was brought from Dublin Castle to Raynham-J®ll in Norfolk ; when one of the principal tenants on lumeback carried befqpe the hearse a banner, containing the quar- *

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HERALDRY. 326 Heraldry, terings, to the amount of upwards of 160. But Sir William ence and subordinate degrees in each house from the ori- Heraldry, Dugdale justly objects to so many arms being clustered together in one shield or banner, on account of the difficulty of knowing and distinguishing one coat from another. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

4. Of the differences of Coats of Arms. There are also various differences or characteristic marks, by which bearers of the same arms may be distinguished from one another, and their nearness to the principal bearer demonstrated ; and these differences are to be considered as either ancient or modern. Of Ancient Differences.—Those which are called ancient differences consist in hordures,1 which is a bearing that goes all round, and parallel to the boundary of the escutcheon. Bordures were used in ancient times also for noting a diversity between particular persons descended of one family and from the same parents. This distinction, however, was not expressly signified by invariable marks; nor were bordures always appropriated to denote the different degrees of consanguinity. There are bordures of different forms and tinctures, as,

1. 2. 3. for example,—1. Sable, a bordure argent. When a bordure is plain, it is not necessary to mention it, as it is always so understood in heraldry, though it be not expressed ; but if it has any other form, this must be signified. 2. Gules, a bordure engrailed argent in the arms of Lord Gray. This is called engrailed, from the French word engrele, which signifies a thing the hail has fallen upon and broken off the edges, leaving it with little semicircles struck out of it. In a bordure or ordinary formed of these lines, the points are represented on all sides towards the field, and the semicircles are turned towards the bordure or ordinary. 3. Gules, a bordure invected or. This is quite contrary to the last, which turns its points into the bordure from the field. The word indented requires little explanation, the signification being obvious, from its figure, which is com-

4. 5. e. posed of tracks resembling teeth, called in Latin dentes. 4. Ermine, a bordure compony, or gobony, or and sable. This is so termed from its being composed of equal pieces of one row. Counter-compony is composed of two rows, and no more. Cheeky has a great resemblance to the last bordure, having three rows. Before blazoning* therefore, care must be taken to number them, so as to avoid taking the one for the other. 5. Gules, a bordure argent, charged with eight trefoils slipped proper, that is, vert. 6. Azure, a bordure quarterly ermine and cheeky argent and azure. Of Modern Differences.—The modern differences which the English have adopted, not only for distinguishing sons issued out of one family but also for denoting the differ-

6. 7. a 9. ginal ancestors, are nine,—viz., for the heir or first son, the label; second son, the crescent; third son, the mullet; fourth son, the martlet; fifth son, the annulet; sixth son, the fleur-de-lys; seventh son, the rose ; eighth son, the cross-moline; ninth son, the double quatre-foil. By the first six differences the sons of Thomas Beauchamp, the fifteenth Earl of Warwick, who died in the thirty-fourth year of the reign of Edward III., are distinguished in an old window of the church of St Mary at Warwick ; so that although they are called modern differences, their usage among the English is ancient. As to the distinction to be made in the arms of the offspring belonging to each of the above-mentioned brothers, it is expressed by certain figures. For instance, the heir or first son of the second house bears a crescent charged with a label during his father’s lifetime only ; the second son of the second house, a crescent charged with another crescent; the third son of the second house, a crescent charged with a mullet; the fourth son of the second house, a crescent charged with a martlet; the fifth son of the second house, a crescent charged with an annulet; the sixth son of the second house, a crescent charged with a fleur-de-lys; and so on of the other sons, taking care to have them of a different tincture. It would be quite impossible to carry out this system in all the ramifications of a family of many generations from any common ancestor. At best, they can only be used for contemporary members of any branch from the original stock. When Dugdale, in his visitations, found a good house descending from a common parent stock, he used to distinguish the junior line by some significant mark, such as a cantor or other bearing. The present marks of cadency are not earlier than the time of Henry YI. In the first stages of heraldry the distinctions between sons of the same family were of a more definite character; such as an entirely different coat, or the original one differenced by change of tincture, or by the addition of some other charges. It must be observed, that of all the above-mentioned marks of distinction, none but the label is used for distinguishing the younger sons of the royal family ; and this label is varied by additional pendants and distinct charges. The Prince of Wales always bears tbe plain label argent. The daughters of the blood royal all bear the label of distinction the same. The theory of this practice of differencing the arms of the royal children is, that none of the children of the sovereign is entitled to arms by descent, as the arms of their father are those of the state. When the sons and daughters of the reigning monarch receive permission to use the royal arms, they are assigned to them differenced by a label, charged with some distinguishing mark. This rule was observed in very early times under the Plantagenets, whose arms, so distinguished, are frequently to be found in churches and upon their seals.

1 Bordures are still introduced into English coats of arms, but for particular reasons, which heralds can best explain. The bordure wavy is now the general bordure used to denote illegitimacy. Bordures are, by the French, frequently taken for principal figures, and numbered amongst the rest of the ordinaries.

H E R A L D R Y. [eraldry.

III.—OF THE CHARGES.

327 pale.—1a'£, paly of six argent and sable ; 2d, azure; borne Heraldry, by the name of Trenchard. 4. Pale of six or and azure.

A charge is whatsoever is contained in the field, whether it occupy the whole or only a part thereof. All charges are distinguished by the names of honourable ordinaries, subordinaries, and common charges. Honourable ordinaries, the principal charges in heraldry, are made of lines only, which, according to their disposi5. 6. 7. tion and form, receive different names. Sub-ordinaries 5. Party per pale, argent and gules; borne by Earl Walare ancient heraldic figures, frequently used in coats of arms, and distinguished by terms appropriate to each. degrave. 6. Argent, a pale flory counter-flory sable. 7. Common charges are composed of natural, artificial, and even chimerical objects or figures. 1. Of Honourable Ordinaries. These are the chief, the pale, the bend, the bend sinister, the fess, the bar, the cheveron, the cross, and the saltier. Of the Chief.—The chief is an ordinary determined by an horizontal line, which, if it be of any other form than straight, must be expressed. It is placed in the upper part of the escutcheon, and contains in depth the third part of the field. Its diminutive is a fillet, the content of which is not to exceed one fourth of the chief, and it stands in the lowest part of the chief. This ordinary is subject to be charged with variety of figures; and may be of any of the crooked lines.

Examples :—1. Or, a chief in ten ted azure; borne by Viscount Mountgarret. The family of the Butlers is descended from the ancient Counts of Brion in Normandy ; but since Henry II. conferred the office of chief butler of Ireland upon one of the family, he and his successors have assumed the name of Butler. 2. Argent, a chief sable; in the lower part thereof a fillet of the field. 3. Argent, on a chief gules, two mullets or ; borne by Lord St John of Bletshoe. This ancient family derive their surname from a place called St John in Normandy. 4. Or, on a chief sable, three escalops of the field, for the name of Graham ; and borne quartered in the arms of the Duke of Montrose. Of the Pale.—The pale is an ordinary, consisting of two perpendicular lines drawn from the top to the base of the escutcheon, and contains the third middle part of the field. Its diminutive is the pallet. This ordinary may receive any charge. The pale is sometimes cotised, or accompanied by its diminutives, to which some have given the term of endorse.

Argent, a pale lozengy sable. 8. Argent, a pale dancette vert. 9. Argent, on a pale engrailed sable, three crescents or. 10. Argent, two endorses gules, in chief three mullets sable. 11. Party per fess gules and argent, a pale counterchanged. Of the Bend and Bend Sinister.—The bend is an ordinary formed by two diagonal lines, drawn from the dexter chief to the sinister base, and contains the fifth part of the field in breadth. Its diminutives are—the bendlet, which is the half of a bend; the cost or cotise, when two of them accompany a bend, which is the fourth part of a bend. There is also the bend sinister, which is of the same breadth as the bend, but drawn the contrary way. This is subdivided into a scarpe, which is the half of the bend, and into a baton, which is the fourth part of the bend, but does not extend itself to the extremities of the field, there being part of it seen at both ends.

The examples are,—1. Argent, a bend wavy sable ; borne by Wallop Earl of Portsmouth, descended from a Saxon family, who were possessed of lands to a considerable value in Hampshire at the time of the Conquest. 2. Cheeky or, and azure, a bend ermine; borne by Lord Ward. 3. Azure, a bend engrailed argent, between two cotises or; borne by Earl Fortescue.1 4. Paly of six or

and sable, a bend counterchanged. 5. Party per bend crenelle argent and gules; borne by the Earl of Cork and Orrery, in Ireland. 6. Argent, three bendlets, enhanced gules (as the English express it, though the phrase enhanced is used by no other nation); borne by Lord Byron.2 7. Ermine, a bend voided gules ;—Ireton. 8. Bendy of six The following are examples:—1. Gules, a pale or. 2. pieces argent and azure. When the shield is filled with an Argent, a pale between two endorses, gules. 3. Party per equal number of bendlets of metal and colour, it is called 1 The family of Fortescue is descended from Sir Richard le Forte, a person of extraordinary strength and courage, who accompanied William Duke of Normandy in his invasion of England; and bearing a strong shield before the duke, at the battle of Hastings, had three horses killed under him, and from that signal event the name and motto of the family were assumed; for the Latin word scutum, or the old French word escue, a shield, being added to forte, strong, composes their name; and their motto is, Forte scutum salus ducum. 2 From Doomsday Book it appears that this family was possessed of numerous manors and lands in the reign of the Conqueror; and that Sir John Byron attended King Edward III. in his wars in France.

HERALDRY. 328 Heraldry, bendy ; but if the number of them be unequal, they are to the second and gules, the first and fourth charged with Herald'"3 ^ be blazoned by the name bendlets, and their number spe- two fleurs-de-lys of France, the second and third with a lion of England; borne by the Duke of Rutland. 9. Barry of ten pieces argent and azure, over all six escutcheons 3, 2, ], sable, each charged with a lion rampant of the first, armed, and langued gules ; borne by the Marquis of Salisbury,’ descended from the famous William Cecil Lord Burghley, who left two sons, Thomas and Robert, both of whom 9. 10. a. were made Earls in one day; Robert, the younger, being cified. 9. Quarterly, or and gules, a bend over all vair ; was created Earl of Salisbury in the morning; and Thomas, borne by the Dukes of Dorset (now extinct). 10. Gules on the elder, Earl of Exeter in the afternoon. 10. Ermine’ a bend argent, three trefoils slipped proper ; borne by the two bars gules ; borne by the Marquis of Westmeath. 1 L Marquis of Bristol, who derives his pedigree from Robert Argent, two bars indented sable; formerly borne bv the Fitz-Hervey, a younger son of Hervey Duke of Orleans, Earls of Athlone (now extinct).3 12. Argent, three bars who came over with William the Conoueror. 11. Argent, gemelles gules; formerly borne bv the Earls of Barrymore a bend sinister gules. (now extinct). Of the Fess and Bar.—The fess is an ordinary which Of the Cheveron.—The cheveron, which represents two is produced by two parallel lines drawn horizontally rafters of a house well joined together, or a pair of comacross the centre of the field, and contains in breadth passes half open, occupies the fifth part of a field. Its dithe third part thereof. The bar is formed of two lines, minutive, the cheveronel, contains the half of a cheveron. and contains only the fifth part of the field; but this is not the only respect in which it differs from the fess; tor there may be more than one in an escutcheon, placed in different parts of it, whereas the fess is limited to the centre point. When the shield contains a number of bars of metal and colour alternate, of even number, that is called barry of so many pieces, expressing their number. !• 2. 3. The examples of cheverons are,— 1. Argent, a cheveron gules between three torteaux; borne by Sherard Earl of Harborough. 2. Argent, a cheveron cheeky gules, and of the field between three bugle-horns strung sable, garnished or stringed of the second; borne by the Baroness Sempill. The first Lord Sempill was Sir John, who, being much in favour with King James IV. was by him created Lord Sempill in 12. 3. 4. 1 he examples are,—1. Argent, a fess indented sable; 1489. 3. Quarterly argent and azure, a cheveron engrailed borne by Earl De La Warr. 2. Argent, a fess wreathed azure and gules; borne by the family of Carmichael.1 3. Party per fess or and argent, a fess nebule gules. 4. Party

per fess indented or and azure. 5. Cheeky or and azure on a fess gules, a crescent argent for difference; borne by Lord Clifford of Chudleigh, descended from Walter de Clifford of Clifford Castle, in the county of Hereford, who came over with the Conqueror.2 6. Argent, on a less azure, three lozenges or; borne by the Earl of Denbigh and Desmond, descended from the Counts of Hapsburg, in Germany. 7. Sable, a fess ermine, between three crescents or; borne by the Earl of Coventry,, descended from John Coventry, a native of the city of Coventry, and afterwards mercer and Lord Mayor of London in the reign

9 10. 11. 12s of Henry V. 8. Or, two bars azure, a chief quarterly of

4. 5. 6. counter-changed. 4. Party per cheveron engrailed gules and argent, three talbots’ heads erased counter-changed; borne by Lord Feversham, descended from the Duncombes of Ivinghoe in Buckinghamshire. 5. Or, two cheveronels gules; borne by Lord Monson, descended from John Monson, who flourished in the reign of King Edward III. 6. Or, on a fess, between two cheveronels sable, three crosscroslets of the first; borne by the Earl of Orford. This family took their name from Walpole in Norfolk, where they resided before the Conquest. Of the Cross.—The cross is an ordinary formed by the meeting of two perpendicular with two horizontal lines in the fess-point, where they make four right angles ; the lines are not drawn throughout, but discontinued the breadth of the ordinary, which takes up only the fifth part of the field. There is so great a variety of crosses used in heraldry, that it would be a difficult task to treat of them all. Guillim has mentioned 39 different sorts; De la Columbiere, 72; Leigh, forty-six; and Upton declares he cannot ascertain all the various crosses borne in arms, as they are almost innumerable. As their different forms cannot be given here, we shall, therefore, only take notice of such as are most commonly seen at present in coats-of-arms.

\ Ofairthis ancient family, see an interesting account, vol. L, p. 752 of Douglas’s Peerage, 2d ed., 1813. J odart, Bo^mond, Henry II.,ofwas of this family. the first mistress earl, wastodescended an ancient family in the United Provinces of Holland, where he was Baron de Keede de was a ™ i-u and, ’ . in Julybeutenant-general ofofKing William’s forces in Ireland, where, in June the same 'year,’ he took Ballymore for the English, following, the town Athlone. ^ 3

329

HEKALDRY. The first is quarterly, ermine and azure, a cross or; borne

a chief vairy ermine and contre ermine; borne by Baron Heraldry. Willoughby de Broke. Of the Saltier.—The saltier, which is formed by the bend and bend sinister crossing each other in right angles, as the intersecting of the pale and fess forms the cross, contains the fifth part of the field. In Scotland, this ordinary is frequently called a St Andrew’s Cross. It may, like the others, be borne engrailed, wavy, &c., also between charges, or charged with any thing.

by the Duke of Leeds. 2. Gules, a cross argent fretty azure; borne by Viscount TaafFe of Corran, in Ireland. 3. Argent, on a cross gules, five escalops or; borne by the Earl of Jersey, descended from the family of Vilhers in Normandy, some of whom came over to England with the Conoueror 1.

2.

8.

The examples are,—1. Argent, a saltier gules; borne by the Duke of Leinster, descended from Otho, or Other, a powerful lord in the time of King Alfred. 2. Purpure, a saltier, wavy ermine. 3. Ermine, a saltier, counter-compony 4. 5. 6. 7. 4. Argent, a cross bottony sable. 5. Or, a cross croslet gules. 6. Azure, a cross potent fitchy argent. This ensign is said to have been borne by Ethelred, king of the West Saxons. 7. Party per pale, gules and argent; a cross potent quadrate in the centre, between four crosses patee, all counter-changed; the arms of the episcopal see or Lie e

argent and gules. 4. Or, on a saltier azure, nine lozenges of the first; the paternal arms of Dalrymple Earl ot btair. 5. Gules, a saltier between four crescents or; borne as the second and third quarters in the coat-of-arms of Lord Kinnaird. 6. Gules, a saltier vert fimbriated or. 7. Azure,

n. and Coventry. 8. Azure, a cross moline argent; borne by Bentinck Duke of Portland, descended from a family in the United Provinces of Holland, of which was William Bentinck, who in his youth was page of honour to the Prince of Orange, afterwards William III. king of Great Britain, and, on the accession of William and his consort, was made groom of the stole, lieutenant-general of his maiesty’s army, and created Baron of Cirencester, Viscount Woodstock! and Earl of Portland, in 1689.^ 9. Argent a cross patonce sable. 10. Sable, a cross patee argent. 11. Azure, a cross flory argent. This is said to have also been the arms of Edwin, the first Christian king of Nor-

a saltier quarterly quartered or and argent; the arms of the episcopal see of Bath and Wells. 8. Party per saltier argent and gules, a saltier counter-changed; borne by Sir Claude Scott. 9. Argent, three saltiers couped sable. 10. Argent, a saltier gules, and a chief ermine; quartered by Fitz-Maurice Marquis of Lansdowne, &c. This family is a branch of that of Leinster. 2. Of Sub-Ordinaries.

15, 12. 13. wthumberland. 12. Argent, six cross-croslets fitchee, 3, 2, 1, sable, on a chief azure two mullets or; borne by Clinton Duke of Newcastle. 13. Gules, a cheveron between ten crosses patee, six in chief and four in base, argent; borne by the Earl of Berkeley, descended from Robert Fitz-Hardinge, who obtained from Henry II. a grant of Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire, which the family still inherits, and whence they obtained the surname of Berkeley. 14. Azure, three mullets or, accompanied with seven cross-croslets fitchee, argent, three in chief, one in fess, two in flanks, and the last in base; borne by Lord Somerville. 15. Gules, three crosses recercelee, voided or, VOL. XI.

besides the honourable ordinaries and the diminutions ady mentioned, there are other heraldic figures, called -ordinaries, which, by reason of their ancient use m is, are of worthy bearing; namely, the gyron, quarter, ton, fret, pile, orle, inescutcheon, tressure, annulet, dies, billet, lozenge, guttes, fusil, rustre, mascle, papile, and diaper. ,, . v fhe gyron (1.), is a triangular figure formed by two lines, drawn diagonally from one of the four les to the centre of the shield, and the er is drawn either horizontal or perpenular, from one of the sides of the shield, eting the other line at the centie of field. Gyronny is said, when the field covered with six, eight, ten, or twelve •ons in a coat-of-arms; but a French author contends The t the true gyronny consists of eight pieces only. irter is a square figure, which occupies the upper dexter T

330 HERALDKY. Heraldry, quarter of the shield, but is rarely carried as a charge. The The following are examples of sub-ordinaries,—viz., 1 Heraldn cardon (2.) is a square part of the escutcheon, ^ somewhat less than the quarter, but without any fixed proportion, and possesses the dexter-chief point of the shield; but should it possess the sinister corner, wdiich seldom occurs, it must be blazoned a canton sinister. The fret is a figure representing a saltier, 2. with a mascle in the centre interlaced. Fretty is said Gules, an orle ermine. 2. Argent, three inescutcheons when the field or bearings are covered with a fret of six, gules; borne as the second and third quarters in the coat eight, or more pieces. The pile, consisting of two lines of Hay, Earl of Kinnoul. The first of the name of Hay terminating in a point, is formed like a wedge, and is borne who bore these arms obtained them because he and his two engrailed, wavy, &c. It issues in general from the chief, sons, after having defeated a party of the Danes at the and extends towards the base; yet there are some piles battle of Loncarty in the year 942, were brought to the borne in bend, and issuing from other parts of the field. king with their shields all stained with blood. 3. Argent, The orle is an ordinary composed of two lines going round a fret sable; borne by Tollemache Earl of Dysart. 4. the shield, the same as the bordure; but its breadth is but Or, fretty of gules, a canton ermine; borne by Noel one-half of the latter, and at some distance from the edge Earl of Gainsborough, descended from Noel, who came of the shield. The inescutcheon is a little escutcheon borne into England with William the Conqueror, and, in conwithin the shield. The tressure is an ordinary commonly sideration of services, obtained a grant of several manors supposed to be the half of the breadth of an orle, and is generally borne flowery and counter-flowery, as it is also very often double, and sometimes treble. The double tressure forms part of the arms of Scotland. The annulet, or ring, is a well-known figure, and is frequently found in arms throughout every kingdom of Europe. The jlanches (3.) are formed by two curved and lands. 5. Gironny of eight pieces or and sable; the lines, or semicircles, being always borne first and fourth quarters of the coat-of-arms of Campbell, double. The billet is an oblong square Marquis of Breadalbane, descended in regular succession figure, twice as long as broad. The lofrom Duncan, the first Lord Campbell, ancestor of the zenge (4.) is an ordinary of four equal and paDukes of Argyll. 6. Lozengy argent and gules ; quartered rallel sides, but not rectangular; the upper 3. and lower angles being acute, and the other two obtuse by Earl Fitz-William, descended from Sir William FitzW illiam, marshal of the army of W illiam the Conqueror at Lruttes, or drops, are round at bottom, the battle of Hastings. 7. Sable, a mascle within a tressure waved on the sides, and terminate at the flowery argent. 8. Gules, three mullets or, within a bordure top in points. Heralds have given them of the latter, charged with a double tressure flowery, and different names, according to their different counter-flowery with fleurs-de-lys of the first; quartered by tinctures. Thus, if they are yellow, they the Duke of Sutherland, &c. This family is amongst the are called d’or ; if white, d ’eau ; if red, 4 de sang ; if blue, de larmes ; if green, de vert; if black, oldest in Britain, if not in Europe; the title of earl having depoix. The fusil (o.) is longer than the lozenge, having its upper and lower parts more acute than the other two collateral middle parts, which acuteness is occasioned by the short distance of the space between the two collateral angles; and this space, if the fusil be rightly made, is always shorter than any of the been conferred on one of their ancestors in 1067. 9. Azure, tour equal geometrical lines of a pile ermine. 10. Or, on a pile engrailed azure, three which it is composed. The cross-croslets fitchy of the first. 11. Or, on a pile gules, rustre (6.) is a lozenge pierced between six fleuus-de-lys azure, three lions of England; the round in the middle. The first and fourth quarters of the Duke of Somascle (7.) is pretty much like merset, granted him by Henry VIII. on his a lozenge, but voided or perv forated^ throughout its whole extent, showing a narrow marriage with Lady Jane Seymour. 12. border. Papillone is an expression used for a field or Ermine, two piles issuing from the dexter sinister sides, and meeting in base sable. Marge that is covered with figures like the scales of a fish. and 13. Argent, three piles, one issuing from the xo Diapering is said of a field or charge shadowed with flounslnngs or foliage, with a colour a little darker than that chief between the others reversed, sable ; borne by Hulse. on which it is wrought. The Germans frequently use it; but lt does not enter into the blazoning or description of 3. Of Common Charges borne in Arms. arms, and only serves to embellish the coat. In all ages men have made use of the representation of flints found about Rohan- and ™ °f- & mascIe> some taking it for the mash of a net, and others for the spots of certain Wr t r lven a Science Heraldique we shall t™!,! ?. x ® “f® Ssatlsfaction clearer account in support of this last opinion than Colombier, author of La of the Opinions have varied verv mnnh 1 ! in 0ngin f the mascles curious.as bein “Rohan,” says he, “ bears gules, nine mascles, or, 3, 3, 3. or mashes part, having often observed that th 7vf° > S somewhat like the meshes of nets; but for my own tbin s whlch are lords thereof to represent them • and their singular countries, have sometimes occasioned the escugtch take them for armsin1 some i ons and toremarkable believe, are the first that bore tho«e * . ® >armS th Ugh descended from the > am of opinion, that the lords of Rohan, who, I because in the most ancient visrnnnt^rT n" afterwards . ’ °erected into a duch therancient kings and princes of Bretagne, took them, in two, this figure appears on thalmL y. e are abundance of small flints, which being cut aS alsc the car s which are in the upon their scales; which bein*0 vp™y ^ \ P’ tish-ponds of that duchy, have the same mark extraordinary, and peculiar to that country, the ancient lords of the same had good reason

HERALDRY. 331 Heraldry, living creatures, and other symbolical signs, to distinguish by Arbuthnott, Viscount and Baron Arbuthnott. 9. Azure, Heraldry. themselves in war; and these marks, which were promiscuously used as hieroglyphics, emblems, and personal devices, were soon received into heraldry. But nothing shows the extent of human ingenuity more than the great variety of these marks of distinction, since they are composed of all sorts of figures, some natural, others artificial, and many 9. 10. 11. 12. chimerical. a star of sixteen points argent. 10. Argent, three mullets Thus, the family of Rabett bears three rabbits heads; sable; borne by the name of Wollaston. 11. Azure, that of Lucy, three luces or pikes, in Latin tres lucios pisces ; six mullets, 3, 2, 1, or; borne by the name of Welch. that of Starkey, a stork; and that of Shuttleworth, three weavers’ shuttles. Besides these natural and artificial figures, there are chimerical or imaginary ones used in heraldry, the result of fancy and caprice; such as centaurs, hydras, phoenixes, griffons, hippogriffs, and dragons. This great variety of figures shows the impossibility of comprehending all common charges in a work of this nature ; such only shall be 12. Ermine, a mullet of six points pierced gules. 13. Artreated of as are therefore most frequently borne. gent, a rainbow with a cloud at each end proper. This is part of the crest to the Earl of Hopetoun’s coat of arms. The whole of it is a globe split on the top, and above it is Art. 1.— Of Natural Figures borne in Arms. the rainbow and clouds. 14. Party per fess crenelle gules Amongst the multitude of natural things which are used and azure, three suns proper. 15. Gules, a mullet between in coats of arms, those most usually borne are, for the sake three crescents argent. 16. Gules, a chief argent, on the of brevity as well as perspicuity, distributed into the fol- lower part thereof a cloud, the sun’s resplendent rays issuing lowing classes :—viz., Celestial figures, as the sun, moon, throughout proper ; borne by Leeson Earl of Miltown. stars, &c., and their parts ; effigies of men, women, &c., and 2d. Examples of Effigies of Men, §c., and their Parts.— their parts; beasts, as lions, stags, foxes, boars, &c., and their parts ; birds, as eagles, swans, storks, pelicans, &c., and their parts ; fishes, as dolphins, whales, sturgeons, trouts, &c., and their parts ; reptiles and insects, as tortoises, serpents, grasshoppers, &c., and their parts; vegetables, as trees, plants, flowers, herbs, &c., and their parts; stones, as dia1. 2. monds, rubies, pebbles, rocks, and the like. These charges 1. Azure, theVirgin Mary crowned, with her babe in her right have, as well as ordinaries, various attributes or epithets, arm and a sceptre in her left, all or, the coat of arms of the which express their qualities, positions, and dispositions. bishopric of Salisbury. 2. Azure, a presbyter sitting on a Thus the sun is said to be in his glory, eclipsed, and the tombstone, in his left hand a mound, his right hand extended, moon in her complement, increscent; animals are said to be all or, with a linen mitre on his head, and a sword in his rampant, passant; birds have also their denominations, such mouth, all proper; the coat of arms of the bishopric of Chias close, displayed ; and fishes are described to be hauriant, chester. 3. Or, a man’s leg couped at the midst of the thigh naiant, and so forth. azure. 4. Argent, three sinister hands couped at the wrist,

2. 3. 4 ls£. Examples of Celestial Figures.—1. Azure, a sun in his glory; born in the first and fourth quarters of the coat of arms of the Marquis of Lothian. 2. Azure, one ray of the sun bendways gules, between six beams of that luminary argent. 3. Argent, five rays of the sun issuing out of the sinister corner gules. 4. Gules, the moon in her complement, illustrated with all her light proper. This is suf-

and erect gules. 5. Gules, three legs armed proper, conjoined in the fess point at the upper part of the thighs, flexed in triangles, garnished and spurred, or. This is the coat of arms of the Isle of Man ; and is quartered by the Dukes of Atholl, formerly titular lords or kings of that island. 6. Gules, three dexter arms vambraced fessways, in pale proper ; borne by several branches of the Armstrong family. 7. Or, three legs couped above the knee sable. 8. Vert, three dexter arms conjoined at the shoulders in the fess point, and flexed in triangle or, with fists clenched argent;

ficient without naming the colour, which is argent. 5. Azure, a moon decrescent proper. 6. Azure, a crescent argent. This bearing is also used as a difference, being assigned to the second son, as before mentioned. 7. Gules, borne by the family of Tremayne. 9. Argent, a man’s three crescents argent; borne by the family of Oliphant. heart gules, with two equilateral triangles interlaced sable, 8. Azure, a crescent between three mullets argent; borne 10. Azure, a sinister arm, issuing out of the dexter-chief, upon observing that wonder, to take those figures for their arms, and to transmit them to their posterity, giving them the name of macles, from the Latin word macula, signifying a spot; whence some of that house have taken for their motto. Sine, macula macla, that is, a mascle without a spot.”

332 Heraldry.

HERALDRY. extended towards the sinister base argent. 11. Argent, siege of Troy. 12. Sable, two i. —Jf , a dexter hand couped at the wrist, and erected, within a argent, the uppermost towards the sinister side of the escut-1 ^ r bordure engrailed sable; borne by the family of Manley. cheon, both collared gules ; borne by the name of Glegg. 12. Argent, a man’s heart gules, ensigned with a crown or, and on a chief azure, three mullets of the first. The paternal coat of the name of Douglas, and quartered in the arms of the Duke of Hamilton, the Marquis of Queensberry, an(j

13. 14. 15. 16. 13. Argent, a demi-lion rampant sable. 14. Gules, a lion couchant between six cross-croslets, three in chief, and as many in base, argent; for the name of Tynte. 15. Azure, a lion dormant or. 16. Or, out of the midst of afess sable,

and of the Earls of Morton and Selkirk. 13. Gules, a Saracen’s head affrontee, erased at the neck proper, environed about the temples with a wreath of the argent and sable; borne by Mostyn Lord Mostyn. 14. Argent, three blackamoors’ heads couped proper, banded about the head, argent and gules. 15. Gules, three bezants, each charged with a man’s face affrontee proper. 16. Or, a blackamoor’s head couped proper, banded about the head argent. When half of the face, or little more, of human figures, is seen in a field, it is then said to be in profile ; and when a lion rampant naissant gules.2 17. Azure, three lions the head of a man, woman, or other animal, is represented rampant or; borne by Fiennes Baron Saye and Sele. 18. with a full face, it is termed affrontee. Gules, a tri-corporated lion issuing from three parts of the 2>d. Examples of the different Positions of Lions, fyc., escutcheon, all meeting under one head in the fess point or, in Arms.—1. Or, a lion rampant azure; quartered by langued and armed azure. 19. Gules, a bezant between three demi-lions rampant argent; borne by Bennet Earl of Tankerville. It is to be observed that, if a lion, or any other beast, be represented with its limbs and body separated, so that they remain upon the field at a small distance from their natural places, it is then termed D eh ache, or couped in all its parts ; of which remarkable bearing there is an instance in armory, 1 2. 3. 4. namely, or, a lion rampant gules, dehache, or couped in all Percy Duke of Northumberland. 2. Azure, a lion rampant- its parts, within a double tressure flowery and counterguardant or. 3. Gules, a lion rampant-reguardant or ; flowery of the second ; borne by the name of Maitland. quartered by Cadogan Earl Cadogan. 4. Argent, a lion Ath. Examples of other Quadrupeds and their parts, borne in Coats of Arms.—1. Sable, a camel statant argent.

5 g. 7. 8. saliant gules. 5. Azure, a lion statant-guardant or. 6. L 2. 3. 4. Azure, a lion passant or, between three fleurs-de-lys argent. 2. Gules, an elephant statant argent, tusked or. 3. Argent I' Argent, a lion passant guardant gules crowned or; quar- a boar statant gules, armed or. 4. Sable, a bull passant or. tered by Ogilvie Earl of Seafield. 8. Gules, a lion sejant

9 10. 11. 12. argent. 9. Or, a lion rampant double-headed azure; borne by the name of Mason. 10. Azure, two lions rampantcombatant or, armed and langued gules ; borne by the name ot Garter. 11. Azure, two lions rampant-adosses or. This coat of arms is said to have been borne by Achilles at the

5. 6. 7. 8. 5. Sable, three nags’ heads erased argent; borne by Blayney Baron Blayney of Monaghan, in Ireland, descended in a direct line from the ancient Princes of Wales. 6. Argent, three boars’ heads erased, erect proper. 7. Argent, three bulls’ heads erased, sable, armed or ; quartered by Skeffington Viscount Massareene. 8. Argent, two foxes counter-

Say iS the natural disposition of the lion not to bear a rival in the field; therefore two lions cannot be borne must v be su osed +w PP to be lions’ whelps, called lioncels; except when they are parted by an ordinary or so disP K ttev S ZZ1 -chfield other. In the the two precefling of the which would not do e™,piL ,h, y ere called Z„ SZ Tn the they are^iiDOosed to i g ?! he sfereiSnty Wh > y unless they were of full growth; and in the 11th accommodated h the rince are suffering them to go bX’^vly° °Se diSpUte y P having the field, their pride not 2 This form of blazon is peculiar to all living things which are found issuing out of the midst of some ordinary or other charge.

in

HERALDRY. Heraldry, saliant, the dexter surmounted of the sinister gules; for Ae name of Kadrod Hardd, an ancient British family, from which are descended the Williams-Wynns, who bear these

by him created a peer of England, by the title of Earl of Al9. 10. 11. 12. bemarle, from a town of that name in Normandy, 10th quartered, second and third, for Williams. 9. Argent, three February 1696. 10. Azure, three bees, two and one, vobulls passant sable, armed and ungulled or ; for Ashley, and lant, argent. 11. Vert, a tortoise passant argent. 12. quartered by Ashley Cooper Earl of Shaftesbury, descended from Richard Cooper, who flourished in the reign of Henry VIII. 10. Gules, three lions gambs erased argent; for the name of Newdegate. 11. Azure, a buck’s head cabossed argent; borne by Legge Earl of Dartmouth. 12. Argent,

two squirrels sejant adossee gules. 13. Gules, a goat passant argent. 14. Sable, a stag standing at gaze argent. 15. Azure, three holy lambs or. 5th. Examples of Birds, Fishes,Reptiles, fyc.—1. Ermine,

13. 14. 15. 16. Gules, an adder nowed or.1 13. Ermine, a rose gules barbed and seeded proper; borne by Boscawen Viscount Falmouth, whose family have possessed the lands of Boscawen Rose, in the county of Cornwall, since the time of King John. 14. Azure, three laurel leaves slipped or; borne by the name of Leveson, and quartered by Granville-SutherlandLeveson Gower, Duke of Sutherland, &c. 15. Azure, three garbs or; borne by the ancient Earls of Chester. 16. Gules, three cinquefoils argent; borne by Lambart Earl of Cavan, in Ireland. This ancient family is of French extraction. It is to be observed, that trees and plants are sometimes said to be trunked, eradicated, fructuated, and raguled, according as they are represented in arms.

Art. 2.— Of Artificial Figures borne in Arms. After the various productions of nature, artificial figures, the objects of art and mechanism, claim the next rank. They may be distributed into the following classes,—viz., Warlike instruments, as swords, arrows, battering-rams, gauntlets, helmets, spears, pole-axes; ornaments used in royal and religious ceremonies, as crowns, coronets, mitres, wreaths, crosiers; architecture, as towers, castles, arches, columns, plummets, battlements, churches, portcullises; navigation, as ships, anchors, rudders, pendants, sails, oars, masts, flags, galleys, lighters, and so on. All these bearings have different epithets, serving to express their position, their disposition, or their form. Thus peacocks in their pride proper. 5. Or, a raven proper; swords are said to be erect, pommeled, hilted; arrows, borne by the name of Corbet. 6. Argent, three cocks armed, feathered ; towers, covered, embattled; and so of gules, crested and jow-lopped sable, a crescent surmounted all others, as will more fully appear by the following exarnof a crescent for difference ; formerly borne by the Cockaynes Viscounts Cullen, of Donegal in Ireland (now extinct). 7. Sable, a dolphin naiant embowed or; borne by the name of Symonds. This animal was in former times borne by the eldest son of the French kings, as next heirs to the crown, no other subject in that kingdom being permitted to bear it. 8. Argent, three whales’ heads erect and l. 2. 3. 4. erased sable; borne by the name of Whalley. 9. Gules, three escalops argent; borne by Keppel Earl of Albemarle, pies :—1. Sable, three swords, their points meeting in the descended from Arnold Joost van Keppel, lord of Voorst, base argent, pommeled and hilted or; borne by Paulet Holland, who came into England in 1688, with the Prince Marquis of Winchester, descended from Hercules, Lord of

2. 3. 4. an eagle displayed gules ; borne by Sir Henry Bedingfield. 2. Gules, a swan close proper. 3. Gules, a pelican in her nest with wings elevated, feeding her young ones or, vulned proper; borne by the name of Carne. 4. Argent, three

1 Adders, snakes, and serpents, are said to represent many things, which being according to the fancy of the ancients, and a few modern authors who have adopted their opinions, it is needless to enlarge upon. It is certain they often occur in armory ; but the noblest is that of the duchy of Milan, viz., “ argent, a serpent gliding in pale azure, crowned or, vorant an infant issuing gules.” The occasion of this bearing was as follows :—Otho, first Viscount of Milan, on his way to the Holy Land with Godfrey of Bouillon, defeated and slew in single combat the great giant Volux, a man of extraordinary stature and strength, who had challenged the bravest of the Christian army. The viscount having killed him, took his armour, and amongst it his helmet, the crest of which was a serpent swallowing an infant, worn by him to strike terror into those who should be so bold as to engage him.

333

334 HERALDRY. Heraldry. Tournon in Picardy, who came to England with Jeffrey ples h,therto contained in each collection, several foreign Herald™ Plantagenet, Earl of Anjou, third son of King Henry II., bearings are introduced ; which, however, as they are con- W and amongst other lands had the lordship of Paulet in formable to the laws of heraldry, may also contribute to inSomersetshire conferred on him. 2. Argent, three batter- struct the reader. Those most in use are the following — ing-rams barways in pale, headed, azure and hooped or, namely, angels, cherubims, tritons, centaurs, martlets, Grifborne by Bertie, Earl of Abingdon. 3. Azure, three fons, unicorns, dragons, mermaids, satyrs, wiverns, haroies, 1 left-hand gauntlets with their backs affrontee or; borne cockatrices, and phoenixes. ’ by Fane Earl of Westmoreland. 4. Gules, two helmets These, like the foregoing charges, are subject to various in chief proper, garnished or, in a base of a garb of positions and dispositions, which, from the principles already the third; borne by Cholmondeley Marquis of Cholmon- laid down, will be easily understood by the following ex-

deley, an ancient family in Cheshire. 5. Argent, a ship with its sails furled up sable ; quartered by Hamilton Marquis of Abercorn. The descent of this family is from that of the Duke of Hamilton. 6. Sable, three spears’ heads erect argent, embrued gules, on a chief or, as many7 pole-axes reversed, azure; borne by King Earl of Lovelace. 7Argent, a maunch sable ; borne by Hastings Earl of Huntingdon, of a very ancient and noble family, of which was Walter de Hastings, steward to King Henry I. 8. Azure, a circular wreath argent and sable, with four hawks’ bells joined thereto in quadrature or ; borne by Jocelyn Earl of

."N %

Roden. 9. Gules, two keys in saltier argent, in chief a royal crown proper ; the arms of the archbishopric of York. 10. Gules, two swords in saltier argent, pommeled and hiked or ; the arms of the bishopric of London. 11. Sable, a key in bend, surmounted by a crosier in bend sinister, 'both,or ; the arms of the bishopric of St Asaph. 12. Gules, two keys adossee in bend, the uppermost argent, the other or, a sword interposed betwsen,them in bend sinister of the second, pommeled, and hiked of the third ; the arms of the

1. 2. 3. 4. amples:—1. Gules, an angel standing affrontee, with his hands conjoined and elevated upon his breast, habited in a long robe close girt argent, his wings displayed or ; borne by Brangor de Cerevisia, a foreign prelate, who assisted at the council of Constance in 1412. 2. Sable, a cheveron between three cherubim or; borne by the name of Chaloner of Yorkshire. 3. Gules, a cherub having three pair of wings, the uppermost and lowermost counter-crossed saltierways, and the middlemost displayed argent; borne by the name of Buocasoco, a foreign prelate. This example is copied from Menestrier’s Method du Blason. 4. Azure, a griffon segreant or, armed and langued gules, between three crescents argent; quartered by Bligh, Earl of Darnley.

5.

6.

7.

8.

5. Azure, three mullets argent within a double tressure counter-flowery or, in the centre a martlet of the last; borne by Murray Lord Elibank. The martlet is represented without feet, and is given for a difference to younger brothers, no doubt to remind them that, in order to raise themselves, they must trust to the wings of virtue and merit, and not to their legs, having but little land to set foot on. 6. Sable, a cockatrice displayed argent, crested, membered, and jowlopped gules. 7. Argent, a mermaid gules, crined or, holding in her right hand a mirror, and in her left a comb, both proper ; borne by the Merioneth family of Ellis. 8. Argent a wivern, his wings elevated, and his tail nowed below him

14. 15. bishopric of Winchester. 13. Gules, three mitres with their pendants or; the arms of the bishopric of Chester. 14. Sable, two crosiers, in saltier or, and argent; on a chief azure three mitres labelled of the second ; the arms of the bishopric of Llandaff. 15. Gules, a sword erect in pale argent, pommeled and hiked or, surmounted by two keys in saltier of the last; the arms of the bishopric of Exeter. 16. Gules, three ducal coronets or ; the arms of the bishop9. 10. 11. 12 r ric of Ely. gules ; borne by the family of Drake. 9. Or, a dragon passant vert. 10. Gules, a centaur or sagittary in full speed reguardant proper. This is said by some to have been the Art. 3. Of Chimerical Figures. arms of Stephen of Blois, son of Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror, and of Stephen, Earl of Blois; who, groundAre such as have no real existence, but are mere fabulous ing his pietension to the crown of England on this descent, and fantastical inventions. These charges, griffons, martproclaimed king in 1135, and reigned till the 25th of lets, and unicorns excepted, are so uncommon in British was Octobei 11. Argent, an unicorn sejant sable, uncoats, that in order to make up the same number of exam- guled and1154. horned or. 12. Argent, a dragon’s head erased %

Heraldry.

vert

> holding in his mouth a sinister hand couped at the

wrist gules. J 3. Gules, three unicorns’heads couped or. 14. Azure, a bull saliant and winged or, borne by the name of Cadenet, a family of distinction in Provence. 15. Argent, a wivern with a human face affrontee hooded, and winged vert; borne by the Buseraghi, an ancient and noble family of Lucca. 16. Azure, a harpy displayed, armed, crined, and crowned or. These are the arms of the city of Nuremberg in Germany. To the above-mentioned figures may be added the montegre, an imaginary creature, supposed to have the body of a tiger with the head and horns of a satyr; also those which have a real existence, but are said to be endowed with extravagant and imaginary qualities, as the salamander, beaver, cameleon, and others. IV.—OF THE EXTERNAL ORNAMENTS OF ESCUTCHEONS. Ornaments which accompany or surround escutcheons denote the dignity or office of the persons to whom the arms appertained, both amongst the laity and the clergy, consisting of crowns, coronets, mitres, helmets, mantlings, and supporters. Wreaths, crests, and scrolls, are common to all classes.

Great Seal the arched crown with the crosses and fleurs-de- Heraldry, lys. Henry VII., however, still continued the open crown with fleurs-de-lys and pearls on his first money ; afterwards with leaves and pearls with a single arch. The crown on his Great Seal has crosses patee and fleurs-de-lys, and arched, surmounted by the orb and cross. This crown, with some variations in the number of arches, continued to be used by succeeding sovereigns. 1 he crown of the kings of Scotland is remarkable for its elegance and beauty ; composed of a circle heightened with ten crosses flory and ten fleurs-de-lys alternately; from whence arise four arches surmounted by a globe or mound ensigned with a cross patee. The cap is of velvet, lined with ermine, and adorned with four plates of gold, each enriched with a large pearl. The crown of the kingdom of Hanover, as settled in 1816, to be placed over the inescutcheon of the royal arms of George III., being substituted for the electoral bonnet, consisted of a circle of gold, adorned on the upper rim with strawberry leaves, and a cross patee in the centre. From the circle arose eight arches, closing at the top, supporting a mound and cross. The crown of the kings in France, was a circle enamelled^ adorned with precious stones, and heightened by eight arched diadems, rising from as many fleurs-de-lys, which conjoined at the top under a double fleur-de-lys, all of gold. The crowns of Spain, Portugal, and Poland, are all three of the same form, and are described by Colonel Parsons in his Genealogical Tables of Europe. A coronet of strawberry leaves, heightened by eight arched diadems, which support a mound, ensigned with a plain cross. Those of Denmark and Sweden are both of the same form, and consist of eight arched diadems, rising from a coronet like that of an English marquis, which conjoin at the top under a mound ensigned with a cross-bottony. The crowns of other kings are similar. The Grand Seignior bears over his arms a turban, enriched with pearls and diamonds, under two coronets, the first of which is made of pyramidical points heightened up with large pearls, whilst the uppermost is surmounted with crescents. The Pope, or Bishop of Rome, appropriates to himself a tiara or long cap of golden cloth, from which hang two pendants embroidered and fringed at the ends, semee with crosses of gold. This cap is enclosed by three coronets like those of the degree of marquis in England; and has on its top a mound of gold, on which is a cross of the same, sometimes represented by engravers and painters pometted, recrossed, flowery, or plain. It is a difficult matter to ascertain the time when the popes assumed the three coronets above mentioned. A succession of the supreme pontiffs, engraved and published by order of Clement XIII. for the edification of his subjects in Great Britain and Ireland, represents Marcellus, who was chosen Bishop of Rome in the year 310, and all his successors, adorned with such a cap ; but it appears from good authority, that Boniface VIII., who was elected to the see of Rome in the year 1295, first compassed his cap with a coronet ; whilst Benedict XII. in 1335, added to it a second, and John XXIII. in 1411, a third, with a view to indicate that the Pope is the sovereign priest, the supreme judge, and the sole legislator, amongst Christians.

1. Of Crowns. The first crowns were only diadems, bands, or fillets ; but afterwards they were composed of branches of various trees, and then flowers were added to them. Amongst the Greeks, the crowns given to those who carried off the prize at the Isthmian games were of pine; at the Olympic, of laurel; and at the Nemean, of smallage. The Romans also had various crowns to reward martial exploits and extraordinary services done to the republic. Constantine the Great first used a diadem of pearls and precious stones over a gold helm, somewhat like the close crown of later times, which seems to have been the example which the sovereigns of Europe afterwards followed. The imperial crowns of Austria and Russia consist of a circle of gold, adorned with precious stones and pearls, heightened with fleurs-de-lys, bordered and seeded with pearls, and raised in the form of a cap voided at the top like a crescent. From the middle of this cap rises an arched fillet enriched with pearls, and surmounted with a mound on which is a cross of pearls. The crown of the kings of Great Britain, which is a circle of gold, enriched with pearls and precious stones, having four crosses patee and four fleurs-de-lys alternately; from these rise four arched diadems adorned with pearls, which close under a mound, surmounted with a cross like those at the bottom ; within is a velvet cap trimmed with ermine. The crowns of the kings of England have at various times assumed different forms; generally consisting in early reigns of a fillet of gold, ornamented upon its upper circle by leaves, fleurs-de-lys, and crosses patee placed alternately with fleursde-lys. Edward IV. has first upon his coins the open crown 2. Of Coronets. with crosses and fleurs-de-lys; and presents the first instance of an arched or closed crown with leaves only upon The coronet of the Prince of Wales was anciently a the Great Seal. Richard III. is the first who placed on the circle of gold set round with four crosses patee, and as many

336 HERALDRY. Heraldry, fleurs-de-lys alternately ; but since the Restoration it has pearls set close together on the rim, without any limited Heraldry number (No. 8). A baron’s coronet, which been closed with one arch only, adorned was granted by King Charles II., is formed with pearls, surmounted by a mound and with six pearls set at equal distances on a gold cross, and having a cap trimmed with ermine circle, four of which only are seen in engravlike the king’s (No. 1). ings and paintings (No. 9). The following is an extract from the royal warrant of 13th Car. II.— All these coronets are worn at the time of the coronation “ That the sonne and heire apparent of the crowne for by peers and peeresses; having caps of crimson velvet the tyme being shall use and beare his coronett composed within them edged with ermine, the ermine being visible of crosses and flower-de-lizes with one arch, and in the midst below the circle of the coronet. It is difficult to determine a ball and cross as hath our royal diadem. And that our at what period the coronet became the distinguishing symmost deare and most entirely beloved brother James, Duke bol of peerage for the four superior degrees. In an essay, of Yorke, and soe all the imediate sonnes of ourselfe and by Mr King, York herald, on the Stall Plates of the Knights the imediate sonns and brothers of our successors kinges of the Garter, in the Arcluzologia, vol. xxxi., it appears of England shall beare and use his and their coronetts com- that, if those plates are evidence of the use of coronets, the posed of crosses and flower-de-lizes only, but that all their period of their first introduction is comparatively late, as few sonns respectively haveing the title of dukes shall beare and coronets appear during the reign of Henry VIII. upon the use their coronetts composed of crosses and flowers or leaves garter plates of the knights of that order ; nor did the cussuch as are used in the composure of the coronetts of dukes tom of placing these marks of dignity prevail till about the not being of our royal family.” beginning of the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The first coroBesides this coronet, the Prince of Wales has another net having a cap with ermine, which is exhibited on the distinguishing mark of honour, peculiar to himself, namely, garter plate, is that of Lord Godolphin, who was installed a plume of three ostrich-feathers, with an ancient coronet in 1704. He was the first baron who became a Knight of of a prince of Wales (No. 2). Under this, in the Garter after the coronet was assigned to barons. a scroll, is the motto, Ich Dien, which in the By a royal warrant dated at Whitehall, 2d June 1665, German or old Saxon language signifies I a patent was directed to pass the Great Seal ordaining baserve. This device was first assumed by Edrons of Scotland to wear a velvet cap with a gold circle, ward Prince of Wales, commonly called the decorated with six pearls ; and it is said a similar warrant Black Prince, after the famous battle of Cressy, was issued at the same time for barons of Ireland. in 1346, where, having with his own hand The eldest sons of peers above the degree of a viscount killed John King of Bohemia, he took from 2. are entitled by the courtesy of England to use their father’s his head such a plume as that here described, and put it on second title ; but they are not entitled to use a coronet, or his own. This, however, was doubted by the late Sir Harris the supporters annexed to the dignity. Peers of parliament Nicolas, who says that the badge of the three ostrich fea- and their wives only can use coronets and supporters.1 thers was derived from the house of Hainault. But from Peeresses in their own right are also entitled to coronets a contemporary account which Sir Harris Nicolas subse- and supporters. quently discovered he thought the tradition was somewhat For an account of the coronets of foreign nobility, videSelconfirmed. {Vide Sir Harris Nicolas’s account in Archceo- derCs Titles of Honor. Coronets are not worn in France logia, vols. xxxi. and xxxii., for some very interesting no- or other continental states, but merely depicted with other tices on the origin and history of the badge and mottoes of heraldic insignia to which the bearer may be entitled. Edward the Black Prince.) The chapeau is a species of cap, usually crimson, turned The coronet of all the intermediate sons and brothers of up with ermine, and is said to be applicable to the ducal the kings of Great Britain is a circle of gold dignity only ; but there is no instance in bordered with ermine, heightened with four English heraldry of its bearing that qualififleurs-de-lys and as many crosses patee altercation. It is frequently used to set a crest nately, as has been already shown (No. 3). upon. By the regulations of the present day the Earl-MarThe coronet of the princesses of Great Brishal prohibits the painting of crests issuing from ducal corotain is a circle of gold bordered with ermine, nets or from chapeaux. and heightened with crosses-patee, fleurs-de1 3. Of Mitres. lys, and strawberry leaves alternately (No. 4). A duke’s coronet is a circle of gold borThe archbishops and bishops of England and Ireland dered with ermine, enriched with precious place a mitre over the shields of their arms, in lieu of a stones and pearls, and set round with eight large strawberry crest. It is a round cap pointed and cleft at leaves (No. 5). A marquis’s coronet~is a circle of gold the top, rising from a circle of gold from which are two labels or pendants, fringed at the ends. The Bishops of Durham and Meath only are entitled to use the mitre rising from a ducal coronet, signifying their palatinate jurisdiction. The practice of pourtraying the mitres of archbishops issuing from ducal coronets is an innovation which set round with four strawberry leaves and as many pearls arose in the early part of the last century without any auon pyramidical points of equal height alternate (No. 6). thority. Mitres were worn at the coronation of Queen An earl’s coronet is a circle of gold heightened up with Elizabeth; since which period they have only been used eight pyramidical points or rays, on the tops of which are heraldically as episcopal insignia. The ancient Bishops of as many large pearls, which are placed alternately with as Durham also wore three feathers in addition to the princely many strawberry leaves, but the pearls much higher than or ducal coronet which so signally graced their mitres. This the leaves (No. 7). A viscount’s coronet differs from the ornament, with other vestments, is still worn by the archpreceding ones as being only a circle of gold, with large bishops and bishops of the Church of Rome, whenever 1 The very recent case of Baron Wensleydale, who has been created for life only, must be considered as an exception; his lordship has all the privileges of peerage except sitting in Parliament, the House of Lords having declared that neither his patent, nor the writ under the patent, entitles him to sit.

HERALDRY. 337 Heraldry, they officiate with solemnity ; but it is never used in Eng- place of the cointoise as a personal ornament, from which Heraldry, land, otherwise than over the coats of arms. time it assumed more prominently what was afterwards called the lambrequin. In a grant of arms, a.d. 1334, the cointoise with tassels, has a cloak-like appearance, and is 4. Of Helmets. there called a mantell. The helmet of William, Lord HastThe helmet was formerly worn as a defensive weapon to ings, on his seal attached to a deed, a.d. 1469, has a scroll cover the bearer’s head, and is now placed over the arms instead of a cointoise. And it has been conjectured that as a mark of gentility. the scroll or lambrequin was an imitation of the cointoise The helmets of sovereigns were of burnished gold ; those after it had been torn in battle. The mantling, when it of princes and lords, of silver figured with gold; those of became an heraldic ornament, was usually gules lined, or knights, of steel adorned with silver; and those of private “ doubled" argent; but in Elizabeth’s time, as now, it asgentlemen, of polished steel. As to their form, those of sumes the colours of the wreath, being the two first of the the king and the royal family of Great Britain, are open- coat-armorial, the metal being for the lining or doubling. In many of the old grants of arms this was not, however, always so ; and until a late period the mantling was fully blazoned or described. It was sometimes charged with heraldic bearings or other figures. The royal mantling of the present day is gold doubled ermine ; and like those of the 1. 2. 3. 4. nobility and gentry forms a species of scroll-work flowing faced, with bars (No. 1). The barred helmet in profile is from the helmet, and ornamenting both sides of the shield. common to all degrees of peerage (No. 2). The helmet standing direct without bars, and a little open, denotes 6. Of the Wreath. baronets and knights (No. 3) ; the side-standing helmet, with the beaver close, is the manner of wearing it peculiar The wreath or torse was formed of two pieces of silk of the to esquires and gentlemen (No. 4). two first colours of the armorial bearings, twisted together Such are now the established rules respecting the use of by the lady who chose the favoured individual for her knight. helmets as marks of distinction in the full heraldic achieve- It took place of the cointoise about the time of Edward III. ment ; but the origin of these, like many other matters con- It surrounded the upper part of the helmet as a fillet, and nected with this subject, is involved in some obscurity. It appeared (as a coronet did in some instances) to bind the is clear that helmets in heraldry were not always distin- lambrequin close to the helmet. From the centre of the guishing insignia, at least, as respects nobility and gentry. WTeath, or coronet, issued the crest (vide Crest, and MantThe evidence afforded by the garter plates at Wind- ling). In blazoning a crest, it is usually said to be upon sor, shows that the helmets of knights-subjects on all the or within “ a wreath of the colours,” by which colours are stall plates of the Knights of the Garter, till towards the meant the two first of the arms ; but sometimes the wreath close of the reign of Elizabeth, are in profile, having the has been composed of all the colours of the arms w hen more visors close like those now used to designate the esquire of than two. An example occurs in the grant of a crest to the present day. The barred helmet in profile first appears the city of Exeter, a.d. 1580, where the wreath is or, gules, on the garter plate of Henry Radcliffe, Earl of Sussex, who and azure ; those colours being in the arms. The liveries was installed in 1589. And it is remarkable that during of servants should follow the colours of the wreath. the following reign there are two instances of the close helmet being used for peers notwithstanding; so that it 7. Of Crests. appears to have been a matter of indifference whether the close helmet or the barred helmet was adopted for peers at The crest is the highest part of the ornaments of a coat that time. After 1603 the barred helmet became constantly of arms. It is called crest, from the Latin word crista. borne on these plates for the nobility above the degree of Crests were formerly great marks of honour, because they barons. The first instance of the barred helmet for a baron were only worn by heroes of great valour, or by such as were was in the case of Lord Knolles in 1615. The helmets on advanced to some superior military command, in order that the plates of Sir Robert Walpole, who was installed a Knight they might be the better distinguished in an engagement. of the Garter in 1726, and of Sir Robert Stewart (comCrests appear to be nearly coeval with the introduction monly called Viscount Castlereagh, as eldest son of the of armorial ensigns upon shields, as there are instances as Marquis of Londonderry) who was installed in 1814, are re- early as the reign of Henry HI. Richard I. is represented spectively the open helmet affrontee. It is not improbable with something upon his helmet which may have been the that, about the time of the restoration of King Charles II., prototype of the heraldic crest, somewhat in the form of a the full-faced open helmet became a distinguishing one for fan charged with a lion rampant or passant upon it. By baronets and knights. In engravings of the arms of baro- the Close Rolls (54 Hen. III.), armour was provided for nets and knights in the seventeenth century, the side- the knights going into the Holy Land, in which, amongst other articles, are mentioned two crests. On the seals, standing close helmet is frequently used. previously quoted from those attached to the Barons Letter to the Pope, a.d. 1300, there are examples of crests. 5. Of Mantlings. The first English monarch who introduced his crest upon The mantling or lambrequin, attached to the helmet, his Great Seal was Edward III., which he wears on his helhad its origin from the Cointoise, a sort of ornamental met. Crests were soon assumed by private families. Edstreamer or scarf which passed round the body, and over ward III., in 1333, granted a crest to William Montacute, the shoulder. This superb ornament was introduced in Eai’l of Salisbury, and by a further grant made it herethe reign of Henry III. It afterwards became an embel- ditary ; and in 1334, Guyen, king of arms, granted a crest lishment of the helmet; and, referring to the seals of the to Thomas Andrews. Crests were also called cognizances, barons of 1300, it may be seen upon them passing from a very obvious term when considering their use—that the beneath the crest, and elegantly flying in graceful folds bearers might be known by them. beyond the helmet. The monument of Sir John HarCrests, therefore, are as equally significant of the lineage sic, in the time of Edward III., exhibits his tilting helmet, of persons entitled to use them as arms are; and, as such, and is the earliest occurrence of the wreath, which took are inseparably annexed to individual families. The popular YCL. XI. 2u

338 HERALDRY. Heraldry, notion that crests are assumptive at pleasure, has no founda- by Menestrier, traced to ancient tournaments, In which the Heraldry, tion in the nature or practice of heraldry; nor that the crest knights caused their shields to be carried by servants or of a maternal ancestor may be borne. Heiresses do not pages under the disguise of lions, bears, griffins, blackaconvey the crests of their families to their descendants who moors, and the like, who also held and guarded the escutare entitled to quarter their arms. cheons, which the knights were obliged to expose to public The crest was placed upon the helmet, ivithin the wreath, view for some time before the lists were opened. But Sir not upon the wreath, as described in modern times; or might George Mackenzie dissents from this opinion, and contends be issuant from a ducal or other coronet, or placed on a (Treatise on the Science of Heraldry, chap xxxi., p. 93) chapeau ; and, although governed by the same laws as pater- that “ the first origin and use of them was from the custom, nal arms with respect to hereditary masculine descent, it which ever was and is, of leading such as are invested with does not necessarily have any allusion to, or derivation from any great honour to the prince who confers it.” the bearings upon the shield. The crest represented withThe origin of supporters is still, however, involved in out the armorial shield is usually placed on a wreath, or from mystery. Like many other points connected with heraldry, a coronet, as the case may be, without the helmet or lam- they derived their origin at no ascertained time, and grew brequin. up into use from causes at present unknown. Theories have The “ Cognizance ” is also a term used synonymously with been attempted to be formed for their introduction into “Badgenot to be understood as a crest, but as a badge. heraldry, but the most probable is that of various figures or They are, at least, coeval with armorial bearings, if not of animals being introduced upon seals as ornaments to fill a prior date. Henry II. adopted certain distinctive figures up the open spaces which occur in a circular seal with the which had reference to his name. This was the planta triangular or heater shield exhibiting the arms. Instances genista. Badges were confined to royalty till about the time of this character occur very early, as may be seen upon the of Richard II., when they were adopted by the nobility. seals attached to the Barons’ Letter to the Pope in 1300. They were not substituted for armorial devices in the field, After that period these figures or animals assumed a more except on banners, and that only during the wars between decided character upon seals, and are found supporting the the houses of York and Lancaster. The kings of England helmet as early as the time of Richard II. On the beautiful bore a variety of badges, in different reigns, as did also the seals of the period from the reign of Henry IV. to that of several members of the royal family during the middle ages. Henry VI., the shields containing the arms are frequently Of the royal badges of sovereigns which have descended placed so low as to cover part of the legend, while the helto modern times, is the well-known rose, the thistle for mets and crests are supported by various animals, natural Scotland, and the trefoil for Ireland. But the trefoil was and chimerical. The recognition of supporters, in the sense not formerly a royal badge. The Prince of Wales’s plume in which they are now understood, as regards the use of is the peculiar badge belonging to the eldest son of the them by private families, may be dated about the time of sovereign. Henry VII.; and there are a few private families who conBadges used by the ancient nobility served rather to tinue to bear them at this day, and whose title to use them denote the servants or retainers, and were distinct from ar- has been allowed by the heralds at various times. When morial bearings, and embroidered upon the liveries. These supporters first became the distinguishing mark of nobility, badges were defined in their character; and the use of or were exclusively considered properly to appertain to the them in the present day is very limited. They never ap- peerage or to the Knights of the Garter and Bath, is not pear as a crest; and are consequently without the wreath, quite clear. It appears that the first stall plate of a Knight or any other bearing which characterizes crests. Badges of the Garter bearing supporters was that of John Beaufort, were frequently displayed upon the funereal banners of who was elected into that order 20th Henry VI.; but it is sovereigns and nobles, accompanied by their rnotto and doubted whether the plate is of so early a date. But the other devices. first plate of this kind, which may with certainty be considered as contemporaneous with the installation, is that of John Dynham, Lord Dynham, who was elected a Knight 8. Of the Scroll. of the Garter 1st Henry VII.; upon this plate the supThe scroll is the ornament placed below the shield, con- porters, which are two stags, support the helmet and crest taining a motto or short sentence alluding thereto, or to the only. In the case of Henry Earl of Northumberland, who bearings, or to the bearer’s name. Thus, the motto of the was elected in the same reign, the supporters are placed Marquis of Cholmondeley is Cassis tutissima virtus—“ Vir- outside the garter which encircles the shield. Supporters tue is the safest helmet,” on account of the helmet in the were not even general at this time, as several plates intercoat of arms; and the motto of Earl Fortescue is Forte vening between that period and 29th Henry VIII. are descutum salus ducum, 11 A strong shield is the safety of the void of them. Subsequently to the later period, however, commanders,” alluding to the name of that ancient family. supporters occur on all the succeeding plates of knights Sometimes, however, the motto has reference to neither, (vide Archceologia, vol. xxxi.). but expresses something divine or heroic; as that of the There is, however, some reason to imagine that the jousts Earl of Scarborough, Murus cereus conscienta sana, “A and tournaments were influential in the introduction and good conscience is a wall of brass.” Others are enigmatical, use of supporters. In an illuminated MS. remaining in the as that of the royal achievement, which is Dieu et mon Herald’s College, said to have been written and emblazoned droit, “ God and my right,” introduced in 1340 by Edward for the use of Prince Arthur, the eldest son of Henry VII., III., when he assumed the arms and title of king of France, are depicted a series of banners of arms of the ancient kings, and began to prosecute his claim, which occasioned long nobles, and knights, each of which is held by some armorial and bloody wars, fatal by turns to both kingdoms; or that or heraldic figure; being in each case the same, or at least of the Prince of Wales, Ich dien, “I serve,” the origin of one of those which are to be found on their seals, or in which has already been explained. other evidences, as supporters. The supporters which are attributed to the kings of England have varied from time to time, previously to their 9. Of Supporters. final settlement by James I. Edward HI. used a lion and Supporters are figures standing on the scroll, and placed eagle; Richard II., the lion and white hart; Henry IV., at the side of the escutcheon; they are so called because the heraldic antelope and swan ; Henry V. and Henry VI., they seem to support the shield. The rise of supporters is, the lion and heraldic antelope; Edward IV., the lion and

heraldry. Heraldry, black bull ; Richard III., the lion and white boar; Henry ranged in pale, in fess, &c. (Nos. 1, 2). Three may be 2 VII., the lion and red dragon, which were continued to be and 1, as also in bend, &c. (Nos. 3, 4). Four are placed 2 used till the end of the reign of Elizabeth. These do not, however, appear on any of their great seals, upon which the use of supporters does not occur. On the great seal of James I. a lion is holding the banner of St George, and an unicorn that of St Andrew. The ancient supporters of Scotland were two unicorns, one of which James I. retained 5 6 to support the royal arms of England on his accession to the 7. 8. English crown. Supporters (sometimes-supporting the crest and 2, sometimes called cantoned (No. 5). Five, 1,3 1 and helmet only) were used on the seals' of the royal family m cross; or 2, 1, 2, in saltier (Nos. 6, 7). Six, 3, 2, L in from the time of Henry V. pile; or 2, 2, 2, paleways (Nos. 8, 9). Eight, in orle, or Supporters are borne by corporations and trading companies ; one of the earliest grants was made to the Leather Sellers Company, 22d Henry VIII. V. OF THE RULES OR LAWS OF HERALDRY.

9 10 ix. 12 on a bordure (No. 10). Nine, 3, 3, 3, barways; or J I. The jirst and most general rule is, to express one’s 2, 1, m pile (Nos. 11, 12). Ten, 4, 3, 2, 1, in pile;3, 3, or meaning in proper terms, so as not to omit any thing which ought to be specified, and at the same time to be clear and concise without tautology.1 II. The tincture of the field must first be mentioned, and then proceed to the principal charges which possess the most honourable place in the shield, such as fess, cheveron, X3. 14. 15. &c., always naming that charge first which lies next to and else 4, 2, 4, barvvays (Nos. 13, 14). Twelve are placed 4, immediately upon the field. HI. After naming the tincture of the field, the honour- 4, 4, barways (No. 15). \\ hen the field is strewed with the same figures, this is able ordinaries, or other principal figures, their attributes, expressed by the word seniee ; but, according to the opinion and afterwards their metal or colour, must be specified. IV. When an honourable ordinary, or some one figure, of a French armorist, if the figures strewed on the field are is placed upon another, whether it be a fess, cheveron, cross, whole ones, it must be denoted by the words sans nomhre ; &c., it is always to be named after the ordinary or figure whereas, if part of them be cut off at the extremities of the over which it is placed, with the expression surtout or escutcheon, the word semee must then be used. over all. V. In blazoning such ordinaries as are plain, the bare VI.—OF MARSHALLING ARMS. mention of them is sufficient; but if an ordinary should be made of any of the crooked lines, its form must be specified ; This is understood to be the art of disposing several coats that is, whether it be engrailed, wavy, &c. VI. When a principal figure possesses the centre of the of arms in one escutcheon, and of arranging the contingent exterior ornaments. Originally, only one coat was exhibited field, its position is not to be expressed. VII. The number of the points of mullets or stars must in the shield; but afterwards, to denote descent or marbe specified when more than five ; and also if a mullet or liage, the arms of other families were borne on seals in sepaiate escutcheons; sometimes without any variation as any other charge be pierced, it must be mentioned. VIII. When a ray of the sun, or other single figure, is to the size of the escutcheons ; but at other times the prinborne in any other part of the escutcheon than the centre, cipal shield was surrounded by smaller ones. Marriages weie, at length, shown by the arms of the wife being the point it issues from must be named. dimidiated with those of the husband, dimidiation repreIX. The natural colour of trees, plants, fruits, birds, and the like, is by the word proper, unless they differ from their senting only one-half of each coat parted by a per pale line. I his course, however, from the inconvenience of dividing natural colour X. When three figures are in a field, and their position some coats, whereby their characteristic bearings became is not mentioned in the blazoning, they are always under- lost, was supplanted by the practice of impaling the arms of the wife with those of her husband, thus preserving the stood to be placed, two above, and one below. XI. When there are many figures of the same species man’s arms entire on the dexter, and the lady’s on the borne in a coat of arms, their number must be observed as sinister. Sometimes one coat only was dimidiated. Nothing in the early times denoted marriages with heiresses they stand, and distinctly expressed. But, for the better elucidation of this last rule, we have unless the arms of the heiress had a prominent place on inserted examples of the different dispositions of figures, the seal, or were impaled on the dexter side of her husband’s. The practice, alluded to by some heralds, of placing the arms of more than one wife with those of the husband is not now followed, though Leigh has given some directions upon the point. The shield or escutcheon of pretence, to show the arms of the wife as the heiress of her family, is not of very early introduction. But the principal occasion of a multiplicity of arms in in which they are properly represented. Thus, two may be one shield, is that of quartering the arms of heiresses, a system which first commenced about 1348, when the Earl

ublis ied in 1716 xi repemion^VwrX^P > P-or, ->and, tautology is the condemned stron< terms: “You must use no P > t especially not ofj the words of, with, for repetitionin ofthese thesevery is reckom an unpardonable crime.”

340 HERALDRY. Heraldry, of Pembroke quartered the arms of Valence. The first Sir Harris 'S\q,q\&?, (vide Archceologia, vol. xxxi., p. 130), quarter contains the paternal arms of the family ; the re- consisting of the sovereign and twenty-five knights. Since maining ones those of the several heiresses with whom the that period it has undergone no material alteration in its ancestors of the bearer had intermarried ; and of such heir- constitution, except that foreign princes and members of esses whose arms were similarly acquired through their the royal family, descendants of King George I. together respective families. Other causes, at present unknown, or with the Prince of Wales, who was in 1805 declared a conwhich are obscure in their origin, have occasioned arms to stituent part of the original institution, are not now included be borne as quarterings, but which are in some cases pre- in the original number of twenty-five knights. The Order sumed to be feudal or territorial. of the Thistle in Scotland is said to have a very remote In arranging a shield for quarterings, the shield is divided antiquity. The recital in Queen Anne’s Letters Patent by perpendicular and horizontal lines into as many squares of Restoration, give it a date as early as the ninth cenas may be required. The arms of the most ancient heir- tury. It consisted of the sovereign and twelve knights, esses, as the marriages occur in the lineal descent, have pre- and has undergone but very little change in its constitution. cedence of subsequent ones in chronological order; the The origin of the Order of the Bath is attributed to the various quarterings (if any) of those respective heiresses beginning of the reign of Henry IV., as a distinct Order, being subjected to the like rule. During the middle ages, and was frequently conferred on occasions of coronations ; if the party were entitled to bear the royal arms as a quar- but after that of Charles II. it was suffered to fall into distering, it had precedence of all others—this was the melan- use. In 1725 George I. revived the Order; in 1815 it choly case of the Duke of Buckingham in the time of was enlarged, and divided into three classes; and further Henry VIII. The royal arms of Brotherton, at this day, amplified in 1848 by her present Majesty. The Order of is borne next the paternal coat by the Howards, although St Patrick was instituted by George HI. in 1783 for Ireit is there out of its place in point of pedigree and descent. land, to consist of the sovereign, a grand master, and fifteen It was not unfrequently the case in private families that knights. The number of knights was augmented by King precedence was given to the greatest heiresses; but the William IV. in 1833. The Order of St Michael and St rule at the present time is to arrange the arms as the mar- George was instituted after the general peace of 1814, the riages bring them in. Children of an heiress, and all the sovereignty of the Island of Malta being then ceded to the descendants of an heiress, also descending from her through king of Great Britain. It consists of three classes ; and, heiresses, are entitled to quarter the arms of such heiresses.1 with some modifications, continues to be conferred upon naArchbishops and bishops, and some deans of cathedral tives of the Ionian Islands and Malta. The Royal Hanochurches, bear the arms of their respective sees and offices verian Guelphic Order was established in 1815, consisting impaled on the dexter side with their own paternal arms. of three classes, and was conferred upon British and This practice commenced about the time of the Reforma- Hanoverian subjects. This Order ceased to be a British tion. Archbishops and bishops use neither crests nor Order upon the accession of her present Majesty to the mottoes. The Lord-Lyon, and the kings of arms in Eng- crown of these realms; when Hanover devolved upon the land and Ireland, bear the arms of their offices in the same late Duke of Cumberland, as the sovereign of the latter way as bishops, and ensign their shields with their crowns. kingdom. Her Majesty Queen Victoria has signalized her Unmarried ladies bear their arms and quarterings (if any) reign by tbe creation of an Order for the reward of many in a lozenge ; as also do widows, impaled with those of their of our brave heroes who have fought during the Crimean deceased husbands. War. Commoners marrying peeresses in their own right bear their arms in the usual way, with the family arms of the VII.—OF FUNERAL ESCUTCHEONS. peeress impaled ; but if she is an heiress, then with her arms in an escutcheon of pretence ensigned with a coronet of her The hatchment represents the armorial ensigns affixed to dignity, the whole set on the dexter side of her family the fronts of houses when any of the nobility and gentry arms, which are borne separately in a lozenge ensigned with die, the arms therein beher coronet, and supported by her supporters. ing those of a private In cases of peers their coronets are placed immediately gentleman and his wife on the shield; and upon the coronet is placed the helmet, parted per pale, with with its lambrequin, wreath, and crest. But the crown of mantljng, helmet, crest, the sovereign, and the coronets of the royal family, are and motto ; the dexter placed upon the helmet. side, for the husband, Baronets of England and Ireland are entitled to place the having the ground withbadge of their dignity—argent a sinister hand couped gules out the escutcheon black, —in an escutcheon of pretence, or in a canton in their denotes the man to be arms, dhe baronets of Scotland have a similar privilege, dead; and the ground on their arms being, argent a saltire azure, on a shield of pre- the sinister side being tence, the royal arms of Scotland ensigned with the royal white, signifies that the crown. The baronets of Scotland also suspend the badge wife is living.2 of their order by an orange-coloured ribband from the shield; When a married genthe badge is then within a circle, having the motto, “ Fax tlewoman dies first, the mentis honestce gloria?’ arms on the sinister side Knights of the several British Orders of knighthood sur- have the ground without round their shields of arms with the respective ensigns of the escutcheon black, whereas those on the dexter side, for the Order; in which case their arms, with those of their her surviving husband, are upon a white ground, but withare in a > separate shield, placed on the sinister side. out any crest, helmet, lambrequin, or motto. Ihe Order of the Garter was instituted between the 24th When a bachelor dies, his arms may be depicted single June and 6th August 1348 (as discovered by the late or quartered, with a crest, helmet, lambrequin, and motto, 2 accidents'^

.an ^eiress ^ sh® has no brothers en0r ornaments are omitted in

who leave issue ; if she has sisters they become co-heiresses with her. the engraving merely for the sake of simplifying it, the object being to show the funer

HERALDRY. 341 Heraldry, but arms not impaled as the two first are, and all the ground the funeral obsequies of princes and nobles a wax effigy of the Heraldry, deceased was arrayed in the robes and other insignia of dig- y ^ ^ y without the escutcheon is also black. When a maid dies, her arms, which are placed in a lo- nity, and laid on the top of the coffin. Some of these figures zenge, may be single or quartered, like those of a bachelor ; are still preserved in the Abbey at W estminster. This cusall the ground without the escutcheon is also black, and tom has the appearance of having been derived from thejtw imaginum of the Romans. Great numbers of relations and devoid of the exterior ornaments. When a widower dies, his arms are impaled with those of friends attended these solemnities, which, from their extent, his deceased wife, having a helmet, mantling, and crest, and and the length of time they occupied (often several days), must have occasioned no inconsiderable labour and expense. all the ground without the escutcheon black. When a widow dies, her arms are impaled with those of Expensive entertainments were also given on these occaher deceased husband, but inclosed in a lozenge, and with- sions ; and there are some curious remarks respecting the out the exterior ornaments ; all the ground without the feasting and degree of hospitality which took place, in the records made by the heralds on these occasions. Some escutcheon being also black. By these rules may be known, upon the sight of any idea of the magnificence of these funerals may be formed hatchment, what branch of the family is dead ; and by the even from the few relics which are still preserved by some helmet or coronet, the title and degree of the person de- of the companies of London, who have in their possession rich palls of cloth of gold magnificently embroidered with ceased. In Scotland, a funeral escutcheon not only shows the curious devices and arms, which were used at the funerals of arms and condition of the defunct, but is also a proof of the citizens. Besides the attendance of the heralds upon these cerethe gentility of his descent; and such persons for whom this species of escutcheon can be made out are legally monies, it also formed part of their official duty to record entitled to the character of gentlemen of blood, which is the genealogical account of the family of the deceased, the highest species of gentility. The English hatchment together with their arms. These records form a very imexhibits no more than a right to a coat of arms, and the portant class of evidence of descent, and are deposited in the Heralds’ College. Most of them are richly emblazoned status of the deceased person. The funeral escutcheon, as exhibited in Scotland, France, and engrossed upon vellum, and are technically called “ Fuand Germany, is in the form of a lozenge, above six feet neral Certificates.” They afford minute evidence of the square of black cloth ; in the centre of which is painted, in births, marriages, and issue of the children and family of the proper colours, the complete achievement of the defunct, deceased, and are invaluable as possessing the nature and with all its exterior ornaments and additional marks or character of legal evidence. Soon after the Revolution of badges of honour; and round the sides are placed the six- 1688-9 the heralds ceased to attend the funerals of the teen arms of the families from which he derives his descent, nobility and gentry, and their office in these respects is now as far back as the grandfather’s grandfather, as the proofs confined to the state funerals of the royal family, or of those of his gentility. They exhibit the armorial bearings of his illustrious heroes whose funerals are conducted at the pubfather and mother, his two grandmothers, his four great- lic expense. Nearly all that is reserved for modern times of the hegrandmothers, and his eight great-grandmothers’ mothers ; and if all these families have acquired a legal right to bear raldic splendour of these funerals is the hatchment, descriparms, then the gentility of the deceased person must be ac- tions of which have been given in this article. It is, howcounted complete, but not otherwise. On the four corners ever, only the compendium of the heraldic honours paid to the are placed mort-heads, and the initials of his name and titles memory of the deceased in former times ; and, like its predeor designation ; and the black'iaterstices are powdered with cessors, finds a place over the tomb which covers his remains. tears. if Thus, by archaeological researches, we have been enabled Funerals of the nobility and gentry during the middle ages were the means of displaying heraldry in all its pomp to present a concise view of practical heraldry. If, in the and magnificence; and perhaps nothing contributed more sixteenth century, the labours which were bestowed in to such an exhibition of real heraldry than those occasions. writing books, full of the purest inventions and the grossest Funerals in those times, as regards the heraldic attributes, absurdities, had been directed into the paths of truth, much and the marshalling the solerftnities observed at them, were more accessible then than now, heraldry would have disexclusively within the province of heralds, who attended closed a history of events, of persons, and of kingdoms, which them, and took an official and prominent part in the cere- is irretrievably lost. To the learning and study of modern monies. The mourning costume and its decorations were archaeologists we are indebted for some of the information, subjected to certain laws and regulations as affected rank which should have been afforded us by men who lived in in the persons of the mourners. The number and dimen- ages nearly approaching those when heraldry originated, and sions of the funereal banners and pennons were likewise who could have thrown a lustre instead of a mist upon many subjected to express rules scrupulously maintained. The incidents in the practice and science of heraldry. In this nature and construction of the hearse (which was the large article we have touched the principal points of the subject, timber erection in the church for the reception of the corpse and have to confess our obligations to Meyrick’s Critical and the assembling of the principal mourners) also depended Enquiry into Armour; Laing’s Ancient Scottish Seals; upon the rank and condition of the defunct in its extent, Nicolas’s Orders of Knighthood, and his valuable contriand in the number of escutcheons and lights with which it butions to the Society of Antiquaries; Boutell’s Monuwas adorned. The heralds bore 1 the shield and tabard of mental Brasses; Gough’s Sepulchral Monuments; and arms of the deceased, his helmet and crest, and his sword the publications of various Archaeological Societies. The and spurs in solemn procession, which, with the banners illustration of many facts and dates has also been supplied and pennons, were afterwards hung up over the grave, and from records of the College of Arms in London. (t. w. k.) may still be seen remaining in many of our churches. At 1

The plume of feathers usually carried at funerals at the present day is said to have succeeded to the carrying of the helmet in former times.

342 Herat

HER her HERAT or Heraut (anciently Arid or Artacoana), marble; also alabaster, gypsum, granite, sandstone, potters’ Herbelot capital of Shah Mahmood’s state on the W. frontier of Af- c,ay, alum; and the marshes supply France with salt. ^erault ghanistan, 2700 feet above the sea level, 3 miles N. of the Wine and oil constitute the chief agricultural wealth of Herbert, Hury River, in a beautiful and fertile valley; N. Lat. the department. The red wines of St Georges, Viragues, 34. 22., E. Long. 62. 9.; 360 miles W. of Cabool. It is St Christol, and the white wines of Frontignan and Lunel, entirely surrounded by an earthen mound 50 feet high, by are held in high estimation. I he annual quantity of wine two trenches, and a ditch. From the mound rises a wall produced in Herault is more than 45,000,000 gallons. Of 25 feet high, and upwards of 100 bastions of unburnt brick. this a fifth is consumed by the department, a fifth is exAt the N. end of the town is a strong citadel defended by ported as wine, and the remainder converted into spirits for a ditch and massive towers. To the N. of the town are commerce. Considerable quantities of wheat and oats are the huge mound raised by Nadir Shah, and a little farther grown; also mulberries, pomegranates, figs, raisins and other the gorgeous ruins of the Moosullah of Imaum Reza. As dried fruits, and olives, are prepared for exportation. The there is no drainage the town is extremely filthy, although department rears 10,000 horses, and upwards of half a milin the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries it was one of the lion of sheep. finest cities in the world. Woollen, cotton, and silk factories are established in the Commercially, the position of Herat is important. It re- department. There are also paper-mills, distilleries, and ceives shawls, indigo, sugar, spices, chintzes, muslins, bro- factories for verdigris and other chemical substances. cades, scarfs, leather, and hides from Afghanistan ; tea, Herault is divided into 4 arrondissements, 36 cantons, sugar, porcelain, glass, silk, cotton, cloth, woollens, carpets, and 326 communes, as follows :— and hardware from Persia, Russia, and Turkey. The Herat Arrondissements. Cantons. Communes. Pop. in 1837. carpets are famous. The annual revenue of Herat is esti1. Montpellier 14 113 148,649 2. Bezier 12 mated at perhaps L.l 00,000. It was unsuccessfully be97 134,605 3. Lodere 5 sieged by the Persians in 1838. Pop. less than 45,000. 72 56,700 4. St Pons 5 44 49,332 HERAULT, a department in the S. of France, bounded on the N.E. by Card, N.W. by Aveyron and Tarn, and S. 36 326 389,286 by Aude and the Gulf of Lyons. It formed part of the old province of Languedoc, and has an area of 2444 square The capital is Montpellier. HERBELOT, Barthelemi d’, a celebrated French miles ; between N. Lat. 43. 10. and 44., E. Long. 2. 30. Oiientalist, was born at Faris in 1625. At a very early age and 4. 10. Its greatest length is 84 miles, breadth 50. he gave himself up to the study of the Eastern tongues; About a third of the department consists of moorland, and, to perfect his acquaintance with them, travelled into heath, and common ; a fourth of arable land; a sixth of Italy, where he enjoyed the friendship of the cardinals Barvineyards ; and an eighth of wood. berini and Grimaldi. On returning to Paris he obtained, The S. prolongation of the Cevennes Mountains forms through the munificence of Fouquet, a pension, of which the N. boundary of the department, under the names of he was afterwards deprived on the fall of that minister. He Ganigues, Orbe, Espinous, and the Black Mountains. The was compensated, however, with the office of Oriental interhighest point is about 4250 feet above the sea-level. The preter to the king. After some years he again visited Italy, ridge forms the watershed between the waters of the Atlan- and was received with especial honour by Frederick II. of tic and the Mediterranean, and from it there flow the Vi- Tuscany, who presented him with a large number of valudourle, Masson, Herault, Livron, and Orbe. Of these the Herault, 80 miles long, is the chief, and gives name to the able Oriental MSS., and tried to attach him to his court. D’Herbelot, however, returned to France at the urgent department. 4 he Orbe forms the boundary between the solicitation of Colbert, who, on the death of Pierre Audepartment and that of Gard. vergne, made him Syriac professor in the College-Royal. I he high mountains of the N. are partly barren, partly 13 Hei belot died, after a short illness, at Paris, December wooded. In the extensive plains of the centre the vine 8, 1695. and ohve flourish, and in the S. grain is produced. The soil 1 he great work by which D’Herbelot’s fame is still preof the N. is chalky clay, of the centre light gravel, and of is his Biblioiheque Orientale, Paris, 1697. This the b. a strong rich loam. The “ garrigues” are consider- wserved r ork, which was published two years after the author’s able portions of waste land, covered with heath, shrubs, &c. death by Galland, D’Herbelot during the greater Mont St Loup, Couques, and St Thiberg, the first of which part pf his life. Itoccupied is based on the immense Arabic dicis JoO feet high, are extinct volcanic cones. The greater part of the S. coast consists of a series of tionary of Hadjy Khalfa, of which, in fact, it is an abridged salt maishes, separated from the sea by a narrow strip of translation; but it also comprises the substance of a vast land. The Marsh of Thau, the largest, stretches from the number of other Turkish and Arabic Encyclopaedias. The mouth of the Herault, and communicates, through the Marsh erudition it displays is boundless, but the field embraced of Frontignan, with that of Mangino, on the E. frontier of is far too vast for the labours of a single man, and many the department. The Canal du Midi, after stretching about errors have consequently crept into the work. With all his 30 miles into the department, terminates at Agde. From learning D’Herbelot seems to have been deficient in critiCette the navigation is kept up through the marshes by the cal sagacity. He died, too, before seeing his work through canals of Agde and Radelle to Aigues Mortes. The coast the press, and there is consequently a want of minute line of the department is 66 miles long. Besides the canal curacy in many of its details, and of harmony between the various parts of the work. Besides the Biblioiheque Oriennavigation the department has seven national roads, one of tale, D’Herbelot wrote several works, such as an Anthowinch is the main route between Paris and Spain ; also a logy, and an Arabic, Persian, and Turkish Lexicon, none railroad joins Cette, Montpellier, and Nismes. he climate generally is warm, dry, and healthy, except of which, however, have been published. The Bibliotheque near the marshes which cause agues and fevers. The pre- has been twice reprinted, first at Maestricht, fob, 1776; and again at the Hague, in 4 vols. 4to, 1777-99. The latter vailing winds are N.E. and S.E. ^ Fish abound in the salt marshes. The vegetable produc- of these two editions is enriched with the contributions of Schultens and Reiske. A German translation of it appeared tions comprise aromatic and dyeing plants; the Ilex oak at Halle, in 4 vols. 8vo, 1785-90; and an abridgement by prevails in the forest. I he mineral wealth of the department is considerable. Mines of lignite, coal, iron, copper, Desessarts, at Paris, in 1782. F, Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, born and lead are wrought. It produces magnificent blocks of at HERBER Montgomery Castle in 1581, was educated at Oxford;

HERBERT. 343 Herbert. He was presented to Queen Elizabeth in 1600, and was makes us cognizant of the form, position, and constitution Herbert, made Knight of the Bath on the accession of James I. In of external objects. By the reasoning or discursive faculty 1608 he visited France, where his high sense of honour, we seize the points of difference or agreement, of opposition along with his courage in a duelling age, opened up to him or harmony of concepts. Defective as this fourfold division a ready means of distinguishing himself. In 1610 he served is, Herbert frequently confounds the instinct of the reason, under Maurice, Prince of Orange, at the siege of Juliers, the internal sense, and the discursive faculty. where he displayed a courage bordering on rashness. In In turning to revelation, Herbert lays down five maxims 1614 he set out again to fight under the same leader against or common notions, which form the foundation of all true the Spaniards. Thereafter he went to Italy, and returning, religion :—\st, There is a Supreme Being; 2d, Man should was entrusted by the Duke of Savoy with the project of worship this Being; 3d, Virtue is the principal part of this conducting 4000 Languedoc Protestants into Piedmont. worship ; Ath, Repentance expiates faults; 5th, There must This having been forbidden by Marie de Medicis, Herbert be a future state in which virtue is rewarded and vice was arrested, but immediately set at liberty. Whilst pre- punished. What is false does not exist se. Truth is paring himself for new exploits he was appointed in 1616 the basis not only of truth, but even of error. Error is ambassador extraordinary to France by James I., for the truth incomplete, obscured, mutilated. His Tractatus de purpose of renewing the alliance between England and Veritate, &c., was republished in 1645, along with a new France. He provoked the determined hostility of the Duke one, De religions Gentilium errorumque apud eos causis. de Luynes, Constable of France, who sent his brother to He wrote also an account of the reign of Henry VIII. His the English court to complain of Herbert. He was recalled Autobiography was not published till 1764. Some posthuin consequence; but on the death of De Luynes he was mous poems of no great merit were also published. re-appointed and invested with still greater powers. In His views, both in philosophy and religion, encountered 1625 he was created peer of Ireland, under the title of very great opposition during his life. Hobbes, Locke, and Baron of Castle-Island. In 1631 he was created baron of Gassendi attacked the one ; and as to the other, the theoEngland, under the title of Lord Herbert of Cherbury. logians of the period condemned him as the leader of the His castle was destroyed during the civil wars of Charles I. Freethinkers. However, he professed great respect for reHe died in London on the 20th August 1648, aged sixty- ligion, and regarded Christianity as the most beautiful of seven. religions. It is not a little remarkable, that notwithstanding Besides being a brave soldier and an accomplished gen- his objections to a partial revelation he professes most tleman, Herbert is to be ranked as an acute and original seriously to have had his doubts settled as to the publicathinker. While at Paris in 1624 he published his treatise, tion of his treatise De Veritate, &c., by praying for a divine De Ventate prout distinguitur a revelations, a verisimili, a intimation, which he declares was granted him. possibili, et a falso. Professing to have studied carefully Herbert, George, to whose name the epithet of “Holy” the writings of many authors, sacred and profane, he de- is always attached, as “judicious” to that of Hooker, and clares himself unable to arrive at a complete notion of truth. “ moral” to that of Gower, was a younger brother of Lord He accordingly turns to the examination of self. Against Herbert of Cherbury, and was born at the castle of Montabsolute dogmatism he holds it as a matter of tact that we gomery, in Wales, April 3, 1593. After leaving Westdo not know all things, while against absolute scepticism he minster, where his public education began, he went to holds that we do know some things. Between these ex- Trinity College, Cambridge. In course of time he became tremes truth is to be found. Still farther, we are endowed a fellow of his college, and in 1619 public orator to the with certain faculties which enable us to undertake the University. Donne and Wotton were his intimate friends; * search after truth. These faculties, then, must be carefully and Lord Bacon is said to have attached so much importexamined as to their laws and their relation with objects. ance to his literary judgment, that he never published anyAfter this must come the work of separating the true from thing which had not first been approved by him. With the probable, the probable from the possible, and the pos- these high connections he looked forward to court prefersible from the false. Above all, credulity is to be guarded ment, and indeed obtained from King James a sinecure of against. Like Des Cartes he starts from consciousness. L.120 a-year, that had once been held by Sir Philip SidAs the result of his investigation, he considers the mind not ney. “ With this,” says his biographer, Izaak Walton, a tabula rasa, but a book closed ; and the action of the ex- “ and his annuity, and the advantages of his college and of ternal world becomes the occasion of the opening of the his oratorship, he enjoyed his genteel humour for clothes book. Hence material objects, as only the occasion, are and court-like company, and seldom looked towards Camnot the cause of true knowledge. Herein his system is bridge unless the king were there, but then he never substantially the same as Kant’s. Starting with seven failed.” But Herbert’s hopes were dashed by the death of common notions or maxims which he considers will be ad- the king, and to maintain himself he entered the church. mitted by all who seek truth, he proceeds to make a four- In 1626 he was made first prebend of Leighton Bromswold, fold division of truth :—1st, Truth in the agreement of a or Layton Ecclesia, and four years later rector of Bemerthing with itself; 2d, Truth in the agreement between the ton, in Wiltshire, where he spent the remainder of his life. appearance of a thing and the thing itself; 3rf, Truth in the Before entering on the duties of his parish, he married, and agreement between the conception of our faculties and the with his wife made a solemn renunciation of the frivolities objects; and4^A, Truth in the necessary agreement between of the gay world for which, even after taking orders, he these different kinds of conformity. Of these four the most seems to have always retained a hankering. Once fairly important is the last, or truth of intelligence, which is inde- installed, he became the model of a country clergyman, and pendent of the senses. When sound, both bodily and men- laboured with a truly apostolical zeal and self-devotion. tally, these truths impress us as if they came clear from His prose work, the Country Parson, is a faithful picture heaven to enable our minds to decide regarding what passes of what he regarded as his ministerial duties, and the best before us in the external world. way of performing them. But his constitution soon broke Herbert divides the faculties of knowing into four,—the down under the combined influences of over-work and a natural instinct of reason, internal sense, external sense, and quotidian ague, which afflicted him during the later years of reasoning. The instinct of the reason is that faculty by his life. He died in 1632, before he had reached his fortieth which we seize “ common notions.” Internal sense is two- year. fold, it informs us what is passing within ourselves, as well Herbert’s principal work is entitled The Temple ; Saas what are our relations to the world. External sense cred Poems and Private Ejaculations, which was not pub-

344 HER Herbert. lished till after his death. In the course of a few years after his death, according to Walton, it was six or seven times reprinted ; and by the time that the old angler came to write Herbert’s Life, in the reign of Charles II., twenty thousand copies of it had been sold. It is generally ranked in that school of poetry known as the “ Metaphysical,” of which Herbert’s contemporaries, Donne and Quarles, were in that age the most noted examples. The odes, hymns, and meditations of which it is composed, though often dashed by the quaint conceits, far-fetched analogies, and ridiculous imagery of that school, yet breathe a spirit of melting pathos, and saintly devotion, set off by so many gems of the finest fancy, that their author still holds his ground among the best religious poets of England. A stanza or two from the ode on “ Virtue,” will afford an illustration of Herbert’s best manner :— “ Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright, The bridal of the earth and sky, The dews shall weep thy fall to-night; For thou must die. “ Sweet rose! whose hue, angry and brave Bids the rash gazer wipe his eye ; Thy root is ever in its grave, For thou must die.” Herbert has been likened to Keble, the author of the Christian Year. The comparison is a just one. Both breathe a common spirit of saintly piety, and both love to present the belief and offices of their church in their most alluring and amiable aspect. The quality of the genius displayed in both is very similar, but in the matter of taste the older poet compares but ill with his modern anti-type. Herbert’s chief prose work bears the title of The Priest to the Temple. Its purport is quite similar to that of the Country Parson. There have been many editions of Herbert’s poetical works. One of the most splendid is that of Nisbet, London, 1856. Herbert, Sir Thomas, an English traveller of the seventeenth century, was a scion of the house of Pembroke, and was born at York about 1606. He was educated at Jesus College, Oxford, and afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge. On quitting the university in 1621, he was attached, through the influence of the head of his family, to the English embassy which Charles I. was at that time sending to the Shah of Persia. Arriving at Ormus he travelled overland to the Caspian Sea, where the Shah happened to be. Though at first cordially received, he soon found it necessary to retrace his steps. Leaving Casbin with the survivors of the party, he returned to Ispahan, reached Bagdad, sailed down the Tigris, and then coasted along the Indian shores to Surat. Thence he set out for the Eastern Archipelago, visiting Java, the Moluccas, &c., and returned to England after an absence of four years. On his arrival he found his old patron dead, and as his hopes of preferment through his means were at an end, he set off to the continent, and on again returning home, married and applied himself to study. When the Civil War broke out he sided with the Parliament; and when Charles was delivered up to his own subjects by the Scots, Herbert was one of those whom he selected to be always near his person. For two years he waited with the most devoted tenderness on the royal prisoner, and at last attended him to the scaffold. In his Threnodia Carolina, published in 1678, Herbert has given a minute history of the life of the king during that period; and Charles II. showed his sense of Herbert’s conduct by making him a baronet, “ to requite,” say the letters patent, “ the good and loyal services rendered by him to the king our father during the last years of his life.” Herbert died in his native city, March 1, 1682. By far his most important work is that which he published on his return from the East, under the title of Some Yeares Travels into Africa, and Asia the Great, especially

HER in the Possessions of the Persian Monarchy, &c., London, Hercula1634. Herbert was a man of learning, and well versed in neum. the histories of the countries he describes ; but he overlays his narrative with a useless display of irrelevant knowledge, and with digressions upon countries which he never visited. These faults are peculiarly observable in the later editions of the book, and, it is suspected, may be the work of an editor. Herbert’s own share in the work has an air of great truthfulness, and contains much valuable matter not readily accessible elsewhere. Till the appearance of Sir John Chardin’s Travels, it was regarded as the best authority on everything connected with Persia. It was translated into Dutch by Jeremiah Van Vliet, Dordrecht, 1658 ; and from the Dutch into French by Wicquefort, who complains, and with good reason, of the stupid mistakes and mutilations perpetrated by the Dutchman. HERCULANEUM, in Ancient Geography, a city on the sea coast of Campania, at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, about five miles S.E. of Naples. Its name recalls the tradition that ascribes its foundation to Hercules, which, though of course fabulous, yet indicates a very ancient origin for the town. It is most likely that Herculaneum was founded by the Pelasgi, and that at the time when it fell under the Samnite dominion, its inhabitants were a mixed Pelasgic and Oscan race, with a considerable infusion of Greek blood from the neighbouring Greek colonies of Naples and Cumse. Under the Romans it never became a place of any great importance, and plays almost no part in history. It sided with the allies during the Social War, but was easily reduced. Its healthy situation, and the beauty of its environs, attracted many rich Romans to its neighbourhood; but even at the moment of the terrible catastrophe which has invested it with such a tragic interest, it appears to have been only a second-rate municipal town. The eruption of Vesuvius, which destroyed Herculaneum and Pompeii, took place a.d. 79; but 16 years before that date, both cities had been nearly destroyed by an earthquake so terrible as to have attracted special attention from the historians of Rome. In the great eruption, Herculaneum, being at the very foot of the mountain, seems to have been the first sufferer ; and though the destruction of Pompeii was complete, yet that of its fellow-sufferer was undoubtedly more overwhelming. The depth of scoriae and ashes under which Pompeii is buried is nowhere more than 12 or 14 feet, whereas Herculaneum lies at the depth of from 70 to 100 feet beneath the actual surface of the ground. The enveloping crust of the latter town seems to have been subjected to the action of water as it fell in molten showerson the place ; for it is a hard well-compacted mass, very difficult to penetrate, and quite different from the loose scoriae and ashes that form the grave of Pompeii. An accident led to the discovery of Herculaneum in modern times. In 1706, a peasant, in digging a well for the Prince d’Elbceuf, who had a villa in the neighbourhood, came upon some remains of antiquity, and prosecuting his researches, was rewarded with still greater success. But the matter reached the ears of the Neapolitan government, and all further excavation was prohibited. Matters remained in this state till 1738, when the search was recommenced by Don Carlos of Spain, who had succeeded to the throne of the Two Sicilies. The work was entrusted to a Spanish engineer, who carried it on with the ignorant recklessness of a Vandal, and allowed the destruction of many priceless monuments of ancient art. Since his day, however, considerable progress has been made, though the process of excavation has often been stopped from time to time from the ruin which it threatens to the towns of Portici and Resina, which stand immediately above the ruins of the buried city. Yet the whole extent of the explored parts is calculated to amount to no more than six hundred yards in length, and three hundred in breadth; but as we have al-

345 H E R C U L A N E U M. brown manuscripts, which were loose in their texture, were Herculaready stated, many of the excavations have been again darker almost entirely decayed, and exhibited on their surface a quantity neum. filled up with the rubbish from other parts, which could of brown powder.” These venerable volumes were of a cylindrical v r not be removed to the surface of the earth without great shape, more or less perfect,—generally about a foot long, and made up of the thin leaves of the papyrus plant, which were gummed labour and expense. Of the buildings as yet laid bare, the most interesting is together at the ends, and when thus joined formed one continuous which extended sometimes to a length of forty feet and upthe theatre, which seems to have possessed accommodation sheet, wards. leaves seem to have been rarely inscribed on more for 8000 spectators. It seems to have had two principal than one These side. The manuscript was written in a succession of paentrances, from twenty to thirty long rows of seats, and rallel columns of from two to four inches in breadth, and at a disseven passages called vomitoria, for the entrance and exit tance of about an inch from each other. W hen completed, the enof the people. The whole building was embellished with tire sheet or volume was generally attached to an umbilicus or the varied ornaments of architecture. The flooring and w'ooden cylinder, round which it was rolled. Having got possession of this literary treasure, the next inquiry was pillars were of fine marble of different hues. The walls how it was to be unsealed and opened up so as to be accessible to the were adorned with paintings; within the precincts of the learned. This was found to be a work of the greatest delicacy and diffitheatre were found many statues ; and over the main en- culty ; and the earlier attempts were attended with no success, but istrance stood a triumphal car of gilt bronze with horses at- sued only in the injury or entire destruction of a considerable number of manuscripts. Among other methods tried was one suggested by tached to it. Near the theatre stood a splendid basilica, from the inner Mazzocchi, an Italian of great learning,who was afterwards employed endeavouring to supply the defects found in these recovered vowalls of which were taken the largest pieces of painting, in lumes, and in preparing them for publication. He proposed^that engraved in the first volume of the Antichita d’Ercolano, the papyri should be placed under a glass bell, and exposed to the published by order of his Sicilian Majesty. It was erected, sun, in the hope that when the moisture which they still contained according to an inscription, at the expense of the same was dissipated by the solar heat, they would open up of themselves. Nonius Balbus who rebuilt the walls and gates of the town. But the experiment was a failure. The heat of the sun did indeed extract the moisture, but at the same time it either obliterated the Besides this basilica, another temple has been discovered, writing, or caused the ink to spread so much that the letters became and also the forum, some public buildings, and a number quite illegible. When thus perplexed with difficulties which they of private dwelling-houses. The forum had a colonnade, knew not how to vanquish, the work was next entrusted to Antonio and the walls were partly cased in marble and partly painted. Piaggi, a man of experience in the handling of ancient manuscripts, The private houses were small, irregular, for the most part and a very skilful copyist, who was employed at the Vatican, and built of brick, and one storey high. Their walls were under his superintendence and direction the experiments were caron with much success. generally covered with paintings, many of which have been riedWith the greatest ingenuity, and the most laudable patience and cut out and removed to the royal museum at Naples. The perseverance, Piaggi applied himself to the task assigned him , and streets that have been cleared were straight and paved with as he knew of no existing apparatus that would serve his purpose, lava, like the streets of Naples at the present day. One of he constructed a suitable machine for himself, which was found these was above thirty feet in width, with raised foot-paths well adapted for the end in view, and enabled him to unfold many the papyri. _ ... on each side, on which were found broken columns which of The difficulties encountered in carrying on this work were imhad evidently formed part of a colonnade. In another part mense ; and the progress made was so slow, that one is astonished of the excavations the workmen came to a vault with niches, that it was not soon given up in despair. Some of the manuin each of which was found a vase containing ashes, and scripts were so brittle, that they fell to pieces in the hands of the over every niche, the name of some person coarsely painted operator. The leaves of others adhered so tenaciously, that in in red letters. The vault, which was twelve feet by nine, separating the upper coil of the roll from that beneath it, so many were often made in the disengaged leaf that it had the apwas destitute of all decoration, and was probably the pri- breaks pearance of a tattered rag full of holes, and was so much destroyed, vate burying-place of a family. that after much care and labour had been expended, it was conThe treasures discovered at Herculaneum were originally depo- sidered useless to proceed with it. And even when all succeeded sited in the Royal Museum at Portici, but have been now removed well, the unrolling of a small portion of a manuscript was often to the Museo Borbonico of Naples. They comprise specimens of the work of days. Yet amid these and other difficulties Piaggi perevery department of art, domestic articles, and literary remains. severed with admirable patience and skill, till he had succeeded in The greatest interest, however, centred in a library containing opening up a large number of the manuscripts. And as each sucnearly 2000 MSS., among which it was hoped might have been found cessive part was unrolled, he took a copy of it most accurately and some of the lost masterpieces of ancient genius. A careful scrutiny beautifully, with all its lacuna: and defects just as he found them, by the most eminent scientific men of the day, however, proved that and these facsimiles were sent to Mazzocchi and his learned assoit contained nothing of any material consequence. The process by ciates, that they might restore them as nearly as they could to their which this unprofitable result was established is described in the original completeness, and present them to the public. But the zeal following terms by Sir Humphrey Davy, who contributed to esta- of Piaggi was not met by a corresponding zeal on the part of his coadjutors and the Neapolitan government. His part of the work blish it:— “ The appearances of different rolls were extremely various. They was soon accomplished; but it was not till after a wearisome delay were of all shades of colours, from a light chestnut-brown to a deep of forty years that a specimen of these Herculanean manuscripts black; some externally were of a glossy black-like jet, which the was published at Naples in 1793. And the work when received was superintendants called varnished ; several contained the umbilicus, little fitted to reward the patience and satisfy the expectations of the or rolling stick, in the middle, converted into dense charcoal. learned. It was a dull treatise on music, by Philodemus, an epicuI saw two or three specimens of papyri which had the remains of rean, in which he endeavours to show that music exercises an injucharacters on both sides, but in general one side only was written rious influence on a nation, and ought therefore to be discouraged. Soon after the publication of this volume, proposals were made upon. In their texture they were as various as in their colours ; the pale brown ones in general presented only a kind of skeleton of by King George IV., then Prince of Wales, to bear the expense of a leaf, in which the earthy matter was nearly in as large a propor- opening and publishing some of the manuscripts. For this end he tion as the vegetable matter; and they were light, and the layers gave large sums from his private purse, procured grants from Pareasily separated from each other. A number of darker brown ones, liament, and made all the arrangements that seemed to him most which, from a few characters discovered in opening them, appeared fitted to promote the success of this literary enterprise. In 1800, to be Latin manuscripts, were agglutinated, as it were, into one the Rev. John Hayter, the chaplain of the prince, was appointed to mass; and when they were opened by introducing a needle between proceed to Naples, and devote himself to this work; and from the the layers, spots or lines of charcoal appeared, where the folds had beginning of 1802 till the French invasion in 1806, when he withbeen, as if the letters had been washed out by water, and the mat- drew to Sicily, it was diligently and successfully carried on. Beter of which they were composed deposited on the folds. Among the fore Mr Hayter’s arrival only eighteen manuscripts had been unblack manuscripts a very few fragments presented leaves which rolled, but in the Report which he makes to his Royal Highness of separated from each other with considerable facility, and such had the progress made by him before leaving Naples, he says—“ More been for the most part operated upon ; but in general, the manu- than two hundred papyri had been opened wholly or in part during scripts of this class were hard, heavy, and coherent, and contained my stay at Naples. The experience of every day had added infinite fine volcanic dust within their folds. Some few of the black and facility and skill, with accurate and secure but rapid dexterity, to 2 VOL. XI.

346

HERCULANEUM. each unfolder and copyist. Hence, with these increasing advan- substance of the manuscripts; and some of these rolls had probably tages, every one of the remaining fifteen hundred, or as many of been strongly compressed when moist in different positions. Herculathem as could be opened would be opened and copied, it was reaThe operation of fire is not at all necessary for producing such neum sonably and universally calculated, within the space of six years at an imperfect carbonization of vegetable matter as that displayed by „ II the most.” Of the manuscripts that were unfolded, facsimile copies the manuscripts : thus, at Pompeii, which was covered by a shower Hercules. of ninety-four were sent to the Prince of Wales, who presented of ashes that must have been cold, as they fell at a distance of seven them to the University of Oxford. They are both in Greek and or eight miles from the crater of Vesuvius, the wood of the houses Latin, but many of them consist only of two or three pages, and are is uniformly found converted into charcoal; yet the colours on the by unknown authors. Even when they are of greater extent, they walls, most of which would have been destroyed or altered by heat, are treatises of little value, and by authors of no distinction. In are perfectly fresh ; and where papyri have been found in these 1824-25, two volumes of these issued from the Clarendon Press at houses, they have appeared in the form of white ashes, as of burnt Oxford. They contain parts of several works by Philodemus, On paper; an effect produced by the slow action of the air penetrating Vices, On Poems, On Rhetoric, and on Vices and their Opposite Virtues • through the loose ashes, and which has been impeded or prevented a work of Demetrius On Poems, and another On Anger without the in Herculaneum by the tufa, which, as it were, has hermetically author’s name. These are all Greek manuscripts, and are printed sealed up the town and prevented any decay, except such as occurs exactly as they appeared when they were unrolled, with all their in the spontaneous decomposition of vegetable substances, exposed imperfections, and without note or comment. to the limited operation of water and air, for instance, peat and Other gentlemen besides Mr Hayter were employed under the Bovey coal. The results of the action of heat upon the different prince’s patronage in experimenting on the Herculaneum papyri, specimens of the papyri, proved likewise that they had never before and among these Dr Sickler of Hildburghausen. This individual been exposed to any considerable degree of temperature.” The opipretended to be skilful in opening them, and without sufficient in- nion Humphrey Davy has not been universally acquiesced in. quiry into his qualifications, he and his family were brought to WhileofheSirmaintains that the papyri of Herculaneum are not carLondon, and this delicate task was intrusted to one who proved him- bonized, others maintain with equal confidence that they are now self totally unfit for it. The experiments were an entire failure, complete such as is formed by heat only, and tell us that and resulted in the loss of several hundred pounds and the com- a fragmentcharcoal, of their substance burns readily, like common charcoal, plete destruction of some finely-preserved papyri which his royal with a creeping combustion, without flame and with a slight vegehighness had procured and put into his hands. Hut the prince was table smell, whereas Bovey coal exhibits a considerable flame. not easily discouraged; and it is much to his honour that for so long During the two months that he was actively employed in expea series of years, in the face of many difficulties, and at great per- riments on the papyri at Naples, he succeeded in partially unrolling sonal expense, he prosecuted this undertaking with unflagging zeal. 23 manuscripts, which fragments of writing were obtained, At length he succeeded in securing the active co-operation of a gen- and in examiningfrom about 120 others, which, however, were too imtleman who was very zealous in the cause, and at the same time of perfect to afford hope of success. great eminence both in regard to talent and scientific attainments. I rom time to time volumes have appeared, giving to the world In 1818 Sir Humphrey Davy was commissioned by the Prince to go such relics of ancient philosophy and literature as were recovered to Naples, and try what his knowledge of science could accomplish Herculaneum, but they were either so mutilated and fragmentin devising new and more successful methods of unfolding and from ary, or possessed of so little intrinsic merit, that their acquisition has bringing to light the literary remains of the Herculanean library. afforded little satisfaction. In addition to the manuscripts published Previous to his departure from England on this mission, Sir at Oxford, there have been printed some parts of a Latin poem, Humphrey had examined such portions of the papyri as he could supposed to be by Rabirius; two books, the second and the eleventh obtain, and after subjecting them to a variety of chemical ex- of Epicurus, on Nature; some writings by Poly stratus and Matraperiments and tests, was led to form a judgment regarding them dorus; and several other works of the same Philodemus, whose quite different from what had been hitherto generally entertained. treatise on music was the first Herculanean manuscript that was The usual opinion was, that the charred appearance of the papyri was to be ascribed to the action of fire. Prom this view Sir Humph- published. manuscripts, which, with the exception of the Latin poem rey dissented on scientific grounds. But as the supply of papyri justThese mentioned, are all in Greek,are contained in eight splendid folio in England was insufficient to allow him to carry on his investiga- volumes, have issued from the Royal Press of Naples at irregular tions to a satisfactory extent, he readily acceded to the proposal intervals,that between the years 1793 and 1844. These volumes contain now made to him by the Prince of Wales to proceed to Naples, and not only carefully executed fac-similes of the unrolled manuscripts, complete his experiments on this more ample field. but also give the conjectural readings of the lacunas, with a translaIn the report which, on his return, was read to the Royal Society tion copious notes. As a specimen of the Roman characters, we of London, and published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1821 take and the following from Paderni:— Sir Humphrey gives a narrative of what he saw and did at Naples in carrying out the purpose of his mission. “ The persons,” he says, N’AlfERlVS-DVLC “ who have the care of the manuscripts found at Herculaneum state that their original number was 1696, and that 431 have been operated upon, or presented to foreign governments, so that 1265 ought D£NYC\)RIS-CRVD£ to remain; but amongst these, by far the larger proportion are The following from the last column of the Essay on Music, by small fragments, or specimens so injured and mutilated that there is not the least chance of recovering any portion of their contents« Philodemus, will serve as a specimen of the Greek manuscripts:— and when I first examined the rolls in detail in January 1819, it did not appear to me that more than from 80 to 120 offered proper sub4>tAO AHMOY jects for experiments; and this estimate, as my researches proceeded, appeared much too high. These manuscripts had been obnepiMOYCIKH jects of interest for seventy years; the best had long ago been operated upon, and those remaining had not only undergone injuries from time, but likewise from other causes, such as transport, rude examination, and mutilations, for the purpose of determining if theyJ contained characters.” PA 1 A/ON TAG TOCAYTATO1 1 reS1 lt f his ex erime ’a "Hu* ? ° these different P nts,appearances he gives hisof opinion idea that® attributes the MSS.that to the the ArYA/ eiPH k^c rrpocATr/v* action of fire, more or less intense, is entirely erroneous, that part of CrK€ XeiPHK A C» ai ATGIN Al Herculaneum being under a bed of tufa formed of sand, volcanic MHIVANAeONTGOCO XAPINf asnes, stones, and dust, cemented by the operation of water, probably ate IWeiMJTlOANOT TOCAYTcOA/ ‘‘“tw «!,nf-w ' “ And there is £reat reason t0 conclude,” he says, _p ocess of decomposition; ‘|lfferent s.tates ofthetheloose manuscripts depend upon a gradual chestnut ones probably not havBesides these volumes devoted to the elucidation of the MSS., there is another series descriptive of the antiquities. They are enbU merely chan ed th Tn?ntfl n JeftHv i g V e reaction of their eletitled Le Antichita d’Rrcolano, and, besides descriptive letterpress, 0 eration of a Sack ld- H H P small quantity of air; the give beautiful representations of the paintings, statues, busts, vases, 8 7 Unro11 robabl without anH r. 10 ’P y remained in a moist state and other works of art found within the buried city. Complete sets earthv u ^ wa teri and the dense ones, containing of these valuable works may now be found in the principal public r bab been not nnlv r ’ H P0 ° f^yld3 earth actedmat on by warm water, which libraries of Great Britain. ^ r likewise dissolved d ri wv ° and gluten y used ter insuspended it, but the H® starch preparingin the pathe Latinized form of Heracles, one of pyrus, and the glue of the ink, and distributed them through the theHERCULES, most famous heroes of the Greek mythology. He was

HER Hercules || Herder. V—^

HER

347

Russian regiment which had taken up winter quarters in v Herder. v the son of Jupiter and the Theban Alcmena, the grand- aMohrungen met him at the pastor s house, and was so v^ daughter of Perseus; but his reputed father was Amphitry0n of Mycenae, who having accidently killed Electryon, favourably impressed with his appearance that he offered to him at a university, and train him to the medical proking of that city, was obliged to fly for refuge to Thebes. place fession. Herder was accordingly removed to Kbnigsberg, There Hercules was born and brought up, and there he performed the renowned exploits of his infancy and youth,^ but as a fit of fainting signalized his debut in the anatomy such as the strangling of the snakes, and the slaughter of class-room, the pursuit of medicine was relinquished in the lion of Mount Cithaeron. A trick of the goddess Juno favour of the more congenial study of theology. This placed condemned the young hero to the service of his kinsman it beyond the power of his patron to render him further Eurystheus, who, at once jealous and afraid of him, tried to assistance; and, left to his own resources, Herder mainprocure his death, by appointing him a series of almost im- tained himself during his university course. He devoted possible exploits to perform. These, known as the twelve the greater part of his attention to classical literature and labours of Hercules, need only be recapitulated : the belles lettres, and was permitted by Kant to attend his lecslaughter of the Nemean lion, the conquest of the Lernaean tures gratis. In 1763 he became a teacher in the Collehydra, the capture of the golden-horned stag of Ceryneia, gium Fredericianum, and at the close of 1764 removed to the combat with the Erymanthian boar, the cleaning of the Riga, where he had received a call to assist in the cathestables of Augeas, the destruction of the Stymphalian birds, dral school. He was at the same time licensed to preach, the capture of the Cretan bull, the capture of the carni- and shortly after (1767) commenced his career as authoi vorous mares of the Thracian Diomede, the successful with the publication of Fragments on German Literature. theft of the girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons, the This work attracted the notice of some of the leading minds slaughter of Geryon and the capture of his oxen, the find- of Germany. Winckelmann wrote from Rome to Heyne ing of the golden apples of the Hesperides, and the fetch- “ What new Pindar is this that has arisen amongst us ?” ing up of Cerberus from the lower world. The other That same year he received and refused an invitation from numerous exploits of Hercules it is hardly necessary to re- Petersburg to the office of rector of the Peter’s school there; capitulate—such as his expedition against Troy, and after- and the council of Riga presented him to a ministerial wards against Lacedaemon, his slaughter of the centaur Nes- charge which they had created on purpose to retain his sersus, and his co-operation with the gods against the giants— vices. He was ordained, June 10, 1767. He proved an or to do more than allude to his self-sought death on the excellent teacher, and was a great favourite with his pupils ; funeral pyre of Mount Oita. The myth of Hercules is and his eloquence and earnestness rendered him as acceptregarded by scholars as of purely Greek origin and develop- able in the pulpit as he was in the class-room. He left ment ; though some of the deeds attributed to the hero Riga in 1769, and after some time spent, first in travelling, have evidently been engrafted on the original story from chiefly in France, and then in the office of tutor to the some Oriental religion. The idea of Hercules, essentially prince of Holstein, accepted the office of court-chaplain in the same in the Roman mythology as in the Greek, is that Biikeburg and member of the highest ecclesiastical court. of force—that physical and mental power which enables During his residence here he was married. He complains men and communities to crush under foot all the obstacles that the Count of Bukeburg and he did not very well underand difficulties which nature and fate throw in their way, stand each other, and that his situation was more nominal as they struggle onwards and upwards to a higher state of than real; for he was a pastor without a flock, minister of existence. (The best accounts of the myth of Hercules education without schools, and head of the chief ecclesiastiare given by Muller in his Dorians, and by Buttmann, in his cal court without a court over which to preside. He received, in 1771, from the Academy of Berlin, the Mythologusi) prize offered for the best paper on the Origin of LanHercules, Pillars of. See Gibraltar. guage, and another in 1774 from the same institute, for a HERCYNIA SILVA. See Harz. HERDER, Johann Gottfried yon, was born in Moh- paper on the Causes which vitiate National Taste. In rungen, East Prussia, on the 25th of August 1/44. His 1776 he went to Weimar as general-superintendant (an father, Gottfried Herder, kept in that town a female school, ecclesiastical office), and continued in place there till his and performed some of the more servile duties connected death. Enemies had spread reports detrimental to his rewith public worship in the Polish church. He was an earnest putation for eloquence; but his first sermon in Weimar man, with a strong sense of duty, and so relied on for sound- took all hearers by surprise, and established his fame as a ness of judgment, that his neighbours were accustomed to pulpit orator. That city was then the residence of Goethe, Wieland, and others of the leading literary men of the day, repair to him in matters of difficulty and dispute. and afforded him ample opportunities for the prosecution of Johann received his early education in the town school, which was conducted by a teacher proverbial for his aus- his plans. He entered with vigour on the duties of his terity. In school and out of school he was the most dili- situation, and was again and again invested with new gent of pupils—carrying his books with him wherever offices, till at length he was at one and the same time chief he went, and laying them aside with reluctance even at chaplain in ordinary to the duke, general-superintendent, meals. If, in passing through the town, he noticed a book first minister of the town church, vice-president and virtual lying in a window, he forthwith borrowed it. M hen fifteen president of the highest ecclesiastical court, and ephoi us of years of age he was employed as amanuensis by the pas- schools. In spite of obstacles he persevered in the work tor of Mohrungen. Considering the narrow means of his of reforming schools and improving the condition of schoolmasters, until he had raised the standard and status of eduparents the pastor at first dissuaded him from study. ing chanced, however, to enter Herder’s bedroom one night, cation throughout the duke’s dominions. Amongst the and finding that the youth had been in the habit of paying prizes which he received while here, from various scientific nocturnal visits to his library, and occupying himself with bodies, was a third one from the Academy of Berlin for a the spoils till dawn, he encouraged him in his studies, paper on the Influence of Governments upon the Sciences. and gave him exemption from tasks which had been im- He died at Weimar, 18th December 1803. Herder’s own poetical productions are not now rated so posed with the view of changing the bent of his inclinations. In this situation Herder continued for several years ; hi ah as they were on their first appearance. He is not so and some verses which he here composed drew at the time much regarded as having added to the poetical literature of the attention, and subsequently the patronage of a publisher his country, as having effected a reformation in literary in Konigsberg. In his eighteenth year the surgeon of effort and "taste, and in this respect his merits are of the

348 HER Herder, highest order. He entered upon the scene just as that crisis in the history of German literature, known by the name of the “ storm and stress,” was at its height. For about a century and a half the main current of German poetry, and not a little of its prose, had consisted in bald and spiritless imitations, now of Italian and English, and now of French authorship, according as the one or the other was in the ascendant. The exposure of this state of matters made by the clear and acute criticisms of Lessing, and the thoroughly original and national poetry of Klopstock, conspired at the time to unsettle the minds of the numerous aspirants to poetical fame. They had accompanied Lessing when he showed where poetry was not; they had not patience to follow him as he pointed out where it was. They made a general and indiscriminate rejection of the claims of any existing poetry to respect, and broke loose from the maxims and rules which had been founded upon it. A universal return was to be made to the first starting-point of poetry, and this time she was to keep to the proper path. But as the reformers of poetry had each his own starting-point and his own maxims, the lavish expenditure of earnestness and effort which followed resulted only in a fertile crop of whims and absurdities. At this juncture Herder stepped forward. His fine, steady sense of the beautiful, not easily blunted or beguiled, his ready perception of the presence of genuine feeling, and the vast extent of his literary acquirements, guided him to a generally correct decision as to the true poets of different countries and different times. Though not himself possessed of the philosophic acuteness and comprehensiveness of mind requisite for generalizing the principles of criticism, he could understand and appreciate them when thought out for him ; and the productions which approved themselves to his own taste, coincided for the most part with those which could stand the test of the criticism of Lessing. Thus doubly fortified in his views, he prepared for action. He brought in succession, and kept steadily before the eyes of his countrymen, Moses, Homer, Shakspeare, and the old popular singers of his own and other countries ; he applied to the productions of these men the principles of criticism which Lessing had evolved; he did all this in a clear, elegant, flowing style, and there was no resisting the influence of such a concentration of light. Men were aroused to a careful and intelligent study of the great models of art, and Herder continued to hold the helm, until the appearance of Schiller’s Robbers in 1781 announced that the “ storm and stress” were fairly weathered. Of a similar kind is the service which Herder has rendered to philosophy and history. In poetry he restored the old path; here he has opened a new one. The human race, from its commencement up to the present hour, has always been parcelled out into more or less distinctly defined communities, and these communities have varied in numbers, power, wealth, knowledge, and other particulars. It is the office of history to describe the communities which have arisen at different times, the variations or changes which have taken place in their respective conditions, and the leading agents or causes by whom these changes have been effected. History, as thus understood, is simply a record of the experience of the race, and, up to the time of Herder, upon this principle history was written. The new mode of treatment which he introduced consisted in inquiring whether there are any general principles upon which the mass of facts disclosed by history can be explained. Are these facts to be regarded as no more than a series of events connected together by what may be implied in succession in time, or are they the result of a closer, though, perhaps, of a more secret—of an organic connection ? Herder

HER his Contributions towards the Philosophy of the History of Hereford Mankind. ^ ' These Contributions constitute the only service of note which Herder rendered to philosophy, but the service was one of great value. A somewhat similar idea seems to have crossed the mind of Vico, but Herder was the first to grasp it firmly and give it a place and rank among the departments of scientific inquiry. He was so much disposed, however, to speculate—to deduce conclusions from illegitimately postulated principles, and so little disposed rigidly to deduce principles from carefully sifted facts, that his own labours in this province are of no permanent value to science, and he has long been distanced by other workers in the field which he had the honour to open. He is, moreover, too frequently inaccurate in matters of detail to be safely relied on. But we do not go to Herder for details. These defects allowed for, the work is a master-piece. To read the impressions which facts, in the main correct, left upon Herder’s mind is a brisk mental stimulant; and the book merits the praise implied in the advice of Cousin, “ strong men are nourished by strong books ; read Herder’s Ideen” In the province of theology proper, Herder accomplished nothing. He had made no systematic study of it. He approached Christianity just as he had approached Homer and Shakspeare, and was occupied not so much with the substance of Christian doctrines as with the esthetics of Christian morality. As he gives no evidence of having acquired a deep practical acquaintance with Christianity, or of having made a thorough investigation of its doctrines, he cannot be fairly assigned a place in any of the classes into which those who have done either may be divided. So far as his views went, however, they were substantially Socinian. This is especially true of his later productions. In his earlier writings there is much that is useful, with good feeling and many correct views. Of this kind are his Oldest Records of the Human Race; Letters on the Study of Theology; and Remarks on the New Testament, from recently opened Oriental Sources. His works on The Redeemer, and the Resurrection of Christ, contained scarcely anything inconsistent with a chronic Socinianism. His Letters on Hebrew Poetry are justly celebrated as an analysis of the aesthetics of the poetical parts of the Old Testament. Herder’s works are edited by Julius G. Muller, in 40 vols. 12mo. (h. m. d.) HEREFORD, the capital of the county of that name, is situated nearly in its centre, on the left bank of the River Wye, which is here crossed by a bridge of six arches. It is of very ancient origin, and was the seat of a bishop’s see as early as the year 684, a proof that it had even at that period become a place of importance. Though the city is no longer “ one of the largest, fairest, and strongest castles in England,” as Leland says, yet the streets, still called after the ancient gates, are remarkable for their straightness, width, and neatness. The chief edifice is the cathedral, built in 1079; it is 325 feet long, by 110 broad. In 1786 a great portion of it fell down, and it is now being restored. The other buildings are the bishop’s palace, the county-hall, the county gaol (built on Howard’s plan), and the markets. There are five parish churches, but none of them is remarkable for beauty. A column 60 feet high, to the memory of Lord Nelson, stands on the Castlehill, the site of the ancient castle. The city contains some remains of its earlier days—a portion of the castlekeep, one of the six gates, and the walls of some old religious edifices. Owing to its position on the frontier of Wales, Hereford has taken an important part in history. The motto of the city, “ Invictae Fidelitatis Praemium,” was given to it by Charles I. as a reward for the support he received from the citizens. Hereford has returned two mema ^ie- ^a^erand unfolds these views he named of theHistory science; bers of parliament since the 23d of Edward I.; it was inwhich investigates it the; Philosophy corporated in 1189 by Richard L, and is now governed, under and his own labours in this department are contained in the Municipal Act, by a mayor, six aldermen, and eighteen

II E R E E O Ft D S H I R E. 349 nearly extinct, at least in the pure form; it has been sueIlerefordcouncillors. Market-days, Wednesday and Saturday. Pop. Hereford* ceeded in the upper part of the county by Shropshire downs, shire, shire. in 1811, 7306; in 1831, 10,282 ; and in 1851, 12,108. HEREFORDSHIRE, an inland county of England, on and in the lower, by the Cotswolds, with their various crossthe borders of South Wales. It is bounded on the N. by ings. The horses used in the county are generally of a Shropshire, N.E. by Worcestershire, N.W. by Radnorshire, good stamp, especially in the northern part, where they are W. by Brecknockshire, S. by Monmouthshire, and S.E. by reared for the saddle and coaching in other parts of the Gloucestershire. The county is circular in shape, indented kingdom. in some places by spurs of the adjoining counties; and it Herefordshire has made great progress in farming during had several detached parts, but each of these was incorpo- the last twenty years. Turnip and green crop husbandry, rated by the Act 7th and 8th Will IV. with the county in with the consequent improved rotation of crops, is now the which it was situated. The' greatest length of the county general practice. The average yield of wheat may be safely is, from near Ludlow to near Monmouth, 40 miles; and the estimated at from 28 to 30 bushels an acre, whilst in an greatest breadth, from the foot of the Malvern Hills to Clif- important district, of which Ross may be considered the ford, 35 miles. The area of the county, according to the centre, and where the old red sandstone formation predocensus commission, is 534,823 statute acres. It is divided minates, a yield of 40 bushels is by no means extraordinary, into 11 hundreds, and 221 parishes ; and it is a bishop’s see. and in some instances even 50 bushels have been obtained. The soil of the county is generally a mixture of marl and The stiff tenacious clay in other parts of the county reclay, but contains calcareous earth in various proportions in sists improvement, and has disappointed the hopes of many different parts. Towards the western part, the soil is tena- enterprising agriculturists; but, nevertheless, even in those cious, and retentive of water ; the eastern side is princi- parts, there is a very marked difference in the results of pally a stiff clay, in some places of a red colour. In the farming at the present time as compared with those of a south, some of the soil is a light sandy loam. The subsoil quarter of a century ago. Generally speaking, the farming is almost universally limestone ; in some parts the old red of the county will bear comparison, not indeed with every sandstone, and a species of marble, beautifully variegated county, but with England and Scotland as a whole. Many with red and white veins, and capable of receiving a high of the breeders of cattle in this county are famous throughpolish. When the soil does not rest on limestone, as near out the kingdom for the number, size, and excellence of the the city of Hereford, it is sometimes a siliceous gravel, and animals with which they regularly supply the metropolitan occasionally fuller’s earth and yellow ochres are found. and other markets. Two agricultural exhibitions, and seveThe surface is highly picturesque. It may be described as ral fairs are held in the year at Hereford, and at each of them a rich plain, undulating in long ridges, as if it had been the quantity of fine cattle driven in for show and sale, fills rippled by a subterranean convulsion. Coppices of ash and every street of the city, and excites the admiration of judges oak clothe the sides of the hills, and fringe their crests; from all parts of the kingdom. There are no manufactures, properly speaking, within and the low lands are wooded by pear and apple trees, grouped in orchards, and scattered over the fields. Whe- the county. The excellence of the wool has stimulated atther in May, when the fruit trees are white with blossom, tempts to make woollen goods at Hereford, but they have or in September, when they are laden with yellow fruit, failed. Some coarse woollens are made at Leominster and the county deserves its title of “ The Garden of England.” Kington, but the quantity is very small. The climate of the county is good, though variable. It is The county is purely agricultural, and at the commencement of the century stood second amongst the agricultural more rainy in this county than in the more eastern parts of counties of England. It produces wheat and barley of fine England, and at times there are damp fogs, which moisten quality ; indeed “ Lemster bread” and “ Weobly ale,” were the earth, and may be one cause of its great verdure. We famous as early as the days of Camden. Hops and cider learn from the Registrar-General’s report, that diseases are among the staple products of the county. The hop of the respiratory organs are unknown in the county, and vines, unlike the method practised in Kent, are planted in that it ranks high in point of longevity. Fuller says that rows, and the soil is ploughed. The orchards are planted in his time, “ many aged folk, who in other counties are in every kind of soil, and without regard to aspect; but it properties of the chimneys or confined to their beds, are has been ascertained that a western aspect is the least here found active in the fields.” An amusing instance of favourable, as the westerly winds, sweeping over the Welsh the salubrity of the climate, and the stamina of the people, mountains, bring cold, fog, and what is termed “ blue mist.” was given by Sergeant Hoskins when King James I. visited The crops of apples, generally large, is enormous every the county; he assembled ten women of the united age of fourth year, and very often the branches of the trees would 1000 years, who danced the morrice dance for the enterbreak down under the weight of produce, if they were not tainment of his Majesty. The rivers of the county are the Ledden, the Lugg, the propped up. As much as twenty hogsheads of cider have been made from a single acre of orchard, but the average Arrow, the Frome, and the Wye. The Ledden rises at yield is twelve hogsheads an acre. Much fine timber is grown Hadlow and flows by Ledbury into the Severn near Glouin the county, and many a spreading oak which has sheltered cester. The Lugg rises in Radnorshire, enters the county and adorned these inland fields, aids in forming the sides of on the N.W., and flows by Leominster and Hereford into the noble war ships which bear the British flag throughout the Wye near Mordiford. The Arrow also rises in Radnorshire and flows by Kington and Monkland into the the world. A large quantity of bark is stripped annually. Herefordshire is famous for its breed of cattle. The Lugg. The Frome rises in the N.E. of the county, and breed is athletic in form, and of a bright-red colour, with also flows into the Lugg at Mordiford. The far-famed white, or mottled faces, and remarkably silky hair. The Wye—“thou wanderer through the woods”—enters the Hereford cattle produce the finest beef; yet they feed county near Clifford Castle, the birth-place of Fair Rosamore cheaply than the Devon or Durham cattle. The mond, flows by Hereford and Ross, and traverses in many county was at one time famous for a small white-faced a bold and silvery curl the whole breadth of the county. breed of sheep without horns, known as the Rylands sheep, Though all the other streams, except the Ledden, are trifrom the district in which they were chiefly bred. The butaries of the Wye, it is for all practical purposes an inconcharacteristic of the breed was the silky pile and delicate siderable river. Its sinuosities have created sandbanks and texture of the fleece; but in crossing the Rylands sheep rapids, and it is liable to sudden floods, owing to the large with the Liecesters, to make them more robust, the fleece and mountainous surface which it drains. The Wye is nahas been deteriorated. Indeed, the original Ryland breed is vigated by barges within this county; these are towed by

350 HER HER Hereford- men whose efforts in the difficult parts of the stream are 5 Roman Catholic. The educational census gives 489 Herencia Bhire. painfully laborious. Attempts have been made to substitute public day-schools, with 41,295 scholars; and 794 private I1 horses for men, but the latter have successfully resisted the day-schools, with 14,923 scholars. Heresy. innovation, content to labour as mere beasts of burthen. The The population was, in 1821, 336,190; in 1831, 387,398; Wye is famous for its salmon; and in former times, the fish in 1841, 431,495; and in 1851, 458,805. This is a sparse were so abundant that the apprentices of Hereford were pro- population as compared with that of the adjoining counties. tected by a special clause in their indentures, from being Herefordshire is represented in parliament by seven compelled to eat salmon more than twice a-week. The members—three returned by the county, two by the city clause is quite unnecessary now, Wye salmon, owing to its of Hereford, and two by the borough of Leominster. scarcity, having become a delicacy even at the tables of the The towns of the county are Hereford, Leominster, Ledrich. The Wye, as we have already stated, is imperfectly bury, Ross, Bromyard, and Weobly. The towns in Herenavigable; but when moderately swollen by rain, heavily fordshire are generally worse built than in any other English laden barges are tracked up, or shoot down with the current. county, and more nearly approach to those of their adjoining The Lugg is also navigated by barges between Mordiford Welsh neighbours. In the villages the buildings are still and Lugwardine-bridge, a short distance. The remaining worse. (F. c.) means of inland navigation consist of a canal from Hereford to HERENCIA, a town of Spain, province of La Mancha, the Severn near Gloucester; and another canal from Leomin- is the centre of a prosperous and fertile district. The soap ster to the Severn at Stourport. Hereford is the terminus which is manufactured on an extensive scale in the town of three lines of railway, one connecting it with Shrewsbury, is highly celebrated, and is exported in great quantities to Gloucester, and Newport, on the Bristol Channel; and all parts of the world. Pop. 7150. another line to Worcester is projected. HERESY. It is not our intention under this head to The earliest known inhabitants of Herefordshire were discuss the character and tendency of heresy as an ecclesithe Silures. Under Caractacus, the Silures resisted the astical question, nor to give an account of the several forms Romans so obstinately, that the Emperor Claudius com- of belief which have from time to time been denounced as manded that a war of extermination should be made against heresies. The more conspicuous and important of these them. The Silures were the last people of Britain who will be found under the several titles which they bear in submitted to the Saxons. The Danes sailed up the Wye ecclesiastical history. The object of the present article in the year 912, and seized the Bishop of St David’s, who is merely to give a brief notice of the civil effect which has then resided at Archenfield; and King Edward paid L.40 generally been given to that departure from established (a great sum in those days) for the bishop’s ransom. The modes of faith to which the term applies. It never included Normans conquered the county without much difficulty, infidels or persons professing a different religion from the and colonized it in order to repel the incursions of the Christian, such as Jews or Mohammedans. These were Welsh. For many centuries Herefordshire was separated dealt with by separate laws. True to its etymological origin from Wales by a tract of land called the Marches, a kind (dipeo-ts, choice or selection), heresy was the offence of of debateable ground, alternately possessed by the English those who, professing to be Christians, used the right of and Welsh, but at length incorporated with the county in the private judgment, and chose their own form of Christianity, reign of Henry VIH. In the wars of the Roses, Hereford- instead of conforming to the declared will of the Church. shire took up arms for the House of York; and an army of From the days of Constantine downwards, the imperial 25,000 men, raised in the county, totally defeated the forces power treated any departure from the imperial established of Edward VI. at Mortimer’s Cross, near Leominster. Du- religion as a public nuisance which must be suppressed. ring the battle three suns appeared in the sky, a rare pheno- The fifth title of the first book of the Justinian code conmenon in this country, though common in the Alps and tains a series of the laws so passed from time to time against other mountains; and in consequence, Mortimer took a heretics described as people who, at the instigation of sun for his crest. In the Parliamentary struggle Hereford conceit or waywardness, set up doctrines for themselves, sided with the king, and was thrice besieged; twice it sur- and endeavour to break free from the control of the Cathorendered to the Parliamentarians, but it resisted the Scotch. lic Church. The offence was punished by the secular arm The antiquities of the county are numerous and highly as an interruption of the imperial policy, and a disturbance interesting. A line of Roman and British entrenchments of the public peace. As the companion of catholic unity, extends from the Malvern Hills to Conwall Knoll. A British the arrangement was one of perfect theoretical simplicity. earthwork of great strength is known as the Herefordshire The general councils established the doctrines of the Church, beacon. Offa’s Dyke, a great ditch 100 miles long, may and those who preached or taught against them were guilty still be traced in many parts of the county. It was cut by of a public offence, for which they were punished by death Offa the Saxon, to check the incursions of the Welsh, who or some minor infliction, according to the severity or lehad continually harassed the kingdom of Mercia, of which niency of the criminal code of each country. But even Herefordshire formed a part. The Roman road called during the professed continuance of catholic unity, this Watling Street traverses the county from Leintwardine to simplicity was more theoretical than practical. The early Longtown, thence passing into Monmouthshire ; a second councils were enabled, it is true, to draw a broad line of Roman road enters the county from Gloucester at Ross; demarcation between the belief of the church and the docand a third enters the county from Worcester near Frome trines of certain heretical sects, because the condemnation and terminates at Kenchester. Several of the baronial of these sects was sometimes the chief business discussed castles, with which the county was thickly studded in earlier by the council, and the triumphant majority clearly defined times, still exist in a ruined state; chief amongst them are the opinions which they repudiated. But in later times Bredwardine, Clifford, and Goodrich. There are also some when the voice of general councils was no longer so speremains of the stately ecclesiastical edifices which formerly cifically announced, and the Catholic Church, spread overall adorned the county, but the work of destruction has been Europe, was influenced by national habits and institutions, so thoroughly done, that their ruins exhibit few features of the opinions which constituted heresy fluctuated according interest. to local conditions. Hence, independently of the conflicts According to the religious census of 1851, there were connected with the great question of preserving the Cathoin the county 426 places of worship, having in all 69,575 lic Church from the large innovations of the reformers, sittings. Of these places of worship, 243 were Church of minor heresies sprung up according to local conditions and England, 20 Independent, 16 Baptist, 120 Methodist, and conventionalities, creating that long array of secondary per-

HER Heresy,J seditions with which the annals of Christendom are unfor_g- s[-m tunately crowded. In the countries which adopted the Reformation, even the name of a catholic unity from which it was a crime to secede, no longer existed. Yet if we except some imperfect glimmerings of the principle of toleration in Britain, Holland, and a part of Germany, it seems never to have been thought of, even by the reforming communities, that the state was no longer to punish as a crime all divergence from the mode of faith established by the preponderating power. In France, where after a long conflict, the edict of Nantes established Protestantism side by side with Catholicism, neither party acknowledged the principle of toleration, and the Huguenots were no less jealous than their opponents in preserving their ranks from the taint of heresy. The arrangement was in fact a treaty between two hostile powers occupying the same soil; and like two armies which agree to suspend warlike operations, each kept its own ranks in discipline, and punished desertion. In looking on heresy as a sort of offence against the public peace, the continental states generally permitted the ecclesiastical judicatories acting under the canon law to fix its character, and even dictate its punishment. The feeling of the feudal princes on the subject is characteristically expressed in a constitution of the Emperor Frederick I., which decrees that, if the temporal lord, when duly admonished and warned by the Church, shall neglect to purge his territory of heretics, his feif shall be forfeited and pass into the hands of faithful followers of the Church, that they may free it from pollution. In England no effect was in the general case given to either the canon or the civil law in the shape of punishment; and heresy, like other offences, was the creature of statute. By an act of the 5th of Richard II., passed in 1382, commissions were issued for the apprehension and imprisonment of such as were certified by the prelates to be preachers of heresy, with their favourers, maintainers, and abettors. It is singular that Mr Hallam mentions this statute as one of those instances where the commons complain that a law was passed by the crown without their consent {Mid. Ages, pt. hi., chap. 8). The 2d of Henry IV., passed in 1400, is the earliest act which condemns heretics to be burned. It has been remarked, that it is drawn up in Latin, while the other acts of the same session are in French, and that it is a precise echo of a petition by the prelates and clergy;— hence it may be inferred, that while it was the practice in general for the crown to pass acts on the petition of parliament, this particular act was granted on the application of the Church. Notwithstanding the jealousy with which the English law protected the subject from penalties not authorized by parliament, it has always been maintained that the writ for burning a heretic, de hceretico comburendo, was issued, on application by the proper ecclesiastical authority, by the sole prerogative of the crown ; and lawyers have been in use to observe apologetically, that the writ was not issued as of course, but required the special authority of the king in council (Blackstone, b. iv., chap. 4). There is, however, some reason to believe, that the writ is no older than the act of Henry IV., and thus has its origin in statute (see notes on the statute in Tomlyn’s edition). Several other cruel acts against heresy were subsequently passed, but the climax both of severity and confusion was reached by the act 31st of Henry VIII., “for abolishing of diversity of opinion,” which established the six articles of faith so well known in history, and appointed death by burning as the punishment of transgressing the first, and death in the ordinary penal form, as the punishment for transgressing any of the others. The celebrated first act of Elizabeth, abolishing the authority of the see of Rome in England, did not mitigate the punishment of heresy, but enacted, that no opinion should be punished as heresy, unless it had been “ heretofore determined, ordered, and adjudged to be heresy

HER 351 by the authority of the canonical Scriptures,” or was so Heretoch determined by one of the four first general councils, or by H parliament, with the consent of convocation. The law by Hermann, which heretics were liable to be put to death by burning, was not abolished until the year 1676 (29th Car. II., c. 9). Much interest has lately been created in England by the question, howfar the Established Church can exclude clergymen, adjudged by ecclesiastical authority to be maintainers of heretical doctrines, from ecclesiastical rank and emoluments ? In Scotland the right of the judicatories of the establishment to depose a minister for heresy or any other purely ecclesiastical offence is not doubted; and the courts of law have only interfered with proceedings of this nature, when it has been maintained that they were not founded on strictly ecclesiastical grounds, but were held for the purpose of accomplishing some ulterior object. In England the supremacy of the crown has enabled the temporal power to consider the ecclesiastical grounds on which any effort to affect the right to the temporalities of the Church has been based ; and the discontinuance of the convocation, by withdrawing corporate action from the prevalent majority in the Church, has decidedly favoured this limitation of the powers of ecclesiastical judicatories. In the instance known as the Gorham case, decided in 1850, the Bishop of Exeter refused, on account of what he counted heretical opinions, to institute to the vicarage of Bramford-Speke, the Rev. G. C. Gorham, presented by the crown. The bishop’s refusal was confirmed by the Dean of the Arches Court of Canterbury. Mr Gorham appealed to the Queen in council; and the judicial committee of the privy council entering into the whole question, whether the presentee’s opinions justified the bishop’s refusal to institute, decided as a court of law in favour of Mr Gorham. (j. H. B.) HERETOCH (Saxon, here, an army, and togen to lead), a name applied in Saxon times to those who were elected by the folkmote, or “ full assembly ” of the people to conduct the armies of the kingdom. HERFORD, or Hervorden, a walled town in Prussian Westphalia, capital of the circle of Minden, at the confluence of the Werra and Aa, 16 miles S.W. of Minden. It has six churches, a gymnasium, industrial school, arsenal, prison, and museum for Westphalian arts and antiquities. Its manufactures comprise cotton and cotton-yarn ; also linen, leather, tobacco, and ale. Pop. (1849) 6756. HERIOT, in Law, a customary tribute of goods and chattels payable to the lord of the fee on the decease of the owner of the land. See Copyhold. HERISAU, a town in Switzerland, capital of AusserRhoden, at the confluence of the Glatt and Briilhbach, 7 miles N.W. of Appenzell, 2334 feet above the sea-level. The town is very irregularly built. The church tower is the oldest building in the canton, and is supposed to have been built in the 7th century. The archives are kept in this tower. Herisau has a public library, courthouse, arsenal, and an orphan asylum. The neighbouring heights, two of which are crowned with the ruined Castle'S of Schwanberg and Rosenberg, afford beautiful walks. It has important cotton, muslin, and silk manufactories, and carries on an extensive trade. The baths of Heinrichsbad are a mile distant. Pop. 2700. HERMANN, Johann Jakob Gottfried, a celebrated Greek scholar of Germany, was born at Leipzig, November 28, 1772. He studied law and philosophy at Leipzig and Jena. In 1794, he began his course of lectures on ancient literature in Leipzig, was made professor of eloquence in 1798, and of poetry in 1809. He died in 1848. Though destined for the study of law, yet, under Professors Hgen, Beck, and Evnesti, he acquired the predilection for classic literature which afterwards rendered him famous. He set himself to revise thoroughly the classic metres and the Greek grammar. In the prosecution of

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HER

H E E Hermann- this task he published a great many editions of classic au- its canonicity was regarded with suspicion; but from its Hermeneu stadt thors. The principles which he entertained regarding the taint of superstition and absurdity, it is wonderful that it tics c ass c rne 1 should ever have been received with approbation. It is to HermII Hermas ’, tarum ^ * Grcecorum t 'es, were elpublished in his work De metris poeRomanorum in 1796; and in his be found in editions of the Apostolic Fathers, and has been °polis v v"' Handbuch der Metrik in 1799. These were drawn up in translated by Archbishop Wake. The authorship of the v MaSnaa more complete form in his Elementee doctrinoe metricce book is by others attributed to a brother of the Roman in 1816, of which his Epitome, &c., appeared in 1818. Bishop Pius (a.d. 140), or to one of the seventy-two disHe extended his literary reform to the study of the Greek ciples who is said to have been bishop of Philippopolis. grammar and his work De emendendd ratione Grcecce gramHERMENEUTICS, the science of exposition, generally maticce, was published in 1801. As this treated of accen- applied as a theological term to the exposition of Scripture. tuation and the analysis of letters, Hermann gave his views HERMES and Herjylea. See Mercury. on syntax in the shape of notes, and extensive additions to HERMETICAL SEALING, a manner of completely Vigier’s work De prcecipms Grcecce. dictionis idiotismis. closing glass vessels, for chemical operations, by heating the He has been accused of viewing the ancient classics too neck of the vessel in the flame of a lamp till it be ready to exclusively from the stand-points of grammar and criticism ; melt, and then twisting it close. still his views, both medical and grammatical, have been HERMIANI, also called Seleuciani, a sect of heretics extensively adopted throughout Europe. in Galatia, who held the corporeality of God, and the creation His editions of the classics are:—Aeschylus and Euripides, com- of souls by the angels from water and fire. They rejected plete with Latin notes, 1798. The Eumenides of AEschylus and baptism, and regarded immortality as simply the transmigraClouds of Aristophanes, with introduction, commentary, and scholia, tion of the souls of the dead into the bodies of the newly-born. 1799. Hecuba of Euripides, with the notes of Person and Wakeor Eremite (ipyj/xos, a desert), one who lives field as well as his own; and the Trinummus of Plautus, in 1800. in aHERMIT, desert, or passes his life in solitude. Hermits were disThe Poetics of Aristotle, with Latin translation, commentary, and disquisitions, in 1802. The Hymns of Orpheus in 1805, and tinguished from anachorets or anchorets, in that the forthose ascribed to Homer in 1816. The Hercules Furens of Euripi- mer ranged at liberty abroad in the world, while the latter des, 1810. The Suppliants of Euripides in 1811. The Medea of isolated themselves, not only from the abodes of other Euripides, 1822. The Alcestis of Euripides in 1823. The un- men, but from the cells of similar devotees. Thus, a herfinished edition of Sophocles by Erfurdt, was completed by Her- mitage was, in ancient times, often surrounded by a laura, or mann in 7 vols. in 1825. The Ion of Euripides in 1827. The Opuscula of Hermann, begun in 1827, is a collection in 6 vols., of collection of isolated cells where the anchorets lived alone. PIERMOGENES, an African painter, who in the second literary and scientific articles from German publications. century projected a system of mingled Stoicism and ChrisHERMANNSTADT (the Hungarian Nagy-Sze- tianity. One of his pupils was Seleucus, the joint founder of ben, the Wallachian Szibin, the Roman Cibinium), a the Hermiani mentioned above. town of Hungary, capital of Saxon-land, in TransylvaHermogenes, Tarsensis, an eminent Greek rhetorician, nia, on the Zibin, near the Wallachian frontier, 72 born at Tarsus about the middle of the second century a.d. miles S.E. of Klausenburgh; N. Lat. 45. 47.; E. Long. He was surnamed Xyster, from the great value which he at24. 10. It is the seat of the highest tribunal in the tached to polishing in composition. While only about fifteen province, the residence of the governor, the see of a years of age he attracted the attention of the Emperor Greek bishop, and head-quarters of the military comman- Aurelius, and became professor of rhetoric at Rome. His dant of Transylvania. The town, surrounded by a double brilliant career was terminated at the early age of twentywall and deep ditch, has five gates, and is divided into tw’o five, not by death, but by a weakening of his faculties, parts, the upper and lower. The connexion between the which reduced him very nearly to the condition of an idiot. two is kept up by flights of stone steps. The old citadel In this state he lived to an advanced age. Ilis great work on stands in the upper town. The houses are Gothic, and rhetoric is divided into five parts :—1. Rhetoric as applied regularly built, and the streets, though narrow, are clean. It in the courts of justice. 2. The conduct of a discourse as has a square in which are a fountain and statue. The im- to introduction, plan, argument, &c. 3. On style. 4. portant buildings are,—the Briickenthal palace, which con- Hints for the practical application of the rules relating to tains a public library of 15,000 vols., picture gallery, and style. 5. The use of models in rhetoric. The last, in the museums of medals and antiquities; the Lutheran cathedral, abridged form, was translated into Latin by Priscian. Gothic town-hall, barracks, hospital, and numerous churches. This work of Hermogenes became popular in the schools ; In the Lutheran gymnasium, divinity, law, and philosophy many commentaries and abridgments were made of it, but it are studied. The manufactures of Hermannstadt are linen maintained its ground till supplanted by the abridgment of and woollen stuffs, hats, leather, and ropes. It has also Aphthonius. The original work was well illustrated by exampaper and powder mills; but its trade has declined. The ples from the bestwriters; and though traces of the youthfiilCarpathian Mountains in the vicinity afford fine views. ness of the author are discernable, yet it is temperate, perspiPop. 20,000. cuous, and free of conceits. His other works have perished. HERMAPHRODITE ('Ep^s Mercury, and ’A ruv xXhuv xar^uv, htx rviv Trogetxv riiv Aoi'/jv, o(piuv aupcxmv xTretxx^av' rov, hi HA/oj/ ru rov kxvOxqov' iTruhij x.vx.’Xorigig ex ryg (ioitxg ovOov axYipox rr'hxoxyivog, xvrerppau'rog xv'Kivhii. (pxoi hi xxt iigxpYivov fiiv irro yijg Sxngov Bs rov ‘irovg rgYipM ro £uov rovro vvi^ yijg hixirxa&xi, ara^yxlvitv rs iig rqv ctyxi^xv x,x\ yivvxv’ xxl SijAvi/ xxvdxQov gvi ylvioOxi (Strom., lib. v , p. 237). The latter part of this passage is remarkably similar to parts of a chapter in the Hieroglyphics of Horapollo Nilous, a work for the most part containing explanations of the enigmatical sort. Moj/oysj/s., h'/i hrpovvrig, , ytviotv, sj TrxriQx, % xorpcov, $ xvhQX, x.xv6x(>ov t^uyfixQovoi. yovoyivig giv, on xvroyivig ion ro ^otov, Vto Qvihiixg pf x.vc(Do(>ovy.ivov. gov/i ' y&Q ytvecrtg xvrov, roixvrri iortv. iTnihxv 6 x^onv (hov~hr\rxi '7rxiho7roiYioxo6xi, (ioog x t e same phrase is used for birth, as M. de Rouge has shown (Tombeau (VAhmes, p. 109), which seems to indicate that the J gyp ians held the doctrine that man’s soul returned to a human body after a certain period spent either in the other world or on the earth in the bodies of various brutes, (it. s. p.) the tuS 8ee art Eo rPT 9 Sh ;°, ’ Nutpe, ‘here' called - (RRhea, - s- p0is the wife of Seb (Chronus), and mother of 8Osiris, See note page. and Nephthys. . e goddess Isis,5, preceding Aroeris, Typhon, e is represented on the mummy-cases as the protector of the deceased, who in taking the form of Osiris became her child. Thus the cerinus the fourth kin of the ‘‘"TeS (MyTET )> EN TPE SIIERS Fourth Dynasty (b.c. cir. 2300), readsthus:— MEN IvU RA ANSH MES ITARPK ^ c ‘ ' NUTPE SIIA [SEB?] PESESHES MUTER NUTPE EAR ,_ EM llENS LN S1ITE [EN] TPE ERATNES UNEK EM NE TERENSIIETFUK SUTEN SHEBT MEN-KU-RA ANSH Up! >er and Lower mother Nn/ne’c^i 0fVer i ln her name of the Menkura ever-living, born of Heaven, child [of] Nutpe, flesh [of Seb?], thy saries TO '1 ‘ti ° tne1eTEo expanse of heaven, she has granted [that] thou art as a god against thine adverEgy the goddess rroddei Nuope nS™ signifies .—T the abyss ^er of Pt Menkura, ever-living” (Vyse’sbe Pyramids, vol. form ii., p.of94).EnpeWhether the name of heaven,” in which case she would the feminine (Empe),orthenotEmeph of the

HIEROGLYPHICS. 383 [ierogly- logy of the hieroglyphical name only, we should be disposed sometimes as a synonym of Thoth ; it seems to mean “ Dis- Hieroglypenser of the eight treasures, or laws, of the country,” for phics. phics. to interpret it as meaning the wife or sister of Ammon. 10. Ioh, the Moon, is not a deity of very frequent occur- Diodorus informs us that 5 the principal laws of Egypt were rence ; but the character is easily interpreted, botli from its contained in eight books. 12. The name of Osiris is found,6 with the epithet “ diform, and from its being found in a different position, as a vine,” in a great majority of all the mythological inscrippart of the word month (No. 179). tions that have yet been discovered; so that this circum10. ioh. stance alone is sufficient to show that it must have been that AlOg * of the principal deity of Egypt. At Denderah this character is accompanied by the epithet 12. OSIRIS. Ojillpj God, and without any female termination, as well as in sef^L. loll veral passages of an epistolographic manuscript sent home by Mr Bankes ; a circumstance which is favourable to the1 The enchorial character of the inscription of Rosetta is opinion that loh was considered as masculine in mythology readily identified, and it agrees perfectly well with that of as well as in grammar, just as Men or Lunus was sometimes the manuscripts, answering to the eye and the throne ; so made masculine by the Greeks and Romans ; the fact, how- that the manuscripts here completely supply the want of ever, is not absolutely decisive of this question, since the that part of the stone which contained the name in the sacharacter is not accompanied by the delineation of any per- cred characters. This name is also universally annexed to the great figure which is found at the end of almost all the sonification of the deity. the coffins of mummies, holding a hook 11. The historical description of the god Thoth, or Her- manuscripts, and on 7 mes, as the scribe or secretary of Osiris, and the inventor ot and a whip or fan, and of which the small detached images writing, sufficiently identifies him with the person who is are also extremely common. In the sculptured inscripperpetually represented standing before Osiris, and writing tions, the eye generally precedes the throne; in the runwith a quill or a style2 on a square or oblong tablet. He ning hand of the manuscripts, and on the coffins of some has always the head of an ibis, and this bird, standing on a mummies, apparently of later date, the eye sometimes folperch, constitutes his hieroglyphical name, as the ibis is lows. Plutarch had perhaps been rightly informed respectknown to have been the emblem of Thoth. The hierogly- ing this character ; but by a mistake, which was easily comphic for letters (No. 103) is also frequently found among mitted from a want of perfect recollection, he has called it his titles ; and all these circumstances abundantly confirm “an eye and a sceptre ;” and this combination has not been the opinion of his true character, which Zoega and others recognised as the name of a deity, though a symbol something like it occurs in some of the tablets. The pictured had already advanced from conjecture only. delineation of Osiris has indifferently a human head or that 11. THOTHof a hawk,8 but never that of any other animal. The tear ooj ore » = \fai7C2* (No. 100) seems also sometimes to have been used as an The enchorial name is very much disfigured, but the manu- emblem of Osiris, as well as of Apis and Mneuis, who were scripts exhibit a character which may serve to supply the considered as representations of him. The name is found connecting link, and another abridgment of the name which perpetually on monuments of all kinds as an epithet of a deviates still more widely from the original, being simply departed person ; and this is one great reason of the frethe common substitute for a feather, which here seems to quency of its occurrence. stand for the whole bird, or perhaps merely for a feather 13. ARUERIS. which is often found projecting from the end of the perch. Next to Osiris, we find that Thoth is of more frequent oc13. Arueris, the Apollo of the Egyptian mythology, is currence than any other deity in the great ritual; and it is probable that the mummies of the ibis, which3 are so com- sufficiently identified by the comparison of various inscripmonly found, were preserved in honour of him. The semi- tions with the fragment of Hermapion, preserved by Amcircle with two oblique dashes, under the perch, seems to mianus Marcellinus, as the translation of the inscription on correspond to the epithet “great and great” of the Rosetta a particular obelisk, with which, however, it does not exinscription ; this character being generally significative of a actly agree, although its style completely resembles that of dual.4 The scale with eight dashes and two other cha- the Egyptian inscriptions in general, and the beginning racters is also very frequently employed as an epithet, and corresponds perfectly well to the beginning of almost all so-called Hermetic Books, the second part of her name is the word “heaven”—and here Tpe, “Heaven,” and “Nutpe” are the same. “ The expanse of heaven” reminds us of the Hebrew improperly translated in our authorized version “firmament” (Gen. i. 6), after the Septuagint rendering “ The “ adversaries” or “ accusers” are constantly mentioned in the Ritual as those against whom the deceased prayed Thoth to justify him as he had justified Osiris, (r. s. P.) 1 The only divinity who bears the name of the moon is a form of Thoth, or Hermes, sometimes called A-AH or the Moon, at othgr times A-AH TET, Moon-Thoth. Shuns (Chuns) the son of Amen and Mut is also a lunar divinity, (r. s. p.) 2 The instrument for writing here mentioned is not a style, hut usually or always a reed-pen : it is possible that it may occasionally be a brush. “ Of the quality of the pencils they used for drawing and painting, it is difficult to form any opinion. Those generally employed for writing were a reed or brush, many of which have been found with the tablets or inkstands belonging to the scribes ; and with these, too, they probably sketched the figures in red and black upon the stone, or stucco of the walls. To put in the colour, we may suppose that brushes of some kind were used ; hut the minute scale on which the subjects are indicated in the sculptures prevents our3 deciding the question” (Wilkinson’s Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii., p. 314). (r.S. P.) The ibis was sacred to Thoth, and therefore mummified like the other sacred animals, (r. S. P.) 4 The name of Thoth probably reads TET ; the so-called mark of duality, indicating the repetition of the alphabetic character T represented by a semicircle. There is no dual in either ancient Egyptian or Coptic, as we have already mentioned. (R. S. p.) 6 The title of Thoth given in the woodcut is, if we exclude the first two characters, NEB SHMEN . . . “ Lord of the City of Eight,” Hermopolis Magna, the modern El-Ashmooneyn. (R. S. P.) 6 The name of Osiris reads Hes-ar, which confirms the statement of Hellanicus, preserved by Plutarch, that the Egyptians pronounced it''Hov£/? nof'Oovg/f (De Isid. et Osir., cap. 34). (r. S. P.) 7 Instead of the crook and flail of Osiris, the small figures of deceased persons in his character bear a hoe and flail, and a seed-bag. This, according to Mr Birch’s explanation, is done to represent the deceased as a labourer in the Elysian Fields, (r. S. p.) 8 Osiris is always represented with a human head, excepting in the compound character of Ptah-Seker-Hesar, in which case the head is that of a hawk. (r. s. p.)

384 HIEROGLYPHICS. Hierogly- the obelisks in existence, supposing only the hawk to be published some Greek inscriptions from Philae, and from Hierogly phies. part 0p name 0f Arueris ; which is, besides, an inference the small temple at Dendera, which show that Isis was the phics. V'*’' extremely probable, from the tablets of several of the obe- principal deity of these temples; and the hieroglyphics, as lisks 1 representing a deity characterized by a hawk with two far as they have been copied, are precisely of the same bars, and styled the son of another personage who seems to import. The great temple at Karnak seems also to have to Isis, and probably the small southern be the sun, as Apollo is called by Hermapion, and Arueris been dedicated 7 On a medal of Greek workmanship in the by Plutarch. Mr Hamilton has also given us a Greek in- temple. scription at Ombos, in which Arueris is made synonymous Borgian8 Museum, we have a figure of Isis, with the word with Apollo ; although the hieroglyphics which have been Thesi, which may probably have been intended for Tiesi, copied from this temple afford us no assistance in the in- the Egyptian name with the feminine article. 15. The constant companion of Isis can be no other than quiry. The sort of ladder, which occurs as a second name of Arueris,2 is found prefixed to the hawk in its usual form, Nephthe.9 on the obelisk at Wanstead figured by Gordon, and on the frieze of Montagu and Ficoroni {Hieroglyphics of the Egyp16a KEPHTHE. tian Society, 7 Eo p ; 9 Lk) ; and it follows it on a statue of Pococke (vol. i., p. 212). Arueris is commonly represented either with a human head, or with that of a hawk, bearing Her name somewhat resembles that of Isis, with a scale a disc, as that of the sun is also generally depicted; and or basin annexed to it, but the square surrounding the in plate 138 of Denon, the two deities seem in some mea- throne is completed, and the scale is1 sometimes detached sure confounded. The Egyptian name may be interpre- from it, with a [semi] circle interposed ; and, in this form, the10 ted “ evening sun,” as emblematic of the repose of victory name comprehends one of the characters denoting a temple (No. 87). It seems also to be a head of Nephthe that is ER RUHI RE. 14. Isis, the sister and wife of Osiris, is very naturally found at Dendera and elsewhere, supporting a little temple denoted by the throne with the female termination [thus] : or shrine, in the place of the capital of a column; nor is it improbable that the temple at Dendera was dedicated to h. isis. iO n Nephthe, for the Greek inscription has Aphrodite, which is KC/, eecj ? Q Jj^ 'te.'fe V mentioned by Plutarch as a synonym of Nephthe.11 It is true that the birth of Isis is represented on one of the and, in more than one instance, the female figures, which ceilings, but it does not therefore follow that Isis was the have been long recognised as representations of Isis by other principal goddess of the temple. A head bearing a shrine is attributes, are distinguished by bearing the throne on the not an uncommon ornament of a sistrum; and this agrees head, which is a common mode of characterizing the dif- perfectly with the remark of Plutarch, that the head of ferent personages of the tablets.3 The manuscripts, again, Nephthe, as well as that of Isis, was sometimes repreenable us to discover the connecting link between the sacred sented on these instruments. and enchorial characters, and to supply the defects of the stone of Rosetta; though the resemblance is somewhat too imperfect to have satisfied us without their assistance. O The goddess, thus distinguished, is very generally represented as standing at the head or feet of a corpse, with an16. The emblem of a bird in a cage, which is often found other female figure opposite to her ; and we find the same in the manuscripts, accompanied by the figure of a child, personages at the opposite ends of several of the sarco- seems to indicate the character of a nurse, and may without phagi ;4 so that the analogy of Isis to Proserpine, and her inconvenience be interpreted as relating to the goddess character as the guardian of the remains of the dead, are Buto, the nurse of Horus and Bubastis; though it would sufficiently consistent with these representations. On a perhaps have been more correct to engrave the name in scarabaeus brought from Egypt by Mr Legh, and in a hie- smaller letters, as denoting some degree of uncertainty.12 roglyphic inscription at Philae, she appears to be called On the sarcophagus called the Lover’s Fountain, in the the offspring of Phthah.5 She often bears in her hand a British Museum, she is delineated with a hawk’s head; sceptre forked at the foot, with a lotus for its head, while in the western temple at Philae she has a human head with Osiris has more commonly a similar sceptre with the head a horned head-dress, and she sits near Isis and Horus, a of an animal; but these attributes are sometimes assigned circumstance which strongly confirms the propriety of the to other deities.6 In one of the boats on the green sarco- denomination. phagus, and on Letheuillier’s mummy, both in the British 17. The enchorial name of Horus seems to be derived Museum, she is personified as a basilisk. Mr Hamilton has from the figure of a hawk followed by the character deI These hieroglyphics form a name of Ra. (r. s. p.) & The character here called a ladder is the second hieroglyphic of the second name in the wood-cut above. The name reads Atum, and3 is applied to a deity of Hades, (r. s. P.) The name of Isis reads HES. (r. s. p.) 4 The female divinities who are thus represented as mourners, are Isis and her sister Nephthys. (r. s. p.) 6 This is a mistake. Isis is a child of Seb. (r. s. p.) 6 The gods usually carry the sceptre with an uncertain animal’s head ; the goddesses, that with a lotus, (r. s. p.) 7 The great temple at El-Karnak was dedicated to the Theban triad, Amen-ra, Mut, and Chuns ; and the principal temple to the south of 8that great edifice, to Chuns. The latter appears to be the one here called “ the small southern temple.” (r. s. p.) Inscriptions of this kind on coins are frequently tooled, having been added by the cinque-cento forgers ; and the one here mentioned is 9probably such, although it is of course impossible to pronounce on this matter without an inspection of the coin itself, (r. S. P.) The proper orthography of this name is Nephthys. (r. s. P.) 10 This name reads NEBT-EE or NEFT-EE, “ the lady of the housethe latter reading is based on the supposition that Dr Hincks is right in making the complementary letter of the first sign sometimes F and not B. (R. S. P.) II VjV noil Te’Aivrijv x.xi ’Atpoohlrviv, eutoi oi xxl N/xyjy ovoya-^ovaiv (Delsid.et Osir., cap. 12). The Egyptian Venus was, however, Athor, not Nephthys, and it is to the former goddess that the famous temple at Dendera was dedicated, and it is her head which adorns the capitals of its columns, (r. s. p.) 12 The hieroglyphic name here given is that of Athor, and may be read TEE-HER or perhaps EET-HER, the abode of Horus, an explanation entirely in accordance with Plutarch’s, for he says that ASvqi signifies rJxof "tl(iov y.6aytog{Be Tsid. et Osir., cap. 56). In this passage Plutarch makes ASvgt to be but a name of Isis, and it must be admitted that the two goddesses are closely connected. (R. s. P.)

HIEROGLYPHICS. 385 Hierogly- noting Isis; an arrangement which agrees very well with1 character, though the angles are turned in a different direc- Hieroglyphics. the supposition that his usual denomination was Horsiesi. tion from those of the inscription of Rosetta; so that the phics. two forms of the character seem to have been used indif^ 17. HORUS. ferently. With this latitude, we have no difficulty in identigwpciHCI? fying the name, as it occurs in almost every line of the inscriptions on the great sarcophagus of granite formerly at The figure of the infant (No. 133), the chain, and the knot, clearly form a part oi the name on a Horus engraved by Cairo, called the Lover’s Fountain, and now in the British Montlaucon {Ant. Expl, tom. ii., p. 302), and on an obelisk Museum; which there is some reason to suppose, from the from Bose in the Supplement of the same work. In some frequency of this name, may have been intended for recases a feather, following the infant, seems to supply the ceiving a mummy of the bull Apis; although it must be place of the bird, as in Caylus {Rccueil, tom. iv., pi. 13). confessed, that in several other monuments the names of the deities are introduced in a manner somewhat similar, with an evident relation to the designation of some human 18. PAAMYLES, being whom they are intended to commemorate.7 18. Paamyi.es, mentioned by several authors as the Priapus of Egypt, is sufficiently distinguishable by his usual attributes. He is often figured with one hand only, which is elevated towards the angle of a kind of whip or fan suspended above him. At Edfou he is once denoted in an inscription by a figure like that of the tablets; and in another place by a distinct name,2 much resembling that of a female deity, found on some of the cases of the mummies, and who might consequently be called Paamylia. 19. NILUS. ^po

. /om -7

21. The enchorial name of Mneuis is very completely ascertained by the inscription of Rosetta, and from a comparison of different passages in the manuscripts there is reason to infer that it was intended as an imperfect representation of a basilisk and a tear,8 emblems which are repeatedly found in the great ritual, connected with the figure of a bullock. »

21*. The sacred cow, in the manuscripts sent home by 19. The Nile seems to have been reckoned among the deities of Egypt, and the character which appears to be Mr Bankes, is denoted by a serpentine line with two dots, appropriate to a river (No. 82) is found occasionally in the followed by the term goddess. We may venture to distablets, followed by a vessel and a spiral (Nos. 7 or 9, and tinguish her by the temporary name Damalis. That of lo9 201), which seem, indeed, to make a part of the name, and would imply too great identity with the Greek mythology. accompanied by epithets of respect. This character has 22. Hyperion. already been considered by Kircher and others as representing a nilometer; and the deity in question can only be distinguished by the name Nilus.3 20. rl he sacred characters denoting Apis are pretty 23. Cteristes. clearly determined by the triple inscription; the enchorial name is perfectly so.4 22, 23. In the tablets representing the judgment of the deceased we generally find two personages standing by the 20. apis. balance, and apparently weighing his merits; one with the 21 head of a hawk, the other with that of a wolf,10 and seeming If, however, any doubt remained on the subject, it would to officiate as the good and evil genius of the person. The be removed by an examination of the inscriptions on four former, denoted by a hawk with a bar, and sometimes also vases found by Paul Lucas {Voyage dans la Turquie, vol. a spear, appears, from various monuments, to have some rei., p. 346, Amsterdam, 1720, in 2 vols. 12mo), at Abousir, lation to the Sun or to Horus, and may therefore be called the Busiris of the ancients; that is, the Be Oshiri,5 or Hyperion; the other is often observed to be employed in sepulchre of Osiris, as Diodorus very properly translates it. the preparation of a mummy, and may be called from this There is a received tradition that Apis was worshipped and occupation Cteristes, or the embalmer. He is also freburied here, and Lucas established its truth by finding the quently represented on the coffins of mummies and elsemummy of a bullock in the catacombs.6 Now, all the in- where under the form of a wolf sitting on a kind of altar; scriptions on the vases end with a bullock preceded by this and he seems to be an immediate minister of Osiris. His 1

Horus the Younger is frequently termed HER-SA-HES, “ Horus, son of Isis,” to distinguish him from Aroeris, HER-UR, “ Horus the Elder, and Harpocrates, HER-PA-SHRUT (CHRUT), “ Horus the Child.” The hieroglyphic name given in the text is that of Harpocrates, the enchorial that of Horus simply, meaning Horus the Younger, for the simple name Horus applies to this divinity, (r. s. P.) 2 The Egyptian name of this divinity, a bolt on a stand, is usually read Khem, but its sound cannot be considered certain. At Thebes he was worshipped as Amen-ra-Khem, or Amen-ra-ka-mut-f, the latter name first rightly read by Mr Birch as f‘Amen-ra, who is male and female.” The hieroglyphics given in the text have nothing to do with Khem. (r. s. P.) 3 The hieroglyphic character does not represent a nilometer but an adze: its proper signification when employed as an ideograph is |{ “ approved,” or something very similar, as in the prenomen of Rameses II. The group spoken of by Dr Young in the text, with a character which he does not mention, the wavy line, preceding the adze and with the vase and chicken, the homophone of the’spiral, with the determinatives of time and heat or fire, also not mentioned, following it, is rendered by Dr Brugsch “ the hot season” (Rec’herches Nouvelles, p. 62, pi. iv., no. 13, b., c.). (r. s. p.) 4 This name, reading HAPEE, is that of the sacred bull Apis, of one of the four genii of Amenti (Hades) whose names occur on the so-called Canopic vases, and it is also the commencement of the name of Nilus, usually read HAPEE-MU. (r. s. p.) ® The proper etymology of the name of Busiris is doubtless PA-HESAR, “ the [tomb] of Osiris.” (r. s. P.) It is not far from this Busiris that the sepulchre of the bulls Apis has been discovered by M. Mariette. Art. Egypt. 7 The word here mentioned is that of the person for whom this sarcophagus was made, HAPEE-MEN, “Apis the Established.” The bulls Apis were buried in sarcophagi of much larger dimensions than this. (R. S. P.) 8 The hieroglyphic characters do not compose the name of Mnevis. (r. S. P.) 9 It is very probable that lo is connected with Egyptian mythology. The name lo may be traced in A AH, the moon or in AH a cow, more probably in the latter, (r. s. p.) 10 Horus and Anubis. (r. s. p ) V°E. XL 3c

HIEROGLYPHICS. 386 Hierogly- hieroglyphical name is a feather, a wavy line, and a block j1 phies. or a hatchet under a sort of arch. 29. Bioxiphus.

jzeJti

Hierogly. phics.

30. Platypterus. 25. ANUBIS. 26. MACEDO. 27. Hieracion.

31

31. Mastigias.

32. Soraea.

O& 28-32. Amongst the many hundreds of deities who are represented in various inscriptions and sculptures, some of the most remarkable are two personages with the heads of wolves, the first characterized by a sort of raised frame or banner, and a pair of horns, which may be expressed by the pseudonymous or temporary term Cerexochus? and the second by a half bow and a sword or knife, whence he may be called Bioxiphus; a figure with a human head, generally wearing a feather on it, and denoted by a broad feather reversed, which is implied in the name Platypterus ; another wearing a cap with a whip in it, who may be called Mastigias ; and a fifth in the form of a female, distinguished by a bier, who, at Edfou, bears a tear on her head, and who may be called Soraea.

24-27. Under the bier on which a mummy lies, and in many other situations near the person of the deceased, we find representations of four deities who seem to be concerned in the operation of embalming, and who might even be supposed to preside over the different condiments employed, their heads frequently serving as covers for four jars, of the kind sometimes called Canopi.2 They may also very properly be considered as attendants of Isis, who seems to be a still more important personage on such occasions. The first of the lour has generally a human head, and may be called Tetrarcha ; his name contains a sort of forceps, and a broken line.3 I he second and third have respectively B. Kings. KingS. the heads of a dog or baboon, and of a wolf ;4 and they agree very satisfactorily with the well-known character of 33. Thathmosis. Anubis, and with that of Macedo, his companion, mentioned by Diodorus as having a wolf’s head, [and] whose name may possibly have some relation to manchat, a worker in silver, as that of Anubis has to nub, gold. ' The 34. Mesphres. hieroglyphic name of Anubis differs from that of Apis only in having the angles directed immediately upwards, a cir33, 34. We are informed by Pliny that the Alexandrian cumstance which is 6not so indifferent to the signification as the reading it at first appeared; that of Macedo has a vulture with a obelisk was erected by Mesphres or Mestires, 9 star, and sometimes an arm instead of the vulture. The of the different manuscripts being different; and since no fourth of these deities is represented with the head of a king of the name Mestires is mentioned by other authors, hawk, and may therefore be called Hieracion, and he is de- we may consider this Mesphres as the Mesphres or Mesphris about 1700 b.c., or noted by a water7 jar, with three plants somewhat resembling who succeeded his mother Amersis perhaps a century or two later.10 The hieroglyphical name leeks or onions. of his father contains that of the god Thoth, and may therefore possibly have been intended for the Thuthmosis of 28. Cereiochus. the chronologers, who is said to have been the grandfather of Mesphres.11 The obelisk at Alexandria, now called 1 This is the hieroglyphic name of Anubis, the characters composing which are the reed (A), the wavy line (N), and the mat (P), as in the woodcut: to these is sometimes added the chicken, to express the medial vowel (U). The name reads ANUP. The head of Anubis is 2that of a jackal, (r. s. p.) These are the four genii of Amenti, children of Osiris, who presided over the parts of the body which were removed in the process of embalmment, and placed in the jars of which the lids had the forms of their heads, (r. S. P.) 3 The name of this first genius is AMSET. (r. s. p.) 4 The heads of the two genii here mentioned, HAPEE and SU-MUTF, are respectively those of a cynocephalus and a jackal, not “ of a dog5 or baboon, and of a wolf.” (r. s. P.) The name of Anubis has nothing to do with that of gold, which is a distinct root. (R. S. P.) 6 This is the same as the name of Apis, as already mentioned, (r. S. p.) 7 This name probably reads KABHSNUF. (r. s. p.) 8 This divinity is HEP-HEUU, “the guardian of the paths” [of the sun]. Like Anubis, he is jackal-headed, and is sometimes represented by a jackal alone, as on the top of the funereal tablets, where Anubis and he are thus represented. 9 The Egyptian names in Pliny are so corrupt that it is frequently impossible to trace their original forms. “ Trabes ex eo [syenite] fecere reges quodam certamine, obelizcos vocantes, Solis numini sacratos. Kadiorum ejus argumentum in effigie est; ita significatur nomine ,/Egyptio. Primus omnium id instituit Mesphres [yar. Mespheres], qui regnabat in Solis urbe, somnio jussus; hoc ipsum inscriptum in eo ; et-enim sculptures illae effigiesque quas videmus HLgyptiae sunt litterae. Postea et alii excidere reges. Statuit eos in supra dicta urbe Sesothes [var. Sothis] quattuor numero, quadragenum octonum cubitorum longitudine : Rhamsesis autem, quo regnante Ilium captum est, cxxxx (var. quadraginta) cubitorum (Hist. Nat., lib. xxxvi., cap. viii., § 14, ed. Sillig). Comp. Herod, ii., cap. Ill, on the two obelisks set up by Pheron, the son of Sesostris, at the temple of Heliopolis, in gratitude for the recovery of his sight, and Diod. i., cap. 59,10where the story told by Herodotus is related of SesoSsis II., who corresponds to the Pheron of the older historian, (r. s. P.) The name here read Mesphres is the prenomen of Thothmes III., who is not the Mesphres of Manetho, but the Misphragmutbfisis (Mesphres-Tethmosis ?) Its sound is probably MEN-TAR-RA, or MEN-TA-RA. Mesphres is the fifth king of Manetho’s Eighteenth Dynasty, and Misphragmuthfisis the sixth, respectively the Thothmes II. and Thothmes III. of the monuments, and their chronological period is about the middle of the fifteenth century before the Christian Era. (r. S. P.) 11 Dr Young always supposes the second name of a king—perhaps because the phrase “ son of the sun ” intervenes between it and the first—to be the name of his father. The title “ son of the sun ” is, however, applied to the second name as a prefixed title, not as a title

HIEROGLYPHICS. 387 7 Hierogly- Cleopatra’s Needle, like almost all others which contain given by Pausanias as his Egyptian name, and with the Hierogly. phics. three lines on each side, exhibits different names in the Ammenoph or Amenophis of Manetho or others, which phics. “■s'-"-' middle and the outer lines. From this circumstance, as differs from it only as wanting the article. There is, howdoubt to which Amenophis this statue properly well as from the greater depth of the sculptures, which is ever, some 8 generally observable in the middle line, there is reason to belongs. Manetho makes Memnon the eighth king of the Dynasty, who maybe called Amenophis the Sesuppose that this line stood at first alone, and that the two Eighteenth 9 on each side were added by a later monarch.1 The Lateran cond; but Marsham brings him down to the Ammenephobelisk, however, is remarkable for exhibiting the 2name of thes of Manetho, or Amenophis the Fourth, and principally Mesphres on all the lines of the different sides. The because he thinks that only a successor of Sesostris could Constantinopolitan obelisk has only one line on each side, have been well known in Asia; and he even supposes him with the name of Mesphres, the son of Thuthmosis.3 The to have been later than Homer, who, he says, never mensame name is also found on the gateway of the fifth cata- tions him, though Hesiod calls him the son of Tithonus and comb at Biban-el-Molouk,4 on a pillar of the palace at Aurora. But, in fact, the name of Memnon does occur in Karnak, and in a splendidly-coloured bas-relief on one of the Odyssey, where Ulysses alludes to his beauty in a conthe interior architraves of the gallery; as well as on a seal versation with the shade of Achilles; and Hesiod could of Denon, pi. 98, and on some others brought from Egypt scarcely have mentioned a king as descended from a deity that was not considerably earlier than his own time ; so that by Mr Legh. the tradition of Manetho seems to be preferable to the mere 35. Misphragmuthosis. conjecture of Marsham. At the same time, we cannot well call him Memnon, the son of Thuthmosis, the name of the 35. The Isean obelisk of Kircher has a “ son of Mesphres, father not agreeing with that of this king; and there is favoured by Phthah;” we must therefore distinguish this another circumstance which seems to lead us to the third king by the name Misph ragm u th os is, who is recorded as Amenophis, intermediate between these two extremes, who the son and successor of Mesphres.5 was the son 10of Ramesses Meiamun, or Harnesses, the lover of Ammon; which is that Amenophis himself appears to 36. Tithous. have built a temple to Ammon in the isle of Elephantine, and is called Meiamun in several of the hieroglyphical inscriptions still existing there. So that there is little doubt that the11 name Memnon must have been derived from Meiamun. Besides the different statues of the Memnonium, we find 38. MEMNON. monuments of the same personage in almost every part of

‘ Though we might agree with M. Renan in considering the pronouns, which show the most important points of agreement with Semitic languages, to be linguistically accidental, yet they are logically essential since they cannot have been accidentally introduced, for2 how can we suppose a language without pronouns ? Histoire Generale des langues Semitiques, vol. i., p. 72, et seqq. The Genesis of the Earth and of Man, pp. 210, et seqq.

n

413 HIEROGLYPHICS. This alphabet is of great value, since it establishes the Hieroglylierogly- (JL) cy CJ g^ They are taken from the Greek close similarity, 4if not identity, of sounds that afterwards v Phics- y hic8P alphabet, which is comprehended entire in the Coptic, with became distinct. Three of its peculiarities require especial the addition of six characters, adopted from the demotic and no distinction is made between the G and hieratic systems, and one compound character. On re- notice—Firstly, K sound, which is a strong evidence to show that there was ferring to the lexicons, we find that five of the Greek letters, no letter corresponding to X and 6”in the ancient Egyptian. Y ^ and \j/, are not employed for Coptic words, exSecondly, L and R are not distinguished, although they are cept for an extremely small number, none of which are distinguished in the demotic. We find the signs which common roots, and some of which are of doubtful authenemployed in demotic for L and R used in hieroglyticity.1 These letters have been used for the Greek words are of the same period for these letters indiscriminately, which are so numerous in Coptic literature, and cannot phics whence it appears that the separation in writing of the properly be assigned to the language. In the next place two sounds was an innovation which was not admitted we must exclude ^1"? as a compound letter. Twenty-five into the sacred dialect; nevertheless, these sounds were characters remain, which form the genuine Coptic alphabet. never perfectly distinguished in the Coptic, as the instance Certain of these letters, however, are peculiar to one dialect, of their confusion given above may serve to show. being very generally substituted for other letters, and there- Thirdly, F and are represented, since the Latin names fore represent a particular pronunciation. Whether this are rendered from Greek transcriptions, by the same chapronunciation be the right one or not, we are warranted in racters, and yet the Copts found it necessary to add a excluding the letters which represent it as dialectal variations. letter, q, to the Greek alphabet, to represent a sound The letters in question are -0c|> and which are pe- supposed to be that of F. The reason might, indeed, culiar to the Memphitic dialect,2 and very generally take the be that the Greek $ was not pronounced Ph but Fh place of T K IT and g, in the other dialects, being the but rather that the Egyptian F, like the iEolic digamma, aspirated forms of those letters. In addition to these we approached the sound of V. In support of the former find and p very often interchanged, and p almost always assertion, it may be observed that the name of Philip Arrhidaeus has been found written in hieroglyphic chareplaced by in the Bashmuric dialect. The confusion of racters Philiupus, instead of Pilipus, according to these two letters is evidenced by our finding Cornelius written the usual orthography, the P being in both cases repreKoprmpioc.3 T he frequent interchange of X and sented by the same character; and in corroboration of is another case of the same kind, and we are warranted in the latter assertion it must be remarked that in Coptic n concluding that and p, as well as X and (Tonly repre- interchanges with c|>, and c|> with while q interchanges sent different sounds of the same letter. The vowels we must likewise reduce; for comparative philology leaves lit- with K and OY- We may therefore infer that the tle room to doubt that the Egyptian language had but three Egyptian P corresponded to the Greek II and $ and perhaps vowels—a, the sound of which sometimes resembled that of e, the'Latin F, and that the Egyptian F was rather a U though i or ee, and u or oo, besides a short vowel, inexpressed. The not a Bh. In modern Greek we have Bh and V in the manner in which the vowels interchange in Coptic favours pronunciation of B and Y. The best parallel to this case this supposition. The result of our inquiry thus far gives is that of the Latin language, in which, contrary to the Greek usage of rendering F by the Greek 4> is never the following alphabet:— represented by F, but always by Ph, although the KMrt npcTuucycjgx Italians and Spaniards have lost the distinction, as did the a bikmnprstoshfh Copts, and write Filippo, and not Philippo, Felipe, not c]> ^ O O 6 Phelipe. There is a difficulty in the supposition that the ex kh th 6 ph l e ch e aspirated form of P was Fh, and not Ph, or both, as OY it would not in either case strictly follow the analogy of H H the aspirated form of other letters ; but the parallel inou e e (The Y has usually the form OY> the Coptic having pro- stances show that such has been the case in the other languages, and warn us against reasoning as to what a perly no simple Y«) thing ought to be, instead of endeavouring to ascertain Egyptian This result may be tested by the manner in which foreign what it is.3 used for names are written in hieroglyphics. Unfortunately, Greek We have yet to examine those letters of the Cop-Coptic Greek and and Latin names are the only ones which are numerous tic alphabet which are unknown to the Greek or Latin, letters unLatin pro- enough to enable us to form an alphabet, and they do not that is, cy, q, X, and 67 As these letters have forms per names, afford us direct evidence as to those sounds which are unknown to their respective languages. From these Greek derived from those of demotic characters, themselves Latin, and Latin names we form an alphabet of twelve letters:— traceable to hieroglyphics, it is important to ascertain, if possible, what sounds these hieroglyphic characters conABCDHILMNOPS veyed. cy is traceable through demotic and hieratic E V G T R U 4> forms to a common hieroglyphic character never employed K 0 V F in writing Greek and Latin proper names. It occurs Q in the names of some well known kings, as the two X 1

and are sometimes used for their component letters in Coptic words, by way of abbreviation. Q is not used, but as an abbreviation of rJ_except in the Memphitic dialect. 3 Peyron, Gram. Copt., p. 4, which see for a fuller account of the changes of the Coptic letters. 4 It is to be noted that the hieroglyphic signs were used for the sounds they originally represented, at the same time that their demotic forms were employed for a different sound or sounds which had arisen from the changes of the language. ® Without attempting to disparage the extraordinary critical skill which has been displayed by recent scholars in discovering the original meanings of particular derivatives and grammatical forms, it may be safely asserted that many have pushed the results thus obtained too far when they have supposed these original meanings to have been always, or even often preserved. They have thus been led either to repudiate senses which usage proves to have been assigned to words or forms, or to accommodate those senses to their preconceived opinions. Although this method does not produce very serious evils when applied to the highly philosophical Indo-Germanic languages, it would be disastrous in its results were any one bold enough to try it with the Semitic group. 2

414 HIEROGLYPHICS. Ilierogly- called Shebek, where it has been rendered in Greek Vowels. Consonants. phics. by ^ (2 a/3ttKu)?, 2a/3aKWV, ^afS/SaKoiv, 2e/3t^a)5, 2e^\os), ATsiToci II K m""n P R S T SH F and in the case of one of these kings, in Hebrew, E E o BH HH {kh) KH {ch) PH FH L TH V by (iS^D)• The same character is twice employed in KK F the name Sheshonk, which has been written, in Greek, E i u Y W Secroy^is, ^OTwy^ts, and ^ecrdy^wcrt?, &c., and in Hebrew, Each of these letters must now receive a separate exa- Separate PP'V. There is no doubt that this letter had a sound examinaresembling that of s, and was its aspirated form sh. C| is mination in order that we may ascertain, as nearly as may tion likewise proved to have been a letter unknown to the Greek be, its general sound and dialectal differences, although some E oft gyP bn alphabet of the time of the Ptolemies and Caesars, since its part of this inquiry has been anticipated in the precedingletters hieroglyphic form, which may be traced through the demo- remarks. It will be most convenient to arrange them in a tic and hieratic, is not employed in writing Greek proper philosophical order, first, the aspirates a, z, w, the inexpressed names, nor, indeed, in Roman ones, which, it should be re- vowel e and h; then the liquids m, n, r; then the sibilants membered, were spelt according to their Greek ortho- s, sh ; and lastly, the mutes b,f p, k, t. With respect to the vowels, it is important at the com- Vowels, graphy. When, however, a name containing this letter has been transcribed in Greek characters, we find it represented mencement to ascertain the place they held with respect to by , as in ’'O/x^u?,1 Mep,. As a vowel, therefore, nerally rendered by its Greek equivalent xits sound was that of our ee. At the commencement which may be properly considered as the strongly aspirated of words where it is immediately followed by another vowel form of £. It will be shown, by arguments which the anaits sound must necessarily be that of Y, as is shown by its logy of the system confirms, that there wras no separate letbeing then equivalent to as in yum, “ sea; ^ uteh ter in the hieroglyphic system corresponding to and “ Judah.”4 Two sounds, therefore, suffice for those arguments indicate that the two sounds did not exist in the pronunciation of the sacred dialect. We may next this letter, Y and ee. r n The third vowel corresponds to every form of o and u pass by m and n since their sounds are established, with the in Coptic, but its prevailing correspondent is the diphthong remark that N was probably pronounced M, as by the Copts, when immediately followed by b, m, and p. L and R OY> which is the same as our sound oo. It is equivalent are represented by one consonant. We do not find them to the Hebrew 1, as in the word yuteh, PPHriL distinguished except in the demotic, and they are fre“Judah,” quoted above, and was used for the Greek o, w, and quently confounded in Coptic. In that language, however, ou. It can be shown sometimes to have the sound of a we trace their separation in the circumstance that in the consonant, w, at the commencement of a word, for the same Bashumric dialect the Memphitic and Theban p is almost reasons which have induced us to assign the sound of Y to always rendered by ?\. The greater number of words in the second vowel when similarly placed. Our main difthe general use of ficulty with respect to this vowel is to decide whether or not Coptic containing the letter p than it has ever the sound of a short o or u. rI he settlement of 2\ for p in the worst dialect, all tend to show that tbe prethis question partly depends upon the probability that the vailing sound was p. That sound we may safely assign first vowel had sometimes a sound resembling O or u, both 1 3

The latter reading is the more probable, since the two signs occur in monosyllabic roots. Trans, Roy. Ir. Acad., ol. xxi., pt. 2. The two sloping lines may, however, be the double of the single straight line, representing A.

416 HIEROGLYPHICS. Hierogly- to the consonant in question, bearing in mind that it may we have double evidence, since in Coptic -B. interchanges hierogly phics. sometimes resemble l, or even correspond to that letter. with OY, q, cj>, and thence even IT; while in the rendering , PhicsWe do not find any traces of an aspirated R, rh. The letter s presents little debatable matter, for the sup- of Latin names, through Greek, its hieroglyphic correposition as to its sound to be mentioned below is but con- spondent is employed for ov. Here again we must inquire jectural. This, however, is not the case with sh, the whether this is the result of the difference of dialects, or represound of which we must endeavour to ascertain. It has whether the two sounds existed in the sacred language 3 sented, as probably in Hebrew, by one letter. The latter been already shown that its proper sound was sh, but there are strong reasons for supposing that it was pronounced seems probable, since, on the one hand, it is not reasonable CH or kh in one dialect. Thus Herodotus calls Shufu to exclude b from one dialect, and on the other, because, if B Xcoi/f (XeWa); the names Xerxes and Artaxerxes are writ- were never bh, then v would have been always represented ten Shsheeursh and Artashsheshes, in which cases a by F, which it never is, and thus Seferus would have more sign for sh is evidently employed as ch or kh. But as nearly represented Severus (Seo^pos) than Seberus. We the sign which in every one of these cases represents ch shall see, too, that the weight of evidence is in favour of the or kh is sometimes rendered by cy in Coptic, and as He- existence of aspirated sounds of several letters, that is, of certain letters having been sometimes aspirated in the sacred rodotus can only be supposed to have given the pronun- dialect. The pronunciation of the next letter f has already ciation which he heard, while foreign names could only be been determined as that of a v approaching the sound of f. rendered by the letters nearest resembling their sounds, The letter which we have called p is used for the Greek II these examples afford no convincing evidence, nor has any and , whence we may infer that it had the true sound of such been adduced. Even Chevalier Bunsen, who has the latter (being probably pronounced fh, or perhaps ph), separated the two sounds as distinct letters in his voca- no less than the sound which we usually ascribe to it, ph. bulary, does not propose to maintain that they were oriThe one hieroglyphic letter k corresponds partly or wholly ginally separate, for he says that it is doubtful if at the X and that is, to k, kh (ch), and earliest period there were any distinction between them.1 to the Coptic K, If we suppose, as is most reasonable, that the two sounds kk, for there can be little doubt that the last two (X and were represented by one letter, we have still to determine 6) represent a harsh k (p, ( 'j, and /contra). The first sound whether they existed in the sacred language, or were differences of dialects. The smallness of the alphabet, and K is unquestionably made out, and may be considered the the undoubted certainty that certain other letters had proper sound of the letter, and its aspirated form is shown more than one sound, would indeed incline one to the former to have been known to the sacred language by examples2of view, but a consideration of tjie relation of the two sounds Manetho’s transcriptions of kings’ names given in a note ( ) will convince him that this supposition would be at variance below. Lastly, t appears to have also had the sound of th, with the analogy of the language. Sh should rather in- though not of r>. Although the t was employed in the clude the sound of s, which indeed it may, like the Hebrew time of the Ptolemies and Caesars to represent the Greek if the letter usually called s be a hard letter (ss) like J3- A as the nearest sound, the first introduction of D into the On the other hand, the interchange of sh and ch or kh is a language is under the form NT, for so was the name of Danatural occurrence, of which many instances might be pro- rius spelt, Ntereeush, whence, as this was probably a duced, as in the derivation of Guadalaxara (Guadalachara) simple D in both old Persian and Greek, we may infer that from Wadi-l-Asharah, and of Sherry from Xeres (Cheres). sound to have been unrepresented in the Egyptian alphabet. T seems, however, to have had sometimes the sound of th This peculiarity exists also in the Coptic, cy interchanging in the sacred dialect, for such would have been the case by w ith OC, hut not with a circumstance of great import- analogy, and the transcriptions of Egyptian names would ance, since the last letter is derived in its form from one of lead to the same inference.—It has not been attempted in the hieroglyphic signs most commonly corresponding to the these observations to determine, in the cases in which letfirst and second. This circumstance shows that eJ}, which ters appear to have had in the sacred dialect more than is maintained to be the representative of the ancient sound, a single sound, when a letter took one sound or another, is derived from a hieroglyphic equivalent of letters which or, in other words, when its sound was changed by its podo not interchange with it in Coptic, and thus the argument sition. Some steps may be taken towards doing this; but based on the form of d} being ancient is not valid. This the carelessness of the ancients in the transcription of foreign names into Greek, and the corrupt orthography of evidence in showing that the sh and kh were only separate Coptic, render the probabilities of great success very slight. letters by reason of the dialects (the sh of the sacred dialect Still, by the application of the inductive process, which is being rendered in the vulgar dialect, or its Memphite form, not sufficiently employed in inquiries of this nature, it may by kh), forbids us to imagine them to have been ever dis- be possible to obtain more satisfactory results than those at tinguished in the hieroglyphics. which we have hitherto arrived. In the meanwhile, the Of the mutes, b appears to have been sometimes aspi- following table gives a statement of the fruits of our exarated, taking a sound resembling v, that is, bh. For this mination of the Egyptian alphabet. 1

Egypt's Place, vol. i., pp. 490, 572. Manet ho, who may be fairly concluded to have given, as nearly as he could in Greek, the pronunciation of the sacred dialect, seems e ntlered thG SH by lo in the Ih APR A • ° wVe £’ em y g orX for * aspirated. The examples are lavtpig, j ^ovQt;, SHUFU e /nd,o however, or PXev^i^ng, for ASHENATENR A, where SHSHUFU is rendered by % or x, and ; for PEANSH. These are the instances that occur in the Dynasties. In the fragments of the history we find for the Coptic CyOOC, jyCUC, or cyCUCLJ. The ^ on the other band is frequently used for the letter x as its aspirated form: thus, or XooV NUFRKARA; KAENRA; "A* ,’AAKU; MENKURA; w fU™ARKARA; MENKAHER; SHeSHeNK; 2e/3^i, SHeBeK (but SHeBeK also ( nothtnahnJn^TJ PSEMETEK; N^, NEKU; ’ AX^, HAKeR;—as positively against these can be adduced noinmg nut the corrupt transcription of AMENSAPeHER.

HIEROGLYPHICS.

417 Hieroglyphics.

Hieroglyphics. The Egyptian Alphabet. Egyptian ilphabet compared with Greek Hebrew, ind Coptic

Primitive Sound.

Derivative Sound.

(’A) A

Certain. E

Probable. 6, u A1, E2, H3, O4 5

Y, EE W, 00, U

Used for Greek.

O

9

10

11

O , O , Y , OY 12

13

14

E ,A ,O

M

M13

N

N

16

R

P17,

(L

SH

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 23 26 27 28 29

VOL. XI.

37

v

n3, n6

8

38

E ,A ,I

7

43

44

45

P , 'P , (A?)

D

U

J8

N

-i9, y

P ,2^ C, cy,

48

2 ,K 49

2

D' 30

B , OY

a13

n $

23

n ,$

K24,

p25

K54, X53

32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

52

3G

R,q q,R

D

22

p26 ^27

TH

III, O, 6,1, h X, svIxYi, rz/Beglo?. oti/Tisn/EIj/oj. wroXe^AIof, xAIo-agOf. 'TrtQ'hifAouos, xMOttxtqx. oturoxgarng. xTtox^xtuq. OTsavxiuxvos. KTohlZ/xxio;, /3EgEw/x». xxio;. TrroheyxiOg. wroXeMamf. «g 12 DTlI^ veQsQnYig. 32 «gIl0Xg«T)?f. 13 63 O/o-^. 64 v/r^Kg/j, rsegKoj. 14 nirroVfl 65 V£(p£gX£g)7f, X£V£g)5f, pev'X.sgj^f, v£Xc*iy. 16 86 PO \px/xy,YiTixog, Txgxog. 67 o@o>7f, rxxiKKutdig. 16 rt>

K,

X

T, 0,

ples as far as possible of the earliest times at which this some one of the categories, and since the ideographic hiero- P transcription was usual. In like manner, the examples of glyphics represent ideas of every kind, they may be convethe transcription of hieroglyphic words into Greek cha- niently referred to the categories. The ten categories of racters have been chosen from those writers alone who un- Aristotle have been separated into two heads, substance and derstood the hieroglyphic writing, or from those who drew attribute, or accident, the former comprehending the first of their information from such writers. To have referred to these categories, and the latter the remaining nine. It others who merely give the pronunciation of the common will be seen at once that all the iconographic hieroglyphics people would have involved the inquiry in confusion and stand for real things referrible to the category of substance ; error. With respect to the instances of Hebrew words and that all the symbolic hieroglyphics, excepting those very rendered by hieroglyphics, it has been necessary to exclude few which stand for beings or things which, as ideal, could such as appear to have been adopted into the ancient Egyp- not be represented but by symbols, are referrible to the tian language, whether proper names or not, and to reject categories comprehended under the head of attribute. Iconographic signs represent, therefore, real things alone, such parts of words as seem to be only Egyptian forms, not literal transcriptions. As to these and the Egyptian words or, grammatically, all substantives which are names of real written in Hebrew, it has been necessary to except such as things, as man, dog, house, country, and the like. There are appear to be of common origin rather than borrowed, such probably no other substantives in the Egyptian language as Caphthor, Caphthorim. The Coptic corresponding let- excepting names of such ideal things as are referrible to the ters are the result of an examination of Bunsen’s vocabu- category of substance. Symbolical signs may be classed in the following manner, lary, and are placed as far as possible according to the frequency of their occurrence. Common correspondents are the categories being arranged in a grammatical order:— written in capitals. I. Substance.—Substantives which are names of ideal things reA comparison of the table with what has been previously ferrible to this category; as, “ Hades.” Personal pronouns ; as, “ I,” “ thou.” said respecting the alphabet, will tend to show the general accuracy of those antecedent views ; while a careful inspec- II. Attribute. 1. Quantity.—Adjectives of number; as, tion of it affords indications that there are materials for a “ first.” verbs and more accurate definition of the sound of each letter than we 2. Quality.—Adjectives of quality; as, I) And adverbs derived have ventured to give. It should be here remarked that “ good.” 3. Relation.—Adjectives of relation ; as, | from them. one character is used for the Hebrew y, and transcribed by “ great.” that letter, showing that the A had sometimes something 4. Action.—Adjective verbs (derived). of a guttural sound. The use of this very character for the 5. Suffering.—Adjective verbs (derived). Greek A forbids us, however, to suppose that its sound was 6. Collocation.—Participles of adjective verbs relating to more than a slightly guttural A. position. 7. Place.—Prepositions and adverbs of place ; as, “ in,” “ to,” “ on high.” Writing. § 2. WRITING, OR REPRESENTATION OF SOUNDS BY WRITTEN 8. Time.—Adverbs of time; as, “ ever.” Prepositions of CHARACTERS. time ; as, “ after.” Various According to the definition previously given of the hiero9. Possession.—Possessive pronouns ; as, “ thy.” kinds of glyphics, these characters were delineations of material obHence it is evident why so few signs are used both in an hierogly- jects employed to denote real things by figures, ideal things phics. jjy symbols, or to represent sounds by characters either syl- iconographic and a symbolic sense. It should be observed labic or alphabetic. We may divide these signs therefore, that particles of place, time, and situation are rarely expressed by symbolical characters, and that when such chainto two classes, each subdivided into two kinds. racters are employed they are symbolico-phonetic. 1.—Ideographic Signs. In the oldest form of the Egyptian language we find very phonetic few characters which have an indiscriminate alphabetic use, signs, the greater number of the phonetic signs being only used with a particular alphabetic sign or signs by way of comr plement to express a syllable. This complement being Fig. 1. Fig. 2. frequently omitted, the initial sign acquires a syllabic value, 1. Iconographic, as (fig. 1), “an obelisk.” standing for a syllable. The two kinds of phonetic charac2. Symbolic, as (fig. 2), “ to strike.” ters have therefore no distinction as to signification. They 2.—Phonetic Signs. are employed to represent the sounds of the names of things represented by figures and symbols in the other class, as well as some ideas excluded by their nature from that class, like the substantive verb “ to be,” and almost all particles of place, time, and situation. This phonetic class Fig. 1. Fig. 2. should be therefore the more comprehensive, since it should 1. Syllabic, as (fig. ]), “stable, firm,” where the first sign contain the sounds of the whole of the signs of the other class may be put for the whole word. with those of words not contained in that class. Of the 2. Alphabetic, as (fig. 2), Shufu, Suphis (I.), the name form of the syllables we shall have to speak more fully hereof the second king of the Fourth Dynasty. after in treating of the roots ; but it is here needful to notice It must be observed that the ideographic signs are, though an important peculiarity in the mode of writing them, already indirectly, no less representations of sounds than the pho- mentioned. In the case of syllables commencing and ending Place of netic ; also that few signs were used in both classes, or in with a consonant the medial vowel was usually written after vowel, both kinds of the former class; and that both kinds of the the final consonant. Professor Lepsius was the first to suglatter class are connected by the syllabic signs being fre- gest that this might be the case in syllables apparently terquently used alphabetically with their proper complement. minating in u in the written characters. Thus the name

HIEROGLYPHICS. 419 Hierogly- of the god Chons was written Shnsu (Khnsu), where the S-SHEE, “ writing, to write.” Copt. CA.^), Hieroglyphics. position of the vowel is proved by the Greek orthography c^e, c^>h ; s. cgAi, &c. v > and that of the Copts in the name of the month Ila^wv, Stee, “ an arrow.” Copt. COTE, nA-^CJUffC, JIA-LycUflC. But this principle, which has COOTE. been recognised as correct with respect to the u vowel, has T-hau, “ To be intoxicated.” Copt. never been carried out with reference to the others. Notwithstanding, there is abundant evidence to show its wider ei^>i; s. TAgE, +ge. application. The word for horse is, for example, written T-hnee, “ the forehead.” Copt. S. TEgltE. htra, corresponding to the Coptic g/TO, pi. g/TUUp, T-htee, “ lead.” Copt. TAgT, TATgand since it is a root, and therefore monosyllabic, can only Of these instances, eight are in accordance with the be read star or hatr, the former of which forms appears from the Coptic to be the correct one.—As the principle proposed principle, and an equal number neither for nor it, and but one (kbee) altogether against it. under consideration may be considered to be directly or against we take into consideration the remarkable irregularity indirectly admitted with respect to the u vowel in conse- of If Coptic with respect to the vowels, the circumstance that quence of such instances as that of the name of the god some monosyllabic roots may have commenced with two Chons, written Shnsu, but pronounced Shuns ; that of the and terminated with a vowel, and that among god Munt, written Mntu ; and many others,—it becomes consonants the words given above as monosyllables, some are perhaps necessary to consider only the A and i vowels. It should dissyllables, we must admit that the medial vowel in hierobe remembered that the admission of a principle of this glyphic and hieratic writing usually followed the consonant kind as to one vowel, makes its application, to say the least, or consonants which it preceded in pronunciation. It would highly probable to the other two, the short or inexpressed obviously be wrong always to write the vowel which follows vowel being necessarily excluded. In order to test the ap- the consonants of a monosyllable before one or more of those plicability of the principle, several apparently monosyllabic consonants ; and our safest plan, excepting where the sound words, mostly roots, were chosen at random from Cham- renders a medial vowel absolutely necessary, will be to pollion’s Dictionnaire Egyptien, and compared with their endeavour to ascertain from the Coptic whether the vowel Coptic equivalents, and the following was the result:— in question was final or not, and we shall thus be enabled ultimately to establish something like a general rule as to A.—Hna, “with.” Copt. ^>erf; s. grt. Mna, “ to come to port, disembark.” Copt. ULOff ; the position of the vowels. We should remember, however, that the system of writing a language is always more S. JUUMt. “A port,” JUtOffH. or less irregular with respect to its pronunciation, and that Msha, “to fight, a warrior.” Copt, “a fight,” the Egyptians did not endeavour to write their language juut£j!; s. juucye. in such a manner as to facilitate the labours of future disSba, “a flute.” Copt. CHCJI; £. CHCJE. “A reed,” coverers. Every word in the Egyptian language doubtless could be DeterminceRi; s. cH&e. written phonetically, and nearly every one could also be re- atives. Shrau, “a son.” Copt. cxjHpi ; s. u^Hpe. presented by a figure or symbol, that is, ideographically. Ska, “to labour, to plough.” Copt, “to plough,” These two systems were combined either accidentally, by the mixture of phonetic and ideographic signs in an inscription cxi; ck^i. or writing, some words being represented in the former manTsha, “a stronghold.” Copt. s. TO«J. ner, others in the latter, or, essentially, by a single word being Tsha, “a boundary, frontier.” Copt. S. written in both ways. The former of these modes of comTOty. bination requires no further explanation, but the latter must O these examples seven are in accordance with the sup- be examined in some detail, from its being characteristic of posed principle, and but one (ska), which may possibly be the system, and on account of its value, to which we have a derivative form (s-ka), against it. That respecting already adverted, in facilitating and verifying interpretation. When a single word was represented both phonetically which some doubt might be entertained, on account of its Coptic correspondents, mna, may be fairly supposed to have and ideographically, the ideographic sign was employed as a determinative to determine the sense of the word to which had a medial vowel. it was attached, whereof in some instances it also representI.— Fntee, “ a worm.” Copt. CJEffT; S. CjlfT, ElUT. ed part of the sound for the whole of which it stood when Hfee, “ a serpent.” Copt. g,OCJ, £CJUJ; S. £Ofi.. employed alone. Determinatives are either initial, medial, or final; either Hree, “ to terrify, to fear.” Copt. ^OYp- “ Terror,” generic or specific ; either simply ideographic or both ideo&E?\1; s. graphic and phonetic at the same time. The final or afHnbee, “ a fountain.” Copt. S. gorfRE. fixed determinatives must be first considered, then the iniHtee, “a heart.” Copt. QWT > 5 £. ^TH. tial, and lastly the medial, as this is the order of their importance. Kbee, “ a honeycomb.” Copt. KEjRl. Krmee, “ Carthamus.” Copt. K pAJUl. “ Carthamus 1. Final Determinatives. silvestris.” 1. Generic determinatives restrict the word which they Final deNbee, “ to swim.” Copt- S. ftEERE, ftHHR-E. follow to a generic signification. Thus the representation termina“ Swimming” (act of), M. ffERl. of the sun restricts the words which it follows to the signi- tivesNhee, “ a sycamore.” Copt. fication of light, or time, and the representation of a fish Sbtee, “ a wall.” Copt. CoRT". restricts the words which it follows to the sense of fish, i.e., Shree, “ to, towards.” Copt. S. ^^.pO, g,p^I 5 some kind of fish, or something abominable. These adjuncts have generally both a primary generic meaning and B. cy*p*. a secondary ; the primary meaning being either literal, as Sntee, “ to found.” Copt. “ Foundations,” CEft+ ; in the latter example, or of a simple tropical character, as in S. CEfTTE, CYrtTE J B. CHfti". the former, and the secondary meaning being tropical in a

420 HIEROGLYPHICS. Hierogly- greater or less degree. These signs are also used as speci- the following examples; unusual forms being denoted by Hieroglyphics. determinatives, as when the representation of the sun an asterisk (*). phics. follows its name ; and this is doubtless the primitive meanI. Uniliteral— ing of every generic determinative, although it cannot al* Vowel A (Affixed pronoun), “ Me,” &c. ways be traced. The generic final determinatives are not II. Biliteral— numerous. 1. Consonant and vowel. Ba, “ a goat.” 2. Specific determinatives restrict the word to which 2. Vowel and consonant. Aw “tobe ;” un, id. they are applied to the signification of a species ; thus, the representation of a cat follows III. Triliteral— the word “male cat,”snAu; that of a particular 1. Consonant, vowel, and consonant. Men (inexpr. kind of boat, the name of that boat; and sometimes they serve vowel), “ to establish.” to distinguish different uses of the same word, as when the *2. Consonant, consonant, and vowel. Sna, “ to word “ wa,” a boat, is shown to mean a “ boat” simply, bend.” or a “ barge.” This is a very numerous division of deter3. Vowel,consonant, and consonant. Art, “milk.” minatives. IV. Quadriliteral— Final determinatives appear scarcely ever to have any * 1. Consonant, cons., vow., and cons. Pteh, phonetic value when used as such,1 and they are very rarely “ Ptah,” Vulcan. so placed as to become initial, and never, as far as is known, 2. Consonant, vow., cons., and cons. Shuns, Chons. medial. It is not probable that there are any quinquiliteral roots. 2. Initial Determinatives. Of the preceding forms the most common, and those from Initial deThese determinatives are distinguished by having a pho- which most derivatives are taken, are the biliteral and the termina- netic value and standing for the first letter of the word which triliteral having a medial vowel. The vowel of the former tives. they restrict. They are generally limited to a specific signi- is generally long when the consonant precedes and short fication, since no one of them can be applied to more than a when it follows, and that of the latter is generally short, if we may judge from Coptic and analogically. The followsingle root. Thus ^ the so-called crux ansata, the em- ing may be given as the order of the forms according to the blem of life, is the initial letter of the word ansh (ankh) number of words belonging to each, the consonant being u living.” These determinatives are very rarely employed denoted by “ c,” and the vowel by “ v.” as final ones, and rarely as medial, and they are not a large 1. CV. 2. CYC. 3. VC. 4. YCC. class. 5. cvcc. 6. ccvc. 7. ccv. 8. v. It would lead us beyond the province of the present 3. Medial Determinatives. article were we to endeavour to ascertain the meanings of Medial deThese determinatives immediately follow the first the various forms, or whether they had originally peculiar termina- letter of a root, and arealways almost always initial determina- meanings, but it should be remarked that certain roots are tives. tives deprived of their phonetic value, but otherwise they imitative, representing things by their sounds. Thus the are final determinatives transposed. This class is names of animals are taken in many instances from their very limited. Of the former kind we may instance, | cries, and the like is the case with some words descriptive kept (commonly written hotp or hotep), signifying of noises. This is the hieroglyphic method brought before “ devoted” or the like. the mind through the ear instead of the eye. There are some determinatives which cannot be included Derivatives are formed in five ways, by changing the Derivain any of these classes. Of these one of the most com- vowel, by increasing the word at its commencement, bytivesmon is the ring in which royal names are inclosed. It is increasing the word at its end, by reduplication, and by also found as the final determinative of the word ren, a agglutination. “ name;” and in one of the earliest inscriptions we find its I. Change of vowel.—Man, “to come to port,” from primitive form, that of a signet-ring (which appears to have men, “ to establish.” been elongated in order to comprehend in it the characters composing royal names), as the determinative of a king’s II. Increase at commencement— name.2 1. Ma, place. Ma-anshu, “ the abode of the living” (pi.) Determinatives, being properly ideographic signs, are either iconographic or symbolic, or both, as may be seen 2. S, Causation. S-ansh, “ to cause to live” (and by the examples mentioned above. It will not be necesother verbal forms to be noticed subsequently). sary to speak of these signs more in detail, since they must III. Increase at end— be again noticed when we come to consider the different 1. Ee;—a. Belonging to. Amenee,’A^covto?, pr. n. parts of speech. b. Verbal form, usually participial. Meree, “ beloved,” from her, “ to love.” Words. § 3.—WORDS. c. Substantive result of action cf verb. Roots. In a language of so primitive a character as the EgypS-SHEE, “ a writing, the writing” {i.e., a tian, it is especially needful to endeavour to ascertain the a thing written), from s-shau, “ to characteristics of the roots. One thing is certain respecting write.” Hay, “ a stela” (?>., a thing them, that they are always monosyllabic, except perhaps in set up), from ha, “ to set up.” some names imitative of sound ; and this is an essential pe2. U, abstract noun from verb. Hau, “ duration,” culiarity of the language which is of the highest importance. from Ha, “ to set up,” “ establish.” 1 hey are either uniliteral, biliteral, triliteral, or quadrili3. Nu, added to some words ending in n for the teral, and each class has several forms, as may be seen by sake of euphony, as ben-nu, “ the Phoenix.” 1 There are possible exceptions to this rule, as perhaps the word AB “ to be thirsty, thirst,” which would seem to have been pronounced AB-NUN, for it is rendered as the name of a Shepherd-king, the third sovereign of the Fifteenth Dynasty, ’ (Man. Jos.) vxv IhnX (Man. Afr.) ; but the Coptic equivalent is liil, &c. There are also determinatives of sound, not of sense. 2 Modern Egypt and Thebes, vol. i., p. 368.

HIEROGLYPHICS. lieroglyphics.

4. Su, added to some words ending in s for the sake of euphony, as mes-su, “ born.” Besides these there are the inflectional terminations, which must be noticed in another place. IV. Reduplication— a. Augmentative, as tcn-tcn, “ to revolt,” from TeN, “ to raise one’s self.” b. Frequentative, as tcf-tcf, “ to drip.” c. Imitative of the cries of animals, &c., as ka-ka, “ to cackle ;” seN-seN, a kind of heron. V. Agglutination— 1. Two substantives. Suten-SA (king’s son), “ prince.” 2. Substantive and epithet. Men-nufr (goodabode), “ Memphis.” 3. Verb and substantive. Has-sba, “a flute-player,” from has, “ to play,” and sba, “ a flute.” 4. Preposition and substantive. Em-ha,M “ in front.” 5. Preposition and adverb. Er-tet (?), for ever.” Changes in The changes in pronunciation must here be noticed, and, ronouncit]ie contractions. Uon. ^0 euphonic terminations nit and su were frequently omitted, as we may conclude from their being often left out in the inscriptions, and from the correspondence of the words to which they were applied to their Coptic forms. The letter r or l was frequently dropped at the end of a monosyllable. The cause of this elision was the weak sound which this letter had with the Egyptians, as is alone evident from its representing both R and l. The words her, ker, hur, and mer were not only written ha, ka, hu, and ma, but so pronounced, as is proved by each of them being written in both manners in Coptic as well as in hieroglyphics. The English and German pronunciation of the final R is an exactly parallel case. It does not seem possible, however, to determine by any rules what was the practice of the ancient Egyptians, nor do the inscriptions afford us a safe guide, since we cannot prove that the abbreviated form indicates in all cases an abbreviated pronunciation. Euphony, combined with ancient transcriptions, will be our safest guide. Thus we find meree-amen or mer-amen transcribed Miaggov (Mia/quow1?), and euphony points out mee-amen as the ancient pronunciation. So, too, with mee-ra, Motpis. By this discovery we have been enabled to settle more than one difficulty. The word, for example, usually written with a beetle and mouth, was known to signify “ transmigration” or “ transformation,” as constantly in the Ritual (Lepsius, Todtenbuch, ch. Ixxvi., and passim), and its sound was generally held, and for good reasons, to be tar or ter. For this no equivalent had been discovered in the Coptic. But if we admit the rule given above, we find the corresponding word in 'Y,transmutare. With respect to transpositions, it is very difficult to judge, since the letters of a word were generally written in the same order, whether that were the order of pronunciation or not. There is, however, some evidence to show that both consonants and vowels were transposed. For example, the name of the crocodile is written mshu, msuh, and hmsu, and in Coptic S. eJUtCA^g, and by Herodotus is given as the Egyptian name for crocodiles. Hence itseems that transpositions in writing indicate differences of pronunciation no less than does the omission of the final R, in many instances at least. It is evident that in the most ancient mode of writing transpositions were more numerous than afterwards, as we may see by comparing the inscriptions in the tombs of the time of the Fourth Dynasty near the GreatPyramid, with those of monuments of the Eighteenth Dynasty. The names of the gods, which we find to have continued unchanged until 1

421

the latest period at which hieroglyphics were used, and which Hieroglytherefore we may conclude to have been preserved from the phics. beginning of hieroglyphic writing, are most remarkable for the -v—^ transposed mode in which their characters are arranged. That of Osiris, for example, is usually written Ar-hes, though pronounced Hes-ar; and that of Nephthys, eithe- Nebt-ee or Ee-nebt. Religious reasons, perhaps, had somewhat to do with these transpositions, as with the adjectives “ divine” and “royal,” which preceded in writing the names to which they were applied, contrary to the use of the language, to which the exceptions are very rare. The word “ Ra,” “ the sun,” again, in royal names always occupies the first place, whether pronounced at the beginning of the name or not, thus Shaf-ra is written Ra-shaf ; and Men-kura, Ra-men-ku. It is important to notice that doubled letters were expressed, Doubled though they seem to have been almost confined to foreign letters, words, except when the addition of the terminations nu and su rendered the final letters N and s double. Of foreign names we may1 instance that of an African nation or country, Tekrerr; and that of the lonians, Haunenn or Haunnen, also written Haunen and thus showing that the reduplication was not always expressed. Certain signs have been concluded to be expletives used Expletive merely to fill up a gap in a group of characters, whether in sign, the middle or at the end of a word. Champollion enumerated several of these, but some of them are determinatives, and but one certainly an expletive. This is the papyrus-roll, which follows substantives, adjectives, verbs, and prepositions; and some of these, such as na, “great,” meh, “to fill, full,” almost always ; it cannot, therefore, be anything but a mere expletive, as Champollion concluded it to be. Bunsen has indeed assigned to it two uses, for he calls it a “ period at end of sentences,” and “ the hieroglyphical stop or end of a group,” making it thus a simple division and a stop. Its constant employment after particular words, in the midst of some words, and where no stop is admissible, affords a positive disproof of these definitions, which seem, though somewhat obscure, to contradict one another. The section of grammar relating to the parts of speech has Parts of next to be considered, and this may be conveniently divided speech, into what relates to inflected and what tonon-inflected words. It must not be supposed, however, that any words were in themselves capable of inflexion, lor the language was not in that sense susceptible of inflexion, but the ideas of number, gender, and person were added to a word by prefixes or suffixes, and the reception or non-reception of these signs of inflexion is what constitutes the great divisions into which we may separate the etymology of the Egyptian language. The most convenient order, with reference to'inflected words, will be to examine the article first, then the pronoun, then the noun in its two kinds of substantive and adjective, and, lastly, the verb. Before speaking of the article, it is necessary to men- signs of tion the signs of the singular, masculine and feminine, gender and and of the plural, more especially as one of these has been number, confounded with the article. I he sign of the masculine singular is a single vertical line | g which is properly the sign of the singular only. The singular feminine is distinguished by the character . Both appear to have been used as determinatives, though they sometimes represented sounds, the former the sound a and the latter t. We find the latter retained in many Coptic words at the commencement or the end, though in others it is omitted, while for the former there is no certain equivalent. The plural is denoted by three vertical lines variously dis- ^ I J 8 posed, and sometimes with the fern, sign 1 , . * prefixed. All these signs are therefore to 5 * ‘ ^

The modern name Tekroor, pi. Takarneh.

HIEROGLYPHICS. 422 Object fem., person spoken to masc. Hierogly Hierogly- be regarded as determinatives, and that of the feminine as phics. Thy (/.) rt trou (m.) phics. sometimes indicating a feminine form either commencing Sing. Taeek, teeK, TAK or terminating with L It is important to observe that Object masc., person spoken to fem. there is evidence to show that this feminine form existed Sing. Paeet, pueet, peet, PAT Thy (m.) a a-a? (/.) in both varieties in the ancient language no less than in the Object fem., person spoken to fem. Coptic. As, however, it is almost always suffixed in the Sing. Taeet, TUEET, TEET, TAT Thy (/.) £ 4^ an(j |st an(j 2d Will. IV. c. 43, together with local statutes for different counties. The highways in England are under the regulations of the statute 5th and 6th Will. IV. c. 50. The local statutes are interpreted as if they formed part of the general ones, and are only effectual in so far as they are consistent with them. There are also the statutes 3d and 4th Will. IV. c. 33, relative to Highland roads ; the 1st and 2d Viet. c. 118, relative to the conveyance of the mails by railroads, and powers of the postmaster-general ; and 2d and 3d Viet. c. 45, regulating the crossing of highways by railways. The parish roads are still maintained on their old footing by statute labour. The trustees of highways are not entitled to shut up parish roads, or interrupt servitude roads, in order to compel parties to travel on the highways, whereby they may be made liable in tolls. The other roads or ways mentioned above are properly servitudes or burdens on estates for the benefit of conterminous heritors, their families, friends, and tenants, and bear some resemblance to the Roman servitudes,—iter, a right of horse or foot passage, actus, a carriage way, and via, which was broader than the others, and comprehended the rights of both. The usages of Scotland are analogous to these ; excepting that a horse road is not included in a foot road. These servitude rights are sometimes constituted by writing, and sometimes by immemorial possession and acquiescence. In whatever way constituted, they cannot be enlarged without the consent of the owner of the land over which they pass ; and he is not bound to be at any expense in maintaining the way. A right merely of footpath does not prevent the owner of the land from inclosing it, provided he leave a stile for the passengers at each end of the enclosure ; and he may even shift the line a little if no real inconvenience be occasioned. In England, as in Scotland, a right of way may be acquired by prescription, as when the inhabitants of a hamlet, or owners or occupiers of a farm have immemorially crossed ground for particular purposes, such as going to church, or market, or the like; for such immemorial usage supposes that there was originally a grant. The great distinction between a servitude of way and a public road is, that the former belongs only to the parties by whom it has been acquired, while the latter is open to any body who chooses to use it, and who may even brevi manu remove any unwarranted obstructions that have been recently erected. HIGHWORTH, a market-town of England, Wiltshire, on a hill 26 miles N. by E. of Devizes. Its church, which belongs chiefly to the fourteenth century, contains some curious old monuments. Market-day, Wednesday. Pop. of parish (1851), 4026. HILARIA, a great Roman festival, celebrated in honour of Cybele at the vernal equinox. It was begun on the 22d of March and brought to a close on the 25th. The last day of the feast was the most important, and the inhabitants of the city then abandoned themselves to the most extravagant merry-making. All kinds of amusements were in vogue, especially masquerading, which, from the earliest times, has been popular in Italy. The only religious ceremony was the solemn procession of the priests, who bore round the streets the statue of the great mother of the gods with many solemnities. The only object of the festival was to celebrate the departure of winter with its snows and gloom, and to hail the approach of spring. HILARY, Bishop of Arles, was born in Gaul at the beginning of the fifth century. Belonging to a family of distinction, he received a good education and gave early proof of ability and perseverance. Through the influence of Honoratus, abbot of Lerins, he became a monk ; and after some strong opposition on his part, he consented to become bishop of Arles, at the early age of 29. The part which VOL. XI.

II I L 433 he took in the deposition of Chelidonius involved him in a Hilary, quarrel with Leo the Great. Both Hilary and Chelidonius betook themselves to Rome, but Hilary, though willing to consult Leo, was not willing to submit to his authority. This at once provoked the hostility of the Pontiff. The deposition of Chelidonius was cancelled, and Hilary was obliged to make his escape, as best he could, back to Gaul. After being deprived of his authority by Leo, the well-known edict of Valentinian III. decreed, “ Ut Episcopis Gallicanis omnibusque pro lege esset quidquid apostolicae sedis auctoritas sanxisset, &c.” This encroachment upon Gallican ecclesiastical liberty is important in the controversy between Romanists and Protestants, as showing, first, that about the middle of the 5th century supreme power was claimed by the Roman Pontiff; and, secondly, that this claim was resisted by the metropolitan of Gaul. Hilary died a.d. 449, 49 years of age. He wrote numerous epistles, of which that addressed to Eucherius is extant. We have also his life of Honoratus his preceptor. Hilary, the Deacon, was born in Sardinia in the middle of the 4th century. He and Lucifer of Cagliari appeared at the Council of Milan before Constantius, to defend the followers of Athanasius. His remarks offended the emperor so much that he was ordered to be scourged and sent into banishment. He held that all heretics, including Arians, should be re-baptized before admission to the Catholic Church. Some writings ascribed to him are probably not his. Hilary, St, Bishop of Poictiers, was born in the same town at the beginning of the 4th century. His parents were pagans of distinction, who afforded him every means of acquiring a good education. He was particularly struck with the writings of Moses, and afterwards with the gospels. He became a Christian, and was baptized along with his wife and daughter. He was greatly respected in his native city, and, although married, he was chosen bishop. This took place at the middle of the 4th century. At this period Arianism was spreading rapidly through the Western Church, and he set himself to oppose it. With this view he obtained the excommunication of Saturninus, bishop of Arles. But by the Council of Beziers, a.d. 356, he was banished to Phrygia. In 359 he made his appearance at the convocation of bishops at Sileucia in Isauria, and energetically resisted the opponents of the consubstantiality of the Word. Thereafter, at Constantinople, he was so persevering against the prevailing Arianism of the court, that he was sent back to his bishopric at Poictiers. Though he was received in triumph, he had enough to do for some time in eradicating the Arianism which had sprung up during his absence. After expelling Saturninus a second time, he accused Auxentius, bishop of Milan, of holding erroneous views. Both were summoned before the emperor Valentinian. Auxentius gave satisfactory answers. Hilary declared him a hypocrite, and was ordered to leave Milan as a disturber of the peace of the church. He died in January 368. His great energy of character, his courage and unwearied perseverance rendered him very influential during his life. His zeal, however, was often injudicious. He was called the hammer of the Arians {Malleus Arianoruni), from his determined opposition to the Arian heresy. Of his works, his Commentary on Matthew is the oldest extant on that evangelist. His most elaborate work consists of twelve books on the Trinitarian controversy. He wrote several books addressed to the Emperor Constantius in favour of the Catholics against the persecutions of the Arians ; he wrote also several epistles still extant, and some poems have been ascribed to him. The best edition of his works is that of Constant, reprinted by Scipio Maffei, 1730. 2 vols. folio. Hilary Term, a legal term in England, beginning January 11, and ending January 31. The festival of St Hilary, from which this term takes its name, is January 13, 31

434 H I L Hildburg- HILDBURGHAUSEN, a town of Central Germany, hausen duchy of Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen, on the Wena, II 17 miles S.E. of Meiningen. It was formerly the capital of HilL Saxe-Hildburghausen till the union of that duchy with Saxe1 v ~1 y Meiningen, and is now the seat of a consistory and of an upper district court. It has a gymnasium, normal, trade, and Jewish schools, and a lunatic and an orphan asylum. The castle is a fine building. Manufactures chiefly cloth and papier-mache. Pop. 4300. HILDESHEIM, a province of Hanover, comprising the principality of Hildesheim, which forms the most southern part of Hanover Proper, the principalities of Gottingen and Grubenhagen, the county of Hohnstein and the Lower Eichsfeld. Area 1717 square miles. The principality of Hildesheim originated in a bishopric instituted in 812 by Charlemagne, at Else, but removed in 822 to Hildesheim. In course of time, the bishops acquired a considerable territory, amounting, in the beginning of the present century, to 682 square miles. The last prince bishop of Hildesheim possessed also the bishopric of Paderborn, acquired by his predecessor. Both bishoprics were secularized and ceded to Prussia in 1803. In 1807 they were incorporated with the kingdom of Westphalia, but were restored in 1813 to Prussia, which ceded Hildesheim to Hanover, retaining only Paderborn. The principality of Hildesheim is generally level except towards the S., where it is traversed by branches of the Hartz. Its principal stream is the Innerste, an affluent of the Leine. A considerable portion of the surface is wooded, and the rest yields moderate crops of rye, barley, flax, and potatoes, with some wheat. The chief manufacture is linen. The principality of Gottingen is mostly covered with mountains, offsets of the Hartz, chiefly of basaltic formation. The principal river is the Weser, The soil in the mountain districts is generally stony, but that of the valleys is of great fertility. Sheep are reared in great numbers. Grubenhagen is, like Gottingen, for the most part mountainous, but the peaks are higher, and include some of the loftiest summits of the Hartz. The climate is bleak and variable. Some of the valleys are fertile and well cultivated, but these are exceptions to the general sterile character of the soil. Woods and forests, which cover above half its surface, constitute the chief wealth of the district. The mines are valuable, and yield silver, copper, lead, iron, zinc, vitriol, and sulphur. The remaining portions of the province are too small to require particular notice. Pop. of province (1852), 186,628, of whom 296,734 were Lutherans, 60,302 Roman Catholics, 7627 Reformed, and 3023 Jews. Hildesheim, the capital of the above province, stands on the right bank of the Innerste, 18 miles S.E. of Hanover, with which it is connected by railway. It is a large old town, irregularly built, and surrounded by ramparts now used as public promenades. The cathedral (founded by Louis the Pious, in 818) is remarkable for its fine bronze gates of the 11 th century, and paintings on glass ; among its antiquities is a marble pillar supposed to have been a Saxon idol, but now surmounted by a cross. Several of the other churches are remarkable for their antiquity and monuments. The educational institutions comprise a Roman Catholic and a Lutheran college and numerous schools. It has also a lunatic, a deaf-mute, and several orphan asylums, and a large workhouse. The chief manufacture is coarse linen cloth. Pop. 14,700, of whom about one-third are Roman Catholics. HILL, Aaron, an English miscellaneous writer of the eighteenth century, was born at London in 1685. His education at Westminster School was broken off in consequence of his father’s imprudence, who allowed the family property to go to ruin, and thus, at the early age of fourteen, he began that career of adventure which only ended with his life. Leaving England, he proceeded to Constan-

H I L tinople, where he was kindly received by Lord Paget, a Hill, relation of his mother’s, who was then British ambassador at the Turkish court. Under the care of a tutor provided by this considerate friend, young Hill travelled through Palestine, Egypt, and a great part of the East; returning to England about the year 1703. A misunderstanding with his patron compelled him to go abroad as travelling companion to a rich Yorkshire baronet; and on reaching home in 1709 he published his History of the Ottoman Empire, which, even by his own admission, had far more success than it deserved. About the same time appeared his poem of Camillus, in honour of the famous Charles Mordaunt, Earl of Peterborough ; and in the same year he was made master of Drury Lane Theatre, and afterwards of the Haymarket. Both of these offices he soon after lost through his indiscretion, and spent the remainder of his life partly in literary pursuits, and partly in commercial speculations, which were all unlucky. One of these schemes called him to the Highlands of Scotland, and while there he wrote The Progress of Wit, being a Caveat for the use of an. eminent Writer. The “ eminent writer” was Pope, who had introduced Hill into the Dunciad, though in a way that was in fact complimentary, and the “ caveat” is said to have made him feel very uneasy. Hill died in 1749, at the very moment, it is said, of the great earthquake of that year, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Two only of his seventeen dramas are now remembered, Zara and Merope, both adaptations from the French of Voltaire. His poetry is stilted and commonplace, and even the Progress of Wit never rises above a flippant smartness. Though a poor and tasteless poet, and afflicted with an overwhelming sense of his own importance, Hill was an honourable man, and his letters to Savage show his character in a very amiable light. His letters with the author of Pamela, extending from 1730 to 1748, are not quite so creditable to his taste. Some of them were prefixed by Richardson to an edition of his Pamela, and described as coming from “ a gentleman of the most distinguished taste and abilities.” Till it was known that the “ gentleman” in question was Aaron Hill, great weight was attached to the testimony of the anonymous correspondent. Hill, George, Principal and Doctor of Divinity of St Andrews, was born at St Andrews in 1750. He gave early indication of good abilities, and of a leaning towards the clerical profession. He gained the first prize in the competition proposed by the Earl of Kinnoul, chancellor of the university, and this was the beginning of a friendship which lasted for life. Through Principal Robertson, Mr Hill was appointed tutor to the eldest son of Pryse Campbell, Esq., M.P., with whom he went to London in 1767. This enabled him to send pecuniary assistance to his mother, whom he tenderly loved, and who had a family of six to rear upon very small means. In London he was not a little indebted to his attendance on a society called the RobinHood Society for his proficiency in oratory. In 1771 he removed with his pupil to Edinburgh, and in the following year was appointed joint-professor of Greek in St Andrews. In 1775 he was licensed by the Presbytery of Haddington to preach the gospel, and ordained by the same body in 1778. His eloquence and impressiveness procured his appointment to the second charge in St Andrews in 1779. In the following year, by which time he was well known as one of the most popular and efficient ministers in the church, he got the degree of doctor in divinity. In 1808 he was translated to the first charge in St Andrews. He soon afterwards became successor to Principal Robertson as leader of the Moderate Party in the controversy with regard to patronage. Principal Hill deserves honourable mention as the reviver of the study of theology in St Andrews. He had been admitted to a divinity chair in 1788, and, with his energy

H I L H i L 435 Hill. and ability, theology was treated in a manner very different “ gospel tours” into all parts of the country. In 1798, and Hill, —' from what had hitherto prevailed. His Lectures were a again in 1824, he visited Edinburgh, where, on the Calton ^ ^ good antidote to the superfieial “ refutations” of Calvinism Hill, he preached to audiences of ten, fifteen, and even twenty upon which English divines sometimes ventured. In 1791 thousand persons. After these tours he always returned he was appointed Principal of St Mary’s College. In 1816 with renewed enthusiasm to his duties at Surrey Chapel, his health began rapidly to decline, and in 1819 he died in where he continued to officiate almost to the day of his the 70th year of his age. death, 11th April 1833. Hill, Sir John, an English botanist and social notability Without a tithe of the intellect or literary skill of his great of the eighteenth century, was born in London about 1716. contemporaries, Hall and Chalmers, Rowland Hill had yet He began life as an apothecary in Westminster, was after- a gift of popular oratory nowise inferior to theirs. His wards keeper of the botanical gardens of various noblemen, power over a mixed audience was scarcely surpassed by next took to the stage, from which he was hissed, and ended that of Whitefield, whom he seems to have had always by adopting the career of letters. Some little scientific before his eyes as his model. There was no faculty which treatises which he published met with great success, and he possessed that he did not freely avail himself of in drivthis success completely turned his head. He set up a car- ing home into the hearts of his hearers the great truths of riage, affected the airs of a fine gentleman, and tried to force the gospel. Not unfrequently he violated the laws of good his way into fashionable society. To effect the latter pur- taste by eccentricities of manner, but, whether he convulsed pose he established a paper, The Inspector, in which he his hearers with the broadest humour or the most pungent chronicled all the gossip and scandal current among “ the wit, or melted them to tears with the deepest pathos, he quality,” and which he used as a vehicle for puffing the never lost his moral influence over them by condescending quack medicines in which he dealt largely. His audacious to buffoonery on the one hand or melo-dramatic affectation impudence and insatiable vanity urged him to court noto- on the other. His earnestness and intensity carried him riety in any form, and neither was he in the least abashed safely through where a mere actor would infallibly have by the personal castigations which he not unfrequently re- broken down. The current stories of his pulpit eccentriciceived in public from the victims of his scandalous periodi- ties require to be received with great caution. His works, cals. Had he not preferred to be notorious he might have which were for the most part on controverted subjects of been famous, for he really did possess a very considerable temporary interest, are already forgotten, but the memory aptitude for science; and to botanical science, in particular, of the man will long be cherished by his country as one of he made some valuable contributions, such as his Vegetable the most truly apostolic and disinterested ministers whose System, in 26 vols., 1759-75. The price of this work was names adorn the annals of the national church. (An am38 guineas plain, and 160 with the plates coloured. His bitious but ill-written life of Rowland Hill, by the Rev. British Herbal; General Natural History; and History of Edwin Sidney, A.M., a protege of his, was published in the Materia Medica, were all far from contemptible works. London in 1834.) One of the great objects of his ambition was to be admitted Hill, Rowland, better known under his title of Lord into the Royal Society, but his applications were always Hill, was one of the most distinguished officers in the Brirejected with scorn. Enraged at his repeated failures, he tish army during the great wars of revolutionary France. published a Review of the Works of the Royal Society, in He was a cadet of the ancient family of the Hills of Hawkwhich he exhausted against some of his early friends and stone, in Shropshire, and was the nephew of his namesake benefactors all the resources of his wit and scientific know- the famous preacher. Born in 1772, and entering the army ledge. His self-love was a little consoled by his receiving very young, Hill received, or at least completed, his educafrom the university of St Andrews, in Scotland, the honor- tion at the military school of Strasbourg. He took part in ary degree of M.D., and from the king of Sweden, to whom the siege of Toulon, and afterwards in the Egyptian camhe used to send his works, the title of Chevalier of the Order paign, and, partly by purchase, partly by merit, rose to the of Wasa, on the strength of which he called himself Sir rank of major-general. In 1808 he went to Spain with the John. He died in 1775. (An extremely good account of Duke of Wellington, and from Vimeiro to Vittoria, in adSir John’s quarrel with the Royal Society, and many inte- vance or retreat he proved himself the most indefatigable resting details of his life, are given in Disraeli’s Miscel- coadjutor of the great captain. In 1809 he was appointed lanies of Literature^) to succeed Lord Paget; two years later he defeated the Hill, Rev. Roidand, A.M., the most popular preacher French under Girard at Cavarez with great slaughter; for of the Whitefield school that has appeared in England since his conduct at Talavera he was publicly thanked by parliaWhitefield’s death, was a cadet of the patrician family of ment; and for his capture of the forts of Almarez, which the Hills of Hawkstone, in Salop, and was born in 1745. cut off the communication between the French armies Like other members of his family, Rowland Hill gave early on the N. and S. sides of the Tagus, he was rewarded with evidence of piety; and at Eton and Cambridge, where he the title of Baron of Almarez. In 1813 he held temporawas educated, he evinced it under circumstances which put rily the chief command of the English and Hanoverian its genuineness beyond a doubt. While a student at the troops in Belgium ; and two years later crowned the glories university, where he graduated with great distinction, he of his noble career by his conduct at Waterloo. In 1828 spent all his leisure time in visiting the sick and poor, and he was made commander-in-chief, and exercised all the inin praying from house to house—conduct so utterly at vari- fluence of his fame and position to improve the condition ance with the received notions of college decorum, that he and promote the interests of the British army, in which he was only saved from expulsion by the powerful influence of effected many valuable reforms. In the distribution of the his family. After taking orders, he was appointed in 1773 extensive patronage which he had to dispose of he was to the parish of Kingston, Somersetshire, where he began proverbially impartial, and always made a point of advancto indulge his favourite taste for open-air preaching, and ing professional merit, regardless of the claims of party or soon attracted great crowds of the rural population to the family connection. On resigning the command-in-chief in sermons which he preached nearly every day of the week. 1842 he was made a viscount, which honour, however, he In 1 /82, having resolved to make the metropolis his head- did not long live to enjoy, as he died on the 10th December quarters, he had the Surrey Chapel built for him, and soon of that same year. filled it with an audience such as no other preacher in London Lord Hill was the most popular soldier of his time in the could boast. During the summer months he retired to his British service, and was so much beloved by the troops, country-house in Wales, whence he made what he called especially those under his immediate command, that he

436 Hillah II Himalaya Mountains.

HIM

H

I

M

gained from them the honourable title of ‘ the soldiei s nates in the prolongation of that range which traverses Himalaya country of the Tchuktchi. ountains. friend ” “ With Hill,” they used to say, “ both victory and theAll the great rivers of Asia rise in this watershed ; those life may be ours.” On the other hand, the strategic skill and from its western slope flow N. into the Polar Sea, W. military capacity he displayed in the Peninsula secured for into the Caspian or Aral, and S.W. into the Arabian Sea; him the not less honourable title of “the right arm of the those from its eastern slope flow E. and S.E. into the Duke of Wellington.” From the first day he entered the Pacific, and S. into the Indian Ocean. Enormous mounarmy he displayed the germs of those qualities that after- tain chains branch off to the E. and W. of this main axis, wards led him on to fame, rank, and power—boldness that inclosing the valleys of the rivers ; and of these chains the amounted to daring, and was yet always under the control southernmost is the Himalaya. _. . of the judgment, skill equal to independent commands ot In their Tibetan courses the Indus and Brahmaputra octhe most difficult kind, and a regard for the moral and phy- cupy of great elevation, and the opposite directions tne c ain' sical welfare of the army such as had never before been taken valleys by them indicates the division of the Himalaya into shown by any commander-in-chief. two portions, the eastern of which stretches from their sources HILLAH. See Babylon. HILLEL, Rabbi, born at Babylon, 112 b.c. He went at the Peak of Kailas to the bend of the Brahmaputra, and to Jerusalem to study law at the age of 40. When 80 years the western terminates at the bend ot the Indus. These are more natural than is usually supposed, since the of age he became chief of the Sanhedrim. He was one of limits prevalent idea that the Brahmaputra enters Assam through the compilers of the Talmud, and is regarded by the Jews a defile caused by a break in the chain is erroneous; on the as the most learned of their doctors. He gave instruction in the laws and traditions to more than a thousand pupils. contrary, the Himalaya gradually declines in elevation in His master was Shammai, with whom he did not agree on East Bhotan ; and the upper valley of the Dihong (as the some points. The difference became a quarrel, warmly Brahmaputra at its bend is called), is, according to the best taken up by the disciples of each, and ending in some information hitherto procured, broad, open, and hot -rice bloodshed. „ being cultivated there on the very confines ot Eastern T. ibet. HIMALAYA, a Sanscrit word, compounded ot luma, So also the Indus at the western extremity of the chain cold or snow, and “ alaya,” place of (Wilson’s Sanscrit Dic- is usually described as flowing through a defile ; but though tionary), is the name given to the ranges ot mountains its valley to the W. of Kashmir is contracted and rugged, which bound India on the N., from the bend of the Indus and overhung by stupendous mountains, it does not in this on the W. to that of the Brahmaputra on the E. On the respect differ materially, if at all, from the remainder of its S. they are bounded by the plains of India, and on the N. Tibetan course ; nor is the fall of its bed between Iskardo by the Tibetan courses of the above-named rivers. A and the plains of the Punjab greater in proportion to the transverse section of the Himalaya nowhere presents the length of its course than it is above that town. The branches or secondary ranges of the Western Himaappearance ot a simple range, but of several more oi less parallel chains, separated by valleys of very great depth and laya are so long and lofty, that some difference of opinion steepness; this is because the secondary ranges that la- exists as to which of them should be most appropriately mify N. and S. from it are of great length, breadth, and considered as the continuation of the chain between the complexity, and from bending to the E. or to the W., peak of Kailas and Kashmir; and we have considered the line often run for many miles parallel to one another and to the of watershed between the tributaries of the Indus to the main range, besides rising into eminences loftier than any N., and the rivers that flow to the plains ot India to the on the latter, for which they are sometimes mistaken. The S., to be the axis of the chain, since it both indicates the axis of the Himalaya is, moreover, not marked out by any line of mean greatest elevation, and is the only definable continuous ridge or succession of peaks, but is often broad, axis in a geographical point of view. Of the secondary chains we shall speak at length in conopen, and low, compared with the neighbouring isolated eminences. Hence the line of watershed becomes the only geo- nection with the rivers they inclose. Their diiection is graphically determinable axis; and this, as in all mountain often perpendicular to the main chain, but they are so chains of any extent, follows an extremely sinuous course. often oblique, and even parallel to the main chain, especially No doubt this line, which throws the waters in two opposite at their upper parts, that where very lofty and heavily directions throughout the whole extent of the range (1440 snowed, they are frequently taken by local observers for miles), is also that of greatest elevation, or that along which the axis of the Himalaya itself; an error to which may be traced that misconception regarding the relative amount the land is uninterruptedly the most lofty. Before, however, the real nature and geographical limits and duration of the snow on the northern and southern of the Himalaya, as above defined, can be rightly under- slopes of the Himalaya, which has led to so much fruitless . stood, it is necessary to consider this range in its relation controversy in India and Europe. The general direction of the Himalaya throughout its to the little known mountain systems of Central Asia, ot which it perhaps forms a less important part than is usually leno-th of 1440 miles, is E. and W., but it trends northsupposed. On reference to the mapoi Asia, the watei shed wards from the centre towards its western extremity, its of that continent will be found to follow a tortuous line, extremes being respectively in N. Lat. 28., E. Long. 95., running diagonally from the peninsula oi Gujerat to Beh- and N. Lat. 35., E. Long. 73. Its breadth vanes m difring’s Strait. Across the plains of India this line is for the ferent parts, but has been accurately ascertained in the most part indicated by the Arawali chain, N. of which western portion only, where it deviates but little from 190 , . r . it crosses the Himalaya obliquely in a N.E. direction to miles. It has been stated1 that2 the mountain ranges ot the the sources of the Indus and Brahmaputra, whence it trends westerly to the source of the Oxus, and then again Himalaya and the Kouenlun have no special existence as north-easterly along the Altai to the S. of Lake Baikal, chains apart from the general elevated mass of Tibet, and till it becomes the lablonoi Mountains, and finally termi- that that rugged country forms the summit of a great 1 Captain R. Strachey, Journ. Geog. Soc., May 1851; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1852 (249). ffimalava reW-estprn te 2 By this general nan^ we shall (following Humboldt) designate the two chains parallel to the ternT a^T ™anCh from the p ;n bra w ter spectively, and north of them, and which together stretch from the sources of the Oxus to Eastern Assam. ^ ^ ^nfr0m Peak of Kailas to Balti (in W. Tibet), has bten called the Kailas and Karakoram range : of its eastern branch nothing is known.

HIMALAYA

MOUNTAINS. 437 the snowy mountains sink behind the wooded ones long Himalaya Himalaya protuberance above the level of the earth’s surface, of Mountains, which the two chains form the N. and S. faces. This before the latter have assumed gigantic proportions; and Mountains, ^ view is derived, no doubt, from the appearance of ex- when they do so, they too often appear a sombre, lurid, greytreme confusion that prevails in this, as in every mountain- green mass of vegetation, or rock, with no brightness or vaous country. In the Himalaya, as in Switzerland, the tra- riation of colour. The mountains once entered, the appearance of parallel veller, in crossing ranges and valleys at all angles, perceives no order, and finds it impossible to trace rivers or chains ridges is found to be deceptive, and due to the inosculating from elevated positions; whilst in following the courses of spurs of long tortuous secondary ranges that run N. and S. the valleys, their bounding mountains shut out all beyond ; from the axis, dividing deep wooded valleys, which flank and it is only after a map has been constructed that the the beds of large rivers. The snowy peaks now look like a relations between the several parts of a mountainous country long E. and W. range of mountains, at an average distance can be traced with accuracy. The mountain system of of 30 or 40 miles. Advancing farther into the country, Central Asia differs in a physico-geographical point of this appearance proves equally deceptive, and from the same view from that of Europe only in bulk. The relation of cause. The snowy range is finally resolved into isolated the Kouenlun to the Himalaya is similar to that of the peaks, or masses, situated on the secondary ranges; and the Bernese to the Monte Rosa Alps. These have not, it is true, source of the deception is found to be that these snow-clad a separate existence apart from the general mass of the Alps, spurs, projecting E. and W., cross one another, and, being but that they have a special existence also is proved by the uniformly white, appear to connect the peaks into one grand positions of the sources of the rivers that flow to the north- unbroken range. The rivers, instead of having their origin ward and southward from each. Taking as an example the in the snowy mountains, rise far beyond them: many of western half of the Himalaya and the parallel range of the their sources are upwards of 100 miles in a straight line Kouenlun, the facts that the average elevation of the water- from the base of the mountains, in a very curious country, sheds of both is continuously above 18,000 feet the whole loftier by far in mean elevation than the secondary ridges way from the Kailas to the meridian of Kashmir, whilst in- which run S. from it, yet comparatively bare of snow. This numerable peaks on each rise above 20,000 feet, and that rearward part of the mountain region lies in Tibet, and the inclosed river-bed of the Indus falls from 15,000 to it is here that most of the rivers rise as small streams, 7000 feet in the same distance, appear sufficient evidence which increase rapidly in size as they receive the drainage that the ranges in question have a definable existence in from the snowed part of the secondary ranges that bound a geographical point of view. The elevation of the Kouen- them in their courses. A belt of tropical forest, 10 to 20 miles in breadth, skirts Terai. lun and Himalaya above the bed of the Indus is continuously higher in proportion than that of the Bernese and the southern foot of the Himalaya throughout the greater Monte Rosa Alps above the bed of the intervening Rhone. part of its length. Its presence is due to the humidity of General Before detailing the physical features of the Himalaya, the climate, and to copious springs, which often give rise to features of it appears advisable to give some general idea of its scenery marshes which cover the ground at the base of the mounthe Hima- and aspect; this is derived from the impressions produced tains. This tract is called the Terai, and is notorious for la a yon experienced travellers who have described it. Of these its malarious atmosphere, which renders it almost certain there have lately been many, and although few of them death to spend any time in it during the spring and autumn have had that previous familiarity with mountain regions (before and after the rains). The Terai belt is broadest, which would enable them to judge of the Himalaya by most luxuriant and humid in the Assam valley at the eastern comparison, the narratives of Moorcroft, Thomson, the extremity of the chain, narrowing with the diminished humiStracheys, Cunninghams, and others, all abound in accurate dity and colder winters of the western part. It decreases in breadth, and partially loses its tropical character towards and often graphic details. Viewed from a distance, on the plains of India, the Hima- the central districts ; whilst to the westward of the Sutlej it laya presents the appearance—common to all mountainous disappears, or is represented by alow jungle of bushes, concountries—of consecutive parallel ridges, running E. and taining but few tropical plants. Beyond the Terai the mountains rise more or less sud- Outer hills, W.; backed by a beautiful crest of snowy peaks, with occasional breaks in the foremost ranges, through which the denly, though seldom in precipices. Throughout the eastern rivers debouche. This appearance of parallel ranges is owing parts of the chain they are luxuriantly wooded, while to the to a very simple and often overlooked law of perspective; westward they are covered with a looser, drier forest, or in consequence of which masses of mountains, of whatever with brushwood. The mountain region may be entered by configuration, resolve themselves into ranges perpendicular following the course of one of the main rivers, or by ascendto the line of sight.1 Any view of the Himalaya, especially at ing the outlying spurs which bound them, and which run a sufficient distance for the remote snowy peaks to be seen more or less parallel to the general direction of the chain. overtopping the outer ridges, is, throughout a great extent The roads almost invariably ascend these spurs, because the of the range, rare, from the constant deposition of vapours malarious region extends far up the valleys, and the banks over the forest-clad ranges during the greater part of the of the rivers are usually impracticable for paths. The year, and the haziness of the dry atmosphere of the plains Himalaya once entered, the traveller’s route is thenceforth in the winter months. At the end of the rains, when the an uninterrupted series of ascents and descents. There S.E. monsoon has ceased to blow with constancy, views are are no level tracts, plains, nor flats by the streams, of any sometimes obtained from a distance of nearly 200 miles. breadth or continuity ; an endless succession of ridges, seveFrom the plains the highest peaks subtend so small an ral thousand feet high, and as many streams, are crossed on angle that they appear like white specks very low on the almost every day’s march towards the axis of the chain ; horizon, tipping the black lower and outer wooded ranges, and during the warmer part of the year the amount of forest, which always rise out of a belt of haze ; and from the density, fog, and cloud is so great, that until the alpine regions are probably, of the lower strata of atmosphere, they are never reached, the traveller seldom enjoys any of those magseen to rest on the visible horizon. The remarkable low- nificent panoramic views for which the Cordillera and the ness on the horizon of the whole stupendous mass is always European Alps are so celebrated. a disappointing feature to the new comer, who expects to Throughout the temperate and wooded regions it is see dazzling peaks towering in the air. Approaching nearer, scarcely possible for the traveller, let his powers of obser1

Thomson’s ZVfcet, p. 2.

HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 438 Himalaya vation be ever so good, to understand the relations of the are concentrated, where the climate resembles that of Great Himalaya Mountains, innumerable rivers and ridges he traverses. The country Britain and the alpine districts of Europe ; and the scenery, if Mountains, V—resembles a troubled ocean; and there being no apparent not so picturesque, exceeds in grandeur that of Switzerland order, it is only by taking the main river that flows from the and the Tyrol. Throughout the Indian watershed of the watershed as the starting-point, and laying down its course chain, the main features, between 8000 and 14,000 feet, are on paper with some accuracy, that a correct idea can be ob- more or less conspicuously European; whether or not they tained of the structure of the valley which the traveller is equal those of the Alps may be doubted. In absolute height ascending, and its relation to the secondary Himalayan and mass the Alps of course cannot be compared with the Himalaya; and such a view as the following extract dechains that bound it. The roads from India to Tibet are always carried along scribes (whose main features are characteristic of all parts the flanks of these broad valleys, for the ridges of the se- of the range) is doubtless unrivalled on the globe. The condary chains are too lofty, rugged, and tortuous to admit author was at the time in Sikkim, not far from the centre of roads being constructed along their crests, while the river of the chain, and his description embraces the snowed mounbanks are hot, and excessively tortuous and rocky. It is tains, including the loftiest in the world, as seen from the the necessity for crossing the spurs from these secondary N. flanks of the outer ranges. “ The actual extent of the chains, with their innumerable subdivisions and contained snowy range seen from Darjiling is comprised within an arc streams, which doubles the length of the route from the of 80° (from north 30° W. to north 50° E.), or nearly a quarter plains of India to the axis of the chain ; the average dis- of the horizon, along which the perpetual snow forms an untance, which is only about 100 miles, usually occupying from broken girdle or crest of frosted silver ; and in winter, when twelve days to a fortnight to traverse ; and the total ascent, the mountains are snowed down to 8000 feet, this white ridge which is on the average 16,000 to 18,000 feet, being per- stretches uninterruptedly for more than 160°. No known formed many times over, besides involving descents which view is to be compared with this in extent, when the proxare so steep as to be hardly less fatiguing than the ascents. imity and height of the mountains are considered; for Outer val- Immediately within the mountains the outermost lateral within the 80° above-mentioned more than twelve peaks leys, dhuns, valleyS (containing the feeders to the main rivers) are often rise above 20,000 feet, and there are none below 15,000 &c * broad, and bounded (especially those in the western parts of feet, while Kinchin is 28,178, and seven others above 22,000. the chain) on one or both flanks by low sandstone hills. Kinchin-junga (45 miles distant) is the prominent object, The breadth and extent of these, together with the peculi- rising 21,000 feet above the level of the observer (28,178 arity of the rock, has given them an undue importance in some above the sea) out of a wilderness of intervening wooded respects. Such broad open valleys are called dhuns, and the ranges; whilst, on a line with its snows, the eye descends sandstone hills (sometimes called the Sewaliks) have been below the hoi’izon to a narrow gulf 7000 feet deep in the supposed to constitute a system distinct from the Himalaya, mountains, where the great Rungeet, white with foam, but skirting its base. This theory has, however, been rejected threads a tropical forest with a silver line.” From another by Dr Thomson,1 who shows that the dhuns are valleys of point of view in the same country, and also at 7000 feet precisely the same nature as the other lateral valleys; and elevation, the eye surveys at one glance the vegetation of that the sandstone ranges, however different in a geological the tropics and the poles. “ Deep in the valleys the river point of view, are, in a geographical one, the terminal spurs beds are but 3000 feet above the sea, and are choked with of the ranges bounding the river valleys. Where the dhuns fig-trees, plantains, and palms; to these succeed laurels and are very open, flat-floored, and with gradually sloping beds, magnolias ; and higher up still, oaks, chestnuts, birches, &c. their true relation to the surrounding mountain-chains is not Tine forests succeed for 2000 feet higher, when they give at once apparent. Sometimes they appear to be indefinitely place to a skirting of rhododendron and berberry. Among extended E. and W., in a direction parallel to the Himalayan these appear black naked rocks, rising up in cliffs, between chain ; and, running from one great river to another, they ap- which are gulleys, down which the snow in January despear to belong to a different order of valleys from those which cends to 12,000 feet, ascending in one unbroken sweep to occur further within the mountains. This arises in some peaks of 18,000 to 25,000 feet. [Himalayan Journals, vol. cases from the slope of their beds being so extremely gra- i., p. 123 and 327). The Alps nowhere present panoramas so remarkable as dual that the watershed between the valley that ascends from the one river,and the corresponding valley that descends these ; but when once amongst the snowy mountains, the to the other river, can only be detected by observation of traveller’s position, in respect of proximity to the snowy the drainage ; whence the two valleys appear to form one. masses, as well as in elevation, is analogous in both ranges ; Such is the case with the celebrated Dehra Dhun in Ku- the absolute heights of the principal objects being nearly maon, which appears to form one continuous transverse the same, and strictly comparable. The apparent elevation ot valley between the Jumna and the Ganges, but which a mountain range is merely relative; and throughout the really consists of two valleys; one descending from the enormous arc of horizon embraced in a Himalayan view, village of Dehra (which occupies the col) westerly to the its apparent vertical height is much diminished by the Jumna, and the other descending from the same spot east- great distance of the nearest objects. To view Kinchinerly to the Ganges. Other dhuns, again, are simply very junga as Mont Blanc is viewed from Chamonix, the trabroad, open valleys, differing in no physical features from veller must ascend to 12,000 feet, for it is at that elevation those that occur in other parts of the mountains. In the that the vegetation and physical features of the valleys, Punjab-Himalaya, where the tertiary sandstones acquire a caused by the moraines, &c., are analogous to those of3000 great development, two or three such valleys occur in suc- feet in the Alps; and from such positions Kinchin-junga cession before the higher mountains begin. These dhuns beino- but 3000 or 4000 feet higher above the observer are not, as is very generally supposed, continuous along than Mont Blanc (a difference not appreciable by the eye the whole extent of the Himalaya, and interposed between amid such scenes), and being further from the spectator, is the tertiary and secondary mountains. They are merely not a more strikingly grand mountain than Mont Blanc. the outer series of lateral valleys, and are always of limited In the long extent of the Himalaya there are alpine scenes extent. of unrivalled grandeur ; but owing to the rarefaction of the Temperate ^ ^ie alpine and upper temperate regions of the atmosphere, and other causes, these regions will always reand alpine Himalaya that the most interesting phenomena of the range main inaccessible to any but the most hardy seekers of the regions. 1 Tibet, p. 314. Introductory Essay to the Flora Indica, p. 169.

HIMALAYA

MOUNTAINS. 439 Himalaya picturesque, for they can only be viewed under circum- information was afterwards supplied by the natives that the Himalaya Mountains. stances of extreme physical discomfort. In certain respects, sources of the rivers were far beyond these snows ; and to Mountains, again, the Himalayan valleys are greatly inferior to the reconcile these phenonema the streams were invariably made Alpine, for they want both lakes and cascades ; and though to intersect the ridge. Himalayan travellers may find scenes more awful,and solitudes The fact, that in that portion of the Western Himalaya immeasurably more impressive than any the Alps present, which lies between Nepal and the Sutlej, the loftiest there are none known which, in grandeur, beauty, and pictur- eminences are situated on the subsidiary ranges, was first esqueness combined, are to be compared with Lauterbrun- stated by Col. Herbert; but his observation, that the line nen or the valley of Chamonix. Nowhere in the Himalaya of the great peaks intersects the river basins, and therefore do blue glaciers, descending from mountains towering 10,000 is not the true axis of the Himalaya, has never yet been feet above, pour their icy streams on to the flat floors of green fully appreciated. More recent geographers have, howvalleys covered with corn, flocks, and villages ; whilst lakes ever, so multiplied the number of these peaks in that porreflecting both the forest-clad base and snow-clad summits tion of the Himalaya to which Col. Herbert’s observation of one and the same mountain are, we believe, wholly un- extended, that no single line of great peaks can now be traced in reality ; and with regard to the explored portions known in Northern India. Tibetan re- Immediately beyond the most heavily snowed ranges of of the Himalaya W. of it, and to the Sikkim portion E. gions and chain t]ie stiH ascending traveller enters on the loftiest, of it, it is certain that the great peaks do not follow any deaxis of the cd^gg^ an(j windiest desert to be found in the temperate finite line; added to which, the number of peaks on the ian e ^' zone of either hemisphere, a country contrasting quite as axis itself, attaining elevations of 20,000 to 25,000 feet, is much with the alpine country he has just left, as with the very great. Reverting to the physical features of the loftiest regions, tropical regions at the base of the mountains. This is the axis of the Himalaya, where all its rivers have their rise, and the suddenness with which the dry Tibetan climate and its which owes its freedom from snow in part to its distance concomitant features are often encountered, by crossing a from the sources of humidity and the mass of intervening lofty pass over a lateral heavily-snowed spur of a secondary ranges, but in part also to its great elevation ; for it is in the range, is very remarkable, and contrasts with the slowness lower part of the atmospheric column t hat most vapour is sus- of the same change when a river is followed to its source ; pended ; and as the humid wind only blows from the S., the and as the short cuts over these spurs are generally prebulk of its moisture is deposited in the form of rain on the ferred to the winding courses of the rivers, a false impressouthernmost parts of the mountain range, and of snow’ on sion has been conveyed of the definition of the boundary the secondary ranges, 15,000 to 20,000 feet high, which ex- between the dry and humid regions. This erroneous imtend many miles S. from the axis. Hence the clouds get pression is strengthened by another fact, that the politiabsolutely dispersed before they can reach the latter point, cal boundary between the Tibetan and Indian states is and the traveller who has crossed that part of the range often determined by the position of the greatest quantity where enormous snow-beds and glaciers descend to 15,000 of snow—a physical obstacle to intercourse of far more imor 16,000 feet, and thence ascends to 18,000 or 19,000, portance than the greater elevation of the comparatively finds no snow at that level; whilst the surrounding moun- snowless watershed N. of it. Recent discoveries have, tains also are so bare of snow that it is difficult to conceive however, shown that this boundary is neither so straight nor so natural as has been supposed, or as is represented in that he has not descended an opposite slope. The features of the main axis of the Himalaya differ maps. In the small state of Sikkim, for instance, it zigzags greatly at different points of the chain ; it i& usually broad, so much that it is 50 miles further S. in one meridian than and is always characterized by extreme vicissitudes of tem- in another. A gain, in the western part of Nepal, it is said perature. As with the Cordillera, the Norwegian Alps, to follow the true axis, or watershed ; whilst in the more and many other mountain ranges, the line of the water- snowy eastern half of the same kingdom, it is traced along shed is not marked by any continuous ridge or succession of the most snowed regions; and it has in many places been ridges ; loftier eminences oftener rise in its proximity, from repeatedly altered in the course of the last century by the the spurs that branch oft’ from it than from itself; and as Tibetans and Chinese. A few other points in the physical geography of the axis the southernmost of these are (as has been already shown) always very heavily snowed, it has been usual to consider of the Himalaya and of its loftier valleys are worthy of the belt of the most snow’ed peaks (which, as seen from the note. Such are the prevalence of lakes, never of any great southward, shuts out the view of the loftier rearward axis), depth, and of tertiary deposits, often extending for many as the crest of the Himalaya. Dr Thomson has, however, miles, and forming undulating expanses, through which the pointed out that the deceptive effects of false perspective, rivers cut deep gorges, and which also form flats and terthe rarity of snowr, the absence of a defined ridge on the races along the banks of the streams. These have given axis, and the occasionally greater elevation of isolated peaks rise to the supposition that Tibet is a vast plain or plateau— on the subsidiary ranges, have led to the transference of an error which the fact that the roads in that usually difthe true axis from the watershed to an imaginary line cut- ficult country make long detours to take advantage of these ting across the valleys of all the rivers. As even the most flats, has tended to confirm. That Tibet is however recent maps of India represent the Himalayan rivers as cut- the most rugged and mountainous country in the world, the ting through the axis of the chain, it is necessary to bear in united testimony of all travellers assures us; and that no mind upon what slender authority this is done, and that such level expanses, or lakes (with the solitary exception of throughout two-thirds of the extent of the Himalaya, there is Kashmir), or flat-bottomed valleys, occur in the equally no foundation whatever for the position either of the rivers mountainous, though perhaps less rugged and precipitous or of the axis, as laid down on our maps. From Kumaon the temperate and tropical valleys of the Indian watershed, whole way to the eastern termination of the chain, with the is a very remarkable fact. exception of the small province of Sikkim, nothing whatever In classifying the geographical features of the Himalaya, Divisions is even approximately known of the relation of the rivers to as they occur, in belts parallel to the axis, we recognize of the Hi' the snowy mountains, or of these to the axis. Many lofty four distinct latitudinal zones. 1. That which extends malaya‘ peaks are seen from the plains of India, and the positions from the plains of India to those parts of the chain where of a few of these have been determined by triangulation ; the elevation is sufficient for snow to lie upon the ground and in the earlier maps these were fictitiously represented during the winter months ; within this the bases of the hills as forming eminences on a continuously snowy ridge. The and all the valleys are tropical, and the upper portions tem-

HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 440 Himalaya perate. The surface, though steep, and cut up into innumer- other Himalayan rivers, as in the Tambur, a tributary1 of the Himalaya ounta ins. Mountains. able ravines, is seldom absolutely precipitous, or continu- Nepalese Kosi, and in some of the western rivers;' as the^ v ^-^—^ ously rugged. This belt is from 40 to 60 miles broad, and Sutlej, which, for the first 60 miles of its course, falls 35 8-^^/ presents eminences of all heights below 13,000 to 14,000 feet feet per mile; in the following 50 miles, 82 feet per mile; —the mean being perhaps from 5000 to 8000 feet. 2. In the and in the succeeding 68 miles, 25 feet per mile. The Insnowy belt, which is from 30 to 40 miles broad, the climate dus again, for the first 90 miles, falls about 3 feet per mile; is temperate in the valleys, and tropical where these are in the next 115 miles, 28 feet per mile, and in the remaining very deep and damp ; alpine on the heights. The mean ele- 345 miles, falls 18 feet per mile. The prevalence of this gravation is probably under 13,000 feet, though innumerable dual fall at the upper part of the rivers has been attributed peaks rise to 20,000, a few to 25,000, and some to 28,000 mainly to the fact, that in the dry climate of the axis, the feet; while the river beds are often only 3000 feet above floors of the valleys are raised and levelled by glacial and the level of the sea. The surface of this belt is very rugged other accumulations, which have been removed by denuand often precipitous. 3. The axis of the chain is from 10 dation from the lower parts of the same valleys. All the Himalayan rivers increase enormously in volume to 20 miles broad, probably 15,000 feet in mean elevation ; and the line of watershed itself seldom sinks below 17,000 during the summer months ; in the eastern portions, where feet, except at the two extremities of the chain. The sur- the rains are very heavy, the increase is more due to this cause face is very rocky and often precipitous, but varied with than to the melting of the snow. The individual feeders occasional undulating expanses ; the climate is alpine of the main streams also differ much ; those that rise from throughout. 4. The northern slope consists of rugged glaciers being in summer opaline and full, in winter clear and rocky valleys, with occasionally flat floors: a temperate less in volume. Again, the main body of the streams is climate, but one of excessive Aycissitudes, prevails below in summer swmllen and muddy, owing to the excessive 13,000 feet elevation; and great drought and a total absence rains, but in winter clear and diminished to a fraction of of forest vegetation distinguish it from the analogous eleva- its summer volume. In summer the glacier-fed feeders are always much the coldest; in winter all approximate more tions of the southern side. These general remarks indicate three principal series of in temperature. In summer the volume of all the snow-fed divisions of the Himalaya, viz., according to length, breadth, feeders of the rivers is much diminished at night, owing to the less rapid melting of the snow, and the frequent freezand height; these are :— ing of their head waters ; but this is scarcely appreciable in 1. Longitudinally ; an eastern and western Himalaya. 2. Latitudinally; an exterior or damp, an interior or the central and eastern parts of the chain, where most rain falls at night, and where the effect of the sun’s rays in meltsnowy, and a Tibetan or dry Himalaya. 3. Altitudinally; a tropical, temperate, and alpine Him- ing the snow is less than that of the rain and corroding fog. The rivers flowing northward from the axis have much alaya. liivers. The secondary ranges, which originate in the axis, and shorter courses ; and, owing to the dryness of the climate, descend on the S. slope to the plains of India, and on the they carry comparatively little water. The principal of N. to the Tibetan Indus and Brahmaputra, separate great those that flow into the Indus are the rivers of Dras and rivers, and may consequently be conveniently used to di- Zanskar: of those that flow into the Tibetan Brahmaputra none are known to geographers except the Painom, which vide the whole chain into a succession of river basins.1 The great rivers flowing to the S. are thirteen in num- flows from the N. of the province of Bhotan, and falls into ber; advancing from W. to E., they are,—the Jelam, Chenab, the Brahmaputra near the holy city of Teshoo Loombo. The rarity of cascades, on a scale at all commensurate Ravee, Byas, Sutlej, Jumna,2 Ganges, Gogra, Gandak, Kosi, Tista, Monas, and Subansiri. The directions of these rivers with the grandeur of the mountains and the volume of the vary a good deal, being often extremely oblique, especially rivers, is a peculiarity worthy of observation. Tibet, where in the upper part of their courses, to the axis of the chain. As absolute precipices are more numerous, is better adapted a general rule, those that rise nearest to the centre of the for waterfalls, but the dryness of its climate sufficiently chain (as, for instance, the Tista) have the straightest courses; accounts for their paucity. The Himalayan lakes are almost confined to Tibet, where Lakes, those that are situated to the eastward flow first S.E., and then turning S., follow a western course, to the Assam Brah- many of the rivers have their apparent sources in lakes fed maputra ; those in the W. of the chain, flow first S.W., by innumerable very small glacier streams. Some of these and then turning S., flow easterly. Of these rivers, the two lakes are very extensive, as that of Yeumtso in Eastern eastern, the Monas and Subansiri, flow through Bhotan ; the Tibet, whose drainage is unknown; the Ramchoo lakes, Tista drains Sikkim ; and the three next, the Kosi, Gan- which are said to give rise to the Painom; and the dak and Gogra, which are Nepalese, all flow into the Gan- Mansarowar or Tso Mapham, and Rakas fal or IsoLanges ; the two following, the Jumna and Ganges, water the gak lakes; which are sheets of water 20 to 30 miles long, British hill states of Kumaon, Garhwal, and Sirmore, W. and of considerable breadth, elevated 15,200 feet above the of Nepal; the remaining five water the Punjab, and flow sea; they give rise to the Sutlej. In the Western Himainto the Indus, draining amongst others the hill states of laya the principal lake is the Tso Moriri, also of 15,200 feet elevation, 30 miles long, and placed on the axis of the Mandi, Chamba, Jamu, and Kashmir, respectively. The fall of the rivers varies with the length of their chain ; it has now no exit, but was once of greater dimencourse; that of the Tista is perhaps the most rapid, the river sions, when its superfluous waters (which, no doubt, were descending from I7,000feet to 300 (at its exit on the plains), then fresh) formed a tributary of the Sutlej. The waters with a fall of 85 feet per mile; this, however, varies in of the Tso Moriri, and of many other Tibetan lakes, are different parts of its course; thus, between 17,000 and, 15,000 very salt; a fact attributed to the evaporation and drainage feet, it is 60 feet per mile; between 15,000 and 12,000 exceeding the influx in the case of those which have outlets, feet, 140 feet per mile; between 12,000 and 5000 feet, and by the further concentration of the salts in the instances 160 feet per mile; and between 5000 and 300 feet, 50 feet of lakes without drainage, which are hence always the saltper mile. Analogous differences have been observed in est. The rationale of the formation of the Tibetan lakes 1

The geographical importance of these divisions was first indicated by Mr Hodgson in a valuable paper printed in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 2 The Indian source of the Brahmaputra is amongst the Mishmi Mountains of Upper Assam. These mountains form part of a system quite unconnected with the Himalaya, and which divide the waters of the Brahmaputra from those of the Irrawaddi and other rivers of 3 Birma, China, &c. H. Strachey, Phys. Geog. of W. Tibet, p. 45.

441 MOUNTAINS. Himalaya has never been investigated ; many of the smaller ones are unknown. At the source of that river it is no doubt from Himalaya feet, and it has been assumed to be 13,000 Mountains, lountains. no doubt due to dams thrown across the valleys they occupy 16,000 to 17,000 1 by the moraines of glaciers ; others may be due to the un- at Shigatzi; while, according to the accounts of the climate equal elevations of the surface ; and the majority no doubt of that part of Tibet where the Brahmaputra turns S., the owe their existence to the deposits thrown across river beds elevation is probably under 6000 feet. In estimating the mean elevation of the known parts of by lateral feeders of the rivers themselves. * The Himalayan lakes, not situated on or near the axis, the Himalaya, it has been usual to take the elevation of are extremely few and unimportant; the Walur Lake in the passes as data; but in so doing a distinction must be Kashmir (elevation 5000 feet) is the only large one ; and the made between the passes over the axis and those over its small tarns of Bheem-tal and Nynee-tal, a few miles long, subsidiary ranges. There is every reason to believe that and 4000 to 6000 feet above the sea, are both in Kumaon. from the W. of the meridian of Kashmir to the Peak of It is a singular fact, that throughout the whole extent of the Kailas, no part of the watershed axis is much below 18,000 Himalaya, the Walur Lake (formed by the Jelam) is the feet; the four known passes being all above that elevation. only instance of any of the great rivers or their feeders Further to the W., and N. of Kashmir, a remarkable depression occurs at Zoji-la Pass, which, being broad and only forming any considerable expanse of still water. Peat bogs, and moors analogous to those of Northern 11,000 feet elevation, recals some of the low cols over the Plains, &c. Europe, are wholly unknown in the Himalaya; their ab- main Alps. The elevation of the eastern part of the axis sence in the southern valleys is partly owing to the confi- is entirely unknown. It has been but twice crossed ; once guration of the latter, and more perhaps to the great rain- by Captain Bogle in 1784, in his route to Tibet by Western fall. Of absolute plains there are perhaps none in the Bhotan, but who left no record of his journey ; and again Himalaya; the comparatively level upper valley of the by Turner in 1789. From the narrative of the latter we Sutlej being the only approach to an exception, and cer- gather that the watershed itself is broad, open, and undetainly a remarkable feature. Its extreme length is 120 fined to a common observer, though, from observations miles, and its breadth varies from 15 to 60; its elevation since made2 in the neighbourhood, it must be fully 11,600 feet is from 14,000 to 16,000 feet. It appears to be formed elevation; while the elevation of the axis N. of Sikkim by a tertiary deposit of gravel and boulders ; its surface is may be assumed to be nowhere below 18,000 feet. The principal peaks of the Himalaya are in many cases undulating, and broken by mountains in the eastern part. Such a feature as this, suddenly expanding before the tra- concentrated in groups, which have a definite relation to veller, weary of the endless ascents and descents of the the chief rivers, being placed on the secondary ranges : thus, southern slope of the Himalaya, must be very striking ; and there are clusters or nceuds of snowy mountains between we accordingly often find it designated as an absolute plain. the sources of the Monas and Subansiri, with peaks of There is, however, a fall of 1000 feet from its southern edge from 23,000 to 25,000 feet in height; between the Monas to its centre ; many mountain spurs intrude upon it; the and the Pachu is another probably higher; westward of the Sutlej cuts a gorge SOOO feet deep through its longer axis; Pachu is the enormous nceud, to the N. of Sikkim, with its and the lateral ravines of the feeders of that river are so manv spurs, from which rise Chumulari (23,929 feet), F)onnumerous, deep, and steep, that Moorcroft, one of the most kiah'(23,176 feet), and Kinchin-junga (28,178 feet), with its accurate of observers, who first traversed it, calls these slopes supporters, Junnoo (25,312), Kubra (24,005 feet), Pundim mountains, and does not allude to the existence of aplain. Like (21,300feet), and others; which clusters separate the head many other mountainous valleys, it appears much flatter than waters of the Pachu, Machu, T. ista, and Arun. Between the it really is, from being generally viewedfrom a great elevation. Arun and Kosi is another great group, probably not lower Elevation It is now undisputed that for its length the Himalaya than the last; between the Kosi and Gandak is the nceud of the Hi- exhibits the loftiest eminences in the world by very far,but it from which rises Gosain-than (24,740 feet) ; between the malaya. is yet to be determined whether it is the greatest mountain Gandak and Gogra is another, with Dhawalagiri (28.000 mass. The great range of Kailas or Karakoram (the west- feet). Of the peaks on the axis N. of the Sutlej, the Kailas ern branch of the Kouenlun, see p. 439 in note), running alone has been measured, and exceeds 22,000 feet. On the parallel to the Western Himalaya, on the N. of the Indus, subsidiary chain S. of that river are very many peaks of above is undoubtedly more continuously lofty, and presents a 20,000 feet; of which NandaDevi (25,700 feet), and Kamet greater breadth of elevated country than the Himalaya to (25,000 feet) are the two loftiest. W. of the Sutlej many peaks the S. of it; and if, as is very probable, the eastern continua- on and off the axis rise above 20,000 feet; and the last of the tion of the Karakoram (to the N. of the Yaru or Tibetan great snowed ones, Dhiarmal (18,000 feet), occurs W. of Brahmaputra) is as lofty as the western, this will undoubt- Kashmir, close to the bend of the Indus, and termination of edly prove to be by very far a more lofty mountain chain the chain. These peaks are for the most part situated at some distance from the axis; and their accessibility, conthan the Himalaya. The mean slope of the Himalaya, from the. plains of spicuous position, and great quantity of snow, has fixed the India to the average greatest elevation of the axis, is only attention of surveyors upon them : whether any eminences 1 foot in 25 ; that from the loftiest peak (which is not on on the axis attain the elevation of 28,000 feet may be leathe axis) to the plains is 1 in 12. Ihe elevation of the sonably doubted. Of those to the eastward absolutely nosouthern base of the Himalaya, that is, of the plains of thing is known; but from the views of the axis obtained India at the foot of the range, gradually rises from 350 feet from the N. of Sikkim, Nepal and Bhotan, it would appear in the meridian of Calcutta to 1000 feet in the Punjab ; that many there also exceed 20,000 feet. The mineral character of the great peaks varies exwhilst to the eastward, up the Assam valley, the rise is tremely ; the loftiest known, Kinchin-junga, is apparently scarcely appreciable. The elevation of the northern base in the western portion, that is, of the bed of the Indus, falls a stratified granite, whilst some of the first class are of from 16,000 to 17,000 feet at the source of that river, to gneiss, and others of limestone, of mica-schist, and of slate. In the Himalaya every variety of temperature may be Climate, 11,000 at Ladak, and to 4000 or 5000 at its great bend. The elevation of the northern base of the eastern portion met with, from a tropical heat to the cold of the poles; (that is, of the valley of the Tibetan Brahmaputra) is wholly and every degree of humidity, from the perpetual moisHIMALAYA

1 2

Hooker’s Himalayan Journals, vol. ii., p. 171. . and does not The pass by which Turner left Bhotan, and entered the valley of the Machu in i e , is over a subsidiary range, appear to have been of very great elevation. 3K VOL. XI.

HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 442 Himalaya ture of the eastern valleys to the utter aridity of Western day, and is always experienced on the axis of the chain as Himalaya Mountains. Tibet; nevertheless the greater part of the chain is so sub- a violent southerly wind ; and a return cold current at niyht, Mountains ject to the influence of the monsoons, which sweep along blowing with much less violence and regularity down the its flanks from the Brahmaputra to beyond the Sutlej, that valleys. These winds increase in regularity and intensity as the seasons in general correspond with those of the great the valleys are ascended, and as the difference increases beGangetic valley ; and the two main divisions into hot and tween the temperatures of day and night; the diurnal curcold months, which further correspond with the wet and dry rent being least marked in winter, and the nocturnal one in ones, may be traced in all parts of the range except in the summer. The other phenomena of cloud, rain, and fotj, driest Tibetan regions. After the commencement of the which prevail in the Himalaya, are common to all mountam vernal equinox, brilliant weather prevails more or less in all countries, and require no detailed account. parts of the chain, except in the eastern, where any continuThe mean temperature of the base of the Himalaya di- Tempera ance of cloudless weather is rare. The rains are ushered minishes from 74° in the meridian of Calcutta, to about 70° ture‘ in by gales and thunderstorms; and when they have fairly in the western extremity of the range. At that end it is not set in, a cloudless week seldom occurs in the westward, and so low as the increase of latitude would indicate, owing to the to the eastward is quite unknown. increase of the mass of land in that direction, which beRain. In the Eastern Himalaya the rainy season commences in comes excessively heated in summer; hence the isothermals April or May, with the accession of the south-easterly mon- are curved, with their convexity to the N.W. during all seasoon, laden with humidity from the Bay of Bengal; by the sons of the year, but most so in summer, as the equator of end of May it becomes general in Nepal, and by mid- heat trends so far to the northward of the terrestrial equator summer in the extreme W. In the N.W. the rain be- in summer as to impinge upon the base of the Himalaya in gins to decrease about September, but in the eastern pro- July, when its mean temperature rises almost to 86°. In vinces can hardly be said to be over before October or No- midwinter again the mean temperature falls to about 60°. vember. The amount of rain deposited during this period The diminution of temperature in ascending is about 1° varies extremely, but as a general rule, diminishes from E. for every 350 or 400 feet of elevation in the more humid to W. Owing to a local cause, Sikkim is the wettest province parts of the chain, and 1° for every 400 feet in the drier in the whole range—the Rajmahal Hills (in Bengal) partially parts ; the ratio of diminution is most rapid in the loftiest dispersing the clouds which would otherwise descend on Ne- elevations, and more rapid in winter than in summer, owpal to the W. of it, and the Khasia range similarly shelter- ing to the effect of the warm S. wind. In these respects ing Bhotan to the E. The heaviest rains fall on the outer the Himalaya differs from other mountain ranges, as the hills, elevated from 6000 to 10,000 feet, especially where Alps for instance, as it does also both in the annual and these advance in considerable masses towards the plains, diurnal range of temperature increasing with the elevation, whilst isolated peaks and ranges of less elevation, as well as and in the effect of radiation being greatest in winter, all of the valleys of the great rivers, are drier. As a consequence of which are due to the interference of the heavy rains and this, all the valleys of the interior which are separated from clouds of summer. the plains by continuous chains, attaining an elevation of from The following is an attempt to approximate (within a 10,000 to 12,000 feet, are to a great extent sheltered by these few degrees), to the mean temperature, and range of the from the rains, which fall only as occasional showers ; while thermometer, in the province of Sikkim :— those still further back, and which are bounded on the south by mountains rising everywhere to the level of perpetual 0 snow, are absolutely without rain during the monsoon. In Mean Ratio of Altitude. temp, in Sikkim and Bhotan, where the wide valleys are perpendidiminution of Shade. 5S temperature. cular to the axis of the chain, and correspond to the direcc O C ttion of the winds, the rains are heavy till we penetrate far ^ & P5c$ — into the interior ; but great irregularities everywhere occur, 7,500 feet 5062-7 400 13-0 1200 1°=300 feet. and this even in adjacent vallevs. 11,000 ... 40-9 50-0 24-0 20'0 40 0 1°=320 ... Ihe maximum rain-fall probably occurs on the outer 15,000 ... 29-8 400 110 27-0 20-0 1°=350 ... ranges of Sikkim, and exceeds 120 inches in the year at 19,000 ... 19 8 32-0 0-0 350 100 1°=400 ... /000 feet elevation. The amount of rain is, however, little indication of the humidity of the climate ; for, though in the The elevation of the snow-line is about 16,000 feet on Snow-line, interior valleys very little falls at elevations corresponding the southern or outer snowed ranges throughout the whole with those which are deluged on the outer ranges, the fogs length of the chain; the depression at the eastern extreand drizzle which prevail, and which are not measured by mity, which is in a lower latitude, being attributable to the the rain-guage, sometimes obscure the sun’s rays for many convexity of the isothermals and the greater fall of snow. days in succession. It rises to 20,000 feet on the loftier eminences towards Winds. I owards the autumnal equinox, as the decreasing decli- and behind the axis. In winter the snow descends to nation of the sun gradually changes the direction of the 10,000 feet, and lies there for about a month, probably wind, the atmosphere becomes drier, and the cessation of throughout the range; and sporadic falls have been exthe rains is marked by violent tempests. perienced as low as 5000 feet in the central provinces, and During the winter the weather is unsettled; for whilst 1000 in the western. the N.E. monsoon is blowing over the lower parts of The glacial phenomena are everywhere the same as in India, an upper current of south-westerly wind carries its the Alps of Europe and elsewhere, the descent of the glamoisture to the higher mountains, where it is condensed in ciers being modified by the breadth, form, and slope of the the fin m of snow; and there is also a short rainy season valleys they occupy, and the extent, &c., of their feeders : towards the end of December, in the more humid provinces. in the Western Himalaya they descend to 11,000 feet, though In spring, as the sun’s declination increases, and the Gan- rarely; while in the eastern and central parts they have getic plain and Punjab again become heated, low currents not been met with below 14,000. of diy south-westerly winds often rush in the afternoons That the climate of the whole Himalaya has been greatly with violence up the Himalayan valleys, and obscure the altered within a comparatively recent period, is proved by distant prospect with a strong haze. the ancient moraines of great size, and other glacial evi1 he local Himalayan winds are confined to a diurnal dences, which are found as low down as 8000 or 9000 feet cm lent of heated air which rushes up the valleys during the in the valleys of all the great rivers.

HIMALAYA Himalaya The barometric tides in the Himalaya are greatly modifountains • fied by the rains; but the times oi' maximum pressure (9’o0 a.m. and p.m.) and minimum (4 a.m. and p.m.), and the horary oscillations, are much the same at all elevations. The amplitude of the oscillations decreases from 0T00 inch at the base of the range to 0074 at 7500 feet, and O'OoO at 14,000 or 15,000 feet. The amplitude is greatest in the spring months, least in June and July, and rises again in autumn. The pressure of dry air shows but one annual maximum (in December) and one minimum (in July), and one diurnal maximum at the coldest hour of the twentyfour, and one diurnal minimum in the afternoon. Umosphe- The effects of diminished pressure on the human frame ■ic pres- are the same in the Himalaya as in other mountain regions ; ure. the uninured traveller first experiences slight giddiness at 13,000 or 14,000 feet, with nausea, headache, and lassitude at 14,000 or 15,000, while the pulse often rises to 120 per minute—symptoms which increase with the elevation, and violently so upon any exertion, but wear off with practice. Upon horseback, if the pace is gentle, 19,000 feet may be attained without inconvenience ; and after living for a day or two at 16,000 feet, ascents to 20,000 feet may be made slowly and cautiously on foot, without other inconvenience than lassitude. Some individuals suffer more than others, but even the Tibetan inhabitants of 15,000 feet always have headache in walking over passes of 18,000. Bleeding at the nose and ears has never been experienced by any practised traveller in health, and is unknown amongst the natives. jeology of Of the Geology of the Himalaya little can be said ; for ;he liima- though some of the provinces have been well studied, of the uya. majority nothing whatever is known. The strike of the rocks throughout appears to be N.W., and the dip N.E.; but this is liable to many local exceptions, the dip especially being extremely variable. At the south base of the range, spurs of sandstones and conglomerates occur, rising immediately out of the gravelly deposits which are intercalated with the alluvium of the plains of India. These sandstones have been represented as occurring along a great portion of the range, though there is no evidence to show that those of the eastern and western parts of the chain are of the same age. Some of those of Kuma5n (Sewaliks) are referable to the miocene age, and contain the remains of species of bos, camel, giraffe, hippopotamus, dinotherium, mastodon, sivatherium, many antelopes and other ruminants, various carnivora, anoptotherium, several monkeys, seven species of elephants, crocodiles, and the gigantic tortoise, whose shell measures 20 feet across. The sandstones at the foot of the Sikkim hills in the meridian of Calcutta are probably referable to the same age as the coal formations of Behar and Central India, indications of similar fossils having been found in both. The dip of these rocks is almost always to the mountains, as is often that of the succeeding metamorphic rocks, and which, though probably of far older formation, appear to overlie them. Metamorphic rocks, consisting of beds of mica-schist with garnets, clay-slate, quartz, gneiss, and occasional veins of granite, acquire an enormous development, often rising into the loftiest peaks of the central region, and forming the mass of the mountains in those parts of the range which have been best explored. These are overlaid again by slates, and in Kumadn by Silurian beds succeeded by rocks which are referable to the oolite series, abounding in some places in ammonites and belemnites. In the larger river valleys towards the axis of the chain, tertiary beds are again met with, overlying the oolitic and metamorphic ones, and containing, to the north of Kumadn, at 15,000 feet elevation, fossils analogous to those of the Sewaliks, at the south base oi' the mountains. Specimens of these, brought to England by Captain R. Strachey, have been referred to extinct species of horse, rhinoceros, elephant, hippopotamus, &c.

MOUNTAINS. 443 Of eruptive rocks granite is abundant throughout the Himalaya chain, and dykes of greenstone and basalt occur to the west- Mountains, ward. In the extreme Western Himalaya of Tibet, ibssil shells of the pleistocene or post-pleistocene age, have been found in lacustrine clays by Dr Thomson, on the flanks of mountains bordering both lakes and rivers, high above the level of the waters ; some of these, chiefly species of Lymncea and Planorbis, are closely allied to existing Himalayan species, if not identical with them, and indicate the retirement of extensive bodies of fresh water from those regions at a comparatively recent period. Glacial deposits are found in all the Himalayan valleys above 8000 or 9000 feet elevation, in the form of transported boulders and enormous moraines, attesting the former extension of glaciers fully 6000 feet below their present limits. These phenomena so entirely resemble those of the Alps, that they require no detailed account. Attempts have been made to draw conclusions in physical geography and geology from the relations of the river-beds (regarding them as fissures) to the strike of the rocks in the chain, and to the lines of upheaval of the main and subsidiary ranges, but hitherto without success. One fact alone is obvious, that the direction of the strike, which appears to be tolerably uniform throughout about 1000 miles of the chain, cuts both the main range and its secondary ones obliquely at an acute angle, and is not modified by the varying direction of the range ; whence it follows that it cuts the river basins obliquely also. Until, however, more is known of the relative ages of the rocks composing the range, and their exact relations to one another, no conclusions can be arrived at. The order of superposition has been traced in Kumabn alone, by Captain R. Strachey; and though the geology of this province will no doubt soon be connected with that of the countries to the westward of it, there is at present no prospect of any addition being made to our knowledge of either the geography or geology of by far the more extensive portion of the Himalaya, which stretches for 1000 miles E. of that province. In mineral products the Himalaya is remarkably poor, so Minerals, far as is at present known. There is nothing which can compare in abundance or value with the mines of the Ural, Andes, or European Alps. Red haematite is worked with profit in Kumaon, and copper exists in Nepal and the Sikkim hills. Iron (disseminated) occurs in various places, and graphite is common. Salt, borax, and soda are procured in abundance in the dry climate of Tibet, where they are articles of commerce ; there also gold-washing is carried on upon a most limited scale. Gold is known to be extremely abundant in many parts of Eastern Tibet, where, however, the jealousy of the Chinese government prevents its being worked. Slates, lime, gypsum, lead, sulphur, and magnesia, are also Himalayan products. There is a surprising and almost total absence of gems, or minerals of rarity or beauty in the Himalaya; garnets, actinolites, and tourmalines, are perhaps the only exceptions of frequent occurrence, and these are of the coarsest description. Hot springs abound, chiefly at elevations of 10,000 to 18,000 feet; they usually emit sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and maintain temperatures of 100° to 130°. There is no active volcano anywhere in the range, nor any traces of extinct ones. Some of the districts, especially towards the N.W., have been visited by violent earthquakes, but these do not appear to be connected with any endemic phenomena; they have generally commenced far S. of the Himalaya, and have been propagated across the range. Remarkable local subsidences and elevations have occurred in the valley of the Jhelam in Kashmir, which have been described by Dr Thomson {Tibet, p. 291). Vegetation.—This may be altitudinally divided into tro- Vegetapical, temperate, and alpine ; and latitudinally into exterior 6on>

HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS. 444 Himalaya or rainy, interior or intermediate, and Tibetan or arid Hi- boos prevail everywhere, and rattan-canes to the eastward. Himalaya Mountains. malaya. Owing, probably, to the humid climate, the woods of Euro- Mountains The tropical belt extends from the Terai to 6000, and pean genera are, almost without exception, inferior to those — even 7000 feet in the humid central provinces; and to of their western allies. Teak is unknown in the Himalaya; 3000 to 4000 in the extreme western. It consists of a luxu- and the otherwoods of Eastern Bengal andof both the Indian riant forest of Malayan and insular types of trees in the east- peninsulas are either confined to the malarious forests of ern provinces, which to a great extent, disappear to the west- Assam, or are altogether absent. The vegetable economic ward, where they are partially replaced by Persian, Egyp- products are also very few and unimportant—such as spices, tian and Afghanistan types—amongst these trees the palms, gums, resins, oils, waxes, fibres, and other textile materials. plantains, tree-ferns, sal {Shorea robusta), sissoo {J)altergia Of drugs, the baneful aconite and hemp are the best known ; sissoo), toon (Cedrela Toona), and some oaks, are the most inferior rhubarb, and a few bitters of secondary importance conspicuous, and commercially the most important, espe- in the pharmacopoeia, are also collected for export. Attempts have been made to cultivate drugs for the use of the Indian cially to the eastward. The temperate belt extends from 5000 feet to the upper medical establishments, but hitherto with very limited suclimit of forest, which varies from 12,000 to 13,000 feet, ac- cess. Wild madder is extensively collected and exported, cording to the dryness of the climate. It abounds in Euro- as are bamboos, canes, and a few other products ; and latpean, Levantine, and Chinese genera and even species, with terly potatoes in Sikkim. There is no doubt that the vegebut few Malayan mountain ones ; of these the European are table riches of these extensive regions are but very little most abundant in the western provinces, and the Chinese known, and are capable of immense extension ; but hitherto and Japanese in the eastern, where are also a few American the efforts have been limited. On the northern or Tibetan genera, and some belonging to the Malayan and insular parts of the range the trees are extremely few and small, mountain flora. Amongst the most conspicuous plants of and confined to willows, poplars, junipers, elseagnus, and this region are oaks, birch, maple, apple, hornbeam, poplar, tamarisk; and of bushes, the well-known dama or furze, ash, cherry, alder, celtis, pine, juniper, yew, willow, and pines that supplies fuel, is the most familiar to travellers. {Abies Webbiana and Brunoniana), which abound throughThe Zoology of the Himalaya is very extensive, and the Zoology, out the range; besides which, there are to the westward of laws of distribution are the same as those of the vegetable Nepal, deodar,Pmus Gerardiana, hawthorn, cypress, horse- kingdom; thus Malayan genera of quadrupeds, birds, and chestnut, olive, myrtle, evergreen oak, sloe, black poplar, insects, inhabit the tropical belt, diminishing in variety and and many other European genera and even species ; whilst number towards the west. In the temperate zone European to the eastward, laurel, magnolia, rhododendron, larch, types predominate, with a large admixture of Chinese and Abies Brunoniana, and chestnut, more especially prevail. Japanese forms to the eastward. Siberian forms prevail in The alpine belt, which commences above the forest re- the alpine zone, and throughout both eastern and western gion, ascends in extreme cases to 19,000 feet; it abounds Tibet. The most remarkable animals are in the tropical in Siberian, Polar, and European alpine plants throughout zone; the tiger, leopard, elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, and the whole extent of the chain, the European species and many species of deer, monkey, wild boar, and bovine anigenera being most prevalent to the W. mals. In the temperate zone are other species of deer and Several hundred common English plants are also natives monkey, bears, wild cats, squirrels, &c. In the alpine zone, of the Himalaya, and especially of the temperate and alpine and chiefly in the Tibetan climate, the wild ass or kiang, zones; and the total number of flowering plants inhabiting musk-deer, ibex, antelopes, hare, several wild sheep and the whole range probably amounts to 5000 or 7000 species. goats, marmot, lemming, fox, wolf, ounce, lynx, weasel, Cultivation in the Himalaya is carried on as high as polecat, and many smaller animals, abound. The domestic 14,000, and even 15,000 feet, where summer crops of wheat animals are the yak and its hybrids with other bovines, and barley exist in Tibet, but quite exceptionally ; also buck- ponies, cows, sheep, pigs, dogs of a mastiff breed, goats, and wheat, turnips, radishes, mustard, potatoes, and various fowls, and occasionally bees; of these the yak is the most pulses, are grown abundantly between 8000 and 12,000 remarkable, and is the domestic form of a wild animal of feet, as summer crops. Rice, maize, millet, and other tro- greater dimensions found in various parts of Tibet; it is pical cereals, are grown below 6000 feet, with buck-wheat, used as a beast of burden for all purposes, for milk, and for and various species of chenopodium, yams, capsicum, egg- beef. apple, legumes, and sugar-cane. Shells are rare in the Himalaya, but do exist, and even The Himalayan fruits cultivated by the natives in the at 16,000 to 17,000 feet elevation, in fresh water. eastern and central provinces are plantains, oranges, pineInsects are extremely abundant at all elevations, and apples, walnuts, indifferent peaches and apples; in the leeches abound up to 10,000 feet in the eastern provinces. western, excellent apples, pears, apricots, peaches, cherries, The rivers are generally too rapid for much fishing; but mulberries, grapes, and walnuts. many species of Cyprinidce especially abound from the level The cultivation of tea is now successfully carried on on a of the plains to 15,000 feet elevation; with a remarkable large scale in the Western Himalaya, at elevations of 2000 break, however, between 5000 to 10,000 feet, between which to 5000 feet, and might probably be pursued with more or levels fish are said to be rare, or almost unknown, in most less success in all parts of the chain. of the rivers. Salmonidece are unknown in any Himalayan The timber trees of the Himalaya are extremely nu- river; the so-called trouts being all species of carp. The merous, but few of them are of great value, and some of eastern Tibetan lakes swarm with fish at 10,000 to 14,000 the best inhabit inaccessible regions. The sal {Shorea ro- feet elevation. busta) is decidedly the most valuable; and, from growing The economic animal products are coarse silk, called at the foot of the hills, close to water-carriage, is the only tusser, from a native moth bred at the foot of the hills; one much felled for export. The toon {Cedrela Toona) and shawl wool from Tibet, and musk from the alpine regions. sissoo {Dalbergia Sissoo) are also exported from the same It is impossible to make more than a brief allusion to the inhabiregions; and the deodar and other conifers from the north- numerous Himalayan races, whose very numbers are as yet tants. western provinces. I he other pines, the walnut, oaks, and unknown, and the origin of most of which is involved in the chestnuts, mostly produce indifferent timber; but, though obscurity. The majority, however, may be safely referred theie are exceptions, the use of these is principally confined to the Mongolian race, with, in some cases, more or less of to the neighbourhood where they grow. Of ornamental admixture with the Indo-Germanic. Of these the Tibetans woods, few are known, and none are in general use. Bam- are perhaps numerically the greatest; and they occupy the

HIM Himera. largest area—namely, Eastern Tibet, which is exclusively peopled by them, Western Tibet to a great extent, and all the loftier Himalayan valleys above 8000 feet elevation. They are generally an honest, hardy, hospitable, cheerful people, but indolent, unwarlike, and filthy in the extreme, both in their persons and houses. All are Lama Buddhists. The Bhotanese are perhaps more closely allied to these than any other Himalayan race, and are also all Lama Buddhists. They are more industrious than the Tibetans, but are turbulent, treacherous, dishonest, and sullen in disposition. I he Nepalese are chiefly Hindus, as are many of the dominant races of the lower outer Western Himalaya, and are divided into many castes or classes, military, agricultural, pastoral, &c. Throughout the Western Himalaya are many Mussulmen. Numberless uncivilized tribes inhabit the eastern and central provinces ; but, with the exception of the Abus of Eastern Bhotan, none are in an absolutely savage state. The others are the Lepchas, a timid Mongolian race inhabiting Sikkim, and the Limboos, Murmis, Haioos, Cooches, Bodos, Dhimals, and a host of other tribes, presenting various combinations of the Indo-Chinese, Mongolian, and Tamul, or aboriginal race of India. These chiefly inhabit the eastern provinces, and, with the exception of the Lepchas, none form a distinct nation ; the rest are mixed off'with the Nepalese, Lepchas, and Bhotanese, and are subject to the sovereigns of these tribes. Some of these are the remnants of the aborigines of the Himalaya, and claim a very early origin. For detailed information on these subjects, and on the zoology in general, we must refer to Mr Hodgson, whose works on these subjects have a European reputation. ntish sta- The principal British stations in the Himalaya are situated at elevations of 6000 or 8000 feet above the sea level, where the climate approximates to that of England. These are all healthy, and well adapted to the European constitution ; and though neither objects of particular solicitude nor of sufficiently systematic resort by the British residents in India, they are of the highest value, and the conviction of this is gradually forcing itself upon the public mind. Whether as a means of civilizing the neighbouring hill-states, or of extending our commercial relations with Tibet and Central Asia, or as affording healthy sites for schools, hospitals, and depots for invalid or unseasoned troops, they are worthy of the especial care of the government. It cannot be doubted that the Himalaya will one day become peopled by colonies of the English race, sprung in part from officers of the East India Company's service, and others who, long accustomed to the habits of the East, and with all their friends and associations in India, prefer a retirement in the immediate neighbourhood of the scenes and friends of their later life, to seeking new friends, and remodelling their habits in England. Of these hill Sanataria, the most important, proceeding westerly, are—Darjiling, elev. 7000 to 8000 feet, in Sikkim; Naini-tal, 6000 to 7000 feet, and Almora, 5000 to 6000 feet, in Kumaon ; Masuri, 6000 to 7000 feet, in Garhwal; Simla, 7000 to 8000 feet, in Sirmore; Kangra, 7000 to 8000 feet, in the Byas Valley ; and Murree, 7000 to 8000 feet, between the Indus and Jhelum. (j. r. h.) HIMERA, in Ancient Geography, a great Greek city on the northern coast of Sicily, at the mouth of a small stream about halfway between Panormus and Cephalsedium. It was founded by a colony from Zande, and its institutions were consequently at first Chalcidic ; but there seems to have been also a considerable infusion of Syracusan blood. Ihe date of its foundation, which is not accurately known, is generally assigned to the year 648 B.c. In its early histoiy the only recorded event is its temporary subjugation by the tyrant Phalaris. It next fell under the power of a tyiant of its own, Terillus by name, who was expelled by fheron of Agrigentum. In his distress Terillus applied for aid to the Carthaginians. That people having probably in

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H I N 445 view the conquest of the whole of Sicily, sent him an Himera immense army, who, in the same year, and it is said on || the same day which witnessed the route of Marathon, were Coosh utterly annihilated by Theron with the assistance of the Syracusan Gelon. The successful tyrant now entrusted the government of the city to his son Thrasydaeus, and augmented its diminished population by a colony of Dorian settlers. From this time Himera became Doric both in its constitution, dialect, and policy. After the death of Theron in 472, Thrasydaeus was expelled from Himera, which continued to grow in power and wealth till its final destruction by the Carthaginians in B.c. 408. Near the site of the old town the conquerors founded a new one, to which, from the hot wells in the neighbourhood, they gave the name of Thermae or Thermae Himerenses, which from its favourable situation soon attained considerable importance as a commercial mart. Even so late as the days of Cicero it was a place of some importance, as is attested by the extensive Roman remains of that period still extant. The name of the town is preserved in that of the modern Termini which occupies its site. Himera was the birthplace of the poet Stesichorus, whose statue, preserved in Thermse, is mentioned by Cicero as being held in the highest veneration by the natives. Himera, in Ancient Geography, the name of two important rivers of Sicily. The less important of the two was the Northern Himera, falling into the sea near the city of that name. It rose about the centre of the island not very far from the sources of the Southern Himera, and is by some identified with the modern Fiume di Termini. Others, however, are of opinion that the Northern Himera is now represented by the Fiume Grande, which falls into the sea about 8 miles E. of Termini. The Southern Himera rose in the Mons Nebrodes {Monte di Madonid), and flowing nearly due S., fell into the sea at Phintias {A.licata). It is now called the Fiume Salso, or Salt River. On its banks Agathocles was defeated by the Carthaginians, b.c. 311, and they by Marcellus, b.c. 212. HIMILCO, the name of several persons distinguished in the history of Carthage. The first of whom mention is made was the leader of the expedition which set out to explore the northern seas at the same time that Hanno undertook his famous voyage in the opposite direction. Nothing remains to fix the period at which it was undertaken. Himilco, the opponent of Dionysius the Elder, of Syracuse (406-368); and Himilco, the opponent of Marcellus in Sicily, are deserving of notice. See Carthage. HINCKLEY, a market-town of England, county of Leicester, and 13 miles S.W. of the town of that name. The parish church is a spacious old building, surmounted by a lofty spire, and having a finely carved oak roof. Cotton and woollen hosiery constitutes the staple manufacture of the town. Market-day, Monday. Pop. (1851) 6111. HINDIA, a town of Hindustan, in the territory of Gwalior. The district of which it is the capital has been placed under British management by the provisions of the treaty of Gwalior concluded in 1844 ; its revenues being appropriated to the maintenance of the Gwalior contingent, a native force commanded by British officers. The town is fortified, and stands on the left or S. bank of the Nerbudda. HINDU COOSH, or Koh, a range of mountains, physically discriminated from the Himalayas by the vast depression which forms the upper part of the valley of the Indus. They form the N.W. boundary of the province of Caubul, separating it from Balk and Buduckshan. The range of mountains so denominated extends in a westerly direction from Long. 78° as far as the snowy peak of Hindu Coosh, nearly N. of Caubul. I hese mountains are covered with snow the greater part of the year, and void of verdure at the summit, but are well wooded at the base. They form the Indian Caucasus range of the ancients.

446

HINDUSTAN. Hindustan. Hindustan has from the earliest ages been celebrated as one of the most highly favoured countries on the globe, and as abounding in the choicest productions both of nature and art. In ancient times, this distant region was very imperfectly known to the Greeks and other nations of the West; but they imported its most valuable produce, its diamonds, its aromatics, its silks, and its costly manufactures. The country which abounded in those expensive luxuries was naturally reputed to be the seat of immense riches, and every romantic tale of its felicity and glory was readily believed. In the middle ages, an extensive commerce with India was still maintained through the ports of Egypt and the Red Sea; and its precious produce, imported into Europe by the merchants of Venice, confirmed the popular opinion of its high refinement and its vast wealth. After the discovery of a passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, the same ideas still prevailed; and the maritime states of Europe contended with their fleets and armies for the dominion of the Asiatic seas, and for the commerce of the country. The Portuguese, and afterwards the Dutch, made important conquests, and carried on an extensive trade. In later times, Great Britain and France appeared on the field as competitors for the prize of Indian commerce and dominion, and were allowed to establish factories on the coasts for the reception and the store of goods. These were gradually converted into military posts, defended by soldiers and cannon ; and in due time those two powers were ranged on opposite sides in all the wars and politics of India. This contest terminated in the triumph of the British arms. France lost her pre-eminence on the continent of India; and her great rival, enlarging her power on every side, gradually rose to greatness and dominion, and now rules with undisputed sway from the Himalaya Mountains to Cape Comorin. This vast extension of the British power in the East has opened the way into the interior of India. It has tended greatly to enlarge our knowledge of this distant region ; and if more accurate inquiry has reduced the marvellous tales of its glory and greatness within the bounds of sobriety and truth, Hindustan, the seat of industry, of commerce, and of the arts, when Europe was sunk in barbarism, the scene of many eventful revolutions, from the Mohammedan invasion till its conquest by the armies of Britain, and inhabited by a people of peculiar manners, laws, institutions, and religion, still presents a wide field for interesting inquiry and speculation. In the following account of this interesting country, we propose to describe—I. Its geography and natural features ; its produce, its animals, its manufactures and commerce; the numerous races by which it is inhabited, with their manners, religion, and policy; and the wars and political revolutions which have terminated in establishing the sway of Great Britain over nearly the whole continent of India. II. The transactions and internal policy of the East India Company, with the various reforms introduced into the revenue, judicial, and police departments, will afford ample materials for a separate discussion and inquiry. III. A brief account will be given of the constitution, commercial privileges, and pecuniary transactions of the Company, originally merchants, now the sovereigns of a vast empire. GeograI. I he ancient geographers had no precise ideas of the phy. extent of Hindustan or India, terms which we mean to use synonymously in the following article; and they accordingly extended its frontier westward as far as Persia, and eastward to China. In after ages its limits often fluctuated with the events of war, and served only to mark

out the course of conquest, with little or no attention to Hindustar geographical accuracy. Yet in no part of the earth has nature pointed out, in the great features of the country, more distinct and magnificent boundaries. On the N. it is separated from the elevated table-land of Thibet by the precipitous wall of the Himalaya Mountains, the highest land of the Asiatic continent; on the W. the Suliman range, a continuation of the Sufeid Koh Mountains, separates it from Afghanistan and Beloochistan ; its E. boundary is formed by parallel offshoots from the opposite extremity of the Himalayas and by the continuous ranges of forest-covered hills, which, skirting the Bengal district of Chittagong, stretch southward to the recently acquired province of Pegu, and separate the British dominions from the territory of Burmah. The Indus and the Ganges discharge themselves into the ocean on the western and eastern coasts of Hindustan, in about N. Eat. 24° and 22°; and to the south the country is contracted into an irregular triangle, projecting into the Indian Ocean to within eight degrees of the equator, or about 1000 miles, and on all sides inclosed by the sea. The extensive region situated within these limits is nearly comprehended between the 8th and 35th degrees of north latitude, and between the longitudes of 66° and 99° east; and its length from the northern barrier of the Himalaya Mountains to Cape Comorin is about 1900 miles, whilst in breadth it may be estimated at 1800 miles, though, owing to the irregularity of its figure, it does not exceed 1,484,367 English squai’e miles. Flindustan is of an extremely diversified aspect, and com- Natural prehends within its bounds all the varieties of climate, of features, soil, and of natural scenery, from the bare and naked rock, and lofty mountain buried under eternal snows, to the low and fertile plain, scorched by the tropical sun, and the seat of luxuriant vegetation. This diversity in the aspect of the country has given rise to the following territorial divisions, namely :— E Northern Hindustan, which comprehends the Himalaya Mountains on the N., with their lower ranges of hills stretching southwards to the plains of the Indus and the Ganges, and extending from Peshawur and Cashmere on the W., to Bootan and Assam on the Ei 2. Hindustan Proper, which extends southward as far as the Nerbuddah River, where the Deccan commences, and which includes the lower provinces of Bengal, the northwestern provinces, together with Oude, Malwa or Central India, the Punjab, Guzerat, Sinde, and Cutch. 3. The Deccan, bounded on the N. by the Nerbuddah River, and on the S. by the rivers Krishna and Toombudra, comprehends the larger portion of the presidency of Bombay, together with Orissa, the Nizam’s dominions, and the territory of Nagpore. 4. India south of the Krishna River, comprehending the territories under the administration of the government of Madras, together with the native states of Cochin, Travancore and the Mysore. The alpine region of Hindustan, which forms its northern barrier, is a narrow strip of land not exceeding 150 miles in breadth. It is here that the land of Asia attains to its height; and the country is composed of a succession of vast mountains rising far above the level of perpetual snow. These frozen deserts consist in many places of rugged and bare rocks, shooting aloft into the sky, and divided by deep ravines, very steep, and often ending in dark chasms, which are sometimes wooded, but as often bare rocks several hundred feet in height, with little more

HINDUSTAN. 447 industan. space between them than has been worn by the violence the heavily loaded native carriers, each carrying a weight o Hindustan. of tlie torrents. Here is concentrated all that is sublime 60 pounds, are seen descending these difficult passes with in the scenery or phenomena of nature. On every side apparent ease and unconcern.2 Lieutenant Webb, who in are to be seen snowy summits of stupendous height, and 1808, along with Captains Raper and Hearsay, was sent of every form; the conical volcanic peak; the mountain to explore the sources of the Ganges, experienced the same regularly rounded, or broken into rugged and frightful pre- dangers as Mr Moorcroft, and was finally compelled to desist cipices, rising upwards to a tremendous height, or descend- from his hazardous journey when he had reached within ing with a frightful declivity into deep hollows, and all six or seven days’ journey of Gangoutri. The country here covered with snow. This mountainous and frozen region assumes a savage wildness, and, except in the passes or is the scene of the destructive avalanche, when the ac- beds of the rivers, is totally impervious ; and these rivers, in cumulated snows of successive winters are precipitated approaching their sources, from rapid and turbulent streams from the mountains into the plains below, burying every- flowing over a rocky channel, become furious torrents dashthing in their progress; or when the action of the intense ing from one huge block of stone to another, along which cold upon the solid rock rends it from its base, and sends the traveller, climbing over rocks, or picking his dangerous it bounding down the steep, producing the most fearful way along the path of precipices, as already described, is at ruin of everything beneath. Mr Moorcroft, who in the last met by masses of mighty ruins, which entirely check year 1816 penetrated across the Himalaya ridge, mentions his further progress. More recently these wild regions the tremendous crash from the fall of a rock, which he have been explored by that enterprising traveller Dr Geheard at a great distance. The slope of a hill he also saw rard, who crossed the great Himalaya Pass, and penetrated broken from top to bottom. “In its fall,” be observes, “it into the Plateau of Tartary. The abstract of his tour, has overwhelmed large trees, of which some have been given in the Asiatic Journal, is replete with valuable inforhurled into the river, others lay across its bed half buried mation, and confirms all the previous accounts of travellers in rubbish, and others, thrown down, were seen hanging by respecting the nature of the country, rude and inaccessible, their roots with their heads towards the base of the moun- and exhibiting, on a scale of grandeur hardly to be conceived, tain.” The southern face of the Himalaya Mountains is all the great phenomena of nature. much more steep than the northern descent into the tableThe Himalaya Mountains contain the sources of the land of Thibet, and it is in proportion difficult and danger- great rivers which flow through the burning plains of Hinous. There is nothing like a road in these mountainous dustan, The deep valleys between tbe mountains are the districts. The traveller has to scale the most terrific heights, channels through which the waters flow from the higher by a path so narrow as not to admit two abreast, which grounds; and, by the melting of the snow, those streams, winds along the mountain, and often along bare and per- suddenly swollen into torrents, and rushing down the dependicular precipices by a narrow and irregular flight clivity, work out a deep and narrow channel amongst the of steps, or by natural irregularities in the face of the po- rocks, where, imprisoned as it were between steep and lished marble rock, and sometimes by a projecting ledge perpendicular banks, they roar and foam amidst precipices, not more than a foot broad, whilst a declivity of 600 or 700 or in dark and unfathomable glens, exhibiting, in the confeet in depth opens on the outer side. These steps, at cer- flict of their troubled waters, all the great phenomena tain projecting points, where the rock is perpendicular, wind which belong to rivers, namely, the cataract, the rapid, in lines of zigzag not more than ten or twelve feet in length, the boiling eddy, and the dangerous whirlpool, and only at angles so sharp that, in a length of twenty-four feet, the subside into smoothness when they break out and spread actual height gained is not more than ten feet, and they over the plains. Huge rocks were seen by Dr Gerard are often placed at most inconvenient distances, which whirled along with frightful velocity; nothing visible but greatly increases the danger and the difficulty of access, an entire sheet of foam and spray, thrown up and showerexcept to those hardy mountaineers who have been trained ed upon the surrounding rocks with loud concussion, and from their infancy to agility and steadiness in such tremen- re-echoed from bank to bank with the noise of the loudest dous paths. Mr Moorcroft himself had on one occasion a thunder. Across these streams are thrown rude bridges narrow escape. “ My left foot,” he says, “ having slipped off made of ropes or of wood, the usual expedient by which one of these irregularities, I lay for a few seconds upon the rivers are crossed in all mountain countries. Where the poise; but a snatch at a clump of grass, which on being breadth of the river is small, the passage is effected by seized did not give way, and a sudden spring, brought me one or two fir spars laid across from rock to rock; but to a comparatively safe spot, with the loss of some skin from where the space is wider, a bridge of ropes is constructed, my knees and elbows, and some rents in my trowsers and on the principle of the chain bridge. In attempting the sleeves.”1 His Hindu attendants encountered the same passage by one of these rude bridges, a carrier who accomperils, and one of them had very nearly fallen down the panied Fraser in his journey to the sources of the Ganges precipice. On missing his footing, he mentions that “ he unfortunately lost his footing and fell into the water. He shrieked violently, and sunk down almost senseless upon a was instantly swept down the stream to its junction with point of stone, with one leg hanging over the abyss, calling the Bhagiruttee, about fifty yards, “ when his head,” says out that he was lost.” Another of the bearers was so the traveller, “ appeared for a moment, and his load floatalarmed that he was incapable of proceeding until he was ing beside him; but the foaming current of the Bhagisecured by a turban tied round his waist, and held by one ruttee, here tumbling ovpr large rocks with a mighty of his companions. In some places the rock was found to roar, seized him and hurried him along with its tremendous project to the edge of the river, and it was turned by rude torrent.” staircases made of wood and stone, or the path lay over imThe greatest height of the Himalaya range has been fixed mense stones and rocks, piled upin dangerous disorder,where by accurate measurements at upwards of 28,000 feet above it was very difficult to secure a footing; whilst in other places the level of the sea. According to the accounts of all trathe party had to aid their ascent by laying hold of shrubs, vellers, these mountains present from the plains below one rootsof trees, clumps of grass, and clods of earth,or by creep- of the sublimect aspects in nature, and they are at a loss ing on both hands and knees to prevent slipping down. Yet for words to express the admiration and awe with which 1

See Moorcroffs Journal, Asiatic Researches, vol. xii., p. 386. t raser, Journal of a Tour through part of the Snowy Range of the Himalaya Mountains.

a ^ 5*

HINDUSTAN. they are at first beheld. Bishop Heber mentions that the The features of the landscape are here lofty, rugged, and Hindustan ' nearest range rises into a dignity and grandeur which he inaccessible, with less of the beautiful than of the sublime was not prepared for, divided as it is into successive ridges, and terrible. A pleasing contrast to this wild scenery is in all the wildest and most romantic forms of ravine, forest, presented by the smiling valley through which the Pabur crag, and precipice. In his further progress he found meanders, chequered as it is with pasture and crops, and the “ one range of mountains after another quite as rugged, banks and the hills clothed with cultivation, villages, and and, generally speaking, more bare than those which we wood. Such is the usual aspect of the lower valley of Norhad left, till the horizon was terminated by a vast range of thern Hindustan, the height of which is for the most part ice and snow, extending its battalion of white shining from 3000 to 6000 feet above the plains. The difference spears from east to west, as far as the eye could follow between the northern and southern exposures of this mounit; the principal points rising like towers in the glittering tainous country is remarkable, not only in the formation rampart, but all connected by a chain of humbler gla- and structure of the hills and rocks, but in the vegetation. ciers.” Captain Raper, who accompanied Lieutenant The country on its southern face is of a brown and dusky Webb in his survey of the Ganges, viewed the Himalaya colour; the grass short and parched; the hills rough and ridge from a summit about 4000 feet above the lower lumpy, with rocks standing through the ground; the lower plain. “ From the edge of the scarp,” he observes, “ the parts bare of wood; and above, the Weymouth pine, with eye extended over seven or eight distinct chains of a few stunted larches sprinkled amongst the rocks ; whilst hills, one rising above the other, till the view was ter- the higher parts are spread over with oak, holly, and alder, minated by the Himalaya or Snowy Mountains. It is ne- their leaves of brownish green, harmonizing with the burned cessary for a person to place himself in our situation appearance of the hills, and giving a sombre hue to the before he can form a just conception of the scene. The whole scene. On the northern exposure a rich colour of depth of the valley below, the progressive elevation of dark green is diffused over the whole landscape; the rocky the intermediate hills, and the majestic splendour of sides of the glens are bolder and grander; and they are the cloud-capt Himalaya, formed so grand a picture, that clothed with noble forests of larch, silver, and spruce firs, the mind was impressed with a sensation of dread rather which shroud from the view the highest and steepest cliffs. than of pleasure.”1 “The stupendous height of those “ All,” says Fraser, “ was rich and dark; and here and mountains,” says Elphinstone, “ the magnificence and there a glade opened, or a high slope extended from the variety of their lofty summits; the various nations by base of the rock, or projected between two streams, of a whom they are seen, and who seem to be brought together bright beautiful green, shining through the sombre forest.” by this common object; and the awful and undisturbed This difference between the northern and southern exposolitude which reigns amidst their eternal snows, fill the sures is strongly marked all over the hills.4 mind with admiration and astonishment that no language That strip of flat country, about twenty miles in breadth, can express.”2 which lies at the base of the great Himalaya range, diNorthern Hindustan varies in its climate and in its as- viding it from the plain of the Ganges, is called Terrae or pect with the height of the ground. The lower ranges Terreeana. It is covered with thick forests and low swamps, of mountains, though they scarcely reach the level of per- and, though fertile, it is so unhealthy that it is little cultipetual snow, still retain the sublime features of alpine vated. Bishop Heber graphically describes it as a long, scenery; namely, the rugged and bare mountain, the black, level line, extending at the foot of the lowest hills; craggy rock, white, gray, red, or brown, springing up in “ so black and level,” he adds, “ that it might seem to have fantastic forms above the general mass; and the deep and been drawn with ink and a ruler.” This flat does not exsuddenly descending chasm, with the foul torrent foam- tend farther north-west than through a portion of Rohilcund, ing over its rocky bed. The luxuriant foliage is wanting where the healthy cultivated country reaches to the foot of which embellishes the lower hills; the rich and smiling the hills, which rise abruptly from the sandy flat beneath. valley is not so often seen ; whilst the forests of dark brown These low hills are watered by streams from the higher fir fringing the mountains and the hollows impart a som- mountains, that rise to the level of 1500 or 5000 feet, from bre and unvarying appearance to the scene. At a lower which this lower range is frequently separated by fine level the country improves; and though it still exhibits the valleys of some length, which are called doon by the namountain and the precipice, the intervening valley is tives, answering to the Scottish name of strath. The hills clothed with verdure, and the lower hills with the most which rise beyond this lower range, to the height of about magnificent forests of large and lofty trees, the open country 5000 to 7000 feet, are lofty and majestic, and broken into with roses, jasmines, and other lovely or odoriferous shrubs, numerous ridges, divided by deep shaggy dells. This apand with the most luxuriant alpine plants.3 The valleys pearance Fraser ascribes to the quality of the rock of through which flow the head waters of the Indus and the which they are composed, which consists of a strongly Ganges, namely, the Sutlej, the Pabur, the Jumna, the indurated clay, with a mixture of siliceous matter, forming Baghiruttee, the Alkananda, with their tributaries, exhibit a rock exceedingly hard, though easily destructible by exall the varied and sublime scenery of this romantic country. posure to the air, and splitting into variously-sized fragThe valley of the Sutlej is hemmed in by brown and bar- ments, leaving hard marbly masses staring through the ren mountains, steep and rocky, without the grandeur of scanty soil. It may be finally remarked of this singular lofty precipices or fringing wood. The hollows through and interesting country, that though it appears from the which it receives its tributary streams are dark chasms, with- plains to be divided into distinct ranges of* terraces, it is out cultivation ; the heights crowned with forts, but without really a vast collection of mountains heaped in masses one any neat villages surrounded with trees to relieve the adja- above another, without any order or plan that can be discent desert. The banks of the Jumna, on the other hand, covered, until the height of land is reached at the great though rocky and wild, are wooded and green, and the slop- Himalaya ridge which extends from beyond the sources of ing faces of the hills fertile and well cultivated ; and even at the Indus in a continuous chain far into China. its source, the country, however wild and picturesque, is The great plain of Hindustan presents an entirely difstill not nearly so dreary as the valley of the Bhagiruttee. ferent scene. The cold and bracing air of the upper coun1 2

3 ^ee ^aPer,s Narrative a Survey Sourcesp.of95.the Ganges, Asiatic Researches, Elphinstone’s Journey toofthe Kingdomof oftheCauhul, Fraser’s Journal,vol.p. ii., 141.p. 469.

* Ibid., p. 142.

HINDUSTAN. 449 Hindustan, try is there exchanged for burning heat; the mountain abundant cover to the wild animals of the country, and to Hindustan, torrents no longer rage, except when they are in flood, gangs of banditti, who are even more ferocious than the but roll their streams lazily over the plains. That large beasts of the field. tract which is contained between the Indus and the BrahHindustan, as well as almost all other tropical countries, mapootra, and which extends E. and W. from 1200 to would soon be changed by the great heat into deserts of 1400 miles, and about 300 to 400 miles from N. to S., is, sand, like a large portion of Africa, if it were not refreshed with few exceptions, a level country, consisting chiefly by the periodical rains and the overflow of the rivers. In of the great plain of the Ganges, rich and fertile, and the plain of Hindustan, towards the west, occurs a tract of clothed with the most luxuriant vegetation, in which the this description, which, having neither rains nor refreshing spreading palm, with groves of mango and other trees of streams, still remains an arid sand. This great desert the most luxuriant foliage, and gardens, are intermixed reaches northward to the Ghara, a river formed by the with cultivated fields. The noble river which intersects united streams of the Beas and Sutlej, and south as far as this extensive plain determines the aspect and character of the salt lakes of Cutch, which communicate with the Gulf the country. Its swelling stream, as it approaches the sea of Cutch in the Indian Ocean. It extends about 500 miles in the provinces of Bahar and Bengal, is very broad and from N. to S., and is about 400 miles in breadth, encroachdeep, and waters so completely the whole country, that in ing eastward on the cultivated parts of the Delhi and Agra the driest season there is scarcely any part more than provinces, and westward on the country fertilized by the twenty miles distant from some river; and by means of Indus. Mr Elphinstone, in his journey to Afghanistan, lakes, rivulets, and water courses, boats may approach the travelled across this waste, which he describes as consisting peasant’s door. During the annual inundation, a large mostly of hillocks of loose and deep sand, from 20 to 100 feet tract of cultivated country is submerged to a great depth; in height, which in summer are blown aloft in clouds by the and the lower part of the Delta, named the Sunderbunds, wind, and threaten to overwhelm the traveller. Here a miis chequered by a labyrinth of creeks and rivers, expanding serable village is sometimes seen, which is merely a few to a breadth of 200 miles; the actual inundation reach- round straw huts with low walls and conical roofs, like little ing a breadth of 100 miles, in which trees and villages stacks of corn, surrounded by hedges of dry thorny branare seen like islands appearing above the water. Higher ches stuck in the sand. A few fields, watered by the dews up the stream the inundation is diminished in extent; and the rains, surround these abodes of misery, and yield and in the province of Bahar the river is not above a crops of the poorest kinds of pulse, and coarse grain. mile broad, the country being flat and fertile, though not Water is scarce, and is only obtained from wells often so abundant in trees as the rich plains of Bengal. Towards 300 feet deep, with a diameter of only three feet, and the west, the plain watered by the Ganges and its tributary all lined with masonry. One was seen by Mr Elphinstone streams yields in abundance all the productions of the tro- of the enormous depth of 345 feet, with such a scanty suppics ; especially the Dooab, or the tract that lies between ply of unwholesome brackish water, that the whole was the Jumna and the Ganges, the provinces of Allahabad drawn out, by two bullocks turning the water-wheel, in a and Agra, and in general all the alluvial tracts near the single night. In this sandy desert springs up in profusion rivers. At a distance from these, irrigation is resorted to the most juicy of all fruits, the water-melon. From about by the cultivators, and deep wells are dug. The plain is the western frontier of Ajmeer, at Shekawutty, to Bahadiversified by ranges of hills, with abrupt peaks occasionally wulpoor, the distance is 280 miles, of which the western shooting up, and crowned with forts, in which during the portion, for 100 miles, is wholly destitute of inhabitants, decay of the Mogul empire, the rebellious or robber chiefs water, and vegetation. In the Punjab, the abundance of sought to secure a precarious independence. The plain of water corrects the sterility of the soil; and in the country Hindustan is generally fertile when water can be ob- watered by the five well-known rivers which flow into the tained ; and, as it approaches the mountains, in the northern Indus, cultivation, with waving grass and trees, marks the provinces of Oude and Delhi, and is watered by the nu- termination of the desert. In the north-western extremity merous streams flowing towards the Ganges, it is flat, of Hindustan, high up the Indus, and embosomed amongst fertile, and rich, except towards the western borders of lofty mountains, is situated the valley of Cashmere, celeDelhi, on the verge of the great desert, where sterile tracts bratdfl in oriental tales for its romantic beauty. Here the occur, without cultivation or inhabitants. Towards the eastern princes, in the days of their prosperity, were wont south-western portion of the plain, near the Nerbuddah, in to retire, and to seek in those sequestered scenes of natural the province of Malwah, the country is of greater elevation, beauty, a brief oblivion of their daily cares. but has a regular descent from the Vindhya Mountains, The country to the S. of Nerbuddah, namely, the Decwhich extend along the north side of the river, as is pointed can, extending N.W. and S.E. 800 miles, comprehends out by the course of the numerous streams that still flow the whole breadth of Hindustan, between the Nerbudnorthward into the Ganges. But the aspect of the country dah on the N. and the Krishna or Kistnah River on the changes as it recedes from this great stream; the overflow- S. The western range of the Ghaut Mountains, rising up ing river no longer spreads over the plain, and forms a na- with the steepness of a wall from the shore of the Indian vigable water-course; it is now merely a mountain torrent, Ocean, runs along the coast southward from the River Tapof no depth, to float down the produce of the country. West- tee, as far as Cape Comorin, and forms the highest land, only ward, in approaching the Indian Ocean, wild tracts occur, about seventy, or in some places forty miles, from the hilly and rocky, and overgrown with jungles, the haunts of western shore; whilst on the opposite side of the range, wild beasts and of robbers; and still further west, the pro- the table-land, elevated about 3000 feet above the sea, vince of Cutch is a cold sterile waste, half covered with a has a gradual slope to the eastward for a distance varying salt morass called the Runn. In the interior of Hindustan, from 300 to 700 miles, and owing to this conformation of large and fertile tracts have been laid waste by misrule, the ground, all the rivers of any size or length of course, or the devastations of war: these are overrun with a rank such as the Godavery and the Krishna, which water the vegetation, which quickly springs up under the quickening Deccan, and the Palar and the Cavery, which belong influence of a tropical sun; and which, consisting of tall to Southern India, roll down the eastern declivity of the trees with spreading branches, interwoven into an im- Ghauts. These mountains also diverge in ridges across penetrable fence with brushwood, and with innumerable the country of the Deccan, which on the eastern coast is shrubs and creeping plants clinging round the trees, and low, flat, and sandy, with the exception, however, of lacing them firmly together, forms thick jungles, affording the tract between the Godavery and Kistna or Krishna VOL. XI. 3L

HINDUSTAN. 450 Hindustan, rivers, 150 miles in length, along the sea-shore, and forty (to the Ganges 450), 980. In the Deccan and S. of Hindustan miles broad, composed of rich vegetable mould, such as is India, the Godavery, 850 ; Kistna, 700; Nerbuddah, 700; ^ - -L * usually found at the mouths of rivers, and remarkably fer- Mahanuddy, 550; Tuptee, 460; Cavery, 400. There are " tile. In the interior, the country, especially towards the few coasts of such extent, so destitute of islands and harN., is wild, woody, mountainous, and overrun with thick bours as that of Hindustan. With the exception of emerged jungle; in some parts, as on the S.W. frontier of Ben- sea banks and mere rocks, Ceylon is the only island near gal, it is a primeval wilderness, inhabited by people but its shores; and on the eastern coast, Masulipatam, which slightly reclaimed from natural wildness. Throughout admits vessels of 300 tons burden, is the only harbour for Hyderabad and Nagpore the country has a gradual slope large vessels between Trincomalee in the island of Ceylon, eastward as indicated by the course of the two principal and the Ganges, which is free from a raging surf. To this rivers, the Godaveryand the Kistna, both of which, though inconvenience, Madras, though an important British setissuing from the base of the Western Ghauts, find their way tlement, is peculiarly liable. On the western coast, the into the Bay of Bengal. Towards the S. of Nagpore, only harbours capable of admitting large vessels are Bomlarge tracts have been desolated by war and robbery; and bay and Kurachee in Scinde; Mangalore admits no vessels ruined towns, and wasted fields overgrown with jungle, still drawing more than ten feet. remain the sad memorials of those calamities. The wesHindustan comprehends within its bounds the opposite rr tern districts of the presidency of Bombay extend towards extremes of heat and cold. The plains are burnt up with Uimatethe Indian Ocean, and include the Western Ghauts, which intense heat; whilst winter, with every intermediate variety rise to the height of about 3000 feet above the level of the of temperature, prevails in the mountains. Philosophers sea. They abound in all the interesting aspects of moun- have in vain endeavoured to fix the point of perpetual contain scenery, and are studded with fortresses and natural gelation under different degrees of latitude. They have strongholds. The eastern declivity stretches out into a indeed framed a graduated scale of the respective heights table-land, with plains well watered and productive; whilst at which, according to calculation, this point should begin the intervening strip of land, from the mountains to the sea, at corresponding distances from the equator. But theory is in general a rugged district, but improves as it approaches is here at variance with actual observation. The climate the mountains, which are fringed with noble forests of teak of mountainous tracts depends so much on localities and and other valuable trees. Numerous mountain streams, the particular course of the winds, as to baffle all general but no rivers of magnitude, make their way westward to speculation. Hence in the Himalaya Mountains harvests the sea from the Ghauts; and there are few coasts so much of grain are found, where, according to hypothesis, the broken into small bays and harbours with so straight a ground should be buried under deep snow, and trees are general outline. seen to flourish in the regions of perpetual winter. Captain To the S. of the Kistna River, the country forms a Webb, in ascending the Himalaya range, saw around him, triangle, of which this river is the base, and the coasts of at the height of 11,630 feet above the level of Calcutta, Coromandel and Malabar the sides. Its extent from the rich forests of oak, pine, and rhododendra, the ground coKistna to Cape Comorin, which is the point of the triangle, vered with vegetation as high as the knee, strawberry beds is 600 miles; and its breadth in the widest point is about in full flower, and currant bushes in blossom; and in'1818, 550. It may be shortly described as a table-land 3000 feet at the Niti Pass, 16,814 feet in height, philosophy was again in height, containing the principal districts under the Ma- at fault, as the ground was clear of snow, though above the dras Presidency, and enclosed on each side by the Wes- line of perpetual congelation, and many quadrupeds were tern and Eastern Ghauts, from which the country descends feeding on the grassy banks of the Sutlege. It was reon both sides to the sea—on the E. to the Bay of Bengal, marked by Dr Gerard that vegetation attained a higher level and on the W. to the Indian Ocean, forming the two pro- on the northern than on the southern face of the Himalaya vinces of the Carnatic and of Malabar; the latter a narrow ridge, where the extreme height of cultivation is 10,000 strip of low country, extending 200 miles along the coast, feet; the limit of the forest 11,800 feet, and 12,000 feet much broken and interspersed with back-water runs and that of bushes. On the northern side cultivation rises to extensive ravines, shaded with forest and jungle, and filled the height of 11,400 feet; in other places to 13,600 feet; with population ; the former also a long narrow tract, birch trees to 14,000 feet; and tama bushes, which form stretching 570 miles along the shore, and nowhere more excellent fuel, to the height of about 17,000 feet. In than 120 miles in breadth, and commonly not more than Northern Hindustan, great and sudden changes of tem75. The Eastern Ghauts extend along the coast of Coro- perature occur, which is the cause of pulmonary affections. mandel. They are not so high as the western range; and During summer, the thermometer, which is often in the naked, sun-burnt, and rocky peaks are more commonly morning at 32° or under it, rises to 70°, 75°, and 80°, or upseen amongst them. The table-land in the centre descends wards during the day : the winters are, however, uniformly both towards the N. and S.; its elevation in the southern severe. In this also, as in other hilly countries, the traprovince of Coimbetore not exceeding 900 feet. It is ex- veller may be fainting to-day under a tropical sun, and tremely diversified with woods, waste, and jungles; and shivering to-morrow amidst, the rigour of perpetual snows. cultivation is here, as in other parts of India, carried on by From the banks of the Sutlege, where the thermometer means of large tanks containing a supply of water for the frequently stands at 100° and 108°, three days climbing irrigation of the land. In descending from the hills into will carry him into the regions of winter. the southern plains of Travancore, which extend to the In the plains of Hindustan, the heat during the greater „ Indian Ocean, the country presents a varied prospect of part of the year is unintermitting and intense, except where t5easons‘ hill and dale, and winding streams which clothe the valleys it is modified by the ranges of mountains, or the table-lands in perennial green ; and the grandeur of the scene is height- towards the W. The seasons here are commonly divided ened by the lofty forests which cover the mountains, pro- into the hot, cold, and rainy. The spring and the dry ducing pepper, cassia, frankincense, and other aromatic season throughout the valley of the Ganges last about four gums. months, the heat gradually increasing with the season, 1 he following are the chief rivers of Hindustan, with the until, in May and June, the thermometer rises to 100°, and length of their respective courses to the sea:—Indus, 1700 frequently in the interior to 108° and 110°, when it is almiles ; Brahmapootra, 1900; Ganges, 1500; Jumna (to its most intolerable even to the natives, and still more so to Eues 780 150 ?anS(to ’ the )’Indus,°;750), Sutlege (to the Indus ropeans, who resort to various modes of alleviation, such as 900), 1490; Ghylum 1250; Gunduck the cuscus tatty, which is a frame of wood, interwoven with

HINDUSTAN. 451 Hindustan, twigs, between which is distributed a layer of a particular wind, like the blast from a furnace, and the still more sultry Hindustan, kind of sweet-scented grass. This being hung before an calms, have been succeeded by a pure and delicious air. i v-«_^ open window, in the quarter of the prevailing wind, and Intermitting rains nowr fall for about a month, when they constantly moistened on the outside by a water-carrier, come on again with great violence, and in July are at their diffuses a refreshing coolness. Bishop Heber, however, height. During the third month they rather diminish, but thought it more effectual to shut out the external air, by are still heavy; and in September, and at the end of the which, and by agitating the air within by punkahs, a slight month, they depart amidst thunders and tempests as they frame of wood, covered with silk or with canvas, and sus- came.1 From 50 to 80 inches of rain fall in Bengal during pended from the ceiling, and swung backwards and forwards the rainy season.2 by servants, he reduced the temperature to 85° within doors, The dense masses of clouds which arise on the Indian although it was at 100° without. Thus imprisoned, he Ocean are carried forward by the S.W. monsoon over complains that in going to an open window or door, “ it is the plains of Hindustan, as far as the Himalaya Mountains. literally like approaching the mouth of a blast-furnace.” On the coasts they descend in deluges of rain, which diThis raging heat is modified by occasional thunderstorms minish as they recede from the sea, unless where the vafrom the N.W., termed north-westers, which, however pours are intercepted by high mountains, when they pour terrific, refresh the air and the ground, and give new fresh- down in torrents of rain on the plains beneath. But in ness and luxuriance to the grass, and to the shrubs and Southern India, the S.W. monsoon is intercepted by trees. Milder showers also occur, which refresh the atmos- the double chain of the Western and Eastern Ghauts, by phere. In the western provinces of Allahabad, Agra, Delhi, which the mass of clouds being as it were cut in twain, &c., a parching wind very frequently blows from the W. is carried forward on the N. and S. sides of this mountain during the hot season, and, during the night, is succeeded wall, going clear of a considerable tract to leeward of the by a cool breeze from the opposite quarter, sometimes for Eastern Ghauts, namely, the coast of Coromandel, which days and weeks by easterly gales; and as these parching is thus free from the periodical rains which fall in all other winds prevail, refreshing breezes and cooling showers of places of Flindustan. The western range of the Ghauts, rain and hail are more rare. Those remarkable winds, the though it checks, does not altogether impede the passage monsoons, which blow half the year from the S.W., and of the clouds; and we find accordingly, that in the tableand the other half from the N.E., exercise a powerful in- land of Mysore and the neighbouring countries, the S.W. fluence on the climate and seasons of Hindustan. The pe- monsoon brings on the rains, though they are not so violent riodical rains are ushered in by the S.W. monsoon, which nor of such long continuance as in Bengal, and on the commences about the beginning of June in the S. of India, western shores of India. But those light and elevated clouds and somewhat later towards the N. Mr Elphinstone, in which pass the Western Ghauts, being stopped in their his account of his journey to Afghanistan, gives a just and progress by the eastern chain, or descending in rain on the forcible description of the phenomena which accompany the intermediate table-land, never reach the Coromandel coast; change of the seasons in those easternacountries. “ The ap- and here, accordingly, on the eastern side of the mountains, proach of the monsoon,” he observes, is announced by vast the dry season prevails, when it rains on the table-land of masses of clouds that rise from the Indian Ocean, and Mysore to the W., and still more heavily on the Malabar advance towards the N.E., gathering and thickening as shore. On the other hand, it is the N.E. monsoon which, they approach the land. After some days, the sky assumes in the Bay of Bengal, sets in about the middle of October, a threatening appearance in the evening, and the monsoon with thunder and lightning and violent hurricanes, that in general sets in during the night. It is attended by such ushers in the rains on the Coromandel coast, which cona thunderstorm as can scarcely be imagined by those who tinue to the middle of December, and sometimes to the 1st have only seen that phenomenon in a temperate climate. of January, whilst at this period southerly gales and fair It generally begins with violent blasts of wind, which are weather prevail on the opposite coast of the Indian peninsula. succeeded by floods of rain. For some hours lightning is It was formerly supposed that the Ghauts, interrupting the seen almost without intermission ; sometimes it only illu- progress of the S.W. monsoon, occasioned a diversity of minates the sky, and shows the clouds near the horizon ; at seasons throughout a great part of India. But it is only others it discovers the distant hills, and again leaves all in that limited tract of country to the leeward of the Eastern darkness, when in an instant it re-appears in vivid and suc- Ghauts that is free from the influence of the S.W. moncessive flashes, and exhibits the nearest objects in all the soon, which accordingly brings on the rainy season at the brightness of day. During all this time the distant thun- mouth of the Godavery, immediately to the N. Major der never ceases to roll, and is only silenced by some nearer Rennell suggests that those clouds may be blown by the peal, which bursts on the ear with such a sudden and S.W. monsoon from Cape Comorin; though he afterwards tremendous crash as can hardly fail to strike the most in- adds that this is not his opinion, because the cape bears sensible with awe. At length the thunder ceases, and S.S.W. from the mouth of the Godavery, and the reigning nothing is heard but the continued pouring of the rain and winds are much more westerly.3 But the true reason the rushing of the rising streams. The next day presents seems to be, that the eastern chain of the Ghauts does not a gloomy spectacle ; the rain still descends in torrents, and extend so far N.; hence they afford no shelter to the counscarcely allows a view of the blackened fields; the rivers try at the mouth of the Godavery, which thus lies in the are swollen and discoloured, and sweep down along with direct course of the S.W. monsoon. To the N. of the them the hedges, the huts, and the remains of the culti- Ghaut Mountains, in the parallel of Surat, the S.W. monvation, which was carried on, during the dry season, in their soon, meeting with no interruption, carries its supplies of beds. After some days the sky clears, and discloses the moisture over the whole face of the country. The periodical face of nature changed as if by enchantment. The fields, rains accordingly extend over the great plain of the Ganges. formerly parched, are now covered with luxuriant verdure; They commence on the coast of Malabar in May, farther the clear and burning sky is varied and embellished with N. in June, where they are not so violent; at Delhi they clouds; the rivers are full and tranquil; the dust which do not come on till the end of June; and a much smaller loaded the atmosphere, and which made the sun appear quantity of rain falls than at Bombay or Calcutta4. Near dull and discoloured, has now disappeared ; and the parching the sea the clouds are still in a deep mass, and descend in 3 ^ Elphinstone s Account of the Kingdom of Caubul, p. 128. Memoir of a Map of Hindustan, p. 214. 2 Martin’s History of the British Colonies, vol. i., p. 91. ^ Elphinstone’s Account of the Kingdom of Caubul, p. 130.

HINDUSTAN. 452 Hindustan, deluges of rain; but they are exhausted as they go; the numerous other beautiful and fragrant plants. The valleys Hindustan, rains become weaker and weaker; and are at last diminished exhibit, according to their altitude and temperature, the to a few transient showers in the S. of the Punjab. On productions of Europe or of the tropical countries. At the the sea-shore the S.W. monsoon extends into Beloo- height of 6000 feet appear the oak and the pine ; at that of chistan, and thence into Mekran, the easternmost province 3000 feet rattans and bamboos of enormous dimensions ; of Persia, where the clouds being arrested by mountains, in some parts the pine-apple, the orange, the sugar-cane, descend in heavy rains. They pass with little obstruc- grow to maturity ; in others, barley, millet, and similar tion over the countries of Lower Sind; but being inter- grains are produced. The lower part of these hills is the cepted by the mountains of Upper Sind, they occasion the seat of the saul forests. The lower valleys yield rice sown broad-cast, maize, wheat, barley, pulse of various kinds, principal rains of the year. The eastern provinces of Hindustan, including Bengal sugar-cane, cotton, Indian madder, a large species of carand the mountainous countries of Bootan, Nepaul, and the damum, besides other productions. The pastoral tribes of other contiguous provinces, are not dependent on the rains Northern Hindustan feed considerable flocks on the lower that come across the country from the Indian Ocean, which hills and valleys ; in summer they climb the alpine country, would be very scanty at so great a distance from the sea. and browse on the herbage adjacent to the region of perpeOf the mass of clouds driven before the S.W. mon- tual frost. The vegetable produce of the plains in Hindustan, and soon, that portion which passes Cape Comorin on the S. is carried north-eastward across the Bay of Bengal, until, of the southern provinces, is the same as in all tropical meeting with the mountains that join the Himalaya from countries. The soil, where it is copiously watered, is ferthe S., of which they are indeed a continuation, they fol- tile ; and if the country were one unvaried level, the copious low their direction, and are thus diverted from a north- rains would afford a sufficient supply for every spot. But, easterly into a north-westerly course; and it is from this from the inequalities of the surface, the lower parts are frequarter accordingly, that the north-eastern districts of Ben- quently overflowed, whilst, in the higher grounds, vegetagal and the adjoining provinces receive the rains fresh and tion is burnt up. To secure a more equal distribution of abundant from the ocean. Part of these clouds make their water, various contrivances are resorted to. It is retained way over the first hills, and bring on the rains in Nepaul in extensive plains by means of dams, or in reservoirs conand Thibet;-and part passing to the N.W., water the structed of stone, or in ponds and water-courses, whence it plains of Bengal, the southern face of the Himalaya Moun- is distributed over the land. Some of these works, though tains, the countries which lie to the N. of the Ganges, erected at great cost, are in a dilapidated state. Their conthe northern parts of the Punjab, and, in their progress to struction conferring a reputation for piety, they have been the N.W., the southern declivity of the Cashmere Hills, uselessly multiplied ; and not being duly repaired, they are and the plains beneath, though they scarcely make their soon filled with aquatic plants, putrid water, bad smells, and way over these hills into the Valley of Cashmere. They pernicious exhalations. One of these tanks, seen by Dr continue their progress westward to Afghanistan, where Buchanan, is stated to be 8 miles long and 3 broad. “ I they gradually become weaker, and only produce occasional never viewed a public work,” he observes, “ with more satisshowers. The cold season, which succeeds the rains, lasts faction, a work which supplies a great body of people with which their moral situation will permit them from November to the middle of February ; and during all every comfort 2 this period the air is clear, and the thermometer is from 65° to enjoy.” The Hindu, though he is a most industrious, to 84°. In Southern India the heat is greater than in Ben- is not a skilful cultivator ; his implements are of a very rude gal. In the Carnatic the thermometer ranges from 100° kind ; and even if he had the skill, he has not the capital to 106°, and the cold season is of very short duration. On necessary for an improved system of husbandry. The the table-land above the Ghaut Mountains, as at Coimbe- ploughing in Hindustan is quite different from any thing tore, among the hills, the temperature in the cold season is seen in this country. The plough has no contrivance for from 31° to 59° ; in summer 64°, 65°, and 75°, or even turning up the earth, nor has the share sufficient depth to higher. On the table-land in which Bangalore is situated, stir a new soil. Several ploughs in succession deepen the the thermometer seldom rises above 82°, or falls below 56°. furrows, or rather scratch the surface. The branch of a Vegetable Hindustan comprehends all the known varieties of the tree, or some other equally rude substitute for a harrow, is produce, vegetable tribes. The mountainous tracts of Northern Hin- then employed to pulverise the soil, and prepare it for the dustan produce all the alpine plants, and the various species seed. The plough is drawn by oxen, and in Southern Inof European grain, fruits, and flowers. Deep woods cover dia by buffaloes. The field, after it is sown, must be prothose lower ranges of mountains, in which are found the pine tected for several days by a person exalted on a bamboo tree of various species, “ the tallest, straightest, and most stage, against the depredations of numerous flocks of birds, magnificent,” says Fraser,1 he ever beheld ; the larch, the and still longer in woody districts, from the havoc of wild silver, and the spruce fir, from the bark and twigs of which elephants, buffaloes, and other animals. The harvest is resin exudes in abundance; the yew tree ; several species reaped by the sickle, the scythe being unknown. There is of oak, holly, alder, sycamore, birch, with mulberry and no occasion for stacking rice, which is completely preserved chestnut trees. Here is also found the mimosa tree, from by the husk. The grain, after it is winnowed, is stored in which is made the catechu or Indian rubber ;—the resinous jars of unbaked earth, or in baskets made of large twigs. In part of this fir, cut into slips, answers the common uses of Benares and the western provinces, and also in the S. of the lamp. These noble forests extend over immense tracts, India, it is stored in subterraneous granaries ; but in the and would afford inexhaustible supplies of timber, if they damp climate of Bengal it is hoarded above ground. The could be transported to the proper market. Fruits in great rotation of crops, so essential to the husbandry of Europe, variety are also produced in this elevated region, such as is not known in Bengal; nor are the articles for cultivation apricots, peaches, and grapes, apples, pears, currants, rasp- ever selected with any view to restore the exhausted powers berries, blackberries, and strawberries; roots, such as tur- of the soil. The land is never properly manured. The nips, carrots, garlic, onions; flowers and plants, as roses, Hindus, from their limited use of animal food, are no exboth red and white, lilies of the valley, jasmines, butter- tensive breeders of stock. The labouring cattle are either cups, yellow, blue, and white cowslips, sweet briar, with pastured on small commons, or fed at home on cut grass; 1 2

Fraser’s Journal of a, Tour through the Himalaya Mountains, p. 139. See Journey from Madras, through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, vol. i., p. 16.

HINDUSTAN. 453 Hindustan, and those for the dairy graze in numerous herds in the Southern India, and could be produced, with the help of Hindustan. v forests or on the downs. The dung is accounted holy by the European skill and capital, to meet any demand. It thrives i superstitious Hindus, and is either converted to religious more especially in Bahar and Benares, and in particular uses, or into fuel, and sold. In Bengal no manure is used ; districts of Bengal. Opium is the peculiar and staple proand, in the southern provinces, only a small quantity of duce of the province of Bahar, and is also extensively culashes and dried vegetables. Oil-cake is sometimes em- tivated in Malwah, and in other parts of Hindustan. It is ployed as a manure for the sugar-cane. The public reve- a precarious crop, producing alternately high profits and nue is derived chiefly from the land, but the government heavy losses. The liquor extracted from the poppy is colare no longer the sole landlords ; their interest in the soil lected as it exudes, and is then placed in pots, where it is has been defined by the limitation of the public demand, dried and formed into lumps, in which process it loses from and new classes of landed proprieters are springing up in one-tenth to one-eighth of its weight. The opium produced all parts of the empire. in Bahar and Bengal being monopolized by the East India Rice is the great staple of agriculture throughout Hin- Company, and bought at a fixed price, is a contraband article dustan, in the plain of the Ganges as well as in Southern of trade, and its cultivation is confined to certain districts. India. It is sowm at the approach of the rains, and it is Within Bengal no one is allowed to cultivate the poppy gathered during the rainy season, about the end of August; except for the government. In Malwah a treaty was entered the last crop is sown during the same season, and is gathered into with the different rulers and chiefs, by which the moin the beginning of December. It is esteemed the best, nopoly was extended to that country, and all that was pronot being equally liable with the other to decay. The di- duced delivered to the Company, at the rate of three rupees versity of soil and climate, and the several seasons of culti- a seer, which is two pounds. But so great was the disconvation, have given rise to infinite varieties in this species of tent excited by this extension of the monopoly, that, at grain. When the rains fail throughout Hindustan, which the desire of the chiefs, the treaties were rescinded in occasionally happens, the rice crops are apt to be deficient 1819-1820; and the trade in opium, and its cultivation, is to a degree altogether unknown in the well-regulated agri- now free in that province, and everywhere throughout Inculture of Europe, where the severest scarcity hardly ever dia, except in the Company’s dominions; but as Malwah raises the price of corn more than three times its usual is completely surrounded by British territory, a large rerate. But the famines of Hindustan leave thousands with- venue is derived from the high duty levied on Malwah opium out subsistence, and fill the land wfith scenes of misery and in transit to Bombay for exportation to China. Malwah death. In the great famine of 1769, it was estimated that opium equals that of Bengal, and is brought into competithree millions of the people perished; the air was so in- tion with the Company’s opium in all the foreign markets, fected by the noxious effluvia of dead bodies, that it was and especially in China.1 The cotton plant has from time scarcely possible to stir abroad without perceiving it, and immemorial been one of the staple products of Hindustan, without hearing also the frantic cries of the victims of fa- and is indigenous from Ceylon in the S., to the Himamine, who were seen in every stage of suffering and death ; laya Mountains. It is cultivated extensively throughout whole families expired, and villages were desolated; and Bengal, and in the interior provinces on the banks of the when the new crop came forward in August, it had no Jumna; also in the Deccan, and in Southern India, whence owners. Bengal has been less liable to famines since this it is imported into Bengal, and into Mirzapoor, and the disperiod, but they have frequently occurred in other parts of trict of Benares, where it is manufactured. Flax and hemp India. Rice thrives well in the inundated track of the are also cultivated in several districts both in the N. and Ganges, and in Southern Hindustan, especially on the low in the S. of India. Silk was long the exclusive product lands of the sea-coast; higher up the Ganges, wheat and of India and China. Silk-worms are now reared principally barley are more generally cultivated, also in the high grounds in the district of Burdwan, and in the vicinity of the Bhaand elevated table-lands of Southern India. Other kinds girati and the Ganges, and for about 100 miles down their of grain are cultivated, such as Indian corn; and great streams. Four crops of mulberry leaves are obtained in the varieties of pulse and coarse grains, such as peas, beans, year, the last in December. A considerable quantity of chiches, gram, vetches, and raggy, which is the most im- silk, of a coarse kind, is obtained from wild silk-worms, portant crop raised in the dry field, and in some parts of which do not feed on the mulberry, and are found in the Southern India is the subsistence of all classes, in others forests of Silhet, Assam, and the Deccan. Indigo was oriof the poorer classes. These are important articles of cul- ginally a product of India; and the plant was afterwards tivation, as they have each their particular season, and thrive carried to South America, whence Europe was for a long even on poor soils. Maize is the general produce of poor time supplied with this dye. The manufacture on which soils in hilly countries, and is commonly cultivated in the the quality of the indigo depends was very unskilfully conmore western provinces. Millet and other grains are also ducted until the year 1783. Since this period it has been cultivated, and, vegetating rapidly, and in every season, so much improved by the skill and capital of Europeans they fill up profitably for the farmer the short intervals be- that it is now a staple article of commerce ; and in Bengal tween the other modes of cultivation in Lower Hindustan. the value of the produce in 1854 amounted to L.1,701,206. Sugar is everywhere cultivated, and at little expense, by the Indigo is produced generally throughout the plain of the Hindu cultivator; and as the sugar of India is no longer Ganges, and in Southern India, but chiefly in Bengal. Tosubjected in the United Kingdom to an unequal import bacco, formerly unknown in India, and introduced from duty, there is reason to hope that the produce of India may America probably about the beginning of the seventeenth compete not only with the sugars of British colonies, but century, is now extensively cultivated in every part, chiefly with those also ot Cuba, Brazil, Siam, and Manilla. Though however in the northern provinces, and more rarely in formerly unknown in Europe, sugar has been produced in the S. The tobacco grown in the Mahratta territories is India from the remotest times, and was thence transplanted most esteemed; particularly that which is produced near into Arabia, whence it has been introduced into Europe, Bilsea, a town in Malwah. Bengal does not yield good Africa, the West Indies, and America. It grows luxuriantly tobacco ; but the Company’s territories in Guzerat, being throughout all the valley of the Ganges and in the plains of principally of a rich black soil, are considered as peculiarly Se t0 Report on26th the February East India Company's affairs, p. P • , ° before Lords’the iwidence Committee, 1830. r 15, par. r 59, House of Commons Papers, r > 1831. Minutes of

454 HINDUSTAN. Hindustan, suitable to its cultivation.1 The Hindus having been already tree abound everywhere, and especially in Bahar. The Hindusta in the habit of inhaling the smoke of hemp leaves, and other former thrives remarkably well in dry barren spots, and isv"» intoxicating drugs, readily adopted tobacco as a more agree- prized for the tari or wine which it yields. The bassia, able substitute, and it soon came into general use. Their which yields an intoxicating spirit, also suits the poorest recent knowledge of it appears from their having no name soils, and abounds in the hilly districts, where the oil exfor it which is not a corruption of some European term. pressed from its seeds is a common substitute for butter. Pepper, though of inferior consequence, is a valuable pro- The other fruits are the plantain, the lime, the sweet and duct of Southern India, especially of Malabar. It is pro- bitter orange, the guava, the pomegranate, the jack, the duced from a species of vine which is made to twine round tamarind, &c. Under the shade of lofty flower and fruitthe jack tree. It bears fruit about the third or fourth year, bearing trees, and the luxuriant bamboo, and the rank weeds amounting to from three to seven pounds weight, and yields which shoot up along with them, the natives, from shyness, two crops in the year. The areca-nut and betel-leaf, uni- bury their cottages, and especially their females, from the versally chewed by the natives, thrive in the low grounds, view of strangers ; and the damp vapour from the confined where water is abundant; and cardamoms, a spice in great air, the loathsome and pernicious animals which harbour repute. The universal and vast consumption of vegetable among the trees and weeds, and the filthy habits of the oils in Hindustan, for food or unguents, or for the lamp, is natives, are generally sufficient to repel Europeans from supplied by the extensive cultivation of mustard seed, lin- their habitations. The Hindus cultivate in their kitchen seed, sesamum, palma christi, besides what is procured from gardens a variety of esculent vegetables and roots. But, the cocoa nut. The first ripen in the cold season, the of the European vegetables, the potato alone is suited to sesamum during the rains, or soon afterwards. the climate, and is of as good quality as that which is proThe forests in the low plains of Hindustan, of Southern duced in England. Asparagus, cauliflower, radish, onions, India, and those which cover the western range of the and other esculent plants, are raised; but they are comGhauts, and more sparingly the Eastern Ghauts, abound in paratively tasteless.3 the most valuable trees, applicable to many important uses. Hindustan, from the great extent and inequality of its Animals, The extensive woods in Southern India supply the teak surface, its stupendous and snow-clad mountains, and its tree, valuable for ship-building; and in Malabar, extensive vast and wooded plains lying under a burning sun, compretracts of waste land have within the last few years been con- hends all the most interesting forms of animal life ; more verted into teak plantations by the government. Saul, especially those animals of the tropical regions remarkable sissoo, toon, and bamboo trees abound; the last of which for ferocity or size, which have been the subjects of scienyields a medicine much used by the native doctors, and tific research as well as of popular curiosity in all ages, and which sells for its weight in silver. There are many spe- which find ample cover in the deep woods and junglecies of the palm tree, with its luxuriant and spreading leaves, covered wastes of those tracts of the country which have of which the produce is extremely useful. The cocoa-nut been desolated by tyranny or war. A minute or systematree is in some provinces an important article of culture. tic inquiry into so important a branch of natural history The kernel is used for food by the richer natives, either in cannot within our limits be attempted. All that we can its raw state, or dressed after various fashions ; and it yields propose is a brief and popular sketch of the principal aniby far the finest oil in India, if the nut be fresh and the oil mals which give to the zoology of India its distinct and quickly used. Extensive tracts, many miles in length, are brilliant character. The elephant, which holds a conspiplanted with the cocoa-nut and betel-nut palms. Many cuous place in the animal creation, is seen in all parts of other species of timber are found in the deep recesses of Hindustan, and ranges wild in its deep forests and jungles. the woods, of which Dr Buchanan, in his account of Mysore, This animal, from its size and strength, was employed in gives a particular description, with the botanical names of the ancient wars, and the prodigious momentum of its charge the different trees, and to his work we refer; observing often turned the tide of battle. The richly caparisoned generally, that the woods consist of every description of elephant is still used to swell the gorgeous parade of the timber, black, heavy, and strong, and adapted for the beams Asiatic courts, and is at the same time, from its patience and posts of houses ; other kinds are white, hard, and dur- and docility, the humblest of domestic drudges. An eleable, and adapted to all the purposes for which strong ma- phant is about thirty-five inches high when newly born, terials are required ; some are beautifully grained, and take and does not attain his full growth of ten or ten and a half a fine polish, and are well suited for furniture, or exude feet, or twelve feet when the head is set up, until the age resins and gums of a sweet scent, that are used in temples of twenty or thirty years. In length he is about fifteen or for incense ; the wood of some kindles readily into a clear sixteen feet. The rhinoceros is between five and six feet light, and is used for torches.2 Other kinds of wood are high,- in length eight feet, the whole body covered with a employed for dyeing. The sandal-wood is valuable for its thick and nearly bare skin, in irregular folds, and the head, perfume, and for the essential oil which it yields. It re- at least of the Indian species, armed with a single horn. quires a strong soil, and it is twelve years before it attains The rhinoceros is strong and active, of peaceable habits; the proper size for being cut. The billets of wood are pre- but when he is hunted he turns on his pursuers and resists pared by being buried in the dry ground for two months, fiercely. The Bactrian camel with two humps, so useful when the ants eat up all the outer wood, leaving the heart, in traversing the sandy wastes of the torrid zone, and the which is the sandal. The deeper the colour the higher the dromedary with a single hump, formed more lightly for perfume. The best sandal wood of Hindustan is now in speed, are natives of Hindustan. The deer is found in all possession of the rajah of Mysore, who succeeded to a small its varieties, from the large and powerful mountain stag, portion of Tippoo’s dominions. with its well-compacted form, to those lighter forms of the The climate of Hindustan, owing to the long and heavy antelope species which sport so gracefully in the woods and rains of summer, is not so favourable for many kinds of fruit in the burning plains. The musk-deer, so named from the which are not ripened by the previous heat of the spring. perfume contained in a small bag situated in the lower reOrchards of mango trees diversify the plains of Bengal, and gion of the abdomen of the male, is a solitary dweller in the are common all over Hindustan ; the palmyra and the date mountain tracts of Hindustan and of Central Asia, amidst 1 2 2

See Letter of the Secretary to the Court of Directors, to the Secretary of the India Board, 5th September 1828. See Journey from Madras, through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, vol. i., p. 25. See Hamilton’s Geographical, Statistical, and Historical Description of Hindustan, vol. i , p. 28.

HINDUSTAN. 455 industan. ice and snows ; it is shy and timid, and seldom approaches Hindustan. The leopard and the panther are found in the Hindustan, —the lower region of the pine forests. This animal has no woods; the former animal in such numbers, that during the v horns; the horned tribe are, however, numerous. The marches of the British troops in 1803, amongst the deep Nepaul stag has a short tail, short horns, and two small forests at Cuttack, in the province of Orissa, many of the antlers at the base. Deer of a large size abound in Bengal, sentinels were carried off by them in the night. The bear and also in Southern India, in the forests of the Ghaut abounds in all the wooded mountains ; also wolves, which Mountains. One species, with branching horns, attains to at Cawnpore, where there is a cantonment, were formerly the size of a horse. The black deer of Bengal is about so numerous that they frequently dashed into some corner fifteen or sixteen hands high ; it is a bold, fierce, and power- of the camp, and carried off children under five years of ful animal; dark brown in the upper parts of the body, and age, who happened to be straggling amongst the huts. The in winter of a shining black; whitish in the belly, with a other wild animals are hyenas, jackals, foxes, hares, porcuring of white round the nostrils and mouth. The spotted pines, hedgehogs, monkeys in great variety, and prodideer, with large antlers, ranges all over India, and abounds giously multiplied by the superstitious Hindus, who conin the forests of Bengal, and along the banks of the Ganges. sider them as sacred animals, to the great annoyance of The hog-deer is known in Bengal and in the northern parts Europeans. The wild boar, which inhabits the woods and of India; and the roe-buck in the hilly districts, and still jungles of India, is a fierce animal, and very destructive to more among the Ghaut Mountains in the S. There are, the corn fields and sugar plantations. It affords excellent besides, numerous other varieties of the deer species. Hin- though sometimes dangerous sport to the hunter, when it dustan contains several species of the antelope ; one about turns on its pursuers. The wild dog of the Himalaya twenty inches in height, and nearly three feet in length, with Mountains is a remarkable animal, in form and fur resemfour horns, haunts the western forests and hilly tracts in the bling a fox, though stronger and larger. Bishop Heber saw valley of the Ganges. The white antelope, between three one of these animals which had been taken, and was exand four feet in height, and of surpassing swiftness, ranges ceedingly wild and fierce. They hunt in packs, give tongue along the banks of the Ganges and the Indus, and over the like dogs, and have a very fine scent; and they are said to intervening deserts; and another species, with one horn, attack and, by dint of numbers, to destroy the tiger. They and an abundant covering of wool, is a native of the moun- are highly valued in these countries.3 Dr Gerard observed tain and icy regions of the Himalaya. Of the feline tribe, a pack of these wild dogs stealing along a gulley quite red. the lion claims the first place. He is considered as the lord The buffalo, both wild and tame, is a native of India. of the brute creation; and his whole appearance, the flow- There are different species, one of which (the Bos Arnee) ing and shaggy mane, the ample forehead, the kindling eye, is noted for its gigantic dimensions, its great strength, and and the muscular strength and compactness of the whole its horns, which are nearly six feet in length, by the aid frame, so powerfully armed by nature for the purposes of of which it is a match for, and frequently repels the fiercest destruction, concur to give an idea of majesty and power, tiger. Dr Buchanan, however, insists that this is merely the which is further strengthened by the boldness and courage common buffalo in its wild state.4 The yak, or ox of Tarwith which, instead of seeking a dastardly retreat in the tary, particularly described by Turner in his account of his forest or the jungle, he rushes forth to confront his enemies embassy to Thibet, is numerous among the Himalaya Mounin the open plain, where he is generally shot by the hun- tains, where they browse in herds, amidst ice and snow; and ters. But, in the event of his being only wounded, he is ex- constitute, next to corn, the wealth of the inhabitants.5 It tremely formidable, from his vast strength and fierceness, has a downcast, heavy look, and is fierce and of a suspiand the immense weight of his body, especially towards the cious temper. The Cashmere goat has been long celebrated head, and the power of his tremendous claws.1 The lion for the soft silky nature of the wool found at the root of is not nearly so common in Asia as in Africa, and is only its long hair, which is manufactured into shawls. The other found in the northern provinces of Hindustan.2 The tiger animals in the alpine regions of Hindustan are also provided is the more common animal of India, abounding in all the with a similar covering of soft wool. “ The cow,” says forests and jungles, from the mouth of the Ganges to the Moorcroft in his Journal, “has a material of the same kind, Himalaya Mountains. He is not quite equal in strength not much inferior in warmth and softness; the hare has to the lion, though superior in activity; and his undulating her fur of peculiar length and thickness ; and even the dog movements have more of ease, grace, and bounding elasti- has a coat of fur added to his usual covering of hair.”6 city ; whilst his bright-yellow, tawny-coloured skin, varie- The goat bred in Southern India, called the maycay or gated with dark stripes, shaded with white in the under parts, long-legged goat, mentioned by Dr Buchanan, is also of completes this beautiful specimen of the animal creation. quite a different breed from the common goat. There are Since the British have acquired possession of India, they other breeds remarkable for long and curiously-twisted have so eagerly pursued the sport of tiger-huntings that the horns. The native horse of India is a small, ill-shaped, animal has been driven from the inhabited parts of the vicious pony, the finest horses being imported from the country into the vast jungles which line the great rivers, countries to the W. of Hindustan. But wild horses are and which may be considered as the game preserves of seen in herds in the northern mountains. The sandy de1

Heber’s Journey, ii., 170. “ The lion,” says Bishop Heber, “which was long supposed to be unknown in India, is now ascertained to exist in considerable numbers in the districts of Saharunpoor and Loodianah. Lions have also been killed on this side of the Ganges, in the northern parts llcun< °n pk in the neighbourhood Moradabad and found, Rampoor, large, are it isvery said,troublesome as the average those in neighbourhood of the Cape of bGood Hope. Both lions,ofwhere they are andastigers, to theofpeople of the villages near the forest, who, having no elephants, have no very effectual means of attacking them with safety. The peasantry here (in the province of Delhi) are not a people to allow themselves to be devoured without resistance, like the Bengalese; and it often happens, tnat when a tiger has established himself near a village, the whole population turn out, with their matchlocks, swords, and shields, to attack him. Fighting on foot, and compelled to drive him from his covert by entering and beating the jungle, one or two generally lose their lives; but the tiger seldom escapes.” Heber mentions, that he derived his information from Mr Boulderson, who was a keen sportsman, and had long been in India, and who said that he had seen some skins of tigers which bore the strongest marks of having been fought with, i t e expression may be used, hand to hand, and were in fact slashed all over with cuts of the tulwar or short scimitar.” YHeber’s Journey, vol. ii., p. 149.) ^ v s 4 , l)1 raser Journal of a Tour through the Himalaya Mountains, p. 176. Journey through Mvsor-e, vol. i., p. 118. raser s Journal of a Tour through the Himalaya Mountains, p. 263. static Researches, vol. xii., p. 460, J. Moorcroft’s Journey to Lake Manasarovara.

HINDUSTAN. 456 Hindustan, sert in the W. of Hindustan is the haunt of the wild ass; which it produces from the expanded skin about the neck, Hindusta v^» as he is described in Scripture, “ his house the wilderness, is the most dreaded. It is not above three or four feet and the barren land his dwelling.” This animal is found long, and about an inch and a quarter thick, with a small in herds of 60 or 70 on the banks of the Runn, the great head, covered on the forepart with large smooth scales ; it salt morass or lake of Cutch, where it browses on the is of a pale-brown colour above, and the belly is of a bluish brackish and stunted vegetation of the desert. When white tinged with pale brown or yellow. It is more frecaught, as it sometimes is by the natives in pits, it is fierce, quently the assailant than any other, though the bite of untameable, and bites and kicks in the most ferocious man- these also is equally dangerous, and often fatal. The Rusner. Its form is that of the mule rather than of the ass; selian snake, about four feet in length, is of a pale-yellowish its body is of an ash colour, changing to a dirty white under brown, beautifully variegated with large oval spots of deep the belly. It is larger than the tame ass, stronger and brown, with a white edging. Its bite is extremely fatal. more active, remarkable for shyness, and still more for The whip snake is a remarkably malignant species; it speed; throwing out, at a shuffling trot peculiar to itself, darts from the thick foliage of the trees at the cattle bethe fleetest horses in the pursuit.1 In Southern India, the low, most commonly at their eyes, and inflicts wounds of ass, of which there are several varieties as to colour, is very which they quickly expire, often in great pain. Itinerant commonly tamed for domestic purposes; some are of a showmen carry about these serpents, and cause them to asblack hue ; and there is a species of milk-white ass, though sume a dancing motion for the amusement of the spectait is rare.2 The rat tribe abound in Hindustan ; and one tors. They also give out that they render them harmless species is of enormous size, the tail above a foot long, and by the use of charms, though it is known that it is by exvery mischievous, burrowing to a great depth in the ground, tracting the venomous fangs. But, judging from the fremaking its way under the foundations of stores and grana- quent accidents which occur, they often dispense with this ries, and perforating the mud or unburnt brick walls of the precaution. The snake-catching fakirs pretend to bear a charmed life; and it is related that one of these imposnative cottages. Birds. The ornithology of India, though it is not considered as tors being invited by a shopkeeper to catch a snake which so rich in specimens of gorgeous and variegated plumage had been seen in an inner apartment, was stung in the hip as that of other tropical regions, still contains many splendid bone, and for shame would not discover the injury he had and curious varieties of the feathered race, as well of those, received, and went home endeavouring to counteract the that are clothed in nature’s gayest attire, far surpassing the poison, but in vain. He died ; and such is the blind conrichest dyes of art, as of that other class, the birds of prey, fidence of the natives in these impostors, that they believed5 distinguished by strength, size, and fierceness. The par- he would revive into life, until the body became putrid. rot tribe are the most remarkable for beauty. So various Physicians differ respecting the mode in which the poison are the species, that we cannot even enumerate them, and of serpents acts upon the human frame. The symptoms must refer for details to the scientific works on the subject. also vary ; the patient being sometimes seized with torpor Of the birds of prey, the eagle or the condor, which haunts and insensibility, or falling into feverish heat and convulthe inaccessible crags of the great Himalaya range, is the sions ; the breathing laborious ; the skin cold and clammy, most remarkable. Bishop Heber mentionsthat one of these with a livid countenance and a feeble pulse. The mode of animals was shot at Dega by Lieutenant Fisher, with whom treatment by the British physicians in India is to bind up he conversed; and, from the bareness of its neck, resem- the limb above the wound; along with this to apply strong bling that of the vulture, the form of its beak, which is stimulants, as ammonia, hartshorn, eau de luce, and the longer and less hooked than the eagle’s, and from its ex- like ; and, above all, to give the strongest narcotics, such traordinary size, he judged it to be the condor. It mea- as laudanum and brandy. By this judicious treatment many6 sured between the extended wings thirteen feet; its talons patients have been brought back from the jaws of death. were eight inches in length ; its colour was a deep black. There are several water-snakes in India, the bite of which According to Heber, children are sometimes carried away is venomous ; and scorpions are common. The rivers of Hindustan and the surrounding seas abound Fishes, by this animal from the streets of Almorah.3 Eagles, of which there are three different sizes, are numerous, and do in a great variety of fishes and amphibious animals, such as great injury to the flocks of the shepherds in the mountain- alligators, porpoises, and small turtle of inferior quality. The ous districts. There are various kinds of vultures, and voracious shark infests the mouths of the rivers, as well as also of the falcon tribe. There is the gentle falcon ; the the sea-coast, and grows to an enormous size. One that goshawk, a large grey short-winged bird; the shaukeen, was caught in the Ganges measured in length 11 feet 9 which is taught to soar over the falconer’s head, and strike inches, and its girth round the shoulders was immense.7 The the quarry as it rises; the chirk, which strikes the ante- dolphin of the Ganges is about seven feet long, and abounds lope, fastening on its head, and retarding its 4course till the chiefly in the delta of the river. It pursues its prey with hounds come up ; with various other species. Numerous great velocity, though at other times its motions are slow other birds are common in India, such as herons, cranes; and heavy. The Ganges and its numerous branches, and the gigantic stork, well known for clearing the country of all the tanks, swarm with fish. During the wet months snakes and other reptiles, and the populous cities of offal; they may be scooped up with a hand-net in.every field; the peacock, which is found wild in the forests in all its va- and, next to rice and plantains, they form the main food rious and brilliant hues ; the black-backed goose, measur- of the poorest classes. The bickty or cockup is an exceling nearly three feet in length; besides other kinds, which lent fish; as is also the sable fish, which is uncommonly migrate with the seasons, and are very destructive to the rich. But the best and highest-flavoured fish is the mango, corn ; swans, partridges, quails, gulls, plovers, wild ducks, a favourite delicacy at all the European tables, especially and the other common domestic fowls. during the two months when it is in roe. Mullet abound Reptiles. serpent brood in India is numerous ; they swarm in in all the rivers, and are often killed with small shot as they all the gardens, and intrude into the dwellings of the inha- swim against the stream. The Indian eel—of a pale brown bitants. Some are comparatively harmless, but the bite of colour, with spots of a somewhat deeper hue—is said to others is speedily fatal. The cobra di capello, the name possess a certain degree of electrical power. The remora, given to it by the Portuguese, from the appearance ofa hood about seven feet in length, is remarkable for its singular 1 6

Elphinstone, p. 7. 2 Buchanan, p. 7. Asiatic Annual Register, vol. xxiv., p. 760.

3 6

Heher’s Journey, vol. iL, p. 277. Asiatic Journal, vol. xviii., p. 391.

4 7

Elphinstone, p. 144. Ibid., vol. xix., p. 276.

HINDUSTAN. 457 [industan. habits. It is used by the fishermen for catching turtle. A and in great quantities in all that tract of country that lies Hindustan, long cord being inserted through a ring fastened to the tail west; and in the adjoining Koondanad and Ghaut Mounof the fish, it is carried to sea in a vessel filled with salt water, tains. This whole tract, including the mountains, and comand is let out into the water near the turtle, when it imme- prising a space of 2000 miles, contains gold. Unrefined diately fastens itself on its breast so firmly that both are gold is regularly exchanged by many of the mountain tribes drawn out together. There are many other kinds of fish, of the north for the produce of the plains. It is estimated some of a delicate flavour, others noted for the various that about 1000 men are continually employed in collecting colours of their shining scales. The voracious dolphin, and this precious metal. Copper is produced in the province of the flying fish, its food, abound in the Indian seas. The Delhi, which the natives collect either on the surface or with pomfret is much esteemed as a delicacy ; also the robal, and very slight excavations; also in the Rajpoot principality of several others of the same nature. The bumbalo, when Jeypoor in the province of Ajmeer, and in other parts of dried, is an article of commerce, and is much prized for its the same province, there are copper mines, and in the Carnutritious qualities ; as is also another fish, the^urahl, found natic, about 40 miles N.E. from Cuddapah. The metal is in the interior lakes. There are many other kinds of fish found in layers about two inches, and occasionally two feet which we cannot attempt even to enumerate. The natives thick ; they are coated with ochre, and are in general flat, as are dexterous fishers. They inclose the fish with nets into if they had undergone compression. The ore exists in nearly a narrow space, when they catch them with their hands or a metallic state, without any admixture of sulphur, arsenic, teeth. Bishop Heber, in his excellent Journal, gives a or any other substance that requires separation. The best lively account of the fishing of a pool or lake which was ores yield fifty, and the worst six per cent, of pure metal. nearly dried up owing to the want of rain. The fish were The granitic mountains of Nepaul and Northern Hindustan driven into a shallow part of the lake, when four Bheels contain much iron, lead, and copper, with a little gold in the from the mountains, with bows and arrows, made in a few river courses. The copper mines are quite superficial, the hours such havoc among them, that they were procured in ore being dug from trenches entirely open above, so that the the greatest abundance. “ They singled out the largest,” work is laid aside in the rainy season. Iron ore is found in says Bishop Heber, “ and struck them with as much cer- many parts of Hindustan. There are mines of iron in Lahore tainty as if they had been sheep in a fold. The arrows and in Ajmeer. In Orissa many of the natives are iron intended for striking the fish were so contrived that the iron smelters, and most of the iron sent from Balasore to Calhead slipped off the shaft when the fish was struck, but re- cutta is produced in this district. In Bejapoor the working mained connected with it by a long line like a harpoon, and of iron furnishes employment to many of the inhabitants, afloat on the water, which not only contributed to weary out who extract it by a very rude process. At Porto Novo, in the animal, but to show which way he fled, and to facilitate the British district of South Arcot, in the presidency of his capture.”1 Oysters are procured from the coast of Madras, extensive iron-works have been erected by a jointChittagong, not so large, but fully as well flavoured, as those stock association called the East India Iron Company; to whom also belong the iron-foundry works at Beypoor, in of Europe. Insects. The insect tribes in India may be truly said to be innu- Malabar, on the opposite coast of the peninsula. The ore merable ; nor has anything like a complete classification smelted at these establishments is found in great abundance been given of them in the most scientific treatises. The and of excellent quality in their respective vicinities. The heat and the rains give incredible activity to innumerable Mysore country abounds in iron. There are also forges for by Dr noxious or troublesome insects, and to others of a more manufacturing steel, which are minutely described 2 showy class, whose large wings surpass in brilliancy the Buchanan in his account of the Mysore country. In Coimmost splendid colours of art. Stinging musquitoes are in- betore and in Malabar the iron mines give employment to numerable ; and moths and ants of the most destructive a considerable number of persons. The process and makind, as well as others still more noxious and disagreeable. chinery for extracting the iron are very imperfect. Iron Amongst those which are useful is the silk-worm ; the insect mines were formerly worked in the district of Boglipoor, which produces the vermilion dye, the cochineal, a South but they have been long neglected. Rich iron ores are American species; and that which produces lac, which is abundant in Cutch. The ore is gathered in baskets from the imported into Europe and used for varnish, and more re- surface of the earth, and yields twenty-two per cent, of iron ; cently for cochineal. Clouds of locusts are occasionally and the steel which is made from this ore is the finest in the seen, which leave no trace of green behind them, and give world. Lead is produced in various parts; also antimony, the country over which they pass the appearance of a desert. plumbago, sulphur, alum ; and there are inexhaustible supDr Buchanan saw a mass of these insects in his journey from plies of coal, though the mines are not worked with any Madras to the Mysore territory, about three miles in length, effect. Coal is raised in Burdwan in considerable quantities like a long narrow red cloud near the horizon, and making and of a fine quality. Saltpetre is produced in Bengal and a noise somewhat resembling that of a cataract. Their size Bahar, though its manufacture does not go beyond the was about that of a man’s finger, and their colour reddish. eastern limits of the latter province. It might, however, They did no damage at that time to the smallest vegetable, be attempted with success in Bengal, where the tendency of the soil to its production is very great; and there might but at other times they eat up every green thing. Mineral From the wild and inaccessible nature of the country in be manufactories of salt in almost every part of the country, produc- many parts of Hindustan, its metallic products are but im- but they are restricted by the Company’s monopoly. In the tions, &c. perfectly known. It is found to produce all the metallic Mysore plains the wells are salt, and the ground is frequently ores, as well as diamonds and precious stones, and other covered with a saline effloresence. A range of hills, extendmineral substances. Gold is generally found in the sands from the Indus to the Hydaspes, yields the famous rock-salt3 of the mountain streams, and is extracted by washing. The of Lahore, of which they are almost entirely composed. head streams of the Ganges bring along with them particles Many quarries are found in the hilly districts, which produce of gold, which in Rohilcund are collected by a particular fine stone, that is cut by the inhabitants into pillars, flags, caste of people. It is found in various parts of Mysore, statues, and used for other ornamental purposes. Dr particularly 9 miles E. of Boodicotta, where the country Buchanan saw several fine-grained specimens of granite, is impregnated with it; also in the Nielgherry Mountains; also a black stone used in the construction of Hyder’s monu1 3

2 Heber, vol. ii., p. 467. Journey from Madras, vol. i., p. 170, 180 ; vol. ii., p. 139. See the observations of Lieutenant Burnes on the commercial relations of the Punjab. VOL. XI. 3M

458 HINDUSTAN. Hindustan, ment, and a beautiful green stone which takes on a marble tures must depend on the condition of the consumers, and Hina,, t 8 an polish. The hills of Guzerat contain marbles exhibiting amongst the despotic states of Asia these naturally consist i _ ^ the extension akel1 security to person and pLlty will ^vefstTn^^ U /to lndu g fr tha’ ideas in the minds of the people; that i ''' of civilization will serve to mifilte £r «reiuSLRTd - f. f ydest ^ yt the the laflael habitual contact with a higher and more rational form portion as their wants are multiplied their efforts to’ a V*1 ^? . ?ce of a debasing superstition ; and that, in pro2 P Heber’s Journal, vol. iiT., p 349 ’ ameliorate their condition will be increased.

HINDUSTAN.

464

assume that honourable title (khetri), they were originally Hindustar Hindustan. galee distinguish him from the other inhabitants of Hin- a low tribe of sudras or labourers. They also affix to their dustan. He is stigmatised as of a cowardly disposition, and, singh, a lion, which probably belongs only to the from whatever cause, is not esteemed throughout the coun- name Rajpoots. The Jauts are said by Bishop Heber to be the try. With these two principal classes are intermingled, in finest in bodily advantages and in martial spirit which very small proportions, British, Armenians, a peaceable race, he hadpeople seen in India, and their country one of the most ferand highly honourable in their dealings, Portuguese, and tile and best cultivated. They have a high character for other Christians. The Parsecs are numerous in the island valour throughout Hindustan; insomuch, adds the writer of Bombay, where they amount to 114,698; they are de- above quoted, “ that when I was passing through Malwah, scendants of the Guebres or fire-worshippers, are a fine race, gallantee shows,’ like those carried about by the Savoyards, being generally engaged in traffic, and distinguished in ‘were exhibited at the fairs and in the towns of that wild their dealings by the highest integrity and intelligence. The district, which displayed, amongst other patriotic and popuJews are numerous in India, and many are to be found scenes, the red coats driven back in dismay from the in the Bombay army, where they have often behaved bravely. lar and the victorious Jauts pursuing them sabre in The Asiatic Jews are distinguished by a large Roman nose. ramparts, 2 hand.” The lower classes of Jauts found in the barren The Mahrattas, a powerful tribe, have been long distinguished in the wars and politics of India. They are chiefly tracts of Ajmere, and in Northern India, are however diffound within the presidency of Bombay and the province of ferently described, being of small stature, ill-looking, and Nagpore, recently lapsed to the British government. They black in complexion, and their condition that of squalid^ were originally a pastoral and warlike people from the moun- poverty. The Sikhs were originally a religious sect, ot tains of Berar, who with a host of cavalry invaded and de- which the founder, Nanak, was born a. d. 1419, in the solated the adjacent provinces with fire and sword, and at province of Lahore; and the word Seik, properly Sikh or length acquired an extensive empire. Minute shades of dif- Siksha, in the old Sanscrit, signifies a disciple or devoied ference prevail amongst them, but no distinctions of caste ; follower. He left two sons, from whom are descended every Mahratta eating with his neighbour, unless, which 1400 families, called Shahzadehs, who live at Dera, in the often happens, he be expelled from his caste. They are not Punjab, highly respected. His successors were spiritual a military caste, as appears from the names of farmer, shep- chiefs, until the year 1675, when Gooroo Govind, a warrior, herd, and cowherd, by which their principal tribes are succeeded. He converted the Sikhs from religious sectaknown ; and also from their exterior, which marks an origin ries into ferocious soldiers; he changed their name from different from that of the military Rajpoot. They are of a Sikh to Singh, signifying a lion, the title claimed and highdiminutive size, generally badly made, and of a mean look ly prized by the Rajpoots; and enjoined his followers to and rapacious disposition ; whilst the Rajpoot has both per- cut off their hair, or to shave their beards. Ihe tribe consonal grace and dignity. 1 he memorable battle of Pani- sider this cjiief to be the founder of their political indepenput, fought in 1761, gave a blow to the Mahratta power, uence, and Nanak of their religion. The Sikhs acquired from which it never recovered; and the confederacy was power during the convulsions that followed the death of entirely dissolved in 1817, when the peshwa, the great feu- Aurungzebe, and after the invasion of Nadir Shah. Ihey dal chief of the empire, surrendered to the British, and was were severely checked by the Mahommedans, and weie by them confined as a state prisoner. Ihe nation derives nearly exterminated by the victorious Afghans after the its name from Mahrat, a province of the Deccan ; though battle of Paniput in 1761. But their valour still triumphed it is the opinion of some that 1the Mahrattas migrated from in the struggle, and led to the acquisition ot the I unjab, Persia about 1200 years ago. _ The Mahratta language is over which they retained dominion until the death of their widely spread over India. It is remarkable, that in pro- ruler Runjeet Singh, soon after which event the country of ceeding northward into Northern and Central India, and the “ Five Rivers” fell to the British by conquest, and beinto the Rajpoot states, the people far excel in strength came incorporated with their vast empire of India. In and stature the feeble Hindu of the southern provinces, horsemanship the Sikhs are not excelled by any othei being fully equal in their bodily frame to Europeans. nation either of Europe or Asia. Colonel 1 odd, in his great “ They despise,” says Bishop Heber, “ rice and rice eaters, work on Rajast’han, describes the appearance of the Rajfeeding on wheat and barley bread, exhibiting in their ap- poot cultivators in the valley of Odeypoor, who came to pearance, conversation, and habits of life, a grave, proud, meet him in a body, “ as being so striking as to draw forth and decidedly a martial character, accustomed universally the spontaneous exclamation from his friend, ‘ what noble to the use of arms and athletic exercises from their cradles, looking fellows!” “ Their tall and robust figures,” he adds, and preferring very greatly military service to any other “sharp aquiline features, and flowing beards, with a native means of livelihood.” The character of the Rajpoots, the dignity of demeanour, though, excepting their chiefs, who Sikhs, and the Jauts, fully answers to this animated descrip- wore turbans and scarfs, they were in their usual labouring and turbans, compelled tion of a warlike race. The tribe of Jauts or Jats was little dresses, immense loose breeches, 3 admiration and respect.” Their cast ot countenance is known in India till about the year 1700, when they migrated from the banks of the Indus, and became industrious culti- Hindu, somewhat altered by their long beards; they vators in the Doab, or the country between the Ganges and are active, and more robust than the Mahrattas, owing to the Jumna. During the civil wars which ensued on the better living and a healthier climate; and rival in courage death of Aurungzebe, they acquired a large extent of terri- the most renowned tribes of India. They evince in battle tory, in which they built forts, and accumulated wealth. the most determined contempt of personal danger, and are They were noted plunderers; and it was out of the spoil easily roused to desperation by prejudice or religion; they taken from Aurungzebe’s army in its retreat from the Dec- act as infantry in foreign armies, and as cavalry at home. can that the fortress of Bhurtpore was erected, in the gal- Their address is bold and somewhat rough ; they speak inlant defence of which against the British they fully sus- variably in a loud bawling tone of voice ; and are dissolute tained the character of brave soldiers. Their claim to the in their habits, indulging so freely in spirituous liquors, distinction of a military caste has, however, been disputed; which their religion allows, though tobacco is prohibited, and and it is said, that though success has emboldened them to in opium and bang, an intoxicating drug, that a Sikh sol1 s

Hindustan, vol. ii. p. of 483. . p. pe .~ Indian Recreations, vol. i. p. 20. Hamilton’s Description aofAnnals and Antiquities Rajast'han, vol. i. Personal. Narrative, o/. Heber’s Journal, vol. ill. p. 369.

H I N D U S T A N. 465 Hindustan, dier is rarely sober after sunset. The Sikhs are allowed to buffalo, hunting the boar and the deer, shooting ducks Hindustan, eat the flesh of all animals except the cow. They are strict and wild fowl; from their ancient use of the war-chariot, v. — v-» y in their religious observances ; and converts, whether Hindu as appears from the inscriptions and engravings on their or Mahommedan, must give up all customs which infringe monuments ; from the order of the birds common amongst the tenets of Nanak, or the military institutes of Gooroo them; from their passion for gaming and intoxicating liGovind. The military class highly relish the flesh of the quors ; from their sensual and slothful habits; from their jungle hog, of which they comperMahommedan converts funeral ceremonies, particularly from their immolation of feto partake, and also to abstain from circumcision. The males, a barbarous custom now abolished through the streSikh merchant or cultivator, if he be a Singh, is still a solexertions of the British government. The Rajpoots dier in his habits, as he wears arms, and is well trained from nuous claiming so splendid a descent are distinguished above all his infancy to the use of them. The original followers of other tribes by rank and pride of birth, and high aristocratic Nanak, the Kalasa Sikhs, differ widely from the warrior feeling; and hence the origin of a barbarous custom among tribe. They are as pliant, versatile, and insinuating in their the chiefs of putting to death their female children as soon as manners as the lower class of Hindus, whom they so much they were born, lest they should contract any base alliance. resemble in their dress and appearance as not to be rea- Others say that this custom was occasioned by the practice dily distinguished. The descendants of Nanak are a mild, amongst the Rajpoot princes of providing splendid dowries inoffensive race ; and the other religious tribes retain their for their daughters, by which they were frequently impovepeculiar manners. rished, and to avoid which they murdered them in infancy. The Rajpoots inhabit the Rajpoot states of Mewar or Colonel Todd, the depth of whose researches into the ancient Odeypoor, Marwar or Joudpoor, Bicanere and Kishen- literature of the Hindus appears in his accurate and lively agur, Kotah, Boondi, Amber or Jeepoor, Jesselmere, and delineation of the national character and manners of the Rajthe Indian desert to the valley of the Indus. They are the poots, ascribes to their chiefs a more ancient and chivalrous children of the sun and the moon; and, in memory of descent than many of the royal houses of Europe. “ From their great ancestor the radiant Surya, or Apollo, many of the most remote periods,” he observes, “ we can trace nothem wear badges of gilt metal round their necks with the thing ignoble, nor any vestige of vassal origin. Reduced image of a sun and moon on horseback. The lineage of in power, circumscribed in territory, compelled to yield both the solar (Soorya) and lunar (Indu) tribes is given much of their splendour and many of the dignities of birth, by Colonel lodd, on the authority of the Puranas (sacred they have not abandoned an iota of the pride and high books), a copy of which, obtained from the library of the bearing arising from a knowledge of their illustrious and Rana of Odeypoor, he carefully consulted, in the presence regal descent. The poorest Rajpoot of this day,” he adds, of a body of learned pundits. This work contains the va- “ retains all the pride of ancestry, often his sole inheritance ; luable results of his learned researches into the antiquities he scorns to hold the plough, or to use his lance but on and history of the Rajpoot tribes, which were conducted horseback. In these aristocratic ideas he is supported by with all the patience and perseverance that an enthusias- his reception among his superiors, and the respect paid to tic devotion to the subject can alone inspire; and being him by his inferiors.” These honours and gradations of rank guided by philosophy, and the most profound knowledge of are supported by peculiar privileges, each of the superior ororiental literature, have thrown great light on the history ders being entitled to a banner, to kettle-drums, preceded by and character of the ancient inhabitants of Rajpootana. heralds, and silver maces, with peculiar gifts and personal Vyasu, the Hindu historian, gives fifty-seven princes of the honours in commemoration of some exploit of their ansolar line from Menu to Rama; and fifty-eight from the cestors. Armorial bearings are used by the martial Rajsame period of the lunar race, from Buddha, its founder, poots ; a golden sun on a crimson field adorns the great to Krishna. The establishment of these two grand races in banner of Mewar ; those of the chiefs bear a dagger, whilst India is fixed by Colonel Todd at about 2256 years before others display a fine coloured flag; and the lion ramthe Christian era. From Rama all the tribes termed Soor- pant in an argent field was the warlike emblem of the now yavansa or Race of the Sun, claim their descent, namely, extinct state of Chanderi.2 The Rajpoots are divided into the present princes of Mewar, Jeepoor, Marwar, Bicanere, thirty-six royal races, described by Colonel Todd; to each is and their numerous clans ; whilst from those of Buddha and attached a bard, who is acquainted with all the peculiarities, Krishna the families of Jesselmere and Cutch, extending over religious tenets, and ancient history of the tribe. These the Indian desert, from the Sutledge to the ocean, deduce are subdivided into an infinite variety of lesser clans, each their pedigrees. Colonel Todd draws a parallel between more or less honourable as they can trace their pure dethem and the ancient Scandinavians and Scythians ; and the scent from the original and illustrious founders of their race. striking resemblance that appears in the manners, customs, The character of the Rajpoots, as given by Bishop Heber on and religious opinions of the two nations, he insists, strong- the authority of Captain Macdonald, the political resident of ly suggests the idea of a common origin. These ancient the Company in that district, is far from favourable. “ The tribes were devoted to the god of war; and the Rajpoot, people,” he observes, “ who are generally oppressed, and he observes, “ delights in blood; his offerings to the god of have been, till very lately, engaged in incessant war, have battles are sanguinary, blood and wine. The cup of liba- the vices of slaves added to those of robbers, with no more tion is the human skull. He loves them because they are regard to truth than the natives of our own provinces, emblematic of the deity he worships; and he is taught to exceeding them in drunkenness, fondness for opium, and believe that Hor loves them, who in war is represented sensuality, whilst they have a blood-thirstiness from which with the skull to drink the foeman’s blood, and in peace the great mass of the Hindus are very far removed. Their is the patron ot wine and women. With Parbutti on his courage, however, and the gallant efforts they made to deknee, his eyes rolling from the juice of the p’foot and opi- fend their territories against the Mahrattas, deserve high um, such is this Bacchanalian divinity of war.” “ Is this praise.” They are extremely attached to their respective Hinduism,” he adds, “ acquired in the burning plains of chiefs, to whom they yield a feudal obedience. The lands India ? Is it not rather a perfect picture of the Scandina- are let at low rents, on the condition of military service, vian heroes.”1 This hypothesis of a common origin Colo- every village furnishing its contingent of horsemen on the nel lodd further supports from the Rajpoots slaying the shortest notice. One of the chiefs who visited the above 1

See Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han, by Lieutenant-Colonel Todd, p. Gil. VOL. XI.

4

/62d. p. 138. 3N

HINDUSTAN. 466 Hindustan, traveller, and who is said by him to have been a striking luxuries. The Gonds bear a striking resemblance to the Hindustan specimen of the tribe, is described as “ young and hand- African negro. The Grassias are another race of plunsome, but dirty in his dress, boisterous in his manner, derers who are numerous in Gujerat, the most western talking with a great deal of gesticulation, many winks, province of India. They have or pretend to have ancient nods, beckonings, and other marks of intelligence; and claims on the land, many portions of which were either half drunk.” Colonel Todd’s work contains an accurate and surrendered to them by the proprietors for the secure posinstructive delineation of the manners and feudal relations session of the remainder; or they received an annual payamongst the Rajpootana chiefs; of their martial virtues, ment in money (toda) in full of all demands, as black-mail their romantic fidelity and honour, and their high pride, was paid in Scotland to the Highland robbers during the the parent at once of the noblest deeds and the deepest disorders of the feudal times. The Grassias seldom levied crimes ; with which, according to their enthusiastic annal- these claims in person ; but, assuming the character of ist, Colonel Todd, their history is stained. Family feuds chieftains, they rallied around them a band of adventurers, are frequent amongst them, and last for centuries. They who levied their grassia claim, and who, under this authoare handed down, as an inheritance, from generation to rity, plundered and laid waste the country. These Grasgeneration; and thus the debt accumulates with interest, sias are of no sect or caste; they include Hindus and Ma“ the deep reversion of delayed revenge,” till it is extin- hommedans indiscriminately. But, of all these predatory guished in the blood of the hostile tribes. Hence murders, races in Hindustan, the Coolies, who haunt the shores of burnings, poisonings, mingle in their domestic annals with the great salt marsh called the Runn, near the Gulf of Cutch, traits of generosity and romantic valour ; and the modern are the most untameable. They resist every approach to ciRajpoots, though they are certainly not improved, differ vilization, and pride themselves upon their mean and filthy little in their manners and prejudices from their ancestors.1 dress. The tribes of thieves which are found in India, unThe Bheels, another predatory tribe, inhabiting the moun- der the various designations of Grassias, Catties, Bhatties, or tains situated near the Nerbuddah and the Tuptee rivers, wandering outlaws who worship the sun and moon, Coolies, thence extending northward towards Rajpootana, west- Bheels or Mewassies, Meenas, Buddicks, Cozauks, and the ward towards the province of Gujerat, where they meet like, generally wander along the rugged banks of rivers, or the Coolies, and eastward to Gundwana, where they come among inaccessible mountains. The Bhats are a singular in contact with the Gonds, two other predatory tribes, are race, who are most numerous in Gujerat. Some are cultivasupposed to have been the aborigines of Central India. All tors, others beggars and itinerant bards or traders ; whilst a these tribes are averse to industry, and subsist by plunder, few are contractors for the payment of the public revenue, by hunting, or by cultivation, when all other expedients fail. receiving a small per centage on the amount, or guarantee The Coolies near the sea-coast lived, until lately, by fishing the observance of private agreements and awards. The or piracy. The Bheels inhabit the interior; and during Cherons are a sect of Hindus nearly resembling the Bhats the unhappy period of disorder and rapine in India, ter- in their manners and customs. They are carriers of heavy minated by the triumph of the British arms in 1817, they goods, such as grain and other articles, in which they are had by their inroads laid waste several districts, and were also dealers, and possess large droves of cattle for carriage. rapidly increasing in power. They were frequently hired They are likewise engaged to protect travellers in the wild by the native chiefs to assist in their desolating wars, as parts of the country, and take an oath to die by their own horsemen or as infantry, armed with bows and arrows, and hands in the event of those who are under their protection nearly naked. Thieves and savages as they are, Bishop being plundered; and the superstitious thieves of Hindustan Heber found that the British officers stationed in that dis- are always overawed by this threat of the Cherons, whom trict thought them, on the whole, a better race than their they hold in great veneration.2 The population of Hindustan conquerors. “ Their word,” he observes, “ is more to be contains other tribes or sects, too numerous and diversified depended on ; they are of a franker and livelier character; to be described in detail, and differing, if not in language, their women are far better treated, and enjoy more influ- at least in dialect, and in their manners, customs, and occuence ; and though they shed blood without scruple in cases pations. The Phasingars in the south of India, and the of deadly feud, or in the regular way of a foray, they are Thugs, are professional murderers; the latter are composnot vindictive or inhospitable under other circumstances, ed of men of all castes, even Brahmins, who, when murseveral British officers having with perfect safety gone ders are corpmitted, are frequently the chief directors in hunting and fishing into their country without escort or the scene. Their practice is to decoy the traveller into guide except what these poor savages themselves cheerfully the midst of their band, and then, drowning his cries by the furnished for a little brandy.” The Bheels in the south noise of pretended revelry, to strangle him by suddenly of Malwah were partly reclaimed by the wise and conci- throwing a noose round his neck, after which the body is liatory policy of Sir John Malcolm. In the mountainous cast into a grave previously dug for it. But this tribe, togetracts of the province of Guzerat they were at first harshly ther with the Gwarriahs, who live by stealing children, are fast treated, and severity only tended to confirm their primitive disappearing under the strict rule of the British. The Brinhabits. Subsequently a milder and more enlightened course jarrees and Loodanahs, or carriers of grain, are a singular of policy was pursued by the British government, and the re- wandering race, who dwell in tents, and have no home; passsults proved highly satisfactory. “ The Bheels,” says Captain ing their whole time in transporting grain from one part of the Graham, “ from outcasts have become members of civil so- country to another. They move about in large bodies with ciety, daily rising in respectability, and forming useful and obe- their wives, children, dogs, and loaded bullocks; and carry dient subjects of the state.” The Gonds are a miserable race arms, with which they stoutly defend themselves against in Gundwana, occupying the fastnesses of the mountains. petty thieves. In war they are allowed to pass and repass They approach nearly to astate of nature, and frequently de- quietly as neutrals between hostile armies, and to sell supscend from the mountains, especially during the harvest,' to plies of grain to either party. It was from the Brinjarrees plunder their ancient inheritance in the plains. Having within that Lord Cornwallis received all the supplies for his army the last fifty years acquired a taste for salt and sugar, they when he advanced against the capital of Mysore in 1799. have begun to cultivate the land, in order to obtain these The Dorians, a singular race, who inhabit Orissa, are dis1

Annals of Rajasfhan, vol. i. chap. 3. For a more lull account of some of these tribes, see the article on Gujekat, a province in which they abound.

HINDUSTAN. 467 Hindustan, tinguished by their feminine appearance, so that they are to the rank of generals and colonels, and commanded large Hindustan, often mistaken ibr women. They are timid, dissolute in bodies of troops with efficiency and success. Notwith- v j their manners, and more practised in low cunning than any standing the restrictive law, there were still examples of other people in the East, though they are said to be honest their admission into the Company’s service. Those who and industrious. The pastoral tribes, the Todawarsor To- are not engaged in the public service follow other profesderies, and the Koties, inhabit the table-land of Mysore ; sions. Some have acquired high reputation and large forthe first a manly race in features, and of a proud and inde- tunes by medical practice. Others are employed as plantpendent character, strongly resembling the ancient Ro- ers, schoolmasters, architects, printers, carvers and gilders, mans ; the second more diminutive, with darker complexions, or engaged in commerce. The laws passed in 1833 and and less expressive features. They are considered as the 1853 for regulating the Company’s affairs, abolish these aborigines of these highlands. The Toderies are herdsmen, unjust and illiberal distinctions, and render every class, wandering from pasture to pasture, and they and the Koties of whatever caste or religion, eligible to all offices civil and always go bare-footed and bare-headed. The Nairs in military.2 Malabar form a singular caste, from their peculiar manners Such are some of the principal tribes who inhabit the and customs. Pretending to be soldiers by birth, they low country of Central and Northern India, “whilst the disdain all industry ; and are often seen parading up and mountains and woods, wherever they occur, show specimens down fully armed, each man with a firelock, and with at of a race entirely different from all these, and in a state of least one if not two sabres, which they more frequently use society scarcely elevated above the savages of New Holland in secret assassination than in open war. Amongst the or New Zealand.” It is finely observed by Sir John MalNairs marriage is a mere form, and both sexes indulge in colm in his History of Persia, that, in the conquest of a a promiscuous intercourse. The women are married before country, the rocks and the mountains often afford a last they are ten years of age ; but the husband never cohabits asylum to the brave and the free; and accordingly, many with his wife. He allows her a suitable maintenance, whilst of the native tribes in Hindustan, flying from the destroyshe lives with her brothers, and cohabits indiscriminately ing sword, have thus maintained for ages a savage indewith any person of an equal or higher rank. Owing to this pendence, and all the distinct traces of an original race. irregular intercourse, no Nair knows his own father; and The elevated tract in Bengal, reaching from Rajamahal to every man considers his sister’s children as his heirs.”1 Burdwan, is inhabited by several tribes of mountaineers, The Nestorian Christians are numerous in the S. of India, and amongst them the barbarous Santals, who are probably and are a peaceful and industrious race. The Roman Ca- the aborigines of the country; and, from their features, tholics, the descendants of the Portuguese, French, Dutch, language, civilization, and religion, are obviously of a difand other Europeans or converts to their faith, are sunk in ferent stock from those in the plains. Amongst the Puharidolatry not much superior to that of the Hindus. The rees, who inhabit this tract, the Hindu institution of castes foreign races in India are the mercenary x\rabs, who are is unknown ; the Hindu deities are equally so; and they brave soldiers, ready to fight on any side for good pay ; and have no idols, being nearly in the condition of savages. the Chinese, who are fast increasing in Calcutta; their num- They subsist by the chase, their arms are bows and arrows, ber, according to the last census of that city, amounting to and they are nearly naked. They formerly waged incesnearly 1000. Another race has sprung up in India since sant war with the cultivators of the plains, whom they the country was occupied by the British, who are known by robbed and murdered, and were in their turn hunted by the various names of Europeans, Anglo-Indians, Indo- the Mohammedan zemindars like wild beasts. Having Britons, half-castes, and the like, but who have now assumed been kindly treated and conciliated by the British, they are the appellation of East Indians. They are the descendants so far reclaimed from their wild habits, that a battalion of of Europeans, either British or others, by native mothers, sepoys has been raised from amongst them. The peculiar legitimate and illegitimate. They speak the English lan- features of the rude tribes in the eastern hills of Bengal, guage, and follow all the European habits, and the Protes- and the adjacent plains, equally indicate a distinct origin. tant religion. The number residing in Calcutta in 1850 The Kookies, who live in the mountains to the N.E. of the was 4615. These are subject to the law administered by Chittagong district, have all the peculiar features of a Tarthe crown judges in the Queen’s court at Calcutta, but tar countenance ; the flat nose, the small eyes, and the beyond the limits of the jurisdiction of this court, East broad round face. They are stout and muscular, though Indians are amenable to the judicial courts, over which not tall; and they are hunters and warriors, armed with the Company’s civil servants preside. In these courts the bows and arrows, clubs and spears. They live in the judge has not the power of life and death, but he is com- most inaccessible hills, in a state of constant warfare, and, petent to sentence to long terms of imprisonment. All like all savages, are cruel and vindictive. capital cases are referred for the disposal of the Nizamut The inhabitants of Hindustan rank much lower in the Religion, Adawlut, the highest of the Company’s courts in India. scale of civilization than the nations of Europe. They are East Indians and others not professing the Mohammedan far behind them in literature, science, and the arts, and in faith, are not tried under the provisions of the Mohammedan all the civil institutions of society ; and their religion is criminal law, but under regulations passed by the Govern- that of a rude people, consisting in an endless detail of ment of India, the judge being assisted by assessors or by troublesome ceremonies, which are deeply interwoven with a jury, but having power to overrule their opinion. In the the whole system of life. The reason of man, in contemyear 1793 East Indians were excluded by express enact- plating the wonders of creation, is directed by the light of ments from the civil and military service of the Company, nature to one great First Cause ; and in the structure of the and were only eligible to subordinate situations in public universe are clearly seen the divine attributes of goodness, offices ; though of late years this exclusion was only ap- wisdom, and almighty power. Accordingly, Brahm, or plied in its rigour to the immediate descendants of Euro- God, is declared, in many passages of the Vedas or sacred pean and Indian parents, all others being eligible to civil writings of the Hindus, to be the almighty, infinite, eternal, and military offices. Prior to 1793, the East Indians were self-existent being, who sees all things, and is everyfreely admitted into the army, and several of them attained where present; the creator and lord of the universe, its ^ Buchanan’s Journey from Madras, vol. ii., p. 412. Minutes of Evidence before Select Committee on the Affairs of the East India Company, on a Petition of certain Christian Inhabitants of Calcutta, &c., presented to the House of Commons on the 4th May last. (21st June 1831.) 2

468 HINDUSTAN. Hindustan, preserver and its destroyer, who can neither be described the overthrow of the Buddhists did not revive the religious Hindustan, nor adequately conceived by the limited faculties of man. system inculcated in the Vedas. The doctrines taught in But with these simple conceptions of the divine majesty these sacred books are now mostly obsolete, and in their other grosser ideas are combined, and a system of polythe- stead new forms and ceremonies have been instituted, and ism, accompanied by the most extravagant and obscene new orders of devotees. In particular the goddess Kali, fables, and all the disgusting, cruel, and blood-thirsty rites the consort of Siva, who delights in blood, has been propitiof an abominable idolatry. Whilst Brahm, the Supreme ated by the sacrifice of animals ; and the worship of Rama Being, is supposed to remain in holy obscurity, he has dis- and Krishna, incarnations of Vishnu, and of Siva the detributed respectively to three other deities, Brahma, Vish- stroyer, appears to have been introduced since the persenu, and Siva, the power of creating, preserving, and de- cution of the Buddhists and Jains. The worshippers of Buddha, though they believe in the stroying the world. But it does not appear that these deities are strictly confined to their separate functions; Vish- incarnation of Vishnu, are regarded as heretical by the nu, the preserver, frequently employing himself in acts of Hindus, and have been compelled, by persecution, to fly destruction; and Siva, on the other hand, in acts of benefi- to other countries. They have now propagated their faith cence. In short, the Hindu creed presents no clear nor de- over the greater part of Eastern India, in China, and as far terminate ideas. All is vague, inaccurate, and confused. as Japan; also in Thibet and Ceylon. The Jains are ano• Brahma, the creator, is represented as a golden-coloured ther sect of Hindus, who acknowledge only as subordinate figure, with four heads and four arms. Vishnu, the pre- deities some, if not all, of the gods of the Brahmins, and the server, is represented of a black or blue colour, with four prevailing sects ; and assign the highest place to certain deiarms, and a club to punish the wicked. The emblems un- fied saints, who, according to their creed, have risen to the der which he is represented refer to his vindictive charac- dignity of superior gods. They neither address prayers ter. He has three eyes, to denote the three divisions of nor perform sacrifices to the sun or the fire; and they retime past, present, and future. A crescent in his forehead ject the authority of the Vedas, as do also the Buddhists. refers to the measuring of time by the lunar revolutions, The presence of umbrella-covered pyramids, or semi-globes, as a serpent denotes it by years ; and the necklace of skulls and of plain human figures sitting cross-legged, or stand■which he wears, the extinction of mankind in successive ing in an attitude of contemplation, point out the temple generations. The great ends of his providence are brought or excavation of a Buddhist. The twenty-four saintly about by various incarnations of the Hindu deity. Of figures, without the pyramid, indicate a Jain temple. The sacred books of the Hindus, though they inculcate these visible appearances, denominated avatars in the Hindu mythology, there are ten, of which nine have already generally all the moral duties of justice, mercy, and benetaken place ; and although the Hindu account of what volence, yet seem, like every other system of false religion, took place at these times is a tissue of absurdity, extrava- to give the first place to the ceremonial law; and accordinggance, and indecency, yet we may trace, under a mass of ly the devotion of the Hindus consists in mere outward obfable, the Scripture account of the deluge, with various servances, and is not inconsistent with the most scandalous other points of the Christian theology. But the history of crimes. Under the Christian system, there can be no piety the creation from a seed deposited in the waters, which to God without benevolence to man. But the troublesome became an egg, from which Brahma the creator was born, ceremonies of the Hindu religion encroach, not only on all is in the highest degree absurd and profane. At the tenth moral duties, but on the whole business of life ; and confer avatar, which is yet to come, Vishnu, as is foretold, will such a stock of atoning merit that they seem to supersede appear on a white horse, with a scimitar blazing like a co- the weightier matters of the law. The observances which met, for the everlasting punishment of the wicked who are imposed upon a Brahmin commence when he rises in the shall then be on the earth. Each earthly incarnation of the morning, and consist in divers ablutions and prayers, in divinity gives rise to a new deity; and there are, besides, in- the worship of the rising sun, in the inaudible recitation numerable other minor deities, amounting, it is said, to 330 of the gayatri, or the holiest text of the Vedas, in holy millions. All the great elements of nature are deified by meditation, and in other ceremonies. He has then to the extravagant superstition of the Hindus; also the fir- perform the five sacraments, which consist in teaching mament of heaven, the sun, moon, and stars; every river, and studying the scriptures, which is the sacrament of fountain, and stream, is either a deity in itself or has a divi- the Veda; in offering cakes and water, which is the sacranity presiding over it, nothing being done without some ment of the manes; in an oblation of fire, the sacrament of supernatural agency; and there are, besides, innumerable the deities; in giving rice and other food to living creamyriads of demigods, to whose honour idols are erected tures, which is the sacrament of spirits; and in receiving and worshipped by all classes with much apparent devotion. guests with honour, which is the sacrament of men. The Stocks and stones, or a lump of clay smeared over with a whole day would not suffice for the punctual performance little red paint, are converted into a god, and reverenced, of these ceremonies; and they are of necessity abridged, by the ignorant Hindu. Any figure, either of brute or man, to give time for the proper business of life. In almost all or any monstrous combination of both, with a multiplicity the religious traditions of the world we find traces of the of heads and hands, mark a Brahminical place of worship. Scripture revelation, however corrupted; and the Hindu sysIn the lapse of ages, great changes have been introduced tem seems to have borrowed, and to have greatly extended, into the religious practices of the Hindus; and sectaries have the typical impurities of the Mosaic law. The rules on arisen amongst them, each with peculiar objects of adoration this subject, pointing out the Causes of defilement, and the and modes of worship. Five great sects worship exclu- modes of purification, are numerous, many of them to the sively a single deity; one recognises the five divinities last degree absurd and troublesome. The death or the birth that are respectively reverenced by the other sects, but of a child renders all the kindred unclean. Any one who they select one object for daily adoration, whilst they per- touches a dead body, a new-born child, an outcast, &c. is form only occasional rites to the other deities. The Ve- unclean; or a Brahmin who has touched a human bone. das, or the Hindu Scriptures, were revealed before the ap- The natural functions of the body give occasion to many pearance of Buddha, the ninth incarnation of Vishnu, which minute and disgusting regulations; and the modes of puriis supposed to have taken place in the year 1014 before fication are equally strange and ridiculous. Of these, baththe Christian era. He appears to have borrowed his the- ing is the most rational; the other modes are by stroking ology from the system of Capila, in which the unlawfulness a cow, looking at the sun, or having the mouth sprinkled of killing animals is inculcated as an essential point. But with water. He who is bitten by any animal frequenting

HINDUSTAN. 469 Hindustan, a town, or by a mare, a camel, or a beat, is unclean; and tween five fires, is described by Fraser, who witnessed Hindustan, he is purified by stopping his breath during one inaudible the penance at a public festival. Being seated on a quadrepetition of the gayatri. Inanimate substances may also rangular stage, after the sun began to have considerable be unclean, and the various modes of purifying them rival power, he stood on one leg gazing stedfastly at its scorchin absurdity the other extravagances of the Hindu code of ing beams, whilst fires large enough, says the traveller, to religious observances. roast an ox were burning around him, the penitent countThe expiation of sin by voluntary penance is another ing his beads, and occasionally adding fuel to the flames. favourite doctrine of the Brahmins, by which they contrive He stood upright on his head in the midst of these fires to awe superstitious minds into subjection; and in their for three hours; and then seating himself with his legs estimate of offences, with a view to suitable penances, across, he remained till the end of the day exposed to the they subvert all moral distinctions. “ Acts naturally in- scorching heat of both the sun and the fires.3 Other cruel different,” says the author of Indian Recreations, “are put and bloody rites are contrived by those devotees, the woron the same footing with immoralities; eating certain ar- shippers of Siva or his consort the goddess Kali. At one ticles ot food, drinking certain liquors, or touching certain of the festivals in honour of this goddess, Bishop Heber, objects, are declared forfeitures, and are expiated by pe- who was present, relates, that one of these self-tormentors nance as immoral conduct. Forgetting texts of scripture is had hooks thrust through the muscles of his sides, which classed with perjury; eating things forbidden, with killing he endured without shrinking, and a broad bandage being a friend ; incest and adultery are compared to slaying a bull fastened round his waist to prevent the hooks from being or a cow; drinking forbidden liquor, to killing a Brahmin. torn through the flesh by the weight of his body, he was In several instances, actions highly meritorious according to fastened to a long pole, and, by means of another pole fixed our notions, are put on the same footing with a conduct in the ground, he was swung aloft and whirled round in implying great infamy. Working in mines of any sort, the air; on a motion being made to take him down, he engaging in dykes, bridges, or other great mechanical works, made signs for them to proceed, a mark of constancy reis classed with subsisting by the harlotry1 of a wife, and ceived with shouts of applause by the ignorant multitude. preparing charms to destroy the innocent.” To these ar- Other devotees were seen going about with small spears tificial offences, penances are either affixed by the Brah- thrust through their tongues and arms, or with hot irons mins, or are voluntarily undertaken by their pious votaries; pressed against their sides. Bishop Heber saw another of and these generally consist in fasts, mortifications, watchings, these penitents who was actually half roasting himself by a fire and other bodily privations. “ If a Brahmin,” says Menu, which he had kindled in a hole dug in the ground; another “ have killed a man of the sacerdotal class without malice, was seen hopping on one foot, having made a vow never to he must make a hut in a forest, and dwell in it twelve whole use the other, which was now contracted and shrunk up; years, subsisting on alms, for the purification of his soul. and a third had held his hands above his head so long that If the slayer be a king, he may perform sacrifices, with pre- he had lost the power of bringing them down to his sides. sents of great value; if a person of wealth has committed Some are seen buried up to the neck in the ground, or even this offence, he may give all his property to some Brahmin deeper, with only a small hole for breathing. Some lie on learned in the Veda.” In some cases the penances consist beds of iron spikes, or tear their flesh with whips, or chain in eating what is filthy and disgusting. If a Brahmin kill themselves for life to the foot of a tree, or remain in a by design a cat, or an ichneumon, the bird chisha, or a standing posture for years, till their legs swell, and break frog, a dog, a lizard, an owl, or a crow, he must perform out into ulcers, and become at last too weak to support the ordinary penance required for the death of a Sudra, them; others exhaust their bodily strength with long fastone of the lowest caste, who are thus no more valued than ing, or gaze on the blazing sun, till their eyesight is extina cat or a frog. A particular class of devotees, namely, the guished. These devotees subsist entirely by charity ; and Fakirs, signalize their piety by enduring the severest Dr Buchanan mentions a class of them in the south of Intortures, and with a constancy worthy of a better cause. dia, who wander about with bells tied to their legs and arms, Bishop Heber describes, with his usual force, the appear- in order to give notice of their presence as they approach ance of these eastern monks as he entered the holy city the villages.4 They are always naked, and filthy in the exof Benares. “ Fakirs’ houses,” he observes, “ as they are treme, being covered with cow-dung and chalk; and for the called, occur at every turn, adorned with idols, and send- tortures which they endure in public they indemnify theming forth an unceasing tinkling and strumming of vinas, selves in private by the utmost license of sensual indulgence.5 byyals, and other discordant instruments; while religious Amongst other observances, the Hindus have always been mendicants of every Hindu sect, offering every conceivable much given to religious pilgrimages ; and their holy places deformity which chalk, cow-dung, disease, matted locks, have been generally established near the sea, the sources distorted limbs, and disgusting and hideous attitudes of and junctions of rivers, which are held in peculiar venerapenance, can show, literally line the principal streets on tion, the tops of remarkable hills, hot springs, caves, waterboth sides. Here,” he adds, “ I saw repeated instances falls, or any other place of difficult or dangerous access. of that penance of which I heard much in Europe, of A pilgrimage to Gangoutri, near the sources of the Ganges, • men with their legs and arms voluntarily distorted by is accounted the great achievement of Hindu piety. To keeping them in one position, and their hands clenched till the waters of this river the superstitious Hindu ascribes the nails grew out at the backs. Their pitiful exclamations peculiar sanctity, and devoutly worships it throughout its as we passed, £ Agha Sahib, Topee Sahib,' the usual names whole course. But there are particular spots more sacred in Hindustan for an European, ‘ khana he waste hooch cheez than others ; and so great is the resort of pilgrims, and such do,' give me something to eat, soon drew from me the few their ardour to wash in the sacred stream, that numbers, in pence I had; but it was a drop of water in the ocean; and the crush and tumult, are hurried into the water and the importunities of the rest, as we advanced into the city, drowned, or trodden to death in the crowd. were almost drowned in the hubbub which surrounded us.”2 It is not doubted that, at a period not very remote, the The tortures which these fanatics endure exceed all belief. bloody deities of the Hindus were propitiated with human A penitent who went through the ceremony of sitting be- sacrifices, and some of the rites still in use amongst them a iieber, zj6 ^ ennan vol. ti.s p.Indian 373. Recreations, vol- i. p. 155. 6

3

of British India,Mysore, vol. i. p.Canara, 353. and Malabar, vol. i. p. 231 * Mill’s JourneyHistory from Madras, through Martin, vol. i. p. 291.

470 HINDUSTAN. A superstitious tenderness for the brute creation is a Hindustan, Hindustan, confirm this suspicion. In some of the native states the Brahmins, in resisting oppressive demands, resort to a con- peculiar tenet of the Hindu creed, which prohibits the trivance, in which a human victim is really sacrificed. They use of animal food excepting at the great festivals, when the bloody deities, and erect a circular pile of wood, on the top of which they place the sacrifices of beasts propitiate a cow or an old woman; and if the demand is insisted on, serve the natives for a feast.4 But the same abstinence they set fire to the pile, and consume the sacrifice, which from animal food is not general throughout Hindustan. is supposed to entail on the oppressor the deepest guilt. In the north of India it has already been mentioned Bishop Heber gives, in his narrative, an example of the that it is freely used by the inhabitants; and, according sacrifice of an old woman, who, in a quarrel which her hus- to Dr Buchanan, there are castes in the south of India band had with his neighbour respecting some land, was who eat sheep, goats, hogs, fowls, and fish, though there thrust into a Mahbout’s hut, and there burned, in order are others who religiously abstain from these, and from all that her spirit might haunt the spot, and entail a curse upon spirituous liquors.5 Several animals, as the cow and the the soil. Children were also formerly sacrificed, by throw- monkey, are objects of veneration. Bishop Heber, so ing them to the sacred sharks of the Ganges, till the prac- often quoted, mentions, that on entering the holy city of tice was forbidden by the British government; and a vo- Benares, “ the sacred bulls devoted to Siva, of every age, luntary sacrifice of themselves by individuals, in honour of tame and familiar as mastiffs, walk lazily up and down the gods, is still reckoned meritorious. At the festival of the narrow streets, or are seen lying across them, and Juggernaut, the idol is placed on a ponderous machine or hardly to be kicked up; any blows, indeed, given them chariot, and dragged forward by a crowd of devotees and must be of the gentlest kind, or woe be to the profane priests, when numbers of the people, even fathers and mo- wretch who braves the prejudices of a fanatic population, thers, with their children in their arms, throwing themselves in order to make way for the tonjon. Monkies, sacred in the way of the chariot, and being crushed to death un- to Hunimaum, the divine ape, who conquered Ceylon for der its ponderous wheels, amidst the fanatical cries of the Rama, are, in some parts of the town, equally numerous, multitude, are supposed to be conveyed immediately to clinging to all the roofs and little projections of the temheaven. Numerous victims of both sexes drown themselves ples, putting their impertinent heads and hands into every annually at the junction of the sacred streams j1 many strike fruiterer’s or confectioner’s shop, and snatching the food off their own heads as a sacrifice to the Ganges, whilst from the children at their meals.”6 To such a length is this others expiate their sins by casting themselves into the superstition carried, that they have established an hospital avenging flames. This act of devotion is accompanied by for sick and infirm beasts, and for fleas, lice, and insects, atrocities that are truly shocking, the devotee previously lay- though it does not appear, as reported by some travellers, ing open his bowels with the stroke of a sabre, tearing out his that they feed these loathsome creatures on the flesh of liver and giving it to a byestander, conversing all the time beggars hired to lodge in the hospital for that purpose. with apparent indifference.2 Many other enormities are prac- An hospital for animals is to be seen at Broach in Gujerat, tised at the festivals in honour of their gods, which it would which has considerable endowments in land, and in which, be endless and disgusting to detail. The custom of a widow are monkies, peacocks, horses, dogs, cats, and little boxburning herself on the funeral pile of her husband is a noted es filled with fleas and lice. This hospital was described rite of the Hindu religion, but the practice has been for some to Bishop Heber by the British commercial agent resitime abolished within the British territories, and more recently dent at Broach. The funds, however, are said to be several of the native princes of India have been also pre- alienated by the avaricious Brahmins, and the animals vailed upon to prohibit the rite of Suttee within their respec- allowed to starve. With all this veneration for animals, tive dominions. The Hindus in this, as in many other in- they are nowhere more cruelly treated. They are overstances, evince a singular indifference about their own lives; worked and abused in a manner shocking to a European. which also appears in the frequent instances of suicide “ They treat their draft horses,” says Bishop Heber, “ with amongst them. “ Men,” says Heber, “ and still more women, a degree of barbarous severity which would turn an Engthrow themselves down wells, or drink poison, for apparent- lish hackney coachman sicknor do they show any ly the slightest reasons, generally out of some quarrel, and greater sympathy for human beings, who are allowed to in order that their blood may be at their enemy’s door.” Ob- perish before their eyes from hunger or disease. Lepers, scenities mingle with these bloody rites, and the most in- according to their base and irrational superstition, are decent figures are pourtrayed on the chariots used at the treated as objects of the divine wrath; they are cruelly temples, many of them large and richly carved. “ These,” neglected, and regarded with abhorrence rather than with says Dr Buchanan, “ representing the amours of the god sympathy. Krishna, are the most indecent that I have ever seen.”3 The transmigration of souls is another favourite tenet Equally indecent representations are carved on the sacred of the Brahmin superstition. The souls of good men cars fixed at the temples, in which the musicians and dancing migrate in the next world into hermits, religious mendigirls are all prostitutes to the Brahmins, and turned out to cants, Brahmins, demi-gods, genii, or other celebrated instarve when they grow old, unless they have a handsome telligences; and the best ascend to the condition of Brahdaughter to support them from the wages of iniquity. The ma with four faces. The next gradation allotted to souls state of morals among the Hindus is such as might be ex- filled with passion is into men and not into deities, into pected from a religion so impure, and from the gross em- cudgel players, boxers, wrestlers, actors, or those of a blems which are used on sacred occasions; their writings higher class into the bodies of kings, and the highest and their conversation are shocking to European ears; and become genii, attendants on the superior gods ; whilst even the Hindu women hear without a blush and join in lan- souls filled with darkness are degraded into the lower guage the most gross and disgusting. They are sensual in animals, such as worms, reptiles, cattle, &c. or into eleall their ideas, and pursue the intercourse of the sexes with phants, horses, Sudras (the lowest caste), or into the still little more discrimination than the brute creation. Fidelity more degraded class of men of no caste, or into lions, tito marriage vows is scarcely known amongst them, at least gers, &c.; to the highest are allotted the forms of dancers, amongst the men. singers, &c. birds, giants, blood-thirsty savages. Particu1 Tennant, vol. ii. p 250. * Mill’s Hittory of British India, voL i. p. 358. Journey from Madras, through Mysore, Canara, and MalnMr, vol. ii. p. 237.

4 Journey from Madras, &c. vol. i. p. 262. *6 Ibid. vol. i. p. 248. Heber’s Narrative, &c. vol. i. p. 373.

HINDUSTAN. 471 Hindustan.]ar migrations are assigned as the punishment of certain scend to the servile work of a Sudra; and a Sudra may Hindustan, enormities ; but it is useless to pursue the system further subsist by handicrafts, as joinery, masonry, painting, and v ■- v into its absurd and disgusting details, writing, by which he may serve the higher classes; or by Manners. The religion of Hindustan is so closely interwoven with trade or husbandry. The loss of caste is one of the most its customs, manners, and laws, that they can scarcely be serious calamities which can befall a Hindu, and may in described separately. The division of a Hindu commu- fact be compared to the spiritual anathemas of the Canity into castes is an institution, not of policy, but of re- tholic church during the dark ages of Europe. If the ligion, which embraces the whole detail and intercourse loss of caste were the penalty of immorality, the fear of life. There are four original or pure castes, namely, of it would impose a salutary restraint. But this is the Brahmins, or priests; 2d, the Cshatriyas, or military far from being the case. The most abandoned Brahmin caste ; 3d, the Vaisyas, or husbandmen ; and, 4?th, the Su- retains his rank, notwithstanding his crimes; but he will dras, or labourers. Of these the Brahmins are declared entirely forfeit it and lose all countenance in society by to hold the first rank, and to be the lords of all the other touching impure food, or by some such petty delinquenclasses. A want of due reverence to them, especially by cy. lo sit down at a meal with one of an inferior caste, the lowest or the Sudra class, is accounted one of the most would be deemed a monstrous pollution; and a naked atrocious crimes. The laws and manners equally concur Hindu would think himself defiled by the presence of the to maintain the honour, and all the substantial privileges, first monarch of Europe at any of his meals. “ While of this sacred order. They are exempted from taxation, dinner is preparing,” says Tennant, “ and during eating, and from the sanguinary laws which affect the other a small circle is drawn round the company, which an Euclasses. Neither the life nor property of a Brahmin can ropean, if he pass, infallibly defiles the meal; it is thrown though a single be touched, even though he commit the most atrocious to the dogs, and other victuals provided, crimes; and the whole scope of the Hindu religion is to one be all the treasure of the family.”2 heap gifts and wealth upon them. “ Every offence,” says Such may be considered as in theory the structure of a Orme, “ is capable of being expiated by largesses to the Hindu community. But since, in the progress of society, Brahmins, prescribed by themselves, according to their this strict division into classes with distinct employments own measures of avarice and sensuality.”1 The duties could not long be maintained, we accordingly find that, of the Brahmins are to meditate on divine things, to read by illicit connexions, the pure races are intermixed, and the Vedas, to instruct the young Brahmins, and to per- children born who, being of no caste, are therefore impure, form sacrifices and other religious acts. The Cshatriyas, and objects of execration to all the other tribes. This or the military rank, is next in order to that of the Brah- impure race, denominated the Burren Sunker, and classimins. Their duty is to bear arms in defence of the state, fied into distinct tribes, have become artisans and handiand they rank as high above the lower orders as the Brah- craftsmen of every description. From the intermixture of mins do above them. The Vaisyas, the third caste of these various races innumerable mixed tribes have sprung, Hindus, tend cattle, or engage in trade and agriculture. and the pure blood of the four original tribes is scarcely to They rank only above the Sudras, from whom, however, be found; so that Mr Rickards, in his accurate account they receive the same deference and submission which of Indian manners, says, “ I have never met with a perthey give to the higher castes. To the Sudra, or the low- son who could prove himself a genuine Cshatriya, Vaisya, est class, are allotted all the meanest and most servile du- or Sudra; whilst of those who pretend to be of pure deties ; they are regarded with abhorrence by the other scent, Brahmins and other respectable and intelligent tribes, to whom religion prescribes their most abject sub- Hindus have assured me that they have no right to the mission, as well as every other species of degradation. distinction; that the genuine tribes above named are exThey are in a manner excluded from the privileges of the tinct, and their descendants in this generation all of mixsocial state. They pay a higher rate of interest for mo- ed blood. If, however, any do now exist, they must be ney than any of the other classes, they are more cruelly too thinly scattered to affect the general interests of sopunished for crimes committed against them, whilst an ciety by their privileges or numbers. “ A real Cshatriya injury to a degraded Sudra is a light and venial offence. prince,” he adds, “ is not to be found in these days ; all They are held to be in a state of slavery, they cannot the greater princes of India, excepting the peshwa, a possess property, and at any time a Brahmin may seize Brahmin, are base-born.”3 Nor, amidst this confusion of the goods of his Sudra slave. So degraded are they, that ranks, has it been possible to adhere to thestrictallotmentof under this gloomy, unsocial superstition, a Brahmin can- certain employments to particular castes. The Brahmi ns no not lawfully read the Veda in presence of any of them, doubt still form a distinct order; their privileges are willnor give them spiritual counsel or instruction, under pain ingly conceded to them by the superstitious multitude, of sinking with them into hell. To each of these classes, and the inferior castes have never encroached on their holy into which society is divided, are assigned, under the se- functions. But those of the other castes have been converest penalties, particular and hereditary employments. founded. War has not been the exclusive employment But the rigid severity of this law is softened by the follow- of the Cshatriya caste; for the Indian armies are recruiting exceptions. A Brahmin who cannot find employ- ed from all denominations and castes. Nor have the ment in his own spiritual line, may descend to the exercise Vaisya and the Sudra castes been more successful in the of military duties, or to tillage and attendance on cattle, monopoly of their employments ; seeing that all the varior to traffic, only avoiding certain commodities. In like ous castes follow their allotted duties, and fill every branch manner, a Cshatriya in distress may have recourse to ail of agriculture, commerce, handicraft, and menial service.4 inferior employments, though not to the higher duties of But the institution of castes, though it has not been strictthe Brahmins. The practice of medicine and other ly acted upon, being at variance with the fixed order of learned professions, of painting and other arts, common human society, has nevertheless deeply affected the aslabour, menial service, begging, or serving, may be re- pect and structure of the Hindu communities ; and whilst sorted to upon the plea of necessity. A Vaisya may de- it exalts the order of priests, it degrades the lower classes 2 1 On the Government and People of Hindustan, p. 433. See Indian Recreations, vol. i. p. 121. 3 Orme India, or Facts submitted to illustrate the Character and Condition of the Native Inhabitants, &c. By li. Rickards, Esq. vol. L p. 29 4 rhid. n. 30 ? a* r •

H I N D U S T A N. 472 Hindustan to the level of the brutes. It is the source of cruel and ing free the children of slaves of the state who may be sub- Hindustan, anti-social prejudices, entirely opposite to those Christian sequently born ; forbidding the seizure of private slaves in feelings of benevolence by which man is bound to his fel- satisfaction of debts; recognising the rights of slaves to low men ; and by which the different orders of society, in- possess property and to enjoy the protection of the law; stead of being harshly separated, are softened and blended, as directing the emancipation of slaves connected with proin the communities of Europe, into one harmonious whole. perty lapsing to the state, and prescribing regulations Besides these degraded castes, whose condition is little intended to preserve that unhappy class from oppression. better than that of slaves, numbers of unfortunate persons How far these rules will be effective against the opposition were until very recently reduced to actual slavery throughout of both prince and people remains to be seen ; but it is India.1 All the jaghiredars, zemindars, principal Brahmins, something to have obtained a recognition of the right of and talookdars employed domestic slaves in their establish- slaves to be dealt with as human beings. The Hindus are by no means a moral people. Notment ; and in every Mahratta household of consequence they were considered as indispensable. They were also withstanding the gentleness and feminine softness of their employed in the labours of the field, in the cultivation of manners and address, they frequently commit the most rerice, and were in the lowest state of degradation, ill-fed and volting acts of cruelty. The practice of murdering chilworse clothed, and most wretched in their appearance. dren for the sake of the silver ornaments in which, by the But the British parliament, in legislating in the year 1833 vanity of their parents, they are attired, is common among for the better government of India, made it incumbent upon them; and the gang-robbers of India are noted for the the governor-general in council to take into immediate horrible tortures which they inflict on their unhappy victims, consideration the means of mitigating the state of slavery, in their eager search after their hidden treasures. “ Pestiand of ameliorating the condition of slaves ; and of extin- lence, or beasts of prey,” says Dr Buchanan, “ are gentle guishing slavery throughout the territories subject to their in comparison of Hindu robbers.” According to the obserjurisdiction so soon as such extinction should be practicable vation of Orme, the politics of Hindustan would afford in a and safe. The result was the passing of a legislative act century more frequent examples of sanguinary cruelty than by the government of India, which, by refusing to recognise the whole history of Europe since the reign of Charlemagne. the right to property in slaves, and by extending protection “ How many princes,” observes this writer, “ have been to both the persons and property of parties so styled, has stabbed in full durbar” (in open court). “ How many substantially put an end to the institution of slavery within have been poisoned in their beds. Chiefs of armies cirthe territories under the government of the East India cumvented and cut off at conferences in the field. FaCompany. The British Government has also strenuously vourite courtiers strangled, without previous notice of their laboured to procure the abolition of slavery in the native crime, or while they thought themselves on the eve of destates of India, and its efforts have been generally success- stroying their masters.”2 Murders amongst the Hindus, ful. In Travancore it still exists, and the slaves are described even by poison, excite no feeling of deep abhorrence, as as in the lowest possible state of degradation. Not only are among the nations of Europe ; and the cold-blooded villany they held by private persons, but some are the property of of the Hindu is often remarkable. Mr Holwell mentions, the government, which derives a small revenue from letting that when he sat as judge at Calcutta, he had heard it statout their services to such cultivators as require them. The ed in defence of the most atrocious murders, that it was3 British resident has pressed upon the minister the manu- the Cali age, when men were destined to be wicked. mission of the children of these slaves; in addition to which the The Hindus, like all the other Asiatics, are great masters home authorities have suggested the emancipation of the of dissimulation ; they are cunning and treacherous, adparents also ; and the subject of praxlial slavery generally, dicted to falsehood to a degree that can scarcely be conwith a view to its entire abolition at an early period, has ceived by a more refined and moral people. Perjury in been recommended to especial attention. In consequence courts of justice is universal, amongst high as well as low, of this pressure a proclamation was issued in 1853, declar- and amongst both the Hindus and Mussulmans, without 1 See Papers relative to slavery in India; Iteturn to the House of Commons, 6th March 1834; Evidence of Joseph Fenn, nine years a missionary in Travancore; Answers to Questions on Slavery, circulated by the Commissioners for the affairs ot India; Evidence of T. H. Baber, Esq. thirty-two years resident in India; of the Honourable J. Harris, principal collector in Canara; and of Mr Warden, collector in Malabar. The evidence of T. H. Baber discloses a regular and shameful traffic in slaves, carried on by Mr Brown, a servant of the Company, and under the authority of the Bombay government. “ How or whence,” he observes, “ this oppressive and cruel practice, not only of selling slaves off the'estate where born and bred, but actually of separating husbands and wives, parents and children, and thus severing all the nearest and dearest associations and ties of our common nature, originated, it would be difficult to say; but I have no doubt, and never had in my own mind, that it has derived support, if not its origin, from the impolitic measure in 1796, of giving authority to the late Mr Murdoch Brown, while overseer of the Company s plantations in Malabar, from the difficulties he experienced, even with ‘ the assistance of the tchsildar’ (the head native authority) and ‘ his peons’ (armed persons with badges of office), to procure workmen, and ‘ of the price of labour being more than he was authorized to give,’ to purchase indiscriminately as many slaves as he might require to enable him to carry on the works of that plantation ; and of actually issuing orders to the European, as well as to the native local authorities, to assist him, and even to restore slaves who had run away and returned to their homes (without any orders to inquire the reason of their absconding), and who, as has been actually ascertained from the surviving slaves themselves, had been actually kidnapped by the doragha (head police officer), and sent up to North Malabar, to Mr Brown, which person had continued up to 1811, or for a period of twelve years, under this alleged authority, granted by the Bombay government, to import slaves and free-born children from Travancore, when, by the merest accident, this nefarious traffic came to my knowledge, and which, after a considerable opposition on the part of the provincial court of circuit, I succeeded in putting a stop to, after having restored to liberty and their country 123 persons who had been stolen, of whom 7.1 were actually found in Mr Brown’s possession.” Mr Brown’s agent, Assen Ally, acknowledged, that during the time he was at Aleppi, at Travancore, in 1810, no less than 400 children had been transported to Malabar. The advocate-general’s report alludes to “ Mr Baber’s perseverance in restoring the kidnapped children, in spite of very extraordinary opposition,. and to the u extraordinary support Mr Brown appears to have received in these dealings in stolen children.” (I ol. 788-) Ihe still more objectionable practice of realizing the public dues by the seizure and sale of slaves off the land, must have confirmed proprietors in their idea ot accounting the slaves their property. Mr Vaughan, collector, Malabar, in a letter dated 20th of July 1819, argues in favour of this inhuman practice, saying, “ that the partial measure of declaring them not liable to be sold for arrears of revenue, will be a drop in the ocean ; though, why government should give up the right every proprietor enjoys, is a question worthy of consideration.” Far. 3, 4, 5, &c. Highest class slaves sold for 250 gold fananas, L.6. 5s.; average price, L.3. 6s. 2 Orme’s Historical Fragments of the Mogul Empire, p. 340. * Mill, vol. i. p. 407.

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HINDUSTAN. 473 Hindustan, the least remorse or shame. The Europeans in the office all the East, where polygamy prevails, they are a degraded Hindustan, of judges in India complain of being perplexed by a host caste, shut up in the harem or the seraglio, and not, as in -v'w' of perjurers on each side, swearing in the teeth of one ano- Europe, the seat of a purer faith and more refined system ther. They are acute dissemblers in all affairs of interest, of manners, the friends, the advisers, and equal companions, and are the sharpest buyers and sellers in the world, main- of their husbands. And both the laws and manners of the taining through all their bargains a degree of calmness East lead to this unhappy effect. Whilst marriage is enwhich no art can penetrate.1 A want of sympathy with joined as a religious duty, not to be neglected except for the sufferings of his fellow-creatures is another trait of the the higher duty of becoming a devotee, the chai’acter of Hindu character, and a sure index to the low state of re- women is described in the Hindu books of law as stained finement amongst them. They treat their sick and dying with almost every vice. Pride, anger, envy, violence, dewith indifference, and in many cases with shocking inhu- ceit, falsehood, immoderate desires, infidelity to their husmanity. The sick whose life is despaired of are carried bands, and idleness, are pointed out as their ruling passions ; to the banks of the Ganges, and their mouth, nose, and and the treatment they meet with corresponds with those ears are closely stopped up with mud; water is then pour- ideas. They are wholly uneducated, excluded from the ed upon them from large vessels, and thus, amidst the ago- sacred books, and from all knowledge of expiatory texts, nies of disease and of suffocation, life terminates. The and from any share in the paternal property ; and they are corpse is then burned, if the survivors can pay the expense, held unworthy to eat with their husbands. They are the and the relatives retire with every appearance of insensi- slaves of their domestic tyrants, and often receive the bility.2 The effeminacy of their persons, and their timi- most barbarous treatment, being beaten and otherwise ill dity, prevent them from fighting or boxing in their quar- used; but they are not allowed to leave them, whilst the rels. But this forbearance seems to proceed from no want husband, on the other hand, may divorce his wife upon any of malignity or passion, as, in the event of any misunder- plausible pretence. Such is the condition of women by standing between two persons meeting accidentally in the the laws of Hindustan, which, we have no reason to bestreet, they upbraid each other with the foulest epithets, lieve, are softened in domestic life. Certain it is, that woaccompanied by the utmost violence of gesticulation. men, as long as they are uneducated, will be in a degraded Mr Rickards, in his valuable work upon India, seems to state. It is only when they cultivate their minds that they imagine that European writers have exaggerated the vices can mix with advantage in society, and that, respecting of the Hindus, and he exhibits them in a more favourable themselves, and respected by others, they can acquire that light. “ Having lived,” he observes, “ twenty-three years ascendency to which they are entitled, and give, by the dein India, and passed much of that time in intimate inter- licacy of their manners, that tone and polish to society course with various natives, I have a different opinion of which it cannot receive from the other sex. their character to that given in several printed works. I The ceremonial of marriage is conducted amongst the have constantly seen, in their acts and conduct, the practice Hindus with great solemnity and expense. The parties, of the most amiable virtues. I have experienced from who are of equal rank, and any other alliance would be acmany the most grateful attachment. I believe them capa- counted infamous, are betrothed during their infancy by ble of all the qualities that adorn the human mind; and their parents, but on a full consideration of their respective though I allow many of their imputed faults (where is the rank, skilful genealogists being consulted previously on this individual or nation without them ?) I must still ascribe important point. These preliminaries being settled, the these faults more to the despotisms under which they have so transaction terminates with an elegant feast; and when long groaned, and which unhappily we have but slenderly the wife comes of age she is conducted to her husband’s alleviated, than to natural depravity of 3disposition, or to home, with all due ceremony, and a concluding entertainany institutions peculiar to themselves.” No writer as- ment ; another set of observances take place when she becribes to the Hindus any greater natural depravity than comes pregnant, when she passes her seventh month, and other nations. But certainly their peculiar religion, its in- when she is safely delivered. These festivals amongst the decent and bloody rites, and the laws and usages founded rich are extremely expensive. on it, more especially the institution of castes, tend to exThe Hindus are ignorant and illiterate. The children tinguish in the breast all humane, enlightened, or moral of the poor seem to be mostly uneducated. Those in a feelings; and though, even amongst the Hindus, excep- higher station are taught by the Brahmins to read and tions may be found, and the occasional practice of amiable write, and to cast accounts, the calculations being pervirtues, yet the crimes which are proved to be committed formed by pebbles or small shells. The pupil first begins openly and without shame or remorse sufficiently attest the to write upon the sand with his finger, and he afterwards want of morality, intelligence, and every humane and social uses palm leaves. After being thus initiated in the rudifeeling amongst them, and seem to place them in this re- ments of literature, he enters on the course of his professpect entirely on a level with the other Asiatic nations. sional study, in which he has no choice, every one followIgnorance is the parent of cruelty and vice, and with the ing the profession of his father. A student is instructed progress of knowledge and of civil institutions certain crimes chiefly in the Vedas, and in the ceremonial of his religion ; entirely disappear; and hence their existence amongst and his course of discipline in the three Vedas may be the Hindus bespeaks not so much any innate or peculiar continued for thirty-six years, in the house of his predepravity, as a low state of civilization, and a state of thral- ceptor, or for a half or quarter of that time, until he comdom to a base superstition and to the dominion of priests, prehend them. To the state of the student succeeds that under which the social virtues are blighted in the bud, of the married man or the housekeeper, when the youth and selfishness and vice spring up in the congenial soil. begins to sustain his part in the business of life. He may, In every nation the condition of the female sex affords however, continue his whole life a pupil, waiting upon a sure index to the state of manners and the progress of and serving his preceptor the Brahmin until his death. civilization. Amongst savages, women are ill treated be- By this devotion to him he acquires a title to the highcause they are weak and helpless, and there is no moral re- est rewards of religion. Of the common people, a tew straint on the tyranny of the men. In Hindustan, as over individuals only are taught to read or write. The great 1 8

Orme On the Government and People of Industan, p. 431. Tennant, Indian Recreations. VOL. XI.

* Rickards’ India, p. 3. 3

0

474

HINDUSTAN.

Hindustan, body of the people remain in ignorance. They can ex- his peculiar timidity. His make, his physiognomy, and his Hindustan, ^ plain nothing of their own religious system, nor of the small degree of muscular strength, convey a remarkable ceremonies which they attend. This gross and universal idea of effeminacy, especially when contrasted with the ignorance, whilst it is the parent of crime, exposes the robust stature of a European who is making the observaHindus to all the artifices of priestcraft, and of every tion. “ The sailor,” says Orme, “ no sooner lands on the quack who pretends to skill in any art or science what- coast, than nature dictates to him the full result of this ever. The unbounded influence of the priests is highly comparison. He brandishes his stick in sport, and puts inexpedient, and has in some instances been found dan- fil'ty Indians to flight in a moment.” The Indian, howgerous to the public peace. On one memorable occasion, ever, greatly surpasses the European in the sensibility of as related by Bishop Heber, this influence became a poli- his touch, and in the flexibility of his limbs; and hence, tical engine, which was wielded with great effect, to the with tools which would scarcely enable the clumsy fingers alarm of the local government. Among other superstitions of the one to make a piece of canvass, he weaves the finest of the Hindus, it is well known that they inflict evils on cambrics; and in all feats and contortions of the body, themselves or others, even to the sacrifice of their lives, in the art of tumbling, and in juggling tricks, the Hindus under the idea that they will be avenged on their enemies. excel all other nations. They are also patient of bodily One of these practices is to sit “ dhurna,” or mourning, in fatigue, and in running or marching will distance more a fixed posture, without food, and exposed to the weather, robust competitors. An Indian messenger will travel on until the person against whom the religious rite is directed foot fifty miles a day for twenty or thirty days without inagrees to give redress. It is firmly believed, that if the per- termission. They are withal remarkable for bodily inertson dies in this mourning state, his avenging spirit will ness, and the love of repose. “ It is more happy,” they ever afterwards haunt and torment him whose obstinacy say, “ to be seated than to walk; it is more happy to may have occasioned his death. The Hindus resort to this sleep than to be awake; but the happiest of all is death.” practice in order to enforce payment of a debt, or forgive- Their amusements are accordingly all of the sedentary ness of one ; and it is a notion amongst them, that whilst kind. A game which resembles chess and draughts, an aggrieved person sits at their door “ dhurna,” they can though without either the variety or interest of the forneither eat nor undertake any business. Brahmins are mer, is one of their favourite amusements ; and, like all even sometimes hired to sit dhurna, and their sacred cha- rude nations, they are passionately fond of gaming, though racter is supposed to give a peculiar awe to the ceremo- it is contrary to the Gentoo code; also of feats of agility ny. It was in opposition to an unpopular and heavy tax and legerdemain ; and a juggler who erects a stage in any on houses in the city of Benares, against which they had part of the East is sure to draw a crowd of spectators. in vain remonstrated, that the whole population, far and Buffoonery, story-telling, music, consisting of simple menear, resolved to sit “ dhurna” till it was repealed. On lodies, and dancing, which they enjoy as spectators, comthis occasion the leading Brahmins took their measures plete the catalogue of Hindu amusements. Their exwith surprising concert and unanimity. Handbills were treme fondness for hunting forms an exception to their circulated explaining the causes and necessity of the general indolence; all the different races in India, Euromeasures, “ calling on all lovers of their country and na- peans, Moguls, and Llindus, shaking off their natural sutional creed to join in it, and commanding, under many pineness, are seen to concur in the ardour of the chase. bitter curses, every person who received it to forward it Hawking is also keenly pursued by natives of distincto his next neighbour. Accordingly,” adds Bishop He- tion. Besides falconers, fowlers, and game-keepers, Hindus ber, “ it flew over the country like the fiery cross in the of rank employ persons to ensnare wild animals; and Lady of the Lake ; and, three days after it was issued, the contrivances they resort to are not less ingenious than and before government was in the least apprised of the successful. Many have given credit to the Hindus for cleanly haplan, above 300,000 persons, as it is said, deserted their houses, shut up their shops, suspended the labour of their bits, from their frequent ablutions ; but the reverse is the farms, forbore to light fires or dress victuals, many of case. A taste for cleanliness is a proof of refinement; it them even to eat, and sat down with folded arms and is a sure mark of a highly civilized people ; and accorddrooping heads, like so many sheep, on the plain which ingly it is not to be found in any part of Asia. Almost surrounds Benares.” There was every reason to dread all the Asiatic cities are distinguished by narrow streets, some violent issue to such an extraordinary transaction. into which, as there are no police regulations, all sorts of The local government, exceedingly perplexed by so strange filth are indiscriminately thrown. The Hindus form no and vast an assemblage, acted with consummate prudence ; exception to this general censure. In all the great towns and this motley multitude being let alone, gradually dis- the streets are filthy. Nor are the Hindus more cleanly persed. The rulers of India, thus admonished, were fain in their persons. Their linen, being dyed, is seldom to repeal the obnoxious tax. The ignorance of the great washed; and, like the Chinese, they frequently allow their body of the Hindus exposes them to impositions of every robes to drop off with filth before they think of changing description. In the medical art, charms, incantations, ex- them. orcisms, and the shallowest tricks, are substituted for proA simple and despotic monarchy is the only form of Governfessional skill; and other impostors, generally Brahmins, government which was established under the native prin- ment. practise astrology, and cheat them out of their money by ces of Hindustan; and it was a despotism in the true pretended prophecies, from the aspect of the skies. The Asiatic sense of the word, under which neither laws nor belief of sorcery and witchcraft is universally prevalent manners restrained the excesses of absolute power. In amongst them, and leads, as it formerly did in our own the most despotic states of Europe, the authority of the country, to cruel enormities. Persons suspected of monarch is controlled by the influence of manners, and witchcraft are the objects of fear and hatred; and their life and property are perfectly secure. But this was far neighbours often assume the right of trying them for from being the case in India; the sovereign was supreme this crime, by charms and incantations, such as planting arbiter of the lives and properties of all his subjects. Nor a branch of the saul tree in water, with the name of the was this power allowed to lie dormant; it was frequentsuspected person, and if it wither within a certain time, ly enforced in cruel and arbitrary acts ; and the annals the evidence against the accused is considered conclusive. of India are accordingly stained with the most revolting I he Hindu is distinguished by the slenderness and de- outrages of abused power. Wealth presented too temptlicacy of his corporeal frame, which is partly the cause of ing a prize to lawless violence; and its possessor, if he

HINDUSTAN. 475 Hindustan, neglected to make large and seasonable presents, was sure ministration of a subahdar, as was also the extensive and Hindustan, to be accused of some pretended crime, thrown into a distant province of Bengal. The absolute power of the v v dungeon, and plundered. “ Instead of giving him poison,” Great Mogul descended without any loss of vigour to all says Orme, in his just estimate of the people and govern- its inferior delegates; and in this manner the whole of ment of Hindustan, “ which would not answer the end the country groaned under the dominion of numerous proposed, as his treasures are buried, he is beset with tyrants. From this extensive delegation of the superior spies, who watch his minutest actions, and probably pro- power, it happened, that on the decay of the Mogul pose to him a commerce with the enemies of the province. empire, the provincial rulers gradually acquired indeIf he avoid these snares, a profitable post in the govern- pendence, and, in their warfare with each other for doment is proposed to him, which, if he accepts, his ruin is minion, filled the country with rapine and bloodshed. at hand, as the slightest of the villanies practised in every “ Hindustan,” says Major Rennell, “ even under the Mobranch of it affords grounds for making him a public cri- guls, may be considered as a collection of tributary kingminal. Should he have escaped this too, it remains that doms, each accustomed to look no farther than its own some more glaring and desperate measure of iniquitous particular viceroy, and of course ever in a state to rebel, justice hurry him to destruction.” Mr Orme then pro- when the imbecility of the emperor, and the ambition ceeds to mention the case of a wealthy banking-house, of the viceroy, formed a favourable conjuncture ;” and the partners of which were personally known to him, who, accordingly he observes that “ rebellions, massacres, and having dexterously avoided all the snares laid for their barbarous conquests, make up the history of this fair property and life, were at length involved in an accusa- country, which, to an ordinary observer, seems destined tion by the accident of one of the dead bodies which are to be the paradise of the world.”3 And to the same continually floating on the Ganges being thrown ashore purpose Orme remarks : “ If the subjects of a despotic under the walls of their house, on which it was surround- power are everywhere miserable, the miseries of the people ed by the officers of the civil magistrate, who dragged of Hindustan are multiplied by the incapacity of the them to prison as the murderers of a son of Mahommed, power to control the vast extent of its dominion ; and and having ordered them to be severely scourged, ex- thus,” he adds, “ the contumacy of vicegerents resisttorted from them as the price of their liberty a present ing their sovereigns, or battling among themselves, is of 50,000 rupees. Another wealthy individual was forced continually productive of such scenes of bloodshed, and to give in one present, to the nabob of Bengal, a sum of such deplorable devastations, as no other nation in the equal to three hundred thousand pounds sterling.1 Bi- universe is subject to.”4 shop Heber relates of the Rannee, or princess of JeeIn the Mogul sovereign was vested the whole admipoor, that she murdered a female attendant, a woman nistration of the state, the executive as well as the leof character, and possessed of considerable wealth, who gislative and judicial powers. In his executive duties was believed, until that time, to stand high in her mis- the law assigned him a council of state, the functions of tress’s confidence. Eight other women of the Zenana which generally devolved on some favourite minister. believed themselves marked out for destruction. An- His legislative duties were simple, seeing that religion other princess, who possessed a jaghire or landed estate was the law, and that the sacred ordinances constituted near Meerut, frequently ordered the ears or noses of her the judicial code, which it would be impiety to alter. The attendants to be cut off for slight offences ; and one of Brahmins being the sole interpreters of the holy books, her dancing girls was imprisoned under ground, and acted as assessors to the nabob or rajah, or his delegates starved to death, she herself keeping watch until she in the judicial office. The mode of administering jusheard the last faint moans of her expiring victim.2 Such tice had an appearance of openness and fairness, and enormities present a dreadful picture of Indian despotism, the forms of the court were extremely simple. The seat and fully bear out Mr Orme in his contrast between the of justice was exposed in a large area, capable of conmanners of Europe under the influence of Christianity, taining the multitude ; and here justice was administered and those of Hindustan, under which poisonings, treach- by the duan or judge, in the absence of the nabob ; the ery, and assassinations, are daily committed by the vota- plaintiff having attracted attention by his importunate ries of ambition, as are rapines, cruelty, and extortions, clamours, was ordered to be silent, and to advance before by the ministers of justice. the judge, to whom, after having prostrated himself, he From the great extent of the Mogul empire, the influ- told his story in the plainest manner. Fie visited the judge ence of the supreme power was but feebly felt in its dis- in private, gave the jar of oil, and his adversary bestowed tant parts, and the kingdom was accordingly divided into the hog, which broke it; the friends who had influence indistinct provinces, in which deputies or viceroys, called terceded, but it was the largest bribe that ultimately gainnabobs, ruled with delegated power. Those provinces ed the cause. The forms of justice were no doubt prewere again subdivided into districts, which were commit- served ; witnesses were heard, but browbeaten, and removted to the subordinate administration of rajahs. These ed if their evidence did not please the judge. “ Proofs of districts might consist of one town and its territory, or of writing,” says Orme, “ are produced ; but deemed forgea thousand towns ; and hence the Hindu system of provin- ries and rejected, until the way is cleared for a decision, cial government comprehended different degrees of prince- which becomes totally or partially favourable, in proporly dignity and dominion, according to the extent and va- tion to the methods which have been used to render it lue of the lands that were assigned. But all these va- such ; but still with some attention to the consequences rious rulers, though each was amenable to the one above of a judgment which would be of too flagrant iniquity not him, exercised supreme and despotic sway within their to produce universal detestation and resentment.” In own districts. There was also a special rank of princes Hindustan, accordingly, the judicial tribunals afforded no called subahdars, who ruled in the extremities of the king- refuge to the oppressed ; they were rather instruments of dom, in which the rigour of the supreme authority was tyranny, by which the unhappy people were plundered weakened by distance, with higher rank and greater under the forms of law. Avarice is the reigning vice of powers than the rajahs. The Deccan was under the ad- Hindustan, and power afforded all public functionaries 2^

Orme On the Government and People of Indostan, p. 450. Heber, vol. ii. p. 278, 279. :/

3

Rennell, Memoir of a Map of Hindustan, p. xlix. » Orme On the Government and People of Indostan, p. 309.

476 HINDUSTAN. Hindustan, the means of its gratification. The havildar, the head of life became objects of punishment or extortion. And no Hindustan, a village, called his habitation the durbar, and plundered other principles being known or dreamt of in India than of their meal and roots the wretches within his jurisdiction ; arbitrary power on the one hand, and abject submission the zemindar fleeced him of the small pittance of silver on the other, a state of society was fixed and rooted in which his penurious tyranny had scraped together; the the manners, the poverty, and the ignorance of the people, phoosdar, or military commandant of the province, seized of which no parallel nor resemblance is anywhere to be on the zemindar’s collections, and bribed the nabob’s con- found in European states.’’2 nivance in his villanies by a share of the spoil; the covetous The laws of the Hindus which apply to property, and Hindu eye of the nabob ranged over his dominions for prey, and which regulate sales or purchases, loans, transfers, and laws, employed the plunder of his subjects in bribing or in re- deposits of goods, though they are founded on the prinsisting his superiors. “ Subject to such oppressions,” says ciples of justice, are frequently rude, loosely expressed, Orme, “ property in Hindustan is seldom seen to descend and such as, along with a corrupt judicature, must leave to the third generation.” It is not therefore surprising that every thing to the discretion of the judge. The law fixes the Hindus prefer English courts of law to those with the price of commodities, regulates the interest on money, which they were cursed while under the rule of their native and on the loan of goods, such as grain, fruit, &c.; and, princes. by a peculiar injustice, imposes a greater interest on the Taxation. This important subject will perhaps be more properly servile castes than on the Brahmins and soldiers. The considered when we come to treat of the political trans- modes of enforcing debts are the same as in all other actions of the British in India, and of their administra- countries. The creditor may seize upon the property or tion of the revenues of the Mogul empire. In the mean person of his debtor, whom he ma}' beat or otherwise time it may be observed, that those revenues chiefly arose maltreat, and, if he be of an inferior caste, compel to lafrom a tax on the land, imposed by the sovereign, or from bour for his profit. He may even confine his wife or chila share in its produce, which, according to some, he re- dren. Another mode of enforcing payment is by sitting ceived as proprietor of the soil. The tax was imme- dhurna, a ceremony already explained. The laws of indiately paid into the imperial treasury by the zemindar, heritance form an important 3branch of the Hindu code, who collected it from a variety of under tenants, hold- though it is justly remarked, that “ the slavery to which ing by peculiar tenures, which will be afterwards more the rights of parent and husband subject the female, particularly considered. The proportion of the crop claim- abolishes at once all suits of dowries, divorces, jointures, ed by the government varied, according to the fertility and settlements.” On the death of the father, his proof the land, from a sixth to a twelfth part; and being perty is divided amongst his children, who frequently live ascertained by the proper officers, it was either paid in together, with the elder brother as their head. If they kind or in money. Custom-duties were levied on imports separate, the eldest receives one twentieth more than the by sea, and by land on the transit of goods at the differ- others. Science and good conduct are mentioned as grounds ent toll-bars in the country. These were sometimes of preference, as vice of exclusion; and thus is laid the farmed out by the local authorities. Other taxes are foundation of endless disputes. In some cases the gross enumerated in the sacred books, on mercantile profits, and cruel superstition of the Hindus subverts the prinon which was levied a fiftieth, or even a twentieth part; ciples of justice ; the blind, the deaf, the dumb, or those on the accumulation of property in gold, silver, pre- affected with leprosy, or any other incurable disease, being cious stones, cattle; on the purchases and sales of mer- deprived of their share in the paternal inheritance. Chilchants ; and on mechanics and serving-men, who were dren of different castes inherit according to the rank of liable for a contribution of labour at the rate of a day in the mother, and those of concubines receive only half the each month. A trifling poll-tax was imposed on the share of legitimate children. Until the practice was legalmeaner inhabitants. Exclusive rights of manufacture, and ized by the British government, the Hindus had no idea trade in certain articles, such as salt, arrack, betel-nut, of devising by will; nor were any members of the family at and tobacco, were also granted to the inhabitants for an liberty to alienate, except in certain particular cases, any annual payment.1 The Hindu rulers, however ignorant in part of the common stock. other matters, thus appear to have been familiar with all The criminal code of the Hindus, though no longer in opethe most approved modes of plundering their subjects; ration except in some few states, governed by Hindu princes, and these failing, they had recourse to open violence. It merits a brief notice. The offences of the low-born tribes is mentioned by Mr Rickards, whose views of Indian man- against the higher receive a full measure of vengeance, whilst ners seem to be equally judicious and accurate, that those the latter are but slightly punished for the injuries which they revenue systems of India never were, “ because they inflict on their inferiors. It is enacted, that if a Sudra never could be, literally enforced, the real practice being strike a Brahmin with hand or foot, the offending memto exact and plunder, without any fixed rules, all that ber shall be cut off; if he insult him with his tongue, it could be squeezed out of defenceless subjects.” After shall be slit, or a red-hot iron shall be thrust into his enumerating the various revenue officers who acted under mouth. Murder is punished with death, theft with fine, the sovereign, such as nabobs, dewars, foujedars, amil- and the more heinous cases with various degrees of mudars, tchsildars, jaghiredars, zemindars, polygars, talook- tilation, with impaling, burning alive, and crucifixion. dars, rajahs, naiks, wadeyars, &c., he adds, “ swarms The multifarious cases of offence which are detailed in of harpies were thus spread in every direction, even to the Hindu code, such as throwing ordure, or the refuse of the mundils and potails of villages ; and despotism esta- victuals, on another, spitting upon him, &c., are many of blished, as it were, in detail, in every corner of the land. them insignificant, and scarcely merit the minute enumeraPower was here a license to plunder and oppress. The tion which is given. The illicit intercourse of the sexes rod of the oppressor was literally omnipresent; neither is a complicated subject, into the details of which it is persons nor property were secure against its persevering unnecessary to enter. It seems principally directed and vexatious intrusions. The common transactions of against the want of chastity in women, which is punished 1 a

See Fifth Report of Committee of the House of Commons, 1810, p. 83. India, or Facts submitted to demonstrate the Character and Condition of the Native Inhabitants, by It. Rickards, Esq. p. 255, ^ Orme On the Government and People of Indostan.

HINDUSTAN. 477 Imdustan. as the most shocking of crimes, by burning on a heated we refer for a3further account of those ancient monuments Hindustan, plate of iron ; or against the lower tribes, in whom adultery of Hindu art. with a Brahmin woman is considered as the climax of huOf the Hindu paintings the chief merit is brilliancy of Painting, man depravity, scarcely to be avenged by any punish- colour, rather than taste in the design or liveliness of exment, however dreadful. On the other hand, crimes com- pression. They imitate most exactly, and are excellent mitted by the higher classes against the lower are very draughtsmen ; and they draw specimens of natural history slightly punished; the scale of punishment being in all with much neatness and accuracy. “ The laborious excases graduated in an inverse ratio to the rank of the of- actness with which they imitate every feather of a bird,” fenders. says Tennant, “ or the smallest fibre on the leaf of a plant, ArchitecIn architecture, in the fine arts, in painting and music, renders them valuable assistants in this department ; ture. the Hindus are greatly inferior to the Europeans. The but farther than this they cannot advance one step. If pagodas, the tombs, and other structures, the only re- your bird is to be placed on a rock or upon the branch of maining specimens of their architecture, are, according to a tree, the draughtsman is at a stand ; the object is not besome, more remarkable for the magnitude of their dimen- fore him, and he can supply nothing.4 Since this period, sions than for their just proportions or fine taste. “ The however, the Hindus have made great advances in the art columns and pillars,” says Tennant, “ which adorn their of painting ; and some of their portraits display taste and immense pagodas, are destitute of any fixed proportions; expression that would not discredit European artists. and the edifices themselves are subjected to no rules of The music of the Hindus is rude and inharmonious. Music. architecture.” He afterwards adds, that the celebrated They have numerous instruments, but those are prefermausoleum at Agra has little to boast of either in simpli- red which make most noise; the beating of the great city or elegance of design. “ The immensity of its size, drum is reckoned an emblem of sovereign power. The literature of the Hindus has been generally rated Literature, its costly ornaments, and the minute exactness of its decorations in particular parts, are worthy of notice ; but very low by European writers, and has been represented they afford much stronger proofs of the wealth and mag- as consisting in long desultory poems, inflated and extravanificence of Shah Jehan, than the correctness of its gant in their style, containing, under the idea of a history, taste.” The tombs and religious edifices of Hindustan a tissue of absurd fables, interspersed with passages or are, on the other hand, highly commended by Bishop episodes that are tender and passionate, and possess all Heber for delicacy, beauty, and taste. The mausoleum the sweetness of pastoral poetry. They are said to be at Agra he celebrates as the most splendid building, in its totally destitute of historical annals, and their geograway, that he had seen in India.1 Humaion’s tomb at phy is a mass of errors. Nor has their astronomy those Delhi he also praises as a noble building of granite, inlaid claims to antiquity which were at first allowed. Accuwith marble, and in a very chaste and simple style of rate inquiry has5 proved this science to be in its infancy Gothic architecture ; and of the imanbara or cathedral at amongst them. The want of historical records by the Lucknow he remarks, “ The whole is in a very noble Hindus is strongly denied by Colonel Todd, who has himstyle of eastern Gothic, and, when taken in conjunction self composed a history of the Rajpoots from native works, with the Roumi Durwazu which adjoins it, I have never which he found in the libraries of their princes, and he asseen an architectural view which pleased me more, from serts that in those depositories of Hindu literature many its richness and variety, as well as the proportions and more works exist, which would reward the researches general good taste of its principal features.”2 There of the learned. “ The works of the native bards,” he obseems no doubt, from the splendid structures that are serves, “ afford many valuable data in facts, incidents, restill found in different parts of Hindustan, that archi- ligious opinions, and traits of manners.” “ In the heroic tecture and the kindred arts had flourished amongst the history of Pirthi-raj, by Chund,” he adds, “ there occur Hindus of a remoter age; though it is mentioned by many geographical as well as historical details, in the deColonel Todd, that very few good specimens of the art scription of his sovereign’s wars, of which the bard was an have been executed within the last 700 years. His de- eye-witness, having been his friend, his herald, his ambasscription, however, of the splendid Jain temples at Aj- sador, and finally discharging the melancholy office of acmeer and other parts, some of them erected long prior to cessory to his death, that he might save him from dishothe Christian era, and distinguished alike by chasteness nour.” The Brahminical accounts of the endowments of and beauty of design, and by rich and exquisite finishing, temples, of their dilapidation and repairs, supply historimust convince the most incredulous, that in these remote cal and chronological details; also the legends respecting times the arts had made great progress in Hindustan. places of pilgrimage and religious resort. Much' historiThese structures are not merely monuments of labour, cal information lies hid in the controversial records of the but of taste; they evince the perfection of art; and in Jains; and, says Colonel Todd, “ those different records, symmetry, beauty of proportion, unity of design, and works of mixed historical and geographical character, splendid ornament, they rival the noblest productions of which I know to exist, rasahs or poetical legends of classical Europe. The history of the people who have princes, which are common, local pur anas} religious comraised these structures presents a wide field for antiqua- ments and traditionary couplets, with authorities of less rian research, on which Colonel Todd has entered with dubious character, namely, inscriptions cut on rocks, coins, the brilliant promise of interesting results ; and to his copperplate grants, containing charters of immunities, and learned inquiries and eloquent and poetical descriptions expressing many singular features of civil government, 1 The following is his description of this monument of Hindu art:—“ It stands in a square area of about forty English acres, enclosed by an embattled wall, with octagonal towers at the angles, surmounted by open pavilions, and four very noble gateways of red granite, the principal of which is inlaid with white marble, and has four high marble minarets. The space within is planted with trees, and divided into green alleys, leading to the central building, which is a sort of solid pyramid, surrounded externally with cloisters, galleries, and domes, diminishing gradually in ascending it, till it ends in a square platform of white marble, surrounded bv most elaborate lattice-work of the same material, in the centre of which is a small altar tomb, also of white marble, carved with a delicacy and beauty which do full justice to the material, and to the graceful forms of Arabic characters, which form the chief ornament.” 2 3 4 Heber, vol. ii. p. 65. Annah of Rajast'han, vol. i. chap. xxv. p. 6'70 ; chap. xxx. p. 779Tennant, vol. i. p. 209. a For more full details on this subject, the reader is referred to Mill’s History of British India, vol. ii. p. 85, et se^q.

478

HINDUSTAN. Hindustan, constitute, as I have already observed, no despicable ma- The Punjab, or the tract watered by the Indus, and its Hindustai terials for the historian.” Colonel Todd is of opinion five tributary rivers, was all that was subjected to the rethat the ancient records of the Hindus are more com- gular government of the Mahommedans. The rajpoots of Ajmere defended their rugged mountains and close plete than the early annals of the European states. History. Prior to Alexander’s expedition into India, which took valleys with obstinate valour. The Ghiznian empire was place 327 years before the Christian era, the Greeks ap- in the year 1158 divided into two; the western portion pear to have known little of these eastern countries, ex- being seized on by the family of the Gaurides (so denomicept from the confused accounts of travellers ; and nothing nated from Gaur or Ghir, a province or city lying beyond whatever of the countries beyond the sandy desert of the the Indian Caucasus), whilst the countries on the Indus were Indus, which, with its tributary streams, was the limit of possessed by Chusero or Cusroe, who fixed the seat of his Alexander’s progress eastward. The men of science who empire at Lahore. The Mahommedans now extended accompanied this warlike prince brought to Europe full their conquests eastward; and Mahommed Gori, in 1194, and accurate accounts of the countries which he had con- took the city of Benares, which he abandoned to pillage. quered ; and the spirit of inquiry, now awakened amongst He carried his arms to the south of the river Jumna, and the Greeks, was still further gratified by the ample ac- took the fortress of Gualior; he also reduced the eastern counts of Megasthenes, the ambassador sent to India by frontier of Ajmere. He was succeeded in 1205 by Cuttub, Seleucus, and who resided long at Palibothra, the capital who fixed his capital at Delhi, and founded in Hindustan of the Prasii, near the mouth of the Ganges. The Greek the dynasty of the Patans or the Afghans, who inhabited writers, drawing their information from those sources, the mountainous tract situated between India and Persia. describe the leading features of Indian society and man- The Emperor Altmush succeeded him in 1210, and exners, and with an accuracy which stamps authenticity on tended his conquests over Bengal. In his reign the retheir narratives. It is unnecessary to dwell upon the nowned Ghenghiz Khan subdued the western empire of particulars of Alexander’s expedition, which are fully de- Ghizni; and the Moguls, or the Monguls, his successors, scribed in many other works; and from that until the pe- about the year 1242, made frequent irruptions into the riod of the Mahommedan conquest, when the native re- north-western provinces of Hindustan. The country was cords commence, there is nearly a complete chasm in the in the mean time a scene of intestine commotion, from the annals of Hindustan. The Hindus had either no records, contests of rebellious chiefs aspiring to supreme authority, or these had been destroyed during the intestine commo- and from the irruptions of the predatory hill tribes into the tions which have always prevailed in India. The historical plains below. In 1265, about 100,000 of these plunderers poem, the Mahabarat, is a tissue of extravagant fables. Fe- were put to the sword, and a line of forts constructed along rishta’s history, written early in the seventeenth century, the foot of the hills. In the mean time, the Patan monarchs is supposed to have been collected from Persian authors; of Delhi were prosecuting their conquests eastward, and and the most valuable part of it begins after the com- the Moguls were making incursions into the western promencement of the Mahommedan conquests. It was about vinces ; and a considerable number of them under Ferose the year 1000 that Hindustan, formerly ruled by a pure II. were at length permitted to settle in the country in the Hindu monarchy, fell under the sway of the Mahomme* year 1292. In 1293 this emperor invaded the Deccan, or dan conquerors, who subdued all the provinces west of the the country lying to the south of the Nerbuddah and the Ganges, and formed them into one great empire. On the Cuttack rivers. He was deposed and murdered by Alla, fall of this empire, India became one scene of commotion the governor of Gurrah, who advised the expedition, and and war, and her finest provinces were laid waste. It who extended his conquests in the Deccan. Cafoor, one was then that the Mahratta empire arose, like a meteor in of his generals, penetrated into the Carnatic, or the peninthe political sky, blazing for a while, and soon fading into sula lying to the south of the Kistna river, in 1310. Reobscurity; and by its fall paving the way for the ascen- bellions breaking out in Tellingana, a principality in the dency of the British, whose powerful sway now extends from Deccan, it was again subjugated in 1322 and in 1326, in the Himalaya Mountains to Cape Comorin. We shall which year Alla died, and the Carnatic was ravaged from endeavour to sketch the leading and most eventful scenes sea to sea. Under a succeeding emperor, Mahommed III., of that political drama, which has thus terminated in the the Mahommedans were driven from the Deccan and Bensubjection of all India to one great ruling power. gal, and lost much territory in Gujerat and the Punjab. Conquest The Mahommedan powers having subdued Persia Ferose III., who succeeded, was more intent on domestic by the and the neighbouring countries, made occasional inroads improvement, and in constructing canals, than on foreign Mahom- jnto India; and, about a. d. 1000, Mahmoud entered conquest. He died in 1388, and Mahmoud III. succeedmedans. Hindustan, in which he effected a permanent establish- ed, during whose minority great confusion ensued ; and in ment. This prince was the grandson of Subuctagi, the 1398 the country was invaded by Tamerlane, who advanruler of Ghizni, consisting of the tract which composed ced to Delhi, which submitted without a struggle, and was the kingdom of Bactria after the division of Alexander’s abandoned to the fury of the soldiery, who continued for empire, namely, the countries lying between Parthiaand several days to massacre the defenceless inhabitants. The the Indus, and south of the Oxus. He invaded India military irruption of Tamerlane into Hindustan was more twelve several times, massacring in his intolerant rage for the sake of plunder than of conquest, though it added the Hindus as infidels, and defacing and destroying their to the existing anarchy of the country. In 1413 Mahmoud temples. “ Nothing,” observes Major Rennell, with his died, and with him ended the Patan dynasty, founded by usual force, “ offends our feelings more than the progress Cuttub in 1205. A period of great confusion followed, of destruction, urged on by religious zeal, as it allows men and numerous competitors contended for dominion. This to suppose themselves agents of the divinity, thereby re- state of anarchy, which came to a height under Ibrahim moving those checks which interfere with the perpetration II. in 1516, paved the way for the conquest of Hindustan of ordinary villany, and thus makes conscience a party by Sultan Baber, a descendant of Tamerlane and of Ghenwhere she was meant to be a judge.” The last invasion ghiz Khan, who reigned over a kingdom composed geneof India by Mahmoud was in 1024, and in four years rally of the provinces situated between the Indus and Saafterwards he died. His dominions comprehended the mercand. Being dispossessed of the northern portion of eastern provinces of Persia, nominally all the Indian pro- his dominions by the Usbecks, he invaded India, and in vinces westward of the Ganges, to the peninsula of Gu- 1525 defeated the emperor oi Delhi, and conquered the jerat, and from the Indus to the mountains of Ajmere. north-eastern provinces of India. He was succeeded, after

HINDUSTAN. 479 industan. a reign of five years, by his son Humaioon, who was driven extorted peace from the mighty monarch of the Mogul Hindustan, —from his throne by the rebellion of Sheer Khan, whose empire. successful usurpation was succeeded by such a period of But Aurungzebe had now to contend with another ene- Progress disorder, five sovereigns having appeared on the throne my for the dominion of India. In the south the Mahratta of the in the course of nine years, that Humaioon was recalled power was fast rising into importance. Sevajee, the founder Mahrattas. in 1554, and died the following year, leaving his son, the of this new state, was a military chief, the illegitimate son of leign of celebrated Acbar, only fourteen years of age, the heir to the rana of Odeypoor, the chief of the Rajpoot princes. In tcbar; jjie throne. His was a long and glorious reign of fifty-one his youth he resided at Poonah, on a zemindary estate years, in which the revolted provinces were reduced from obtained by his father. Here he collected around him a Ajmere to Bengal, and consolidated into one empire by numerous banditti, and plundered the country. The numthe unlimited toleration of the Hindus and all others, and ber of his followers gradually increasing, he extended his generally by a just and wise policy. In 1585 and the sub- ravages still farther into the dominions of Bejapore, and sequent years he invaded the Deccan, which, by the dis- acquired an immense booty, which enabled him to increase solution of the Bahmenee empire, was divided among the his force, and openly to resist the troops of Aurungzebe sovereigns of Bejapoor, Ahmednagur, and Golconda, whilst which were sent against him. He expired in his fortress of another army was reducing the country of Cashmere in an Raynee, of an inflammation in the chest, at the age of fiftyopposite direction. At the time of Acbar’s death in 1605, two, on the 5th of April 1682. His whole reign was one conhe had possession of the western part of Berar, Candeish, tinued scene of war and political intrigue, in which he disTellingana, a division of Golconda, and the northern part played the talents of a consummate general and an able and of Ahmednagur, the capital of which was taken in 1601, crafty statesman. “ He met,” saysOrme, “everyemergency after a long and bloody siege, and an unsuccessful attempt of peril, however sudden and extreme, with instant discernto relieve the place by the confederated princes of the ment and unshaken fortitude; the ablest of his officers acDeccan.1 Acbar died in 1605, at which time his empire quiesced in the eminent superiority of his genius, and the was divided into fifteen viceroyalties, called subahs; name- boast of the soldier was to have seen Sevajee charging sword ly, Allahabad, Agra, Oude, Ajmere, Gujerat, Bahar, Bengal, in hand.”2 At his death, his empire, with the exception of Delhi, Cabul, Lahore, Moultan, Malwah, Berar, Candeish, the small territory of Goa on the south, Bombay, Salsette, and Ahmednagur. He was succeeded by his son Selim, and an inconsiderable tract on the north, comprised a tract of under the title of Jehanguire. It was in his reign, in 1615, country about 400 miles in length and 120 in breadth. He that Sir Thomas Roe, the first English ambassador, was was besides in possession at one time, towards the Eastern sent to the Mogul emperor of Hindustan ; and the Portu- Sea, of half the Carnatic. By his own talents he had thus acguese had by this time acquired considerable settlements quired a permanent sovereignty, “ established,” says Orme, in Bengal and Gujerat. Shah Jehan, who disturbed his “ on a communion of manners, customs, observances, lanlather’s reign by constant rebellions, succeeded to the guage, and religion, united in common defence against the throne in 1627, and pursued his conquests in the Deccan tyranny of foreign conquerors, from whom they had recowith renewed vigour, filling the country with plunder and vered the land of their own inheritance.” Sevajee was sucdevastation. It was in this reign, in the year 1633, that the ceeded by his son Sambajee, who was afterwards betrayed first serious quarrel took place between the Portuguese and into the hands of Aurungzebe, and barbarously put to death. the Moguls, when the former were expelled from Hooghly Aurungzebe died in 1707, in the ninetieth, or, according to on the Ganges. In 1658 the country was again distracted some, the ninety-fourth year of his age, at Ahmednagur, in by the civil wars of the emperor and his sons, and of the the Deccan, in the subjugation of which he had been engasons amongst themselves contending for dominion. Shah ged from the year 1678 until his death. He was for the most Jehan died on the 21st of January 1666, after being seven part engaged in the field during the last fifteen years of his years confined in the castle of Agra. The Mogul em- life. Whilst he was absent in the Deccan, the peace of the pire at his death extended from Cabul to the Nerbuddah, empire was disturbed by insurrections of the Rajpoots in westward of this river to the Indus, and eastward it com- Upper India, and of the Jauts, now for the first time known prehended Bengal and Orissa; and to the south the Mo- in any other character than that of banditti.3 Under his guls had reduced a large tract of country bounded by reign the Mogul empire attained to its height. His domiBerar on the east, westward by the hills towards Concan, nions extended from the tenth to the thirty-fifth degree of and by the dominions of Golconda and Bejapore to the latitude, with nearly as many degrees of longitude ; and his south. These convulsions, by which India was at this time annual revenue was equal to thirty-two millions sterling. distracted, ended in the elevation to the throne of the reAfter the death of Aurungzebe, the sovereignty of the internal )fAiming-nowned Aurungzebe, the youngest son of Shah Jehan, empire was disputed by his four sons, Munzum, Azem, disorders, «ebe. whom he had deposed ; he had also murdered or expelled and Kaum Buksh, who severally contended with their elhis three brothers. In 1660, Aurungzebe, who took the title der brother, and Acbar, who thirty years before had been of Allumgere, or Conqueror of the World, was firmly seat- engaged in rebellion, and fled to Persia. Munzum and ed on the throne ; and from that period until the year 1678, Azem met in the field with armies of 300,000 men on each Hindustan enjoyed more profound peace than it had ever side, when the latter was defeated and slain, and Munzum before known. In the mean time Aurungzebe invaded the ascended the throne under the title of Bahader Shah. He Deccan, which during the latter part of his reign was, with reigned five years, and the empire had been so distracted the exception of a few mountainous tracts, subdued by his by civil wars and anarchy, that it required all his exertions victorious arms, and rendered tributary to the ruler of to restore order. He was soon after his accession called Delhi. He was afterwards engaged, in 1678, in quelling into the Deccan by a rebellion of his brother Kaum Buksh, the rebellion of the Patans beyond the Indus, and the Raj- which was quelled by his death. He now turned his arms poot tribes, by whom he was hemmed in amongst the moun- against the Rajpoots and the Sikhs, who for the first time tains, and narrowly escaped. He again invaded the coun- appeared in arms in the province of Lahore. These insurtry in 1681, and took and destroyed Cheitore, the capital, gents he reduced after much trouble and delay; and he and all the objects of Hindu worship found there. The took up his residence at Lahore, where he died in 1712, obstinate resistance of these gallant mountaineers at last after a short illness, having never during his reign visited 1

Itennell, p. lix.

2 Orme’s Historical Fragment of the Mogul Empire, p. 94. * liennell, Memoir of a Map of Hindustan, p. 62.

H INDUSTAN. 480 Hindustan, either Agra, or Delhi his capital. He left four sons, who im- fending city to be pillaged by his soldiers ; and advancing Hindustan mediately commenced a contest for the throne. Azem Oo- to Delhi, was met. by the imperial troops, who were totally shawn, who took possession of the treasures, was killed in a defeated. The views of the conqueror, however, were not battle with his other brothers. Jehan Shah, the youngest, hostile, and two crores of rupees would have purchased his next lost his life in a battle with Jehamder Shah, who was retreat from Hindustan. But this amicable arrangement the eldest, and who successfully disputed the possession of was frustrated by a dispute between Saadut Khan, subahthe throne with the remaining brother. At the end of dar of Oude, and the nizam of the Deccan, for the vanine months, however, he was dethroned by Feroksere, a cant office of Ameer-ul-Omrah. formerly paymaster of the son of Azem Ooshawn, and great grandson of Aurungzebe, forces. Saadut Khan, the disappointed candidate, perwho was elevated to the throne by the influence of two suaded Nadir Shah that the proffered sum was no adequate brothers, Abdoola Khan and Hussun Khan, Seids by birth, ransom for Hindustan; on which Nadir advanced to the or descendants of the prophet, whose talents had raised capital, which opened its gates to receive him; and for them to reputation and power. It was in this reign two days thereafter the Persian troops observed the most that the English East India Company obtained their fa- exact discipline. But in the course of the night a rumour mous firman or grant, by which they were exempted from was spread that Nadir was killed, on which the inhabitants all custom duties on the export and import of their goods. rose against their invaders, and massacred many of them. This was considered as the commercial charter of the Com- Nadir took severe and immediate revenge. He dispersed pany as long as they required protection for their trade. his irritated soldiers throughout every quarter of the city, In 1717 Feroksere was deposed and blinded by the two with orders to spare neither age nor sex ; and in this inSeids, Hussun and Abdoola, to whom he owed his eleva- discriminate slaughter 100,000 persons are said to have tion to the throne. In his place they chose Ruffieh-ul- perished, whilst the city was set on fire in several places. Dowlat, a son of Bahader Shah; and in less than a year The imperial treasure was plundered; plate, jewels, and deposed and put him to death. His brother, who by their specie, were carried off to the incredible amount of thirtymeans was also made king, met with the same treatment; two millions sterling. Rich bankers and others were forced so that in the course of eleven years from the death of by torture to disclose their hidden wealth, and a heavy conAurungzebe, four princes of his line had ascended the tribution of thirty millions was imposed on the city by the throne, whilst six others had met the usual fate of unsuc- relentless conqueror. Nadir Shah departed from Delhi, cessful aspirants to that dignity. Mahommed Shah, the of which he had held possession thirty-seven days, in the grandson of Bahader Shah, was placed on the throne by year 1739; and the nizam still retained possession of the the Seids in 1718, from whose influence he contrived at whole power of the empire, which he sacrificed to his own length to free himself, though not without a rebellion and views in the Deccan, where he established an independent a battle, in which they were both slain. In the mean time kingdom. Nadir Shah died in 1747. In the subsequent conMahommed Shah was deficient in the vigour which his fusion, the eastern provinces of Persia, and those bordering difficult situation required, and the provincial governors at on India, were formed by Abdalli, one of his generals, a distance began to show symptoms of independence. Ni- into an independent state, which comprised the ancient zam-ul-Muluck, the viceroy of the Deccan, was the most empire of Ghizni, and was known under the name of the formidable of those pretenders to sovereignty. He had re- kingdom of the Abdalli. Mahommed Shah died the same duced the provinces of Gujerat and Malwah ; and having year, after a reign of twenty-nine years. Every day had paid a visit to the imperial court, and observed the disso- disclosed the growing weakness of the empire, and strong lute administration of affairs, he quitted the capital in dis- symptoms of its early and entire dissolution. In 173S Decay of Mogust, under pretence of a hunting excursion, for his govern- Bengal became independent under Aliverdy Khan, and it the em ment of the Deccan. He was deprived of the administra- was soon afterwards invaded by a numerous army of Mali- pire ' ’ tion of Gujerat and Malwah, the two provinces which he rattas from Poonah and Berar. About the same time the had acquired. In revenge he encouraged the rulers of Rohillas, a tribe from the mountains which separate India these provinces to resist the imperial authority; whilst at from Persia, erected an independent state on the Ganges, his instigation also the Mahrattas invaded the country, and within eighty miles of Delhi. Mahommed Shah was sucafter a severe struggle succeeded, about the year 1732, in ceeded by his son Ahmed Shah, and in the reign of the latter the Mogul empire was finally dismembered. A small completely reducing this long-disputed territory. Invasion But a more dreadful calamity was now impending over territory around Delhi was all that remained to the house of of Nadir the distracted empire. The sceptre of Persia had been Timur, and it was the scene of devastation, massacres, and Shah. long swayed by a feeble race of monarchs, and the coun- famine. The last imperial army that ever assembled was try became an easy prey to the hardy mountaineers of defeated in 1749 by the Rohillas. The Jauts founded a Afghanistan, who in 1722 laid siege to Ispahan, when the state in the province of Agra ; the nizam and Aliverdy ruled feeble Hussun Shah surrendered the crown to the invader. in Bengal and the Deccan ; Oude and Allahabad were each He had a son Thamas, however, who escaped from the ge- seized by independent chiefs ; Malwah was divided between neral massacre which ensued, and who was joined by many the Poonah Mahrattas and several native princes and zepartisans, amongst others by Nadir, the son of a shepherd mindars. Ajmere reverted to its ancient lords, the Rajpoot of Khorassan, who, with his band of followers, soon distin- princes. The Mahrattas, who now contended for the doguished himself as a brave and active supporter of the minion of India, possessed, in addition to their share of fallen prince. In 1729 he retook Ispahan, and finally, by Malwah, the greatest part of Gujerat, Berar, and Orissa, behis talents, raised himself to the throne of Persia in 1736, sides their ancient domains in the Deccan. “ The whole having put out the eyes of the unfortunate son of the late country of Hindustan proper,” Major Rennell remarks, monarch. Being afterwards engaged in an expedition “ was in commotion from one extreme to another, each against the Afghans, he advanced to the frontier of Hin- party fearing the machinations or attacks of the other; so dustan, but without any ulterior views of hostility, when that all regular government was at an end, and villany was a messenger and his escort, whom he had despatched to practised in every form. Perhaps in the annals of the the emperor at Delhi, were murdered at Jellalabad by the world it has seldom happened that the bonds of governcountry inhabitants ; an outrage which being approved by Mahom- ment were so suddenly dissolved, over a portion of 1 med Shah, Nadir prepared for revenge. He gave up the of- containing at least sixty millions of inhabitants.” 1 Hennell’s Memoir of Hindustan, p. Ixx.

HINDUSTAN. 481 Hindustan. In 1753 the Emperor Ahmed Shah was deposed by Gazi, of the peshwa, the chief of the Mahratta nation, was killed Hindustan, the son of Gazi o’Dien, vizir to Mahommed Shah, who pla- early in the action ; most of the other chiefs were slain, ced on the throne Allumguire II., grandson of Bahader and those of the soldiers who escaped from the slaughter Shah, and invested himself with the office of vizir. His of the field were massacred by the irritated peasantry, in perfidious conduct to the family of the viceroy of the pro- revenge for the depredations of the Mahratta cavalry. And vinces of Moultan and Lahore, under Abdalli, the king of the mighty host engaged in this fatal conflict, only a of the Afghans, involved the emperor in a quarrel with small remnant, with three generals, returned to the Decthat powerful prince, who advanced from Candahar to La- can. This great battle gave an irreparable blow to the hore, and thence to Delhi, the gates of which were open- Mahratta power, which from this time sensibly declined, ed by the feeble emperor, and the defenceless city aban- and the victorious Abdalli sought no other fruit of his doned for weeks to a licentious soldiery. After the retreat victory. He returned to his capital after remaining a few of the Abdallis, the vizir advanced with an army to Delhi, months at Delhi, having recognised the grandson of Allumwhich he entered after a siege of forty-five days. The guire as emperor, under the title of Shah Aulum the Second. A new scene was now about to open in India. I he Euro- Rise of the Mogul emperor was now reduced to the most abject state of dependence, and was at last assassinated by order of peans, who as traders had long maintained establishments European the vizir, who was irritated by his correspondence with the on the coasts, began to assume an entirely diflerent cha- power, Afghan monarch Abdalli Shah, the Rohillas, and the na- racter ; to contend with each other in the field tor domibob of Oude, with whom he himself was at war. His son nion, and to mingle in all the wars and politics of the took the title of Shah Aulum ; he escaped from Delhi when interior. It was necessary, for carrying on the domestic it was besieged by the vizir, and, after a series of misfor- trade of India, and more especially in providing goods for tunes, at last surrendered to the British, who gave him an the supply of Europe, that a body of experienced servants asylum, and a pension for his support; and with him, the should reside on the spot, in order to collect and to purlast of the Mogul sovereigns who enjoyed independent chase commodities for exportation ; an employment which, power, closes for ever the glory of this renowned empire. owing to the poverty and abject state of the natives, and Contest be- In the mean time, amidst anarchy and desolation, the Mah- their peculiar customs, involved duties of the most minute tween the rattas were daily increasing in power; they were engaged and laborious detail. During the decline of the Mogul goMahrattas jn every scene of politics and warfare, from Gujerat to vernment, the tranquillity of India was frequently shaken the contentions of rival chiefs ; and the slight security Ah bans Bengal, and from Lahore to the Carnatic ; they possessed by ° ' extensive sway and vast armies; and their ambition was afforded, even in the best times, to commerce, became in now to reconstruct a new Hindu empire out of the decay- this manner more imperfect. For the reception of the ed fragments of the Mogul power. The rising influence goods which it was necessary to collect and store up, that of the Afghans under the rigorous sway of Abdalli was cargoes might always be in readiness for the Company’s the only obstacle to this patriotic or ambitious scheme ; ships, warehouses were built, which, with the countingand the Mahrattas, in the progress of their conquests north- houses, and other apartments for the agents and business ward, encountered for the first time their great rival for the of the place, constituted the factories of the Company. dominion of India. Ahmed Abdalli, king of the Afghans, These factories contained a valuable store of property, was taken prisoner when very young by Nadir Shah ; he was which, in the disordered state of India, it became necessary first his slave, afterwards his mace-bearer, and at his death, to secure from the rapacity both of governments and of inhaving collected a body of troops and other adventurers, he dividuals. They were therefore strongly built and fortiproceeded to his own country, and proclaimed himself king fied ; their inmates were armed and disciplined; and, for of the Afghans, with the title of Doordowran, or pearl of better security, regular troops were occasionally maintainthe age, which was corrupted into that of Dooranee, and be- ed in those mercantile garrisons. In these defensive arcame the name of one of the Afghan tribes. Ahmed had rangements of the Company we may discern the rudiments extended his dominion over the frontier provinces of Moul- of their future empire. The territorial acquisitions of the European companies tan and Lahore, which, in retiring from India, he had left under the administration of his son. These provinces wrere were, however, still inconsiderable. The English East Infirst invaded by the Sikhs, and afterwards by the Mahratta dia Company had in 1698 been permitted to purchase the generals, who advanced to Lahore and expelled the Ab- zemindaryship of the three towns of Sootanutty, Calcutta, dalli prince, and afterwards extended their conquests to and Govindpore, with their districts, to which was afterthe Indus. Ahmed Shah, roused by the loss of his pro- wards added a district extending ten miles from Calcutta, vinces and the dishonour of his arms, collected his troops, on each side of the river Hooghly, containing thirty-seand encountered the Mahratta army, amounting to 80,000 ven towns. On the Coromandel coast the English posveteran cavalry, which was almost entirely destroyed, and sessed Madras, with a small adjoining territory five miles the general Duttah Sindia slain. The news of this defeat along the shore, also Fort St David, in 11. 40. north latispread alarm amongst the Mahrattas, and roused them to tude, with other places, such as Vizigapatam and Balasore ; the greatest exertions. A vast army, consisting of 14)0,000 and on the west coast their principal settlement was the horse, besides a numerous train of camp followers, com- island of Bombay. Factories were also established at Surat, manded by the most renowned chiefs, took the field, and Tellicherry, and several other places. The business of the being unable to cross the Jumna, still swollen by the rains, Company was managed by the three independent presiproceeded to plunder Delhi, the capital. Ahmed Shah, dencies of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. I he presiwith 150,000 well-disciplined troops, now advanced, and, in dency consisted of a governor and council of nine, twelve, his impatience to meet the enemy, plunged with his whole or any greater number of members, as might seem expearmy into the foaming waves of the Jumna, which he cross- dient, in a majority of whom all power was vested. The ed in safety. The Mahrattas, struck by this daring exploit, members of the council were not excluded from other retired to the plain of Paniput, and the armies continued more lucrative offices, which were, in general, shared in sight of each other from the 26th October to the 27th amongst them. These offices were chiefly in the gift of the January 1761, during which interval several bloody skir- president, and, by means of his influence, the council were, Rattle of wishes took place. On this latter day was fought the in a great degree, placed under his control. The gover1’aniput. battle of Paniput, one of the most decisive and sanguinary nor and council exercised the most ample powers over recorded in history. The Mahrattas were overthrown with the servants of the Company ; and with regard to all others, a dreadful carnage. The general, Bhaow, the nephew they could seize and imprison them, and afterwards send 3p VOL. XI.

482 HINDUSTAN. Hindustan. them to England. The powers of martial law were be- his uncle, and was immediately put in irons, and Chunda Hindustan. stowed on them at an early period, for maintaining the Saheb, who followed with his troops to Pondicherry, discipline of the troops under their orders ; and, in 1661, But the enterprising Dupleix made new exertions, and a charter of Charles II. gave them the power of adminis- having again taken the field, he attacked the camp of Natering civil and criminal justice according to the laws of zir Jung, his former ally, who in the confusion was shot through the heart. Mirzapha Jung being now freed from England. Pondicherry, with a small appendage of territory, was imprisonment, assumed the authority of subahdar. He the principal seat of the French power on the continent was afterwards shot dead with an arrow in an action with of India. It had under its authority three factories, one the rebellious Patan chiefs, and, by the influence of M. at Mahe, on the Malabar coast, not far south from Telli- Bussy, who commanded the French troops, Salabut Jung, cherry; one at Karical, on the Coromandel coast; and the eldest surviving son of Nizam-ul-Mulk, was raised to one at Chandernagore, on the river Hooghly, in Bengal. the government. After some unsuccessful operations, The form of government was the same in the French as the English, with their allies, were compelled to take shelin the English settlements. ter under the walls of Trichinopoly, which was now beIn 1744 France and England, from being auxiliaries, be- sieged, though with little effect, by the enemy. came principals in the war which was then raging in EuIn this indecisive state of affairs at Trichinopoly, it was rope, and the flame soon communicated to their distant suggested by Captain Clive, who had already distinguishcolonies. In India the two rival powers were quickly in- ed himself by desperate bravery and great military skill, volved in hostilities, which, however, were followed by no that it would be advantageous to carry the war into the important result; and the English settlement of Madras, enemy's country; and being intrusted with the execuwhich had been taken by the French king, was restored at tion of his own bold designs, he began an attack on Arcot, the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. It was soon after this that the the capital of Chunda Saheb. He had under him 210 French and English, in supporting the contending claims Europeans and 500 Sepoys ; and so secret and sudden of the native princes, again came into collision. At the were his motions, that he was master of the enemy’s carespective settlements of the two Companies, the number pital ere they were apprised of his march. Here he was of troops assembled during the previous war was greater soon invested, in the fort which defends the town, by a than was necessary for defence, and the servants of the numerous army, and several practicable breaches being Companies, with such means at their disposal, now began made, an assault took place, which was repulsed with loss ; to meditate schemes of conquest. The intricacies of the assailants were finally compelled to raise the siege, Indian politics, and the family connexions of the different and being pursued by Clive, were attacked and totally declaimants who contended for power and dominion, need feated on the plain of Arani, on the 3d of December 1751. not be described in detail, as it would neither be instruc- The forts of Tinnery, Conjeveram, and Arani, immediatetive nor acceptable to the general reader. A brief sketch ly surrendered to Clive, who returned in triumph to Fort is all that will be necessary to explain the nature of those St David. He was soon recalled by the operations of transactions which so deeply affected the future condi- the enemy, who were encouraged by his absence again to tion of India, and the relations of the parties engaged in take the field. With a very inferior force he adventured them. on a battle, and by the well-concerted manoeuvre of sendWhen Nizam-ul-Mulk was appointed ruler of the Dec- ing round a detachment to fall upon the rear of the enecan, with the title of subahdar, by the Emperor Aurungzebe, my, whilst the English charged with the bayonet in front, a chief named Sadatullah was nabob of the Carnatic. At he obtained a decisive victory, and the hostile army was his death, his son Boost Ali succeeded him as nabob, saved from total ruin only by the darkness of the night. which proved displeasing to the nizam, who claimed the On his return to Fort St David, Clive was superseded right, as delegate of the emperor, to appoint the viceroy in his command by Major Laurence, who detached him of the Carnatic. He accordingly chose, first his general with 400 Europeans, a few Mahratta soldiers, and a body Cojah Abdoolla, and afterwards Anwar ad Dien Khan, of Sepoys, to cut off the enemy’s retreat to Pondicherry, known to the English as Anoverdy Khan, to be governor in which he was, as usual, completely successful, having of the Carnatic in 1745. It was between these two fami- made the French commander M. d’Auteuil prisoner, with lies that the contest now began for the government of the all his troops. The enemy were now greatly distressed Carnatic ; Chunda Saheb, a distant relative of the family for want of provisions ; and Chunda Saheb, deserted by his of Sadatullah, being supported by the French under their troops, surrendered to the king of Tanjore, an ally of the aspiring and ambitious governor Dupleix. The death of English, by whom he was beheaded, in order to prevent Nizam-ul-Mulk, in 1748, at the extreme age of 104, occa- all disputes with the Mysorean and Mahratta chiefs about sioned another dispute in the succession to the govern- the custody of his person. After the flight of Chunda ment of the Deccan, between Nazir Jung, his son, who Saheb, his army was attacked and routed by Major Lauwas supported by the English, and Mirzapha Jung, his rence ; and the island of Syringham, where his troops grandson by a daughter, who was aided by Chunda Saheb were encamped, was taken, with about 1000 French soland the French. The latter in 1749, with 40,000 native diers, under the command of Mr Law, the son of LawT troops, 400 French, 100 Caffres, and 1800 Sepoys, ad- the author of the Mississippi scheme. Notwithstanding vanced against Anwar ad Dien. His camp was gallant- these disadvantages, Dupleix was not discouraged. The ly stormed by the French troops, he himself was slain, at English resolved to commence the siege of Gingee, which the age of 107, his eldest son was taken prisoner, and his was garrisoned by the French. In this operation they second son, Mahommed Ali, with the wreck of his army, failed. But the French were afterwards defeated in an escaped to Trichinopoly. Nazir Jung, hearing that the action near Bahoor, two miles from Fort St David ; and nabob of the Carnatic was defeated, collected an army, the two forts of Coveling and Chingleput were reduced and summoned Mahommed Ali from Trichinopoly to his aid. by Captain Clive. He also requested assistance from the English, who sent Early in January 1753 the two armies again took the Major Laurence from Fort St David with 600 Europeans field. The French force consisted of 500 European into join his army. When the armies approached each fantry, sixty horse, 2000 Sepoys, and 4000 Mahrattas, comother, D Auteuil the French commander, being deserted manded by Morari Row. The English had 700 European by some of his officers, suddenly retreated to Pondicherry, infantry, 2000 Sepoys, and 1500 horse belonging to the leaving to their fate Mirzapha Jung, who surrendered to nabob. I he two armies, avoiding a general action, watch-

HINDUSTAN. 483 Hindustan, ed each other’s movements, when General Laurence was proceeded to follow their example, by reducing to obe-Hindustan. apprised that Captain Dalton, the commandant of Trichi- dience and plundering the petty chiefs of the country. W-v-w nopoly, had only provisions to serve him three weeks. He Whilst the two contending armies were maintaining this immediately marched with all his forces to his relief, and predatory warfare, the active and enterprising Bussy was being followed by the French, this place became the ob- in another quarter securing the ascendency of the P’rench ; ject of an active contest, from May 1753 till October and, whether in the cabinet or in the field, he still signa1754. We have already stated that the two main points lized his talents as a warrior and a statesman. Salabut of dispute between the French and English were, first, Jung, influenced by his courtiers, had induced the French the succession to the government of the Deccan ; and, troops to quit his territories, which order Bussy speedisecondly, to that of the Carnatic ; the English, in the first ly obeyed, and commenced his march. Finding that of the disputes, supporting the claims of Nazir Jung, the he was betrayed, and his progress intercepted by hostile son of Nizam-ul-Mulk, against Mirzapha Jung, the grand- chiefs, he skilfully selected a strong position, which he son of the nizam, who was supported by the French, defended till succours arrived from Pondicherry; when After the death of Nazir Jung, who was killed in the at- the fickle prince again solicited his alliance, and he was tack of the French upon his camp, Mirzapha Jung sue- restored to still higher influence than before. Salabut ceeded to the subahdarship of the Deccan. He was killed Jung, when he had resolved to dismiss the French troops, in battle, as already related, by an arrow, when, through had applied to the presidency of Madras for a force to supthe influence of the French commander, M. Bussy, Sala- ply their place; and this opportunity of extending their but Jung, the eldest surviving son of Nizam-ul-Mulk, was influence w-ould have been eagerly embraced by the Engraised to the vacant throne. But on the death of Nazir lish, but their power was now threatened in another quarJung, his eldest son Ghazee ad Dien solicited and re- ter, by new and unexpected dangers. Bengal now became ceived from the Mogul the appointment of subahdar of the great scene of Indian warfare, in which were concenthe Deccan ; and he appeared at Aurungabad in October trated all the resources of the English, from every part of 1752, to support his title, at the head of 150,000 troops, their territories. This extensive province, with Orissa and Ihe Mahrattas at the same time supported him, and en- the province of Allahabad and Berar, was governed, totered the province of Golconda with 100,000 horse. The wards the latter end of Aurungzebe’s reign, by his grandFrench general Bussy and Salabut Jung now took the son Azeem Ooshaun, second son of Shah Aulum, who field to meet these armies, with very unequal numbers, succeeded to the throne. Jaffier Khan was appointed his when Ghazee ad Dien Khan suddenly died. The Mali- deputy; and, as frequently happened during the decline of ratta generals continued the war, but in every encounter the Mogul empire, from a deputy he became an indepenthey were repulsed with such fearful loss by the French, dent sovereign. Sujah Khan, who was married to the that they agreed to conclude a peace on the cession of daughter of Jaffier Khan, was appointed his deputy in the certain frontier districts, to which Salabat Jung willing- government of Orissa. In this elevated station, a distant ly agreed. relative, Mirza Mahommed, who had once been in the serin the other point in dispute, namely, the government vice of Azeem Shah, the second son of Aurungzebe, and of the Carnatic, the English espoused the cause of Mahom- had since fallen into poverty, resorted to his court for emmed Ali, the second son of Anwar ad Dien, who was ap- ployment, and he was kindly received. He was followed pointed nabob by Nizam-ul-Mulk ; and the French sup- by his two sons Hadgee Ahmed and Mirza Mahommed Ali, poi ted Chunda Saheb, the heir of the first deputy Sada- who both obtained employment; and, by their respective tullah, appointed also by Nizam-ul-Mulk. On his death talents for business and war, they soon acquired favour and they claimed the right of appointment for Salabut Jung, influence in the court of Sujah Khan. Jaffier Khan died the subahdar, and who, owing his throne to their powerful in 1725, and wras succeeded by Sujah Khan, who supsupport, had become a passive tool in their hands. From planted Sereffraz Khan, the destined heir. In 1739 he addhim M. Bussy had obtained the cession of the four im- ed to his dominions the province of Bahar, and intrusted portant provinces of Mustaphanagar, Ellore, Rajamundry, its administration to Mirza Mahommed Ali, under the title and Chicacole, called the Northern Circars. It was in of Aliverdy Khan. In 1739 Sujah Khan died, and was these circumstances that a suspension of arms was agreed succeeded by his son Sereffraz Khan, who hated Aliverdy upon in October 1754; and on the 26th of December fol- Khan and his brother, and took no pains to conceal it. lowing a provisional treaty was signed at Pondicherry, by Aliverdy in the mean time obtaining from the imperial w hich both parties agreed to abstain from interfering in court his nomination to the government of Bengal, collectthe internal affairs of the country, and to establish their ed his troops, and having defeated SerefFraz in a battle in territorial acquisitions on a principle of equality. These which he was slain, he reduced the country to subjection, terms were entirely in favour of the English, as they left and governed it with a regard to justice and humanity very Mahommed Ali nabob of the Carnatic, and obliged the unusual in the East. Flis reign was, however, one conFrench also to the cession of the four Circars which they had tinued scene of commotion, from the irruptions of the Mahobtained from Salabut Jung. But this treaty was in truth rattas, who, though they werer often vigorously repelled a. dead letter ; and the moment it was concluded the Eng- by Aliverdy and his troops, alw ays returned with new vilish, in virtue of their alliance with the nabob, proceeded gour to the invasion of the country. Aliverdy died on the to reduce to obedience, and to collect the revenues of the 9th of April 1756, at the age of eighty, and was succeeded districts of Madura and Tinnevelly. Here, however, they by his nephew Suraja Dowla, who had all the vices of a reencountered the Colleries, a fierce tribe inhabiting the gularly educated prince. His first act was to plunder the hilly districts, who obstinately contested every inch of sister of Aliverdy Khan, who was reputed to possess great ground ; so that they got abundance of hard blows, and wealth ; he gave orders to seize the treasurers of her farnilittle money, scarcely enough indeed to pay the expense of ly, one of whom, however, contrived to escape, and found this plundering adventure. The English, when they made an asylum in Calcutta. Incensed by the protection given their first conquests in India, naving conceived vast ideas to this fugitive, and jealous besides of the designs and of its wealth, set no bounds to their rapacity; they were growing power of the Europeans, he took the field on the eager to revel in the spoil of the country, and it was only 30th of May 1756, with an army of 40,000 foot, 30,000 stubborn facts and repeated disappointments that at last horse, and 400 elephants. The factory at Cossimbazar was dispelled their dreams of avarice. The French, after re- seized, and its chief, Mr Watts, and his surgeon, who acmonstrating in vain against this conduct of the English, companied him, were retained prisoners. Calcutta was in-

HINDUSTAN. Hindustan, vested on the 18th of June. It was feebly defended, and with the English, by which he agreed to restore to the Hindustan. v —/ at last a retreat was resolved upon, which was executed so Company their factories, and all their former privileges; to precipitately that numbers were left behind in the loit make compensation for the losses they had suffered, and to by the ships and boats. In this trying situation Mr Hol- permit them to fortify Calcutta. The danger which now well was chosen commander, who, seeing no chance of a threatened the Company being averted, the active mind of successful defence, proposed a capitulation in a letter which Clive was directed to other objects; and as war was now he threw over the ramparts. In the mean time the troops declared between France and England, he resolved, in rehaving gained access to the liquor, were so intoxicated as turn for the neutrality observed by the French when the to be Incapable of defence, and the enemy entered the fort English were involved in hostilities with the nabob, to atwithout resistance. The subahdar appears on this occasion tack their settlement at Chandernagur. This scheme was not to have intended any inhumanity to the garrison; and opposed by the nabob, and was disapproved by the counwhen Mr Holwell was brought into his presence with his cil and Admiral Watson. Reinforcements, however, arhands tied, he ordered them to be loosed, and pledged his riving, the attack was resolved on, and the English force honour as a soldier to him and his companions that not a advanced. The French defended themselves with gallanhair of their heads should be touched. But, notwithstand- try ; and the nabob, alarmed, began to put his army in moing these assurances, the tragical scene which ensued has tion. But the fort was in the mean time reduced by the no parallel in the annals of human misery. When night irresistible fire of the ships. The nabob viewed these proapproached, it became necessary to secure the prisoners in ceedings with secret alarm and resentment, and refused to some place of confinement; and for this purpose the com- give up the other French factories and subjects in his domon prison of the garrison was chosen, which was about minions. He even afforded protection to the fugitives from eighteen feet square, with only two small windows barred Chandernagur, and evinced his decided hostility to the with iron. Into this small apartment the garrison, 146 in English, until he received intelligence of the progress of the number, were compelled to enter, by threats of being in- Afghans in the north, when he became extremely desirstantly cut down if they resisted. Their sufferings from ous of peace. But the English were now dazzled with want of air were dreadful, and bribes were offered to the other schemes, and Clive strongly insisted on the rooted guard to obtain a room for them in which they could disaffection of the nabob to the English, and on the necesbreathe. But none dared to awake the sleeping tyrant sity of dethroning him, and of elevating Meer Jaffier, who whose prisoners they were ; and, after a night of inexpres- had married the sister of Aliverdy Khan, to the throne in sible horror, only twenty-three out of 146 were found his stead. It is unnecessary to dwell particularly on the alive in the morning. The presidency of Madras being dark intrigues by which this scheme was carried into efapprized of these disasters, determined on sending Colonel fect. It was concerted that, for the destruction of Suraja Clive, who had now returned to India, to Bengal, with as Dowla, the English should take the field; and that Meer large a force as could be collected ; and an armament Jaffier, who still had a considerable force under his comaccordingly sailed from the roads of Madras on the 16th mand, should join them at Cutwa. The English, having arof October, consisting of five king’s ships under Admiral rived at Cutwa, found not their expected ally Meer Jaffier; Watson, besides transports having on board 900 European only an intimation from him that he could not join them betroops and 1500 Sepoys. Having arrived in the Ganges on fore the day of battle, but that during the action he would the 20th of December 1756, they found the fugitives at desert the nabob and join his enemies. This intelligence Fulta, a town at some distance from Calcutta, down the damped the ardour of the English, and it was deemed hariver. The first operation was against a fort; and Clive, zardous to advance further, and to risk a battle, when, “ if lying in ambush to intercept the garrison, was himself sur- defeat ensued, no one would return to tell it.” But cauprised by the troops of Suraja Dowla, and, after a conflict tion at length gave way to bolder counsels ; the army long doubtful, extricated himself from the dangers that sur- crossed the river a little past midnight, at Plassy. Here rounded him, by that admirable presence of mind which also was intrenched the army of the subahdar, consisting never deserted him in the hour of danger. On the 2d of of 50,000 foot, 18,000 horse, and fifty pieces of cannon. January 1757, the armament arrived at Calcutta, which The English force consisted of about 1000 Europeans and surrendered after a cannonade of two hours. Almost the 2100 Sepoys. During the battle, which took place on the whole property of the Company was recovered, having 23d of June 1757, Meer Jaffier was observed moving been preserved for the subahdar ; but the houses of indi- off with his troops. Clive, new assured of his intentions, viduals were all plundered. On the 10th of January, the ordered an attack; the subahdar’s army was dispersed, and city of Hooghly, about twenty-three miles higher up the he himself fled from the field wuth only 2000 attendants. river, was attacked, and a breach being made, and an as- Arriving at his palace, he found no friend on whom he sault begun, the garrison sought safety in flight. In the could rely ; and disguising himself as a fakir, he escaped, mean time, intelligence was received from Europe of the with a favourite concubine and a single eunuch, intending commencement of hostilities between France and Eng- to make his way to the French. But he was discovered land, which placed in a very critical situation the Com- at Raje Muhl, dragged back to Moorshedabad, and placed pany’s settlements in Bengal. The English were already under the custody of Meer Jaffier’s son, who gave orders engaged in a war with a powerful prince, who had a formid- for his assassination. On the 25th of June, Clive arrived able army in the field; and a coalition with the French, with his victorious army at Moorshedabad. Meer Jaffier who could muster 300 European troops, with a train of ar- took possession of the capital, and on the 29th was intillery, would have overwhelmed their infant power. Hap- stalled into his high office, in the presence of the rajahs pily for them, the French were desirous of a neutrality, and and grandees of the court. Enormous sums were exacted refused the alliance of Suraja Dowla, who advanced wfith from Meer Jaffier as the price of his elevation ; for the his whole army and surrounded Calcutta. The perils which Company 10,000,000 rupees, as a compensation for losses ; now environed the English roused the daring spirit of Clive, 5,000,000 rupees to the English inhabitants, 2,000,000 to and he resolved to surprise the enemy’s camp before day- the Indians, and 700,000 to the Armenians; for the squalight. But this bold enterprise failed in the execution ; dron 2,500,000; an equal sum for the army ; and for the the troops suffered severely, and a thick mist augmented members of the council, which they actually received, the causes of confusion ; still the boldness of the design pro- namely, for Mr Drake the governor, and Colonel Clive, duced the desired effect, by alarming the subahdar, and in- 280,000 rupees each; and Mr Becker, Mr Watts, and clining him to peace. He accordingly concluded a treaty Major Kilpatrick, 240,000 each; the whole amounting to 484

HINDUSTAN. 485 Hindustan. L.2,697,750. The English, deluded by their avarice, still and after an hour’s fighting the French bore away, and Hindustan, cherished their extravagant ideas of Indian wealth ; nor were soon beyond the reach of shot. Lally, to relieve his ^ would they listen to the ungrateful truth. But it was now pecuniary wants, which were only augmented by the unsucfound that there were no funds in the Indian treasury to cessful siege of Tanjore, now prepared for an expedition satisfy their inordinate demands. They were in the end against Arcot. This place capitulated on the 4th of Ocobliged to be contented with one half the stipulated sum, tober, and the French force proceeded forthwith to Chinglewhich, after many difficulties, was paid in specie and in put, about forty-five miles south-west of Madras. But jewels, with the exception of 584,905 rupees. the English, aware of its importance, reinforced the garThe Company’s servants, whilst their force was so actively rison, and Lally did not attempt its reduction. His situengaged in Bengal, were anxious to remain quiet in the Car- ation was beset with difficulties, from the total want of natic. In endeavouring to collect the land-rents of the na- money and all necessary supplies ; and in order to rebob Mahommed Ali, they, however, undertook the reduc- trieve his affairs, he resolved on the bold enterprise of tion ol Madura and Tinnevelly ; but with no great success, laying siege to Madras. His force consisted of 2700 EuCaptain Calliaud being repulsed in an assault on the fort ropean troops, and 4000 Indians. In this attempt he sigof Dindigul, and another division of the English force at nally failed, with great loss, after continuing the siege from Nelore. The French now resolved to take advantage of the the 16th of December till the middle of February 1759 ; division of the enemy’s force, and to strike a decisive and this disaster greatly contributed to depress his spirits, blow ; and having collected every soldier that could be and to abate his vain confidence in his own schemes. The spared from garrison duty, they suddenly with their whole French army retreated in the direction of Conjeveram, force invested the fortress of Trichinopoly. On the 14th of whither they were followed by the English. Here the two May 1757, Captain Calliaud being apprized of their design armies manoeuvred for some time in sight of each other, whilst he was besieging Madura, instantly began his march when the English marched upon Wandewash, and afterfor the relief of this important place. It was surrounded wards on Conjeveram, which they took by assault. On by an army five times as numerous as his own force, and the 28th of May 1759 both armies went into cantonments. every avenue to it was strongly guarded. But the EngIn the end of September the campaign was resumed lish commander, well acquainted with the localities, took with spirit by the English, who laid siege to Wandewash, his route through a large plain consisting of rice fields co- but were repulsed in all their attempts to carry it by storm. vered with water, which was deemed impassable by the But it was attacked and taken on the 29th of October, French, and therefore left unguarded ; and thus he enter- as was also Caranjoly on the 10th of December. Bussy had ed the fort. The French general, disconcerted by this suc- been recalled from the Carnatic, where he had exerted cessful stroke, drew off his forces and returned to Pondi- himself so advantageously for the French cause, and he cherry. Having thus secured Trichinopoly, Colonel Cal- joined the army the day after the repulse of the English. liaud resumed the siege of Madura, and being repulsed, Lally had resolved to divide his force ; with one part to with heavy loss, in an attempt to storm, he turned the siege collect the rents of the southern, with the other to prointo a blockade. He was at last received into the town on tect what belonged to the French in the northern dispayment of 170,000 rupees. In the mean time Bussy was tricts. He contrived by skilful manoeuvring to amuse the eminently successful in all his operations within the Cir- English, and in the mean time he surprised and took Concars ; he reduced the fortress of Vizigapatam held by the jeveram, and thence proceeded to the attack of WandeEnglish ; and, after some uncertainty in the unstable coun- wash. The English army under Colonel Coote now apcils of Salabut Jung, he finally established an entire as- proached, consisting of 1900 Europeans, 2100 Sepoys, 1250 black horse, and twenty-six field-pieces; and the French cendency over that prince and throughout the Deccan. On the commencement of the war between France and general determined to try the issue of a general battle. England in 1756, the French ministry resolved to send a The French, including 300 marines and sailors, consistformidable armament to India; and the Count de Lally, ed of 2250 Europeans, and 1500 Sepoys. The battle an Irishman, who had left his country with James II., and commenced on the 22d of January 1760, at eleven o’clock, who had distinguished himself in the battle of Fontenoy, and terminated in the total defeat of the French, who lost was appointed commander-in-chief of all the French forces nearly all their cannon. Lally retreated to Chittapet, about in India. Count Lally, with his armament, arrived on the twenty-eight miles from the field of battle, and afterwards coast of Coromandel on the 25th of April 1757. The Eng- to Gingee and Valdore. The victorious general resolved lish Admiral Pococke had been previously joined by a squa- on the reduction of Arcot, and having previously taken dron of five ships of war, and an engagement took place Chittapet, he arrived before that fortress upon the 1st of between the two fleets, which terminated to the advantage February, and upon the 9th the garrison capitulated. The of the English. Another action took place after the ships affairs of the French now rapidly declined. The English were refitted, with the same result. But neither was de- had acquired a decided superiority in the field, and forcisive ; and, notwithstanding these successes at sea, the tress after fortress fell into their hands; Tinery on the 1st French had a preponderating force on shore, which con- of February, Devicottah about the same time, and Trincosisted of 2500 Europeans, and the same number of Sepoys. malee on the 29th. To complete this train of misfortunes, With this force they commenced, on the 17th of May 1758, Admiral Cornish arrived at Madras with six men of war ; the siege of Fort St David. The place capitulated on the and there being no longer a hostile fleet in the Indian Seas, 1st of June, and its fortifications were razed. Devicottah he readily agreed to co-operate with the land forces. The surrendered on the 7th of June, and the English now ful- consequence was, the reduction of Carical on the 5th of ly expected that Lally would next lay siege to Madras. April, of Valdore on the 15th, of Chittambaram on the But the want of money embarrassed all his operations ; and 20th, and about the same time of Cuddalore; and on the in order to relieve his necessities, he undertook the siege 1st of May the whole French force was shut up in Pondiof Tanjore. A breach was effected, and preparations made cherry, which was their last remaining hope in India, whilst for an assault, when the arrival of the English fleet, after the English forces encamped within four miles of the another engagement with the French before Carical, town. It was in the beginning of September that the Engwhence the besieging army derived all its supplies, deter- lish laid formal siege to this place. The batteries were mined Lally to raise the siege ; and, after a disastrous opened about the beginning of December, and it capitulatretreat, his shattered force arrived on the 28th at Carical. ed on the 15th of January 1765 ; and thus terminated for The hostile fleets again encountered on the 2d of August, ever the power of France in this quarter of the world.

HINDUSTAN. Whilst the English were thus establishing their ascen- them being dismissed by the directors at home for insub-Hindustan,] dency in the south of India, and also in Bengal, Meer Jaf- ordination to their authority, this faction became the ma^kvation ger) new nabob, was wholly unable to answer the ex- jority; and the most violent amongst them, Mr Ellis, was Disputes orbitant CossinTto demands of the Company’s servants, who, still de- sent to superintend the factory at Patna, the residence of ossmi* the throne, luded with the idea of eastern riches, refused to abate one the nabob, where his whole conduct was one continued iniota of their demands. His situation thus became extreme- suit and defiance of his authority. He made no scruple of ly difficult. His treasury was exhausted, his people impo- seizing and punishing the officers of the nabob, who acted verished, he had no funds for the expenses of government, under his express sanction ; sometimes throwing them into and still less for the demands of his rapacious allies. He prison, or sending them in chains to Calcutta, to be there was compelled to extort money from his ruined subjects by punished at the discretion of the council. To these were cruelty and terror. He himself, and his son Meeraus, soon added other and more extensive injuries; and at length fell into universal odium and contempt, from their merci- the usurpations and tyranny of the English were carried to less exactions, and the weakness, negligence, and disorder such a height, that the authority of the government either of their administration. The troops mutinied for want of became a mere name, or an instrument of violence and expay, the rajahs and nobles were discontented, and rebel- tortion in the hands of the Company’s servants. The causes lions multiplied throughout his dominions. The nabobs of these disorders, which led to a new and important revoof Oude and Allahabad entered into a dangerous confede- lution in the political condition oflndia, we shall now briefly racy with the eldest son of the Emperor Aulumgeer II. for explain. supporting his claim to the imperial throne, and to the subIn India the transit of goods from one place to another Cause of ordinate provinces of the Mogul empire ; and their com- was, under the native governments, subjected to a tax ; these disbined forces advanced to the invasion of Bengal. But Eu- and upon all the roads and navigable rivers toll-houses Putes’ aijl| ropean troops, though few in number, and European coun- were erected, where this tax was paid. These toll-houses op^gSS10!1 sels, proved an overmatch for the ill-organized masses of were multiplied, to the great inconvenience and oppression country, Indian cavalry ; they were accordingly defeated in every of the internal trade; and as the duties varied in different encounter, and Meer Jaffier secured in the undisputed pos- places, there was here a wide field for abuse, and the session of the throne. Lord Clive, who bore so conspi- traders were frequently oppressed by the arbitrary extorcuous a part in these transactions, resigned the government tions of the collectors. The East India Company had, in February 1760 ; and by his influence Mr Vansittart was at an early period, procured a firman, which exempted raised to be president or governor of the council, consist- from all internal duties, both the goods which they iming of from nine to twelve persons, by a majority of whom ported from Europe, as they passed into the interior, and the affairs of the Company were now administered. The those which they purchased in the interior in their passage English, by their prompt and decisive measures, had de- to the sea. They were, in fact, protected by a certificate fended the nabob against foreign aggression ; and he had signed by the president or chiefs of the factories, called a now to defend himself against their own domestic treason, dustuck, and shown at the toll-houses or chokeys through which proved to be the more serious danger. In raising which they passed. The servants frequently endeavourhim to the sovereignty they were actuated by purely in- ed to abuse the Company’s privilege, by claiming an imterested views ; and being disappointed, they entered into munity from taxation for all their own goods, which they schemes for dethroning him, and for again selling the had neither imported nor were to export, but which, for throne to the highest bidder. Meer Cossim, married to the internal supply of the country, they were transporthis daughter, was the person now pitched upon to supply ing from one place to another. The subahdars of Bengal, his place. The conditions were, that he should assign to whilst they retained their power, restrained the Comthe Company the revenues of the three districts of Burd- pany’s privilege within its appointed limits, and steadily wan, Midnapore, and Chittagong; that he should pay the refused to exempt the trade of its servants from duties to balance due by Jaffier ; and besides, make a present of five which all others were subject. But when, by the elevalacs of rupees for the war in the Carnatic. Mr Vansittart tion of Meer Jaffier to the throne, the English acquired now proceeded, with a body of troops under Colonel Cal- the undisputed ascendency, they broke through all the liaud, to persuade, or rather to compel, the nabob to abdi- equitable restraints imposed upon them ; in every district, cate the sovereignty. At day-break his palace was sur- in every market and village, they dealt in rice, the common rounded with troops, and a letter was sent to him explain- food of the people, paddy, betel-nut, oil, fish, straw, baming the views of the English, which filled him with rage. boos, &c. and, without scruple, used the Company’s passHe treated writh disdain the assurances of safety for his port to screen these articles from internal duties ; and so person, and that a reform in his government under his son- dreaded was the English name, that the toll-house keepers in-law as his deputy was all that was proposed ; and he no longer exacted the public dues on the transit of their finally preferred, rather than sway a barren sceptre, to re- goods through the country. In some cases where the detire to Calcutta under the protection of the English. Against mand was made and the goods stopped, the toll-keeper was the deposition of Meer Jaffier several members of the coun- arrested by a party of Sepoys, and carried prisoner to the cil protested, and this spirit of opposition for a considerable nearest factories; and he was frequently exposed to even time distracted the English councils. The party who had greater severities, being tied up and lashed. The confuelevated Meer Cossim highly commended his whole admi- sion into which the country was thrown by the injustice, the nistration, which their opponents were equally solicitous to violence, and the cruelty, of those rapacious intruders, can criticise and to condemn. Meer Cossim was a person of scarcely be imagined. The native merchant, still burdenquite a different stamp from his weak and indolent prede- ed with the heavy duties, which were rigorously levied on cessor. By the assistance of his new allies he cleared his him, was undersold in every market; and the Company’s dominions of all invaders, and strengthened his frontiers; servants in a short time engrossed the whole commerce of he reduced the rajahs or independent Indian chiefs, who the country. The unhappy natives were subjected to vahad rebelled against Jaffier, obliging them to pay the usual rious other oppressions. It was a common practice of the tribute, by which means he repaired his finances; he intro- Company’s servants to defraud them both in purchase and duced order and economy into his whole administration, and in sale; to force goods from them at a lower, and to compel by regular pay secured the discipline and fidelity of his troops. them to buy their own at a higher rate than the market But his conduct was viewed in a sinister light by the mem- price. Nor did the ordinary tribunals afford any protection bers of the council who opposed his elevation; and four of against their injustice; a band of foreign adventurers, to call

486 Hindustan.

HINDUSTAN. 487 Hindustan, them by no harsher name, had usurped the sovereign power, plies were wanting both for the war and for the in-Hindustan. which they rendered wholly subservient to their own vestment, the Company’s ships frequently returning, in v > y schemes1 of enriching themselves at the expense of the consequence, half loaded to Europe. Meer Cossim, on country. his side, saw plainly that matters were fast approaching fust conMeer Cossim, the ruler who had been set up by the to the extremity of war, and he made preparations for the iuct of Company, was extremely displeased with the conduct of contest. He transferred his capital from Moorshedabad, as ileer Cos their servants, and he represented in the strongest terms being too near Calcutta, and under the inspection of the to the president and council the enormities to which the English, to Mongheer, a place 200 miles farther up the private trade had given rise. But the majority of the Ganges, which he fortified in the best and most expedicouncil vveie too deeply interested in these enormities to tious manner. He introduced European discipline among be moved by this just appeal of the sovereign in behalf of the troops, and he recruited his ranks with all the Armehis oppressed people. They all participated more or less in nian, Persian, Tartar, and other soldiers of fortune whom the profits of the private trade, and they had no disposi- he could collect, and especially with such wandering Eution to part with or to restrict this lucrative abuse. They ropeans or Sepoys as had borne arms in the English sereven refused to pay nine per cent, of transit duties upon vice. He substituted European muskets for matchlocks, their goods, though this rate was far inferior to that paid and formed a train of artillery. by the native traders; and all that they would agree to Hostilities commenced sooner than was expected, with Hostilities was, out of their own liberality and free choice to pay a the surprise and capture of Patna by Mr Ellis; a violent Meer duty of two and a half per cent, on salt alone. The na- and rash measure, disapproved by several members of the CosSInl• bob, when he heard of the proceedings in council, and of council. The nabob immediately gave orders to stop sethe injurious treatment of his officers for duly executing veral boats laden with arms that had been seized, and his orders, was naturally filled with indignation ; and he released on the representation of the English. Resistcame to the resolution of abolishing all internal duties. ance was made, and in the course of the struggle which There could not possibly have been a more moderate or ensued, Mr Amyatt, a member of the council, and seveequitable^ measure. It gave freedom and equality to all ral other Englishmen, were slain. The contending armies parties; it threw down at once all the restraints to fair now hastened to take the field; and Meer Cossim was and open competition, and gave to the Company’s servants overwhelmed by one unbroken series of disasters, which the unlimited freedom of trade. This just and liberal terminated in his dethronement and flight. A division policy, however, was far from corresponding with their of his army, which had advanced for the protection of views, and it excited amongst them the most violent cla- Moorshedabad, was totally defeated on the 19th of July, mours. They were discontented at losing so fair an op- by the English army, which consisted of 650 Europeans, portunity of amassing enormous wealth. Their conduct, 1200 Sepoys, two troops of native cavalry, and was afteras Mr Mill justly observes, furnishes one of “ the most wards joined by a battalion of Sepoys and a hundred Euremarkable instances on record, of the power of interest ropeans. In advancing to the capital, Major Adam found to extinguish all sense of justice, and even of shame.” the enemy strongly posted, with intrenchments fifteen They first insisted on an exemption for themselves from feet high, defended by a numerous artillery. These all internal duties, now they cried out in the rage of dis- were stormed, and the city of Moorshedabad was entered appointed avarice against the extension of the same pri- by the conquerors. The English, pushing forward, envileges to the inhabitants; and thus they reversed all the countered the Indian army on the 2d of August 1763, usual maxims of fair policy, in seeking immunities for fo- consisting of 20,000 horse and 8000 foot, in the plain of reigners which were refused to natives. Gheriah, near Sootie. -fhey resembled European troops rbitrary The conduct of Meer Cossim, in claiming justice for induct of his oppressed subjects, was highly displeasing to the ma- in clothing and accoutrements, and in their division into brigades ; and the battle that ensued was obstinately conle Comany’s ser- jority of the council. The exaction of legal dues upon tested for four hours. But the discipline and steadiness of English goods was represented as a violation of the Com- the European troops finally triumphed, and the enemy ants. pany’s rights, and as evidence of a design to expel them fled, leaving all their cannon behind them. From this from the country; and, for this new species of treason time the English were no longer opposed on equal terms against the offended majesty of usurped power, it was in the field. It was only in strong positions and intrenchresolved to depose him, and to replace Meer Jaffier on the ments that the enemy made a stand. A strong intrenchthrone, as nominal ruler of Bengal, on the well-under- ment at Oodwa was carried on the 5th of September, stood condition of subservience to their views. A treaty alter it had detained the English for nearly a month; was concluded, confirming the immunity which they and Mongheer, the last stronghold of Meer Cossim, capi- Defeat and claimed from all internal duties, with the exception only of tulated, on which he fled into the dominions of the nabob flight to two and a half per cent, on the article of salt, whilst those of Oude, and afterwards into the Rohilla country. Irri- Sujah duties were re-imposed on the goods of all other mer- tated by his misfortunes, the nabob wreaked his ven- ■^)ovvflfl1, chants. Large presents were bargained for, and other geance on the unhappy English prisoners who were in his payments to a great amount, as compensation for losses power. He had formerly put to death several Hindus alleged to have been sustained by the Company’s ser- of rank who were thrown into prison on account of their vants, in the course of their illicit interference in the do- wealth; and he now gave an order for the execution of mestic trade. Ihese oums, which at first were estimat- about two hundred English, who had been taken at Pated at ten, but soon afterwards mounted up to fifty-three na ; amongst others, of Mr Ellis, who had formerly tyranlacs of rupees, equal to about L.625,000, were rigidly ex- nized over and insulted him, and Mr Lushington, also acted, whilst large payments to the Company were still high in the Company’s service. They were invited to an undischarged, and the public finances were sinking un- entertainment, and, according to the odious maxims of der the burden of an expensive war, great sums having eastern treachery, were barbarously murdered. A Gerbeen bon owed by the Company from its servants, at an man of the name of Sumroo was the chief agent in this interest of eight per cent., and, with all these aids, sup- scene of ciuelty. Dr bullarton, who had gained favour H 0USe f C m on India C Un e 17 whifh , ° refused ° Tns also servants a Letter were of Meer Cossim, dated Backer-unge, Winch states that the inhabitants to sell to theAffairs; Company’s flogged or confined. '' '’ ’ May 25 1762 b2, t who

HINDUSTAN. 488 Hindustan, by bis medical services, was the only Englishman who mission to trade free of duties, as the certain cause of Hindustan trouble, that all such propositions were abandoned. He escaped. Meer Cossim was received in the most friendly manner agreed not to molest Bulwunt Sing, who held the zeminby Sujah Dowlah, the nabob of Oude, who was far from daries of Benares and Gauzeepore, and who had assisted being well disposed to the English. He considered them the English in the late contest, and never to afford an as rapacious usurpers, the natural enemies, as they fatally asylum to Meer Cossim, or the German soldier Sumroo proved to be, of Indian independence, and who, under With regard to the Mogul emperor, he was told, that of pretence of commerce, aspired to the dominion of the the thirty lacs of annual tribute due to him from the country. In reply to a letter from the English, threat- subahdars of Bengal, not a rupee would ever be paid; ening, that if he assisted the nabob of Bengal, they would that twenty-six lacs of rupees, which had been assigned carry the war into his own country, he remonstrated with him as the revenue of these provinces, would be contithem on their ambitious views, and on account of the dis- nued ; and that he should receive possession of Corah turbances which they had created in the country; and and Allahabad. In return, the Company received the im- Company he added, “ to what can all these wrong proceedings be perial firman, dated the 12th of August 1765, granting the receives t, esove attributed, but to an absolute disregard of the court (of duannee, or the right of collecting the revenues of Ben- ^. 0J Delhi), and to a wicked design of seizing the country to gal, Bahar, and Orissa, in which is implied, according to yourselves. If these disturbances,” he continues, “ have the laws and constitution of the Mogul empire, the right of arisen from your own improper devices, deviate from such sovereignty; and thus was this body of merchants conbehaviour in future ; interfere not in the affairs of govern- stituted in form, as well as in substance, the rulers of a ment ; withdraw your people from every part, and send vast empire. To this issue affairs had been evidently tending for Maladmi. j them to their own country; carry on the Company’s trade as formerly, and confine yourself to your own commercial some time past. Meer Jaffier, worn out with anxiety and nistratiun j affairs.” To these reasonable remonstrances, which were indulgence, died in the beginning of the year; and Jafrepeated in another letter to Major Carnac, the president fier, his son, was chosen his successor by the Company’s pany s serand council were so far from listening, that they deter- servants. From each successive sovereign it was the vants. mined upon commencing an immediate and offensive war custom of the electors to exact not only a large donation, but also an extension of power and privileges, so that against him. War with. Major, afterwards Sir Hector Munro, who had arrived the native ruler was at length left in possession of little defeat, and from Bombay with a reinforcement, was appointed to the more than a nominal authority. It was now resolved treaty with cornrnanc[. His first care was to repress the mutinous spi- by the English that they should take upon themselves Dcwiah "'hich ha(l ^ate prevailed among the troops, and this the whole charge of defending the country, and that they he effected by the severe measure of blowing away twenty- would only allow the nabob a few troops for the sake of four of the ringleaders from the mouths of cannon. He parade, or for other necessary purposes ; whilst, in regard then advanced, with a force of 6215 Sepoys and 856 Eu- to the civil government, he was to choose a deputy, with ropeans, towards the Saone, where the enemy, to the the advice of the governor and council, on whom the whole number of 40,000, with a train of artillery, were intrench- internal administration of the country should be devolved. ed in front of the village and fort of Buxar. On the 22d So completely had the government fallen under the conof October 1764, a battle took place, in which the Indian trol of the English, that the accountants of the revenue army was completely overthrown, with the loss of about could not be appointed without their approbation. In the 2000 men. On the side of the British eighty-seven Eu- mean time the directors were distracted by the contradicropeans and 712 Sepoys were either killed or wounded. tory reports of their affairs which they received from InMajor Munro followed up his success, though in two at- dia ; and it was because they were alarmed by the expentempts to storm the fortress of Chanda he was repulsed sive wars so readily undertaken by their servants, by their with loss, and it was only through the mutiny of the gar- rapacious proceedings in regard to the private trade, and rison that it was at length taken by Sir R. Fletcher, who by the general embarrassment of their affairs, that they had succeeded to the command. Lucknow, the capital had resolved to appoint Lord Clive to the supreme governof Oude, was also occupied by the battalions of Sepoys, ment of Bengal, conferring on him and a select committee the fortress of Chunar was attempted, though without suc- of four, full authority to act and determine all matters, withcess, and that of Allahabad surrendered. Sujah Dowlah out any dependence on the council; of which authority was abandoned in his reverses by his ally the Mogul, who they were not slow to avail themselves upon all occasions. concluded a treaty with the English. But he did not They also sent along with him a strong representation yet despair of his fortunes; and having received the aid against the rapacity and tyranny of their servants. In a of a Mahratta force, the combined armies encountered letter to the governor and council they observe, “ Your dethe English on the 3d of May 1765, when they were de- liberations on the inland trade have laid open to us a scene feated ; and Major Carnac, again attacking them at a of the most cruel oppression.” “ The poor of the country,” place called Calpi, they were overthrown, and driven with they continue, “ who used always to deal in salt, betel-nut, precipitation across the Jumna. The vizir, Sujah Dowlah, and tobacco, are now deprived of their daily bread by the seeing no hope of retrieving his affairs, resolved to trust trade of the Europeans, whereby no kind of advantage acentirely to the generosity of the English ; and on the 19th crues to the Company, and the government’s revenues are of May he surrendered to Major, now General Carnac. greatly injured.” The directors accordingly issued the most The final settlement of terms was reserved for Lord Clive, peremptory instructions for the prohibition of the inland who had arrived in Bengal, with full powers from the di- trade of salt, betel-nut, and tobacco, or rather of the morectors, as governor, to regulate all their complicated con- nopoly held by the Company’s servants, by which the councerns, whether of sovereignty or of trade. It was agreed try was so cruelly oppressed. The practice of receiving that, with the exception of Allahabad and Corah, he presents from the native rulers and princes, which had been should still retain his dominions, which he was judged carried to a great extent, was also prohibited. At a genemore capable of defending than the Mogul emperor, to ral meeting of proprietors, however, it was urged, in opwhom they had been promised. For this concession the position to those wise and salutary restrictions, that the vizir agreed to pay fifty lacs of rupees as the expenses “ servants of the Company in India ought not to be deof the war ; but he remonstrated so earnestly against the prived of such precious advantages, which enabled them to establishment of factories in his dominions, or any per- revisit their native country with independent fortunes.”

HINDUSTAN.

489 [industan. This reasoning convinced the majority of the proprietors, either over the natives or over their own subjects; and Hindustan, v—^ and a recommendation was moved in consequence to the hence the inhabitants lay entirely at the mercy of the Comdirectors, to re-consider their resolution in regard to the pany’s servants. Nor need we wonder that, during this private trade. The governor and council were therefore period of anarchy and disorder abroad, the embarrassments instructed, after consulting with the nabob, to form a of the Company’s affairs continued to increase, even during “ proper and equitable plan for cai’rying on the inland the peaceable administration of Mr Verelst,who succeeded trade.” (Mill’s British India, vol. ii. p. 217.) In other Lord Clive as governor when he left Bengal in February words, they were to contrive how they could oppress the 1767. The Indian revenues were indeed large, but they were country, and yet adhere to the rules of equity. This trans- plundered by their servants. Lord Clive and the first adaction places in a very strong light the corrupt nature of venturers were enriched by the presents or bribes ot the the local administration. It was admitted on all hands native rulers. These they were now prohibited from acthat it was by extortion and rapine, that is, by compelling cepting. “ It was expedient for them,” says Clive, “ to the oppressed inhabitants both to purchase and sell at prices find out some other channel, the channel of the civil and fixed by the Company’s servants, that such profits were military changes. Every man now who is permitted to gained, and that they were enabled to return to Europe make a bill makes a fortune.” In lieu of the enormous with enormous accumulations of ill-gotten wealth. It was, gains which accrued from the monopoly of salt and of other indeed, as we have just seen, acknowledged by the direc- articles, the trade which the directors, early in 1768, sent tors, that the poor of the country were deprived of their peremptory orders to lay open, and also of one eighth daily bread by the trade of their European servants, who per cent, of the revenues given to the governor, as a commonopolized every profitable channel of business; yet, pensation for his share of the salt monopoly, the Company with these facts before them, we find the sovereigns of In- granted a commission of two and a half per cent, on the redia delivering over their oppressed subjects to the rapacity venues. This sum was to be divided into a hundred shares, of their servants, for the avowed purpose of enriching them and to be distributed amongst the civil functionaries of the Company, and the military officers, according to their with the spoils of the country. Lord Clive assumed the supreme power in India in May rank. Whilst the local rulers of India were thus enriching them- Embarrass' 1765. At this period the servants of the Company, in dements of fiance of the peremptory orders of the directors, still per- selves, their masters were reduced to great pecuniary dis- the Com sisted in all the ruinous practices connected with the in- tress. But, in the midst of all their embarrassments, the at land trade; and instead of abolishing these, and thus re- most flattering accounts of their affairs were circulated in |^^e medying some of those abuses of which he so violently Europe; and the directors and proprietors lent a willing complained, Lord Clive entered into a partnership for the ear to these golden promises, of which their servants were monopoly of salt, of which large quantities were accord- always liberal. The splendid acquisition which the Comingly purchased, and sold for a profit of forty-five per cent., pany had made of the territorial revenues of Bengal, the which was divided amongst three of his own dependents, political events in which they had been involved, and his secretary, surgeon, and another friend, for whom he wish- the immense fortunes with which a few individuals had ed, as he expresses it, to realize a fortune. The plan of a returned to Europe, confirmed the general delusion, and more extensive monopoly, including salt, betel -nut, and to- inflamed the impatience of the proprietors of East India bacco, the chief articles of consumption in the country, was stock to participate in the inexhaustible treasures of their afterwards devised to be carried on exclusively for the be- new dominions. In pursuance of these views, the divinefit of the superior servants of the Company, amongst whom dend on their stock was raised from six to ten per cent.; the profit, after setting apart L.100,000 per annum to the and India stock rose to 263 per cent. A higher dividend Company, was to be divided according to their rank in the was called for, and it was in vain that the directors represervice. At the time this carrupt scheme of monopoly sented the heavy debts of the Company, and the general was established, the select committee were in possession embarrassment of their affairs. The proprietors refusof peremptory orders from the directors for its abolition ; ed to listen to such disagreeable representations, and at a but these orders, under various pretences, they delayed to general court they voted a dividend of twelve and a half per cent, for the year 1767. The attention of government carry into execution till September 1768. Although the ascendency of the English had for some being now directed to the Company’s affairs, this vote was years been thoroughly established in Bengal, and although rescinded by act of parliament, and the dividend limited they were formally invested in 1765 with the sovereignty to ten per cent. In the mean time, every day’s experience was refuting of the country, its affairs were still administered in the name of the native prince, and according to the forms and the fallacious expectations of annual treasures from India. policy of the ancient constitution. Justice was still dis- So far from possessing any surplus revenue, the servants pensed by the native courts, and by the nabob’s officers ; were involved in debt for the current expenses of their the revenues still flowed through the same channels into government; they drew largely on the directors, but they the public exchequer ; and all transactions with foreign remitted little; and the whole of this complicated scheme powers were carried on under the same authority as for- of trade and sovereignty laboured in consequence under merly. But such was the increasing power of the English, such pecuniary difficulties, that the directors, to avert a that the government, as far as regarded the protection of public bankruptcy, were compelled to apply to the bank for the people, was dissolved. Neither the nabob nor his offi- a loan of L.400,000, and afterwards of L.300,000. In concers dared to offer any opposition to their sovereign will; sequence of this state of things, so different from the pleasand the tribunals of justice, far from being a protection to ing fancies of unbounded wealth, with which the propriethe oppressed, became subservient to the rapacity of the tors of the Company and the country at large had been Gomastahs, or Indian agents, employed by the Company’s amused, great discontent and a violent clamour was raised servants, and were converted by them into most efficacious against the Company’s servants in India, who by their proinstruments for plundering the people, and for punishing fusion or corruption had failed to realize those golden the wretched victims of their oppression if they dared to dreams. The situation of the Company was at length brought complain, and if they did not patiently submit to be under the consideration of parliament by the minister, who fleeced and trampled upon by their foreign masters. The introduced two acts for the regulation of their affairs. The native tribunals had no power to afford protection, whilst first of these was intended to relieve the pecuniary emthe English had no legal authority beyond the presidency, barrassments of the Company, and provided that the sum 3Q VOL. XI.

490 HINDUSTAN. Hindustan, of L.1,400,000 per annum, at four per cent, should be by his masterly tactics artfully drawn the English army to Hindustan, lent to them, and that the stipulated annual payment of a distance from Madras, he suddenly appeared at the head L.400,000 from the territorial revenue should not be re- of 6000 cavalry before that city, having marched 120 miles quired till the discharge of this debt; the dividend not to in three days, and so alarmed the presidency, that a treaty, exceed six per cent, till the discharge should be accom- offensive and defensive, was concluded inApril 1769, by plished, and not to exceed seven per cent, till the bond which it was also agreed that all conquests should be mudebt should be reduced to L.1,500,000. Other clauses tually restored. related to the appropriation of the surplus revenue, which At this time the Mahrattas, humbled for a time by the Destruc. was always fondly hoped for, but never received. The defeat of Paniput, now began to renew their incursions ti°n of the other act, which was heavily complained of as an infringe- into the northern provinces, and greatly to the alarm of the Kohillas> ment of the Company’s rights of sovereignty, as the first subahdar of Oude, who dreaded any confederacy between was said to be an invasion of their rights of property, raised them and the Ilohilla chiefs or Afghans, a hardy race the qualification to vote in the court of proprietors from from the north, who having frequently aided the imperial L.500 to L.1000 ; gave two votes to every proprietor pos- armies, were rewarded with lands in the fertile district besessed of L.3000; three votes to those possessed of L.6000; tween the Ganges and the mountains, and to the west of and four votes to those possessed of L.10,000 ; and only six the Oude territories. One of their chiefs, Nujeeb adDowlah, directors, instead of twenty-four, the whole number, were had been chosen by Abdallee Shah, on his departure from to be annually elected; and the administration of the pro- Delhi, after the battle of Paniput, as the imperial devinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa was to be vested in a puty. He had ruled the country with singular prudence and governor-general with an annual salary of L.25,000, and success, and had transmitted the government to his son, four councillors with a salary of L.10,000 each. The other Zabita Khan, against whom a coalition was now formed by presidencies were rendered subordinate to that of Bengal; the Mahrattas and the fallen emperor Shah Aulum, anxious and a supreme court of judicature was established at Calcut- to regain his former power. By their assistance the emta, consisting of a chief-justice with L.8000 a year, and three peror, in the year 1771, entered his capital of Delhi, with other judges with L.6000 a year, appointed by the crown. all the pomp of imperial dignity. Zabita Khan, unable to The first governor-general and councillors were to be appoin t- withstand their united attack, fled across the Ganges, leaved by the king; and all the political correspondence of the ing his fertile and flourishing territories to the devastaCompany with India was to be laid before the ministry. tions of the Mahrattas, to whom they afforded a rich booty. These acts received the royal assent on the 21st of June and The Bohillas, alarmed by this aggression, proposed to form 1st of July 1773. Under this act Mr Hastings was appoint- an alliance with the subahdar of Oude, who on his side ed governor-general, with General Clavering, Colonel Mon- was equally dismayed; and through the intervention of son, Mr Barwel, and Mr Francis, members of council. the English a treaty was accordingly concluded, offensive .Affairs of It will now be proper to revert to the affairs of the Car- and defensive, by which the Rohillas engaged to pay anthe Carna- natic. After the departure of Bussy from that province, nually to the subahdar forty lacs of rupees if he would t,c * and the decline of the French influence, Nizam Ali re- expel the Mahrattas from their territories. He made no sumed his power, which he employed in dethroning and effort, however, to perform this service ; and the Mahrattas, imprisoning, and afterwards murdering, his feeble brother after retiring across the Ganges during the rains, soon reSalabut Jung, the subahdar of the Deccan. The English turned to ravage the country, and actually extorted a sum having received from Shah Aulum, the Mogul emperor, a of money from Hafiz Bhamet, chief of the Rohillas, as the grant of the Northern Circars, a tract extending 470 miles price of their retreat. In 1772 they besieged the emperor, along the coast of the Bay of Bengal, and uniting the Eng- who had become weary of their alliance, in Delhi; and havlish possessions in the Carnatic with their province of ing entered the city, they extorted from him a grant of the Orissa, proceeded to occupy it with a military force. On two provinces of Corah and Allahabad, which he held by this Nizam Ali, or the Nizam as he is called by the Eng- virtue of a treaty with the English. The subahdar was now lish, made an irruption into the Carnatic, and greatly really alarmed, and wrote the most pressing letters to the alarmed the presidency of Madras. After some operations English for aid. A detachment was accordingly sent under of little moment, a treaty was concluded, by which the Sir R. Barker, to assist in the defence of his territories, English agreed to pay a rent for the disputed territory, when the Mahrattas were recalled to their own country and to give him such military aid as he should require in about the end of May 1773. The subahdar, freed from the affairs of his government. The first operation in danger, now became ambitious in his turn, and was intent, which this force was to be engaged was the reduction of either by force or fraud, upon gaining possession of the Rothe fortress of Bangalore, belonging to Hyder Ali, the sove- hilla country. With this view, in a meeting with Mr Hastreign of Mysore ; and thus were the English brought into ings in October 1773, it was agreed that the English troops collision with that powerful chief. He was one of those should assist in the conquest and extermination of the Robold spirits who rise to eminence in times of civil confu- hillas, and that forty lacs of rupees should be paid for this sion. From a common foot soldier, or peon, employed in service. In fulfilment of this iniquitous compact, the unitthe collection of taxes, he rose to high command, to wealth ed forces, the British under Colonel Champion, entered the and dominion, and finally to the rank of sovereign prince. Rohilla territories in 1774, and on the 23d of April a batThe nizam, who had joined with the English against Hy- tle was fought, in which the unfortunate Rohillas, after an der, soon became his ally, and their united forces made obstinate defence, were defeated, and their gallant chief incursions into the Carnatic. Several battles were fought Hafiz Rhamet, slain while rallying his troops; the subahto the disadvantage of Hyder, but these were of little ad- dar and his army, in the mean time, behaving with shamevantage to the English, owing to his superiority in cavalry, ful pusillanimity. The whole country now lay at his mercy, with which he laid waste the country to the very gates of and he proceeded to execute his diabolical purpose, which, Madras, and struck terror into the president and council, as he had expressly informed the English, was the exterihe nizam, however, wearied of the war, quitted the al- mination of the Rohillas. Never, probably, says Mr Mill, liance of Hyder, which so elevated the confidence of the were the rights of conquest more savagely abused; man, Madras presidency that they resolved on the invasion of woman, and child were given up to the destroying sword, ysore. But Hyder anticipated their designs, and having and the country was reduced to a desert.1 At length it was 1

History of British India, vol. iii. p. 509.

HINDUSTAN. 491 a force from Bombay, which carried by assault the princiHindustan, Hindustan, agreed that Fyzoolla Khan, the remaining chief of the Rohillas, should surrender one half of all his effects to the pal fort in Salsette on the 28th of September 1774, and rar w subahdar or the vizir, and should receive in Rohilcund a afterwards took possession of the island; in March 1775 ^ ’th jaghire of fourteen lacs and 75,000 rupees. With regard they concluded a treaty with Ragoba for the surrender 0f^t;aJah' to the Mogul emperor, the twenty-six lacs of rupees hi- these places, with other advantages; and in return they sent therto paid to him as his share of the revenues of Bengal, a body of troops under Colonel Keating, which joined his Bahar, and Orissa, were withdrawn, because he had ac- army in April, about fifty coss from Cambay ; and this comcepted the aid of the Mahrattas in his late attempt to re- bined force, amounting to 25,000 men, now advanced for gain the throne of his ancestors. He was also deprived of the purpose of penetrating to Poonah before the commencethe provinces of Corah and Allahabad, granted to him in ment of the rains. The enterprise failed for the present, terms of a former treaty with the Company. but the armies were quartered in convenient positions ; and Sketch of On the west coast of India, the presidency of Bombay having concluded a favourable treaty with the rajah of Guthe Mah- was at this period involved in disputes, which ended in a jerat, who had agreed, amongst other conditions, to advance ratta pow- war wjtj1 j.]le Mahratta states ; and, with a view to the sub- the sum of twenty-six lacs of rupees, they prepared, with a ers> sequent history of India, it may be necessary here to give friendly country in their rear, and greatly increased resources, a brief account of these disputes, and of the different Mah- to advance to Poonah the next campaign. But all these ratta powers who had now risen to political importance in promising schemes were now frustrated by the interference India. In the Mahratta government, as originally consti- of the Bengal council, which had been invested with sututed, the sovereign or raiah was assisted by a council of preme authority over the other settlements in India; and eight Brahmins, the chief of whom bore the title of peshwa; the alliance formed by the presidency of Bombay with Raand in course of time this principal minister of state, on goba, the peshwa, and indeed all the other proceedings, were whom devolved the duties of government, usurped all the severely condemned by the governor-general and his counreal power, and the sovereign became a mere pageant in cil. The council at Bombay were ordered peremptorily to his hands. In the reign of the rajah Sahoo, the third in retrace their steps, to withdraw their troops from those of succession from the brave and politic Sevajee, the founder Ragoba, and to give him no further aid; and they themof the Mahratta power, this revolution had been insensibly selves proceeded to treat, by means of their own agent, brought about. He was a weak prince, devoted, as most Colonel Upton, with the opposite faction of the Brahmin princes are, to ease and pleasure, and leaving to Kish- ministers. A long and perplexed negotiation now ensued, wanath Balagee the chief powers of the state. He assum- which had nearly ended in war, when a treaty, that of ed the name of Row Pundit, or chief of the Pundits, or Poorunder, was signed on the 3d of June 1776, by which learned Brahmins, and was invested by the rajah with a the Mahratta ministers agreed to surrender Salsettc, and sirpah or robe of office, with which ceremony the pesh- the English Bassein; and the unfortunate Ragoba finally was have ever since been installed into their sovereign dig- retired to Surat with only two hundred attendants. The Mahratta power, which was spread far and wide in nity. Custom or policy had so completely sanctioned the usurpation of supreme power by the peshwa, that Kish- India, was now weakened by the same divisions which had wanath had quietly transmitted his dignity and influence occasioned the downfall of the Mogul empire. All indeed to his son Bajerow, who confined the rajah as a sort of state acknowledged their allegiance to the peshwa, the repreprisoner to Satarah, whilst he himself resided at Poonah, sentative of Sevajee, their founder, and the nominal head the future capital of the Mahratta states. Bow, the son of of the whole confederacy. But there was no unity in the Bajerow, being slain at the battle of Paniput, the office of component parts of their wide-extended empire. They no peshwa descended to his nephew, who had two sons, Mad- longer obeyed one common impulse. The military chiefs hoo Row and Narrain Row, the eldest of whom, Madhoo to whom were confided the more distant provinces threw Row, a minor, succeeded to his father’s dignity at his death, off the yoke of sovereign authority, as it was gradually reand the guardianship of the peshwa now devolved on Ra- laxed ; and thus, from the extension of the Mahratta power, gonaut Row, more commonly known under the name of arose various independent potentates, who, though united Ragoba. The council of state, consisting of the Brahmins, by a common tie, yet waged war with each other, or with now made an effort to regain their lost influence; and in- the peshwa, their head, on any provocation or prospect of triguing with the mother of the peshwa, they succeeded advantage. The most important of these independent in sowing division between the nephew and the uncle, and states was, ls£, that of the Bhonslas, which included the finally in stripping him of his power. Madhoo died at an extensive province of Berar, together with Cuttack, a part early age in 1772, and appointed Ragoba to be the guar- of Orissa; 2d, the province of Gujerat, broken off from dian of his brother Narrain Row. But he was by the the Mogul empire by Pillagee Guicowar, or the herdsman ; same influence again stripped of his power ; and dissensions 3c?, the independent chiefs, Holkar and Scindia, whose having arisen amongst the council of Brahmins, or Mutsed- names figure in the future annals of India, and who ruled dies as they are also called, a conspiracy was formed, over extensive territories in Malwah and in the regions borwhich ended in the murder of the young prince, when Ra- dering on the territories of Berar and Oude. Other infegoba was again acknowledged peshwa. But he was still rior chiefs, offsets from the main stock, possessed smaller thwarted by the ministerial factions of the Brahmins, and portions of territory in different parts ; and the internal rethe consequence was a civil war, which was carried on with lations of Hindustan were thus more than usually complivarious fortune, but terminated at length in the flight of cated, and presented a wide field for politics and intrigue. The presidency of Madras, as well as the other two pre- Oppression Ragoba from his dominions. The presidency of Bombay had been extremely anxious to procure the cession of the island sidencies of Bengal and Bombay, were now deeply involv-tive of therinces naand peninsula of Salsette and Bassein, as adding much to ed in the disputes of the native powers. The nabob P the security and value of Bombay. But all their efforts of the Carnatic, Mahommed Ali, was incapable of ruling were in vain. Ragoba uniformly refused to give them up or of defending his country against the Mahrattas or Hyon any terms. He had now retreated to Surat; and in der Ali, and he relied entirely upon the English for prothe low state of his fortunes the negotiation was renewed. tection and for the collection of his revenues. The disIn the mean time the presidency were informed by their order of his finances, already great, was much increased resident at Goa that the Portuguese were making prepara- by the extortions of his allies, who were insatiable in tions for the recapture of their former possessions, especially their thirst of gold; and funds failing, as in Bengal, to of Salsette and Bassein. No longer hesitating, they sent supply their exorbitant demands, they anxiously sought

HINDUSTAN, 492 Hindustan, elsewhere the means of relief. The kingdom of Tanjore, itself. The council were confounded by the intelligence Hindustan, by the prudence of its sovereign, had. enjoyed peace amidst of this sudden calamity. They were apprized on the 21st 1 the wars and desolations of surrounding countries; his of July that Hyder had come through the pass, that he powerful neighbours, supposing that he had amassed great had next day plundered Porto Novo on the coast, and wealth, mustered up against him a world of complaints, of Conjeveram, not fifty miles from the capital. Each sucwhich he readily showed the futility; and when he saw that ceeding day brought its tale of calamity, and on the. 10th his ruin was resolved on, that he was to be stripped of his of August Madras was alarmed by the approach of the dominions, and that he and his family were to be put to enemy’s horse, and the inhabitants of the open town bedeath or imprisoned for life, he pleaded for mercy with the gan to take flight. The governor and council were very most affecting earnestness; but avarice had extinguished indifferently provided for the fearful struggle in which every softer feeling in the breasts of his oppressors. The they were engaged. They were destitute both of money troops were ordered to advance ; the rajah agreed to terms and provisions; their small force was scattered throughout which he could not fulfil; and failing to pay within the ex- the country ; and, lastly, their councils were distracted by act time which the contribution imposed upon him, though the dissensions of the civil and military authorities. Imhe made the fairest offers, Tanjore, his capital, was taken mediate action, however, was necessary, in order to avert by assault, and he and his family were delivered into the impending ruin. The scattered troops were therefore dipower of the nabob. This act of oppression, encouraged rected to assemble at St, Thomas’ Mount, for the defence at first by the directors, was afterwards disapproved by a of the capital. Colonel Brathwaite’s detachment from court of proprietors; and Lord Pigot was sent out as go- Pondicherry having joined the main body on the 18th of vernor of the presidency, to restore the rajah, and to en- August, an express was sent to Colonel Baillie at Gumeforce economy and reform. The corrupt and dishonour- roponda, about twenty-eight miles from Madras, directing able practices of the Company’s servants were nowhere him to repair to Conjeveram, whither the main army now carried to a greater length than at Madras. They were in advanced under Sir Hector Munro, consisting of 1500 Euthe habit of lending, or pretending to lend, money, to the ropeans and 4200 Sepoys, with a train of artillery, and arnabob, at an exorbitant interest, and to receive in security rived after a distressing march of four days, during which assignments on the land. Paul Benfield, with a salary of two hundred men belonging to the seventy-third regiment some hundred pounds a year, had assignments on the were left lying on the road. They found the town of Conlands of Tanjore to the amount of L.234,000; and Sir jeveram in flames, large bodies of the enemy’s cavalry adThomas Rumbold, with a salary of L.20,000 a year, re- vancing on both flanks, and no appearance of Colonel Bailmitted to Europe the first year he was in office L.45,000, lie’s detachment, which had been impeded in its march and in the two subsequent years a further sum of L.l 19,000, for a day by a small torrent swollen with the rains. Hyder alleging that he had property to this amount in India be- Ali having learned from his spies the movements of the fore he left Europe. The lands belonging to the Com- English army, abandoned the siege of Arcot, in which he pany were let at an under rate to the renters, and large was engaged, and, upon the 3d of September, the day on bribes received in return; and it was by such unworthy which Baillie’s detachment crossed the river in its advance means that the servants of the Company so quickly ac- to the main body, he encamped at five miles distance in quired their enormous fortunes. Lord Pigot, in carrying front of the English army, near Conjeveram ; thus inter-Colonel into effect the views of the directors, by restoring the ra- posing between Colonel Baillie’s detachment and the Eng- Baillie’s ^* jah of Tanjore, and opposing the existing abuses, was re- lish forces; and he sent his son Tippoo with 30,000 ca-^etac sisted by a faction. He was at last put under arrest by valry, the flower of his army, and 8000 foot, with twelve ^nt cut the members of his own council, and died after a con- pieces of cannon, to cut off the troops under Colonel Bailfinement of about eight months. The authors of this vio- lie, who had now arrived at a small village about fifteen lence were afterwards tried in England, and condemned miles distant from Sir Hector Munro’s army, the moveto pay a paltry fine of L.1000, which was no adequate ments of which he himself watched in the neighbourhood punishment for such an offence, and, to men of their for- of Conjeveram. The troops under Colonel Baillie gallantly tunes, no punishment at all. repulsed the repeated charges of Tippoo’s numerous caInvasion The growing ascendency of the English naturally ex- valry ; and being now joined by a detachment under Sir R. of the Car- cited the hostility of the native powers ; and Hyder Ali, ir- Fletcher, sent to their aid by General Munro, they resistnatic by ritated by their increasing influence, and by their breach ed long and bravely all the attacks of the overwhelming y erAi. 0f trea^y 0f 1759^ jn refusing the aid which he de- force by which they were surrounded; they even at times manded, was now preparing to assail them with the whole became the assailants: and an attack by five companies weight of his power. He accordingly made peace with of Sepoys on the enemy’s guns, which had begun to do the Mahrattas, who formed, with the Nizam Ali and Hy- great execution, spread amongst them such terror and conder, a coalition for the expulsion of the English from India. fusion, that a seasonable and bold assault of their camp In the year 1778, war having commenced in Europe be- would, it is thought, have completed their route. The tween France and England, the presidency of Madras be- English commander maintained the same position till next sieged and took Pondicherry, and Mahe, a small fort, the morning, for which he has been much blamed ; and when, only remaining possession of the French on the coast of at five o’clock, he began the day’s march, he was assailed Malabar, and ranked by Hyder amongst his dependencies. by the whole army of Hyder, who had left his ground withIrritated by this new offence, he assembled his army, and out shifting his tents, to conceal his design. Colonel Bailhaving seized and guarded the passes of the Eastern Ghauts, lie, with his handful of men, still maintained his ground ir through which alone the Carnatic would be invaded from spite of the enemy’s superior fire and the fury of his closer Mysore, he suddenly poured down on the country below attacks, when, by an accident, the blowing up of two tumwith a mighty host of 100,000 cavalry and 20,000 infantry, brils, the English line was not only disordered, but the besides the European troops of Colonel Lally, of undoubt- ammunition wras destroyed, and the guns disabled. But ed bravery and experience in war. Every thing gave Wc*y though their fire was now silenced, they maintained a galbefore this overwhelming flood of invasion ; and the ca- lant resistance till three o’clock in the morning, when the valry inundating the open plains, the inhabitants fled from commander, Baillie, despairing of relief, sent a flag of truce their homes to the woods or the mountains, whilst the unre- to the enemy; and the men having laid down their arms sisted invader laid waste the country with fire and sword for on receiving a promise of quarter, Hyder’s troops rushed many miles round Madras, and even threatened the city on them with savage fury ; and, but for the humane inter-

HINDUSTAN. 493 Hindustan, position of the French officers, would have massacred all 2000 men at Porto Novo early in 1782 ; and Tippoo having Hindustan, who survived. After this disaster, Sir Hector Munro re- arrived with a large detachment from Hyder’s army, by a treated to Madras, whilst Hyder returned to the siege of brilliant and successful movement surrounded rColonel Arcot, which was taken by storm on the 31st of Octo- Brathwaite’s force, consisting of a hundred Eu opeans, ber, with an immense quantity of ammunition and military five hundred Sepoys, and three hundred horse, encamped upon the Coleroon, before there was the smallest stores. Progress On the intelligence of Colonel Baillie’s disaster, the su- suspicion of his march. Forming a hollow square, this of the war preme council of Bengal requested Sir Eyre Coote to take little band held out for twenty-six hours, and repulsed with Hy- ^0 command of the army in the Carnatic ; and on the 17th every attack, until, exhausted with incessant conflict, they der A . 0p june 1781, the English force, consisting of 7000 men and were at last broken by a charge of the French under 1700 Europeans, marched from the encampment at Mount Tally, and would have been all massacred as formerly, St Thomas. Hyder now changed his plan of operations, but for his vigorous and humane interference. Hyder was and detached different divisions of his force against the now enabled, by the succours he had received from France, strong places of the Carnatic. But he was so overawed to invest Cuddalore, which quickly surrendered, when he by the arrival of a new commander with reinforcements, determined to undertake the siege of Wandewash. Its that he abandoned the siege of Wandewash, and of every importance brought the army of Sir Eyre Coote to its replace which he had invested, and retired without even dis- lief, when Hyder still declined the hazards of a battle. puting the passage of the Palaar. The English took the The English general then proceeded to the attack of Aropportunity of this short respite to secure possession of nee, the great depository of the enemy’s warlike stores Pondicherry, and to disarm the inhabitants, who had re- and necessaries. But Hyder outstripping the slow movevolted. Hyder having received large reinforcements, re- ments of the English force, hung upon their march ; and, sumed the offensive ; and as the plan of the English was whilst they were galled by the attacks of his cavalry, he to march southward to protect the district of Tanjore and dexterously detached a division of his army, which carTrichinopoly, he resolved to oppose their advance to Cud- ried off all his treasure from Arnee, and reinforced the dalore. A battle was fought on the 1st of July 1781, in garrison. In the retreat to Madras, after these operawhich Hyder was driven from his strong position with tions, a regiment of European cavalry, drawn into an amgreat slaughter. On the 27th of August, another battle buscade by the skilful tactics of the enemy, was either was fought on the ground where Colonel Baillie’s disaster killed or made prisoners. Whilst the English army was had occurred, when he was again defeated, after an obstinate cantoned in Madras, Hyder, ever active and enterprising, action, in which the English suffered severely ; and, some was concerting with the French admiral an attack on Neweeks afterwards, he experienced a third defeat, with great- gapatnam, a settlement of the Dutch, which had been coner loss than before. Far from being discouraged, this war- quered by the English at the commencement of the Dutch like prince proceeded to lay siege to Vellore, eighty-eight war in 1780. But the French fleet having been brought miles south-west from Madras. Sir Eyre Coote, though he to an action by the English, was prevented from co-opehad placed his army in cantonments, advanced to its relief, rating in this well-planned enterprise. On the return and forced his way through a strong pass guarded by the of the army to Madras, Lord Macartney, who had arrived enemy’s force. Returning by the same pass, he was again as governor in December 1781, now concerted a plan for attacked at a disadvantage with the utmost vigour ; but the recovery of Cuddalore. But the admiral steadily reHyder’s cavalry suffered so severely from the English ar- fused co-operation in this, or apparently in any other tillery that he retired with loss, while Sir Eyre Coote operations of the land forces. On the 15th of October, returned to his cantonments near Madras. Whilst the war one of the most dreadful tempests ever known occurred wras thus carried on with doubtful success in the eastern at Madras; the shore was in a short time strewed with districts of the Carnatic, hostilities now commenced on the wreck of a hundred trading vessels, and famine raged the opposite coast of Malabar. The English detachment, in the city, multitudes daily perishing for want. The by which '-he French settlement of Mahe was captured in enemy had fortunately no information of the helpless and 1779, had since that period occupied the fortress of Telli- starving condition of the place, and considerable supplies cherry, when it was besieged by a superior force of Hyder’s of provisions were received from Bengal and the Circars. tributaries. Major Abingdon, the commander, having re- Hyder Ali died in December 1782, at the age of eighty ceived a reinforcement from Bombay on the night of the 7th years; and this event produced a great and favourable January 1782, assaulted the enemy’s lines, and threw their change of affairs. The Mahratta war, undertaken in fawhole army into confusion ; and he soon afterwards gained vour of the claims of Kagoba to the dignity of the peshwa, possession of Calicut. Here he was joined by Colonel which had continued since 1778, was now also concluded Humberston Mackenzie with a thousand Europeans, and by a peace. The capitulation by which a British force offensive operations were undertaken with vigour and suc- that had invaded the Mahratta country surrendered, havcess, when the army returned in May, as the rainy season ing been violated, the Mahrattas joined the confederacy approached, to its cantonments at Patacalah, in Calicut. against the English. But by the great successes of GeOperations were resumed in September with the reduction neral Goddard, who, in the course of three months, from of a strong fort, and the army had arrived at Palacatcherry, January 1780, had reduced the province of Gujerat, and when, being surprised in a narrow defile, the whole bag- completely defeated Scindia, the Mahratta general, they gage and ammunition was captured. A retreat to the were now detached from the alliance of Hyder, the great coast was the only alternative now left to the English, in enemy of the English. Tippoo, after he joined his army in the Carnatic, unthe course of which they were attacked from every thicket, both on their flank and rear, and harassed in their march, dertook no operation of consequence, and he was recalled by 20,000 horse under Tippoo. Arrived at the town of to the defence of his own territories, which were assaultPaniany, on the Malabar shore, their lines were assaulted ed by the enterprising movements of the English armies, by the enemy’s force in four columns, including Lally’s both from the west and from the south. About the becorps, when the forty-second regiment advancing to the ginning of January 1783, a force concentrated at Mercharge, repelled the enemy. Tippoo now hearing of his jee, on the western coast of India, about 300 miles north father’s death, immediately departed to take the neces- of Paniany, under General Mathews, after storming the sary measures for securing his succession to the throne. forts of Onore, Aranpore, and Mangalore, on the sea In the south of the Carnatic a French fleet landed coast, with the slaughter of every man taken in arms,

HINDUSTAN. 494 Hindustan, laid siege to Bednore, a rich capital of one of the Mysore sum of 354,105 rupees, which he affirmed that he had Hindustan 's—provinces, which soon surrendered. A vast treasure, accepted for the appointment of Munny and Goordass to v*— amounting to L.800,000 in pagodas, besides jewels, was their respective dignities and powers. In answer to these found in this place, which immediately occasioned dis- accusations, Mr Hastings chiefly pleaded his dignity as putes, in consequence of the general refusing to divide the governor-general. He resented them as personal insults; booty among the captors. He was on this account su- and when it was proposed to inquire into them by the perseded by the presidency, and the command given to other members of the board, he lost all calmness, and Colonel Macleod. But the hope of spoil appears to have accused them of a design to supersede him in his office. corrupted the virtue of the army, which was dispersed “ I declare,” he said, “ that I will not suffer Nundcomar in plundering detachments over the country, when Tippoo to appear before the board as my accuser. I know what suddenly took possession of Bednore, making prisoners belongs to the dignity and character of the first member of the English garrison, which capitulated, with General of this administration. I will not sit at this board as a Mathews, and sending all of them in irons to the strong criminal.” After this he dissolved the council, in virtue of fortresses of Mysore. Mangalore was next besieged, and a power which he assumed as president. The majority detaken after a gallant resistance, on the 23d of January clared the dissolution void, and continued the inquiry, when 1784. In the mean time Colonel Fullarton, who com- Nundcomar declared the particular sums which he himself manded a force in the Southern Carnatic, having reduced had paid to the governor-general, gave in the names of to order the districts of Madura and Tinnevelly, and taken, several persons who were privy to those transactions, and in April, May, and June, the forts of Caroor, Dindigul, presented a letter from Munny Begum, which, on exaand Daraporam, advanced to the strong fortress of Pala- mination of the seal, was found to be authentic, mencatcherry, which surrendered after a short siege. Coim- tioning a gift of two lacs (L.20,000) given to the governor betore was taken possession of in November, and every by herself. The governor being called upon to refund, preparation was made for advancing to Seringapatam, refused to acknowledge the authority of the council, and and terminating the war by the capture of the enemy’s returned no answer. At this critical stage of the procapital, when a treaty was signed on the 11th of March ceedings, a prosecution was instituted against Nundcomar, 1784, upon the general basis of a mutual restitution of all at the instance of the governor-general and his supporters conquests. in the council, which, after some ineffectual proceedings, The state of affairs in Bengal under the administration was dropt. But a few days afterwards, Nundcomar, at the of Mr Hastings now claims our attention, and we shall suit of a native, was arrested on a charge of forgery; tried endeavour briefly to describe the leading transactions of before the supreme court by Sir Elijah Impey and a jury of that memorable period. The new council, to whose care Englishmen, though it was far from clear that the court had was committed the administration of India, and of which any jurisdiction over him, being a native of Hindustan ; Mr Hastings was president, commenced its deliberations convicted on doubtful and contradictory evidence; and in October 1774, with an inauspicious appearance of mu- finally executed, amidst the tears and loud lamentations, tual coldness and jealousy, which quickly broke out into and even shrieks of horror, of a vast assemblage of his open dissension. The Rohilla war was the first subject countrymen. This transaction, viewed in all its bearings, of deliberation, and it unhappily afforded too good grounds leaves a stain on the character of Hastings, from whi'ch it for doubt and for inquiry. Other subjects succeeded, has never been relieved by the zealous testimonials of his equally difficult to handle without offence, as they in- friends. In reviewing the whole evidence and circumvolved the governor in a suspicion of corruption in the stances of the case, we cannot well doubt, that if Nundcobusiness of the revenue. The rannee of Burdwan, a wi- mar had not accused Mr Hastings, he would never have dow who enjoyed an extensive district, accused her agent been arrested; that his real crime, therefore, was the the duan of corruption, and the English resident of being charge which he had brought against Mr Hastings, and bribed to support or to connive at his iniquities. In the ac- not the alleged forgery ; and hence that he was tried and counts that were presented to the council, a sum of 15,000 executed because he was a witness whose testimony it rupees was charged to Mr Hastings, and 4500 to his na- was more easy to put out of the way than to confute. If tive secretary. Another accusation of the same nature this be a just inference, Mr Hastings must be considerwas preferred by one of the natives, namely, that the ed as guilty of murder, committed under the forms of phouzdar of Hooghly, out of the salary of 72,000 rupees law. This is the character which must be fixed upon which he received from the Company, returned 36,000 him by the impartial verdict of history ; and his politito Mr Hastings, and 4000 to the native secretary; and cal merits, however magnified by his admirers, cannot Mr Grant, accountant of the provincial council of Moor- be accepted for a moment as any palliation of his moral shedabad, produced a set of accounts, from which it ap- guilt. peared that Munny Begum, a concubine of the late Meer In adverting, as we shall now do, to the transactions Jaffier, who had been appointed to the guardianship of of the governor-general with the independent or tribu1 the nabob by Mr Hastings, had received 967,693 rupees tary states of India, it may be observed, that when he asmore than she had accounted for; and when pressed on sumed the government of Bengal, the Company still lathis subject, she told that she had given 150,000 rupees boured under great pecuniary difficulties. Disorder and to Mr Hastings for entertainment money, which was at waste pervaded every department of the administration ; the rate of L.73,000 per annum, and the like sum to Mr the Company’s servants were intent, as we have seen, on Middleton, the agent of Mr Hastings. A still more se- enriching themselves rather than their masters; and the rious charge was brought forward by the rajah Nundco- consequence was a constant want of funds for the pubmar, who had been the agent of Mr Hastings in the pro- lic service. The arduous duty of providing these now desecution of Mahommed Reza Khan, duan or manager of volved upon the governor-general; and the necessities of the revenues of Bengal, whose embezzlements, as well as the state, if they do not justify, afford at least a key to those of Shitabray, he now accused the governor-general some of those dark, and, we must add, atrocious transacof overlooking; and further exhibited the particulars of a tions, which distinguished his administration. Bengal 1 Nine lacs sixty-seven thousand six hundred and ninety-three rupees. A lac of rupees is 100,000, and a crore is 100 lacs, or ten millions. Y\ e have adopted the English mode of notation, as more familiar to the reader.

HINDUSTAN. 495 Hindustan, had been exposed to such heavy exactions that the coun- were possessed of treasures to a great amount, and of jag- Hindustan, 's—v—^ try was exhausted; and Mr Hastings, instead of adopt- hires or estates, from which they maintained their own ' ing economy, and improving the revenue at home, sought state and dignity, and the numerous families of the precedrelief in the plunder of foreign princes, who were now ing nabobs, with a suitable train of attendants. The nalaid under contribution to the necessities of the state. bob of Oude, Sujah Dowlah, had long been unable to pay The rajah Cheyt Sing, who ruled at Benares, was the son the contributions imposed on him by the English ; he was of Bulwunt Sing, who had sided with the English in the war in arrear to the amount of L. 1,400,000, and Mr Hastings with Sujah Dowlah, subahdar of Oude, and who had been now entered into a negotiation with him for the seizure, confirmed in his inheritance by the British for a fixed or resumption, to use the official phrase, of the jaghires or tribute, which was paid with an exactness not very usual estates which belonged to the Begums, for the purpose of in India. Mr Hastings proposed in 1778 to increase enabling him to pay up this arrear. It is unnecessary this contribution; and because the rajah pleaded pover- to dwell on the proceedings by which a son was persuadty, and required time, he became offended, replied to ed or compelled to aid in the spoliation of his mother and him in harsh and imperious terms, refused to allow time grandmother. Suffice it to observe, that Mr Middleton, for raising the money, and threatened military execution the agent of Mr Hastings, in order to extort the surrender in case of delay. These exactions were renewed from of the treasure from the princesses, ordered the zenana, year to year, and increased, the rajah remonstrating in the dwelling of the princesses at Fyzabad, with their nuthe most humble terms, and being treated on account of merous families, to be blockaded by troops; and these meahis remonstrances as a delinquent whom it was necessary sures failing to obtain the treasures, the eunuchs Jewar to punish. “ I was resolved,” says Mr Hastings, “ to Ali Khan and Behar Ali Khan, the confidential servants draw from his guilt the means of relieving the Company s of the princesses, were imprisoned and put in irons, and distresses” This was truly his object, and he accordingly were kept from all food, and exposed to secret tortures. found out guilt in the whole conduct of the rajah, though These dreadful measures so wrought upon the feelings of it was meek and humble, such as the weak naturally as- the princesses, that the elder Begum surrendered the treasume when they are in the power of the strong. At last Mr sure to the amount of the nabob’s bond given to the Company Hastings proceeded to Benares, and, notwithstanding the in 1779-1780. But another balance still remained, and new supplications of the rajah, craving forgiveness if he had of- severities were applied to the ministers of the princesses, fended, on the ground of his youth and inexperience, he which drew from them an engagement to complete the ordered him under arrest; a tumult arose between the demanded sum; but they were still tortured ; and though Sepoys and the inhabitants, in which the former were all the princesses now delivered their whole effects, even to put to the sword; the rajah fled; war commenced, which their table utensils, and had paid upwards of L.500,000 beended in his discomfiture, and he was dethroned. His mo- fore the 23d of February 1782, and the resident himself rether, the wife of Bulwunt Sing, the faithful ally of the Bri- ported “ that no proof had been obtained of their having tish, took refuge in the fort of Bidgegur; she surrendered more,” yet the prisoners were not released, as they earher treasure on condition of being allowed protection for nestly entreated. On the contrary, they were threatened herself and female attendants. But the articles were shame- with greater severities to enforce a payment of L.25,000, fully violated; and she and her followers were plundered according to their account, and of L.50,000, according to of their effects, and their persons subjected to the rude ex- the resident, still due on the extorted bond; and though amination of the licentious soldiery and the followers of the they had now lain two months in irons, were sickly, and the camp. In a letter, Mr Hastings says, “ I think that every officer who guarded them wrote to the resident Middleton, demand she has made to you, except that of safety and craving that their irons might be taken off, and that they respect for her person, is unreasonable.” He afterwards might be allowed to walk in the garden, the nature of his adds, “ I apprehend she will contrive to defraud the cap- orders allowed no mitigation of their sufferings ; they were tors of a considerable part of the booty, by being suffered even threatened a few days after, on the 1st of June, with to retire without examination. But this is your consider- being removed, and were actually removed to Lucknow, ation, not mine. I should be sorry that your officers and where they were tortured in secret, of which the letter adsoldiers lost any part of the reward to which they are so dressed by the assistant resident to the commanding officer , well entitled.” The ideas implied in this hint not to suf- of the English guard affords the odious evidence.1 The cruelfer these illustrious females to pass without examination ties to which the women and children of the zenana, comcannot be mistaken ; it is sufficient to sanction the grossest posing the household of the late rajahs, were exposed, are outrages; and it appears, indeed, that those to whom it was truly shocking to humanity. They were distressed for addressed were not slow to profit by the instructions given want of food to that degree that they uttered the most pithem. teous cries, and were even driven to the extremity of apThe treasures of Cheyt Sing and his widowed mother fell pearing publicly before the Sepoys, an exposure dreaded so far short of the expectations of Mr Hastings, that they more than death by Hindu females of rank; and these did not even pay the expense of quelling the revolt which barbarities were executed under the orders of Englishmen, he had occasioned ; and hence this transaction, impolitic as a disgrace to the name, and by English officers, unwilling well as unjust, increased the embarrassments of the Com- agents, we may well believe, in such cruelties, and whose pany. The governor-general was therefore compelled to letters describe the extreme sufferings of these helpless felook elsewhere for treasures that might be profitable to the males. In the letter of the commanding officer, it is said, state, and he fixed his eye on the two princesses of Oude, “ they are in a starving condition, having sold all their known by the name of the Begums, the one the mother of clothes and necessaries, and now have not wherewithal to Sujah Dowlah, the late nabob, eighty years of age, and the support nature.” “ Last night the women of the zenana other his widow, and mother of the reigning nabob, who assembled on the tops of the buildings, crying in the most 1 We subjoin the two letters. The first, dated January 1782, is addressed by the resident to the officer guarding the eunuchs: “ Sir, M hen this note is delivered to you, I have to desire that you order the two prisoners to be put in irons, keeping them from all food, &c. agreeable to my instructions of yesterday. (Signed) Nath. Middleton.” Letter of the assistant resident to the commanding officer of the English guard : “ Sir,—The nabob having determined to inflict corporal punishment upon the prisoners under your guard, this is to desire that his officers, when they shall come, may have free access to the prisoners, and be permitted to do with them as they shall see proper.”

HINDUSTAN. 496 Hindustan, lamentable manner for want of food; that for the last four office ; cruelty, the secret torture by his agents of innocent Hindustandays they had got a very scanty allowance, and that yes- individuals, by means of famine, stripes, and imprisonment; terday they had got none. The melancholy cries of fa- violence threatened to females by the same agents as the mine are more easily imagined than described. 1 These means of extortion, he chiding them all the while for decruelties were continued for nearly a year, and persever- lay ; his bargain for the extermination of the Rohillas by ed in after all the treasures were surrendered, in the vain fire and sword; and the provinces of Oude and Benares hope that some secret hoard might still be retained, which reduced, under his unhappy rule, from contentment and torture would compel them to bring forth. Amongst other prosperity to desolation ; we can scarcely admit the palliaparticulars, it may be added, that Mr Hastings received tions suggested by the candour of the historian. Mr Hastfrom the nabob a present of L. 100,000, and craved per- ings was impeached, on his return to Europe, before the mission to accept it from the directors, whose orders were House of Peers, of high crimes and misdemeanours, of which positive against the receipt of presents. These princesses he was declared innocent by a great majority of his judges. were accused of aiding in the rebellion of Cheyt Sing. But there were various circumstances which detracted from But of this charge no proof beyond mere rumour was ever the value and authority of this acquittal. The House of adduced ; and, in considering all the circumstances of the Lords, from its constitution and character, is unfit to act as case, it appears to have been invented as a pretext for a judicial tribunal. It is a political assembly, consisting of despoiling them of their wealth. Mr Hastings resolved the two opposite parties, the one against, and the other in to draw from the guilt of Cheyt Sing, to use his own favour of the ruling power ; it is thus exposed to the corwords, the means of relieving the Company’s distresses; rupting influence of politics, and is generally ruled, even in and the same patriotic motive seems to have dictated the its judicial capacity, by the minister of the day, of which, in accusation against the Begums. In other countries it is our more recent history, we have had ample proofs. It wants the poor, those who are discontented and in debt, that are impartiality, therefore, that essential attribute of a court of turbulent; but here it is the rich, aged women of fourscore justice ; and there were, besides, in the present case other and upwards, living in affluence and splendour under the sources of delusion. The hope of sharing in the wealth of protection of the English, that are accused of rebelling India had now shed its baneful influence over the land; against their benefactors, and of raising disturbances which that hope swayed all the higher classes, including the could bring no advantage, but, on the contrary, were fraught peers, who lent an unwilling ear to the charges; and this, with danger, to them. The directors in Europe disapprov- joined to the reputed favour of King George HI. for the ed of these proceedings against the princesses ; they saw accused, rendered the prosecution unpopular. The value no evidence of their rebellion; and they ordered their of the acquittal was also lessened by the mode of conductestates to be restored, and an asylum to be offered them ing the defence. Mr Hastings was far from courting inwithin the Company’s territories. But the authority of the quiry ; on the contrary, he availed himself of all the ledirectors was little respected in India, the governor-gene- gal subtilties of a technical defence. He constantly obral never wanting a pretext for disobeying their express jected to evidence, and to the production of papers. He commands. It appears, however, that some provision was acted wisely, if he was guilty, in screening his conduct afterwards made for these princesses, and for the restora- under legal pleas ; but not so if he was innocent, because tion of a portion of their estates. The remaining transac- by resisting inquiry he hindered his innocence from being tions of Mr Hastings before he quitted Bengal relate to made clear, to the confusion of his enemies. The mal-administration of India had now become a Fyzoolla Khan, who survived the ruin of the Rohilla nation in 1774; and he now entered into a scheme with the standing topic of declamation at home, in which all parnabob of Oude for dispossessing him of his dominions. In ties in parliament eagerly joined ; and as the privileges of a journey which he afterwards undertook to the upper the Company were to expire after the 25th of March 1780, provinces, in order to regulate the affairs of Oude, he was some new arrangement became necessary for the future a witness to the desolation of the country from the exac- government of India. Negotiations for tliis purpose had tions of his own deputies, a country which was flourishing been begun between the ministers and the directors ; and an act was at length passed in 1781, which, besides reguand happy under the milder sway of Cheyt Sing. On the 8th of February he resigned his office and em- lating the dividend, and other financial matters, more barked for England. For a more full detail of the con- fully detailed in the account given at the conclusion of duct and character of Mr Hastings, the reader is referred this article, of the commercial transactions of the Comto the work of Mr Mill, which contains a clear and well- pany, ordained that the directors should communicate digested view of all the dark and complicated transactions to the ministers all despatches sent to India with reof his stormy administration. The calm and philosophical spect to revenues, and to civil and military affairs. In tone maintained by Mr Mill; his impartiality and love of 1783 Mr Fox brought forward his celebrated measure for truth and justice; and the interest which he uniformly regulating the commercial concerns of the Company at manifests in the cause of suffering humanity, give a pecu- home, and for the better government of their territories liar value to his work as a history. In his estimate of Mr abroad. He proposed to supersede the two existing courts Hastings’ character, he seems to consider it due to truth of proprietors and directors, by vesting the whole admito state the difficulties and temptations under which he nistration of the territories, revenues, and commerce of acted, as to a certain extent palliating his guilt. We may India, in seven commissioners, to be chosen by parliament; remark, however, that crimes, especially those of a deep these to have the power of appointing and of dismissing dye, are never committed except under strong temptation ; all persons in the service of the Company ; nine assistant and when we consider that those of which Hastings is ac- directors, being proprietors of India stock to the amount cused are tyranny, extortion, and corruption in his high of L.2000, to be named by the legislature, and to assist 1 See Hastings' Trial. Letters of Captain Leonard Jaques, of 6th and 7th March 1782 ; also letter of Major Gilpin, dated 30th October 1782. At last the unhappy females became desperate from want, and resolved to break into the market-place ; and with this view “ they arranged themselves hi the following order; the children in the front, behind them the ladies of the seraglio, and behind them again their attendants.” They were, however, opposed in their intentions by the Sepoys. On the following day their clamours were more violent than usual. It'was resolved to drive them back by force. “ The Sepoys,” it is added, “ consequently assembled, and each one being provided with a bludgeon, they drove them by dint of beating into the zenana.” (Letter to the Resident at Lucknow.)

HINDUSTAN.

497

Hindustan.in the details of commerce, and to be under the authority their surprise when the board of control ordered that Hindustan, of the superior board. This was the substance of Mr these debts, some of them contracted in 1767, should be Fox’s bill, by which the government of India was trans- all paid without inquiry, and with tne addition of interest ferred from the directors and proprietors to these seven at the rate of twelve per cent. The directors remonstrated parliamentary commissioners. There were, however, nu- against this proceeding, but in vain. The board ordered merous other provisions for securing the punishment of the debts to be paid immediately, though, in a similar Indian delinquents, for ensuring publicity; and all the case in 1805, the commissioners appointed to inquire into serious abuses which had been committed by the servants the more modern debts of the nabob of Arcot, out of of the Company were specially enumerated and forbidden. claims to the amount of L.20,390,570, allowed only Monopolies were abolished, the land-tax was to be fixed, L.l,346,796. These facts too clearly point to the parliaand it was provided that the zemindars should be rein- mentary influence of the East India interest as the true spring of this corrupt transaction ; and the same interest stated in their dignities and lands. In 1784; Mr Pitt introduced a new bill for the better also prevailed in subverting the plan which Lord Macartadministration of Indian affairs, the chief distinction of ney had adopted for the management of the Carnatic rewhich from the other was the institution of a board of venues, and in restoring the administration of the nabob, control, or of six commissioners, to be chosen, not by par- which was a system of misrule that impoverished the liament, but by the king, who were not to supersede the country exactly as it tended to enrich the Company’s court of directors, but only to “ check, superintend, and servants. This, and other differences which arose, inducontrol” all the acts and concerns which in anywise relate ced the directors to question the powers of the board of to the civil or military government or revenues of the control; and a declaratory act was in consequence brought Company’s dominions; and with this view all letters and forward by Mr Pitt explaining these powers, according to orders were to be submitted, before being sent out to In- the interpretation, not of the directors, but of the minisdia, to the inspection of the board, who might alter and ters. This act vests the real power in the board of conamend these as they should deem expedient; and all com- trol, though in practice a large share both of power and munications from India were in like manner to be submit- patronage has been still left to the directors. Lord Cornwallis assumed the government of India inWarwitl? ted to its inspection, and this board might even transmit 00 orders to India without being submitted to the directors. September 1786. He had ample instructions both from'^PP * The power of the court of proprietors was greatly diminish- the court of directors and the board of control; and he ed ; a secret committee of directors was appointed ; a pro- carried into effect several very important reforms, both in vision was made for enforcing the disclosure by individuals the management of the revenue and in the administraof the fortunes brought home by them from India; and a tion of justice, whilst in his arduous contests with Tippoo new tribunal was erected for the trial of offences commit- he fully maintained the honour of the British arms. To ted in that country. The nomination of the commander- the native and dependent powers his conduct was modein-chief was vested exclusively in the king; that of go- rate and just; and one of his first cares was to relieve vernor-general, presidents, and members of all the coun- the nabob of Oude from the extortions of the former gocils, in the directors, subject to the approbation of the vernment, by which the country was impoverished, and in king; which clause, rendering the approbation of the king many places deserted and desolate. The wretched connecessary, was afterwards modified, but he was still al- dition of the people is described in strong terms by Lord lowed the power of recall. The servants in India were Cornwallis; and he now reduced the annual payment of forbidden to engage in war, to receive presents, or to dis- the nabob from eighty-four lacs, equal to L.940,000, to obey orders transmitted by the board; and provision was fifty lacs, and left in his hands the internal government of made for the restoration to the zemindars of the lands from his country. But the mind of the governor-general was which they had been ejected. In the year 1786 no less than soon engrossed by other and more momentous concerns. three acts were passed for the amendment of this act, Tippoo, who naturally viewed with jealousy the growing by one of which power was given to the governor-general ascendency of the British, began to take hostile measures. to act without and even against the consent of this coun- He descended from the Ghauts with a large military force, cil ; by another the military was subjected to the civil and spread alarm along the whole western coast. At length, power; and by a third act, the most efficient clause of throwing off all disguise, he commenced an attack on the Mr Pitt’s bill was repealed, which ordained every public rajah of Travancore, an ally of the British, and invaded functionary of the Company, on his return to Europe, to his dominions. Lord Cornwallis now prepared for war. make a full disclosure on oath of the property he possess- He formed a league with the Mahrattas and the nizam, ed. This was considered as too severe a test for the Com- who agreed to aid with a military force in the approachpany’s servants, though it could not have affected those ing contest. The plan of the campaign was, that a diviwho acted honestly. It is the guilty only who suffer by sion of the British under General Meadows should penetrate through the province of Coimbetore into the heart, inquiries of this nature. Mr Pitt’s bill defined rather loosely the respective of the Mysore country, whilst General Abercromby should powers of the board of control and the directors; and the reduce the territory of Tippoo on the coast of Malabar, consequence was, that they speedily came into collision. and Colonel Kelly remain to protect the Carnatic from The first question which came under their joint consi- the ravages of the enemy. The division of General deration, was the settlement of the nabob of Arcot’s debts. Meadows marched from the plain of Trichinopoly on the These debts were owing to the Company’s servants, and 15th of June 1790, and all the fortresses in the line of it was not very clear that any equivalent had been given its march, namely, Caroor, Daraporam, Erroad, Coimbefor them. Paul Benfield, a principal creditor, who, as we tore, Sattimungul, Dindigul, and Palacatcherry, were nehave already mentioned, acted as a junior clerk of the cessarily occupied, by which the army was divided into Company, with a salary of some hundreds a year, advan- three bodies, one at Coimbetore, another at Sattimungul, ced a claim, which, with interest, amounted to L.592,000. sixty miles distant, and a third at Palacatcherry, about Such transactions, therefore, were of so very doubtful a thirty miles in the rear. In this situation, Colonel Floyd character, that they presented a prima facie case for in- at Sattimungul, was attacked and forced to retreat with quiry ; and Mr Pitt’s bill accordingly provided that the loss, and with great difficulty effected a junction with court of directors “ should take into consideration the General Meadows. The sultan now resolved to attack, origin and justice of such demands.” But how great was and, if possible, surprise the English chain of posts. He 3 it VOL. XI

498 HINDUSTAN. Hindustan, retook Erroad; approached Coimbetore, which had been cerity in the cause, produced general satisfaction in the Hindustan. ^ previously reinforced ; and afterwards turned to Darapo- British camp, and a conviction, that the ruin of the sultan, Treaty ram, which capitulated. Colonel Maxwell with his corps though delayed, was now certain and inevitable. Tippoo, wit being ordered to invade Barramahal, the sultan, leaving overawed by this formidable confederacy, made overtures 500h Tippart of his army to watch General Meadows, hastened to to Lord Cornwallis for the conclusion of a peace ; but that! ’ attack, and, if possible, to cut off this detachment. The nobleman would listen to no terms of accommodation in British, and a regiment of cavalry, inveigled in a defile, which his allies were not included, and which were not were driven back with great loss. But the able dispositions preceded by the release of all the prisoners that had been of Colonel Maxwell frustrated any further attempts on detained during the present and former wars. The arrival the part of Tippoo; and he soon afterwards effected his of the Mahratta troops, amounting to 32,000 cavalry, howjunction with General Meadows. The sultan having thus ever fortunate it might be deemed at the critical moment succeeded in defeating the original plan for the invasion in which it happened, brought little additional effective of Mysore by a rapid march into the Carnatic, arrived strength to the allied army. Their battalions were unbefore the English depot of Trichinopoly, whither he was wieldy, irregular, and ill disciplined; their force had defollowed by General Meadows, and afterwards to Trinco- clined as much as Tippoo’s had advanced in improvement; malee; and thus ended this indecisive campaign. The and they were at present far inferior to those troops who, Malabar country was in the course of three weeks com- under Madha Row, had defeated Hyder Ali in 1772. pletely reduced under the British power by the force unThe combined armies amounted to about 80,000 men ; der General Abercromby. and if to these be added four times the number of camp Lord Cornwallis now resolved to assume the command followers, brinjarries or grain carriers, and the carriage of the army, and, advancing to the Ghaut Mountains in department, the number of strangers to be subsisted in the the direction of Velore, to lay siege to Bangalore, and Mysore alone could not be much less than half a million. thence to proceed against Seringapatam, the capital of That no distrust, jealousy, or counteraction, should have Mysore. Early in February 1791 he was on his march to disturbed the combined operations of such an immense Velore ; and on the 5th of March the English army sat multitude, must be ascribed to the unexampled moderadown before Bangalore, which on the 2lst was carried by tion and the vigilant conduct of the commander-in-chief. assault; an event which, fixing the seat of war in the Such a vast army had never taken the field in India in enemy’s territory, proved decisive of its success. On the the British cause; yet no murmurs, nor even the slightest 28th Lord Cornwallis began his march from Bangalore, appearance of distrust, were ever manifested by the allies in the course of which he was joined by the nizam’s force, towards the British commander. They submitted with amounting to 10,000 cavalry, which were found to be of implicit confidence, not only to his arrangements in carrylittle service. On the 13th of May the British army ing on the war, but, which was little to be expected among reached Anika, about nine miles from Serrngapatam, des- allies so much alive to their particular interests, they actitute both of provisions and of draught cattle. It was quiesced in his distribution of the conquered territories, the intention of Lord Cornwallis that General Aber- with a deference which evinced the most perfect conficromby, ascending through the passes of the Ghauts from dence in his liberality and justice. With these coadjuMalabar with the Bombay army, and the Mahratta force tors, Lord Cornwallis set out in the month of June tounder Purseram Bhow, should penetrate into the centre wards Bangalore. He determined on a new and circuiof the sultan’s dominions, and co-operate with the main tous route northward by Naggemungulum ; and in order army in the attack of the capital. Of the movements of to facilitate the communication between the Mysore and this force Lord Cornwallis had received no intelligence ; the Carnatic, from which the supplies were chiefly to be and having defeated Tippoo’s army in the vicinity of Se- drawn, the various hill forts which command the differringapatam, he now resolved, as the Cavery was too large ent passes were to be reduced. Amongst these forts, reto be crossed in safety, to ascend to a ford at Cansam- markable for natural strength, Oossoor, Rayacottahud, and baddy, eight miles above Seringapatam. In this march Nundydroog, were assaulted and taken. There remainthe troops were exposed to unexampled hardships; to ed Kistnaghery, Savendroog, and Ootradroog, on the disease, from scarcity of food, and of the means of convey- first of which an unsuccessful attack was made. Savenance owing to the complete failure of the draught cattle; droog consists of a vast mountainous rock, which rises and all their calamities were aggravated by the small-pox, above half a mile in perpendicular height above its own which raged in the camp. It was now apparent that the base, which covers a space of eight or ten miles in cirarmy could only be saved by a timely retreat, and by the cumference. This rock is surrounded by walls on every sacrifice of the battering train and all the heavy equip- side, and defended by cross barriers wherever it was ments. On the 21st of May, accordingly, the retreat deemed accessible. Towards the upper part, the imwas begun ; and immediate orders were sent to General mense pile is almost precipitous, and has the further adAbercromby to follow the same course, which occasioned vantage of being divided on the top into two hills, which a similar destruction of the battering train and other have each their defences, and are capable of being mainheavy equipments. So great was the destruction, that the tained independently of the garrison in the lower works. ground on which the army of Lord Cornwallis had en- To the siege of this tremendous fortress, Lieutenant-Cocamped at Cansambaddy was covered to an extent of se- lonel Stewart, commanding the right wing of the main veral miles with the carcasses of the cattle and horses; army, was appointed. The attempt commenced on the and the last sight of the gun-carriages, carts, and stores 10th of December. In three days a practicable breach of the battering train, left in flames, was the melancholy was effected, and both hills were stormed, with only one spectacle which the troops beheld, as they passed along, private soldier wounded. Colonel Stewart’s detachment on quitting this deadly camp. marched in two days against Ootradroog, another fortress Fortunately for the British army, it was met, before the strengthened by five different walls, and so steep as to end of the first day s march, by the allied force of the prove tenable by a handful of men against the largest Mahrattas, under Purseram Bhow and Hurry Punt. army. After the refusal of a summons to surrender, the Every despatch sent to these chiefs had been intercepted lower fort was escaladed with such rapidity, that the kilby the vigilance of the enemy, and they were astonished ladar requested a parley. But on some appearance of when they learned the disasters which had been occasion- treachery in the upper fort, the assault was ordered; ed by their delay. Their arrival, which evinced their sin- some of the gates were instantly broken, others were es-

HINDUSTAN. 499 Hindustan, caladed, till five or six different walls on the face of the still farther in the rear, to prevent interference with the Hindustan. w-y'w'' steep rock were passed, when the troops gained the sum- British camp. Opposite to Seringapatam, on both sides of the river, a mit, and put the garrison to the sword. The assault of these fortresses, which had hitherto been deemed impreg- large space was enclosed by a bound hedge, which marks nable, made so serious an impression on the enemy, that the limits of the capital, and afforded a refuge to the peain none of the hill forts, however inaccessible, did they sants during the incursions of cavalry. Tippoo’s front afterwards make any attempt to resist the British troops. line, or fortified camp, lay immediately behind this hedge, Hence the strong mountainous country between Banga- where it was defended by heavy cannon in the redoubts, lore and Seringapatam, which, studded with forts, had so and by a large field train advantageously placed. In this much checked all communication, now afforded security line there were a hundred pieces of artillery, and in the to the convoys. These henceforth reached the army with- fort and island which formed his second line there were out opposition ; and the supplies of warlike stores of every above thrice that number. The redoubts on his left were description were as completely re-established as they had intrusted to two of his best officers, and a corps of Europeans commanded by Monsieur Vigie ; Sheik Ansar, a been at the beginning of the last campaign. To prevent any future scarcity of the great article of general of established reputation, was stationed on the grain, the commander-in-chief encouraged the native brin- right, and the Carighaut Hill; whilst Tippoo himself comjarries, a class of men of whom we have already given manded the centre, having his tent pitched in the sultan’s some account. They form a peculiar caste, who are redoubt. The fort and island, where there was the greattraders in grain, and whose utility is so universally ac- est number of guns, were intrusted to Syed Saib and knowledged that they are regarded as neutral in war, and other commanders. The whole army of the sultan thus are not hindered by either of the belligerents from carry- stationed consisted of about 50,000 men. The whole attention of Tippoo, on finding that he could ing supplies of grain to the other. By constantly affording regular payment and a good price to these native mer- not keep the field, was directed to the fortifying of this chants, they supplied the camp to an extent far exceed- camp, and the strengthening of his defences in the fort ing what could ever be furnished by the most extensive and island, under the idea that the want of supplies, or carriage establishment. With such ample supplies, pre- the approach of the monsoon, would again force his eneparations were made for the commencement of the cam- mies to abandon their enterprise, as they had been compaign. The Bombay troops, destined again to act from pelled to do on former occasions. In these circumstanthe same quarter as last season, marched from Cananore, ces, Lord Cornwallis resolved on the bold enterprise of a and arrived at the foot of Poodicherrim Ghaut in the night attack or. the enemy’s fortified camp. Accordingly, month of December. Several weeks of hard labour were on the evening of the 6th of February 1792, just after necessary to drag the artillery through woods extending the troops had left the parade, orders were issued for an nearly sixty miles, and over mountains of immense height, attack at seven o’clock, of the enemy’s camp and lines, in when this force, consisting of 8400, with all their baggage three divisions. The British camp was left to be defendand artillery, and a supply of rice for forty days, penetrated ed by the artillery and cavalry ; whilst the assailants, who with safety into the Mysore frontier, which they reached were instantly furnished with guides and scaling ladders, on the 22d of January 1792. To facilitate the return of marched in perfect confidence that muskets alone, for the army, batteries were constructed to defend the pass; they were unprovided with artillery, would prove the fita precaution which, if the sultan had not overlooked, he test instruments for opening their way into the enemy’s would have suffered no invasion on this quarter of his do- camp. The allies of the British, to whom this design was not communicated till after the columns had marched, minions. The Mahratta forces, after taking the important post were struck with surprise and consternation on learning of Simoga, which, however, was soon retaken by one of that Lord Cornwallis, like a common soldier, was persoTippoo’s generals, and defeating Reza Saib and nearly nally to lead the attack on the enemy’s fortified camp. 10,000 of the sultan’s cavalry, effected their junction with They not only deemed his success impossible, but they the Bombay army, though somewhat later than the ap- dreaded that the ruin of the allied army would be inpointed season. The main army under Lord Cornwallis, volved in the attempt. The three columns into which the assailants had been being joined at Ootradroog by the battering train under Colonel Duff, and the last convoys under Colonel Floyd, divided marched with equal intrepidity to execute the and also by the army of the nizam, was at last fully pre- different objects which had been allotted them. Many obnared to resume its enterprises against the sultan, who, stacles intervened ; various conflicts ensued in different in imitation of his father when formerly attacked in 1767, quarters of the enemy’s camp j each party was uncertain had encamped with the whole of his force in a strong po- of the fate of the rest, and each individual of his assosition under the walls of his capital. On the 1st of Feb- ciates. The return of day at last removed their fears and ruary the allied armies marched from Hooleadroog, the uncertainty, by disclosing the complete success which had last hill fort of which they had taken possession, lying at crowned their exertions throughout the whole line of atthe distance of only forty miles from Seringapatam. The tack. The enemy having lost all their positions on the last march, of the 5th of February, stretched across a north side of the river, where the siege was to commence, range of barren hills lying six miles north-east of Serin- and almost the whole of the island, every material obgapatam. From these heights a view of the whole city ject of the assault was secured. On the side of the Briwas presented to the army, and the encampment of the tish, the loss, though considerable, amounting to 536 men, sultan under its walls. Every circumstance was eagerly was small in proportion to the importance of the victory viewed by our troops ; and, from the sultan’s position, it and the disasters of the enemy, of whom it afterwards apwas evident that he meant to defend the place in person, peared that 4000 bad been slain in the various conand to make it the grand concluding scene of the war. flicts during this night of enterprise, danger, and death, The camp of the allies was pitched on the north side of besides a much greater loss which was suffered by dethe island. The British formed the front line, and extend- sertion. The British army, now in possession of the island and ed along both sides of the Lockany, a small river which at this place flows into the Cavery. The reserve was town of Seringapatam, and flushed with the pride of vicplaced a mile in the rear, to afford space for the baggage tory, immediately began to make the necessary preparaand stores; and the nizam and Mahrattas were stationed tions for the siege of the fortress or citadel. The mosques

HINDUSTAN. 500 Hindustan, and religious buildings on this enchanting island, watered saluted by the guns of the fort; a compliment which they Hindustan, -v-—by the Cavery, and the seat of perpetual verdure, were again received as they approached the British camp. converted into hospitals for the wounded and sick; and They were seated in silver howdahs, attended by their the trees, now for the first time assailed by the axe, fur- father’s minister and a numerous retinue. The procession nished materials for fascines and gabions for the approach- which they thus formed was equally grand and interesting siege. The sultan was now seriously alarmed ; and ing. It was led by several camel harcarrasand standardafter vain efforts to retard the siege by a distant cannon- bearers, carrying green flags suspended from rockets, folade, which occasioned little injury, he at last began to lowed by one hundred pikemen, with spears inlaid with Sepoys, and a party meditate seriously on the necessity of a peace. In order silver Their guard of two hundred 1 to smooth the way for his overtures, he previously liberat- of horse, brought up the rear. Lord Cornwallis, attended by his staff, and the princied two British officers, who had been detained contrary to capitulation in Coimbetore. These officers, who had not pal officers of his army, and a battalion of Sepoys, receivbeen treated with his usual rigour, he loaded with pre- ed them at the door of his tent, and embraced them with sents, and made the bearers of a letter to Lord Cornwallis, a cordiality and tenderness that resembled parental affecsuing for peace. He at the same time had recourse to tion. The manners, dress, and appearance of the young another daring expedient, which might have been attend- princes themselves, formed an interesting spectacle to ed with fatal consequences. He despatched a small party their European hosts. They were clothed in red turbans of horsemen in the night to surprise the tent of Lord and long white muslin gowns, everywhere sparkling with Cornwallis, and to put him to death. The party were emeralds, rubies, and pearls. Thus attired, the young detected by their eager inquiries after the commander’s princes, immediately after their reception, were seated on tent; and being fired upon, effected their retreat. The each side of Lord Cornwallis, when G ulam Ali, the head Bombay army, which was at this time approaching, effect- vakeel of Tippoo, thus addressed the British general:— ed its junction with the main army on the 16th ; and on “ These children were this morning the sons of the sultan the second night after this event the trenches were open- my master; their situation is now changed; they must ed, and a parallel formed within eight hundred yards of look up to your lordship as their father.” The scene now the north face of the fort. General Abercromby, station- became most interesting; the faces of the children brighted on the southern quarter with a strong detachment, was ened up ; and not only their attendants, but all the specordered to cannonade it from the heights. This attack tators, were delighted to observe, that any fears they might being directed against the weakest part of the fort, occa- have harboured were removed, and that they would soon sioned the greatest alarm. Tippoo himself, therefore, at be reconciled to their change of situation. After being the head of his troops, marched to dislodge the general. regaled, in the eastern manner, with ottar of roses and Being supported by the guns of the fort, he maintained betel-nut, the princes were presented each with a gold the action for the whole day; but towards evening he was watch from Lord Cornwallis, a gift from which they seemforced to retreat. This desperate effort was the last that ed to receive great delight. Lord Cornwallis next day Tippoo made for his defence. His affairs hastened to a visited them in their tents; and each of them made him crisis; cabals were formed by the chiefs, and his troops a present of a Persian sword, and he made them a present deserted in multitudes during the night. He saw his ca- of some elegant fire-arms in return. Some difficulty occurred in adjusting the terms of a pital blockaded on every side by a powerful army, plentifully supplied with provisions, which must infallibly re- definitive treaty. When the territory of the Coorga raduce his troops by famine, should they even prove suc- jah, in particular, was required, the demand seemed unexcessful in repelling its assaults; even his last hopes of re- pected both by the sultan and his ministers, and was at lief from the monsoon, and the swelling of the river, were first received with astonishment and disdain. This rajah was considered as a chief cause of the war, and Tippoo, thus finally cut off. On the 23d of February, therefore, the preliminaries of therefore, wished to crush him. Lord Cornwallis seemed peace were signed by Tippoo, amidst the conflicting emo- equally resolute in his defence; for he again manned the tions of pride, resentment, and fear ; and orders were is- works, and threatened to recommence the attack. Hapsued to the troops on both sides to cease from further hos- pily, his stock of provisions was ample ; and although uptilities ; a stipulation of which the dread of an immediate wards of 400,000 strangers and half a million of cattle assault alone enforced the observance. were daily to be fed, the supply was sufficient for the By the terms of this treaty, Tippoo was compelled to whole; whilst one million sterling of the fine imposed on pay, as an indemnification for the expenses of the war, Tippoo had already been paid. The firm determination three crores and thirty lacs of rupees, at two instalments, of the commander-in-chief, aided by these circumstances, the first to be advanced immediately, and the second at which were not unknown to the sultan, damped his resothe end of four months. Other articles of this instrument lution. His resentment cooled, and he finally acceded to provided further, that all the prisoners taken from the the terms agreed upon, and copies of the treaty were deallied powers, from the time of Hyder Ali, should be un- livered to the confederated powers. conditionally restored; that no less than one half of his From the conclusion of this treaty, dictated to Tippoo Nabob of territories should be ceded to the allies, and that two of by an English army at the gates of his capital, no great Oude. Tippoo Sultan’s three eldest sons should be given as host- event occurs in the history of India till the renewal of the ages for the due performance of the treaty. war in 1798, during the administration of Lord MorningAbout noonday on the 26th, the young princes, the one ton. The affairs of the nabob of Oude, and his dominions, eight, and the other ten years of age, mounted on their ele- were both hastening to ruin under his own mismanagephants richly caparisoned, and attended with a splendid ment and that of the English ; and, with a full knowledge retinue, left the fort, the walls and ramparts of which were of this, his sway was now extended over the district of crowded with spectators. Amidst the vast multitudes Rampore in the Rohilla country, granted to Fyzoolah whom curiosity or affection had drawn out to witness this Khan, the Rohilla chief, who survived the ruin of his nascene, lippoo himself was beheld standing above a high tion, and who died at an advanced age in 1794, leaving gateway, through which, as they passed, the princes were the territory of which he was ruler in a high state of cul1

For the substance of this account, see Major-general Dirom’s narrative of this campaign.

HINDUSTAN. 501 Hindustan, tivation. On the pretence of the usurpation of the reign- and influence, and had employed all the means which sug- Hindustan, ing prince, who had made his way to the throne by the gested themselves for inducing the French to lend their asmurder of his brother, the British troops made war on the sistance in expelling the English from India. Rohillas, and defeated them. The treasures of the late Lord Mornington arrived in Calcutta as governor-genechief, amounting to 332,000 gold mohurs (L.607,000), ral in May 1798, and he had scarcely been a month in were given to the vizir or ruler of Oude, who returned India when printed copies of a proclamation announcing twelve lacs of rupees (L.127,000) to the British army ; ten the hostile designs of Tippoo, and inviting French subjects lacs of revenue were assigned for the support of the law- to join his standard, were circulated at Calcutta. The inful prince, now dethroned; and the unhappy country was quiries instituted by the governor-general not only subhanded over to be pillaged and destroyed by the vizir stantiated the authenticity of this document, but developed and his English allies. He soon afterwards died, and was a variety of facts illustrative of the irreconcileable enmity succeeded by Mirza Ali or Vizir Ali, who was set aside by of Tippoo against the British. No course now remained the English on the reputed spuriousness of his birth, and but to establish a permanent restraint upon Tippoo’s future Saadut Ali, the eldest surviving son of Sujah Dowlah, was means of offence; and Lord Mornington at once resolved upon placed on the throne. The annual subsidy to the English a series of extended operations against Mysore. Tippoo, as was at the same time raised to seventy-six lacs of rupees. the event too fatally for himself proved, was unprepared for The Nabob Mahommed Ali, the first ally of the Eng- war. Stripped of half his dominions and revenues by the Transactions at lish, died in 1795, at the age of seventy-eight, and was last treaty, he had not the means of maintaining war; Madras. succeeded by Omdut-ul-Omrah, his eldest son. Lord whilst the power of his rivals was formidably increased, and Hobart, governor of Madras, now determined to interfere their numerous and well-appointed armies, and extended with a strong hand in the affairs of the Carnatic, and, if dominions, justly excited the dread and the jealousy of the possible, to rescue the country from the merciless exac- native powers, and probably of Tippoo amongst others. tions to which it had been exposed. These evils he de- But the humbled king of Mysore was no longer himself an scribes to arise from the numerous loans of the English object of jealousy and dread: the last treaty was dictated to the nabob. “ Some of the principal houses of business by a victorious army at the gates of his capital; its terms, in Madras,” he observes, “ or even some of the Company’s from his unprovoked aggression of the British allies, were servants, enter into an agreement with the nabob for the necessarily severe ; and circumstances had since occurred payment of sums which may have become due to the which fully justified the British in exacting additional seCompany’s treasury. They receive a mortgage upon a curities from the fallen prince. It was known that he had portion of the territory. To render this availing, they been in communication with Zemaun Shah, the ruler of stipulate for the appointment of the manager of the terri- Caubul, and that his intercourse with that prince had for tory. It is also requisite to establish an understanding its object the invasion of the N. of India in order to fawith the military commanding officer of the district. cilitate the projected hostile measures on the part of Tippoo And then the chain of power is complete. Then the in the S. It was ascertained that an embassy consistunhappy ryots (husbandmen) are delivered over to the ing of two natives, accompanied by a French officer, had uncontrolled operations of men who have an interest in been despatched by him to the executive directory of nothing but exacting the greatest sums in the shortest France. At Poona and at Hyderabad his efforts had been time ; of men hardened by practice, and with consciences directed to counteract British influence, and to engage both lulled to rest by the delusive opiate of interest upon in- Mahratta and Mohammedan chiefs in his views. The obterest.” Lord Hobart prepared to remove these evils by jects of the governor-general, as explained by himself, were, assuming the management of the nabob’s revenues, and, by obtaining the whole maritime territory remaining in the in short, the internal government of the country. But possession of Tippoo on the coast of Malabar, to preclude these arrangements being opposed by the supreme go- him from all future communication by sea with his French vernment, were not at this time carried into effect. allies—to compel him to defray the entire expenses of the The British had now acquired an undisputed ascen- war, thus securing reimbursement of the outlay rendered Invasion of the ni- dency in India. The other ruling powers were the Mah- necessary by his hostility, and, by crippling his resources, the probability of future security—to prevail on rftorie^b rattaS, unc^er t*ie Pes^lwa an(J Scindia; the nizam of the increasing Scindia ' Deccan, an ally and dependent of the British ; and Tip- him to admit permanent residents at his court from the poo, so greatly humbled and weakened by the late war English and their allies; and to procure the expulsion of as to be no longer formidable. Each of these powers was all the natives of France in his service, together with an jealous of the others, though the balance of power was engagement for the perpetual exclusion of all Frenchmen chiefly endangered by the ascendency of the British. The both from his army and dominions. Before hostilities comnizam, after the conclusion of the war with Tippoo, was menced, however, the sultan was allowed time to avert extremely desirous of forming an alliance with the Eng- them by timely concession. Intelligence of Lord Nelson’s lish as a defence against the encroachments of the Mah- recent victory over the French fleet was communicated to rattas, who, he was well informed, were planning an in- him with suitable remarks; and a letter addressed to him road into his dominions, for the purpose of levying the by the governor-general adverted to the transactions becontribution of the chout, amounting to one fourth of the tween that prince and the French government of the Mauland revenues, to which they laid claim, on condition of ritius, and contained a proposal to send an English officer guaranteeing the remainder. The English, though bound to Tippoo, for the purpose of communicating the views of to the nizam by a treaty offensive and defensive, refused the Company and their allies. Tippoo’s answer contained to join in any alliance against the Mahrattas, who, under a ridiculous attempt to explain away the embassy to the the command of Dowlut Row Scindia, Mahadjee Scindia Mauritius and its consequences, and his communication in being lately dead, now invaded the nizam’s territories, other respects was so extremely vague, that the governorand having defeated his army and shut him in one of his general determined to suspend all negotiation with the sultan fortresses, dictated a treaty of peace to him, by which he until the united force of the arms of the Company and of ceded a country yielding thirty-five lacs of revenue, paid their allies should have made such an impression on his them a large sum, and gave up his minister as an hostage territories as might give full effect to the just represenfor the performance of these conditions. Tippoo, since tations of the allied powers. Three armies were now asthe conclusion of the peace negotiated by Lord Corn- sembled for the invasion of Mysore—namely, the army of wallis, had laboured assiduously to regain his lost power General Harris at Velore, which was to advance from the

502 HINDUSTAN. Hindustan, east; the army of General Stuart at Cananore, on the vern men t. The treasures of Tippoo, amounting to sixteen Hindusta y— western coast; and a force under Colonels Read and lacs of pagodas (L.640,000), and his jewels, valued at Brown in the southern districts of the Carnatic. On the L.360,000, were divided amongst the troops. The fortress 9th of March the army made its first united movement, of Velorewas commodiously fitted up for the future residence and in the course of its advance experienced no serious re- of the royal family, to whom, and to all Tippoo’s confidential sistance. The greatest obstacle to its progress arose from servants, such pensions were assigned, that they were no less the want of provisions, and an adequate supply of carriages. surprised than gratified by the liberality of the conquerors. The influence of British authority is not confined to the All these difficulties were, however, overcome : and on the oth of April the united army took up its position for the dominions immediately subjected to it; it is exerted over siege of the capital, exactly one month after it had crossed nearly the whole of India, by virtue of protective treaties the frontier. Tippoo made a last and vain appeal to his with the native princes. In the states thus situated the enemies. But the governor-general was now resolved on prince exercises the functions of sovereignty, under the the conquest of the country. His views expanded with the control of the British power, which is represented by a success of his arms ; and towards the end of April he de- resident agent. The presumed advantages of this arrangeclared his opinion, that “ it would be prudent and justifi- ment are mutual. The prince and his successors are guaable entirely to overthrow the power of Tippooand ranteed in the possession of their dominions ; and in return, Defeat and “ that the power and resources of Tippoo Sultan should be the ruling prince renounces all external connections, exdeath of reduced to the lowest possible state, and even \itterly de- cept with the British, through whom alone negotiations are Tippoo. stroyed, if the events of the war should furnish the oppor- conducted, and by whose decision he is bound in all mattunity.” On the 3d of May a practicable breach was made, ters of dispute with other states. In some cases the prince and next day the assault took place, which, notwithstanding consents to receive a subsidiary force ; in others this proan obstinate defence, was successful at every point. The vision is dispensed with. But the great principles winch assailants, carrying everything before them by the impetu- pervade them all are the supremacy of the British, and the osity of their attack, met over the eastern gateway; and dependency of the native government. In 1798 a treaty the palace, in which were the family of the sultan and a was concluded with the nizam, by which he agreed to disbody of his most faithful adherents, was the only place miss a force under French officers, which he had hitherto within the fort that still held out. From motives of huma- maintained, and to receive and to pay a British force in its nity, the English were extremely averse to expose its in- stead, whose aid, it is certain, was absolutely necessary for mates to the horror of an assault, and they at length suc- the defence of his dominions. This was therefore the comceeded in effecting its peaceable surrender. Major Allan, mencement of British ascendancy in that country. In who was admitted to the apartments of the young princes, Oude the military power had long been vested in the Comendeavoured, by every expression of tenderness, to soothe pany. Upon the death of Shujah-ud-Dowlah in 1775, and the agitation of their minds. They were conducted to the the succession to the throne of his eldest son, it was stipupresence of General Baird, who assured them, in the kind- lated that a brigade of British troops, consisting of two batest manner, of protection from violence and insult, and talions of Europeans, one company of artillery, and six batgave them in charge to two officers, to be conducted to the talions of sepoys, should be stationed in Oude whenever head-quarters of the general. The sultan lost his life in required by the vizier, for the support of which he engaged the defence of his capital, and his body was found amidst to pay an annual sum of about L.300,000. Additions were heaps of slain. He had been repeatedly wounded in the made to this force in 1781, and again in 1787, when the Nacourse of the conflict; and his attendants having placed waub vizier agreed to fix his subsidy at L.500,000, in which him in his palanquin, he was observed by the English sol- sum were included the expenses of the British Residency. diers who first entered. One of them in attempting to pull In 1797 the vizier consented to defray the expense of two off his sword-belt, which was very rich, received a wound regiments of cavalry, one European and one native, making from the sultan, who still held his sabre in his hand; on the total subsidy L.555,000 per annum. Shortly afterwhich, putting his musket to his shoulder, he fired, and the wards the Company bound themselves to defend the terrisultan, receiving the bail in his temple, expired. tories of Oude against all enemies. In order to enable The kingdom of Mysore, which was now in possession them to fulfil this engagement, and at the same time to proof the English, was partitioned amongst the allied powers. vide for the protection of their own dominions, they had The English and the nizam received equal portions of largely increased their military establishment by the addithe conquered territory, and a smaller portion was reserved tion of new levied regiments, both of infantry and cavalry ; for the Mahrattas. The possessions of the sultan on the and in consequence thereof Saadut Ali agreed, in 1798, to Malabar coast, the district of Coimbetore and Darampo- increase the subsidy to L.760,000 per annum. The Naram, the whole country which lay between the Company’s waub vizier also ceded the fortress of Allahabad, and gave territory on the eastern and western coasts, the passes of L.80,000 to the Company for its repairs, and L.30,000 for the Ghauts, the district of Weynaad, and the city and those of Futtehghur. The British troops in Oude were island of Seringapatam, were surrendered to the British, not to consist of less than 10,000 men, including Europeans who now occupied the country from sea to sea. A terri- and natives, cavalry, infantry, and artillery ; and should it tory of equal revenue was ceded to Nizam Ali, in the dis- become necessary to augment the Company’s troops betricts of Gooty, Gurrumcondah, and the tract of country yond the number of 13,000 men, the vizier agreed to pay which lies along the line of the great forts of Chittledroog, the actual difference occasioned by the excess above that Sera, Nundydroog, and Colar, with the exception of the number. The threatened invasion of Zemaun Shah atforts. The territory ceded to the Mahrattas, from one-half tracted the attention of the Marquis Wellesley (then Earl to two-thirds of the other portions, was to include Harpoo- of Mornington) to the state of Oude. It was desirable to nelly, Soonda above the Ghauts, Annagoody, and some substitute efficient troops for the unskilful and undisciplined other districts ; also the territory, though not the fortresses, force maintained by the vizier, and to place the defence of of Chittledroog and Bednore. The remaining portion of the the Oude frontier against foreign invasion upon a more subsultan’s territories was erected into a separate state, over stantial basis. To accomplish these objects the pecuniary which was placed a descendant of the ancient rajahs, who had subsidy was commuted for a territorial cession; and by been retained in confinement by Tippoo and his father ; with treaty, 10th November 1801, the Nawaub vizier ceded such conditions, however, as provided for the transfer of the the Southern Doab and the districts of Allahabad, Azimentire administration to the British in the event of misgo- gurh, Western Goruckpore, and some others, estimated to

HINDUSTAN. 503 Hindustan, yield in the aggregate an annual revenue of L.1,352,347. married the renowned Ahalya Baee, by whom he had one Hindustan, About the same time the nabob of Surat, the nabob of son and one daughter, both of whom died, the daughter v y-r ; Arcot, against whom a lucky discovery was made of a cri- on the funeral pile of her deceased husband. Ahalya minal correspondence with Tippoo, and the rajah of Tan- Baee succeeded to the sovereignty, and assumed as the jore, were all dethroned, and pensions assigned them for commander of her army, and her minister for those dutheir support. The benefits anticipated from these mea- ties which a female could not perform, Tukajee Holkar, sures have been fully realised. Most of the protected states the chief of the tribe, though not related to Mulhar Row. have been wretchedly misgoverned; and there cannot be The administration of Ahalya Baee, who is celebrated by the slightest doubt that the people have been far happier Sir John Malcolm as a shining example of great qualities as British subjects. Yet some suspicion must attach to the and amiable virtues, was fraught with blessings to her motives of those who, after the death of Fyzoolah Khan, subjects, the country enjoying under her rule more than could transfer the flourishing country of the Rohillas from thirty years of prosperity ami peace. Tukajee Holkar, the mild sway of its lawful rulers to the misrule and oppres- who reigned till the year 1797, left four sons, Cashee sion of the nabob of Oude. A bad was here substituted for Rao, Mulhar Rao, Eithojee Holkar, and Jeswunt Rao a good government. If good government had been the sole Holkar. The succession was disputed by the two elder object, how greatly would it have been promoted bv the trans- brothers, who repaired to Poonah for the decision of the fer of the territory from native to British rule. The British peshwa. The influence of Scindia was at this time paprovinces have been steadily advancing in prosperity ; the ramount at Poonah; and having made his terms with progress of the protected states has been from bad to worse. Cashee Rao, he surprised and murdered Mulhar Rao, The Slab- The Mahratta powers, namely, the peshwa, the nomi- with all his attendants, at Poonah, in September 1797. •atta pow- nal head of the confederacy, whose capital was Poonah, The wife of Mulhar Rao left a posthumous child, Khunthe rajah of Berar, Holkar, and Scindia, now remained the deh Rao, of whose person Scindia got possession, and reonly rivals of the English for the dominion of India; and taining Cashee Rao in a state of dependence, proposed to it was the policy of the Marquis Wellesley, as he him- govern the dominions of Holkar in his name. The two self explains at large in his correspondence with the resi- brothers, Eithojee and Jeswunt Rao, who were at Poonah dents in India and the directors at home, to form subsi- at the time of the murder, made their escape, the first to diary alliances with them, on the same terms as with the Kolapoor, where he was taken, sent to Poonah, and exeother states of India ; namely, that a British force should cuted ; the latter to Nagpoor, where he was arrested and rbe permanently stationed within their dominions, and that thrown into confinement. Having made his escape, he they should assign a sufficient quantity of land for its fled to Mehysser on the Nerbuddah. Here he collected maintenance and pay. The effect of this alliance, as in- a band of adventurers, and in October 1801 was enabled deed its object, as stated by the marquis, was to secure to fight a battle with Scindia, in which he was defeated the dependence of the different states of India on the Bri- with the loss of his baggage and artillery. Before the tish power. “ The measure of subsidizing a British force, middle of 1802 Holkar had assembled a new and well-diseven under the limitations which the Peshwa has annex- ciplined army. He insisted on the release of the posthued to that proposal (namely, its being stationed with- mous child Khundeh Rao, the head, as he proclaimed out the limits of his dominions), must immediately place him, of the house of Holkar ; and to enforce his demand, him in some degree in a state of dependence on the Bri- he advanced with his troops from Malwah towards Poonah. tish power.” This effect was very plainly seen by the Scindia collected his army, and on the 25th of October a Mahratta princes, as well as by the governor-general; and battle was fought, in which Holkar obtained a decisive accordingly, though the arrangement was very zealously victory. pressed upon the peshwa, as well as on Scindia, it was It was during these transactions that the governor-Foreign steadily rejected by both, until the former was reduced general deemed the occasion favourable for drawing the policy of by necessity to accept the alliance of the British on their Mahratta chiefs into a subsidiary alliance with the Bri- f, its protection; and that if, while we protect, we assess it for them as they are, and not as theorists conceive they v . moderately, and leave it to its natural course, it will in time ought to be. We must respect their local usages and inflourish, and assume that form which is most suitable to the stitutions, wherever they are not productive of positive evil, and even where they are, they must be removed with a condition of the people.” The observations of the same distinguished person on gentle hand. The general habit of the people is submisthe general principles which should guide those who under- sion to authority, and it will be our own fault if they learn take the high task of improving the condition of India, are a different lesson. If we are content to derive a moderate no less just and instructive:—“ We are now,” he says, revenue from the land, and to abstain from all interference “ masters of a very extensive empire, and we should endea- with existing rights, except to protect them, the people will vour to improve and secure it by a good internal adminis- advance in wealth and happiness, and the British dominion tration. Our experience is too short to judge what rules take root in their interests and feelings. But if fanciful are best calculated for the purpose. It is only within the schemes, concocted in the closets of speculators and sciolists, last thirty years that we have begun to acquire any prac- framed with an ostentatious disregard of local peculiarities, tical knowledge ; a longer period must probably elapse be- claiming an universal applicability, and, like a patent medifore we can ascertain what is best. Such a period is as cine, “ warranted to keep good in any climate,” are imposed nothing in the existence of a people ; but we act as if this upon a people little addicted to novelty, in place of the instiwere as limited as the life of an individual. We proceed tutions to which they have been accustomed—which have in a country of which we know little or nothing as if we grown with the growth of the nation, and become part of knew every thing, and as if every thing must be done now, its very essence—discontent, disgust, and confusion will be and nothing could be done hereafter. We feel our igno- inevitable, and the final results may be such as no friend, rance of Indian revenue and the difficulties arising from it; either to India or England, can wish to contemplate. But and, instead of seeking to remedy it, by acquiring more while we discourage such a mischievous activity, we must knowledge, we endeavour to get rid of the difficulty by pre- not take refuge in indolence and supineness. It is at once cipitately making permanent settlements, which relieve us our interest and our duty to settle nothing permanently from the troublesome task of minute or accurate investiga- till it can be settled in a manner satisfactory to the people; tion, and which are better adapted to perpetuate our igno- but it is also our interest and our duty to spare no labour rance than to protect the people. We must not be led that may be necessary to enable us to acquire that minute away by fanciful theories, founded on European models, knowledge of Indian institutions which is indispensable to which will inevitably end in disappointment. We must a satisfactory settlement. Of two plans we must not give not too hastily declare any rights permanent, lest we give the preference to one solely on the ground of its involving to one class what belongs to another. We must proceed less trouble than the other. Nothing must be left to chance patiently, and as our knowledge of the manners and cus- or accident, nor must the preservation of any class of rights toms of the people and the nature and resources of the be suffered to depend upon the clamorous violence with country increase, frame gradually, from the existing insti- which they may happen to be urged. The weak as well tutions, such a system as may advance the prosperity of the as the strong, the silent as well as the loud, the ignorant as country, and be satisfactory to the people. The knowledge well as the informed, must be protected, and as we must most necessary for this end is that of the landed property not be parsimonious of labour, so neither must we be imand its assessment; for the land is not only the great source patient of the consumption of time. The work to be acof the public revenue, but on its fair and moderate assess- complished is not that of a day or a year ; and provided no ment depend the comfort and happiness of the people.” time be wasted, it will, if well done, be done sufficiently In another place Sir Thomas Munro advexls to the mis- early. The great principle to be observed in any mode of takes which have been committed in a manner which should settlement is to offer as little violence as possible to the operate as a warning against indiscreet zeal for the future :— habits and feelings of the people. Wherever these do not “ Our great error in this country, during a long course of stand in the way, wherever there is room for the exercise years, has been too much precipitation in attempting to of a free choice, there can be no doubt at all that the ryotbetter the condition of the people, with hardly any know- war system is that which is best calculated to secure the ledge of the means by which it was to be accomplished, cultivator from oppression, best calculated to promote inand, indeed, without seeming to think that any other than dustry, order, and independence, best calculated to advance good intentions were necessary. It is a dangerous system the general prosperity of the country, and best calculated of government, in a country of which our knowledge is very to protect the pecuniary interests of the government. That imperfect, to be constantly urged by the desire of settling it is generally most consonant to the feelings of the people every thing permanently, to do every thing in a hurry, and,, is certain. It is equally certain that the ryot-war system is in consequence, wrong; and in our zeal for permanency, the only one by which all individual rights can be protected, to put the remedy out of our reach. The ruling vice of indeed, the only one by which they can be ascertained. our government is innovation; and its innovation has been And thus, unless a portion of the rights of the people, proso little guided by a knowledge of the people, that, though bably the most valuable rights of the most valuable class of made after what was thought by us to be a mature discus- the people, are to be regarded as unworthy of notice, a ryotsion, it must appear to them as little better than mere caprice.” war settlement must be the basis of any other. The obserSuch observations, which would scarcely at any time be vations of Mr David Hill, formerly secretary to the governunseasonable, are peculiarly deserving of notice in an age, ment of Madras, upon this subject are much to the purpose ; the ruling vice of which is that which Sir Thomas Munro of course the settlement of which he speaks is such a one ascribes to the English authority in India—innovation. as it would become a just and upright government to make. The great error of concluding that laws and institutions He says, “ You can no more form a zemindary settlement which produce good effects in one country will therefore without a ryot-war one than you can write a correct hand produce good effects in all other countries, must be care- without spelling, although in either case you may be unconfully avoided ; and if it be necessary to bear this in mind scious of the subsidiary operation. The ryot-war settlement with regard to that which has been tried, though under dif- is an essential part of the zemindary one. If the officers of ferent circumstances, the necessity is still more imperious the government do not make settlements with the ryots, with reference to systems altogether untried, and which the zemindar must, and therefore the objections that are have not the sanction of even a partial or local experience. taken against a ryot-war settlement will not be obviated by

527 HINDUSTAN. Hindustan. j.}ie substitution of the other, except in as far as those ob- The details of every ryot-war settlement must devolve on the Hindustan, v '—jections apply to the ryot-war settlement being executed by native servants. The presence of the European officer is no the officers of government.” The following account of doubt useful to superintend the whole ; but it is chiefly requisite, in order to afford on the spot, to every discontented ryot, the practical working of the plan will be acceptable to those this facility of instant access and immediate appeal, which who take an interest in the subject:— affords the best check against either fraud or oppression in “ In the spring of each year, every native collector, of whom the course of the settlement. The collector, if a judicious rethere are generally ten or twelve under the European officer venue officer, seldom has occasion to decide such questions in charge of a large province, makes the circuit of his district, himself; he soon learns to distinguish amongst the ryots asto ascertain the fields which are occupied, and the individual sembled which are those universally respected throughout the holding the highest tenure in each. He then allows the poorer country for their good conduct, impartiality, and sound sense ; ryots to relinquish any fields they may not desire longer to and his call upon them for an opinion, invariably given pubretain, and grants these or other unoccupied or waste fields to licly, without any previous preparation, whilst it silences all such other ryots as desire to extend their cultivation. complaint, relieves the officer of the government from the “ The settlement itself is not begun by the European collec- odium of deciding questions in which its interests may often tor until towards the harvest, when the native collector of each be involved. district, with his district accountant, is, in the first instance, “ All discussions with the ryots having thus been terminated, summoned to meet him. The records of the district accountant the puttah or lease and its counterpart are drawn out, and the show the result of the native collector’s previous circuit through former having been sealed by the collector, the whole of the the villages of his district. The quantity of land in each vil- ryots in each village are called before him. Every man here lage, with its assessment, is ascertained; that portion of it separately exchanges engagements with the government, to which the ryots have agreed to cultivate is distinguished from the number of 60,000 or 70,000 in some provinces, and receives the rest, and the reduced field survey assessment on it, after from the European collector’s own hands his lease, accomthe usual deductions in favour of those who have the revenue panied by the betel-leaf, &c., the usual seal of all native comalienated to them, or remitted in their favour, forms the native pacts. If any ryot still objects to the terms of his lease, he collector’s estimate of the probable settlement of the land re- declines to receive it, and the grounds of his objection are here venue for the season. He then affords personal explanations formally discussed, and finally decided by the collector in open as to the general state of the several villages in his district, public audience. and the local causes of those changes which are observable in “ In each village its head or potail, the chief of the police, the accounts compared with those of former years. is also invariably the village collector on account of govern“ This preliminary having been completed, the village ac- ment. He realises from each individual ryot the amount of countants are next summoned to attend the European collector. government revenue as the instalments fall due, and remits it Their more detailed accounts show how far the several ryots to the native collector of the district, also vested with magishave completed the engagements into which they have entered terial powers similar to those of a justice of the peace, whence with the native collector, and what fields of the land agreed to it is forwarded to the European collector, uniting in his person be cultivated have been left waste. The causes of these alter- the superintendence of both the revenue and police departations are minutely investigated and explained, and the records ments over the entire province.” of the village accountants are checked by information obtained from their competitors or other sources. Such is the mode of proceeding adopted in those parts ol “The collector’s native establishment then prepare from the territories under the Madras presidency, subject to the their data a separate account for every individual ryot, speci- ryot-war system, and it appears to possess many advantages. fying the name of each field, whether irrigated, unirrigated, or In Bombay the revenue settlement is chiefly ryot-war. garden-land, cultivated by him, or at his risk and charge, its Under the new survey now in progress, the lands are subnumber in the survey accounts, and its assessments, with the divided into fields of moderate size, so that each subdivision alienations or remissions (if any) in his favour. This account also exhibits the ryot’s stock, the number of his cattle, sheep, is rendered easy of cultivation by a farmer of limited means. &c. ; that also of the persons of his family, male or female, The government assessment is calculated separately upon the extent of land exempted from revenue cultivated by him, each field, and leases granted for thirty years’ duration at a invariably on very easy terms ; and his actual payments to fixed and invariable sum, binding on the government for the the government for many years past. These, which are called whole term, but with the option on the part of the cultivator the rough ryot-war accounts, form the basis of the European of surrendering any one or more of his fields, or altogether collector’s final settlement; and when any discussion arises with putting an end to his lease at the close of any given year. a particular ryot, they enable the collector to decide the point The great source from which the financial wants of the at issue without delay, for they contain in fact a summary re- state are supplied is the land revenue. The other chief venue history of each individual contributor. “ These accounts having been prepared for each ryot, the sources of Indian revenue are the monopolies of salt and whole of the cultivators themselves in eight or ten villages, are opium, the customs duties, the duties included under the ultimately summoned at the same time to the collector’s pre- term abkarree, comprising those on spirituous liquors, insence. Here the account of each man, and the deductions (if toxicating drugs, and some other articles; the post-office any) made in his favour, are compared in detail with his own receipts, and the mint and stamp duties. Of these various personal information by the collector’s native establishment; modes of taxation, the monopoly of salt is the only one against any items in it to which objections are started are examined, which any reasonable objection can be raised. It exists in discussed, and, if erroneous, corrected. It is here that the Madras, in the northwestern provinces, and in the lower frauds of the village accountants are detected, by the envy, provinces of Bengal. In the last mentioned provinces the jealousy, or honesty of one ryot pointing out the favours im- East India Company make advances to a description of perproperly granted to his neighbour. The objections of the ryots, if ill-founded, are overruled by the explanations of the sons called Molunghees, who are the manufacturers, and the head of the village, the village accountant, or the other culti- salt is disposed of by auction at monthly sales. In Madras the vators in the same village, or by the exhortations of the inha- salt is sold at a fixed price, which does not exceed one-fourth bitants of the neighbouring villages also present, for these of the average price in Bengal; but it is said that the profit persons never hesitate voluntarily to interfere, and to repri- derived from it is considerable, the cost of production being mand such as start unfounded objections ; and a ryot who ob- comparatively small. Various objections have been taken to stinately demurs for hours to the laboured and authoritative this source of revenue; and one of them is certainly not unreasoning of the collector’s native establishment, will often deserving of consideration. It cannot be denied that a give way at once to the voluntary arguments of his fellows, regulation which, for the mere purpose of revenue, adds whose explanations are, perhaps, better adapted to his capacity, and whose opinion being more disinterested, no doubt enormously to the price of an article which must be regarded carries with it more weight. But if the ryot’s objections are as a prime necessary of life, is an evil of no small magnivalid, he always persists in appealing to the collector himself. tude. But those who urge this are bound to show how the

HINDUSTAN. 528 Hindustan, same amount of revenue could be raised less injuriously. was at the same time established at Calcutta, consisting of Hindustan, It is quite clear that it must be raised by some means. a chief justice and three principal judges, appointed by the i The wants of the state must be provided for, and an annual crown ; and a superiority was given to Bengal over the deficiency of upwards of a million and a half sterling, which other presidencies; an appropriation was made of the rewould result from the abolition of the salt monopoly, could venues and profits of the Company, and they were required not be supplied with any degree of certainty from new to make half-yearly statements of their debts, and of the sources. Upon this ground the Company have been per- profit and loss incurred on their trade and revenues. The mitted, notwithstanding the extinction of their commercial loan of L. 1,400,000 having been discharged, two other acts character, to retain this branch of trade. Some modifica- were passed, by which the territory was continued to the tion in the mode of realizing the salt revenue is however Company for one year. In 1781 an act was passed conabout to take place. The monopoly of manufacture has tinuing the territoral revenues and privileges of the Combeen denounced in the House of Commons, and it has been pany till the 1st of March 1791, and then to be taken away resolved to try the experiment of permitting the manufac- only on a three years’ notice ; providing also that the Comture by private individuals under a system of excise. In pany should pay annually L.400,000 to the public, besides Bengal the revenue from opium is realized by means of a three-fourths of any surplus revenue that might accrue.1 government monopoly. No person within the Bengal ter- Under this act the Company paid to the public L.400,000 ritories is allowed to grow the poppy, except on account of in satisfaction of all claims up to the 1st March 1781. But the government. Annual engagements are entered into by of the annual sum of L.400,000, which was afterwards to the cultivators under a system of pecuniary advances, to be paid, the public received only L.300,000 ; and in 1783 sow a certain quantity of land with the poppy, and the the Company were allowed to borrow L.800,000, and out whole produce in the form of opium is delivered to the go- of this borrowed money to pay a dividend of 8 per cent. vernment at a fixed rate. The engagements on the part of By the act of 33d Geo. III. c. 52, passed in 1793, the British the cultivators are optional. A large revenue is derived territories in India, together with the exclusive trade, were from the transit of the opium of Malwa through the British continued to the Company for twenty years ; and the Comterritories of Bombay for exportation to China. Previous pany agreed to pay L.500,000 annually, unless prevented to the year 1831, the British government reserved to itself by war expenditure. But only two payments were made, of a monopoly of the drug which was purchased by the British L.250,000 each, under this act, in 1793 and 1794. In resident at Indore, and sold by auction either at Bombay or 1814 the charter of the Company was renewed for twenty at Calcutta. But in that year it was deemed advisable to years ; the trade to India opened under certain limitations, relinquish the monopoly in Central India, to open the trade with the exception of the trade to China, the monopoly of to the operations of private enterprise, and to substitute, as which, with all the territorial revenues, was continued till a source of revenue in place of the abandoned system, the 20th of April 1834. In 1833 a new act was brought for- Mr GraDt’i grant at a specified rate of passes, to cover the transit of ward by Mr Grant, for the future administration of the vast act. opium through the Company’s territories to the port of dominions of the Company, and for the general regulation Bombay. The following table contains the latest account of their affahs. By this act the commercial privileges of of Indian revenue and taxation :— the East India Company were abolished, and the trade to Excise L.28,614 India and to China was thrown open to all British subjects. Land revenue 15,391,666 The government of India was still vested in the directors Sayer, &c 1,157,214 of the Company, in conjunction with the board of control, Moturpha 119,257 according to the provisions of Mr Pitt’s bill. All natural L.16,696,751 born British subjects were permitted to reside without Mint duties 129,079 license in any part of the territories which were under the Stamp duties 487,955 Customs 1,684,763 government of the Company on the 1st day of January Salt 2,099,959 1800, in any part of the countries ceded by the nabob of Opium 4,259,778 the Carnatic, of the province of Cuttack, and of the settleTobacco 89,677 ments of Singapore and Malacca. The only conditions Miscellaneous 2,384,275 required are,—that the party shall proceed by sea, and Total L.27,832,237 shall on arrival give notice of his name, place of destination, The commercial monopoly of the East India Company and objects of pursuit. A license is still necessary in the was granted by William III. in the year 1698, and it was territories not specially excepted by the act. A British confirmed by 9th and 10th William III. c. 44. The legisla- subject may hold lands in any place where he is authorized tive enactments regarding the territorial possessions of the to reside. The reform of judicial proceedings, and the Company commenced in 1767. In that year it was agreed compilation of a uniform code of laws for Hindus and Mothat, in consideration of an annual payment of L.400,000, hammedans as well as European subjects, a great and imthe territorial possessions should remain in possession of portant undertaking, forms part of this comprehensive and the Company for two years, and afterwards for five years enlightened plan for the government of India. In 1833, from the 1st of February 1769. There was paid to the in consequence of the great extension of British territory, it public, under these two acts, from 1768 to 1775, the sum was enacted by parliament that the presidency of Bengal of L.2,169,398. In 1773 the affairs of the Company were should be divided, and a portion of it formed into a new much embarrassed, and they presented a petition to parlia- presidency, to be styled the presidency of Agra. But a ment soliciting a loan for four years, and a sum of L.1,400,000 later act of parliament authorized the East India Company was accordingly lent; and at this time parliament first as- to suspend the execution of the contemplated division, and sumed the regulation of the Company’s affairs. The divi- provided that during such suspension the governor-general dend was restricted to 6 per cent, till this loan should be in council might appoint a servant of the Company of ten repaid, and afterwards to 7 per cent. It was enacted that the years’ residence to be lieutenant-governor of the northdirectors should be elected for four years, six of them, being western provinces under such limitations as may be prea fourth part, to vacate their office annually by rotation; scribed. Under that act the establishment of anew presithe qualification to vote in the court of proprietors to be dency was accordingly suspended, and a lieutenant-governor raised from L.500 to L.1000. A new court of judicature of the north-western provinces appointed. By a later act 1

On this clause Colonel Munro justly observes, “ This is converting India into a rack-rent estate for England.1

HINDUSTAN. 529 Hindustan, the suspension is to remain until the court of directors shall ally by the members of the Company, and each director to Hindustan v ^ ^ otherwise determine, and in the meantime the provisions be possessed of at least L.2000 stock. By the act known i ,r for the appointment of a lieutenant-governor of the north- as the regulating act, 13th Geo. III., cap. 63, some alterawestern provinces, and the arrangements consequent thereon, tions as to the qualifications of voters were made ; the numare to be in force. Under the sanction of the same act a ber of twenty-four directors was retained, but instead of lieutenant-governor has been likewise appointed over the the whole being elected annually, six only were to be chosen lower provinces of Bengal; and the East India Company in each year to serve for four years, at the expiration of are further empowered to erect another new presidency, which term the retiring six were to be incapable of re-elecand, pending its formation, they may authorize the estab- tion until the lapse of one year. This state of the law conlishment of an additional lieutenant-governorship. This tinued until the act passed in 1853 came into operation. privilege has not yet been exercised. By that act it will be seen that the number of directors is The objects of the Company were originally purely com- reduced from twenty-four to eighteen ; that of these, three mercial ; and could they have pursued them in peace and in the first instance, and eventually six, are to be nominated security they would have sought nothing further. Their by the Crown; that ten directors are sufficient to form a enemies compelled them to unite with the character of the court; that the signatures of three specified members of the merchant that of the soldier and the civil governor. The court, or of two of them duly countersigned, are to have the British legislature has effected a change scarcely less un- effect of the signatures of the majority previously required by expected. In 1813 the trade with India was thrown open; a bye-law of the Company; that the term of service for twenty years afterwards the Company relinquished the field each director, whether elected by the proprietors or apto their competitors. The history of the world affords no- pointed by the Crown, will, when the act shall come fully thing more extraordinary than the present posture of the into operation, be six years ; that directors having completed Company. Formed exclusively for the prosecution of a de- this term are to be immediately eligible for re-election or sirable branch of commerce, it has renounced trade, yet re-appointment; that all directors appointed by the Crown continues to exist for purposes which its founders never must have resided ten years in India in the service either of contemplated. Called incidentally to the exercise of civil and the Crown or of the Company, and that six of those to be military power, it continues to wield that power now that elected by the proprietors must also have resided in India its original character has disappeared, and when it has no ten years, no such condition having previously been required; longer any interest in those commercial advantages which that the stock qualification for a director is reduced from it was the single purpose of its conquests to secure. The L.2000 to L.1000 ; that elections are to be biennial instead act of 1833 suspended the mercantile career of the Com- of annual, and that a new oath is substituted for those forpany, and it now exists only as an instrument for governing merly administered to the directors. The chairman and the country, which the wisdom and spirit of its servants has deputy-chairman receive each a salary of L.1000, and every annexed to the British crown. The whole of the Company’s other director L.500 per annum. The military patronage property, territorial and commercial, having been surren- of India is still vested in the court, but the right of making dered, its debts and liabilities are charged upon India, and appointments to the civil service has been withdrawn from a dividend of L.10, 10s. per cent, on their capital stock se- the directors, and writerships for India are now thrown open cured ; the dividend redeemable at the rate of L.200 for to public competition, as are also the appointments to the every L.100 stock after April 1874, and at an earlier period medical service of the Company. At the first examination on the demand of the Company, should they be deprived of under the new system of parties offering themselves as asthe government of India. For the better securing the re- sistant-surgeons, Mr Chuckerbutty, a native of Bengal, came demption of the dividend, a fund is formed, under the con- forward as a candidate and succeeded in carrying off an aptrol of the commissioners for the reduction of the national pointment, The successful candidates for civil appointments debt, termed the Security Fund of the India Company. For will not be required to finish their education at Haileybury ; the purposes of this fund a sum of L.2,000,000 has been and the institution known as the Haileybury College is about invested in the public funds, there to accumulate to the to be abolished. The East India Company consists, according to the latest amount of L. 12,000,000. It will now be proper to advert to the present constitu- calculation, of 1750 proprietors, who are privileged to meet tion of the Company and the Government of India as set- in a general court and vote. A proprietor of the Company’s tled by the last and preceding acts of parliament. The stock, provided it has been in his possession for twelve authority of the Company is exercised through the court of months, to the amount of L.1000, has one vote ; of L.3000, proprietors and the court of directors. To be qualified to two ; of L.6000, three ; and of L.10,000, four votes ; sevevote in the former court, a proprietor must have been twelve ral proprietors hold stock under L.1000, and are not qualimonths in possession of stock to the amount of at least fied to vote. The total number of votes is estimated at L.1000 ; this sum entitles him to one vote, L.3000 to two 2600. The proprietors meet every quarter. Their powers votes, L.6000 to three votes, and L.10,000 to four votes. are limited to the election of directors, to the framing of The proprietors have the privilege of electing a specified bye-laws, and to the control of salaries or pensions exceednumber of the directors; of making bye-laws for the regu- ing L.200 a-year, or gratuities exceeding L.600. In the lation of the Company, which are binding when not at va- court of directors and the board of control is vested the riance with the law of the land, and of controlling all grants sovereignty of India ; they regulate by their supreme authoof money exceeding L.600. The directors are bound to rity the policy of the resident government, and the court of convene a general court on the requisition of nine qualified proprietors has no power to interfere with their orders. India is divided into the three presidencies of Bengal, Preside. proprietors ; and such court, while it may discuss any matter connected with the affairs of India, has no power of rescind- Madras, and Bombay. The governor-general is governor cies. ing a measure adopted by the directors, and approved by of the presidency of Bengal, which, in addition to several the board of control. In the election of directors a proprie- large provinces and extensive tracts of territory, includes tor may vote by attorney. The constitution of the court within its limits, as already noticed, the two lieutenantof directors has been subjected to considerable modification governorships of Bengal, and the N.W. provinces. The by the provisions of an act of parliament passed in 1853. governor-general is appointed by the court of directors, subBy the charter of William III., there were to be twenty- ject to the pleasure of the Crown. His council, nominated four directors, thirteen or more to constitute a court for the by the court, subject to the approbation of her Majesty, contransaction of business; such directors to be elected annu- sists of four members, three of them being servants of the 3x VOL. XI.

HINDUSTAN. 530 Hindustan.y Company of ten years’ standing. The fourth member of bishops, and 129 European chaplains, the Bishop of Cal-Hindustan, v-'"-' ^ ,n- v —. council is not to be chosen from the servants of the Com- cutta being the metropolitan bishop in India. There are pany, but his appointment also is dependent on the ap- also Scottish Presbyterian churches at Calcutta, Madras, probation of the Crown. The act of parliament passed in and Bombay ; two chaplains of the Church of Scotland be1853 provided for the addition of several legislative coun- ing maintained by the government at each presidency. The British entered India as traders. They were comcillors to the council of India, but these are not entitled to sit or vote except at meetings for making laws and regula- pelled to exchange the operations of commerce for the tions. They consist of one civil servant for each of the labours of war. Success attended their military career, and presidencies, and for each lieutenant-governorship, and of renewed provocations urged them to continue it. Victory has two of the judges of the supreme covrt of judicature at Cal- followed victory, and conquest been accumulated upon concutta. The court of directors may also appoint the com- quest, until the dominion of Britain embraces the larger mander-in-chief of the forces in India, an extraordinary portion of India, and its influence extends over the whole. member of council. The governor-general in council is To look back upon the achievements of our countrymen supreme in India, but all laws and regulations disallowed by cannot but be gratifying to our national sympathies ; to look the court of directors, under the control of the board, are to forward to the probable fate of that empire which their skill be forthwith repealed, and no law is to be made without and courage raised from such small beginnings, is a duty their previous sanction, which shall give to any courts of which is imposed upon us by a regard to our national honour, justice, except those established by royal charter, the power as well as to the integrity of the British dominions. The of punishing her Majesty’s European subjects with death, stability and permanency of our power may be endangered or which shall abolish any of the courts established by char- either from within or from without. Our first attention ter. The presence of the governor-general or vice-presi- must naturally be directed to our own subjects. From dent, or some ordinary member of council, and six other their hostility, if provoked, our greatest danger would arise ; members, is necessary to give validity to any act of legisla- on their attachment, if secured, our safety may be firmly tion. The other functions of government may be exercised based. To acquire the confidence of the people over whom by the governor-general and one member. If the voices we rule, and, having acquired, to preserve it, must be the are equal, the governor-general has a second vote ; and in grand objects of our policy. In those parts which have been cases where he may consider the peace and safety of the longest subjected to our rule, our power is most firmly country materially affected, he may, after certain forms, act established. The people and the government have become on his own responsibility in opposition to the opinion of the more habituated to each other, and our authority is more majority of the council. The administration of the affairs cheerfully recognized from a perception of the benefits which of each of the subordinate presidencies of Madras and it has conferred. For some years past natives of India have Bombay is committed to a governor and three councillors. been appointed to offices of high trust and emolument. The governor-general is governor of the presidency of Fort- Civil justice, indeed, is now almost wholly dispensed by William, in Bengal, and has the power of appointing a de- native judges. This enlightened policy was confirmed by puty-governor in case of necessity; but it is competent to the British parliament in 1833, and again in 1853 ; and the the court of directors to supersede these provisions when- free admission of the natives, of whatever religion or caste, ever they shall think fit, and to appoint a separate governor to all offices, and of British settlers into any part of India, for the presidency of Bengal. The appointments to the there to acquire property or land, or to carry on any trade subordinate presidencies are subject to the same regulations or profession, is calculated to promote the lasting advantage as that of the governor-general and his council. If the of India, establishing, as it does, the principlesof freedom, not court of directors do not supply vacancies within tw'o months’ upon the mere arbitrary regulation of the supreme council, notice of them, the crown may appoint. The Queen may which may be recalled, but on the solid authority of a British also remove any person holding office under the Company. act of parliament, which no inferior power can disannul. The same power of removal is possessed by the court, with Under this liberal and comprehensive law—the Magna the exception of officers appointed by the Crown. And the Charta of Indian freedom—the British merchant may transcourt, under the control of the board, have the further fer his capital, and his superior intelligence and industry, power of reducing the number of councillors in any of the to the most remote parts of Hindustan; he may engage in presidencies, or of suspending the appointment of councils trade, in manufactures, or in agriculture; and this Ifee inaltogether. tercourse of India with Britain must in time produce imIndian Each presidency has its separate army, commander-in- portant effects on the character and manners of the people. arm y. chief, and military establishment. But the commander-in- Hindustan appears, indeed, to be on the eve of a great chief of the Queen’s and Company’s forces in India has a moral revolution. The spirit of improvement has long general authority over the military force in the other pre- slumbered amongst that singular people ; and the division sidencies. The total armed force in British India is about of the people into castes, and those superstitions to which 290,000. This force consists—ls£, of the Queen’s infantry they are attached with a blind devotion, are unfavourable and cavalry; 2cf, of the East India Company’s European to its progress. But the influence of European manners engineers, artillery, and infantry ; and, 2>d, of the Company’s now begins to be seen ; and, considering that the Hindus native artillery, cavalry, and infantry. The European troops are a conquered people, long bowed under a foreign yoke, in India—Queen’s, and Company’s—amount, according to that, on the other hand, power, dominion, honour, and prothe latest accounts, to 49,400 ; the native troops to 240,120, motion belong to the British, it is no wonder that the proshighly distinguished by their valour, good conduct, and dis- trate and servile Hindu should be induced gradually to cipline. The complement of European officers to each in- forsake the manners and superstitions, and even the lanfantry regiment is, one colonel, one lieutenant-colonel, one guage of his forefathers, for the enlightened views and major, six captains, ten lieutenants, and five cornets or purer faith of his victorious preceptors. This great and ens!gns. Of native officers there is a subahdar and jemadar signal revolution is already begun. The manners, the custo each company. The expense of the Anglo-Indian army toms, the language of Britain are beginning to take root in at the three presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, India. They have been adopted by many natives of disin 1854, was respectively L.5,278,642, L.2,666,069, and tinction, by zemindars, as well as by the rajahs and princes L. 1,589,846, giving a total of L.9,534,557. The Indian of the country ; and from their example they are spreading navy consists of six frigates and eleven armed steamers. amongst the other classes. Hindu children of both sexes The British ecclesiastical establishment consists of three crowd the British seminaries established at Calcutta; the

HINDUSTAN. 531 Hindustan, rising generation resort to the colleges, and are instructed secular instruction—the religious tuition of the scholars be- Hindustan, in English literature and science; they frequent the medi- ing left to the discretion of the masters and proprietors of's— cal and surgical schools ; and there is a growing disposition the schools. And with these institutions for the education to adopt the free and liberal manners, and all the other im- of the people is now combined that mighty engine the press, provements of modern Europe. This moral change, which which, though opposed in its first efforts, and rigorously is already begun, will soon, by the free influx of Europeans, persecuted, has in India, as in all other countries, finally reach the remotest parts of Hindustan. Capital will be broken down all the restraints of despotism, and achieved introduced, agriculture will be promoted, and improved its own freedom. To these sources of improvement may modes of labour will be adopted. And all these changes be added the missionary labours, which are ardently purwill be brought about, not by any violent subversion of sued all over India, in the establishment of schools, in the existing institutions, but gradually, through the quiet influ- sending out of preachers, and in the printing and dispersing ence of moral causes. of the sacred volume and other works in the native lanAmongst other sources of improvement in Hindustan, guages, on which large sums of money have been expended. may be reckoned the laudable zeal of the government for Such are the various institutions which are in progress for the instruction of the people, by the institution of colleges the civilization of Hindustan, and which are destined ere and schools throughout the country, in which are taught long to produce important results, not only in that country, all the different branches of literature and science. It was but throughout the whole extent of Asia. But those great stipulated by the charter in 1814, that a sum of L.10,000 moral changes which affect the condition of society are in should be annually applied to the purposes of education; their nature slow and gradual; they cannot be hastened which sum has been augmented, by the liberality of the forward, more especially amongst such a people as the government, to L.80,000 in 1853. Previous to the year Hindus, whose minds are enthralled by the force of their 1821 the only native educational establishments founded in peculiar habits and religion, by immemorial usages, and by India by the British government were the Mohammedan the deep-rooted prejudices of ignorance. We cannot expect College at Calcutta, and the Sanscrit College at Benares, that long-established habits will be suddenly relinquished, established respectively in 1781 and 1792. The Hindu or that fixed impressions will at once yield to the voice of College of Calcutta, though founded in 1816, was not sub- truth. But Great Britain has at last, and in earnest, underjected to government superintendence until 1823. In 1835 taken the task of instructing her Indian subjects. The the number of seminaries had increased to fourteen, while, foundation is laid ; the work of improvement is begun; in 1853, in the upper and lower provinces of Bengal alone the seeds of knowledge have been widely dispersed over there were upwards of forty. In the earlier founded col- the congenial soil, and they will assuredly spring up, and leges the studies were purely Oriental; in those subse- in due season yield the desired increase. quently established they are European. The preservation But while the arts of peace are treated with favour, we of native learning was the avowed object in the one case ; must be prepared for the opposite state if it should become the communication of useful knowledge, and the affording necessary. Looking to this contingency the Indian army facilities for the study of elegant literature were the ends becomes an object of vast importance. Our dominions are sought in the other. The instruction of the masses in this not assailable from without only. Within their circle are knowledge w^as the ultimate end to be attained; but much portions of territory under the rule of native powers, novaluable time was unfortunately lost, pending the result of minally allies indeed, but for the most part to be regarded the experiment resorted to in the first instance of translating as hollow friends. The formidable alliance formed some English literature into Arabic and Sanscrit, the classical years since to drive us from India shows the feelings with languages of the East. Under this arrangement, before a which we are regarded by the old Mohammedan authorities; native student could become versed in European know- and though their power is now broken and destroyed, we ledge, it was indispensable that he should first become an must not imagine that their hostile feeling towards us is accomplished Oriental scholar. The scheme was unsuccess- abated, We must therefore at all times be prepared to ful. But upon the termination of the East India Com- defend ourselves. The knowledge that we are so prepared pany’s charter in 1834 the subject again came under con- will be the best security for our safety and the general peace. sideration ; and on the 7th March 1835 the government of From without we have little to fear. The frontier of our India passed a resolution substituting the English for the dominions is singularly unassailable, considering the extent Oriental scheme of education. The new plan offers to the of territory—the country, of which a part is subjected to our native student a complete education in European literature, direct rule, and the whole to our influence, being in a great philosophy, and science, through the medium of the Eng- degree secured by nature from external attack. The sea lish language; it introduces him to the entire range of rolls around a large portion of it; mountains affording few science and literature, so far as he is able to receive it, the passes ; and desert countries scarcely passable at all, bound limit being that alone fixed by nature in regard to his own the rest. Russia has been regarded with some apprehencapacity. English is now the classical language of India. sion, and she may possibly have been well disposed to add Colleges and schools have been established in the princi- India to her vast empire ; but her energies and capacity for pal cities and towns, and the old Mohammedan and Hindu intrigue have been hitherto directed to a quarter more dear institutions, though upheld as seminaries of Oriental learn- to her ambition than India. The grand object to which ing, have had English classes attached to them. Stipends Russia has ever appeared willing to sacrifice every other is formerly paid to pupils without reference to ability, dili- the incorporation of Turkey with her dominions. But in gence, or acquirements, have been abolished, and in lieu her recent attempt to accomplish her purpose she has been thereof, scholarships have been founded, which can be signally foiled, and as her resources have been severely gained only by passing a satisfactory examination. Junior crippled by the struggle, a considerable period must doubtscholarships are also attached to the new schools, tenable less elapse before Russia can be in a condition to turn her at the central college to which the school is subordinate, eyes farther eastward. In the meantime it is gratifying and where a higher course of instruction is available. An- to know that the British empire in India is in such a state other important step in the advance of national education of security as must disarm every fear, and leave its rulers has just been taken, and grants in aid are now bestowed, at perfect liberty to devote an undivided attention to the both upon native and missionary schools, in furtherance of advancement of the happiness of the people. (e. t.)

532 H I P Hinge HINGE, an iron or brass joint, on which doors, lids, II gates, and shutters swing, fold, open, or shut up. The Hippar- common form of a hinge is two leaves, perforated with holes chus and for gcrews> anci furnished each with projecting segments of ^ippuu^ ^ hollow cylinder, which fit into each other, and are secured by means of a central pin. This joint is applied by screwing one leaf to the door and the other to the doorpost. Hinges for gates and out-house doors are made in the form of the letter T ; they are called cross-garnets. They are sometimes made with long straps and hooks to fix in the stiles, so that the gate or door may be lifted off its hinges when required. Hinges for the doors of rooms are called butts, and are of various kinds. Hinges for shutters are termed back-Jlaps. Similar kinds are used for the joints of bedsteads, and for Pembroke and other tables. H and H_ hinges, so called from their form, are in common use. Improved forms of hinges have been made the subjects of numerous patents. Collinge’s hinge, improved by Redmund, has its bearing pin in the form of a conical stem, with a sharper conical top corresponding with the bearing socket, and over this is a hollow cap containing oil, which enables the two surfaces to work with great truth and freedom. Redmund’s hinges or rising-butts have the hollow cylinder which is attached to the leaves divided, not at right angles to the pin, as is usual, but by spiral or helical lines, so that on opening the door it is lifted from the floor by the rubbing surfaces of the hinge moving upwards in a helical line, so that when the door is left to itself, its weight causes it to descend by the inclined rubbing surfaces, and thus to close itself. The door can, however, be made to stand wide open by cutting away a portion of the helical curves so as to form two horizontal planes, which become opposed to each other when the door is opened sufficiently to form a right angle with its position when shut. Hence the door will close of itself, when it is not pushed open more than 50° or 60°; but it will stand wide open if pushed to 90°. Spring-hinges for the swing-doors of public offices, &c., made to open either way, and to return quickly to their shutto position, are numerous. In Whitechurch’s hinge, doors, windows, &c., can be opened either to the right or left hand. Nettlefold’s hinge for book-cases allows the door to fold back quite level with the book-shelves, so that books close to the hinge can be taken out and put in with facility. There are also numerous patents for casting iron and brass hinges, as well as for stamping the same. (c. t.) HINNOM, or rather Ben-Himmon, an unknown person, who seems to have given his name to the valley which bounds Jerusalem on the N., below Mount Zion. (See Gehenna.) HINOJOSA DEL DUGUE, a secular town of Spain, in the province of Estremadura, and bishopric of Cordova. It contains a parish church, a monastery, a convent, and two hospitals. It is situated in a level district surrounded with hills ; and its boundaries are washed by the Rivers Zujar and Guamatilla. The climate and the water are excellent. Pop. 7748. HIPPARCHUS and HIPPIAS, the sons of Pisistratus, succeeded their father in the tijrannis of Athens. Strictly speaking the right of government belonged to Hippias, who, on the express testimony of Thucydides (which, however, is at variance with that of other historians), was the elder of the two, but the brothers seem to have administered public affairs conjointly with an extraordinary unity of purpose. 1 hey carried out the principles of their father, and the period of their sway, at least till the murder of Hipparchus, b.c. 514 (see Harmodius), was looked upon by the people ot Athens as a soi't of golden age. After his brother’s death Hippias’ character underwent a total change. He became a “ tyrannus ” of the worst type, and ruled with such intolerable severity that he was at last obliged to fly from Attica to escape the fury of the many enemies he bad raised about him. After various wanderings, he took re-

H I P fuge in the court of Darius, king of Persia, and instigated Hipparthat monarch to the invasion of his native country. He chus joined the expedition sent out under Datis and Artaphernes, Hl. II and accompanied it to the field of Marathon, after which all PPotrace of him in history is lost. crates. ] Hipparchus, the most celebrated of all the ancient as- " I tronomers, was a native of Nicaea in Bithynia, and flourished in the second century B.c. His history and works are very fully discussed in the historical part of the art. Astronomy. HIPPOCRATES, the “ Father of Medicine,” was born in the Island of Cos, b.c. 460. By his father Heraclides, he was descended from JSsculapius, and by his mother Phaenarete, from Hercules. After the preliminary instruction received from his father, he proceeded to Athens to prosecute medicine under Herodicus. He studied philosophy under Georgias, and some add Democritus of Abdera. He travelled in Thessaly, Macedonia, and Scythia, latterly settling down in the first of these places. Here he died at Larissa about B.c. 357, at the age of about 100. A parallel has been drawn between Homer, the father of verse, and Hippocrates, the father of medicine. Each remounts to great antiquity, and each is first in order of excellence. Yet so little is known about either, that the history of each has become clogged with numerous accretions of mere fable ; while, passing to the opposite extreme, some have doubted whether the men themselves ever existed at all. Some of the stories circulated about Hippocrates may be mentioned. He is represented as having the charge of a library at Cos or Cnidos. Having used the works of others much too freely in his writings, and fearing detection, he is said to have set the library on fire. But the uniform respect, even veneration, with which he was regarded in his own day appears satisfactorily to contradict such a story. Plato, his contemporary, speaks of him in very high terms; and as to the conflagration, Pliny speaks of the destruction by fire of votive tablets, without reference to books or Hippocrates. The story appears to have been invented three centuries after Hipprocrates by one Andreas. A similar story is told of Avicenna. Another story represents Hippocrates as sent for during the illness of the son of Perdiccas II. of Macedonia, and as discovering, by mere appearances, that the malady was caused by the young man’s being in love with Philas, his father’s concubine. A similar tale is told of Erasistratus at the court of Seleucus Nicanor. According to a third story the portrait of Hippocrates was taken, by some of his disciples, to a physiognomist. It was declared by him to be that of an old man of lascivious character. His disciples laughed at the conclusion as utterly incorrect; but Hippocrates declared that the physiognomist had rightly discerned his natural character, which, however, had been subdued by him. A similar story is told of Socrates. He is described as receiving extraordinary honours from the Athenians, and this connects him with another story, which relates to his removing a plague by keeping up large fires in the streets, and burning aromatic substances. By this means the atmosphere was purified. It is argued that this cannot refer to the celebrated plague by which Athens was devastated, else Thucydides, in describing it, would have made reference to Hippocrates. The other story is that which refers to the mission of Hystanus, the Persian satrap, from Artaxerxes Longimanus, to request Hippocrates to come to the Persian court, and give the king the benefit of his medical skill. Hippocrates replied that he would not accept of any presents to go and help the enemies of Greece. Hippocrates created a new era in medicine. Up to his time medical knowledge was mainly monopolized by the priests, who kept to themselves as much as they did know. Emancipated from the jugglery of the priests, the study of medicine became henceforth an independent profession. Hippocrates theorized but little, his leading principles be-

533 HIPPOCRATES. Hippo- ing the result of extensive observation of facts. The infir- thing more surely indicates incapacity.” In the “oath” the Hippocrates. niities to which men as nations or individuals were subject, physician is represented as solemnly promising, “ My sole crates, he traced to two leading causes—climate and diet. Hence object shall be to afford consolation and medical relief to the he inculcates the importance of considering the changes of sick, to be true to the confidence which they repose in me, the seasons, the state of the atmosphere, the distribution of and to avoid even the suspicion of having abused it, partiheat, water, moisture, &c. Diet is to be regulated, not only cularly in regard to women.” He appears to have been by the state of the patient, but also by the season of the very conscientious in the discharge of his professional duties. year. Thus wine is to be used more sparingly in summer It has been objected that, by merely observing the course than in winter. In cases of fever, diet is to be reduced to of nature, and trusting too much to her vis medicatrix, liquid, though not so as to starve the patient. Each period Hippocrates allowed his patients to die ; and there appears of the year, according to him, has its peculiar malady. Hip- to be some truth in the allegation. pocrates excells especially in describing the symptoms of Hippocrates wrote in the Ionic dialect, but numerous diseases. His description of the sharp nose, sunken eyes, Atticisms occur in his works. What is known as the Hipleaden hue, and dry forehead, which often precedes death, pocratic Collection is a great number of works, amounting has been called the Facies Hippocratica. He gives minute to about 70, of which only a few are certainly known to directions for the discovery of empyema in the chest, no- be from the Hippocrates of whom we are speaking. The tices the changes which take place in ulcers before death, works to be ascribed to him are the Aphorisms, Prognostics, and points out how symptoms may be ascertained from the Epidemics, the treatise on Air, Water, and Locality, the treatise on the Diet to be used in acute diseases, &c. Of manner in which the patient lies in bed. In his treatise on the Nature of Man he enounces the the others, some are probably by him, others possibly by theory of elements. As there are the four elements—fire, him, and many certainly not by him. This confusion has air, earth, and water; so there are in the human composi- been ascribed to two causes :—First, There were many tion the four humours—blood, phlegm, bile, and black bile. medical writers not only of the same name, but also of the When these are mixed in certain proportions the human same family of Hippocrates. Thus the family of Hippobody enjoys health ; but disease is the result of a want of crates contained not fewer than seven physicians of greater the proper proportion. He was the first to assign three or less eminence, spreading over a period of about 300 years. periods to the course of a malady, and for the last, or the The tendency in such a case is to ascribe to the most discrisis, he assigned certain days, known as the critical days. tinguished the works of those less distinguished. But, These were the 4th, 7th, 11th, 14th, 17th, and 20th, dis- secondly, when the Ptolemaean kings were founding the celeplaying a regularity which may have existed more in his brated Alexandrian library, which was to surpass that of day and in his country than among us, owing partly to the kings of Pergamos, the works of Hippocrates were eagerly sought, and purchased at a high price. The conclimate and partly to the simple habits of the people. His knowledge of anatomy was very defective. He sequence was that there was an inducement to the dishonest speaks of the muscles simply as flesh ; he confounds the to palm off upon the Alexandrians books under the name veins and arteries, also the nerves, tendons, and ligaments. of Hippocrates which were not his. Several of the works As to generation, he believed that the male child came from falsely ascribed to him can be at once set aside by the the right side of the matrix, and the female child from the pomposity of style so totally different from the brevity of left. However, he came to some correct conclusions re- Hippocrates, bordering, as it often does, on obscurity. In garding the cranium and the viscera. It is possible that cases of mutilation and interpolation, where an attempt has this may have been the result of examinations in the case been made to imitate the Hippocratic conciseness, the critic of severe accidents to patients. The dissection of the has to look for statements which are contradictory of those human subject, in those days, appears to have been avoided in works known to be by Hippocrates, or inconsistent with from superstitious motives. Hippocrates did not advance the medical knowledge possessed in his day. The Alexso far as to separate surgery from medicine. He employed andrian librarians set about effecting a discrimination bethe cautery in some cases, as appears from his maxim— tween the genuine and the spurious; and Galen professes, that what cannot be cured by medicine must be cured by in his day, to have been able to distinguish the works of the knife; and what cannot be cured by the knife must be Hippocrates from those merely ascribed to him. Many cured by fire. editions of his works have existed, and vast quantities have He practised bleeding, and in cases of inflammation he been written upon them. There have been 70 editions of recommended the bleeding to take place near the inflamed his Prognostics, and 300 of his famous Aphorisms. 4 he part. He was acquainted with cupping also. He knew the most eminent men have been his editors and commentators, medicinal properties of several minerals and vegetables, and e. g., Celsus, Galen, &c., Amongst his biographers are to used to employ violent purgatives. He is known to have be mentioned especially Soranus, also Dacier, Le Clerc, practised auscultation. He was not aware of the import- Grimm, Sprengel, &c. The Paris edition by Littre conance of the pulse in detecting symptoms. He recom- tains a French translation and critical notes. mended consultations of physicians. The following classification is made on the principle reThe candour and openness of Hippocrates stand out in commended by Erotian, the eldest glossator of Hippocrates, noble relief from the secrecy and trickery of the priests, and adopted and improved by Foes:—1. Greek Editions, from whose monopoly he wrested the profession of medi- Venice, 1526, in folio, Aldus and Asulanus ; Basil, 1538, cine. On several occasions he mentions the mistakes into in folio, Froben, a more complete and exact edition than which, in his earlier practice, he had fallen, that others the preceding. 2. Greek and Latin editions, Venice, 1588, might have the benefit of his warning. More lofty and in folio, Mercuriali; Frankfort, 1595, 1621,1624, and 1645, humane views than those which occur in his writings re- in folio; Geneva, 1657, in twro vols. folio; Leyden, 1665, garding the work of a physician are nowhere else to be met in two vols. 8vo; the Variorum edition, Vienna, 1743-49, with :—“ Be not too eager merely to get wealth by your in two vols. folio, Stephen Mack. 3. Latin editions, Rome, profession. Give medical aid at times gratuitously, satisfied 1525, in folio, Calvo; Rome, 1549, 1610, 1619, in folio; with the gratitude and esteem of others. Give assistance, Basil, 1526, in folio; Venice, 1545, in folio, the version of as occasion presents itself, to the poor and the stranger ; for Cornarius ; Basil, 1558, in folio ; Venice, 1575, in folio, if you love mankind you will love your profession. When Marinelli; Frankfort, 1596, in 8vo, Foes ; Altenburg, 1806, you are required at a consultation, do not use great words, in three vols. 8vo, Pierer, with a learned dissertation on the and do not speak in a studied and pompous manner—no- state of medicine before the time of Hippocrates. 4. Greek

534 Hippocrene I tus y' j v v ^

HIP and French edition, Paris, 1811, 1815, in four vols. 12mo. 5, Numerous editions in French and other modern languages. HIPPO CRENE. See Helicon. HIPPODROME was the place where the horse and cliariot races of the Greeks took place. The way in which the Hippodrome was constructed is found in Pausanias, though there is some difficulty in making out precisely the details. The slope of a hill was chosen to form one side of the Hippodrome; opposite to this, and forming an oblong, was raised an artificial mound, connected with the slope by a semicircular termination. At the extremity opposite to to the semicircle was the portico. From this end the chariots started, and as they kept to the right side, it was made a little longer than the left side. Thus each pair, the one of which started from the right side, and the other from the left, would have equal spaces to run. However, considerable numbers of chariots were often competing in the same race. In this case it is supposed that while the first pair started simultaneously, the second pair started just at the moment when the first were abreast of them, and so of the others. Each chariot had its own stall, from which it started when a cord was removed from before it. A bronze eagle and dolphin were used as a signal at the time of starting. The eagle was raised into the air, while the dolphin was lowered. Forming part of the axis of the Hippodrome was a wall with a goal at each end. Round this the chariots were required to pass several times. Along the sides of the Hippodrome seats were ranged for the spectators, special seats being reserved for the magistrates. See Amphitheatre, and Circus. HIPPOGRYPH, a mythical animal, represented as a winged horse, with the head of a griffin. This conception has been revived by Ariosto, and still later has been reproduced by Wieland. HIPPOLYTE, St, a town of France, department of Card, and arrondissement of Le Vigan, 20 miles E. by S. ot the town of that name. It lies at the foot of the Cevennes, near the source of the Vidourle. Its chief manufactures are silk and cotton stockings and woollen cloths. Pop. 5700. HlPPOLYTUS, a bishop and ecclesiastical writer belonging to the first half of the third century, whose name has recently acquired distinction and importance in connection with a recovered treatise of great value. The history ot this treatise is full of interest. Among various other Greek manuscripts brought from Mount Athos to Paris in 1842, and deposited in the great national library, there was an anonymous one of the fourteenth century, written on cotton paper, and registered as a Book on all Heresies. It failed tor some time to attract any special notice; but the attention of M. Emmanuel Miller, a functionary of the institution, being at length excited by some fragments of Pindar, and of an unknown lyric poet which it contained, he was led to examine it more closely, and to adopt the conclusion that it was a lost treatise of Origen. Under this persuasion he offered it for publication to the University of Oxford, from whose press it appeared in 1851, under the editorship of M. Miller, and bearing the title OrigenisPhilosophumena, sive omnium Hceresium Befutatio. Shortly afterwards it was studied by the Chevalier Bunsen, and after a careful and elaborate investigation it was conclusively established by him to be a genuine work of the third century, and that its real author was not Origen but Hippolytus, a presbyter of the Church of Rome, and bishop of the harbour of Rome, Portus. This conclusion has been confiimed by the combined labours of other scholars, especially of Dr Duncker and Dr Jacobi in Germany, and of Dr Wordsworth in England. Previous to the recovery of this treatise Hippolytus can be said to have had little more than a mythical existence.

II I P His name was indeed a celebrated one in early Christian Hipponax. history. He was known to have been a bishop ; but so little else was positively known of him that it remained a matter of uncertainty whether the seat of his labours was in the east or in the west. Neander {C. H., vol. ii., p. 471) considered the evidence on each side to be pretty equally balanced. Yet it appears to us, on the whole, that the evidence clearly inclined in favour of the latter, even before the recent discovery. The conjecture of Le Moyne, that the Portus Romanus associated with the name of Hippolytus was Aden in Arabia,—a conjecture which Cave authoritatively carried out,—Bunsen has plainly shown to have rested on no better foundation than a misinterpretation of one of the passages in Eusebius, in which Hippolytus is mentioned (Huseb., vi. 20). At any rate there can now remain no doubt, after the researches of Bunsen, that the author of the treatise Against all the Heresies—the Hippolytus of Eusebius and Jerome—was bishop of Portus, the new harbour of Rome, on the northern bank of the Tiber, lying opposite to the more ancient Ostia. At this time it had become a place of considerable population and importance—a bustling harbour of all nations. Here Hippolytus lived and laboured. He was a disciple of Irenaeus, and his Greek education under that teacher had peculiarly fitted him to act as a sort of missionary bishop among the representatives of the various nations that were here congregated. While occupying a perfectly independent position in his own episcopal sphere of labour, he was at the same time a presbyter of the Roman Church, and shared in the deliberations of the Presbyterial council which met in that city. In the ninth book of the recovered work, which treats of the heresies prevalent at Rome in Hippolytus’s own time, and especially of that of Noetus, patronized by two Roman bishops, Zephyrinus and Callistus, and zealously opposed by Hippolytus, we have a very lively and graphic picture of the ecclesiastical state of Rome in the beginning of the third century. For this, however, the reader must be referred to the treatise itself or to the Chevalier Bunsen’s analysis and reproduction of it in his third letter to Archdeacon Hare on the subject, contained in the first volume of his elaborate work on Hippolytus and his Age. His other works survive for the most part only in fragments. Hippolytus, as he is seen in this work, claims undoubtedly to be regarded as a distinguished father of the AnteNicene Church. Of unwavering moral intrepidity, genuine honesty of character, and sense and talents inferior to none of his contemporaries, he was at the same time the predecessor of Origen in speculative power and comprehension, as well as in oratorical pretensions. He combined with more depth and knowledge than his illustrious teacher the philosophical enlightenment which Irenseus had kindled in the west. His familiarity with the course of Grecian speculation was especially serviceable in enabling him to trace the origin of the various heresies to whose refutation he devoted himself. He was the first preacher of note in the Roman Church, having elevated the mere popular exposition of the gospel, which was all that prevailed in the shape of a sermon in that church before his time, into the set homiletic address, characterized by science and eloquence, which “ was his favourite mode,” according to Bunsen, “of treating exegetical and polemical subjects.” (j. t—H.) HIPPONAX, a celebrated Greek satirist, was a native of Ephesus ; and flourished in the latter half of the sixth century b.c. He was an ardent lover of freedom, and wrote and spoke so boldly in its favour, that Comas and Athenagoras, the tyrants of Ephesus, expelled him from his birth-place. He took refuge in Clazomenae, where he lived and died in great poverty. Hipponax was one of the bitterest of all the Greek writers of satire, and in the classics the epithet “ Pikros” is generally attached to his name. He found the subjects of his satire in the effeminacy and

Hippopotumus jj|re ^ ,

HIE immorality of his countrymen, and in their superstitious idolatry. The faithlessness of women was also a favourite theme for his sarcasm ; and in two of his remaining lines he says “ a husband has two happy days in his life, one when he welcomes home his bride, and another when he follows her to the grave.” Hipponax was in person little, and marvellously ugly, and the Chian sculptors Athenis and Bupalus amused themselves by exaggerating and caricaturing his ugliness. The enraged poet avenged himself by directing against them the most poisonous shafts in his quiver; and it is said, though the story is probably unfounded, that Bupalus, in shame and despair, committed suicide. After the death of Hipponax it was suggested by Alcaeus of Messene that his tomb should be strewed with thorns and thistles, instead of roses and vine-leaves; and another epigrammatist warns the traveller against approaching it too closely, lest they rouse the wasp sleeping within. Of Hipponax’s poems only about a hundred lines are extant. They have been preserved by Welcker in his Hipponactis et Ananii iambographorum Fragmenta, Getting., 1817, and have been published by other scholars of Welcker’s day, such as Bergk and Meineke. They serve to show that the reports of his bitterness are not unfounded, but that he could relieve the severity of his satire by an abundant play of light and graceful fancy. Hipponax introduced a curious change in the structure of the old iambic trimeter. In the last foot he substituted for the iambus a trochee or a spondee, giving the verse a lame or limping rhythm, from which it was called choliambus or iambus scazon. He also takes similar liberties with many others of the metres which he employs, and the innovation, though strange, is said to be well adapted to the general effect of the iambus, as it was moulded in the hands of Hipponax. HIPPOPOTAMUS. See index to Mammalia. HIRE, Philippe de la, a distinguished French geometer of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, was born in Paris in 1640. His father, Laurent de la Hire, was a painter and engraver of considerable note, and the son’s education was at first shaped so as to fit him for the same career. In his twentieth year La Hire made a pilgrimage into Italy, and while at Venice fell in with the Conic Sections of Apollonius, which determined his taste for mathematical study. His own treatise on this subject, published in 1685, under the title of Sectiones Conicce in Novem Libros Distributee, is the most important of all his works. In 1678 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences, and was afterwards appointed by Colbert to assist Picard in conducting the surveys for a general map of Franee. A few years later it devolved upon him to continue, along with Cassini, the measurements of the meridian begun by Picard in 1669, and the work was progressing happily till stopped by the untimely death of Colbert. He was subsequently employed on a great number of public works, of which the most important were connected with the supply of water to Versailles and Paris. “ France might have had in La Hire,” says Fontenelle, “ an entire Academy of Sciences.” He was a quiet man, of great practical prudence, very reserved in manner, and of the most spotless integrity of personal character. His piety was as much admired by his friends as his probity. He was twice married, and two of his sons were admitted into the Academy of Sciences, the one on the score of his geometrical, the other of his botanical knowledge. La Hire died suddenly in 1718. His principal works are— Nouvdle Methode de Geometric pour les Sections des Superficies Coniques et Cylindriques, Paris, 1673, in 4to; De Cycloide Opusculum, ibid. 1676, in 4to; Nouveaux Elements des Sections Coniques, les Lieux Geometriques, la construction ou affection des Equations, ibid. 1679, in 12mo ; La Gnomonique, ou Vart de tracer des cadrans, ibid. 1682, in 12mo; Sectiones Conicce, in ix. libros distributee, ibid. 1685, in folio; Tabulae Astronomicce, Ludovici Magni jussu et

HIS 535 munificentia exaratce, ibid. 1702, in 4to; L’Ecole des Arpenteurs, Hirpini avec un Abrege du Nivellement, ibid. 1689, in 8vo; Traite de Mecanique, ou I on explique tout ce qui est necessaire dans la pratique Hissar. des Arts, ibid. 1675, in 12mo ; besides a great number of Memoires, \ j in different journals, and in the Collection of the Academy. La Hire was also editor of the Traite du Nivellement by Picard ; of the Traite du Mouvement des Eaux by Mariotte, and joint editor with Boivin and Thevenot of the Veteres Mathematici Grcec. et Latin., 1693. HIRPINI, an inland people of Italy who inhabited the southern portion of Samnium. They are sometimes regarded as merely a Samnite tribe, by others they are looked upon as an independent nation. The country they inhabited was the wild and mountainous district traversed by the Sabatus, Calor, and Tamarus, tributaries of the Vulturnus, and on the eastern side of the Apennine ridge, the upper course of the Aufidus. In the early history of Rome the Hirpini are found identifying themselves with their Samnite neighbours against their common foes. They seem to have been subdued in the early part of the third century B.c., as in 268 B.c. Beneventum, the key of all their military positions, was colonized by Roman settlers. In the second Punic War the Hirpini appear in history for the first time as an independent people. Revolting from their old conquerors, they joined the Carthaginian invaders, and though they were unable to recapture their stronghold of Beneventum, they remained faithful to Hannibal till the defeat at the Metaurus restored the empire of Italy to his opponents. In the year of that event the Hirpini made their peace with their old masters by betraying into their hands the garrisons of their allies. From this time till the outbreak of the Social War, the Hirpini seemed to have continued steadfast in their allegiance. On that occasion, however, they set the example of revolt to the allies, and might have become formidable enemies, had not the rapid successes of Sulla induced them to repair their error by a complete submission. At the close of this war the Hirpini obtained the franchise, and do not again appear in history as an independent people. Their chief towns were Beneventum, iEculanum, Trivicum, Equus Tuticus, Murgantia, and Aquilonia. The most important of these are given under their respective heads. HIRSCHBERG, a fortified town of Prussian Silesia, capital of a cognominal circle in the government of Liegnitz, and 25 miles S.W. of the town of that name, on the River Baber. It is the seat of the superior courts for the circle, and a great emporium for linen manufactures and hosiery. In the town and neighbourhood are bleaching works, paper-mills, and sugar-refineries; and not far off is the celebrated watering-place of Warmbrunn. Pop. 7654. HISPANIA. See Spain. HISSAR, a town of Hindustan, and the principal place of a Pergunnah, situated in the British district of Hurreeanah, within the jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governor of the N.W. provinces. The country is fertile, but labours under a scarcity of water, which detracts from its fertility. It is only watered by one small stream, namely, the Sursutty. In order to supply the means of irrigation, one of the Afghan emperors, who lived in the fourteenth century, caused two canals to be cut, one from the Sutlej, and the other from the Jumna, both of which joined at the city of Hissar, whence they are supposed to have been divided into a number of branches, so that the water was nearly all distributed over the lands, and the remainder fell into a lake called Bhedar. Under the influence of this extensive irrigation the country became fertile, and yielded two abundant crops in the year. These canals were suffered to fall to decay, but in 1825 the branch from the Jumna was cleared out by order of the British government as far as Darbah, 25 miles N.W. of Hissar, to which place it is navigable for timber rafts. The neighbouring country produces horses, camels, and cattle. The inhabitants are chiefly Jauts, with

536 HIS Histiaea the exception of a few Rajpoots; there are also villages II of Rajpoots who have embraced the Mohammedan reliHistory. gjon_ This district imports matchlocks, swords, coarse white cloth, salt, sugar, and a small quantity of rice and spices. The exports are horses, camels, bullocks, and ghee. During the prosperity of the Mogul government the town and district were considered the personal estate of the heirapparent to the throne. Hissar was built by Sultan Feroz, who gave previous directions for the digging of the two canals above mentioned; after which he laid the foundations of the town and fortress, which he built of stone brought from the neighbouring hills of Nosa, and completed it in less than three years. E. Long. 75. 50., N. Lat. 29. 8. (e. t.) HISTLEA, or Oreus, in Ancient Geography, an important city of Euboea, on the northern extremity of the island, and giving name to the district of Histiseotis. It was a very ancient city, and like most of the old cities of Greece, its origin is doubtful and obscure. When the

HIS Persians were finally expelled from Greece, it passed into Histology the hands of the Athenians, and when Euboea revolted from || that people, and was again subdued, the old inhabitants of History, the town were expelled, and 2000 Athenian colonists set^ tied in their stead. It was at this date that the city exchanged its original name for that of Oreus, by which it was afterwards more generally known. At the end of the Peloponnesian War the descendants of the old inhabitants were restored by the Spartans, under whose dominion the city had fallen, and to whom it remained faithful till the battle of Leuctra, when it revolted from them. In the war between Philip and the Greeks Oreus was frequently contested, and in b.c. 200 it was stormed by the Romans. Under the Romans Oreus gradually fell into decay. Some ruins of its fortifications are all that now remain to tell of its ancient greatness. HISTOLOGY (tsros texture, Adyos treatise), the science of the minute structure of tissues. See Anatomy.

HISTORY. History may be considered either as a department of human knowledge and intellectual exercise, or as a form of literary composition. In the observations that follow, we shall consider it under both these aspects. I. HISTORY CONSIDERED AS A DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE AND INTELLECTUAL EXERCISE. 1. Bacon’s famous division of human knowledge or “ learning,” recognises it as consisting of three parts:— History, relating itself chiefly to the memory ; philosophy, relating itself chiefly to the reason or understanding; and poetry, relating itself chiefly to the imagination. This distribution, though sometimes objected to, and perhaps not theoretically perfect, is substantially a good one ; and it has the advantage of a massive foundation in our popular and well-understood psychology. It is not, of course, meant that in history no other faculty than the memory is called into exercise, any more than it is meant that philosophy can dispense with the memory and the imagination, or that poetry can dispense with the memory and the reason. What is meant is, that precisely as the mind may, while still acting as a whole, cast itself at one time by preference into what may be called the remembering mood, at another into what may be called the judging or reasoning mood, and at a third into what be called the imagining or creating mood, so to each of these moods of the total mind there corresponds a department of possible intellectual acquisition. History, then, according to this interpretation of Bacon’s words, is that department of knowledge or intellectual exercise which lies open to the total mind when it assumes more especially the remembering or recollecting mood. In other words, it is the business of history to record or remember the past events or transactions of the world of whatever kind, and, in remembering them, to let them produce whatever further effect on the mind is consistent with the continuance of the mood named memory. This latter part of the definition is of some importance. The mind may be strictly and properly in what we have called the remembering mood ; it may be recalling a past incident and dwelling on it; and yet, even while the main act is still that of remembering, the impression of the incident is not exhausted in that act, but there is a certain contemporaneous effect on the whole mind, including the feelings, the fancy, and the reason. One may remember with a purpose, or, in remembering, some feeling, or reasoning, or generalization may suggest itself; and still the act, as a whole, may be essentially that of remembering. And so in history. To record or bring to recollection past events is its characteristic func-

tion ; but past events cannot be adequately recorded or brought to recollection, without at the same time affecting the feelings and the imagination, and without receiving at the same time some sort of interpretation according to the constitution of the person remembering, his acquired ideas and modes of thinking, or his immediate circumstances and purpose. No man can exercise an act of memory in common life without doing something more ; nor can it be different with history, which is recollection, so to speak, on the great scale. 2. The adequate recollection of any past event or transaction, or of any series of past events and transactions is, in this sense, history. Hence the forms that history may assume are infinite. There may be a history of the transactions of a single individual during twenty-four hours; there may be a history of a club ; there may be a history of a parliamentary measure or of one notable passage in the career of a nation ; there may be a history of a king’s reign, or of the rise, growth, and decay of some political party. Thus also we have histories of painting, histories of the steam-engine, histories of commerce, histories of cookery, histories of literature, histories of philosophy ; and there is no reason why we should not have a history of history. These histories, in which certain orders of past facts are purposely selected for record and interpretation to the exclusion of the rest, are called special histories. One variety of special history—that which concerns itself with the lives of distinguished individual men—is constituted into a great department by itself under the name of biography. In all these varieties of history the purpose is the same—the recollection of facts exactly as they happened, and in their chronological order, so as to bring out their full impression and significance. 3. But though the adequate record of any series of past facts of whatever kind is, in this wide sense, history, we understand something different by history proper. By history proper, and especially when we distinguish it, as we generally do, from biography, we understand that kind of record which has reference to the acts and circumstances of men, as collected into communities or social masses. On this point Dr Arnold, in his Lectures on History, has some pertinent remarks : “ The general idea of history,” he says, “ seems to me to be that it is the biography of a society ; it does not appear to me to be history at all, but simply biography, unless it finds in the persons who are its subject something of a common purpose, the accomplishment of which is the object of their common life. History is to the common life of many what biography is to the life of an individual. Take for instance any common family, and its

HIST History, members are soon so scattered from one another, and are engaged in such different pursuits, that, although it is possible to write the biography of each individual, yet there can be no such thing, properly speaking, as the history of the family. But suppose all the members of the family to be thrown together in one place, amidst strangers or savages, then there immediately arises a common life, a unity of action, interest, and purpose, distinct from others around them, which renders them at once a fit subject for history. Whether consciously or not, every society must have in it something of community ; and so far as the members of it are members, so far as they are each incomplete parts, but, taken together, form the whole, so far it appears to me their joint life is the proper subject of history.” According to this description, history, in its specific sense, is the adequate record of the collective acts and experiences of men when they are grouped together into societies. The societies may be large or small. A club is, to some extent, a society ; a political party acting together in a state in opposition to other parties is a society; a beleaguered garrison is a society; a colony of a hundred individuals or so, engaged in settling themselves on a distant shore, is a society. In all these cases there would be the phenomenon of a common or collective life, resulting from the scattered actions of the individual atoms composing the society ; and it would be the business of history to trace this common life, and to exhibit the course or career of the society as such. In general, however, the kind of society which is considered a fit object of history, is that organized society which we call a state, i.e., a society having a certain political unity within itself, determining its own laws, and leading so far a distinct existence from other and surrounding communities, though related to them more or less. Here, again, the dimensions of the society which is made the object of study may differ. The entire ancient state of Athens, the history of which is so splendid, did not, at its highest prosperity, comprise a population of above 400,000 persons, slaves included; and mere cities were often states in the ancient world, with all that character of political unity and independence which is implied in the notion of a state. The same has been the case in modern Italy—as in the republican days of Venice, Florence, Genoa, &c. But at all times there have been political unities of much wider extent. Thus the Athenians, the Spartans, the Thebans, and others, though really political unities in themselves, and so having separate histories, became merged, even in their own fancy to some extent, in that more comprehensive unity called the Greek or Hellenic nation, the history of which collectively would be a higher undertaking. Again, even more comprehensive than the political unity called a nation, have been those vast unities, known both in ancient and modern times, called empires ; consisting of aggregates of nations factitiously grasped together by conquest, intermarriages of sovereign houses, and the like. Such empires, whether so constituted as to preserve to a certain extent the inferior unities of their component parts, or so constituted as to obliterate these unities and centralize all the functions of government in one spot, become subjects of history. In short, what history demands as its appropriate object is any collective mass of human beings, of whatever size, presenting the characteristics of political unity, and consequently of common political life. For most purposes, in the present state of the world, the typical form of history may be considered to be the history of a nation. The nation—whether consisting, as in the cases of Great Britain and France, of twenty or thirty millions of people, or, as in the case of the modern kingdom of Greece, of only one or two millions—such is the form of political unity with which now, and indeed for some ages past, we are most familiar. Austria, indeed, is an empire or cluster of nations ; Germany, as such, is a confederacy; and Russia, with a large national core, possesses imperial appenVOL. XI.

0 R Y. 537 dages. The histories of these states, accordingly, must have History, a corresponding character. On the whole, however, we may think of the nation as being the type, at this stage of the world, of those social aggregates of men whose common life it is the business of history to observe and relate. 4. The life of a nation, however, may be recorded either in parts or as a whole. We possess histories of both these kinds. By the record or history of a nation’s life as a whole, we mean a record or history which, beginning at the first moment of the nation’s recognizable existence, follows it through all its stages of growth, energy, and power, and does not quit it, until, by absorption into other nations, or by the entire breaking up of its organization, it may be considered to have lost its political identity and perished. In a retrospect of the past duration of the world, we see a wave-like series of such completed national lives. Far back in primeval time, a country or nation called Egypt looms into view ; for ages it has a visible career peculiar to itself; but at a certain point, its peculiar organization is dissolved, or nearly so, before the touch of Greek or Graeco-Macedonian rule; at that point, therefore, original Egypt may be assumed as having come to an end; and though other Egypts succeed, they are new Egypts rather than modifications of the old one, and must have separate histories. So also the Greek people ran their course, and though the name remained, the thing disappeared. So, on a still more extensive scale with the Romans, the successive stages of whose existence—first as a community of Central Italy, then as masters of Italy, then as rulers of a Mediterranean empire, which fell into ruin by degrees—are so well marked. In such instances we can have complete histories, corresponding to the complete biography of an individual man from his birth, through his youth and manhood, to his old age and death. But in the case of nations not yet dead, but flourishing and going on, it is different. The most complete history we can have in such cases is a history starting from the commencement, or, as one may say, birth of the nation so far as that can be ascertained, and carrying the nation on to its present state, whatever that may be. Thus the most complete French history would be one beginning with Druidical and Roman Gaul, and exhibiting the successive modifications of this society through which it hasshaped itself into existing France. Similarly, the mostcomplete English history would be one commencing with the Druidical Britain into which Caesar tried to push himself, and ending with Britain, as it is now figuring in the world. Such complete histories of nations still running their course we do have, but they are not numerous. The histories of such nations are generally presented to us in portions. Thus, we have histories of France during the reigns of the Bourbons, histories of France from 1789 to 1815, histories of England from the Norman conquest till the accession of James I., histories of England during the reign of George III., and the like. Some point in the national history is selected, and the narrative is carried on a certain distance forward from that point. 5. Whichever of these forms is adopted, the true notion of history still is, that it is the biography of a nation—in the one case complete, and giving the whole life ; in the other, representing some portion of the life. The question then occurs, What constitutes this common or collective life of the nation, which it is the duty of the historian to trace; where is it to be sought for; in what facts does it lie involved ? 6. The answer to this question is as important as it is difficult. Generally speaking, one may say that, since the common or collective life of the nation is the resultant of all the acts and all the experiences of all the separate individuals that have lived in the nation, the larger one’s knowledge of all these acts and experiences, and, in fact, of everything however minute in any way relating to any and all of the individuals of the nation singly, the better will 3Y

HISTORY. 538 History, the purposes of history be served. No fact is too mean to within that order, by certain portions of it. Now, though History, be of use—no collection of facts would be too extensive for any history of the Athenians would be defective, which did the ends of the historian. An adequate recollection, ac- not contain a suggestion of the existence and the habits of cording to our definition of what that means, of all that the slave-population, which did not in fact keep continually has been thought, said, done, or suffered, by all that have present in the reader’s imagination the thousands of slaves lived in a community from first to last, in proper order— who were toiling daily underneath that platform of public this would be the absolute ideal of a history of the commu- life which was occupied by the free demos and its orators, nity. The perception of the common life would be in- yet every one knows that the real history of Athens, the volved in such a recollection of all that went to constitute actions which made it illustrious, came out of the votes and it. But necessity here imposes a limitation. We cannot, deliberations of this demos. And so, with modifications, in by any amount of research, know all that all the successive modern societies. Not only do certain scattered individuals millions forming a community have thought, said, done, contain in them such a share of the general vitality that suffered, or seemed ; the facts that we can know, or that, they may be taken to some extent as representing the knowing, we can visibly take into account, are, at best, whole; but the arrangements of all communities are such in every case, but a miserable percentage of this ideal ag- that, for historical purposes, the attention need not be gregate. But, though this consideration impairs the per- equally distributed over all parts, but, provided all parts are fection of history, it impairs it only to the same extent that suggested and kept in view, may be most concentrated on every form of intellectual practice must be impaired by the some parts, where the higher functions are localized. In limited nature of the human faculties. The real question extension of this remark we may note, that in all histories is, Since all cannot be known and remembered, what is it it is considered important to have correct lists of the rulers best to know' and remember ? Since the facts out of which or chief magistrates, and to have the physiognomy and chawe must construct our histories in idea are but a small pro- racter of each in succession pretty distinctly sketched. This portion, a mere remaining shred of that enormous, inter- is considered necessary, even when the rulers are men pertwined infinity of facts which actually went into the his- sonally of no particular mark, or goodness, or energy; and tories while the web was being woven, are there any kinds the reason is that, since these men were the principal peror orders of facts which, more than others, it is desirable, sonages in their communities while they lived, the most for the purposes of history, to secure and keep hold of? conspicuous social objects, the centres of general regard, it Seeing that we cannot take account of all, but may take is like reviving part of the consciousness of the generations account of some things, what things may we take account which looked at them, to set them up again one after anof, with the greatest likelihood of fulfilling the essential other in their order. Apart altogether from any effect that requirements of history ? George IV. may have exercised personally on British his7. The answer is suggested by the definition of history. tory during his reign, it is to be remembered that, by the If history is the account of the collective life of a nation, fact of his position, he was during that period an object and if we cannot know all the facts that entered into the much present in the thoughts of the British people; and constitution of that life, we ought to inquire whether there hence that, by keeping him in view, we recover, as it were, are any kinds or orders of facts in which, more than in the so much of the mental habit of his contemporaries. Indeed, others, the collective vitality of a nation is represented and this is the principle on which the practice of dating events embodied. If there are, then, whatever facts we neglect, it by the reigns of kings and the like is founded. should not be these. But such orders of facts—vital facts 8. Among the various other ways in which the problem they may be called—there obviously are. In every com- of history is simplified, none is more important than that munity, for example, though all contribute to the common which is afforded by the power of studying the progressive life, all do not contribute in an equal degree. Some indi- life of a nation in its art, its literature, and its philosophy or viduals, in every age, either from their endowments or their systematic speculation. In the works of art (whether in mucircumstances, or from both combined, exert a more power- sic, in painting, in sculpture, or in architecture) which a ful influence than the rest—contain in themselves, so to nation produces, its thoughts, its tendencies, all that is speak, a larger portion of the general life. Hence it is most general and characteristic in its intellectual, emotional, one of the rules of history to attend in a particular manner and moral life, is symbolized and embodied; and the due to the lives and actions of powerful individual men; and it interpretation of any such series of works of art will reveal is always felt that by fastening the regards on such men, much to the historian. So with literature. The body of describing their physiognomies and characters, and relating literature bequeathed by a nation is a living abstract of its their movements, the problem of history is simplified, and moods, its passions, its likings, its aspirations; and a due its true end is to a considerable extent attained. The uni- acquaintance with a nation’s literature, and, above all, with versal instinct of writers of history recognizes this fact. its highest national poetry, is essential to one who would Again, besides the agency of powerful individuals, there is write its history. Farther, and perhaps still more profoundly, the agency in every society of what may be called power- the innermost life of a nation, the very principle of its life ful physical accidents, such as famines, epidemics, earth- (i.e., its mode of thinking), is to be gathered from the hisquakes, and the like; and also the agency of occasional ac- tory of its philosophy and religion. What is speculation cidents more properly social, such as great inventions and to-day becomes action to-morrow; and hence the true discoveries made unawares, or almost so. All events of this thread of a nation’s life is to be found above all in the suckind, producing as they do large effects on the whole com- cession of its thoughts and maxims on those subjects which munity at once, are felt to have special claims on the notice are of the greatest generality and importance to the human of the historian, and are therefore always commemorated race. There has been a perception of this among histoin histories. Farther, all societies are so constituted that, rians, but not so distinct as there might be. in the nature of things, the common vitality is not equally 9. After all, however, history would be in a somewhat distributed through all parts of their mass, but the higher uncertain predicament, unless it could prescribe to itself a functions of the general life are lodged necessarily more in more definite and rigid path of inquiry than we have yet one part than in the others. For example, in the ancient indicated. Although the life of a nation is to be studied communities, a large portion of the population always con- in the characters and actions of its great men individually, sisted of slaves, upon whom were devolved the lower indus- in the traditions of great physical occurrences which have trial functions, while the higher or directing functions were affected it, in the records of its inventions and discoveries, exercised by an upper order of freemen, and more especially, in accounts of the social habits and movements of its direct-

539 II I S T O R Y. solid road-way. (2.) Precisely so it is in matters of interHistory, History. ing classes, in the portraits and dates of its successive sovereigns, in its art, its literature, and its philosophy, it is to national activity. The international activity of countries be studied most authentically and surely in the recorded takes various forms. War is one form, and it has hitherto series of its public acts. The public acts of a nation accu- been the form predominant in the history of the world. rately recorded, are the true backbone of every history; and “ The history of mankind,” Napoleon III. is reported to whatever other information there is, must be arranged have said, “ is the history of armies.” But commerce is round that. But what are the public acts of a nation? They another form; and diplomacy has in all times found some are the acts performed by the nation expressly as a nation. scope in arrangements unconnected with war. Just, howAny general movement of a nation, even when not formal, ever, as all domestic political activity takes its solid issue may be considered as such an act; but, for all real pur- ultimately in laws, enactments, or institutions, so all interposes, the acts of a nation are to be regarded as those done national political activity niay be considered as registering in the name of the nation by its government. In every itself in what are called treaties. The treaties of a nation, society that has yet existed on the face of the earth, there using that word in its largest sense, as including all kinds has been a government of some kind or other—a certain of mutual agreements among nations, are, in its external organ or apparatus located somewhere in the body-politic, history, what the body of its written laws is in its internal. and charged, in an express manner, with the performance Here also the historian feels his ground firm. A treaty of the functions appertaining to the common life. It mat- like that of Utrecht or that of Vienna, is like the balancing ters not whether the apparatus is a despotic sovereignty of accounts after a long term of energetic and confused lodged in a single person, or a popular assembly, or an oli- action. One sees the actual result at last, and can comgarchical council, or a system of combined powers and pare it with the aims and the means. 11. Historians have always attended with some care to checks. Nor does it matter whether the apparatus remains uniformly the same, or is changed from time to time. So treaties; and, indeed, accounts of great battles and great long as a government officiates for a nation, the nation acts campaigns, and of the treaties in which they ended, have through it; and hence the attention of the historian must always constituted a large proportion of the matter of our always be fixed on the government of the nation whose life histories. Perhaps less attention has been paid to the inhe is representing, and he must take its acts as the corpo- ternal history of countries as preserved in their statutebooks ; and Mr Froude has recently done good service by rate acts of the nation. 10. Now, a nation, through its government, is capable of calling attention to this fact, with especial reference to two distinct kinds of political actioji,—action referring solely English history, in one of the Oxford Essays. But there to itself; and action referring to other nations. In other may be exaggeration even on this side. 1 he end of hiswords, the public acts of any nation are either acts of home tory is to realize and exhibit the whole collective life of a policy, or acts of foreign or international policy. The dis- nation ; and though the main acts of this collective life are tinction is a simple and popular one, but it is not the less most authentically registered in enactments and treaties, true and comprehensive. The historian must never lose much of this life, and even of what is most interesting and sight of it. He must always keep distinct in his mind these significant in it, would elude us, if we did not trace it through two series of acts,—the acts of a nation, through its govern- other and more subtle manifestations. For example, the ment, relating to its own internal affairs; and the acts of collective mind and energy of Britain at the present time the same nation, also through its government, having refer- would be gathered but meagrely from the current series ot ence to other nations. (1.) The acts of a nation relating our parliamentary enactments and diplomatic arrangements; to its own internal affairs are of various kinds,—popular agi- nor does the whole river of the national life run even in tations, public discussions, parliamentary debates, delibera- the procedure which gives rise to these solid results. Hence tions in council by those who exercise the government, the necessity of falling back on all those kinds of matter consultations between the sovereign and his advisers, and which we have already indicated as belonging to history ; the like ; but the ultimate form which all such acts assume the art, literature, and philosophy of a country, the lives of in every nation is that of decrees, orders, and laws. Wher- its great men, &c. Hence the necessity also of neglecting ever we can find a decree, an order, or a law, there we have nothing that can serve to make the historical recollection in the most solid and authentic form an exhibition of the more true, deep, and vivid. A casual anecdote or reported collective life of the nation ; for every such decree, order, saying, a glimpse of some old social custom, may often iror law, represents the decision come to by the nation radiate a whole tract of past time. The rule, as regards through its rulers upon some point of social necessity aris- the preliminary investigation of the facts, is that by all ing at that moment and occupying more or less the na- means one ought to strive to get as close to the transciction tional thought. Every law7 represents the nation applying, itself as possible; the rule as regards the proportionate at some particular moment, its collective energy and in- value of the facts so ascertained, is that the “ interest of a genuity, or even folly and prejudice, according to the forms fact is the measure of its historical importance. 1 his last in use, to the determination of some felt social need or rule may appear questionable ; but duly understood, it will emergency of the moment; and what more intimate exhi- be found to be just. What interests one man may not inbition of the collective life can there be than this ? I he terest another; but for every individual severally, true hishistory of every nation, therefore, is most authentically pre- tory may be defined to be whatever of the actual past he served in its statute-book, i.e., using the word statute-book recollects with interest. 12. In order to see what are the chief sources of history, in its widest sense, in the continuous series of its written laws, edicts, regulations, &c. about the entire miscellany of we have only to express in another form the substance of its domestic matters, such as trade, taxation, crime, educa- what we have been saying. The main sources of history tion, and the like, including, of course, the provisions re- may be arranged, in the order of their importance, as follating to its own constitutional system or mechanism. Here lows :—1. Written or otherwise registered laws and treaties ; the historian treads, as it were, on adamant. In other mat- in which are embodied, in their order, the deliberate deterters there may be mistakes and misconceptions; but when minations of nations with respect to the successive exithe historian announces the fact, that in such and such a gencies, internal and external, through which they passed. year, a nation passed such and such an enactment, or re- This source is available chiefly for the history of modern pealed such and such an enactment, he can be sure that he nations; only scraps of the laws and treaties of the ancient is on firm ground; and if he can step from one fact of this nations remaining to us in their original form. 2. Public kind to another throughout his whole narrative, he has a contemporary registers of notable occurrences. These, in

HISTORY. 540 History, the express documentary form, are also most numerous for knowledge, an adequate sense of its whole significance. History. modern nations; but, for ancient times, facts may be often Hypothetically, indeed, one might go farther, and say that ^ ascertained, and dates may be fixed, from monumental in- the aim of the historian, as such, is to be able to frame to scriptions, coins, medals, &c. 3. More general accounts himself an adequate continuous recollection of all that has of national transactions, given by those who have recorded passed in time, not restricting himself to time as connected them, and especially by contemporaries and eye-witnesses. with the existence of our species, nor even to time as conA large proportion of what are called the “original materials” nected with our world only. Except, however, in as far as of all histories consists of such accounts, which are to be exa- geology might be made to yield a history of our earth anmined and checked by each other. 4. Authentic accounts terior to the appearance of humanity, such an extension of of the physiognomies, lives, and characters of eminent men, history is purely ideal; and history can be nothing else for and especially of eminent public men, visibly connected with us than that vast collective life of humanity as a whole, to national transactions. 5. Remaining works of art, and the which all national histories are but tributaries. Let us glance whole surviving literature of a nation, for the period con- at the conditions and divisions of history in this aspect. cerned, both as exhibiting the national tendencies and modes 15. The first and most difficult problem of universal hisof thinking, and also as embodying incidentally particles of tory, as just defined, is to fix the point of its beginning— historical tact. 6. All miscellaneous sources of information i.e., the time of the first appearance and activity of man on respecting customs, costumes, food, furniture, occupations, this planet. The unaided condition of the human race now, &c. &c.; under which head, if not under some of the pre- as regards this problem, is analogous to that of a man trying ceding, might be included busts, portraits, topographical to fix the date of his own birth by his own recollection. He views, engravings, and the like.. One may also note here cannot do so. He may work his memory backwards more the occasional possibility that there is of rendering a narra- or less distinctly to within a few years of his birth ; but the tive of past actions more vivid by actually visiting remark- date of his birth, and the circumstances of his infant years able localities, buildings, &c., or museums of antiquities. he can know only from external information. Very much Here the historian can communicate through his senses so it is with the race as a whole. Regarding the commencewith actual remnants of the past. A battle-field is a portion ment of the existence of humanity on the earth, and the of the earth’s surface, retaining, as it were, the scar of the subsequent period of what may be called its infancy, the action which passed over it^ an old castle or street is, as it mere memory of humanity is necessarily at fault. Two were, the shell once filled with an old form of life; a suit of kinds of external information are depended on for filling up armour with a bullet-hole in it suggests more accurately the ,the blank—the information contained in the Biblical records warrior who moved and fought within it. The most ex,ten- of the creation and beginnings of the race; and any colsive use of this help to history is in travelling over countries lateral information to be derived from geological researches. which were the scenes of great events, so as to realize the In short, history, at this its first stage, is merged in theology permanent features of their scenery, whether geological, .and geology; and the historian must have his conclusions botanical, or artificial. given to him from beyond the field of his own science. 13. Nothing has yet been said of the distinction, recog- Even so supplied, the conclusions are not numerous. nised by Bacon, and very generally kept up since, between Hitherto scientific geology has not even professed to be able the civil and the ecclesiastical history of a nation. That to determine anything precise respecting the epoch at which distinction, however, though convenient, is not fundamental; the earth was first inhabited by man, or respecting the conand much harm may be done by regarding it as such. Ob- ditions of its first human inhabitants. And though the Heviously it is inapplicable to the history of ancient commu- brew Scriptures narrate the story of the creation of mankind, nities ; and though, with regard to modern Christian nations, and of the fortunes of its first generations, with an exactness there are good practical reasons for attending to it, they are not offered by any other record—telling of the creation of purely reasons of practice, and not of theory. The history an original pair on one part of the earth’s surface, tracing of the church is a splendid subject, and may well be under- the descent of successive generations from that pair, and taken apart; but not because of any real isolation of the describing a great catastrophe or deluge which destroyed all facts included in the series thus chosen for special treatment. these generations, with the exception of a single family, who The best history of England would also necessarily be the were left to re-people the world—commentators have found best history of the Church of England. the utmost difficulty in settling the dates of these events, 14. Hitherto we have spoken of history, in its typical and in casting the whole narration into a chronological form. form, as the account of the life of one of those organized No fewer than two or three hundred different chronological social masses called nations; frequently, however, we use schemes have been proposed, all based on calculations from the word history ,in its larger and more generic sense, as in- the durations of the lives of the patriarchs and other nuvolving an account of the aggregate transactions of many merical data furnished by the Biblical text. The shortest nations, or indeed, of the whole known world, during a cer- of these fixes the date of the creation of man at the year tain portion of past time. Thus, Gibbon’s History of the li.C. 3483; the longest at the year b.q. 6984—a discrepancy Decline and Fall of the Homan Empire is virtually a me- of more than 3000 years, ftftie cause of these differences .digeval history—a history of all the chief nations of the world is the difference existing in the passages supplying the data, during a thousand years. And thus we rise to the very between the Hebrew text of the Old Testament and the highest conception of history—that implied in such phrases Samaritan text and the Septuagint version. The chronoas “ the teaching of history,” “ no other instance of this is to logical scheme commonly adopted in British tables of hisbe found in history,” and the like. History, in this supreme tory, during the last two centuries, is that of Archbishop sense, is sometimes called universal history ; and the object- Usher, which fixes the epoch of the creation at b.c. 4004, matter of history, so understood, is the whole past course and that of the deluge at b.c. 2348. of humanity from the first moment of its existence to the 16. Even after passing beyond this first stage in the hispresent hour, ft his is true history, in the sense we have in tory of the world, and assuming whatever date for the deview when we consider it as one of the great divisions of luge he considers most probable, the historian still enhuman knowledge and intellectual exercise. The historian, counters a large tract of time respecting which, unless he in this high sense, as distinct from the philosopher and the proceeds implicitly on the information given in the Hebrew poet, is the man who makes it his aim to have an accurate Scriptures, he must remain totally silent. Availing himself, continuous knowledge of all that has taken place on this however, of those parts of the Mosaic record which relate to earth since it contained human beings, and, along with that the re-peopling of the world after the deluge, he is able to

HISTORY. 541 History, impart a specific character to this portion of universal his- tion, does his work properly commence. Now, here again, History, tory which would otherwise be wanting. He can conceive there are differences among historians. Some believe that, it as the period of the dispersion of mankind over the earth, by means of records and monuments, we can carry back the and of their division into nations, tongues, and peoples. histories of certain ancient nations as far as b.c. 2000, if not And here, whatever collateral light elucidating the Mosaic farther; others, more sceptical, doubt if we can go as far account he can bring to his assistance so as to vivify his idea back as b.c. 1000, or even b.c. 800, and regard the tradiof human activity during this tract of time, must be derived, tions of events and the lists of kings, &c., by means of which not, as before, from the science of geology, but from the certain of the ancient nations pushed the retrospect of their so-called science of ethnology. The object of this science own respective histories beyond that point, as nothing more is to trace the affinities of existing nations and tribes on the than mythology and legend. Of late this historical sceptiearth, by the study of their physiognomical and physiological cism has certainly been exaggerated ; and the researches of analogies and differences, the analogies and differences of archaeologists seem gradually to be verifying the belief that, their habits and mental characteristics, and the analogies though on the whole the period between B.c. 2000 and and differences of their languages—so as to exhibit their b.c. 800 is the domain of mythology, yet even in that period genealogical descent, and, if possible, refer them back to we can lay down, as it were, a causeway of solid fact reseveral original stocks, springing from one root. So far as specting certain individual nations. Without entering on the science has yet gone, its great doctrine is that, whatever this controversy (which, indeed, can only be conducted saindependent reasons there are for believing in the original tisfactorily by discussing the antiquity of each nation apart), unity of the race, yet, for historical purposes, we must con- let us enumerate those nations which, by general consent ceive to ourselves humanity at the dawn of the remotest age hitherto, have been reckoned as the most ancient in the to which its own unaided memory can penetrate, as consist- world, and, as such, the first objects of the historian’s soliing, not of one perfectly homogeneous mass aggregated on citude:—1. In the great expanse of Negro humanity, conone spot, but of several distinct masses already distributed ceived as possessing Southern and Central Africa from time more or less densely over the various quarters of the earth, immemorial, the only native consolidation that presents itself and each broken into minor subdivisions. In accordance in early times with even a possible claim on the separate atwith this general doctrine of ethnology, various schemes tention of the historian is that of the so-called Ethiopians, have been proposed. One of the most distinct and con- of whom we hear as a very ancient nation lying far inland venient is that which avers that, as far back as ordinary re- beyond Upper Egypt. 2. Glancing over the vast Mongolian cords carry us, we find the earth, as now, divided out among tracts of Asia and America, the historian encounters glimpses three great stocks or varieties of mankind,—the Negro here and there at an early period of nations or aggregates of variety, having the African continent, or the greater part tribes under the vague names of Scythians and the like ; but of it, for their home ; the Mongolian, variety, spread over the only permanent and important consolidation whose anNorthern, Central, and Eastern Asia, and possibly also ex- tiquity, as maintained by itself, he feels bound to investipatiating in America; and the Caucasian variety (this gate, is that of the Chinese. The Mexicans and Peruvians is an absurd and misleading name, but no proper equivalent of America do not come into view till comparatively modern has yet been proposed), possessing Western Asia, Europe, times; so that, to all intents and purposes, America is exand the Mediterranean margin of Africa, and subdivided ploded from ancient history. 3, Passing to the Caucasian conspicuously into—(1.) the Semitic or Syro-Arabian regions of Western and Southern Asia, Northern Africa, and family, clustered together in the Western region of Asia Europe, the historian is struck by the difference which these between the Tigris and the Mediterranean, and in the regions present. Here, instead of one nation looming into adjacent parts of Africa; and (2.) the Japetic or Indo- his view, he finds a considerable number of distinct nations European family, more widely distributed in the remaining contemporaneously or in swift succession competing for his Caucasian parts of Asia and Africa, and oyer all Europe^ notice. First, far to the east, and to a great extent isolated According, then, to ethnology, the business of the historian from the rest, are the Indians, a primeval mass of the Japroper commences at that point of past time at which, so petic or Indo-European race, at least claiming a high antifar as we have information, the whole or the greater part quity, which, like that of the Chinese, requires to be investiof the earth’s surface can be conceived as overspread by gated. Next, clustered together in what we have defined human inhabitants of one or other of the three main types as the Semitic or Syro-Arabian portion of the general Caustill existing—Negroes, Mongolians, or Caucasians ;—these casian area—i.e., in Western Asia, between the Mediterhuman inhabitants thinly dispersed perhaps in some parts ranean and the Tigris, and in the adjacent parts of Africa— as mere loose and roaming tribes, but in others showing a are a group of Semitic nations, among which the most contendency to aggregate themselves into those larger consoli- spicuous are the Egyptians, the Hebreivs, the Phoenicians, dations which we call nations. Accepting the common and the Assyrians and Babylonians, Lastly, in the remainchronology, he may fix this point, if he pleases, at about ing Indo-European portions of Asia, a little later in point b.c. 2000. At that far-distant period it does appear as if the of time, Japetic nations, such as the Medes and Persians earth had been tolerably well overspread by human beings of the Iranian table-land, and the Lydians of Asia Minor, arranged very much as they now are—Negroes in Africa, are discerned rising into importance; while, if the attention southofMount Atlas; Mongolians in Central, Northern, and is extended into Europe, the beginnings of such nations as Eastern Asia; and Caucasians in Western Asia, Northern the Greeks, the Etruscans, See., are at the same time visible. Africa, and Europe ; and as if already at various points these 18. The first portion or division of universal history, therehuman beings had begun to form themselves into compact fore, is that which collects and narrates all that can be ascertained respecting the origin and early transactions of these national masses. 17. Coming down from this point, it is the business of primeval consolidations of mankind on our earth’s surface, up the historian to keep his eye roving, as it were, round the to that point at which their histories cease to be separate, globe, on the watch for the first authentic appearances of and appear to become involved, to some extent at least, in one activity on the part of any of those national masses which, general movement, the tracing of which may more properly be he has already concluded, have been silently and obscurely made the business of the remaining parts of history. Now forming themselves at different points on its surface. It there pan be no difference of opinion as to the geographical is with communities and nations that the historian has to region in which this general movement presented itself— deal; and not till the earth furnishes him with at least one the first heavings, as it were, of humanity in its efforts to such community or nation on which he can fasten his atten- assume that common course which it was to maintain through-

HISTORY. 542 History, out all time. It was not in Negro Africa, it was not in sal history would be one which would constitute in the first v History, Mongolian Asia, it was not in Japetic Europe ; it was, be- place a great division by itself, under the name of Prim- -— yond all question, in that portion of Western Asia (adja- eval Ancient History; assigning to this division the cent Africa included; and, indeed, the Nile was always duty of collecting all that can be ascertained respecting the accounted an Asiatic river by the ancient geographers) beginnings of those early consolidations of the race which which we still think of most when we speak of “ the Orien- we have enumerated, and of narrating their several histotal nations,” and in which, as we have just stated, a cluster ries, either in parallel lines where they keep separate, or of distinguished Semitic nations was in contact with one or otherwise where they commingle, on to that point (say the two Japetic ones, or rather with the elements of such. reign of Darius) where they merge in the authentic unity Every schoolboy knows that the Indians and the Chinese, of the Persian empire. 19. Beyond this, the historian’s course is so clear that it whatever their antiquity and importance, stand apart and isolated to a great extent from the regular course of ancient may be indicated briefly. The Persian monarchy, includhistory, so far as we can trace it; and that the true begin- ing all Asia from the Indus to the ASgean, precipitated itself nings of “ world-history,” as such, are to be sought for among upon Europe, thus determining that the world’s pedigree the mutual conflicts of those famous nations clustered to- should be continued through the Japetic nations of the gether in smaller masses on that portion of the East beyond West. When Darius (b.c. 490) attempted to conquer the or near the Levant, where, as Napoleon alleged, the human Greeks, the earth changed its historic centre. The Greek soul had ever throbbed most powerfully—the Egyptians, and Hellenic race, already so nobly prepared for its honourthe Hebrew's, the Phoenicians, the Assyrians and Babylo- able office (and, for the purposes of the universal historian, nians, and the Medes and Persians. When we try to fix, all Grecian history anterior to B.c. 490 would here come in however, the date or epoch at which we are to account the by way of retrospect, including any authentic matter that mere separate histories of these nations to have ended, and might be ascertained respecting the Trojans and other the general movement to have begun, there is greater room Pelasgian nations of Asia Minor and Southern Europe), was for difference. From the earliest times of which we have inaugurated into that office at the battle of Marathon ; and any glimpse, these nations, or at least the Semitic ones, for a considerable period onward the main thread of uniwere warring with each other, and making conquests. We versal history has to be traced in the History of Greece. hear of early Egyptian conquests, of early Assyrian con- This history, of which the Graeco-Macedonian dominion of quests, and even of early Ethiopian conquests. The Assy- Alexander the Great and his successors may be viewed as rians, in particular, stand forth in our schemes of universal a prolongation under different conditions from those which history as the first people who pursued a regular and known existed while the Athenians, the Lacedaemonians, the career, aiming at the subjugation and political combination Thebans, &c., acted as separate or as confederate states, of the elements that lay around them. In our traditional closes with the appearance of the Romans as a conquering schemes of universal history we have presented to us three people out of Italy. Transferring his regards to this impesuccessive Assyrian monarchies—the first, beginning shortly rial people (and here again the anterior of Italy itself, while after the period assigned to the deluge, and ending some- the Romans were being cradled in it, as well as the by-past where about B.c. 2000, when a conqueror, Ninus, extended histories of the Carthaginians and other Mediterranean it immensely so as to form a great empire, with Nineveh nations left out of the Persian empire, and of that of the for its capital ; the second, beginning at the date of this Macedonians, but about to be included in that of the Ninus, and lasting till the death of a luxurious monarch Romans, will be best managed by way of retrospect), the called Sardanapalus, b.c. 876, when the empire was dis- universal historian has a clear path in Roman History, as membered ; and the third, a monarchy of lesser dimensions, far as the fourth or fifth century of our era ; at which point, founded amid the ruins of the second, and lasting till the by general consent, Ancient History closes, in the disindestruction of Nineveh, b.c. 606, by its subjects the Medes tegration of the Roman empire by the northern races, and and Babylonians, under the Babylonian viceroy Nabopo- the commencement of a new order of things. 20. Onwards from this point there is no theoretical diflassar. After this event, according to the same schemes of history, the unity of historic interest is centred in the so- ficulty, though the complexity of the movement, arising called Babylonian monarchy, founded by Nabopolassar, from the multitude of the nations taking part in it, may ocand maintained and extended by his son Nebuchadnezzar casion a practical one to the historian. Modern History, and other successors, till the year b.c. 538, wdien the Medes commencing say at the year 395 of the Christian era, when and Persians, who had in the meantime risen to a position of the Roman empire, on the death of Theodosius, was persome importance, captured Babylon, and began a new manently divided into the two empires of the West and East, Oriental rule. Now the historian, after due investigation, consists, as all know, of two parts,—Mediceval History, may, if he chooses, date the commencement of world-his- which carries on the general movement from a.d. 395, at tory as such either from the last Assyrian monarchy, or which time the empire of the West was already tottering from the Babylonian monarchy which superseded it. For before the attacks of the Goths and other Germanic peoples, many reasons, however, in the present state of our know- to a.d. 1453, when the taking of Constantinople by the ledge, it seems to us that it would be better to regard the Turks put an end to the long-surviving empire of the East; general political movement of the human race, as beginning and Recent Modern History, carrying on the movement rather at the point where for the first time the mastery is from a.d. 1453 to the present time. Under both these seen transferred to a nation of the Japetic or Indo-Euro- heads, by keeping up with due skill the distinction between pean race—i.e., at the overthrow of the Babylonian empire the “ History of the West ” and the “ History of the East,” by the Medes and Persians, b.c. 538—and the establishment the historian is able to include everything in its proper of that Medo-Persian empire, which, in the hands of Cyrus place. Thus, under Medieeval History, the “ History of the Great (died b.c. 529) and his successors Cambyses the West,” commencing with a survey of the Roman em(b.c. 529-521), and Darius (b.c. 521-48r>), became orga- pire of the West at the period of its decay, then passes on nized by farther conquests, in which the Lydians were in- to an account of the Germanic peoples who were to be its cluded, into the vast combination known as the Persian em- destroyers, details the actions of these peoples in disrupting pire. According to this view, Cyrus is the first hero of the empire, and forming the new societies of France, Italy, universal history, as such ; and the Persians are the first to Spain, Britain, Germany, &c., and conducts the conjoint lead the march of the general historic evolution. The best story of these societies through the eras of Charlemagne, arrangement, then, as we think, for the purposes of univer- Hildebrand, &c., to the eve of the Reformation; while the

HISTORY. 543 exhibited in Africa, Asia, and, above all, in America—now History, History. “ History of the East ” (the necessary connections being ' exhibited throughout) includes the history during the same for the first time added to the theatre of history; while to period of the Byzantine empire, the related histories of the the department of “ the East” may be assigned the narraArabs, Tartars, and Turks, and to some extent that of the tive of Turkish domination, and of interrupting Persian Slavonian nations. So, under Recent Modern History, conquests, together with the necessary survey up to the there may be assigned to the department of “ the West” all present hour of the rest of native Asia. 21. It may be well to exhibit in a tabular form the dithe transactions, national and international, of the occidental nations of Europe since 1453, including, as an important visions of universal history as they have been sketched in part of the story, an account of their colonizing energies as the foregoing paragraphs. / r- Primeval Ancient History, including, after a sufficient ethnographical survey of the globe at the earliest possible date, the several histories of the most ancient known nations, such as the Ethiopians, the Indians, the Chinese, the Egyptians, the Hebrews, the Phoenicians, the Assyrians and Babylonians, the Lydians, the Medes and Persians, together with an account of the mutual actions of some of these upon each other, which resulted, after a preliminary era of Assyrian and Babylonian domination, in the formation of the I. ANCIENT HISTORY, Persian empire (b.C, 538—485). consisting of

History, beginning with the neZ1- Grecian cessary retrospect of the history of the Grecian lands, and of the lands related to them prior to B.C. 490, and then carrying on the general movement, first through the true Hellenic, and then through the Graeco-Macedonian era, as II. Classical Ancient History ; subdi- / far as B.C. 168 or thereby. vided into \ £. Roman History, involving a like retrospect of Italy and of the parts of the Mediterranean world related to it (Carthage, Spain, &c.), as far as B.C. 168, and then carrying all the historic world on, directly or by implication, as far as A.D. 395.

HISTORY consists of '

/ 1. The Mediaeval History of the TTe^t, including an account of the action of the Gothic races on the Roman empire of the West, and the histories of the societies of France, Italy, Spain, Britain, Germany, &c., formed by that action, severally and I. Mediaeval History; from a.d. 395 / conjointly,till the eveof the Beformation. till a.d. 1453, divisible into 2. The History of the East, including that of the Byzantine empire, and the related histories of the Arabs, the Tartars, the Turks, and also, so far, of the Slavo' nians. II. MODERN HISTORY, consisting of

I 1. The Recent History of the West, continuing that of the occidental nations of Europe severally and conjointly since 1453, and exhibiting these nations, and especially the Anglo-Saxon race, expatiating in Africa, Asia, and America, and there, and most notably in the last, grafting II. Recent Modern History ; from a.d. new nationalities and new forms of 1453 till the present time, also divisi- \ civilization. ble into 2. The Recent History of the East, comprising that of the Turkish empire, and whatever references to China and other districts of Asia are necessary to complete our view of the present state of the whole world.

Of course far more minute subdivisions than are indicated in this table would be necessary to make it perfect. Thus Roman History is divisible into the periods of the Commonwealth and the Empire ; Western Mediaeval History is divisible into the Frankish Period and the Feudal Period; ind the History of the United States and of other American ibrmations stands out as something more than a mere appendix to the recent history of the West—a kind of new development of humanity in its course towards the future. 22. The historian, then, as distinct from the poet or the

philosopher, is the man who, having some such scheme of the whole past course of humanity in his mind, can fill it up with a minute and accurate knowledge of all the facts constituting its separate parts, so as to embrace the whole career of the world, from the primeval period of darkness onwards through classical, mediaeval, and modern times, in one vast continuous recollection. Such men there have been and are, though naturally, as the world goes on, their number must become smaller and smaller. Niebuhr was such a man ; and indeed all great scholars of ancient or modern

544 HIS T History, times have been men of this class. The terms “learning” ^ or “ erudition,” as we now use them, are, in this sense, but synonyms for historical knowledge, or rather for parts of that knowledge; for what are our philologists but men of colossal memories for certain orders of those facts which universal history includes ? 23. But is the historian merely a man of overloaded memory ? All that enormous store of facts having been slowly acquired and treasured up, do they lie in his mind with no more of cohesion than is involved in the mere order of place and time in which they came into being ? Certainly they ought not to do so ; and it is to the discredit of the person pretending to be a historian if they do. Memory, as we have said, is but the name for a certain mood of the total mind ; and, unless therefore the facts of universal history are themselves such as to be positively incapable of any other organization than that implied in the accidental order of their individual juxtaposition and succession, there is no reason why history should not be something more than a mere vast register of dates and particulars. We invariably assume that it is something more. We speak of “ the lessons ” of history. Washington, when the future organization of the United States was being discussed, drew up a list of all the most notable confederacies of states known in the world, in order that, by studying the constitution and history of each, he might assist his conclusion as to the best constitution for the thirteen American colonies. And so every day we appeal to precedents, and draw inferences from the past as to the proper course in existing social and political emergencies. We even define history as “ philosophy teaching by example.” And what does all this indicate but the universality of the belief that, as there is a certain invariable order of nature in the physical world, so there is in the historical or social world ; that in this world also like effects must follow like causes, so that, when circumstances are the same, we have a right to infer that results will be the same ? Generalizing this belief, we speak of the “ course of humanity,” of “ the career of the race,” of “ the movement of human affairs,” and the like ; all which phrases imply that certain conclusions as to the nature and connexions of the facts recollected are involved in the recollection. 24. Speculations having reference to the mutual connections and the general bearing of the facts of past history as a whole, form what is called The Philosophy of History. There has always been some such philosophy. The ancient Greek historian Thucydides, for example, not only relates facts, but reasons about them ; that is, he is fond of referring historical effects to what he considers their causes, and of drawing general conclusions from the story which he is telling. On this account he is often called a philosophical historian. But all the ancient historians, not mere annalists, are to some extent philosophical, in the same sense ; that is, they mix reflections with their narrative, and recognise connections between causes and effects. Every one of them proceeds on the notion that, where social circumstances are similar, social results will be similar. Such men as Aristotle went much further, and tried, by studying the constitutions of different communities, and their effects on their prosperity, to establish general principles as to the best forms of government for a body-politic, and the probable destinies of this or that state. Moreover, the religious mind in all ages has always recognised a certain order in the affairs of nations, a certain course and tendency in the lives of communities as well as in the lives of individuals. Every ancient community fancied its fortunes to be under the guardianship of some deity or deities, the action of whose will and purpose might be discerned in everything that befel it. In modern times the notion of a Providence regulating human affairs, and guiding the destinies of nations, has been familiar to all noble and great minds. “ What are all our histories, and

0 R Y. records of actions of past times,” said Cromwell, “ but God History, manifesting himself that he hath shaken, and tumbled ^ down, and trampled under foot whatsoever He hath not planted?” And in the Christian view of Providence this notion takes a much more specific form ; so that all history is viewed as the gradual unfolding of that Divine scheme of which Christianity is the essence. 2o. But while a philosophy of history in this sense has always existed, the idea of history as an inductive science— the idea of regarding the phenomena of society as happening according to certain fixed laws, which may be ascertained to some extent by observation, like the laws of physical nature—is comparatively recent. The honour of first distinctly expounding this idea is generally assigned to an Italian thinker, Vico (1688-1744), who in the year 1725 published a work entitled Scienza Nuova, or “ Principles of a new Science.” In this work, which, with much that was obscure and vague, contained many brilliant perceptions, Vico developed the notion of the possibility of arriving at fixed laws of social growth and decay by observing the actual course of communities. He was very sanguine in his hopes of the extent to which this science might be carried. Making it his fundamental maxim that when circumstances are the same results will be the same, he believed that after a sufficient study of the past we might be able to predict the future so certainly that we might even calculate the duration of a nation’s existence. He believed that by an examination of the histories of past states it would be possible to find out the necessary and eternal career through which, with certain variations, all states must pass ; and he believed that in the same way the law' of the movement of humanity as a whole might be ascertained. Subsequent philosophers, both in France and in Germany, some of them without any knowledge of Vico’s speculations, pursued a similar train of thought. Montesquieu, for example, did much by his inquiries into the effects of climate and the like upon the social forms and habits of nations (1748), to accustom people to a scientific manner of looking at history. Herder also, in his Ideas towards a Philosophy of History (1774), helped forward the same speculation. But perhaps the broadest and deepest assertion during last century of the possibility of reducing the phenomena of society and history, as well as any other kind of phenomena, within the scope of a science, was that made by Kant in his Essay entitled Idea of a Universal History in a Cosmopolitical Point of View (1784). The following are one or two sentences from this Essay :—“ Whatever be the conception of the liberty of the will which one may form in a metaphysical point of view, its phenomena—human actions—are determined, just as well as every other kind of natural events, according to universal laws of nature. It is to be hoped that history, which is occupied with the narration of these phenomena, will, when it contemplates the play of the liberty of the human will on the large scale, discover a regular course in it; so that what seems irregular and capricious in individual cases shall appear, as regards the whole species, as a continually progressive though slow unfolding of its original tendencies. Thus marriages, births, and deaths, seem—as the free-will of man has so great an influence on them—to be subject to no rule according to which their number can be previously determined by reckoning; and yet the yearly tables of them in great nations evince that they happen just as much according to constant laws of nature as the equally inconstant rains whose happening cannot be determined singly, but which on the whole do not fail to maintain the growth of plants, the flow of rivers, and other dispositions of nature, in a uniform, uninterrupted course One cannot forbear a certain indignation at seeing the actions of men represented on the theatre of the great w'orld ; and, notwithstanding the wisdom of individuals appearing here and there, at finding

Or

HISTORY. History, at last everything in the gross composed of madness, of child- facts of the history of the race in its obvious external aspect- History. s—ish vanity, and frequently of childish wickedness and rage of Our notions as to the nature of the internal movement or ' destruction. There is here no expedient for the philosopher course of humanity are much more vague and conjectural. but that of endeavouring to discover a design of nature in Many speculative minds have propounded what they have this nonsensical course of human affairs ; so that a history of called a “formula” of history. Vico imagined that the creatures who proceed without a plan may nevertheless be course of humanity was cyclical—i. e., that the world, after possible, according to such a determinate plan of nature.” going through a certain number of stages returned to the 26. The idea thus propounded by a few of the most ori- same point or the same set of conditions as at first, and then ginal minds of last century has since passed into the general went through the same stages over again ; and he was disbelief of all thinkers, so that all are now prepared to regard posed to regard all modern history, from the date of the disthe term history as including not merely the vast miscellany solution of the Roman empire, as a repetition, Phoenix-like, of the individual facts of the past, but also whatever body of of the history of the world up to that date. Abandoning truths or principles relative to the action of men in societies this cyclical theory, most thinkers since have adopted, as can be obtained by a sound study and fair generalization of more natural, the theory of continuous evolution or dethese facts. Hitherto, however, notwithstanding the pre- velopement, until all the elements of humanity shall have valence through Europe, and more especially in France, of been finally harmonized and co-ordinated. The popular a spirit of historical generalization arising from this new form of this theory is that which expresses itself in the view of history, the body of such ascertained historical word “ progress ”—a term which, in so far as it implies a truths or principles is very small. The cause of this is the progress from worse to better, has come into use only since vast complexity of the facts which are the objects of social the French Revolution. Less exceptionable in some rescience. If in the science of chemistry we are still only in spects than this term, as it is generally understood, as not so the process of arriving at laws and principles, how can we much begging the question of the absolute character of the expect to be far advanced in the task of discovering the evolution, is the equally popular term “ civilization.” The laws and principles of phenomena so much more complex historic process, it is said, has been one of the gradual than those of chemistry as are presented by human society. “civilization ” of the race. But in what does this “civili27. Certain conclusions more or less certain respecting zation” consist? In a gradual change in the mode of the laws of social equilibrium and social movement we have human thought, and consequently in the mode of human nevertheless arrived at. The principles of political eco- activity, say some—i.e., in the gradual exchange of the nomy, for example, so far as they have been established by superstitious mode of thought for the rational or scientific, those who have prosecuted this department of inquiry dur- and in a gradual exchange of the occupations of war and ing the last century, may be regarded as inductions or bloodshed for those of peaceful industry 1 In the gradual generalized expressions of social facts of a particular order destruction of all that interferes with individual freedom, in —those relating to social wealth—and, as such, may rank a gradual tendency to civil and political, if not to social as a solid contribution to our future body of historical truths. equality, say others 1 In the gradual preparation of the Some conclusions of other kinds from national statistics may human species externally and internally, said Kant, for a also be included in the same body. Nor are we without certain cosmopolitical organization of state which shall susome generalizations of a more extensive nature respecting persede that of nations, empires, &c., and embrace them the course of human history as a whole. For example, on all! In all these speculations and prognostications we can referring to the sketch given above of the leading divisions discern at least fragments of the truth. We do recognise of universal history, certain conclusions are so obviously im- a certain change in the mental habits of the race, dependplied in the facts themselves that they cannot fail to suggest ing on the growth of scientific knowledge, during the past themselves as facts too. One such fact is, that whereas the career of the world; and along with this a change of exfirst theatre of true historical action was limited to a small ternal manners and occupations. Peaceful industry does portion of the earth’s surface, the whole tendency of events seem on the whole to be superseding war. We do see also has been to widen that theatre, so that now the whole globe a gradual diffusion of privileges of all kinds ; a gradual tenof the earth almost presents the characteristics of social or- dency to the equalization of civil and political rights; a ganization, and is capable of a certain approach to simul- gradual evolution of freedom for the individual human taneous consciousness and simultaneous purpose. Connected being. The abolition of personal slavery is one form in with this fact is the circumstance that the agency by w hich this process; the extension of the rights of citizenship in this gradual social conquest and tillage, sotospeak,of theglobe modern states is another. Lastly, we do see, with Kant, a has been effected, has hitherto been chiefly in the hands of certain tendency of humanity within, keeping pace with its the so-called Caucasian portion of humanity, and, within geographical extension and the increase of its means of that portion, perhaps chiefly in the hands of the Japetic or locomotion and intercommunication externally, to a posIndo-European nations. Connected with the same fact is sible organization which may include the whole of it. But, the interesting circumstance that the geographical order of on the whole, the body of such conclusions which we can the process has been on the whole from East to West. rank among the ascertained and positive truths of history is First the primeval Oriental fermentation affected Western very small; and though all the best minds of the world are Asia as far as the shores of the Mediterranean ; then the now agreed that sound politics as an art can be founded Persian dynasty extended the historic stage to the flEgean ; only on the scientific study of history—in other words that after that the Greek or Graeco-Macedonian supremacy ex- politics is but applied history—the confusion of political tended it to the Adriatic ; next the Romans extended it to doctrines and creeds which the present state of the world the Atlantic. Against this barrier human energy, as it presents, proves how far we are from being able to turn this were, kept dashing itself for fifteen centuries, till at last the maxim to any efficient account. pent-up, westward-striving force found vent, and, like the II. HISTORY CONSIDERED AS A FORM OF LITERARY flash from a surcharged cloud, the spirit of Columbus shot COMPOSITION. to a new hemisphere. Nor does the process seem yet at Our remarks under this head, necessarily very brief, may an end. The westward tendency of the Americans on their continent, and the Anglo-Saxon colonizations going on be best presented in the shape of a view of some of the in the Pacific Islands, point to the ultimate completion by leading requisites of a historian, as distinct from a practitioner of other kinds of literature :— history of the great circle of the earth’s circumference. 1. First then, to success in historical literature, it is ne28. These, however, are but generalizations from the 3z VOL. XI.

546 HIST O R Y. History, cessary that the writer should be a man of the historical 2. The historian ought, in the second place, to be a man History, cast of mind. This is, in some sort, a truism, but it is a of the strictest veracity. But there are two kinds of veracity. truism worth attending to. We all know that there is such I here is what may be called passive veracity, or that a thing as a poetical cast of mind, and that there is such a honourable disposition of mind which makes a man himthing as a philosophical cast of mind ; but we do not so self refrain from falsehood. This, of course, the historian, often take account of the fact that there is also a historical as well as every man, whatever be his calling, ought to cast of mind, and that, just as we speak generically of “ the possess; and whosoever does not possess it ought to be poet” and “ the philosopher,” so, in the same generic sense, chased and hooted from the field of history. Misreprewe may speak of “ the historian,” as a being intellectually sentation for a purpose, or for the sake of effect, when at distinct from either. And what is the characteristic mental all conscious, is but a variety of the same deliberate lying. habit of the historian, as distinct from the philosopher and But many men who are passively veracious are not equally the poet ? We have already conveyed the answer to this conspicuous for active veracity—that is, for the disposition question in our preliminary definition of history. The his- to spare no labour of research in order to clear out falsetorian is the man who tends by preference to fall into that hood from whatever story they are dealing with, and armood of the total mind which we call memory or recollec- rive at the truth. This disposition the historian must also tion, as distinct from that mood which we call reasoning, or possess. The very word loropta implies active research. that mood which we call imagination. Such men there are. Writers of history differ very much in this respect. Some There are men to whom it is a positive constitutional plea- men, rather than set down a date falsely, will spend weeks sure to recall the memory of concrete facts and circum- in trying to ascertain it, and, if they fail, will say so ; others stances amid which they have once been—to remember are far less scrupulous. David Hume, with all his merits persons, places, incidents, costumes, physiognomies, and as a historian, is accused of extreme indolence in the matter physical and social particulars of every description. They of research ; and a story is told of the French historical delight in reminiscence and anecdote absolutely for their own writer, Father Daniel, to the effect that he “declared the sake, and amuse themselves when alone, and others when study of state papers to be a task more of fatigue than of use,” in company, by rehearsing anecdotes and reminiscences. and that, “ being shewn in the Royal Library at Paris a Generally, if there are opportunities, this taste, where it vast collection of original manuscripts relating to the history exists, is extended and heightened into a liking for the an- of France from the reign of Louis XL, he spent a single tique—a passion not only for the contemporary, but also for hour in turning over the volumes, and then declared that the past concrete. It becomes a delight to gaze at an old he was fully satisfied.” Perhaps the French sin, in this bridge or an old building, or a spot on a heath marked by respect, more than the Germans ; though there are many a great stone, and to know that, at such and such a time, splendid exceptions. As regards our own historical literasuch and such an event occurred there. Sir Walter Scott ture, no one who has not a large acquaintance with it can was pre-eminently such a man; Herodotus also was pre- know on what a small basis of truly original research the eminently such a man. Scott and Herodotus, therefore, vast pile rests, and how many works there are enjoying some may stand as types of the historical cast of mind ; and it is celebrity (and that not as honest compilations, but really as all the better to take Scott as such a type, because in him histories), which, if examined, would turn out to be but the the important fact is exhibited, that a man may have the fourth or fifth dilutions of previous works, themselves suchistorical habit of mind strongly developed, and yet may cessive dilutions of some one work, the author of which did not be a man exclusively of this habit. In Scott, the his- go to original authorities. But even in using what are torian and the poet existed in remarkable combination ; called original authorities, the historian has room for the he imagined while he remembered, and he remembered exercise of research. He has to guard against two sources while he imagined ; he has left us both histories and poems. of error—the wilful falsification of dishonest men near the A combination sometimes found, and no less interesting, is fountain-head; and the operation in all states of society that of the philosopher or speculative thinker with the his- and in all companies and communities, but especially in torian. Sir William Hamilton, for example, is a man of early times, of what is called the mythical or legendary colossal erudition in the history of opinion, as well as of tendency in human nature—i. e., the tendency to imagine extraordinary power as an original philosopher; and no incidents corresponding to feelings, and then to confound man is so fond of casting his disquisitions into the historical the incidents so imagined with actual fact. The practised form, or of appending to his disquisitions their historical historical sense or understanding, accustomed always to elucidations. Not a few cases, also, may be found in which weigh evidence, is on its guard against both sources of men, though not primarily or specifically thinkers—not them- falsehood. It is only in comparatively recent times, however, selves inclined to propound or to advocate systems of doc- that the immense importance of attending to the second source trine—have yet such an interest in old modes of thinking of falsehood has been appreciated. Every one knows what a simply as facts, that they will exercise their speculative revolution in the accounts of the early histories of all nations faculties to any extent in mastering the most abstruse parts has taken place since Niebuhr first applied the theory of the of Plato, or Aristotle, or Leibnitz, or Berkeley, Sometimes, Mythus to the early history of Rome as believed by the indeed, a man’s historical taste chiefly shows itself in his Romans themselves and recorded by all their writers. liking for facts of this order, and neglects such concrete an3. The value of any history will he in proportion to the tiquarian details as those of costume, physiognomy, and the general depth and greatness and nobility of the historian’s like. And here, of course, it is to be noted that, though a own nature as a ivhole. This ought never to be forgotten, relish for all orders of antique facts is desirable in the his- but it is very apt to be forgotten. Seeing that the busitorian, yet it is well for his completeness as a historian that ness of the historian is to recover and narrate actual facts, his relish for certain orders of facts should be in proportion it is sometimes hastily concluded that it is indifferent by to their degrees of historic value. History, in its typical what kind of mind, provided sufficient diligence is used, the sense, being the record of the public life of a community, the process of recovery and narration is gone through. We historian will be the more perfect, in proportion as the facts have already virtually opposed this idea. Memory or recoland circumstances in which his memory delights are those in lection, we have said, is but a mood of the total mind ; and which the public life of communities is best represented and hence the character of the memory or recollection will vary embodied. What these are we have attempted to indicate. according to the entire constitution of the mind which reThe typical historian ought at least to have a certain interest members or recollects. As the imagination of the poet, as in political forms, and in the recollection of/?o/^«'ca£ events. the understanding of the philosopher, follows in some subtle

HISTORY. 547 to the historian, and to form part, so to speak, of his historiHistory, History, way the law of the total personality—so that there are poets > j of grand, and poets of mean imaginations, thinkers of high, cal creed. Thus, if there are any generalizations that can L and thinkers of grovelling understandings, in like manner be esteemed sound and valid as to the invariable course of also the memory follows the law of the personality, and there nations, or as to the successive phases of human thought in are historians of superb and historians of petty memories. the past, or as to the tendency of humanity as a whole, or It depends on the total character of the historian, in the first as to the influence of climate and other physical causes on place, what kinds of past facts will adhere to his memory, social and political conditions, these ought indubitably to or interest him in his researches ; and, in the second place, be carried by the historian along with him, as so much fixed what intensity of meaning he can find in these facts, what science, in his own particular researches. It is needless to breadth of significance he can impart to them. Even con- point out how this applies to the truths of political economy, temporary facts, respecting which no research is necessary, as one branch of social science, so far as these are accepted are not the same things to different minds. The death of and agreed upon. 5. The historian, over and above the foregoing requisites, the Russian Emperor, Nicholas, for example, was externally or per se the same identical event to all; and yet, as must have acquired for himself by study and practice a certhat intelligence was swept abroad over Europe, it became, tain very complex art of historical writing and arrangeso to speak, a thousand difterent “ facts” simultaneously to ment. The full illustration of this important matter is bethe thousand different minds which it touched. And so, yond our present limits. Suffice it to say, that, though there under more complex conditions, with the facts of past his- are many varieties of historical art—though the art of a tory. “ The greatness of the historical literature of any period Gibbon, for example, is very different from that of a Mactherefore” (if we may here repeat what we have said else- aulay—yet the essence of all good historical art, in the where), “or the greatness of any individual as a historical case of what we have called the typical form of history, writer, depends ultimately on the general richness of the seems to lie in a distinct recognition by the historian of the human nature which that period or that individual brings fact that, in writing a history, he is writing the life of a to the investigation of the past. A mass of facts, in them- nation. Just as, in biography, the essential notion is that selves unalterable, is the material of every history, but it of an original organism moved through certain sets of cirdepends on the spirit which the historian breathes through cumstances which act upon it and modify it, and just as the the mass what the history shall be. Not only may history biographer has always to keep in mind this distinction bebe, but necessarily every history is, saturated with the spirit tween the man as he is at any moment, and the circumof the historian in all its peculiarity. History is, and can stances through which he is passing at that moment, so it be nothing else, than the past represented by the present; is in history. Here, also, there is always a certain already what the representation, therefore, in any case shall be, de- existing organism—i. e., the total social being and constitution pends, no doubt, partly on the actual matters represented, of the nation up to the moment under notice ; and there is, but at the same time also on the power which represents then, farther, the set of new conditions through which that them. History, accordingly, is a form of literature affording organism is about to pass. Translate this into the language scope for genius, for high moral purpose, for original and of practical art, and it may be said that the historian has at inventive power, equally with any other. Herodotus, every point to keep the balance fair between the two proThucydides, Tacitus, Voltaire, Gibbon, Hume, Robertson cesses of description and narration—description being the —do we not feel that in the hands of such men historical process which takes account of facts as they exist contemwriting became, as much as any other could, a medium poraneously, and narration the process which follows facts through which they could perform the whole function of in their sequence. In other words, good historical art contheir being, both in so far as it was good and in so far as it sists of a judicious blending of descriptive surveys of social might be bad ? Shut up a hundred different historians in states with narrative accounts of social transactions. (1.) as many different rooms, each with the same materials for Historical description.—It has always been accounted part an account of the same selected transaction ; and then, ne- of the business of a historian to give broad descriptive surcessarily, the hundred narratives that will be produced at veys of what are called “ states of society,” “ states of civithe end of any given period, although all so far identical in lization,” and the like. Perhaps, however, it might be to substance, will each bear the stamp of the author’s indivi- the advantage of history if a greater proportion of the whole duality—of his acquired knowledge, his prevalent habits of duty of the historian were accomplished by means of this feeling, his whole philosophy of life.” Applying these re- art of contemporaneous surveys. For example, there is no marks, one might classify known historians according to method according to which, as we conceive, the history of certain broad differences of the human constitution generally. England could be better written, than some method by which Some historians are poetic and pictorial, others are specu- a great part of the vast work might be achieved in a series of lative and philosophical, others are stern and severely judi- “ cross-sections,” or broad contemporaneous surveys of the cial ; some are grave and earnest, others are light and whole life and civilization of the English nation at important satirical, in their manner. On the whole, the historical and well-selected epochs of its progressive existence; the cast of mind may be associated with almost any conceiv- intervening periods between these “ cross-sections ” being able combination of other mental habits and faculties; and filled up by the plan of narration. In general, historians almost all varieties of character and intellect may find con- confine themselves too much, and especially when treating of genial scope in history. The persons perhaps whom it remote periods, to the narrative plan. As examples of the would be most desirable to exclude from this department of other plan of contemporaneous description, we may refer to literary exercise are men labouring under the influence of Mr James Mill’s elaborate account of the civilization of the special polemical crotchets. Such men ought to write Hindus in his History of British India; and to Mr Macaupamphlets, and take their illustrations from history, but lay’s well-known survey, on such different principles, of the state of British society prior to the Revolution of 1688. In ought not to write formal histories. 4. The historian is bound to be acquainted with all those such cases as these, historians, of course, proceed on a cergeneral conclusions or inductions relating either to social tain instinct, teaching them what orders of facts ought to life as it may be now observed, or to the order of social be included in such a survey to render it complete. Mr events in the past, which may be considered so far estab- Mill’s instinct in this case was founded on his previous lished as to constitute historical or political truths. The habits of political criticism and analysis; Mr Macaulay’s body of such truths, we have said, cannot yet be said to be was more purely artistic. Science, however, might here numerous; but so far as they exist, they ought to be known come to the assistance of art. It would be possible, we

548 HIST History, think, once for all, to draw up, so to speak, a schedule of the essential particulars that ought to be known about any nation, in order to complete the survey ot its civilization, and to arrange these particulars in their proper order, commencing say with the geographical and geological features of the country which the nation inhabited, and proceeding on to the most intricate parts of the national polity ; and then, the best historical artist would be the one that, purposely or instinctively, should best fill up the schedule, or comply with its requisitions. (2.) Historical Narration.— Not to mention other matters under this head, we would only point to the importance in every narration of regularly beating time—i. e., not only accurately inserting dates, but distinctly keeping the flight of time, day by day, month by month, and year by year, present in the imagination of the reader. Historians differ very much in this respect. Some are so lax that the reader hardly knows, until he makes the calculation for himself, how long the war he is reading about has already lasted, or what is the age of the general. 6. It only remains now to pass our eye along the course of universal literature, so as to enumerate those who, according to the general judgment of their own and of other nations, have distinguished themselves most in the department of history, and may therefore take their places in the list of the chief historians of the world :— I. Primeval Historians.—Here the sacred historians of the Old Testament stand alone; and it is from them, in conjunction with the retrospective narratives of some of the Greek historians, especially Herodotus, and in conjunction also with archaeological research, as in the investigation of the monuments of Egypt, and of those recently disinterred at Nineveh (and probably the same process may be yet applied to many others of the famous sites of ancient oriental civilization), that all our historical knowledge of primeval times is to be derived. II. Classical Historians. — (1.) Greek Historical Writers.—This list is headed by Herodotus, the “ Father of History,” and a man whose name the whole human race is bound to hold in reverence, as that of one of the truest men of genius that ever lived. Then come, in order, Thucydides, Xenophon, Polybius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Diodorus Siculus, Arrian, and Plutarch ; to whom may be added the Jewish historian Josephus, and the ecclesiastical historian Eusebius. (2.) Lathi Historical Writers.—The most illustrious names in this list are those of Sallust, Julius Caesar, Livy, Suetonius, and Tacitus ; but other minor names might be added. Livy and Tacitus are pre-eminently the Roman historians. HI. Medieval Historians.—(1.) Latin Historians of the Western Nations.—A. vast proportion of the mediaeval history of the western nations is buried in the legends or lives of the saints; but each nation had its independent chroniclers of political and ecclesiastical events, some of whom rose to the dignity of historians. Among these Gregory of lours, who lived in the Merovingian times of the Frankish monarchy, and wrote an Ecclesiastical History of the Franks, deserves mention. There were also some notable chroniclers and biographical writers in the age ot Charlemagne; and France produced some good contemporary historians of the Crusades. No country, however, was richer in historical writers during the middle ages than England. I he venerable Bede, in the eighth century, was a man of true historical genius; and to the twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, belonged a seiies of able Latin chroniclers, of whom the most distinguished are Geoffrey of Monmouth, William of Malmesbury, Matthew Paris, Higden, Knighton, and Walsingham. I he Scottish historian Fordun belongs to the fifteenth century. (2.) Byzantine Historians.—Under this name is included a considerable series of rather petty writers, natives of the Greek or Eastern Empire, from its

O R Y. separation from the West to its final destruction by the History. Turks. Among these were Procopius, Agathius, Menan• der, John of Epiphania, Theophylactus Simocatta, and the well-known Anna Comnena, daughter of the Emperor Alexius Comnenus. (3.) Oriental Historians.—In the remarkable development of the literary genius of the Arabs, consequent upon the impulse given to the race by Mohammed, history was not neglected. The Spanish Arabs had their special historians ; and Turkish and Persian historians of the middle ages are also mentioned. Of Indian and Chinese historians we can say nothing, though these were not vvanting. IV. Modern Historians.—Since the rise of the vernacular literatures of the various modern nations of Europe, we are able to count a number of distinguished men in each, who have devoted themselves, some exclusively, others in part, to historical writing, and have there won their literary laurels. (1.) English Historical Writers.—Among these, passing over such valuable early chroniclers as Holingshed and Stow, and such metrical historians as Barbour and Wvntoun, may be mentioned—Knollys ; Sir Walter Raleigh, in virtue of his History of the World ; Bacon, in virtue of his History of the Reign of Henry VIL.; and Shakspeare himself, in virtue of his historical plays, called, by himself and his contemporaries, Histories. Next (passing over minor names) may be mentioned the party-historians Clarendon and Burnet; succeeded by the splendid series of British historical writers of the eighteenth century— Swift, Defoe, Hume, Smollett, Warton, Lord Lyttelton, Lord Hailes, Dr Henry, Dr Robertson, and Edward Gibbon. All in all, Gibbon, in virtue both of the immensity of his task, and of the admirable industry and art with which it was executed, has the highest place assigned to him among British writers of history ; and he is in many respects, though not in all, the type of a great historian. After the time of Gibbon no man had a more powerful influence on the historical literature, not of Britain alone but of all Europe, than Sir Walter Scott; all the efforts of whose genius were, in a sense, historical, and some of whose works, though not his best, were expressly histories. Historical writers contemporary with Scott, and each having characteristic excellences, were James Mill, and Mackintosh ; and, coming down to our own generation, what a constellation in our historical literature (we shall not attempt to classify the stars according to their magnitudes) is represented by the names of Tytler, and Arnold, and Alison, and Napier, and Macaulay, and Carlyle, and Thirlwall, and Grote. Belonging to the same constellation, in virtue of the language in which they write, are the American historians, Washington Irving, Bancroft, and Prescott. (2.) French Historical Writers.—In this list, which may be considered to begin with De Ville Hardouin and De Joinville in the thirteenth century, the greatest names in times anterior to the Revolution are those of the vivid and and picturesque Froissart, Philip De Comines, Thuanus (who, however, wrote in Latin), D’Aubigne, Brantome, Perefixe, Sully, the Jesuit Daniel, Vertot, Rollin, the illustrious Bossuet, Basnage, Fleury, Rapin, St Simon, Du Cange, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Raynal, and Rulhieres ; to whom, since the Revolution, have been added, besides many of inferior note, such men as Sismondi, Barante, Guizot, Capefigue, the two Thierrys, Mignet, Michaud, Thiers, Michelet, Merimee, Lamartine, and Louis Blanc. In no department of literature has France recently been so prolific as in history ; and perhaps, on the whole, no other country has such a cluster of eminent living historians. At the head of what is perhaps the most characteristic school of French historians—i.